7^1 


Concise  Dictionary 


OF 


Religious  Knowledge 


AND 


Gazetteer 


EDITED    BY 


REV.  SAMUEL  MACAULEY  JACKSON,  M.A. 

ASSOCIATE    EDITORS  : 

REV.  TALBOT  WILSON   CHAA^BERS,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Of  the  ColUgiate  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church,  New  York  Cityi 

AND  ' 

REV.  FRANK  HUGH  FOSTER,  PH.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History^   Theological  Seminary,  Oberlin,  Ohio. 


SECOND  AND    REVISED    EDITION. 


NEW  YORK: 
THE   CHRISTIAN   LITERATURE   COMPANY. 

1891. 


Copyright,  1889,  by 
The  Christian  Literature  Co. 


Advertisenient  to  Second  Edition. 


This  second  and  revised  edition  of  Tlie  Concise  Dictionary  of  Religions  Knmdedge,  we 
believe,  furnishes  the  best  single  volume  work  of  reference  extant  in  the  field  of  religious 
knowledge.  The  gazetteer  feature  is  quite  a  new  and  valuable  addition  to  the  first  edition,  and 
will  greatly  increase  the  usefulness  of  the  work.  All  Bible  students  and  Sunday-school 
workers  have  here  under  one  cover  both  atlas  and  dictionary,  facilitating  their  labors  very 
much.  The  maps  herewith  given  are  prepared  expressly  for  this  work  at  great  expense, 
and  embody  the  results  of  research  in  the  countries  represented  to  date.  Some  typographical 
errors  in  the  first  edition  also  have  been  corrected  and  do  not  appear  in  the  second.  We  also 
furnish  now  the  patent  marginal  reference  index  to  all  copies  without  additional  charge. 
These  new  features  we  feel  sure  will  be  found  of  lasting  value  and  usefulness. 

The  Publishers. 
New  Yokk,  October  1,  1891. 


PREFACE. 


The  Editor-in-cliiof  returns  his  lieartfelt  tlia  ks  to  his  associates,  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Chambers  and  the  Rev.  Professor  Foster,  for  tlieir  co-operation,  which  has 
enabled  him  to  produce  a  book  characterized  by  accurate  scholarship  and 
adaptability  to  present  needs.  He  also  thanks  the  Rev.  F.  M.  Bird  for  his 
numerous  biographical  sketches,  and  Mr.  Clemens  Petersen,  who  has  been  the 
office  editor,  and  whose  labors  appear  on  well-nigh  every  page.  IS'or  would  he 
forget  to  thank,  in  this  connection,  the  gentlemen  who  have  contributed  the 
denominational  and  other  leading  articles.  For  its  typographical  correctness  it 
is  indebted  to  the  care  and  skill  of  the  readers  of  the  Burr  Printing  House. 

The  object  of  the  book  is  to  fnrnish,  in  concise  form,  information  upon 
biblical,  arch«ological,  ecclesiastical,  and  historical  topics.  Hence  the  vocabu- 
lary has  been  purposely  made  very  large,  and  most  of  the  articles  very  condensed. 
In  order  to  save  valuable  space,  and  also  to  present  readable  sketches,  those 
denominations  which  belong  together  have  been  brought  under  one  head,  and 
such  articles  have  been  entrusted  invariably  to  a  representative  man. 

The  editor  would  here  call  attention  to  some  minor  features  which  he  be- 
lieves the  reader  will  find  it  convenient  to  have  herein  united.  These  are,  first, 
the  syllabification  of  Bible  names,  with  careful  indication  where  the  stress  of 
voice  falls  ;  second,  the  pronunciation,  by  respelling  phonetically  or  by  other 
means,  of  foreign  names  likely  to  be  mispronounced  ;  third,  the  giving  of  the 
distance  and  direction  from  Avell-known  cities  of  the  places  of  birth  or  death  of 
the  subjects  of  the  biographical  sketches  wherever  such  places  were  obscure  ; 
fourth,  the  source  and  date  of  honorary  and  other  degrees  and  titles  immediately 
after  the  mention  of  such  at  the  beginning  of  the  article  ;  fifth,  the  denomina- 
tional position  of  the  subject,  especially  wherever  such  could  not  be  at  once 
perceived  from  the  article  itself  ;  sixth,  the  mention  at  the  close  of  the  article 
of  such  literature  (author,  title,  place,  date,  and  number  of  volumes)  as  would 
enable  the  student  to  pursue  his  investigations  further  ;  seventh,  the  signing  of 
every  article  (except  those  Avritten  by  the  editor  or  his  assistant,  all  of  which 
are  unsigned)  either  by  the  full  name  or  by  the  initials  of  its  writer. 

Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 
New  York,  Mav  •2:5,  IS'.tl. 


EXPLANATION  OF  CONTRACTIONS. 

b.  =  born. 

d.=died. 

C.  or  T.  W.  C.  =T.  W.  Chambers. 

F.  or  F.  H.  F.  =  F.  H.  Foster. 

F.  M.  B.=F.  M.  Bird. 

C.  P.  =  C.  Petersen. 

C.  H.  A.  B.=C.  II.  A.  Bjcrrcgaard. 


LEADING  ARTICLES  AND  CONTRIBUTORS. 


ADVENTISTS.     By  Rev.  Daniel  Thompson  Taylor,  Hyde  Park,  Mass. 

ANABAPTISTS.     By  Rev.  Prof.  Benjamin  Osgood  Tkuh,  Theological  Seminary,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

ASSYRIOLOGY   AND    THE    BIBLE.      By    Rev.    Prof.    Francis   Brown,   D.D.,   Unioa   Theological 

Seminary,  New  York  City. 
BAPTISTS.     By  Mr.  Henry  C.  Vedder,  Editor  of  the  Baptist  Quarterly  Review,  New  York  City. 
CHINA,  RELIGIONS  AND  SACRED  BOOKS  OF.      By  Prof.  Winfred  Robert  Martin,    Ph.D., 

Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn. 
CHRISTIAN  UNION  (Denomination).     By  Rev.  Henry  J.  Duckworth,  Centreburg,  O. 
CONGREGATIONALISM    AND   CONGREGATIONALISTS.      By  the  late  Rev.  Henry  Martyn 

Dexter,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Editor  of  the  Congr^gationalist,  Boston,  Mass. 
COREA.    By  Rev.  William  Elliot  Ghiffis,  D.D.,  Author  of  "  Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation,"  Boston,  Mass. 
DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST.     By  Rev.  Benjamin  B.  Tyler,  Pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Disciples,  New 

York  City. 
DODDRIDGE,  PHILIP.     By  Rev.  Frederic  Mayer  Bird,  the  Hymnologist,  South  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OF.  ] 

EPISCOPACY.  By   Rev.  Prof.  Alexander  Virts  Griswold  Allen,  D.D., 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.  Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.    J 

FRANCE,  REFORMED  CHURCH  OF.     By  Rev.  Prof.  Henry  Martyn  Baird,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Uni- 
versity of  the  City  of  New  York. 
FRIENDS.  THE  RELIGIOUS  SOCIETY  OF.     By  President  Isaac  Sharpless,  Haverford  College,  Pa. 
GRUNDTVIG.     By  Mr.  C.  H.  A.  Bjerrkgaard,  one  of  the  Librarians  of  th«  Astor  Library,  New  York 

City. 
HENOTHEISM.     By  Prof.  Winfred  Robert  Martin,  Ph.D.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
HUS,  JOHN,  HUSSITES.     By  Rev.  Prof.  J.  Taylor  Hamilton,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
HYMNOLOGY.     By  Rev.  Frederic  Mayer  Bird,  South  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
INDIA,  RELIGIONS  OF.     By  Prof.  Winfred  Robert  Martin.  Ph.D.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
JABLONSKI,  DANIEL  ERNST.     By  Rev.  Prof.  J.  Taylor  Hamilton,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
JAPAN.     By  Rev.  William  Elliot  Griffis,  D.D.,  Author  of  "  The  Mikado's  Empire,"  Boston,  Mass. 
JERUSALEM.  ) 

JEWS.  V  By  Rev.  Selah  MERRIL^  D.D..  LL.D.,  Andover,  Mass. 

JOSEPHUS.      ) 

JUDSON,  ADONIRAM,  ANN,  SARAH.  AND  EMILY.     By  Mr.  Henry  C.  Vedder,  New  York  City. 
KIERKEGAARD.     By  Mr.  C.  H.  A.  Bjerregaard,  Astor  Library,  New  York  City. 

LUTHER,  MARTIN.  I  By    Rev.    Prof.    J.    W.     Richard,     D.D.,    Lutheran     Theological 

LUTHERAN     CHURCH,     THE.  (  Seminary,  Gettysburg.  Pa. 

McALL  MISSION.     By  Mrs.  Louisk  Seymour  Houghton,  N.  Y. 
MENNO  AND  THE  MENNONITES.      By   Rev.  Prof.   B.   O.  True,   Baptist  Theological  Seminary, 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 
METHODISM,    METHODIST   CHURCHES.     By   Rev.  Prof.   C.   W.    Bennett,   D.D.,   Theological 

Seminary,  Evauston,  111. 

MoIa.MMED,  MOHAMMEDANISM,  l^y  ^^^^  P™^"  "•  '^-  Hulbbrt,  Marietta  College.  Ohio. 

MORAVIANS.     By  Rev.  Prof.  J.  Taylor  Hamilton,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

MORMONISM.  By  Rev.  Prof.  W.  H.  Whitsitt,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  Louis- 
ville, Ky. 

NEW  CHURCH.     By  Rev.  Prof.  John  Worcester,  Boston,  Mass. 

PALESTINE.     By  Rev.  Selah  Merrill,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Andover.  Mass. 

PARKER,  THEODORE.     By  Rev.  S.  J.  Barrows,  Editor  of  the  ChrisiiaK  Remitter,  Boston,  Mass. 

PERSIA,  RELIGIONS  OF.     By  Prof.  Winfred  Robert  Maetin,  Ph.D.,  Hartford.  Conn. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES.  (  By    Rev.  Prof.   W.   H.  Roberts,    D.D.,    LL.D.,  Lane  Theological 

PRESBYTERIAN   SYSTE.M.         (         Seminary.  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA  AND  APOCRYPHA.  By  Rev.  E.  C.  Richardson,  Ph.D.,  Librarian  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  N.  J, 

REFORMED  (DUTCH  AND  GERMAN)  CHURCH.  By  Rev.  E.  T.  Corwin,  D.D..  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J. 

SALVATION    ARMY.     By  Commissioner    Ballincton   Booth,  New  York  City. 

SCHWENKFELD  AND  SCHWENKFELDERS.  By  Rev.  President  C.  D.  Hartbahft,  D.D.,  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Hartford.  Conn. 

SPURGEON.     By  .Mr.  Henhv  C.  Vedder.  Editor  of  the  Baptitt  Quarterly  Review,  New  York. 

SWEDENBORG.     By  Rev.  Prof.  John  Worcester.  Boston,  Ma;.s. 

UNITARIANS.     By  Rev.  S.  J.  Barrows,  Editor  of  the  Christian  Register,  Boston,  Mass. 

UNIVERSALISTS.     By  Rev.  R.  Eddy,  D.D..  Editor  of  the  Universalist  Quarterly,  Boston.  Mass. 

WAVLAND,  FRANCIS.  I  By  Mr.  Henry  C.  Vedder,  Editor  of  the  Baptist  Quarterly  Review,  New 

WILLIAMS.  ROGER,      f  York. 

WESLEY  FAMILY.  By  Rev.  Prof.  George  Richard  Crooks,  D.D.,  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
Madison,  N.  J. 

YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  SOCIETIES.  Christian  Endeavor,  by  Rev.  Dr.  F.  E.  Clark  ;  King's  Daugh- 
ters, by  Mrs.  M.  Bottome  ;  Epworth  Lkagle,  by  Rev.  Robert  R.  Dohertv;  St.  Andrew- 
Brotherhood,  by  Mr.  H.  A.  Sii.i.  ;  Lend-aHand  Cn'ns,  by  Rev.  Dr.  E.  E.  Halb. 

2EISBERGER,  DAVID.     By  Rev.  Prof.  J.  Tavlor  Ha»iilton.  Bethlehem,  Pa. 


CONCISE 

Dictionary  of  Religious  Kiowledge. 


System  op  Pronunciation.— The  acute  accent  (')  denotes  the  accented  syllable  ;  the  grave  accent  C)over 
a,  e,  and  i  denotes  that  those  vowels  are  pronounced  like  a  in  "  far,"  e  in  "  they,"  and  i  in  "  machine,"  respec- 
tively. The  Roman  letters  in  parenthesis  immediately  after  the  name  give  either  the  pronunciation  of  the  corre- 
eponding  portion  of  the  name  or  of  the  entire  name  ;  italics  give  the  translation. 


Aachen  (pronounced  a-ken  ;  Latin,  Aquis- 
(jrantaii;  French,  Aix-la-Chajjelle),  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  40  m.  w.s.w.  of  Cologne.  It  was  a 
Roman  city,  favorite  abode  of  Charles  the 
Great,  and  the  crowning-place  of  the  Germaa 
emperors,  803  -1558.  It  was  the  seat  of  sev- 
eral important  synods.  1.  a.d.  789,  the  Apoc 
rypha  were  separated  from  the  Chtu-ch  canon. 
The  clerical  discipline  was  revised.  2.  798, 
Felix  of  Urgel  (q.v.)  renounced  his  adoption- 
ism.  3.  801  and  803,  regulations  for  clerics 
and  monks  passed.  4.  809,  Insertion  of  the 
Filioque  (q.v.)  in  the  Nicene  Creed.  The  Ref- 
ormation got  a  foothold  in  it  only  after  a  long 
struggle. 

Aa'-ron  (enlightened),  eldest  son  of  Amram 
and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  elder 
brother  of  Moses  and  younger  brother  of  Mir- 
iam, and  drst  high-priest  of  the  Jews  (Ex.  vi. 
20.  33  :  xl.  13,  13).  He  was  Moses'  spokesman 
(Ex.  iv.  16)  and  efficient  ally.  His  character 
was.  however,  weak,  as  his  conduct  showed  in 
making  the  golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  4),  and  in 
joining  Miriam  in  murmuring  against  Mo.ses 
(Num.  xii.  1),  and  Mo.ses  in  disobedience  to  Je- 
hovah's commands  at  Meribah  (Num.  xx.  8). 
He  married  Elisheba,  of  the  tribe  of  Judali. 
Of  his  four  .sons,  all  priests,  Nadaband  Abihu, 
Eleazar  and  Ithamar,  the  first  two  were  slain 
for  olfering  uncoramunded  fire  (Lev.  x.  1,  2) 
and  Eleazar  succeeded  him  H(i  died  on  Mt. 
Hor,  on  the  borders  of  Edom,  in  the  presence 
of  the  people  (Num.   xx.  24  sqq.). 

A-bar'-ba-nel,  Isaac,  Jewish  financier  and 
author  ;  b.  at  Lisbon,  1437  ;  d.  at  Venice, 
1509.  Alphonso  V.,  of  Portugal,  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  of  Spain,  and  Ferdinand  I.  and 
Alphonso  II.,  of  Naples,  successively  employ- 
ed his  services.  In  1503  he  removed  to  Ven- 
ice. Besides  commentaries,  he  wrote  in  He- 
brew Tfte  Herald  of  I'ydixition,  which  is  an  ex- 
amination, in  a  bitter  tone,  of  the  principal 
Me-ssianic  prophecies,  in  order  to  refute  the 
Christian  doctrine  of  the  3Ie.ssiah.ship  of  Jesus. 
It  was  lirst  published  in  1526,  and  in  Latin 
dress,  Frankfort,  1711.— His  son,  Jiulnh  ben 
Isaac  (commonly  called  Leo  JFe/jnpm),  b.  at 
Li.«;Dou  about  1460  ;  d.  probablv  at  Ferrara 
about  1520  ;  wrote  in  Italian  the' famous  Dia- 
logue on  Love,  which  is  a  presentation  of  the 


Platonic  and  Neo-Platouic  views  upon  love, 
Rome,  1585.  It  enjoyed  great  popularity,  and 
was  translated  into  French,  ISpanish,  Latin, 
and  Hebrew. 

Ab'-ba  (Aramaic,  father),  in  Mark  xiv.  36  ; 
Rom.  viii.  15  ;  Gal.  iv.  6  ;  in  Oriental  eccle- 
siastical usage,  a  title,  first  of  all  monks  ;  later 
restricted  to  bishops,  patriarchs,  and  heads  of 
monasteries.  At  present  the  more  usual  desig- 
nation for  the  last  is  "  archimandrite"  or 
"  hegumen. " 

Ab-ba-die  (dee),  Jacques  (or  James),  D.D. 

(Sedan,  1680  Vj,  dean  of  Killaloe,  Ireland  ;  b.  at 
Nay,  near  Pau,  1654  ;  d.  in  Marylebone,  Lon- 
don, Sept.  25,  1727.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Sedan,  became  pastor  of  the  French 
Church  in  Berlin,  1680  ;  of  the  French  Church 
in  the  Savoy,  London,  1689  ;  dean  of  Killaloe, 
1699,  and  produced  several  works  which  had 
a  remarkable  reputation,  the  best  known  of 
which  is  The  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion, 
original  French,  RoUerdam,  1684,  2  vols.  ; 
English  trans.,  London,  1694,  2  vols.  ;  6th  ed., 
1711.  This  is  a  standard  work  on  apologetics 
in  French  literature,  although  written  by  a 
Protestant,  and  has  been  repeatedly  repub- 
lished, reprinted,  and  translated  into  ceveral 
languages. 

Abbat,  same  as  Abbot,  which  see. 

Abbe,  the  French  term  for  abbot,  but  now 
commonly  used  as  a  title  of  courtesy  in  ad- 
dressing tho.se  who  have  given  themselves  to 
the  study  of  divinity  and  literature.  During 
the  16th  and  subsequent  centuries  to  the 
French  Revolution,  the  title  was  given  to 
young  ecclesiastics,  whether  ordained  or  not. 
As  such  persons  were  seldom  really  abbots, 
and  often  not  in  receipt  of  any  part  of  the 
revenue  of  abbeys,  they  employed  themseUe.s 
in  teaching  and  literature,  and  many  of  tiiem 
played  an  important  part  at  covirts  and  in  no- 
l)le  houses  as  advisers  and  tutors.  They  wo.io 
black  or  dark  violet  clothes,  the  coat  having 
a  narrow  collar,  and  their  hair  Wiis  arranged 
in  a  round  curl  over  their  foreheads.  They 
were,  as  a  class,  not  spiritually  helpful. 

Abbess  (abbreviation  of  the  Latin  Ahha- 
tiKnif).  Tlie  mother  superior  of  a  nunnerv  ; 
elected  by  a  majority  of  the  nuns,  and  with 


ABBEY 


(2) 


ABBOT 


duties  and  rights  corresponding  to  those  of  an 
abbot,  except  that,  on  account  of  sex,  she  can- 
not give  the  veil,  excommunicate,  or  ordain. 
If  elected  from  among  the  nuns  of  her  cloister, 
she  must  be  at  least  40  years  old,  and  have 
been  a  nun  at  least  8  years  ;  if  from  another 
cloister,  she  must  be  at  least  30  years  old,  and 
have  been  a  nun  5  years.     Sec  Abbot. 

Abbey  signities  both  the  corporate  body  of 
monks  or  ziuns  under  an  abbot  or  abbess  and 
the  buildings  in  which  they  live  and  worship. 
There  were  royal  abbeys,  which  were  under 
the  patronage  of  kings,  and  episcopal  abbeys 
directly  controlled  by  bishops.  In  course  of 
time  their  wealth  became  very  great.  In  Eng- 
land there  were  in  Henry  Vlllth's  day  190  of 
them.  He  suppressed  them,  and  confiscated 
their  property,  which  was  reckoned  at  £2,850,- 
000.     See  Monastery. 

Ab  -bo  of  Fleury,  Benedictine,  saint  (com- 
memorated Nov.  13),  and  monastic  reformer  ; 
b.  near  Orleans  about  945  ;  killed  in  a  monk- 
ish rising  against  his  rigorous  reforms  in  the 
priory  of  La  Reole,  in  Gascony,  Nov.  13, 1004. 
He  was  abbot  of  Ramsey,  Eng. ,  985-87  ;  of 
Fleury,  988,  till  death  ;  and  liis  writings  prove 
him  a  forerunner  of  scholasticism.  Cf.  his  life 
by  Aimoin  and  his  works  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
CXXXIX. 

Abbot,  the  head  of  a  monastery  ;  a  term  in 
present  R.  C.  usage  supplanted  by  prior,  su- 
perior, provost,  etc.,  except  in  the  Benedictine 
and  Cistercian  orders.  There  are  two  princi- 
pal kinds  of  abbots.  1.  Secular  abbots,  who 
have  a  benefice  with  the  title  of  an  abbey,  but 
exercise  no  jurisdiction  themselves  ;  2.  Regu- 
lar abbots,  who  are  true  prelates,  although  the 
titles  of  some  are  derived  from  abbeys  no 
longer  extant. '  Abbots  must  be  either  exempt 
or  unexempt.  If  exempt,  they  are  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  pope  ;  if  unexempt,  under 
that  of  the  diocesan  bishop.  There  are  also 
abbots  who,  besides  a  particular  abbey,  govern 
those  of  an  order,  congregation,  province,  or 
those  dependent  upon  their  abbey.  The  abbot 
of  Monte  Cassino  is  styled  "  abbot  of  abbots," 
but  he  has  no  authority  beyond  his  own  abbey. 
Some  abbots  are  elected  for  life,  and  some  for 
a  term  of  years,  according  to  the  constitution 
of  the  monastery.  In  Germany  a  distinction 
is  made  between  princely  abbots,  e.g.,  Fulda, 
St.  Gallen  ;  those  subject  to  imperial  control  ; 
and  those  who  arc  under  the  control  of  a  par- 
ticular lord. 

Abbots  are  commonly  elected  by  the  monks. 
They  must  be  monks  25  years  old,  and  priests. 
But  certain  very  rich  abbeys  are  in  the  imme- 
diate bestowal  of  the  pope  and  of  princes. 
The  titular  abbots  are  papal  appointments. 
After  election,  consecration  by  the  bishop  fol- 
lows. Besides  the  control  over  their  monas- 
teries, which  is  absolute,  they  have  quasi-epis- 
copal jurisdiction.  They  can  consecrate,  and 
give  the  tonsure  to  their  monks,  consecrate 
churches  and  cemeteries,  ecclesiastical  vest- 
ments, etc.,  which  are  for  use  in  their  own 
monastery  ;  and  many  abbots  wear  the  pontifi- 
cal insignia,  mitre,  staff,  and  ring.  They  have 
the  right  to  vote  in  general  councils  and  to  be 
called  to  provincial  synods. 

Besides  the  abbots  named,  there  are  com- 


mendatory abbots,  who  have  no  jurisdiction, 
although  they  have  a  share  in  the  revenue  of 
an  abbey  iii  commendam  (i.e. ,  in  trust).  These 
may  be  laymen.  Sucli  were  very  numerous  in 
France  and  Italy.  There  are  even  Protestant 
abbots  (e.g.,  Dr.  Uhlhorn  is  abbot  of  Lokkum, 
in  Hanover),  who  have  income  from  a  former 
abbey,  or  stand  in  a  position  analogous  to  an 
abbot's. 

Abbot,  Ezra,  S.T.D.  (Harvard,  1872), 
LL.D.  (Yale,  1869;  Bowdoin,  1878),  Unita- 
rian layman  ;  b.  at  Jackson,  Waldo  Co.,  Me., 
April  28, 1819  ;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  March 
21,  1884.  He  was  educated  at  Phillips  (Exe- 
ter) Academy  and  at  Bowdoin  College  (B.A., 
1840)  ;  taught  in  Maine  and  at  Cambridge  un- 
til in  1856  he  became  assistant  librarian  of 
Harvard  University  ;  from  1872  till  his  death 
he  was  Bussey  professor  of  New  Testament 
criticism  and  interpretation  in  the  Divinity 
School  of  Harvard  University.  He  was  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end  (1871-81)  the  leading 
critic  in  the  American  New  Testament  Revi- 
sion Company,  as  he  was  the  greatest  master 
of  New  Testament  textual  criticism  in  Amer- 
ica. In  his  singular  modesty  he  was  willing 
to  put  his  best  work  into  other  people's  books, 
thereby  robbing  himself  of  popular  reputation, 
but  greatly  increasing  the  value  of  the  books 
whose  proofs  he  dealt  Avith  so  painstakingly. 
His  Literature  of  t?i6  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life 
is  a  unique  feature  of  Alger's  History  of  the 
Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  (Boston,  1864)  ;  his 
corrections  and  bibliographical  additions  to 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (N.  Y.,  1867- 
70,  4  vols.)  render  the  American  reprint  pref- 
erable to  the  English  original  ;  his  assistance 
given  to  Dr.  C.  R.  Gregory's  Prolegomena  to 
the  eighth  edition  of  Tischendorf's  Greek 
Testament  put  that  scholar  under  constant 
obligation,  as  he  was  glad  to  acknowledge  ; 
his  papers  upon  textual  criticism  prepared  for 
the  use  of  the  American  New  Testament  Revi- 
sion Company  were  always  listened  to  with 
great  eagerness,  and  shed  a  flood  of  light  upon 
obscure  passages  ;  his  work  of  correction  and 
addition  upon  Hudson's  Greek  and  English 
Concordance  of  the  Neto  Testament  was  invalu- 
able. Yet  he  spent  so  much  time  in  these  un- 
selfish labors  that  his  list  of  original  publica- 
tions apart  from  articles  in  reviews  only  in- 
cludes one  book.  The  Authorshij)  of  the  Fourth 
Oospel:  External  Evidences  (Boston,  1880,  8vo, 
pp.  104),  reprinted  with  other  critical  essays  of 
his,  edited  by  Prof.  Thayer,  Boston,  1889. 
See  Ez?'a  Abbot  (a  memoir  edited  by  Rev.  S.  J. 
Barrows),  Cambridge,  1884. 

Abbot,  George,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  ; 
b.  at  Guildford,  Oct.  29,  1562  ;  d.  at  Croydon, 
Aug.  4,  1033.  He  entered  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  1578  ;  became  B. A.  1582  ;  probationer 
fellow,  1583  ;  M.A.,  1585  ;  B.D.,  1593  ;  D.D., 
1597  ;  master  of  University  College,  1597  ; 
vice-chancellor  of  the  University,  1600,  1603. 
and  1605.  His  church  appointments  followed 
in  rapid  succession.  He  became  dean  of  Win- 
chester, 1600  ;  bishop  of  Coventry  and  Lich- 
field, Dec.  29,  1609  ;  bishop  of  London,  Feb. 
12.  1610  ;  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  April  9, 
1611.  He  owed  his  rise  first  to  his  patrons. 
Lord  Buckhurst  (d.  1608),  and  later  the  Earl 


ABBOTT 


(3) 


ABELARD 


of  Dunbar  (d.  1610)  ;  who  introduced  him  to 
thu  kiug,  to  whom  he  commended  himself  by 
lirs  theological  learning  and  his  enthusiastic 
advocacy  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  a  pet 
scheme  of  the  king's,  accompanying  thither  for 
tliis  purpose  his  patron  (1608).  Abbot  was  one 
of  King  James'  translators  of  the  Bible  (1604- 
11),  and  w*as  one  of  eight  to  whom  tlie  New 
Testament,  except  the  Epistles,  was  assigned. 
In  theology  he  was  a  Calvinist  ;  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal matters  a  Puritan  ;  in  both  respects  the  op- 
posite of  Laud,  a  fact  whicih  gave  him  much 
(rouble.  He  was  a  faithful,  conscientious, 
fearless,  honest  prelate,  but  his  moroseness 
joined  to  strictness  made  him  unpopular,  and 
"his  position  at  court  was  not  uniformly  pleas- 
ant. On  Jul}'  24,  1621,  while  on  a  hunting 
party  on  Lord  Zouch's  estate,  BramshillParli, 
Hampshire,  he  accidentally  shot  Peter  Haw- 
kins, a  gamekeeper.  The  king  protected  him 
from  the  pecuniaiy  consequence,  for  by  com- 
mon law  his  estate  was  forfeit  ;  but  his  ene- 
mies, especially  Laud,  demanded  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  canonical  consequences,  that  he 
should  be  declared  incapable  of  exercising  ec- 
clesiastical jurisdiction.  This  Avas  not  done, 
but  he  never  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the 
unhappy  accident.  Charles  I.  favored  Laud, 
who  brought  about  Abbot's  sequestration  for  a 
year  (1627-28)  for  refusing  to  license  a  sermon 
of  Dr.  Sibthorpe's  which  saactioned  an  unlaw- 
ful attempt  by  the  king  to  raise  money.  After 
this  Abbot  lived  mostly  in  retirement.  His 
chief  publications  were,  A  Brief  Deficription  of 
the  Whsle  TFrt/'W  (contains  an  account  of  Amer- 
ica), London,  1599,  5th  ed.,  1664  ;  Exposition 
on  ths  Prophet  Jonah,  1600,  reprinted  1845, 
with  memoir,  which  see. 

Abbott,  Jacob,  D.D.  (Amherst,  1874).  Con- 
gregationalist  ;  b.  at  Hallowell,  Me.,  Nov.  14, 
1803  ;  d.  at  Farmingtou,  Me.,  Oct.  31,  1879. 
He  graduated  at  Boudoin  College,  1820  ; 
studied  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1822-24  ;  was  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  pliilosophy  in  Amherst  College,  1825- 
29  ;  principal  of  the  Mt.  Vernon  school  for 
girls,  Boston,  1829-38  ;  but  after  1839  he  de- 
voted himself  to  literature,  and  produced 
numerous  storybooks  which  have  deservedly 
had  a  very  wide  circulation,  and  through  their 
Christian  teachings  have  done  much  good. 
(See  memoir  in  n.  ed.  of  The  Young  Christian. 
N.  Y.,  1882.) 

Abbott,  Lyman,  D.D.  (New  York  Univer- 
sity, 1877),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Koxbury, 
Mass.,  Dec.  18,  1835  ;  B.A.,  University  of 
New  York  City,  1853  ;  practised  law,  but  gave 
it  up  for  theology,  and  was  pastor  at  Terre 
Haute,  Ind.,  1860-65;  in  New  York  City 
(New  England  Church),  1866-69  ;  and  in 
Brooklyn  (Plymouth  Church),  1888  to  date. 
Fiom  1865  to  1868  he  was  secretary  of  the 
American  Union  (Freedmen'.s)  Commission  ; 
from  1871  to  1876  editor  of  the  Illustrated 
Christian  Weekly  (New  York) ;  and  since  1876 
of  Th€  Christian  tfnion.  New  York.  His  best 
known  books  are  Jesus  of  Xnzareth,  N.  Y.,  1869, 
n.  ed.,  1882  ;  Old  Testament  Shadoirs  of  New 
Testament  Trut/is,  1870  ;  A  Dirtionart/  of  Re- 
liqious  Knmr>yd(ie,  1873  ;  Henry  Ward  Be'erhtr, 
a  Sketchof  his  Career  ;  and  Commentary  upon 


Matthew  and  Mark  (1875),  Luke  (1877),  John 
(1879),  Acts  (1876),  Romans  (1888). 

Abbreviators,  a  college  of  prelates  in  the 
papal  chancery,  so  called  because  they  prepare 
by  means  of  traditional  abbreviations  a  short 
minute  of  the  decision  on  a  petition  or  reply 
to  a  letter  given  l)y  the  pope,  and  afterward 
expand  the  minute  into  official  form.  They 
owe  their  origin  to  Pope  Pius  IL  (1458-64)  ; 
were  dissolved  because  of  their  venality  by 
Paul  II.  (1464-71)  ;  but  revived  by  Sixtus  IV., 
in  1471.  Originally  they  were  of  two  ranks 
{ahbreriatori  di  parco  maggiore  e  minore),  the 
first  of  12  members,  who  were  prelates,  the 
second  of  22,  who  belonged  to  the  lower  clergy. 
For  a  long  time  there  were  72,  the  greater  part 
being  laymen.  But  now  there  is  only  one 
grade  of  ahhreviatori  di  parco  {i.e.,  of  the  cabi- 
net), and  the  number  is  11.  They  revise  the 
papal  bulls  and  sign  them  in  the  name  of  the 
cardinal  vice-chancellor.  They  also  decide 
questions  relating  to  the  phraseology  of  the 
bulls  aud  similar  documents.  Two  of  the 
popes,  Paul  V.  (1566-72)  and  Urban  VIII. 
(1623-44),  were  once  abbreviators.  The  cardi- 
nal prodator,  his  substitute  and  his  secretary, 
are  called  tdtbreviatori  di  curia,  and  deal  with 
the  bulls  which  relate  to  papal  law  and  con- 
stitution, the  canonization  of  saints,  and  the 
announcement  of  a  year  of  jubilee. 

Ab-di'-as,  reputed  author  of  a  history  of  the 
Apostles,  particularly  of  their  miracles,  in  10 
books.  He  pretends  to  have  been  one  of  the 
70  ;  later  first  bishop  of  Babylon,  and  to  have 
written  in  Hebrew.  In  reality,  the  history 
was  written  in  Latin  about  550.  Some  of  its 
sources  are  still  extant.  It  has  no  historical 
value.  For  the  text,  seeFabricius,  Cod.  Apos. 
N.  T.,  pp.  388-742. 

Abecedarian  Hymns.     See  Acrostic. 

A  Becket.     See  Becket,  Thomas. 

Abeel, David,  D.D.  (Rutgers  College,  1838), 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  missionary  ;  b.  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  June  12,  1804  ;  d.  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  4,  1846.  He  studied 
first  medicine  and  then  theology,  and  gradu- 
ated at  the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Sem- 
inary, 1826  ;  was  missionary  at  St.  Thomas, 
West  Indies,  1828-29  ;  chaplain  of  the  Sea- 
men's Friend  Society  at  Canton,  1830  ;  w-as 
transferred  to  the  American  Board  that  year, 
and  sent  to  visit  the  mission  fields  in  Eastern 
Asia,  so  that  he  might  report  their  condition 
to  the  Board.  Broken  in  health,  he  returned 
home  in  1834,  but  went  back  to  China  in  1839, 
and  founded  the  Amoy  mission,  1843.  Health 
again  compelled  his  return  in  1845,  and  he  died 
the  next  vear.  (See  memoir  by  G.  R.  William- 
son, N.  Y.,  1848.) 

Ab'-e-lard  (an  assumed  name,  either  from 
aheille,  a  bee,  or  hail,  a  tutor),  Peter,  philoso- 
pher ;  b.  of  noble  Breton  parents  at  Pallet 
(Palais),  near  Nantes,  France,  1079  ;  d.  in 
the  Priory  of  St.  Marcel,  near  Chalons-on-the- 
Soane,  April  21. 1142.  Contrary  to  the  wishes 
of  his  father  he  studied  philosophy,  first  under 
Roscellinus,  at  Locmenach,  near  Vannes.  in 
Brittany,  then  under  William  of  Ciiampeaux 
in  Paris  (1095).     He  soon  after  began  Icctur- 


ABEIilTES 


(4) 


ABSRCROMBIE 


ing,  himself,  at  Melun,  Corbeil,  and  later  in 
Paris,  and  that  in  opposition  to  his  teachers. 
His  fame  rapidly  spread  and  hundreds  flocked 
to  hear  him.  In  1113  he  turned  to  theology 
and  became  the  pupil  of  Anselm  at  Laon. 
But  he  was  as  little  inclined  to  accept  the  tra- 
ditional theology  as  he  had  been  the  tradi- 
tional philosophy,  and  so  his  philosophical  and 
theological  lectures,  which  he  began  in  1114 
in  Paris,  though  a  brilliant  success  in  point 
of  numbers  (among  his  pupils  was  Peter  Lom- 
bard, q.v.),  awakened  constant  suspicion. 
While  at  the  height  of  his  fame,  Fulbert,  a 
canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Paris,  intrusted  to 
his  instruction  his  beautiful,  learned,  and  ac- 
complished niece,  Heloise,  then  (1118)  about 
17  years  old.  Abelard  shamefully  abused  Ful- 
bert's  confidence,  and  Heloise  bore  him  a  son, 
Astrolabius,  in  his  sister's  house  at  Palais. 
They  then  were  secretly  married,  in  order  to 
satisfy  Fulbert.  But  when  Abelard  brought 
Heloise,  at  her  own  urgent  request,  to  the 
Benedictine  nunnery  at  Argenteuil,  near  Paris, 
Fulbert,  conceiving  that  he  only  sought  in  this 
way  to  get  rid  of  his  wife,  one  night  with 
some  assistants  broke  into  his  lodgings  in  Paris 
and  mutilated  him  (1119).  Abelard  retired  to 
the  monastery  of  St.  Denis,  in  Paris,  and  be- 
came a  monk.  He  resumed  teaching,  but  his 
strict  life,  his  denial  of  the  identity  of  Diony- 
sius  the  Areopagite  with  St.  Denis,  the  patron 
saint  of  the  monastery  as  of  France,  and  his 
independent  views,  made  him  intensely  dis- 
tasteful to  the  monks.  After  many  trials,  in- 
cluding his  compulsory  burning  of  his  treatise 
on  the  "Divine  Unity  and  Trinity,"  by  the 
Council  of  Soi.ssons,  il21,  he  retreated  to  a 
desert  place  near  Nogent,  in  Champagne,  and 
lived  as  a  hermit,  but  pupils  gathered  about 
him,  and  tents  and  huts  went  up  on  everj- 
hand.  There  his  enthusiastic  pupils  helped 
him  to  build  an  oratory  which  he  named  The 
Paraclete;  and  this  in  1128  he  made  over  to 
Heloise,  who  lived  there  until  her  death.  Be- 
set by  new  fears,  he  accepted  (1125)  the  invita- 
tion of  the  monks  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Gildas- 
de-Rhuys,  in  Lower  Brittany,  to  be  their  ab- 
bot, and  for  10  years  struggled  vainly  with 
their  insubordination  and  savagery.  He  left 
them  at  last,  and  is  lost  track  of  for  a  time, 
until  he  turns  up  at  the  Council  of  Sens  (1141), 
to  meet  in  dialectical  contest  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux.  Foregone  was  the  condemnation  of  the 
suspected  heretic,  Abelard,  but  ere  sentence 
could  be  pronounced  he  appealed  to  Rome  and 
at  once  set  out  thither.  Broken  down  in  body 
and  sick  of  soul,  he  reached  the  Abbey  o"f 
Cluni.  The  abbot,  Peter  the  Venerable,  kind- 
ly received  him,  but  sent  him  for  his  health's 
sake  to  the  Priory  of  St.  Marcel,  and  there  he 
soon  after  died. 

His  body  was  carried  secretly  to  the  Para- 
clete for  Heloise's  reverent  keeping,  and  when 
in  1164  she  died,  her  body  was  buried  in  the 
same  grave.  The  bones  now  arc  in  the  same 
sarcophagus  in  the  cemetery  of  Pere  Lachaise 
in  Paris,  under  a  baldachan  built  of  stone  taken 
from  the  ruins  of  the  Paraclete. 

Abelard  was  the  first  rationalist.  "  In  his 
Iiitnxliiction  to  Theology  [he]  lays  down  the 
principle  that  rational  insight  must  prepare  the 
way  for  faith,  since  without  that  faith  is  not 


sure  of  its  truth.  In  opposition  to  the  trithc- 
ism  of  Roscellinus,  and  by  employing  the  Au- 
gustinian  terminology,  he  gives  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  a  monarchian  interpretation, 
explaining  the  three  persons  as  being  God's 
power,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  and  yet  not 
denying  the  personality  of  those  attributes. 
He  interprets  the  Platonic  world-soul  as  mean- 
ing the  Holy  Ghost  or  the  divine  love  in  its  re- 
lation to  the  world,  in  so  far  as  this  love  be- 
stows good  on  all  men,  Jews  and  heathen  in- 
cluded. In  ethics,  Abelard  lays  stress  on  the 
state  of  the  heart  ;  it  is  not  the  act  as  such, 
but  the  intention,  on  which  sin  and  virtue  de- 
pend. Whatever  is  not  in  conflict  with  the 
conscience  is  not  sinful,  although  it  may  be 
faulty,  since  conscience  may  err  ;  the  harmo- 
ny of  the  will  with  the  conscience  is  then 
only  a  sulflcient  evidence  of  one's  virtue,  when 
the  conscience  holds  that  to  be  good  or  pleas- 
ing to  God  which  in  reality  is  such."  (Ueber- 
weg.  Hist.  Phil.,  Eng.  trans.  I.,  p.  387.) 

Abelard's  most  famous  compositions  are, 
(1)  Historia  Calamitatum  ("  history  of  sufier- 
ings"),  which,  together  with  Heloise's  three 
letters,  constitutes  a  history  of  his  roman- 
tic, genuine,  but  calamitous  love-affair  ;  (2) 
Sic  et  Nan  ("  yes  and  no"),  contradictory  pas- 
sages from  the  fathers,  with  hints  how  they 
might  be  reconciled,  but  leaving  the  impres- 
sion that  they  cannot  be  ;  and  Scito  te  ipsinn 
("  know  thyself  "),  an  epoch-making  work  on 
ethics.  Best  ed.  of  his  works  by  Cousin,  Paris, 
1849-59,  3  vols.,  and  Onvi'ages  inedits  d' Abe- 
lard, Paris,  1836.  In  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
CLXXVIIL,  col.  118  sqq.  The  classical 
biography  is  by  Charles  de  Remusat,  Abelard, 
Paris,  1845,  2  vols. ;  2d  ed.,  1855.  Cf.  Wight, 
Romance  of  Abelard  and  Heloise,  N.  Y.,  1853. 

Abelites,  or  Abelonians,  a  small  North 
African  sect,  mentioned  by  Augustine  {de 
hares,  c.  87)  as  extinct,  which  pretended  to 
imitate  Abel  in  maintaining  virginity,  although 
married.  That  he  did  so  was  a  current,  wide- 
spread belief.  Each  couple  adopted  a  boy  and 
a  girl,  and  made  them  their  heirs  on  condition 
that  they  married  each  other,  but  likewise  re- 
strained themselves.  The  idea  was  not  to 
spread  original  sin. 

Abelonians.     See  Abelites. 

Abenare.     See  below. 

A'-ben-Ez'-ra,  or  Ibn  Ezra,  also  called  Aben- 
are or  Evenare,  the  ordinary  name  for  the  He- 
brew Abraham  ben  Meir  Xben  Ezra  ;  b.  at 
Toledo,  Spain,  about  1100  ;  d.  on  the  island 
of  Rhodes  about  1175.  He  was  a  poet  and 
philosopher,  but  is  chiefly  famed  as  an  excel- 
lent biblical  scholar,  and  the  first  who  inter- 
preted the  text  according  to  the  grammatical 
sense,  and  illustrated  it  from  cognate  lan- 
guages. See  in  English  his  Commentaries  on 
Proverbs  (London,  1880),  Canticles  (1874),  and 
Isaiah  (1873-77,  4  vols.).  The  last  contains 
Friedlander's  essay  on  him. 

Abercrombie  (ab'-er-krum -bee),  John,  M.D., 
b.  at  Aberdeen,  Oct.  10,  1780  ;  d.  at  Edin- 
burgh, Nov.  14,  1844.  He  was  for  many  years 
the  foremost  physician  in  Scotland.  His 
works.  Inquiries  Concerning  the  Intellectual 
Powers  and  the  Investigation  of  Truth,  Edin- 


ABERNETHT 


(5) 


ABRAHAM 


burgh,  1880,  and  The  Philosophy  of  the  Moral 
Feelings,  London,  1833,  reached  in  1869  their 
18th  and  14th  editions,  respectively.  They  are 
written  in  an  interesting  and  edifying  style, 
but  have  no  scientific  value. 

Abernethy  (ab'-er-neth-ee),  John,  Presby- 
terian ;  b.  at  Coleraine,  Co.  Londonderry,  Ire- 
land, Oct.  19,  1680  ;  d.  in  Dublin,  Dec.  1740. 
He  studied  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh  uni- 
versities, and  he  was  pastor  at  Antrim  from 
1703  to  1730.  and  at  Dublin  from  1730  till  his 
death.  In  1717  he  refused  to  obe}'  the  general 
synod's  decision  that  he  should  accept  a 
proffered  pastorate  in  Dublin.  That  any  one 
should  dare  disobey  the  general  synod  was  un- 
heard of.  His  firm  stand  had,  however,  its 
defenders,  and  led  to   his  heading  a  party, 

failed  "  non-subscribers, "  which  split  the  Irish 
Tcsbyterian  Church.  In  1726  they  were  cut 
off,  and  formed  a  separate  presbytery.  Their 
motto  was  resistance  to  "  the  tyrannical  exer- 
cise of  ecclesiastical  power."  In  1731,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Test  Act,  Abernethy  again 
showed  his  independence  and  progress  by  his 
stand  "  against  all  laws  that,  upon  account  of 
mere  differences  of  religious  opinions  and 
forms  of  worship,  excluded  men  of  integrity 
and  ability  from  serving  their  country."  "(See 
his  life  by  Duchal  prefixed  to  his  Posthumous 
Sermons,  1763,  4  vols.  Cf.  Stephen,  Did. 
Nat.  Biog.,  s.v.) 

Ab'-gar,  a  name,  like  Pharaoh  or  Cresar, 
borne  by  the  kings  of  Edessa,  a  small  king- 
dom in  the  s.w.  of  Mesopotamia.  Eusebius 
{Ch.  Hist,  i.,  13)  gives  the  reputed  correspond- 
ence between  [the  fifteenth]  Abgar  and  Jesus, 
relative  to  the  cure  of  the  former's  leprosy. 
Jesus  promises  to  send,  after  his  crucifixion, 
one  of  his  disciples  to  heal  him.  Thaddeus 
was  sent,  and  Abgar  and  his  subjects  were 
converted  to  Christianity.  A  later  legend  is 
that  Jesus  sent  Abgar  his  portrait.  Cf.  Moses 
of  Chorcne's  account,  trans,  in  jhite-Nicene 
Fathers,  Am.  rep.,  viii.,  703  sqq.  On  Abgar 
legends,  see  Lipsius  (Braunschweig,  1880), 
Matthes  (Leipzig,  1882),  and  Tixeron  (Paris, 
1888). 

Ability.     See  Inability. 

A-bim'-e-lech  (father  of  the  king).  1.  The 
name  of  Philistinian  kings  of  Gerar,  who  came 
in  contact  with  Abraham  and  Isaac  through 
their  wives  (Gen.  xx.,  xxvi.).  2.  The  natural 
son  of  Gideon,  made  king  of  Shechem,  reigned 
three  years,  put  down  a  rebellion,  but  shortly 
afterward  was  killed  by  a  piece  of  millstone 
thrown  on  his  head  by  "a  woman  (Judges  ix.). 

Abjuration  of  heresy  is,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  "  required  in  the  canon  law 
as  a  preliminary  to  baptism,  or,  when  there  is 
no  question  of  that  (as  in  the  case  of  converts 
from  the  Eastern  Church),  before  the  convert 
makes  his  confession  of  faith."  In  English- 
speaking  countries  it  is  taken  for  granted, 
since  the  converts  must  accept  the  creed  of 
Pius  v.,  and  thus  renounce  the  principal  her- 
esies, so-called.     Addis  and  Arnold,  s.v. 

Ablution-  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
the  name  given  to  the  wine  and  water  which 
are  separately  poured  b}-  the  server  into  the 


chalice  over  the  thumb  and  index  finger  of 
the  olficiatiiig  priest  after  cominunioii,  wiiu 
drinks  it  before  going  on  witli  the  closing 
prayers.  In  the  Greek  Church  the  ceremony 
of  washing  oft"  the  unction  of  the  chrism  seven 
days  after  baptism  is  called  ablution. 

Abrabanel.     See  AnAiin.\NEi.. 

A'-bra-ham  (father  of  a  multitude),  pro- 
genitor of  Israel  ;  b.  at  Ur,  in  Chaldca,  modern 
Mugheir,  probably  of  an  idolatrous  family  ; 
moved  with  them  to  Ilaran  (G«n.  xi.  28,  31), 
but  when  75  years  old,  by  divine  command  left 
them,  and  went  with  Sarai,  his  half-sister  ancl 
wife,  into  Canaan,  and  settled  at  Shechem,  un- 
til famine  led  him  to  make  a  tenqwrary  so- 
journ in  Egypt,  where  at  first  his  wife's  beauty 
made  him  trouble  ;  but  he  was  finally  dismiss- 
ed by  the  king,  greatly  increased  in  wealth 
(xii. ).  He  then  lived  by  the  oak  of  Mamre,  at 
Hebron  (xiii.  18).  On  his  victorious  return 
from  his  pursuit  of  the  captors  of  his  nephew 
Lot,  he  met  Melchisedek,  who  blessed  him,  and 
to  whom  he  paid  titlus  (xiv.  20).  Sarai  gave 
him  Hagar  as  concubine,  and  by  her  he  had 
Ishmael  when  he  was  86  years  old  (xvi.  16). 
God  shortly  after  changed  his  name  from 
Abram  (father  of  elevation)  to  Abraham,  and 
Sarai's  (my  princess)  to  Sarah  (princess),  and 
instituted  circumcision  (xvii.  10).  Later,  God 
told  him  that  the  cities  of  the  ])lain,  wherein 
Lot  dwelt,  were  to  be  destroyed.  Ilis  touch- 
ing plea  for  them  was  accepted,  but  there  were 
too  few  righteous  to  come  into  its  terms  (xviii. 
16  scjc].).  He  moved  to  Gerar,  and  there  Isaac, 
the  child  of  so  many  hopes,  the  object  of  such 
wonderful  prophecies,  was  born  when  he 
was  100  and  Sarah  90  years  old  (xxi.  2),  the 
trouble  with  Abimelech  ended  by  a  treaty 
(xxi.  32),  and  Hagar  and  Ishmael'  by  divine 
permission,  sent  away  at  Sarah's  request  (xxi. 
14).  He  journej'ed  once  to  ]\It.  !Moriah,  in 
order  to  offer  tip  Isaac  his  son,  but  the  divine 
command  which  he  obeyed  was  only  a  test  of 
his  faith,  and  he  was  sjjared  the  sacrifice  (xxii.). 
Sarah  d.  at  the  ase  of  127  years,  and  was  bur- 
ied in  the  cave  of  3Iachpelah  (xxiii.  19).  Abra- 
ham married  again  and  had  several  sons  (xxv. 
1),  and  d.  at  the  age  of  175,  and  was  buried 
beside  his  first  wife  (xxv.  10).  The  epithets, 
"  Fatiier  of  the  Faithful"  and  "Friend  of 
God,"  by  which  Abraham  isconimonly  callt-d, 
attest  his  high  charactc  r  and  llic  (!(•<■]>  impres- 
sion he  made  upon  his  (•ontcinporarits  and  tlu'ir 
descendants.  Faith  was  his  great  cliaractcris- 
tic,  and  by  it  he  has  won  a  deathless  name,  so 
that  by  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mohammedans 
alike  he  is  honored  and  beloved.  (See  H.  J. 
Tomkins,  Stvdies  on  t/ie  Times  of  Abraham, 
London,  1878.) 

Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara,  monastic  name 
of  Johann  Ulrieh  ^Megerle  (or  Megerlin),  Ro- 
man Catholic  ;  b.  at  Kreenheinstetten.  IJaden. 
June  2,  1644  ;  d.  in  Vienna,  Dec.  1.  1709.  He 
entered  the  order  of  tlie  Barefooted  Augus- 
tinians.  1662,  and  preached  to  great  crowds  in 
their  diurch  in  Vienna  from  1668  till  his 
death  ;  became  court  preaclier(1677).  and  defi- 
nitor  prorinciiT,  (1697).  He  is  witty,  humor- 
OU.S,  and  outsjioken.  but  often  grotestjuc, 
trivial,  and  even  coarse.  His  chief  work  in 
JuiUis  (hr  Erzschdm  ("  Judas  the  arch-wug'  ). 


ABR  AH  AMITE  S 


(6) 


AOACIUS 


a  satirico-religious  romance,  Salzbvirg,  1688- 
95,  4  parts.  (See  his  collected  works,  Passau 
and  Lindau,  1835-54,  21  vols.,  and  a  selection, 
Heilbronn,  1840-44.  7  vols.  Also  life  by  T. 
von  Karajan,  Abraham,  Wien,  1867. ) 

Abrahamites.  1.  A  "widespread  Syrian 
Paulician  sect  of  the  9th  century,  which  de- 
nied the  Godhood  of  Christ  ;  established  by 
Abraham  of  Antioch.  2.  A  short-lived  Bo- 
hemian deistic  sect  (fl.  1782)  which,  pretend- 
ing to  have  the  Abrahamic  religion,  rejected 
the  Trinity  and  most  of  the  other  Christian 
doctrines,  but  accepted  the  Ten  Command- 
ments and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  They  were 
suppressed. 

Abraxas,  or  Abraxar,  a  Gnostic  mystic  and 
secret  name,  which  probably  is  the  concrete 
expression  for  the  365  kingdoms  of  spirits, 
which,  according  to  Basilides,  emanated  from 
the  hidden  God.  It  is  a  word  very  frequently 
found  on  precious  stones,  known  as  ' '  Abraxas 
gems, ' '  and  its  Greek  letters  have  the  value  of 
365.  Thus  :  A  =  1,  B  =  2,  R  =r  100,  A  =1, 
X  =  60,  A  =  1,  S  =  200.     See  Gnosticism. 

Ab'-sa-lom  {father  of  peace),  son  of  David 
(2  Sam.  iii.  3),  remarkable  for  beauty,  and 
especially  for  his  hair  (xiv.  25,  26)  ;  fled,  after 
killing  his  half-brother  Amnon,  for  violating 
his  sister  Tamar  ;  recalled  after  3  years  (xiii. 
38  ;  xiv.  28)  ;  rebelled  against  David,  but  was 
defeated  and  killed  by  Joab  (xv.  1-xviii.  33). 
His  "  pillar"  (xviii.  18),  so-called,  is  shown  in 
the  Kedron  valley. 

Ab'-sa-lon,  or  Ax'-el,  Danish  prelate,  states- 
man and  warrior,  b.  at  Fjenneslevlille,  Seeland, 
1128  ;  archbishop  of  Lund  and  primate  of 
Scandinavia  (1178)  ;  papal  legate  ;  founder  of 
Copenhagen  ;  patron  of  Saxo-Grammaticus, 
historian  of  Denmark  ;  converter  of  the  Riigen 
islanders  ;  d.  in  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Soroe, 
March  21,  1201.  (See  Estrup,  Absalon,  Leip- 
zig, 1832.) 

Absolute,  the,  philosophical  expression  for 
God,  as  ])eing  without  any  of  the  finite  limita- 
tions and  conditions. 

Absolution.  1.  The  ecclesiastical  forgive- 
ness of  sins.  (See  Confession.)  2.  The  Ro- 
man Catholic  prayer  at  a  burial  for  the  deliv- 
erance of  the  soul  of  the  departed  from  pur- 
gatory. It  has  neither  sacramental  nor  canon- 
ical character,  but  arose  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
8.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  breviary  the  title  of 
some  prayers  before  the  lessons  in  matins,  and 
before  the  "  brief  reading"  at  prime  to  show 
that  it  closes  the  service  ;  so  called  probably 
because  some  of  these  prayers  imply  a  petition 
for  forgiveness  of  sin. 

Absolution,  Day  of,  is  Good  Friday,  so 
called  from  the  ancient  practice  of  emphasiz- 
ing forgiveness  upon  this  day. 

Abstinence,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
is  distinguished  from  fasting,  and  means  ab- 
stention not  from  all  but  only  from  certain 
kinds  of  food.  On  fasting  days  only  one  meal 
IS  allowed  in  24  hours  ;  on  abstinence  days  flesh 
is  forbidden,  but  an  evening  meal  is  allowed. 
The  days  of  abstinence  are  all  Saturdays 
and  Sundays  in  Lent  (unless  exempted), 
Saturdays  of  Ember  week  and  vigils  (all  Sat- 


urdays are  so  properly,  but  a  papal  dispensa- 
tion, renewed  every  20  years,  exempts  the 
rest),  and  all  Fridays  except  that  on  which 
Christmas  may  fall. 

Abstinents,  name  given  to  (1)  the  heretical 
Encratites  ;  (2)  the  Priscillianists  ;  (3)  the  As- 
cetics.    (See  those  arts.) 

Abuna.     (See  next  art.) 

Abyssinian   (or   Ethiopian)   Church,  was 

founded  about  tlae  middle  of  the  4th  century  by 
the  Syrian  Frumentius,  who  with  his  brother 
^desius  had  been  a  prisoner  at  the  Abyssinian 
court  at  Auxumis  (modern  Axuni).  Released 
after  a  time  he  went  to  Alexandria,  where 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  by  Athanasius, 
and  sent  back  to  Christianize  the  Abyssinians. 
He  received  the  titles  Abuna  {our  father)  and 
Abba  Salama  {father  of  peace),  which  are  still 
used  by  his  successors.  The  Abyssinian  Church 
has  always  been  dependent  upon  that  of 
Egypt,  and  its  abuna,  or  head,  who  is  titular 
bishop  of  Axum,  is  chosen  by  the  Coptic  pa- 
triarch of  Alexandria,  and  never  is  an  Abys- 
sinian. Like  the  Alexandrian,  the  Abyssinian 
Church  became,  and  still  remains,  monophy- 
sitic  (see  ar t. ).  It  exhibits  a  curious  admixture 
of  essentially  Jewish  ideas — e.g.,  circumcision, 
the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  the  distinction 
of  clean  and  unclean  foods,  and  the  levirate 
law  ;  all  of  which  probably  shows  that  the 
Abyssinians  had  early  contact  with  Judaism, 
perhaps  as  far  back  as  Solomon's  time.  Jews 
are  very  numerous  there  now.  (See  art.  Fa- 
LASHAS.)  The  Bible  is  in  Ethiopic,  now  a  dead 
language,  and  is  read  aloud  by  priests  who 
commonly  cannot  translate  the  text.  It  in- 
cludes the  Apocrypha  and  several  pseudepi- 
grapha  ;  indeed,  the  pseudo-apostolic  writings 
are  highly  esteemed.  Baptism  of  adults  is  by 
trine  immersion,  of  infants  by  aspersion,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Eucharist  ;  in  which  ordinance 
grape  juice  and  not  wine  is  used.  But  con- 
firmation, extreme  unction,  transubstantiation, 
purgatory,  crucifixes,  and  image  worship  are 
all  rejected.  Secular  priests  can  marry  once. 
There  are  180  festival  and  200  fast  days. 

Vain  attempts  have  been  made  to  Romanize 
the  Abyssinians.  Missionaries  were  first  sent 
thither  by  popes  Nicholas  IV.  (1288-92)  and 
John  XXII.  (1316-34)  ;  and  by  later  popes 
down  to  Gregory  XVI.  (1831-46),  who  started 
in  1838  a  vigorous  mission,  which  for  a  while 
was  most  promising  ;  but  in  1854  the  mission- 
aries were  driven  from  the  country,  and  the 
work  has  not  since  been  resumed.  Nor  have 
Protestant  missions  been  any  more  successful. 
Gobat  and  Kugler  (1826),  Isenberg  (1835),  and 
others  worked  there  heroically,  but  in  1843 
reluctantly  abandoned  the  field.  In  1888  Rus- 
sia sent  a  missionary  expedition  into  Abys- 
sinia. It  remains  to  be  seen  if  the  Greek 
Church  will  do  any  better. 

Acacians.     See  below. 

A-ca'-ci-us  (she-us),  Acacians.  Acacius,  d. 
at  Cajsarea,  366,  succeeded  Eusebius  as  bishop 
of  Csesarea,  340  ;  became  head  of  the  courtly 
Arian  party  ;  assisted  in  consecrating  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,"  351  ;  but,  later,  deposed  and  ex- 
pelled him  for  pretended  heresy,  358  ;  and  was 
able  in  360  to  have  him  sent  into  exile.     Aca- 


ACATHOLIOI 


(7) 


ACROSTIC 


cius  was  prominent  in  the  theological  contro- 
versies and  intrigues  of  the  time.  He  was  "  a 
man  of  great  intellectual  ability  and  little 
honesty,  ready  in  action,  eloquent  in  speech, 
subtle  in  argument,  and  unscrupulous  as  to  the 
means  by  which  he  secured  his  ends  ;  with  no 
deep  convictions  on  the  great  subjects  of  contro- 
versy, concealing  his  real  views  with  skilfully 
chosen  ambiguity  of  language,  and  adroitly 
changing  them  when  it  waslo  his  advantage 
to  do  so."  Thus  he  rejected  both  terms 
Homoousion  and  Homoiousion  at  the  synod 
of  Seleucia,  359,  and  confessed  the  lilieness 
of  the  Son  to  the  Father,  but  interpreted  it  as 
in  will  alone.  But  when  deposed  by  the  ortho- 
dox council  at  Rimini,  he  got  a  council  called 
at  Constantinople,  and  accepted  the  creed  of 
Rimini  and  kept  his  place.  He  changed  sev- 
eral times,  but  was  at  last  deposed  for  good. 
Cf.  Smith  and  Wace,  s.v.  F. 

Acatholici  {not  catlwUc),  name  formerly 
applied  to  Protestants  in  Austria. 

Accad,  or  Akkad.  See  Assyriology,  p,  52. 

Acceptants,  name  given  to  those  French 
prelates  and  clergy  who  accepted  uncondition- 
ally the  bull  Cnigenitus  condemning  Jansen- 
ism, 1713.  Appellants  were  those  who  did 
not,  but  desired  that  the  matter  should  be  re- 
ferred to  a  general  council. 

Access,  the  approach  of  the  priest  to  the 
altar  to  celebrate  the  Eucharist. 

Accidents,  "  the  non-essential  qualities  of  a 
suKstance,  such  as  taste,  appearance,  or  color, 
any  of  which  change  or  cease  to  exist,  and  yet 
the  substance  itself  remains."  In  Roman 
Catholic  theolog}',  it  is  said  that  in  transub- 
stantiation  the  accidents  of  the  bread  and  wine 
remain  the  same,  but  the  substance  has  been 
changed  into  the  veritable  body  and  blood  of 
Christ. 

Ac  -cho,  Ac -co  (R.  V. ,  Judges  i.  31),  80  m. 
n.n.w.  of  Jerusalem  ;  unimportant  Phoenician 
coast  town  in  Old  Testament  times  ;  came 
into  notice  in  connection  with  Alexander's 
conquests  ;  was  called  Ptolemais.  after  Ptolemy 
Soter  ;  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Book 
of  the  Maccabees  and  in  Joseph  us  ;  also  by 
this  name  in  Acts  xxi.  7,  and  there  was  an 
early  Christian  church.  The  Kalipli  Omer  took 
the  town  (678)  as  the  key  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  under  Mohammedan  rule  it  regained  its 
old  name  Acco  ;  experienced  various  fortunes 
during  the  Crusades  ;  was  finally  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens,  1291.  Here  the  Turks  success- 
fully defended  themselves  against  the  French, 
1799  ;  it  was  bombarded  by  the  British.  1840  ; 
since  under  Turkish  rule.  It  was  at  one  time 
a  splendid  city,  but  there  is  little  left  to  tell 
the  tale.     It  is  now  known  as  Acre. 

Accommodation,  a  technical  term  in  theol- 
ogy, sometimes  used  to  denote  the  rationalis- 
tic'theory  that  Chri.st  fell  in  with  certain  errors 
of  his  time,  such  as,  e.g. .  the  belief  in  demo- 
niacs, etc.,  and  thus  accommodated  himself  to 
the  mental  and  moral  condition  of  the  Jews  ; 
a  theory  justly  repudiated  as  undermining 
alike  our  Saviour's  character  and  the  autlior- 
ity  of  the  Gospels.  The  term  was  also  em- 
ployed to  explain  the  dissonance  between  cer- 


tain passages  of  the  Old  Testament  and  their 
application  by  the  writers  of  the  New,  on  the 
ground  tluit  altliough  there  was  no  mutual  re- 
lation between  the'two  tilings,  tlie  writer  ac- 
commodated the  earlier  to  the  later  in  order  to 
make  his  narrative  more  impressive.  A  more 
sober  view  of  the  case  denies  this  opinion,  and 
insists  that  each  quotation  can  be  justified 
either  by  a  larger  view  of  the  original  context 
or  by  a  reference  to  the  purpose  for  which  it 
was  made— that  is,  simply  as  illustrative,  not 
predictive,  of  what  is  said.  The  term  is  also 
used  of  the  unwise  practice  of  some  modern 
preachers  to  take  texts  of  Scripture  and  acc/mi- 
modate  them  to  the  subject  in  hand,  without 
the  least  regard  to  the  natural  meaning  of  the 
passage  or  the  reason  for  which  it  was  put  on 
record.  C. 

Acephali  {headless),  name  given,  1.  To  me- 
tropolitans and  bishops  who  have  no  eccle- 
siastical head  over  them.  2.  To  certain  chisses 
of  heretics  :  {a),  those  who  rejected  the  Chalce- 
donian  Council  ;  (6)  the  P^utychian  adherents 
of  Peter  Mongus,  who  refused  to  subscribe  the 
Henoticon,  as  he  had  done  ;  ('•)  tlie  undecid- 
ed bishops  who,  at  the  synod  of  Ephesus  (431), 
held  neither  with  the  party  of  Cyril  nor  that 
of  John  of  Antioch.  3.  To  the  clergy  belong- 
ing to  no  diocese.     4.  To  the  Flagellants. 

Achery,  D'.     See  D'AcnEUY. 

Acoemetae  {sleepless),  an  order  of  monks  of 
the  5t]i  century,  who  received  tlieir  name  from 
the  perpetual  divine  service  held  in  their  clois- 
ters. Their  chief  seat  was  the  famous  convent 
Studium  at  Constantinople.  A  similar  society 
was  founded  in  Burgundy  in  515.  F. 

Acolyths  {attendants),  an  order  of  the  clergy 
in  the  Roman  Church  before  the  Reformation 
and  at  the  present  day,  ranking  as  the  highest 
of  the  minor  orders  (see  Okdkks),  whose  duty 
was  to  perform  certain  inferior  sersices  in  the 
ritual,  particularly  that  of  the  presentation  of 
the  elements  to  the  consecrating  priest.  In 
the  earliest  times  the  acolyths  were  the  cleri- 
cal servants  especially  attached  to  the  bish- 
ops. F. 

A-cos-ta,  Uriel,  noted  apostate,  b.  of  Portu- 
guese noble  parents  of  Jewish  ancestry,  at 
Oporto,  1594  ;  passed  in  Amstertlam  from 
Romanism  to  Judaism,  where.  l)ecause  of  his 
denial  of  immortality  and  contempt  for  cere- 
monial law,  he  was  put  out  of  the  synagogue, 
and  died,  probablv  by  his  own  hand,  1647. 
Cf.  life  by  Jellinek,' Leipzig.  1847.  Eng.  trans, 
of  his  autobiography,  London,  1740. 

Acre.     See  Accno. 

Acrostic  {extremity — verse),  a  comjwsition 
of  wliich  the  first  letters  of  the  several  lines 
form  the  name  of  a  person  or  thing.  One  of 
the  most  familiar  is  IXOTi.  which,  as  a 
word,  means  fish,  but  is  also  a  combination 
of  'lijaovq  XfHcrii  Oeov  T/of  lurz/p  ("Jesus 
Christ,  Son  of  Gofl,  Saviour").  We  have  iu 
the  119th  Psalm  an  acrostic  containing  all  tho 
letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphalK't.  each  r(p«-ated 
8  times  in  as  manv  lines.  Hymns  were  con- 
structed on  that  "principle.  Otlnrs.  callejl 
Abecedarian  hymns  and  psalms,  in  wliich  each 
line  began  with  a  different  letter,  according  to 
the  order  of  the  alphabet,  have  been  pretjc-rved. 


i 


ACTION 


(8) 


ACTS 


Action  Sermon,  the  Scotch  name  for  the 
one  preached  immediately  before  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supi^er. 

Act  of  Faith  (Spanish,  Auto-da-fe),  proper- 
ly only  the  open,  solemn  reading  of  the  judg- 
ment of  death  passed  upon  a  heretic,  as  the 
result  of  the  Inquisition  set  up  in  Spain,  1481  ; 
but  as  the  execution  by  the  civil  power  imme- 
diately followed,  the  term  was  transferred  to 
the  execution.  In  order  to  enhance  a  high 
feast  day,  many  heretics  w^ere  executed  to- 
gether upon  it.  Immense  numbers  attended, 
and  royalty  often.  The  most  brilliant  auto-da- 
fe  was  at  Madrid,  in  1680,  before  Charles  II. 
During  the  18th  century  auto-da-fes  decreased, 
and  the  last  one  probably  took  place  in  Mex- 
ico, 1815.  In  Spain  alone,  from  1481-1808,  ac- 
cording to  the  accounts  published  in  1834,  34,- 
658  persons  were  publicly  or  secretly  executed, 
and  288,214  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life 
or  to  the  galleys.  The  victims  wore  a  yel- 
low coat  like,  a  sack  {sanbenito  —  saco  bendito) 
with  pictures  of  flames  on  it.  Those  who  ap- 
peared in  the  procession,  but  were  to  be  re- 
leased, had  a  similar  coat  with  the  cross  on  it. 

Acta  Martyrum  and  Sanctorum,  terms  used 
to  describe  the  lives  of  the  early  martyrs  and 
of  later  saints  in  the  early  Catholic  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  origin  of  these 
was  the  natural  and  commendable  desire  to 
preserve  the  memory  of  those  who  had  borne 
witness  to  the  truth  at  the  cost  of  their  lives, 
and  to  incite  later  generations  to  imitate  their 
example  of  self-denying  devotion.  The  earli- 
est specimens  are  found  in  the  ''  Martyrdoms" 
which  have  come  down  from  the  period  of  the 
first  persecutions,  those  of  Polycarp,  of  the 
Christians  at  Lyons,  and  Vicnne  in  Gaul,  of 
Justin,  etc.  That  of  Polycarp  describes,  in  a 
style  appropriate  to  the  times  and  circum- 
stances, the  various  incidents  of  his  apprehen- 
sion, trial,  and  death,  wdth  the  addition  of  sev- 
eral miraculous  particulars  which  have  the  air 
of  later  additions.  Cyprian's  Letters  give 
other  information  about  martyrdoms  of  the 
most  valuable  character.  The  custom  of  cele- 
brating the  memory  of  the  martyrs  upon  the 
day  of  their  death  led  to  the  formation  of  cal- 
endars in  which  simply  the  names  of  the  mar- 
tyrs were  recorded  at  the  proper  dates.  To 
these  were  added  subsequently  accounts  for 
purposes  of  edification,  sometimes  read  in  the 
churches.  Such  accounts  were  amplified  with 
little  regard  for  the  exact  historical  truth,  till 
in  the  Middle  Ages  the  legends  of  the  saints 
became  the  repositories  of  the  poetic  fancies  of 
the  day.  Still,  the  historical  spirit  of  the  earli- 
est records  had  not  at  any  time  wholly  disap- 
peared. Pope  Gelasius  (1118-19)  complained 
of  the  condition  of  the  accounts  of  his  day,  and 
others  sought,  with  a  literary  purpose  rather 
than  a  religious,  to  describe  worthily  the  lives 
of  many  great  men  of  the  Church.  Such  were 
many  Greek  lives  of  the  chief  heroes  of  early 
monasticism.  And  when  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing came,  and  the  models  of  classical  antiquity 
were  studied,  there  arose  a  new  style  of  treat- 
ing the  martyrologies,  which  culminated  in  the 
great  undertaking  of  the  Jesuits,  John  Bol- 
land  (b.  at  Julemont,  near  Liege,  Belgium, 
Aug.  13,  1596  ;  d.  at  Antwerp,  Sept.  12,  1665) 


and  his  associates,  to  describe  the  lives  of  all 
the  saints,  grouped  under  months,  according  to 
the  day  of  their  death  or  festival,  which  has 
resulted  in  the  series  known  as  the  Acta  Sanc- 
torum, comprising  now  63  folio  volumes, 
which  was  begun  in  the  year  1643  at  Antwerp. 
The  resources  of  the  order  were  all  employed 
to  gather  the  most  complete  collection  of 
materials,  and  an  institution  was  established 
at  Antwerp,  which  perpetuated  itself  and 
labored  at  its  task  for  more  than  100  years, 
till  the  dissolution  of  the  order  brought  the 
work  to  a  temporary  close.  In  this  period  the 
work  had  been  prosecuted  to  Oct.  7,  and  oc- 
cupied 49  volumes.  It  was  characterized  by  a 
great  degree  of  historical  faithfulness.  The 
dogmatic  position  of  its  authors  was  not  so 
rigidly  maintained  as  to  lead  them  to  conceal 
or  distort  the  manifest  truth.  The  freedom 
and  the  lofty  pride  and  independence  of  the 
Jesuit  Order  in  its  relations  to  the  Catholic 
Church  co-operated  to  render  it  somewhat 
careless  of  the  prejudices  and  doctrines  of 
some  theologians,  and  of  some  rival  orders  in 
the  church.  Thus,  -it  disclosed  without  com- 
punction the  worthlessness  of  the  Carmelites' 
claim  to  date  from  the  time  of  Elijah.  Learn- 
ed introductions  and  commentaries  added  to 
the  value  of  the  work.  It  is  and  will  remain 
one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  the  history  of 
the  Middle  Ages  in  particular.  In  1837  the 
work  was  resumed  by  the  re-established  order, 
but  it  lacks  the  freedom  and  value  of  the 
earlier  series.  F. 

Acts  of  Pilate.  See  Pseudepigrapha  and 
Apocrypha. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  fifth  book  of  the 
New  Testament.  It  purports  to  have  been 
written  by  the  author  of  the  third  gospel,  of 
which  it  is  a  continuation.  Its  theme  is  the 
founding  of  the  Christian  Church  among  the 
Jews  by  Peter,  among  the  Gentiles  by  Paul, 
and  it  extends  from  the  Ascension  of  our  Lord 
to  the  first  imprisonment  of  the  apostle  in 
Rome.  It  is  not  a  complete  narrative,  as  is 
shown  by  its  omission  of  many  occurrences  of 
which  we  learn  from  the  epistles,  yet  it  is  quite 
full  enough  to  effect  its  purpose  of  setting 
forth  the  development  of  the  church  from  the 
metropolis  of  Judaism  to  the  capital  of  the 
world.  Its  credibility  was  powerfully  sus- 
tained by  Dr.  Paley's  original  work,  IIotcb 
PaulirM!,  (1790),  in  which  the  existence  of  a  va- 
riety of  undesigned  coincidences  between  this 
narrative  and  the  Apostolic  Epistles  was  made 
to  show  that  the  book  could  not  possibly  be  a 
cunningly  devised  fable.  During  the  present 
century  it  has  been  repeatedly  attacked  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  not  a  colorless,  impartial 
history,  but  composed  for  a  purpose,  being  de- 
signed to  bring  Judaists  and  Paulinists  into 
fraternal  relations.  Hence  its  date  is  put  in  the 
second  century,  when,  in  order  to  cement  more 
and  more  the  union  of  Judaizers  with  Gentile 
Christians,  this  book  appeared,  not  only  select- 
ing such  existing  materials  as  suited  its  aim, 
but  even  inventing  them  when  they  were  not 
at  hand.  This  theory  was  urged  by  Dr.  Fer- 
dinand Baur,  with  vast  learning  and  bound- 
less acuteness,  and  for  a  time  seemed  to  carr^ 
all  before  it ;  but  it  has  been  shown  that  it  is 


ADALBERT 


(9) 


ADIAPHORA 


baseless,  that  many  of  the  phenomena  adduced 
in  its  favor  are  imaginary,  while  tlie  others  are 
for  the  most  part  susceptible  of  explanation, 
that  exegetically  it  is  untenable,  and  that  its 
doctrine  of  "  tendency"  is  pushed  to  extrava- 
gant lengths.  The  time  and  place  of  com- 
position are  uncertain.  As  it  extends  to 
the  second  year  of  Paul's  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  it  could  not  have  been  written  prior  to 
A.r>.  56,  and  probably  was  composed  soon  after 
that  date.  The  text  is  in  a  worse  condition 
than  that  of  any  other  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, owing  doubtless  to  the  attempts  of  copy- 
ists to  harmonize  variant  accounts  and  remove 
apparent  difficulties.  Instances  of  interpola- 
tion, removed  in  the  Revised  Version,  may  be 
seen  in  chaps,  viii.  37,  ix.  5,  6,  xxiv.  6-8, 
xxviii.  29.  The  most  useful  commentaries  re- 
main those  of  Alexander  (N.  Y.,  1856)  and 
Hackett  (Andover,  1851  ;  rev.  ed.  1877).     C. 

Ad'-al-bert  (properly  Woytech,  the  comfort 
of  the  host),  b.  at  Prague  about  956  ;  became 
bishop  there,  983  ;  went  as  missionary  to 
Prussia.  997  ;  murdered  .  near  Konigsberg, 
April  23,  997.  He  is  called  the  Apostle  of  the 
Prussians. 

Ad'*am  {red),  the  name  of  the  first  man,  who 
■was  created  by  the  direct  act  of  God  (Gen.  ii. 
7).  After  the  vegetable  and  animal  world  he 
came  into  being  as  the  crown  of  creation,  not 
feeble  and  helpless,  still  less  as  diseased  and 
dying,  but  mature  and  free  from  sin.  He  was 
made  in  the  image  of  God— that  is,  a  ration- 
al and  spiritual  loeing,  free  but  responsible,  a 
distinct  and  holy  personality,  endowed  with 
righteousness  and  holiness  of  truth.  This 
view  of  man's  original  state  stands  opposed 
alike  to  the  Romanist  doctrine  that  righteous- 
ness was  a  supernatural  gift  not  belonging  to 
liis  nature,  and  to  the  Pelagian  theory  that  he 
was  created  without  moral  character.  Made 
of  dust  as  to  his  physical  organization,  God 
breathed  into  him  a  living  soul,  and  invested 
him  with  dominion  over  the  creatures.  Thus 
he  became  the  representative  of  the  divine  ma- 
jesty, or,  as  the  apostle  says  (1  Cor.  xi.  7), 
"the  glory  of  God."  From  him  descended 
the  whole  human  race— a  point  once  hotly 
contested,  but  now  universally  admitted. 
From  him,  too,  came  the  universal  depravity 
of  the  world.  God  made  man  upright,  but  he 
fell,  and  in  his  fall  the  many  were  made  sin- 
ners. In  this  fact  all  evangelical  Cliristians 
agree,  tliough  they  differ  as  to  its  groimd,  some 
placing  it  in  the  realistic  view  tliat  all  men 
were  seminally  in  Adam,  others  in  the  cove- 
nant relation  by  which  he  became  the  federal 
head  of  his  posterity.  C. 

Adam  of  St.  Victor,  d.  in  the  abbey  of  St. 
Victor,  Paris,  about  1192  ;  poetical  works, 
which  prove  him  the  greatest  Latin  poet  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  first  translated  by  Wrangham, 
London,  1881.  3  vols. 

Adam,  Melchior,  b.  at  Grotkau,  in  Silesia, 
15—  ;  d.  as  professor  in  Heidi  ll)erg,  1622  ; 
author  of  Vitiv  fjermoiiontm  theologontm, 
Heidelberg,  1620,  a  useful  book,  containing 
sketches  of  many  theologians,  mostly  Protest- 
ants. His  admired  sketch  of  Luther  was  trans- 
lated, London,  1641. 


Adamites,  or  Adamiani,  a  Gnostic  sect  in 
the  lirst  lialf  of  the  second  century,  which,  as 
a  manifestation  of  its  superiority  over  the 
temptations  of  the  flesli,  had  both  sexes  ai)pcar 
naked  in  its  religious  assemblies.  Tliis  suj)eri- 
ority  attained,  it  permitted  the  most  promiscu- 
ous intercourse.  A  similar  sect  appeared  in 
Bohemia  in  the  time  of  Ziska  (1421),  which 
has  survived  to  our  own  day.  F. 

Adams,  Sarah  Fuller  Flowep:  [Mrs.  "Will- 
iam Bridges  AdainsJ,  1).  at  Great  Harlow, 
Essex,  Eng.,  Feb.  22.  1805  ;  married,  1834  ;  d. 
in  London  of  consumption,  Aug.  14,  1848. 
She  wrote  considerable  poetry  ;  her  principal 
poem  was  Vivia  jM'rpetva  (London,  1841)  ;  her 
principal  hymn,  "  Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee." 

Adams,  Thomas,  Puritan,  whom  Southey 
pronounced  to  be  "  the  prose  Shakesi)eare  of 
Puritan  theologians  ;"  birth  and  death  uncer- 
tain as  to  time  and  place  ;  rt.  1612-53  ;  d.  as 
rector  of  St.  Bennet's,  London.  (See  his 
Practical  Works,  w.  Dr.  Angus'  Memoir, 
Edin.,  1861-62,  3  vols.  ;  and  his  Ccmimentary 
on  2  Peter,  cd.  Sherman,  London,  1839.) 

Adams,  William,  b.  at  Exeter  (?),  1814  ;  d. 
at  Bonchurch,  Isle  of  Wight,  Jan.  17.  1848. 
Took  double  first-class  honors  at  Oxford,  1836  ; 
became  fellow  and  tutor  of  his  college  (Mer- 
ton),  1837  :  vicar  of  St.  Peter's  in  the  Ea.st, 
1840  ;  at  Bonchurch,  1843.  He  wrote  The 
Shadow  of  the  Cross,  London,  1842  ;  18th  ed., 
1863  ;  and  other  very  popular  religious  works 
of  the  kind,  collected  under  title,  ISucred  Alle- 
gories. London,  1849  (w.  Memoir)  ;  Greek 
trans.,  Athens,  1877  ;  rep.,  N.  Y. 

Ad'-el-bert,  or  Al'-de-bert,  a  powerful  op- 
ponent of  Boniface,  the  Apostle  of  Germany, 
in  his  efforts  to  reduce  France  to  obedience 
to  the  see  of  Rome.  He  was  said  to  have  the 
power  to  work  miracles,  but  Boniface  charges 
him  with  deception  and  with  various  errors 
and  heresies,  .some  of  which  are  inconsistent 
with  each  other.  He  was  not  strenuous  in  his 
observance  of  auricular  confession,  and  erect- 
ed churches,  etc.,  against  the  practice  of  Bon- 
iface. After  a  synodical  condemnation  at 
Soissons,  744,  which  Boniface  could  not  get 
executed,  he  was  condemned  at  Rome  by 
council,  but  without  a  proper  and  fair  trial. 
From  tliis  time  he  di.sapp<'ars  from  liistciry. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  imprisoned  at  Fiilda, 
and  to  have  escaped.  F. 

Ad  -el-heid,  St.,  daughter  of  King  Rudolph 
II.  of  Burgundy  ;  b.  931  ;  d.  Dec.  16,  999. 
She  was  married"  at  16  to  Lothair  (d.  950),  sou 
of  King  Hugo,  of  Italy  ;  imprisoned  by  Be- 
rengar  II.,  of  Ivrea,  because  she  refused  to 
marrv  hisson  Adelbcrt,  Inil  escaped  and  found 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Otto  I.,  hiter  cmi>eror 
of  Germany,  who  married  her  951.  Her  in- 
lluence  wa's  great  and  salutary  during  his 
reign  and  those  of  his  son  and  grandson. 

Ad -e-o-da-tus.     1.  The  son  of  Augustine 

of  lIipi)o.     2.   A   monk,    Poix-  in  672.  d.  (176. 

wlio  zcakuisly  defended  the  doctrine  of  llu-lwo 

wills  in  Christ.  I*'- 

!      Adiaphora,  things  indifferent— /.r..  neillier 

I  conunanded  nor  prohibited  by  the  moral  law. 

'  The  notion  originated  among  the  Stoics,  but 


{ 


ADIAPHORI3TIO 


(10) 


ADORATION 


does  not  appear  to  bo  recognized  in  Scripture. 
The  questioQ  whether  such  actions  are  possi- 
ble was  much  discussed  among  tlie  schoolmen, 
Thomas  Aquinas  denying  it,  at  least,  in  con- 
crete, but  Duns  Sco'tus  affirming.  Among 
Protestants  the  first  Adiaphoristie  Controversy 
(1548-55)  turned  upon  points  of  doctrine,  not 
of  morals.  In  the  next  century  a  second  con- 
flict arose  between  the  Pietists  and  their  oppo- 
nents, whicli  touched  the  heart  of  ethics,  since 
it  was  claimed  that  all  secular  amusements 
should  be  repudiated  as  sinful,  but  this  led  to 
no  result.  Most  of  the  modern  ethical  writers 
deny  the  existence  of  adiaphora.  Martensen, 
after  quoting  the  words,  All  that  is  iwt  of  faith 
is  sin  (Rom.  xiv.  23),  adds,  "  All  is  sin  to  me 
that  does  not  proceed  from  the  fundamental 
conviction  which  is  the  determining  motive  of 
the  unity  of  my  life,  and  is  not  in  harmony 
with  it.''  C. 

Adiaphoristic  Controversy.     See  above. 

Adler,  Felix,  Ph.D.  (Heidelberg,  1873)  ;  b. 
at  Alzey,  Germany,  Aug.  13, 1851  ;  graduated 
at  Columbia  College,  New  York  City,  1870  ; 
became  non-resident  professor  of  oriental 
languages  and  literature  at  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  N".  Y.,  1873  ;  lecturer  of  the  Society 
of  Ethical  Culture,  New  York  City,  1876. 

Ad'-o-nai,  a  Hebrew  word  {iny  master),  ap- 
plied in  Scripture,  by  way  of  eminence,  to  God 
as  sovereign,  and  usually  rendered  Lord.  The 
later  Jews,  through  superstitious  reverence, 
used  its  vowels  to  point  the  incommunicable 
name  Jehovah,  commonly  rendered  Lord. 

C. 
A-do-ni'-jah  (tm/  Lord  Jah),  the  fourth  son 
of  David  (3  Sam.  iii.  4).  "When  his  father  was 
near  death,  Adonijah  endeavored  to  seize  the 
throne  as  his  successor,  but  the  plot  was  dis- 
covered and  thwarted.  Although  condition- 
ally spared  by  Solomon,  he  afterward  renewed 
his  attempt  by  seeking  to  marry  Abishag,  the 
virgin  widow  of  his  father,  and  was  thereupon 
justly  put  to  death  (1  Kings  i.  5  sqq.  ;  ii.  13- 
25).  C. 

Adoption  is  a  term  used  in  Scripture  to 
denote  the  relation  to  God  into  which  men  are 
brought  when  they  are  renewed.  Whereas 
before  they  were  aliens  and  outcasts,  now  they 
are  received  into  the  family  of  God  and  en- 
titled to  all  the  privileges  and  immunities  of 
his  children.  They  are  freed  from  a  servile 
spirit ;  have  filial  confidence  in  God  as  their 
father  and  their  portion  ;  have  free  access  to 
him  at  all  times  and  in  all  circumstances  ;  and 
receive  the  spirit  of  adoption— ^■.c.,  that  which 
produces  the  feelings  which  children  have,  and 
which,  along  with  this  inward  state,  bears  wit- 
ness directly  to  the  sonship  of  believers,  and 
thus  assures  them  of  their  acceptance  with 
God  ;  consequently  they  know  that  they  shall 
have  the  care  of  a  heavenly  father  throughout 
life  (Matt.  x.  29,  80)  ;  shall  receive  such  cor- 
rection and  discipline  as  may  be  needed  (Heb. 
xii.  5-8)  ;  and  finally,  as  joint  heirs  with 
Christ,  the  natural  Son  of  God,  shall  enter 
upon  an  inheritance  incorruptible  and  eternal. 
This  view  of  adoption  is  now  common  to  near- 
ly all  branches  of  the  Protestant  Church,  but 
is  overlooked  by  the  Romanists  in  consequence 
of  their  identifying  justification  and  sanctifica- 


tion,  and  their  denial  that  a  man  can  ever  be 
certain  that  he  is  justified  and  in  a  state  of 
grace.  C. 

Adoptionists,  those  believing  that  Christ  is 
the  Son  of  God,  not  by  nature,  but  by  adop- 
tion. Similar  conceptions  are  to  be  found 
among  many  early  writers  during  the  forma- 
tive period  of  Christian  Christology.  But 
Adoptionism  has  its  place  in  history  from  the 
controversy  which  arose  in  Spain  and  France 
at  the  close  of  the  8th  century.  In  opposi- 
tion to  a  certain  Migetius,  who  taught  that 
there  are  three  corporeal  persons  in  the  Trinity 
— a  rough  kind  of  Sabellianism — Elipandus  of 
Toledo  taught  that  the  Trinity  is  an  eternal 
distinction  in  the  Godhead.  But  in  teaching 
that  the  person  of  Christ  is  the  eternal  Logos, 
he  also  taught  that  Christ,  according  to  his  hu- 
manity, is  Son  by  adoption.  This  is  an  act  of 
grace,  and  unites  the  Son  of  Man  so  intimately 
with  the  Son  of  God  that  they  are  henceforth 
to  be  called  one  person.  The  object  of  the 
doctrine  was  to  secure  the  proper  emphasis 
upon  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  and  it  seems 
at  times  as  if  Elipandus  meant  only  to  express 
by  adoption  what  has  usually  been  expressed 
by  assumption.  Yet  the  doctrine  is  not  clear, 
and  the  unity  of  the  person  of  Christ  is  not 
properly  protected.  The  result  is  a  form  of 
conception  which  approaches  Nestorianism. 
The  subject  was  treated  in  several  synods,  and 
Elipandus'  doctrine  was  finally  condemned 
at  Rome  in  800,  after  which  time  it  gradually 
disappeared.  F. 

Adoration  is  an  importation  from  the  East, 
where  it  is  indigenous,  and  applied  to  princes 
and  other  grandees  before  whom  inferiors 
bend  the  knee  and  touch  the  ground  with  their 
foreheads,  or  kiss  the  hem  of  their  garments, 
or  their  feet.  Alexander  the  Great  was  thus 
honored  by  the  conquered  Persians.  The  ori- 
ental custom  was  adopted  by  the  Roman  em- 
perors and  the  popes  since  the  9th  century, 
who  have  demanded  the  kissing  of  the  feet. 
From  private  life  the  forms  "of  ceremonial 
attention  were  taken  into  worship,  especial- 
ly hftfore  the  images  of  Christ  and  the  saints, 
and  the  honor  paid  to  these  was  repre- 
sented as  referred  to  the  objects  which  they 
represent.  The  Roman  Church  makes  a  dis- 
tinction between,  (1)  dulia,  "  the  secondary 
veneration  to  saints  and  angels  as  the  servants 
and  special  friends  of  God  ;"  (2)  hyperdulia, 
"  which  is  only  a  subdivision  of  dulia,  is  that 
higher  veneration  which  is  given  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  as  the  most  exalted  of  mere  creatures, 
though,  of  course,  infinitely  inferior  to  God, 
and  incomparably  inferior  to  Chi-ist  in  his  hu- 
man nature  ;"  and  (3)  latreia,  the  "  supreme 
worship  due  to  God  alone,  and  [which]  cannot 
be  transferred  to  any  creature  without  the 
horrible  sin  of  idolatry. "  Addis  and  Arnold. 
S.V.,  Gultiis.  Cf.  Tridentine  Canons  and  De- 
crees XXV.  Sess.  (Schaff,  Greeds,  pp.  199 sqq.). 
The  Adoration  of  the  Host— i.e.,  the  kneeling 
before  the  upraised  wafer  which  is  said  to 
have  been  transformed  into  the  body  of 
Christ— was  introduced  by  Pope  Honorius  III. 
(d.  1227).  Perpetual  Adoration  means  that  by 
arrangement  some  person  is  praying  in  the 
church  all  the  time. 


A-DRAMMELECH 


(11) 


ADVENTISTS 


Ad-ram' -me-lech{  glory  of  Melecli—i.e.,  Mo- 
loch). 1.  A  deity  worshipped  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Scpharvaim,  who  were  transported  to 
Samaria  by  the  king  of  Assyria  (3  Kings  xvii. 
31).  It  is  supposed  that  lie  represented  the 
sun,  while  Aii(iinin€lech{i\\tn\iio\xci\  in  the  same 
verse)  represented  the  moon  ;  and  both  wen; 
worshipped  by  the  .sacrifice  of  living  cliildren. 
2.  A  son  of  Sennacherib  who  conspired  with 
his  brother  Sharczer  to  kill  their  father,  which 
they  accomplished  while  he  was  in  the  act  of 
worship.  Afterward  they  escaped  to  Armenia, 
and  E.sar-Haddou  ascended  the  throne  (Isa. 
xxxvii.  38).  C. 

A-dri'-an,  or  Hadrian,  noted  popes  of  that 
name.  1.  Pope  772-795.  His  life  falls  with- 
in the  period  of  the  contest  with  the  Lombards 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Frankish  power 
in  Italy.  It  was  at  his  request  that  Charle- 
magne entered  Italy,  who,  after  conquering 
Desiderius,  entered  Rome,  and  in  774  renewed 
the  document  by  which  Pepin  had  given  the 
pope  the  rights  o'f  territorial  sovereignty  in  a 
portion  of  Italy.  The  pope's  relations  with 
the  Frankish  kings  did  not  remain  good,  and 
in  his  transactions  with  the  Eastern  Empire  and 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  lie  did  not  suc- 
ceed in  regaining  the  rights  he  claimed  in  Ca- 
labria, Sicily,  and  Illyria.  2.  Pope  867-872. 
Carried  the  struggle  with  Lothaire  II.  of 
France  to  an  unsatisfactory  close.  His  at- 
tempts to  mix  in  the  affairs  of  the  German 
Empire  resulted  only  in  humiliation,  and 
thvyugh  he  secured  from  the  Oecumenical 
Council  of  809  a  recognition  of  the  primacy 
of  the  pope,  he  saw  Bulgaria  taken  away  from 
him  by  the  same  council.  3.  (Agapetus),  the 
first  pope  to  change  his  came  on  his  election. 
Pope  884-885.  4.'"  Pope  1154-1159.  An  Eng- 
lishman, Nicholas  Breakspeare,  early  intrusted 
with  important  missions  for  the  papal  chair. 
Created  pope,  he  found  the  city  of  Rome 
under  the  control  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  (q.v.), 
■who  was  finally  overcome  only  with  the  help 
of  the  German  king  Friedrich  I.,  who  was 
promised  the  imperial  crown  for  this  service  ; 
but  the  pride  of  the  emperor  and  the  arro- 
gance of  the  iK)pe  soon  brought  these  allies 
into  conflict.  A  misunderstanding  as  to  a 
word  employed  by  the  pope  in  a  letter  nearly 
cau.sed  the  separation  of  the  German  from  tlie 
Roman  Church,  and  when  Friedrich  had  come 
to  Italy  and  established  the  imperial  power 
there,  the  contest  continued,  and  was  only 
prevented  from  taking  on  a  serious  cast  by  the 
death  of  the  pope.  (See  life  by  Richard  Knby, 
Loudon,  1849.)  5.  (Ottobono  Fieschi)  Pope 
1276.  6.  (Dedel?).  Pope  1522-1523;  b.  in 
Utrecht,  studied  tlieology  and  canon  law  as 
well  its  philosophy  at  Louvain.  He  made  him- 
self specially  versed  in  Thomas  Aquina.s  and 
Peter  Lombard.  Professor  at  Louvain,  he  ad- 
vanced rapidly  in  ecclesiastical  position,  l)c 
came  tutor  to  Charles,  afterward  the  emperor, 
in  1507.  and  in  1520.  after  having  become  a 
Spanish  bishop,  he  was  made  Itegcnt  of  Spain. 
Here  he  suffered  much  from  tJie  jealousy  of 
those  about  him.  and  when  transferred  to' the 
papal  chair  found  himself  again  among  un- 
friendly surroundings.  Tiiouah  he  had  pro- 
nounced against  Luther's  writings  and  did 


not  wish  to  effect  any  change  in  the  doctrine 
of  the  church,  he  was  gieeted  by  the  friends 
of  reform  with  anlic-ipations  of"  efficient  ser- 
vice ;  but  though  there  was  even  a  .'•mall 
party  in  the  college  of  cardinals  in  favor  of 
reform,  all  his  efforts  were  wrecked  by  the 
steady  opposition  of  his  advi.scrs.  He  coidd 
not  put  an  end  to  the  iibuse  of  indulgences  or 
to  marriage  dispensations,  since  to  do  the  one 
would  be  to  yield  to  the  demands  of  heretics, 
and  to  do  the  other  would  be  to  invalidate  the 
financial  promises  already  made  by  his  prede- 
cessor. When  he  addressed  the  Diet  at  Nu- 
remberg, in  1522,  against  the  Lutheran  heresy, 
his  confessions  of  the  need  of  reform  rendered 
his  exhortation.s  unavailing.  Even  Charles  did 
not  listen  to  his  former  teacher,  and  Hadrian 
died  without  effecting  anything,  yet  leaving 
the  example  of  a  pious  and'honest  man.     F. 

A-dul'-lam,  a  very  ancient  city  (Gcti.  xxxviii. 
1),  the  seat  of  one  "of  the  petty  kings  smitten 
hj  Joshua  (xii.  15),  famous  for  a  cave  in  its 
vicinity  in  which  David  took  refuge  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  1).  The  traditional  site  of  it  is  Khurei- 
tun,  about  6  m.  s.e.  of  Bethlehem,  but  modem 
geographers  put  it  on  a  wady  13  m.  west  of 
Bethlehem.  C. 

Adultery.    See  Marriage  and  Divorce. 

Advent,  the  time  of  the  approach  of  the  na- 
tivity of  Christ.  The  first  traces  of  the  cele- 
bration of  the  birthday  of  the  Christ  are  to  be 
found  about  the  year  360  in  the  Roman 
Church.  The  earlier  church  laid  so  much 
more  stress  upon  the  day  of  the  death  of  Chri.st 
than  upon  his  birth  that  the  latter  day  obtained 
recognition  only  slowly.  Since  March  25  (the 
spring  equinox)  was  taken  as  the  day  of  the 
creation,  and  so  of  the  Incarnation  also,  the 
natal  day  fell  \ipon  Dec.  25.  The  coincidence 
of  the  day  with  the  feast  of  the  sun  was  re- 
garded as  of  significance,  since  Chri.st  is  the 
Sun  of  Rightc'ousness.  The  heathen  customs 
of  giving  presents  to  children  upon  that  day 
easily  passed  over  into  the  church.  The 
period  of  "  Advent  "  is  now  ob.served  in  the 
Greek  Church  from  Nov.  1 1 ,  in  other  churches 
from  Nov.  30,  till  Christmas.  It  was  formerly 
observed  almost  as  strictly  as  Lent,  but  the 
rule  is  not  now  enforced.  F. 

Adventists.  They  arose  out  of  the  promul- 
gation by  Rev.  William  Miller  (q.v.)  and  his 
as.sociates  (a  minisfrv  numbering  700),  from 
1833  to  1844,  of  the  "belief  that  tiic  return  of 
Christ  is  personal,  desirable,  and  near  at  hand. 
They  accept  the  inspiration  of  the  .sacred 
scriptures  and  take  the  Bible  lus  their  creed, 
holding,  in  common  with  other  Christians,  to 
all  the  fundamental,  cardinal,  and  evangelical 
''octrines  of  the  Christian  system,  but  reject  a 
millennial  era  and  return  of  Israel  prior  to 
Christ's  advent.  The  promised  kingdom  is 
literal  and  future  ;  tlie  scheme  of  redemption 
includes  the  earth,  which,  refined  by  fire,  with 
the  holv  citv  Jeru.salem,  forms  the  elcrnal 
a»>ode  of  the'saved.  Tlu y  iR'lieve  in  the  evan- 
gelization but  not  in  the  conversion  of  the 
world  prior  to  the  end,  p\ibiish  over  50  i»erio<l- 
icals.  and  as  they  hold  that  fulfilled  prophecv 
points  to  the  spee<ly  end.  regard  their  work 
not  80  much  the  building  of  a  denominatioQ 


ADVENTIST9 


(13) 


ADVENTISTS 


as  giving  world-wide  warning  to  all  men. 
Our  Lord's  return,  and  not  death,  is  the  period 
of  full  reward  and  the  hope  of  the  church. 
They  are  congregational  in  government,  and 
all  are  immersionists. 

An  independent  and  undenominational 
Scriptural  Tract  Repository  exists  at  Boston. 
Mass.,  that  publishes  The  Christian,  month- 
ly circulation  25,000,  and  issues  adventual 
and  premillennial  literature  and  anti-infidel 
works. 

The  following  denominations  belong  under 
the  general  head  of  Adventists  by  reason  of 
their  essential  agreement  : 

I.  Evangelical  Adventists. 

The  original  body  who,  with  William  Mil- 
ler, adopted  the  Declaration  of  Principles  set 
forth  in  conference  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1845, 
and  in  1858  formed  the  American  Millennial 
Association  to  print  and  circulate  literature  on 
eschatology.  A  weekly  paper  called  The  Signs 
of  the  Times  was  established  in  1840,  by  Rev. 
j.  V.  Himes,  at  Boston,  Mass.  It  was  after- 
ward called  The  Advent  Herald,  now  Messiah's 
Herald.  It  is  the  oldest  premillennial  sheet  in 
America. 

Doctrine.— They  put  great  practical  and 
motive  value  upon  the  event  of  the  Lord's  re- 
turn, and  reject  a  previous  millennium  ;  the 
nearing  advent  should  be  proclaimed  far  and 
wide  to  all  men  ;  the  Israel  who  returns  is  the 
saved  Israel  and  true  heirs  with  resurrected 
Abraham  ;  the  saints  will  live  and  reign  on  a 
paradisiacal  earth.  They  differ  from  all  other 
Adventists  in  holding  to  the  consciousness  of 
the  de,ad  in  Hades  and  eternal  suffering  for  the 
lost ;  immoi-tality  is  a  higher  grade  of  life  in 
glory  conditioned  on  faith  in  Christ,  while  full 
rewards  and  punishments  are  only  bestowed 
at  the  judgment  day.  They  seek  to  indoc- 
trinate all  believers  with  the  importance  of 
sound  eschatological  views. 

Numbers.— They  are  found  in  most  of  the 
Northern  States  and  Canada  ;  have  about 
100  scattered  churches,  50  preachers,  and  5000 
members. 

Their  organ  is  Messiah's  Herald,  Boston, 
Mass. ;  weekly  issue,  3000. 

Literature.— H.  F.  Hill,  The  Saint's  Inher- 
itance, Boston,  1853  ;  D.  T.  Taylor,  The  Ileign 
of  Christ,  Peacedale,  R.  I.,  1855,  11th  1000 
(1889),  Boston  ;  JosiahLitch,  Discussion 07i  the 
Millennium,  Boston,  n.d.  (between  1860-65). 

II.  Advent  Christians. 

The  believers  took  this  name  in  1861,  when  a 
General  Association  was  formed.  They  have 
a  Publication  Society  at  Boston,  Mass.,  with 
an  invested  capital  of  $31,000  ;  organized  a 
Foreign  and  Home  Missionary  Society  in  1865, 
and  recently  a  Biblical  Institute  for  instruction 
in  revealed  theology,  the  method  at  present 
being  Chautauquan' 

Doctrine.— A  nearing  advent  and  holiness 
are  made  prominent  ;  the  Lord  comes  sudden- 
ly and  soon  ;  until  he  comes  the  dead  sleep  in 
unconscious  repose  ;  immortality,  not  now  in 
man.  is  conditioned  upon  receiving  Christ,  and 
bestowed  only  upon  the  holy  at  advent  and 
resurrection  ;  all  evil  souls  will  utterly  perish 


in  Gehenna  fire  ;  the  pure  will  live  endlessly. 
In  all  essentials,  they  believe  with  other  Chris- 
tians ;  make  much  of  Sunday-schools,  and  are 
free  and  simple  in  worship. 

Numbers. — No  thorough  census  has  ever 
been  made.  They  are  found  in  all  the  States, 
Canada,  England,  Ireland,  and  India.  Thirty 
conferences  include  400  preachers,  600  church- 
es, and  15,000  members,  with  as  many  more 
scattered  and  not  enrolled. 

Their  chief  organ  is  The  World's  Crisis, 
Boston,  Mass.,  established  1854 — weekly  issue, 
10,500  ;  Our  Hope,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  1889. 
At  Yarmouth,  Me.,  the  Scriptural  Publication 
Society  issues  tracts  in  15  languages.  The 
Advent  Christian  literature  includes  25  bound 
volumes  and  360  pamphlets  and  tracts. 

Literature.— J.  C.  Wellcome,  History  of  the 
Second  Advent  Message,  Yarmouth,  Me.,  1874  ; 
Charles  L.  Ives,  The  Bible  Doctrine  of  the  Soul, 
Philadelphia,  1877  ;  E.  A.  Stockman,  Our 
Hope,  Boston,  1884  ;  Mrs.  L.  C.  McKinstrey, 
The  World's  Oreat  Empires,  Haverhill,  Mass., 
1887. 

III.  Seventh-Day  Adventists, 

They  arose  in  1845,  established  at  Battle 
Creek,  Mich.,  a  paper.  Advent  Review  and  Sab- 
bath Herald,  in  1850,  a  publishing  association 
there  in  1860,  a  General  Annual  Conference 
having  an  executive  committee  of  seven  in  1862, 
founded  a  Health  Institute  and  journal  in  1866, 
an  Educational  Society  and  Foreign  Mission 
Board  in  1874,  and  have  numerous  auxiliary 
societies,  all  active. 

Doctrine. — The  seventh  day,  or  Saturday, 
is  Sabbatical  and  obligatory,  the  moral  law 
perpetual  ;  man  is  not  immortal,  the  dead 
sleep  in  unconsciousness,  the  unsaved  truly 
die  the  second  death.  They  practise  feet- 
washing  f  John  xiii.  4-17)  and  accept  the  gifts 
(2  Cor.  xii.,  Eph.  iv.).  The  two-horned  per- 
secuting beast  of  Rev.  xiii.  11  is  this  govern- 
ment ;  a  season  of  oppression  for  Sabbath- 
keepers  impends  ;  the  millennial  reign  which 
opens  with  Christ's  coming  is  not  on  earth, 
but  in  the  holy  city  in  the  skies  ;  the  world 
made  new  abides  forever.  The  tithing  sys- 
tem is  maintained,  and  great  attention  paid  to 
health,  temperance,  Sabbath-school,  and  mis- 
sion work. 

They  have  7  publishing-houses,  located  in 
America,  Europe,  and  Australia,  issue  36  pe- 
riodicals in  6  different  languages,  of  which  14 
are  in  the  United  States;  capital  invested,  $600,- 
000  ;  have  a  literature  of  77  bound  volumes, 
with  numerous  pamphlets  and  tracts.  Sani- 
tariums in  3  States  have  an  investment  of 
$325,000  ;  educational  institutions  in  6  States 
investing  |150,000.  Chief  denominational 
organ.  The  Advent  Review  and  Sabbath  Her- 
ald, Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  circulates  weekly 
9000. 

Numbers.— There  are  32  conferences,  901 
churches,  400  ministers,  a  total  enrolled  mem- 
bership of  26,112,  with  some  4000  scattered. 

Literature. — John  Nevins  Andrews,  His- 
tory of  the  Sabbath  and  First  Day,  Battle 
Creek,  1862,  2d  ed.  1873  ;  Mrs.  Ellen  G. 
White,  The  Oreat  Controversy,  1870  ;  Uriah 
Smith,  Thoughts  on  Daniel  and  iJte  Revelation, 
1882. 


ADVENT 


IV.  Church  of  God. 


(13) 


AFFECTIONS 


A  seceding  branch  of  the  Seventh-Day  Ad- 
ventists,  established  in  Missouri,  with  Stan- 
berry  as  a  centre,  1866  ;  reject  the  visions  and 
application  of  Rev.  xiii.  11-17  to  the  United 
States. 

Numbers. — Have  4  conferences  in  4  States, 
27  preachers,  30  churches,  and  2000  mem- 
bers. 

Their  organ  is  Advent  aiid  Sabbath  Advocate, 
Stanberry,  Mo.,  established  1866;  issues  600 
copies. 

Literature. — A.  F.  Dugger,  Bible  Sabbath 
Defended,  Marion,  la.,  1881  ;  Jacob  Brinker- 
hoff.  Kingdom  of  Heaven  Uiion  Earth,  1882  ; 
W.  C.  Long,  The  End  of  the  Ungodly,  1886. 

V.  Life  and  Advent  Union. 

Believers  were  found  in  1848,  the  Union 
•was  formed  in  New  York  city,  and  an  organ, 
The  Herald  of  Life,  established  there  in  1864. 

Doctrine.  — Utter  death  is  the  destiny  of 
mortal  man,  who,  if  out  of  Christ,  rises  not 
from  the  grave,  being  adjudged  to  a  sleep 
eternal  ;  the  dead  in  Christ  will  rise  to  im- 
mortalit}'. 

Numbers.— In  America  and  Great  Britain 
there  are  estimated  to  be  50  preachers  and  5000 
members. 

Their  organ  is  The  Herald  of  Life,  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  established  1864  ; 'circulates  1000 
copies. 

Literature.— O.  S.  Halsted,  The  Theology 
of  the  Bible,  Newark,  N.  J.,  1860  ;  Discussion 
between  Miles  G-rant  and  J.  T.  Cun-y,  Boston, 
1863. 

VI.  Age-to-Come  Adventists. 

A  branch  of  the  school  of  Millennarians  ; 
established  a  weekly,  The  Restitution,  in  1851, 
but  although  individual  believers  existed  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  they  were  not  or- 
ganized until  in  1888  delegates  from  13  States 
met  in  Philadelphia,  and  formed  a  union 
known  as  the  General  Conference  of  Churches 
of  God,  with  various  auxiliary  societies. 

Doctrine. — Man  is  mortal ;  the  life  eternal 
is  alone  for  the  good  ;  the  unsaved  will  truly 
and  forever  die.  The  millennium,  which  begins 
at  Christ's  advent,  is  a  probationary  and  mixed 
age  ;  the  Jews  receive  Jesus  as  the  true  Mes- 
siah, are  given  the  Holy  Land,  establi.sh  Jeru- 
salem, and  become  the  head  of  the  nations  ; 
evil  kingdoms  perish,  but  all  the  uncvangcl- 
ized  will  be  offered  salvation  during  the  1000 
years. 

Numbers. — They  are  found  in  25  States  and 
Canada,  with  some  50  churches,  40  preachers, 
and  4000  members. 

Their  organs  are  :  The  Restitution,  Plym- 
outh, Ind. ,  circulation  1000  ;  The  Rock,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y..  3000  ;  Words  of  Cluer,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  6000. 

Literature.— J.  P.  Weethee,  The  Coming 
Age,  Chicago,  111.,  1884  ;  Wiley  Jones,  Thana- 
topifis,  Norfolk,  Va.,  1881.        D.  T.  Taylor. 

Advent  Christians.    See  Adventists. 

Advocate  ot  the  Church,  a  secular  person 
intrustfd  with  the  external  protection  of  the 
church  or  of  an  ecclcsiastirul  institution.  The 
office  sprung  out  of  the  ancient  idea  of  tlie 
German  law'that  only  those  who  were  capable 


of  bearing  arms  could  appear  in  their  own 
name  before  the  courts.  The  clergy  were  in- 
capable of  bearing  arms,  and  were  therefore 
reckoned  among  those  needing  an  advocate. 
At  first  such  an  officer  was  appointed  by  the 
founder  of  a  church  or  other  foundation,  or 
the  king  as  head  of  the  state  appointed  him. 
Later,  on  account  of  the  conflict  of  interests 
which  might  arise  between  the  advocate  and 
the  church,  the  right  of  nomination  Avas  given 
to  the  latter.  But  the  advocates  continued  to 
use  their  office  for  their  own  advantage  and  to 
infringe  upon  the  rights  of  the  church,  so  that 
the  institution  was  an  injury  rather  than  an 
advantage,  till  about  1200  it  was  largely  mod- 
ified. F. 

Advocatus  Dei,  Diaboli,  officers  appointed 
when  investigations  preparatory  to  the  canon- 
ization of  saints  in  the  Roman  Church  are 
made,  the  latter  to  bring  arguments  why  the 
person  in  question  should  not  be  canonized, 
the  former  to  defend  him.  F. 

Advowson,  the  right  of  presentation  to  a 
church  or  ecclesiastical  benefice  in  England. 
Advowsons  are  either  presentative,  where  the 
patron  presents  his  clerk  to  the  bishop  or  or- 
dinarj^  and  may  demand  that  he  be  instituted 
if  found  canonically  (jualified  ;  or  collatire, 
where  the  bishop  and  patron  are  one  and  the 
same  person,  and  the  ordinary  collates  or  in- 
stitutes directly  ;  or  d^natire'v,-\\QTC  the  bene- 
fice is  under  the  control  of  its  founder,  who 
can  put  the  clerk  in  possession  without  insti- 
tution or  examination  by  the  ordinary.     C. 

JB-gid'-i-us,  St.  (commemorated  Sept.  1), 
Benedictine  ;  b.  about  640,  at  Athens,  of  noble 
parents ;  lived  as  hermit  near  Nisnies,  nourish- 
ed by  a  hind,  until  the  Visigothic  king,  hunt- 
ing, discovered  him,  and  becoming  famous 
he  established  the  monaster}'  of  St.  Giles  on 
the  spot  where  he  had  lived  alone.  He  is  the 
patron  of  cripples,  and  is  identical  with  St. 
Giles. 

Slon  {age),  the  life  or  duration  of  anything 
or  person.  In  Gnostic  use  the  name  of  the 
spiritual  beings  who  emanated  from  the  Su- 
preme Being.     See  Gnosticism. 

JE-pi'-nus  (family  name  Hxck),  Johann, 
author  of  the  ^Epinian  ('out rove rs >/ ;  h.  at 
Ziesegar,  Brandenburg,  1499  ;  d.  at  Ilamburg, 
1553.  He  embraced  the  Reformation,  Wcame 
superintendent  at  Hamburg,  1532,  and  had  a 
controversy  with  liis  colleague,  Garcaus,  over 
the  question  whether  Christ's  descent  into  hell 
is  to  be  reckoned  an  part  of  his  humiliation  (ho 
^Epinus)  or  exaltation.  GarcJlus  and  his  fol- 
lowers were  driven  out  of  the  city. 

A-e'-ri-us  and  the  A§rians.  Ar-rius.  a  pres- 
byter at  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  opi)osed,  about 
the  year  360,  the  prevailing  conception  in  tlie 
church  of  justification  bv  works.  He  disiip- 
proved  prayers  anfl  oblations  for  the  dead  and 
compulsorv  fasting,  and  cfindimiud  tlie  dis- 
tinction inVank  between  bislinps  «ik1  priests. 
Persecuted  and  driven  out  fmni  llif  cliun-h,  he 
and  his  followers  resorted  to  the  eaves  »nd 
fastnesses  of  the  forests.  F. 

A-e'-tius,  Aetians.     See  Anrus. 

Affections  arc  (iistinguislud  from  appetites 
and  desires  in  that  they  go  out  toward  other 


i 


AFFUSION 


(14) 


AGNSS 


sensiti^^e  beings  and  inlluence  our  conduct 
toward  them.  They  are  the  springs  of  action, 
but  have  no  self-i-egulating  power,  and  need  to 
be  controlled  by  reason  and  conscience.  When 
thus  controlled  they  are  the  life  and  power  of 
religion— that  is,  -when  they  are  fixed  upon 
the  appropriate  objects,  and  in  the  right  de- 
gree, and  with  such  constancy  as  to  become 
spontaneous.  The  chief  duty  of  a  Christian 
is  to  cultivate  holy  affections,  so  that  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  they  shall  intui- 
tively spring  forth  as  the  free,  unbidden  effu- 
sions of  the  soul.  C. 

Aflfusion.     See  Baptism. 

Africa,  Church  of,  founded  early  in  the  2d 
century.  Its  chief  city  was  Carthage,  where 
Cyprian  was  bishop.  The  church  grew  rap- 
idly, and  in  258  a  synod  was  assembled  of  HI 
bishops.  Its  end  came  with  the  conquest  by 
the  Vandals,  at  the  same  time  that  it  lost  its 
greatest  man,  Augustine,  in  430.  But  mean- 
time it  had  wrought  a  great  work  for  the 
church.  Here  the  Latin  language  was  first 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  church  by 
Tertullian.  Cyprian  was  a  great  organizer 
and  a  great  defender  of  the  equality  of  all 
bishops,  as  well  as  a  martyr.  The  oldest  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  Latin  was  probably 
made  in  Africa.  Minucius  Felix  and  Arno- 
bius  were  Africans.  And  Augustine  was  born 
here,  and  here  after  his  conversion  he  lived 
and  performed  his  great  and  enduring  labors. 
Here,  too,  some  of  the  great  controversies  of 
the  church  were  held,  as  that  with  the  Do- 
natists  (q.v.),  and  particularly  that  with  the 
Pelagians  (q.v.).  (See  Julian  Lloyd,  TJie 
North  Africa  Church,  London,  1880.)        F. 

African  M.  E.  Church.  African  M.  E. 
Zion  Church.     See  Methodists. 

Africanus.     See  Julius  Africanus. 

Ag'-a-pe  (love-feast),  a  meal  held  by  the 
early  Christians  as  an  expression  of  their  love 
one  for  another.  It  was  a  substantial  meal, 
and  was  often  made  the  occasion  of  providing 
the  poor  with  the  supply  of  their  daily  wants. 
It  was  connected  at  first,  even  in  the  apostolic 
times,  with  the  observance  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per (1  Cor.  xi.  20,  21),  and  was  often  the  scene 
of  disorder.  Hence,  as  early  as  the  beginning 
of  the  2d  century  the  two  services  were  sepa- 
rated, and  the  love-feasts  often  held  in  private 
houses.  Yet  the  observances  in  different 
lands  were  quite  diverse.  The  persecutions, 
which  rendered  the  holding  of  so  long  services 
difficult,  also  had  something  to  do  with  the 
separation  of  the  love-feasts  from  the  supper. 
Yet  in  Africa  the  connection  of  the  two  was 
maintained  for  a  long  time.  But  finally  the 
love-feasts  were  gradually  disused,  and  by  the 
beginning  of  the  8th  century  seem  to  have  dis- 
appeared. The  Moravians  and  Methodists 
hold  what  they  call  "love-feasts,"  which  are 
religious  meetings,  in  which  bread  and  water 
are  distributed.  F. 

_  Ag-a-pe'-ti,  Ag-a-pe'-tae  [beloved),  "  respec- 
tively, men  who  dwelt  in  the  same  house 
with  deaconesses,  and  virgins  who  dwelt  in 
the  same  house  with  monks,  under  a  pro- 
fession of  merely  spiritual  love, "     Smith  and 


Cheetham,  s.v.  The  scandal  was  repeatedly 
condemned  by  church  fathers  and  councils. 

Ag-a-pe'-tus.  1.  Pope  535-536.  He  was 
sent  by  the  Ostrogothic  king  to  Constantino- 
ple to  procure  peace  with  the  empire  in  536. 
In  this  errand  he  was  not  successful,  but  ac- 
complished what  was  probably  nearer  his 
heart,  the  removal  of  the  patriarch  Anthimus 
from  his  episcopal  olfice.  Agapetus  persuaded 
the  emperor  that  Anthimus  had  deceived  him, 
and  that  the  theory  of  Monophysitism  which 
he  held  was  a  heresy.  Mennas  was  put  in  liis 
place  and  consecrated  by  the  pope.  The  em- 
peror was  also  led  to  give  Agapetus  a  confes- 
sion of  his  own  faith,  which  the  pope  ap- 
proved. In  the  midst  of  these  triumphs,  how- 
ever, he  died  at  Constantinople.  2.  Pope  946- 
955.  Involved  in  the  political  affairs  specially 
of  France  and  Germany.  F. 

Ag'-a-tha,  St.,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Church 
whose  very  historical  existence  is  a  matter  of 
great  doubt.  She  is  particularly  venerated  in 
Sicily  and  South  Italy.  Her  day  is  set  on 
Feb.  5.  F. 

Ag'-a-tho.  Pope,  678-682.  He  is  particu- 
larly known  for  his  part  in  the  settlement  of 
the  Monothelitic  controversy.  He  first  ob- 
tained for  himself  a  large  support  in  the  West 
by  means  of  a  number  of  local  councils,  and 
then  sent  in  680  a  deputation  to  Constantinople 
with  a  letter  preparing  the  way  for  a  decision. 
In  spite  of  all  attempts,  on  the  part  of  Eastern 
bishops,  to  prevent  the  condemnation  of  their 
doctrine,  it  was  finally  condemned,  but  in  the 
list  of  heretical  patriarchs  was  included  that 
of  the  Roman  bishop,  Honorius.  F. 

Agbar.     See  Aboar. 

Age,  Canonical.  According  to  the  Council 
of  Trent,  no  one  can  receive  the  tonsure  under 
7,  nor  can  be  ordained  under  22  as  sub-dea- 
con, under  23  deacon,  under  25  priest, 
under  30  bishop.  In  the  Church  of  England 
a  deacon  must  be  23,  a  priest  24,  and  a  bishop 
30.  In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  a  priest 
must  be  21.  In  the  Greek  Church  a  deacon 
must  be  25,  a  priest  30,  and  a  bishop  above  30. 

Agenda  is  in  common  use  among  divines 
and  philosophers  to  signify  the  duties  a  man  is 
to  perform  in  contrast  with  the  credendn,  the 
things  he  is  to  believe.  Anciently,  the  term 
denoted  both  the  mass  and  other  parts  of  di- 
vine service.  Thus  it  was  applied  to  the 
morning  and  evening  prayers,  to  the  office  for 
any  particular  day,  and  to  the  service  for  the 
dead.  Afterward  it  was  given  to  the  book 
that  prescribed  the  order  of  worship  (now  sup- 
planted in  the  Roman  Church  by  the  term  rit- 
ual), and  in  that  sense  passed  into  the  Luther- 
an Church,  where  it  is  still  used  to  designate 
the  service-book  for  the  guidance  of  ministers 
in  their  ecclesiastical  functions.  C. 

Age-to-come     Adventists.      See    Adven- 

TISTS. 

Ag'-nes,  St.,  a  martyr  beheaded  in  the  per- 
secution of  Diocletian,  about  304.  The  legend 
is  that  having  early  taken  the  vow^  of  perpet- 
ual chastity,  she  refused  the  suit  of  the  sou  of 
the  city  prefect  of  Rome.  To  break  down  her 
opposition,  she  was  carried  into  a  brothel  and 
stripped  of  her  clothing,  when  her  hair  mirac- 


AGNOET^ 


(15) 


AGRICULTURE 


•ulously  grew  and  covered  her  nakedness,  and 
a  heavenly  garment  of  so  brilliant  glory  was 
given  her  that  the  eyes  of  those  wlio  beheld 
were  blinded.  Condemned  to  the  tlames  as  a 
sorceress,  the  tire  had  no  power  to  touch  her. 
Her  day  is  Jan.  21.  F. 

Agno&tae  (from  verb  "to  be  ignorant"). 
1.  Followers  of  the  Monophysitic  Themistius, 
deacon  of  Alexandria  (middle  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury), who  taught  that  Jesus  in  the  days  of  his 
flesh  was  ignorant  of  many  things  (cf.  Mark 
xiii.  33).  The  theory  was  revived  in  the  8th 
centarj^  by  the  Adoptionists.  2.  Followers  of 
the  Ariaii  Theophronius  of  Cappadocia  (fl. 
370),  who  taught  that  God  knew  the  past  by 
memory  and  the  future  only  by  uncertain 
prescience. 

Agnosticism,  a  term  derived  from  the  Greek 
nf/nostos  ("unknowing"),  is  of  recent  ori- 
gin, having  been  suggested  by  Professor  Hux- 
ley, in  18(i9,  as  an  appropriate  designation  of 
the  theological  views  of  him  and  Ids  associates. 
It  diifers  from  absolute  scepticism  in  that, 
while  the  latter  denies  all  truth,  the  other  says 
that  truth  cannot  be  found,  especially  in  plii- 
losopliy  and  religion.  The  agnostic  neither 
denies  nor  affirms.  He  says  that  there  are 
matters  pertaining  to  religion  Avhich  we  not 
only  do  not  know  but  have  no  means  of  know- 
ing, that  the  existence  of  any  person  or  thing 
beyond  and  behind  material  phenomena  is  un- 
known, and  with  our  present  faculties  never 
can  be  known.  He  maintains  that  he  is  not 
an  atheist,  for  he  saJ^s  he  does  not  and  cannot 
know  enough  to  enable  him  to  deny  the  exist- 
ence of  a  God.  The  seeming  modesty  of  this 
position  makes  it  attractive  to  the  immature 
and  unthinking,  yet  it  is  open  to  the  most  se- 
rious objections.  It  is  grossly  inconsistent. 
The  agnostic  begins  by  a  confession  of  igno- 
rance, and  then  proceeds  to  make  an  assertion 
that  implies  the  possession  of  universal  knowl- 
edge, for  he  assumes  to  say  what  will  be  the 
extent  of  man's  knowledge  in  the  future,  yet 
what  we  cannot  discover  our  successors  may. 
Moreover,  to  say  that  God  is  unknowable  is 
to  say  that  the  Creator  cannot  make  himself 
intelligible  to  his  creatures,  and  he  who  thus 
limits  the  Intinite  implies  that  he  himself  is 
possessed  of  ab.solute  knowledge.  So  that  far 
from  Agnosticism  being  modest,  it  is  really 
the  most  arrogant  form  of  Gnosticism.  It  de- 
nies ultimate  and  .self-evident  principles,  such 
as  the  relation  of  cause  and  ellect,  the  differ- 
ence between  right  and  wrong,  the  freedom  of 
man,  the  sense  of  responsibility,  etc.  These 
are  tirst  truths,  and  therefore  tJie  most  certain 
of  all  truths,  because  not  depending  upon  ar- 
gument, but  themselves  the  necessary  prem- 
ises of  all  argvunent,  shining,  like  the  .sun,  by 
their  own  light.  It  paralyzes  faith  and  hope, 
the  mainsprings  of  human  activity  ;  for  if 
men  know  notliing  of  a  divine  ruler  or  a  fu- 
ture state,  they  have  no  guarantee  of  (he  stabil- 
ity of  nature's  laws,  no  foundation  of  human 
right,  no  supreme  being  in  whom  to  (ru.st,  no 
hereafter  where  the  wrongs  of  the  pre-scntwill 
be  righted,  but  are  .simply  drifting  upon  a 
dreary  and  shorele-ss  ocean. 

It  destroys  religion,  which  is  communion 
with  a  personal  God,  and  introduces  the  reign 


of  despair.  Pessimisjn  is  the  natural  result  of 
Agnosticism,  of  which  Carlyle  said  that  it  look- 
ed like  tine  flour  which  would  make  excellent 
bread,  but  if  one  fed  \ipon  it  he  found  it  to  b(; 
powdered  glass  and  a  deadly  poison.  [See 
G hnstianity  and  Aqiwsticism — n  Controrcrtty 
(various  papers  by  Huxley,  Waco  and  others), 
London  and  New  York,  1889.]  C. 

Ag'-nus  Dei  {Lamb  of  God),  a  senten(;{!  based 
upon  John  i.  29,  introduced  into  the  Roman 
liturgy  about  the  year  G80.  It  appears  sub- 
stantially, in  its  fullest  Roman  form,  in  the 
English  liturgy,  in  the  "  Gloria  in  Excdsis,"  in 
the  second  sentence  :  "  O  Lord,  the  only  be- 
gotten Son,  Jesus  Christ,"  etc.  In  requiem 
masses  the  form  is  somewhat  changed,  and  for 
the  phrase,  "  Have  raercj^upon  us,"  is  substi- 
tuted, "  Give  them  (eternal)  rest."  F. 

Ag'-o-bard,  b.  in  Spain,  779  ;  became  arch- 
bishop of  Lyons,  814  ;  d.  at  Saintonge,  June 
6,  840.  He  was  engaged  in  the  manifold  lit- 
erary, theological,  and  political  movements  of 
his  time.  He  opposed  ordeals,  and  in  theol- 
ogy the  Adoptionists  and  the  doctrine  of  ver- 
bal inspiration.  (See  his  works  in  Migne,  Pat. 
Lat.  CIV.)  F. 

Agonistici  {avengers),  Donatist  fanatics  in 
Africa  in  the  4th  century,  who,  as  ascetics, 
went  around  in  gangs  bogging,  and  where 
they  were  refused  got  what  thej'  wanted  by 
robbery  and  murder.  Also  called  Gircuvi- 
celliones. 

Agostino  da  Montefeltro,  Roman  Catholic 
"padre;"  b.  in  Italy  about  1840;  entered  a 
Franciscan  monastery  about  1865,  in  consc 
quence,  it  is  generally  supposed,  of  his  mur- 
der in  self-defence  of  the  brother  of  his  hc- 
trothed  ;  emerged  as  a  preachiu''  friar  after  a 
silence  of  20  years,  and  preached  tirst  at  Bo- 
logna, later  at  Florence  and  Rome,  everywhere 
hailed  as  the  "modern  Savonarola."  HLs 
sermons  are  reported  in  the  Italian  newspa- 
pers, and  nianv  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish (London  and  New  York,  1888-89,  2  .series). 

Ag-re(ray)-da,  Maria  [Coronel]  de,  Roman 
Catholic  ;  b.  at  A:;rcila,  Spain.  1602  ;  bicamc 
si.ster  superior  of  tiie  Franciscan  convent  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  of  Mary  there  ;  d. 
there,  1665.  Her  MlMica  Giudad  di  Dios  (Per- 
pignan  [France],  1690,  4  vols.;  Antwerp,  1692. 
3  vols.;  French  trans.,  Brussels.  1729;  Ger- 
man, Augsburg,  1768 ;  Regensl)urg,  1853). 
after  being  called  inspired  by  the  Franciscans, 
was  condenmcd  as  dangerous  by  the  Sorbonue 
and  the  Inquisition,  but  allowed  by  the  con- 
gregation of  the  Index  in  1729,  and  declared 
by  Pope  Benedict  XHI.  and  his  successors 
correct  in  teaching. 

Agriculture  among  the  Hebrews  was  the 
basis  of  the  commonwraltli.  K.icii  family  had 
its  own  piece  of  irround,  whi(  h  could  not  be 
alienated,  save  for  a  limited  period.  The  <hicf 
dependence  for  moi.sture  was  the  dow  and  the 
drenching  showers  of  the  rainy  season.  The 
"  earlv  rain"  usuallv  be<ran  in  the  latlrr  i)art 
of  Tishri  (September  to  October),  or  soon  afler 
the  close  of  tlie  fruit  harvest  ;  the  ■'  latter 
rain"  in  Nisan  (March  to  April),  just  Ixforo 
the  barlev  harvest  wa.s  gathered.  Th.-  lulls 
were  terra'ccd  and  made  productive  ;  to  prevent 


AGRIPPA 


(16) 


AHIMELECH 


the  soil  from  being  exhausted,  the  people  were 
enjoiuerl  to  let  it  lie  fallow  every  seventh 
year.  The  harvest  was  proverbially  a  season 
of  joy.  Grain  was  usually  cut  with  a  sickle, 
and  the  gleanings  were  left  as  a  portion  for 
the  poor  and  the  stranger.  Tlireshing  was 
generally  carried  on  in  the  open  air.  Either 
tiie  grain  was  beaten  out  by  flails,  or  cattle 
were  driven  over  the  straw,  or,  in  later  times, 
the  threshing-sledge  was  used.  Winnowing 
was  done  by  tossing  the  heap  in  the  air  to 
separate  the  grain  from  the  chaff.  There 
were  no  fences,  but  the  boundaries  were  de- 
noted by  stones  as  landmarks,  the  removal  '■,f 
which  was  deemed  a  heinous  wrong.  The 
grape  and  the  olive  were  cultivated  all  over 
the  laud.  The  former  besides  the  use  of  it 
when  green,  was  either  dried  into  cakes  or 
made  into  wine,  Avhich  was  enclosed  in  bottles 
or  bags  made  from  the  skins  of  animals,  usu- 
ally the  goat.  The  latter,  a  long-lived  tree, 
furnished  food  both  when  fresh  and  when 
pickled,  and  also  when  crushed  produced  an 
oil  which  was  used  for  anointing,  for  food, 
and  for  illumination.  The  number  and  vari- 
ety of  the  illustrations  from  agricultural  life 
found  in  the  Bible  indicate  clearly  how  prom- 
inent was  this  characteristic  of  the  people. 
Isaiah  teaches  at  length  (xxviii.  23-29)  that  as 
surely  as  the  ploughman  is  not  content  simply 
to  plough,  so  Jehovah  will  not  be  satisfied 
with  the  beginnings  of  spiritual  husbandry  in 
connection  with  Israel.  C. 

A-grip'-pa,  name  of  two  of  the  Herodian 
family.  1.  A  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great, 
was  raised  by  Caligula  from  a  prison  to  a 
throne,  and  ultimately  became  king  of  all 
Palestine.  He  affected  to  be  a  Pharisee,  and 
to  please  the  Jews  beheaded  James,  and  threw 
Peter  into  prison,  whence  he  was  by  miracle 
delivered.  But  the  king  shortly  afterward 
died  a  miserable  death  (^Acts  xii.  1  sqq.,  20 
sqq.).  2.  A  son  of  the  former,  and  several 
years  after  his  father's  death  was  made  tetrarch 
of  northern  Palestine  with  the  title  of  king. 
It  was  before  him  Paul  made  his  famous 
defence  (Acts  xxvi.),  and  extorted  the  well- 
known  words,  "  With  but  little  persuasion 
thou  wouldest  fain  make  me  a  Christian." 
After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  he  retired  to  Jeru- 
salem, where  he  died  about  100  a.d.,  the  last 
of  the  race  of  Herod  commemorated  in  his- 
tory. C. 

Aguirre  (a-ger-ra),  Joseph  Saenz,  b.  at 
Logrogno,  Spain  ;  became  Benedictine,  and 
cardinal,  1686,  famous  for  his  Qiiatuor  proposi- 
tiones  cleri gallicani {i.e. ,  the  so-called  Gallican 
church  pri  vileges)  ;  wrote  also  Collectio  ma.v- 
iimt  conciliorum  omnium  IJispanim  et  iwvi 
ovbis  cum  notis  et  dissertationibus,  Rome,  1693  ; 
d.  in  Rome,  Aug   19,  1699. 

A'-hab  ( fatJier's  brother),  son  of  Omri,  was 
the  seventh  king  of  Israel  (1  Kings  xvi.  29). 
He  married  Jezebel,  daughter  of  the  king  of 
Tyre,  through  whose  intiuence  he  added  fear- 
fully to  the  sin  of  worshipping  the  golden 
calves  set  up  by  Jeroboam,  by  building  a  tem- 
ple to  Baal,  and  thus  effecting  a  total  apos- 
tasy from  Jehovah.  Jezebel  maintained  400 
prophets  of  Ashtaroth  (Astarte).  In  conse- 
quence God  sent  a  fearful  drought  of  three 


years,  which  was  announced  by  Elijah,  and 
again  terminated  by  him  after  the  conflicting 
claims  of  Jehovah  and  Baal  had  been  decided 
by  the  tire  from  heaven  at  Carmel.  Ahab 
had  a  taste  for  architecture,  and  his  desire  to 
enlarge  his  palace  at  Jezreel  led  to  the  crime 
against  Naboth,  which  drew  from  the  prophet 
a  dreadful  curse,  but  the  king's  remorse  and 
self-humiliation  secured  a  postponement  of 
the  sentence.  Ahab  made  three  campaigns 
against  Syria,  two  of  them  defensive,  in  which 
he  was  successful,  but  the  third,  in  which  he 
joined  with  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  cost 
him  his  life.  And  all  his  children  died  vio- 
lent deaths. — There  was  a  false  pronhet  of  the 
same  name  who  deceived  the  captive  Jews  in 
Babylon,  and  was  burned  by  order  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar (Jer.  xxix.  22).  C. 

A-has-u-e'-rus  (not  a  proper  name,  but  a  ti- 
tle). 1.  The  Astyages  of  profane  history, 
mentioned  in  Dan.  ix.  1,  as  the  father  of 
Darius  the  Median.  2.  The  sou  of  Cyrus, 
probably  Cambyses,  who  came  to  the  throne 
B.C.  529  (Ezra  iv.  6).  3.  The  husband  of 
Esther,  usuall}'  supposed  to  be  Xerxes,  son  of 
Darius  Hystaspes,  with  whose  cruel  and  ca- 
pricious character  as  given  by  the  Greek  wri- 
ters the  accounts  given  in  the  book  of  Esther 
seem  to  tally.  4.  A  fourth  king  of  the  same 
name  is  mentioned  in  the  apocryphal  book 
of  Tobit.  C. 

A'-haz  (possessor),  the  eleventh  kins;  of  Ju- 
dah, a  weak  and  wicked  man  who  reigned  16 
years  (2  Kings  xvi.  2).  He  consulted  necro- 
mancers, made  his  son  pass  through  the  tire 
to  Moloch,  set  up  chariot  horses  dedicated  to 
the  sun,  and  remodelled  the  temple  for  idola- 
trous rites.  Disasters  came  upon  the  kingdom 
in  consequence,  but  these  only  made  him  tres- 
pass the  more,  and  when  offered  a  miraculous 
sign  he  hypocritically  refused  to  "  tempt  the 
Lord,"  whereupon  came  the  promise  of  the 
virgin-born,  Immanuel.  Israel  and  Syria  con- 
federated to  attack  Judah,  but  through 
Isaiah's  zeal  and  energy  were  defeated  at  Je- 
rusalem, though  successful  elsewhere.  Ahaz 
sought  aid  from  the  Assyrian  king,  but  though 
he  paid  a  large  price,  was  distressed  ratlier  than 
strengthened  by  him.  The  warnings  of  Ho- 
sea,  Isaiah,  and  Micah  had  no  effect  on  him, 
and  when  he  died  he  was  refused  a  burial  ia 
the  royal  sepulchre  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  27).   C. 

A-ha-zi' -ah  (Jah- held).  1.  The  eighth  king 
of  Israel,  the  son  of  Ahab,  who.se  conduct  he 
imitated  (1  Kings  xxii.  40).  He  sought  in 
union  with  Jehoshaphat  to  renew  the  gold 
trade  with  Ophir,  but  the  ships  were  Avrecked 
at  the  start.  When  injured  bj-  a  fall  he  sent 
to  inquire  the  issue  from  Baal-zebub,  but  Eli- 
jah rebuked  the  messengers,  and  declared  that 
the  king  would  die,  which  speedily  came  to 
pass  (2  kings  i.  17,  18).  2.  Fifth  king  of  Ju- 
dah (3  Kings  viii.  25)  called  also  Azariah 
(2  Chron.  xxii.  6),  and  Jehoahaz  (2  Chron.  xxi. 
17),  who  continued  the  idolatry  of  his  maternal 
grandfather  Ahab,  and  was  controlled  by  his 
mother  Athaliah.  His  reign  lasted  only  one 
year.  C. 

A-him'-e-lech  (king's  brother).  1.  A  priest 
at  Nob,  who  gave  David  some  of  the  shew- 


AHITHOPREL 


(17) 


ALBER 


bread  and  the  sword  of  Goliath  when  he  fled 
from  8aul,  aud  in  consequence  was  slain  at 
Doei:!:'s  instigation  (1  Sam.  xxi.,  xxii.).  2.  A 
Hittit«  who  was  one  of  David's  followers  in 
llu;  wilderness  of  Zaph  (2  Sam,  xxvi.  6).    C. 

A-hith'-o-phel  (brother  vffmlifihiies.^),  a  wise 
counsellor  aud  friend  of  David,  regarded  by 
all  as  an  oracle  He  joined  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Absalom,  but  his  shrewd  advice  was  de- 
feated by  the  counsel  of  Hushai,  whereupon, 
foreseeing  failure,  he  deliberately  took  his  own 
life  (2  Sam.  xvi  ,  xvii.). 

Ahlfeld,  Johann  Friedrich,  D.D.,  Luther- 
an, b.  atMehringen,  Anhalt.  Nov.  1, 1810  ;  d.  at 
Leipzig,  March"4,  1884.  He  studied  at  Halle, 
183(3-33  ;  became  gymnasial  teacher  at  Zerl)st, 
1834  ;  rector  of  the  city  school  in  Wtirlitz, 
1837  ;  there  converted  he  became  successively 
pastor  at  Alsleben,  1838,  at  Halle,  1847,  and  at 
Leipzig,  1851.  His  reputation  as  preacher  and 
pastorVas  that  of  one  of  the  be.st  men  in  the 
Lutheran  pulpit.  He  published  several  vol- 
umes of  his  sermons,  which  had  a  large  sale. 
Cf.  his  Lebensbild,  Halle,  1885. 

Aidan  (5 -dan),  Celtic  apostle  of  Northum- 
bria  and  first  bishop  of  Lindisfarne  ;  was  monk 
at  H}"  or  lona,  until  consecrated  bishop,  635  ; 
very  successful  in  spreading  Christianity, 
mainly  by  reason  of  the  purity  and  kindliness 
of  his  own  life  ;  built  a  monastery  on  the  island 
of  Lindisfarne  ;  d.  at  Bamborough,  opposite, 
Aug.  31,  651.  (See  life  by  A.  C.  Fryer,  Lon- 
don, 1884.) 

Ailli  (al'-ve),  Pierre  d',  b.  in  North  France 
in  1350  ;  d.  at  Avignon,  Aug.  9,  1420.  He  was 
a  student  in  Paris,  began  to  lecture  there 
in  1375,  aud  became  doctor  aud  professor 
of  theology  in  1380.  His  waitings  at  this 
time  deal  with  the  schisnr  of  the  church,  and 
declare  that  the  constitutive  quality  of  the 
church  is  not  its  relation  to  Peter  or  to  the 
canon  law,  but  to  Christ  and  the  Scriptures. 
He  objected  also  to  the  doctrine  of  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  pcpe,  and  voiced  the  demand  of 
the  University  party  for  a  general  council  ; 
and  thus  we  have  af  the  beginning  of  his  ca- 
reer those  lines  of  conduct  suggested  which  he 
pursued  to  its  close.  He  was  advanced  to  one 
position  in  the  university  and  the  court  after 
another,  till  tinally,  in  1397,  Benedict  XHL 
made  him  archbishop  of  Cambrai.  He  exerted 
his  influence  to  persuade  the  pope  to  abdica- 
tion, but  in  vain.  He  tinally  saw  that  a  gen- 
eral council  was  the  only  means  of  help,  and 
yet  foresaw  the  danger  which  actually  resulted 
at  Pisa  in  the  creation  of  three  popes,  unless 
the  general  consent  of  Christendom  could  be 
first  obtained.  ]\Iade  cardinal  (1411)  by  John 
XXHL,  he  was  not  diverted  from  his  plans  to 
secure  a  reformation  of  the  church,  and  in  the 
Council  of  Constance  led  the  opposition  till 
John  abdicated.  He  then  devoted  his  time  to 
doctrinal  matters,  presided  over  the  trial  and 
condemnation  of  Huss.  and  finally  consented 
to  proceed  to  the  choice  of  pope  before  the 
enactment  of  reforms,  and  thus  defeated  ulti- 
mately all  reform.  His  X-M-i  years  were  spent 
as  papal  legate  at  Aviixnon.  (See  his  life  by 
Paul  Tschackert.    C4otha,  1877.)  F. 

Aitken,  William  Hay  Macdowall  Hunter, 


Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Liverpool.  Sept.  21, 
1841  ;  educated  at  Oxford  ;  since  1875  has  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  revival  work,  and 
since  1884  has  been  general  superintendent  of 
the  Church  of  England  Parochial  Mission  So- 
ciety. He  has  written  various  popular  relig- 
ious works. 

Aix-la-Chapelle.     See  Aachex. 

Ak'-i-ba,  Ben  Joseph,  a  Jerusalem  shep- 
herd, who  became  a  famous  rabbi,  pre.siclent 
of  the  seminary  at  Bene  Berak,  near  Joppa, 
reputed  author  of  several  treatises  now  in  the 
Talmud,  and  so  \m\v\\  admired  as  to  give  rise 
to  the  saying,  "  What  Avas  not  revealed  to 
]\roses  was  revealed  to  Akiba."  He  joined 
Barkochba,  and  being  taken  prisoner  was 
flayed  alive  by  the  Romans,  a-t.  120  (V).  a.d. 
135.  (See  the  legendary  biography  in  Ham- 
bursrer,  Re<d-Enci/dopddie  ilcs  j'udenthtnns, 
II.  Talmud  Art.,  s.v.) 

Akoimetoi.     See  Accemet/E. 

ALasco.     See  Lasco. 

Alain  de  Iiille  {Ahiruis  ah  InHvliH),  b.  at 
Lille,  France  (formerly  Ry.ssel  in  Flanders), 
about  1114;  became  a  Cistercian  monk  ;  lived 
most  of  his  life  in  England,  but  died  in  the 
abbey  of  Citeaux  about  1202.  His  extraordi- 
nary range  of  knowledge  won  him  the  epithet 
of  Doctor  tiniversaliH.  His  writings  are  nu- 
merous. (See  list  of  chief  in  McClintock  & 
Strong,  s.v.  Alan  de  I'lsle.) 

Alan,  Alanus.     See  above. 

Alb.  1.  The  white  linen  coat,  or  robe, 
reaching  down  to  the  feet,  with  sleeves  at- 
tached, reaching  to  the  hand,  worn  at  ma-«s 
•by  the  celebrant  and  his  assistants.  2.  The 
w'hite  dress  worn  at  I)aptism  in  the  early 
church  b}-  the  catecinmiens,  and  subsequently 
from  Easter  eve,  when  baptism  was  usually 
performed,  until  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter, 
hence  called  Dominica  i/i  a^Ws  ("  Sunday  in 
white"). 

Alban,  St.,  name  of  several  saints  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  One  of  them  is  the  proto- 
martyr  of  England,  said  to  have  been  a  soldier 
in  Diocletian's  army,  converted,  and  to  liave 
perished  in  the  persecutions  in  the  year  303. 
His  day  is  June  22.  F. 

Al'-ber  (Latin,  Albcrvn).  Lutherans.  1. 
Erasmus,  b.  about  1500,  in  the  county  of  Bii- 
dingen  ;  d.  as  general  superintendent  at  Neu- 
brandenburg.  May  5,  1553.  His  best  known 
book  is  Bcr  Barfuser  Miiiuhc  Kuh  iixiri,(j,l  uud 
Alcoran,  Frankfort,  1542.  prepared  by  Luther: 
Eng.  trans.,  T/ic  Alcoran  of  th<  Jianfole 
Friers,  London,  1550,  which  is  a  translation 
of  Bartholomew  Albizzi's(of  Pisa)  widely  cir- 
culated book,  J.ilMr  c„i,j'»ruiil<it>nn  ritif  S. 
Franrisri  ad  ritaniJi'iai  Christi.  i:{:«»  (i)rinl<'d. 
Venice,  n.d.,  3  ed,,  14M).  in  wliich  Francis  of 
Assisi  is  compared  to  Jesus  Christ.  AilK-r  en- 
riched his  translation  bv  a  mmilcss  cxiK.sure 
of  Albizzi's  lies  and  exagireratimis  and  thus 
caused  the  Franciscans  to  reissue  tlie  book 
in  an  expurgated  form  and  und(  r  n  dilTerrnt 
title.  Alber  was  also  unsparing  in  his  ndicufc 
of  the  doctrinal  dilTerciic.s  iM-lwr.n  Ihr  Prot- 
estant churches.     2.  Matthaus,  Lutheran,  b. 


ALBSRT 


(18) 


'ALEXANDER 


at  Reutlingen.  Wurtemherg,  Dec.  4,  1495  ; 
introduced  the  Reformation  there,  1524  ;  left 
in  consequence  of  the  Interim,  1548  ;  became 
chief  pastor  at  Stuttgart  ;  then  abbot  of 
Blaubeuien,  1563  ;  d.  tliere  Dec.  2, 1570.  (See 
his  life  by  J.  Hartmann,  Tiibiugen,  1863.) 

Albert  of  Riga,  bishop  of  Livonia,  whither, 
as  canon  of  Bremen,  he  had  led  a  crusade 
(1200).  He  founded  Riga  and  the  order  of 
the  Brothers  of  the  Sword  ;  d.  1196. 

Albert  the  Great  (Albertus  Magnus),  b.  at 
Lauingeu,  26  m.  n.w.  of  Augsburg,  Bavaria, 
1193  ;  d.  at  Cologne,  Nov.  15,  1280  ;  "  Uni- 
versal Doctor,"  founder  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing period  of  scholasticism.  He  studied  in 
Padua,  and  there  entered  the  Dominican 
order.  Though  his  life  was  in  general  that  of 
a  scholar  (1243,  teacher  in  Cologne  in  the 
Dominican  school  ;  1245,  niasterof  theology  at 
Paris  ;  1248,  again  in  Cologne  as  rector  of  the 
school),  he  filled  many  public  offices  (general 
of  the  Dominicans  for  Germany,  1254  -."bishop 
of  Regensburg.  1260).  He  spent  liis  last  18 
years  principally  in  Cologne  in  his  monastery 
engaged  in  writing.  His  chief  service  as  a 
literary  man  was  in  the  introduction  of  Aris- 
totle to  the  acquaintance  of  his  age.  Obtain- 
ing his  own  knowledge  from  the  Arabic  com- 
mentators, he  reproduced  Aristotle's  ideas, 
supplementing  them,  and  particularly  in  the 
department  of  natural  science  greatly  improv- 
ing them.  As  a  theologian  he  is  noted  for  his 
writings  upon  general  questions,  such  as  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  for  his  commentaries, 
upon  the  Scriptures,  his  ethical  writings,  and 
his  more  properly  dogmatic  works.  The 
Christian  system  rests  upon  experience,  but  it 
stands  in  need  of  proofs  to  coulirm  the  believer, 
lead  the  inquirer  to  faith,  and  to  'Convince  the 
unbeliever.  The  system  is  the  Roman  ortho- 
doxy of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  contest  be- 
tween Nominalism  and  Realism,  Albert  is  to 
be  reckoned  to  neither  party.  He  teaches  that 
the  universal  is  before  the  individual  thing  in 
the  plan  of  God,  in  the  thing  and  after  the 
thing  as  the  product  of  our  thought.  (See  his 
colle'cted  works,  ed.  Jammy,  Lyons,  1651,  21 
vols.  fol.  See  life  by  Sighart,  Eng.  trans,  bv 
Dixon,  London,  1876.)  F.  " 

Albertus  Magnus.     See  above. 

Albigenses.     See  Cathaui. 

Albright  (original,  Albrecht),  Jacob,  found- 
er of  the  Evangelical  Association  of  North 
America  (see  Methodists)  ;  b.  near  Pottstovvn, 
Pa.,  May  1.  1759  ;  d.  at  Miihlbach,  Lebanon 
Co.,  Pa.,  May  8,  1808.  He  was  a  tile-maker 
when  in  1790  he  was  converted  and  joined  the 
Methodist  Church.  In  1796  he  began  preach- 
ing among  the  Germans,  and  was  wonderfully 
successful.  In  1807  he  was  ordained  bishop 
of  the  church  he  had  founded. 

Albright  Brethren.  See  "  Evangelical  As- 
sociation" under  Methodists. 

Alcantara,  the  Ecclesiastical  Knightly  Or- 
der of,  founded  in  the  12lh  century,  in  Al- 
cantara, Spain,  primarily  for  defence  against 
'the  Moors.  For  a  time  it  had  a  brilliant  mem- 
bership. In  1540  the  knights  were  allowed  by 
Pope  Paul  III.  to  marry.  In  1808  Joseph  Bona- 
parte deprived  the  order  of  all  its  property,  part 


of  which  has  been  restored,  however  ;  in  1835 
it  was  changed  from  an  ecclesiastical  to  a  court 
order,  and  has  been  since  1878  a  reward  for 
military  service. 

Alcuin  (al'-kwin),  b.  at  York,  Eng.,  735  ; 
d.  at  Tours,  France,  May  19,  804  ;  the  most 
prominent  of  the  scholars  whom  Charlemagne 
gathered  about  his  court.  His  education  wa.s 
at  his  birthplace,  York,  where  he  subsequent- 
ly presided  over  the  cathedral  school,  and  later 
was  made  librarian.  On  a  journey  to  Rome 
in  781  he  met  Charlemagne  at  Parma  and  en- 
tered his  service.  From  this  time  on  he  culti- 
vated every  department  of  science  under  Char- 
lemagne's patronage  He  mingled  in  the  the- 
ological controversies  of  the  times,  such  as  the 
Iconoclastic  (see  art.  Caroline  Books)  and 
the  Adoptionist.  In  796  he  received  the  Ab- 
bey of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  where  he  made  the 
monastery  school  the  principal  place  of  learn- 
ing in  the  empire.  His  chief  writings  are  his 
Three  Books  upon  the  Trinity,  and  his  com- 
mentaries upon  various  portions  of  tlve  Scrip- 
tures. He  is  not  an  independent  thinker,  oc- 
cupies simply  the  theological  position  of  his 
day,  and  is  distinguished  mainly  for  extensive 
reading  and  industry.  Grammar,  orthog- 
raphy, astronomy,  and  Latin  poetry  biLsied 
him  also.  Though  not  a  monk,  he  favored 
monasticism,  and  could  not  distinguish  be- 
tween the  call  of  duty  to  a  religious  life  in  the 
world  and  the  necessity  of  escaping  it  for 
spiritual  safety.  Yet  at  times  this  view  of  life 
was  modified  by  his  literary  and  scriptural 
studies.  (See  his  life  oy  Lorentz,  London, 
1837  ;  and  J.  B.  Mullinger's  The  Schools  of 
Charles  the  Great,  London,  1877  )  F. 

Al'-e-an-der,  Hieronymus,  b.  at  Motta, 
Italy,  Feb.  13,  1480  ;  famed  as  a  scholar,  par- 
ticularly in  Greek  ;  became  librarian  to  the 
Vatican,  1517  ;  later  archbishop  of  Brindisi, 
1524,  and  cardinal,  1538  ;  d.  at  Rome,  Jan. 
31.  1542.  He  was  papal  legate  at  the  Diet  at 
Worms  in  1521,  and  tried  hard  to  manage  it  in 
the  papal  interest.  (Cf.  Theod.  Brietrer,  Ale- 
ander  u.  Luther,  1521,  Gotha,  1884  ;  Kalkotf, 
Die  Depesclien  der  Nuntius  Aleander,  Halle, 
1886.) 

Al'-e-si-us  (see-us),  Alexander  (variants  of 
name,  Aless,  Alesse,  ab  Ales,  Alane),  Lutheran 
divine  ;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  April  23,  1500  ;  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  St.  Andrew's,  and 
became  canon  ;  appointed  to  refute  Patrick 
Hamilton  (q.v.),  he  was  shaken  by  him  in  hi>s 
Romanism  ;  in  consequence  persecuted  and 
compelled  to  flee  (1532) ;  became  a  Lutheran 
and  lived  at  Wittenberg  ;  returned  to  England 
(1535)  ;  lectured  in  divinity  at  Cambridge  ; 
]ater  practised  medicine  in  London  ;  returned 
to  Germany,  1540  ;  became  professor  of  the- 
ology first  at  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  then  at 
Leipzig,  1543  ;  d.  there  Nov.  29,  1560.  "  Hi.^ 
chief  distinction  is  that  while  in  his  career  as 
an  advocate  of  the  new  learning,  he  was  cour- 
ageous when  courage  was  needed  ;  he  possessed 
a  flexibility  of  mind  and  a  moderation  of  sen- 
timent rare  among  the  reformers,  and  not  least 
so  among  those  of  his  native  land."  (Cf.  Diet. 
Nat.  Biog.,  s.v.) 

Alexander,  popes  of  this  name.  1.  Bishop 
of  Rome  109  (?)-119  (?)    2.  (Auselm  of  Lucca), 


ALEXANDER 


(19) 


ALEXANDER 


Pope  1061-73,  was  raised  to  tlic  papal  see  by 
Ilildebrand.  The  imperial  party  nomiuated 
an  unti  pope  wlio  took  the  name  of  Honorius 

II.  By  the  efforts  of  Hanno,  arehbishop  of 
Cologne,  Alexander  was  finally  universally 
acknowledged,  but  Hanno  did  not  receive 
proper  gratitude  from  him.  Tlie  emperor, 
Henry  IV.,  also  received  treatment  which 
might  serve  as  a  foretaste  of  what  he  would 
suffer  at  the  hands  of  Ilildebrand  subsequcnt- 
1}'.  Invested  bishops  were  compelled  to  give 
up  their  otBces  upon  charge  of  simony.  This 
pope  favored  the  attempt  of  William  the  Con- 
C|ueror  upon  England.  He  gave  tli(^  Engli.sh 
bishoprics  to  Normans,  and  thus  strengthened 
William's  power.  3.  (Roland),  Pope  1159- 
81,  belonged  to  the  anti-imperial  party  as 
cardinal.     A  personal  conllict  with  Frederick 

I.  of  Germany,  atBesangon,  in  llo?,  where  he 
liad  defended  the  position  of  the  pope,  Hadrian 
IV.,  that  the  imperial  power  was  a  "  benefi- 
cium"  of  the  papac}-,  led,  when  he  had  been 
elevated  to  the  papal  see,  to  great  complica- 
tions. An  anti-pope,  Victor  IV.,  was  set  up, 
whom  two  other  anti-popes  followed.  Alex- 
ander was  even  compelled  at  one  time  to  leave 
Italy  and  seek  help  in  France.  But  finally  the 
emperor  was  compelled  to  yield.  The  cam- 
paign which  had  resulted  in   setting  Paschal 

III.  upon  the  papal  throne  ended  disastrously, 
(1166),  the  second  expedition  of  Frederick  into 
Italy  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Legnano  (1176), 
and  on  Aug.  1,  1177,  Alexander  was  ac- 
knowledged as  pope.  Still  he  did  not  occupy 
the  high  position  which  Hadrian  IV.  had 
claimed  for  the  papacy.  A  still  more  striking 
victory  was  gained  by  Alexander  over  Henry 

II.  of  "England  in  the  case  of  Thomas  Becket 
(q.v.),  who  had  maintained  the  interests  of  the 
church  against  the  king.  After  his  murder 
by  agents  of  the  king,  Henry  was  compelled 
to  do  shameful  penance,  and  to  return  to  the 
church  the  property  confiscated.  (Life  by 
Renter,  Leipzig,  2d  ed.,  1860-64,  3  vols.)  4. 
(Rinaldo  de  Conti),  Pope  1254-61,  was  also 
involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Hohenstauffen. 
Frederick  II.  had  addressed  him  while  j'et 
cardinal  as  a  friend,  and  Conrad  IV.  intrusted 
him  with  the  guardianship  of  his  son  Conra- 
diu.  But  he  stirred  up  the  Svvabiau  princes 
10  choose  Alphonso  of  Castile  as  their  duke, 
cxconununicated  Manfred  when  he  attempted 
to  defend  Conradin's  rights  in  Sicily,  and  even 
gave  awaj'  some  of  Conradin's  lands  as  a  papal 
fief.  He  also  interfered  in  the  affairs  of  the 
German  Empire.  The  trouble  with  the  Ho- 
lienstauffen  led  to  the  appearance  of  the  P'lagel- 
lants  (q.v. )  iuRome.  5.  (Peter  Philargi),  Pope 
1409-10,  was  created  pope  by  the  Council  of 
Pi.sa  (q.v.)  under  the  solenm  promise  to  con- 
tinue the  council  till  it  should  effect  a  thorough 
reformation  of  the  church  in  head  and  mem- 
bers. But  he  immediately  dismissed  the 
council.  Since  the  other  popes  did  not  submit 
to  th'iir  deposition,  the  council  only  made  the 
scliism  worse — three  pojies  instead  of  two. 
His  chief  official  act  was  to  increase  the  rights 
of  the  mendicant  monks  in  hearing  confes- 
sions. 6.  (Rodrigo  Lanzol),  Pope  1492-1503, 
the  most  profligate  of  all  the  popes.  As  ; 
bishop  of  Valencia  and  cardinal  he  had  at  ^ 
least  i  children,  of  whom  Ciesar  and  Lucretia 


(Borgia)  have  been  most  famous.  As  pope  he 
continued  Ins  loose  life,  though  besought  by 
Savonarola,  as  well  as  by  kings,  to  reform  the 
papal  court.  He  gave  to  Spain  all  the  lauds  to 
be  discovered  beyond  100  m.  west  of  Cape 
Verd.  His  most  characteristic  deeds  were 
wrought  in  comiection  with  his  son  Ca;sar, 
for  whom  he  consented  to  every  form  of  evil. 
Cjesar  was  cardinal  as  long  as  he  liked,  dur- 
ing which  time  he  did  not  al)staiu  from  mur- 
der, and  then  (1498)  married  and  became  a 
secular  prince.  To  obtain  a  princijiality ,  then 
duchy,  and  finally  kingdom  of  "  liomiigna," 
neither  Casar  nor  the  pope  shrunk  from  any 
measiue.  But  ere  the  residt  was  reached  Alex- 
ander was  removed  by  tleath,  being  jn-obably 
poisoned.  7.  (Fabio  Chigi),  I\ipe  1655-67. 
As  cardinal  he  was  engageci  in  the  negotiations 
leading  to  the  peace  of  \Vestphalia,  but  took  a 
position  of  implaeal»le  hostility  to  the.  Protest- 
ants. In  consequence  of  his  representations 
the  pope  refused  to  conlirm  the  concessions 
made  to  them.  As  might  have  been  expect- 
ed, as  pope  he  favored  the  Jesuits  especially 
and  opposed  the  Jansenisls.  Involved  in  war 
with  France,  he  was  obliged,  in  the  peace  of 
Pisa  (1664),  to  submit  to  lumiiliating  demands. 
8.  (Pietro  Ottoboni),  Pope  1689-91,  eleva- 
ted by  the  influence  of  France  to  the  papal 
chair.  He  succeeded  in  nullifying  the  four 
propositions  mndc  in  1682  as  to  the  freedom 
of  tiie  Galliean  Church.  A  real  service  to  the 
cause  of  morals  was  rendered  by  his  condem- 
nation of  the  Jesuit  doctrine  of  a  philosojjhic 
sin — i.e.,  one  which  was  committed  without 
conscious  purpose  to  offend  God,  and  wliich 
was  therefore  venial.  F. 

Alexander,  illustrious  Presbyterian  minis- 
tei-ial  fanuly.  1.  Archibald,  U.D.  (Princeton, 
1810),  b.  near  Timber  Ridge,  Augusta  (now 
Rockbridge)  Co.,  Va.,  April  17,  n72  ;  d.  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Oct.  22,  1,S51.  Ib^wasedu- 
cated  at  Lexington,  Va.  (Liberty  Hall  Acad- 
emy) ;  became  private  tutor  ;  itinerant  jiastor 
in  Charlotte  and  Prince  Edward  counties, 
1792  ;  president  of  Hampden-Sydney  College, 
Va..  1796;  pastor  of  the  Pine  street  Presby- 
terian church,  Philadel])hia,  1807  ;  first  pro- 
fessor in  the  Theolouical  Senunarv,  Prinoton, 
N.  J.,  1812.  He  did  a  great  work  in  the  la.«t 
position,  leaving  an  indelihle  impression.  His 
writings  Avere  nimierous  ;  in  book  form  ap- 
peared. I  Jln'(f  Outline  of  the  Kridnirtu  of  the 
Chrixtiaii  Jir/'if/ion,  Princeton,  1S23  (later  edd. 
trans,  into  foreign  languages)  ;  The  Canon 
of  the  Old  and  Js'nr  'J'(.'<t(inients  jUerrlained, 
1826  ;  A  Po'Art  J)irtioiuin/of  the  mUe,  Phila- 
delphia, 1829  ;  Bior/niphieal  Slrdehes  .  .  .  of 
the  1a><i  Vidian,  Princeton,  1S15  ;  Oxitlincs  tf 
Moral  Science,  New  York,  1K52.  (Cf.  iif.-  by 
J.  W.Alexander,  New  York.  1854.)  2.  James 
Waddel,  D.I).  (Lafayette.  1843),  liis«l(k.M  M)n  ; 
b.  near  Gordonsville,  Louisa  Co.,  ^a.,  March 
13,  1804  ;  d.  at  Red  Sweet  Springs.  Va.,  July 
31,  1859.  Educated  at  Princeton  College  and 
Theoloffical  Seminarv,  became  ]»m>lor  at  Tren- 
ton, NT  J.,  1S29  ;  editor  of  The  Prmhyten- 
an,  Philadelphia,  1832  ;  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  Princeton  College,  lf:<33  ;  pastor  of  the 
Duane  street  Presbvterian  cliurch.  New  "i  ork 
City,  1844  ;  professor  of  tcclestiaslicul  history 


ALEXANDER 


(20) 


ALFORD 


in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1849  ; 
pastor  of  the  Fifth  avenue  Presbyterian 
church,  Neu-  York  City,  1851.  He  wrote  the 
life  of  his  father,  and  other  volumes,  of  which 
Plain  Woi'ds  to  a  Young  Communicant  (New 
York,  1854)  is  perhaps  best  known.  3.  Joseph 
Addison,  D.D.  (Uutgers  College,  1844),  an- 
other sou,  b.  in  Philadelphia,  April  24,  1809  ; 
d.  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Jan.  28,  18G0.  Gradu- 
ated head  of  his  class  at  Princeton  College, 
1826  ;  was  adjunct  professor  of  ancient  lan- 
guages there,  1830-33  ;  and  of  oriental  litera- 
ture in  the  Theological  Seminary,  1838-50, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  bibli- 
cal and  ecclesiastical  history.  He  was  a  re- 
markable linguist,  and  did  much  to  introduce 
and  popularize  German  theological  learning, 
his  commentaries  on  Isaiah,  New  York,  1846- 
47,  2  vols. ,  ed.  Eadie,  Glasgow,  1875  ;  Psalms, 
1850,  3  .vols.  ;  3IattheiD,  1860  ;  Mark,  1858  ; 
Acts,  1856  ;  being  much  indebted  to  Hengsten- 
berg  and  other  Germans.  He  was  an  ad- 
mired preacher.  (See  his  life  by  H.  C.  Alex- 
ander, New  York,  1869,  2  vols.) 

Alexander  Nevski,  a  Russian  prince  and 
general,  venerated  as  a  saint  in  the  Greek 
Church  ;  b.  at  Vladimir,  Central  Russia,  1219  ; 
d.  at  Gorodetz,  Nov.  14,  1263.  He  gained  a 
great  victory  over  the  Swedes  near  the  Neva 
in  1240,  and  was  equally  successful  against 
his  enemies  elsewhere.  The  pope  hoped  by 
these  military  and  other  efforts  to  bring  the 
Russians  over  to  the  Roman  obedience,  but  Al- 
exander resisted  all  his  blandishments.      F. 

Alexander  of  Hales,  b.  in  England  ;  d.  in 
Paris,  Aug.  27,  1245  ;  educated  "in  the  Eng- 
lish monastery  Hales,  then  at  Paris,  entered 
the  Franciscan  order  in  1222.  His  only  gen- 
uine printed  work  (e.g.,  Cologne,  1622)  is  his 
Summa  Universm  Theologies,  whicii  first  ap- 
plies the  entire  range  of  Aristotle's  philosophy 
to  theology.  It  is  a  positive  system,  of  mys- 
tical character,  free  in  its  treatment  of  the 
sacraments,  Ijut  strong  in  its  support  of  the 
papal  see  and  the  mendicant  monks.  F. 

Alexandrian  School,  a  distinct  school  of 
thought,  which  had  its  origin  in  an  institution 
of  Christian  learning  situated  in  the  city  of 
Alexandria  in  Egypt.  The  origin  of  the  school 
is  to  be  sought  in  the  circumstances  of  the 
time  and  place.  Alexandria  vv^as  the  intellec-  j 
tual  centre  where  the  learning  and  culture  of 
the  East  and  West  met.  Philosophers  abound- 
ed there,  and  as  some  of  them  were  from  time 
to  time  converted,  their  condition  called  upon 
the  church  for  regular  instruction  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Christian  religion  ;  hence  the 
school,  to  which  young  Christians  would  resort 
when  once  it  was  established.  Here,  too,  the 
future  ministers  of  the  church  would  be  edu- 
cated, her  future  leaders,  bishops,  and  theo- 
logians. Thus  it  was  that  in  the  earliest  times 
(tradition  says  in  the  time  of  the  evangelist 
Mark)  a  school  was  established  in  Alexandria, 
over  which  successively  Panta?nus,  Clement, 
Origen,  Heraclas,  and  Dionysius,  and  then 
others  presided,  till  about  the  end  of  the  4th 
century.  It  is  said  tliat  among  the  later 
teachers  of  the  school  even  Arius  is  found. 
The  system  of  the  school  was  like  that  of  other 
schools  of  its  day.    Salaries  were  not  paid  the 


instructors,  but  wealthy  pupils  gave  them  hon- 
orar}^  gifts.  The  dwellings  of  the  teachers 
were  used  as  the  places  of  instruction.  The 
method  of  instruction  was  by  conversations 
or  more  formal  lectures.  The  spirit  of  the 
school  was  free  and  its  attitude  toward  all 
learning  friendly.  It  drew  from  the  old  Jew- 
ish theology  of  Philo  and  from  the  philosophy 
of  Greece.  Gnosticism  was  not  blindly  op- 
posed, but  the  effort  was  made  to  guide  the 
labors  of  these  speculators  into  more  fruitful 
channels.  Origen  came  to  his  deeper  specula- 
tions from  the  standpoint  of  one  trained  from 
the  beginning  in  Christian  truth.  To  him  is 
due  the  proposal  of  the  doctrine  of  the  eternal 
generation  of  the  Son,  as  well  as  the  attempt 
to  give  the  Incarnation  an  ethical  foundation 
in  the  theory  of  the  union  of  the  Logos  with 
one  pure  pre-existent  soul.  Athanasius  was 
a  product  of  this  school,  and  maintained,  in 
opposition  to  Arius,  the  true  divinity  of  the 
Son.  The  tendency  of  the  school  from  this 
time  on  was  to  deeper  studies  in  the  profound- 
est  doctrines  of  Christianity,  whence  it  took 
the  lead  in  the  formulation  of  the  Christology 
of  the  church.  Cyril,  the  leader  in  the  con- 
test against  Nestorius,  saw  clearly  that  the 
problem  of  Christology  was  to  obtain  a  con- 
ception of  a  real  union  between  the  divine  and 
human  in  Christ,  whereby  the  unity  of  his 
historical  person  could  be  maintained.  Hence, 
he  insisted  upon  the  one  person  after  the  In- 
carnation. This  tendency  of  thought  finally 
triumphed  over  that  represented  by  the  Antio- 
chian  school,  and  determined  tlie  trend  of 
Christian  theology,  not  only  in  the  early  ages, 
but  even  in  our  own  day.  In  the  exegetical 
labors  of  this  school  there  is,  especially 
among  its  earlier  writers,  an  abundance  of  ar- 
bitrary allegorical  fancies.  Origen's  services 
as  a  commentator  were  as  great  as  those  in  the 
line  of  Christian  speculation  ;  but  he  was  par- 
ticularly given  to  the  allegorical  method  of 
interpretation.  Gregory  Nazianzon  and  Greg- 
ory of  Nyssa,  with  Basil  "the  Great,"  con- 
stitute a  group  of  the  most  important  adher- 
ents and  literary  coadjutors  of  the  Alexan- 
drian school.  (See  Charles  Kiugsley,  Alexan- 
dria and  her  Schools,  London,  1854.)         F. 

Alexians,  from  their  patron  saint,  Alexius, 
a  lay  order  in  the  Roman  Cliurch  ;  also  called 
Cellites,  because  they  buried  the  dead  in  cellm 
(graves)  ;  founded  in  Antwerp  by  Tobias, 
about  the  middle  of  the  14th  century,  for  the 
care  of  the  sick,  the  dying,  and  the  dead.  The 
Black  Sisters  belong  to  this  order. 

Alford,  Henry,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1859), 
Church  of  England,  dean  of  Canterbury ; 
b.  in  London,  Oct.  7, 1810  ;  d.  at  Canterbury, 
Jan.  12,  1871.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  he 
became  fellow  of  Trinity,  1834  ;  vicar  of 
Wymeswold,  1835 ;  minister  of  Quebec  Chapel, 
Marylcbone,  London,  1853  ;  dean  of  Canter- 
bury, 1857.  "  He  was  a  man  of  various  ac- 
complishments. He  composed  pieces  for  the 
piano  and  organ,  and  vocal  music  ;  he  both 
sang  and  played  himself.  He  had  consider- 
able mechanical  skill,  and  he  carved  in  Avood. 
He  also  was  a  water-color  painter.  .  .  .  He 
had  great  facility  in  preaching,  and  adopted 
various  styles.  ...  He  adopted  distinctly  the 


ALFRED 


(21) 


ALLEN 


Protestant  basis  for  liis  religious  and  ecclesias- 
tical convictions,  and  took  pains  to  recognize 
the  leading  Nonconformist  ministers  (not  ex- 
cepting theUuity'.iians),  by  whom  his  generous 
feeling  was  full}' reciprocated.  .  .  .  His  Greek 
Testament  [London,  1849-61,  4  toIs.  6th  ed., 
vol.  1,  1868  ;  vol.  2,  1871  ;  5th  ed.,  vol.  3, 
1871  ;  4th  ed.,  vol.  4,  1870]  and  other  biblical 
works,  liowever,  constitute  his  chief  claim  to 
gratitude  and  fame."  Diet.  j\'at.  Bioy.,  s.v. 
He  was  among  the  first  to  utilize  German  New 
Testament  learning,  and  by  so  doing  made  an 
epoch.  His  other  works  include  New  Testa- 
ment for  Emjlifih  Readers,  London,  1868,  4 
vols.  ;  Book  of  Genesis,  1872  ;  A  Plea  for  the 
Queen's  English,  1863,  3d  cd..  1870  ;  Sermons 
and  Poems,  5th  ed.,  1868.  (See  his  Life,  Lon- 
don, 1873.) 

Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  the  West  Sa.xons  ; 
b.  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  849  ;  d.  at  Win- 
chester, Oct.  28,  901.  He  succeeded  his 
brother,  871,  and  was  involved  in  incessant 
wars  with  the  Danes.  He  made  it  his  "  busi- 
ness to  be  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  teaclicr 
of  his  people.  ...  He  undertakes  the  humble 
office  of  a  translator  [Bcetius,  Consolation  (f 
Philosophy  ;  Bede  and  Orosius,  History  ;  Greg- 
ory the  Great,  Pastoral  Care]  and  turns  into 
his  native  tongue  such  writings,  religious,  his- 
toricjil,  and  scientific,  as  he'thinks  will  tend 
to  the  instruction  of  his  people.  .  .  .  He  did 
all  that  he  could  for  the  advancement  of  learn- 
ing by  planting  the  best  scholars  in  the  mon- 
asteries, which  were  the  schools  of  the  time, 
and  by  giving  some  of  them  high  ecclesiastical 
preferment."  (Cf.  Freeman  in  Stephen,  iJict. 
Nat.  Biof].,  s  V.  Thomas  Hughes,  Alfred  tlui 
Great,  Loudon  and  Boston,  1869.) 

Al'-ger  of  Liege,  b.  at  Liege  (?),  1055  (?)  ;  d. 
at  Clugny,  1145  c?)  ;  known  also  as  Alger  of 
Clugny  ;  was  a  scholar  who  taught  in  various 
positions  in  Liege,  and  in  1121  entered  the 
convent  of  Clugny.  He  left  a  number  of 
writings  behind'him,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant is  his  treatise  upon  the  sacrament, 
which  was  edited  by  Erasmus,  Ba.sel,  1530. 
(See  Mi<rne,  Pat.  Lot.  CLXXX.,  pp.  739  sqq. 
Life  by  "H.  Hliffer,  Miinster,  1862.)  F. 

Alienation,  "ecclesiastically  speaking,  is 
the  improper  disposal  of  .such  lands  and  goods 
as  have  become  the  propert}-  of  the  church  ; 
alienation  in  mortmain,  tlie  conveying  or  mak- 
ing over  lands  or  tenements  to  any  religious 
house  or  other  corporate  body."     (llook.) 

Allah,  the  ^Mohammedan  name  for  God, 
contracted  from  the  Arabic  al  ilah,  "the  God. " 

Al-la'-ti-u8,  Leo,  Roman  Catholic,  noted  for 
his  attempts  to  bring  about  a  union  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  ;  b.  of  a  sehis- 
malical  Greek  family,  on  tlie  island  of  Scio, 
1586  ;  entered  the  Roman  Cluircli  ;  studied  at 
Rome  tlieology,  medicine,  and  classical  stud- 
ies ;  brought  the  sn-callrd  Heidelberg  Library 
to  Rome.  'l622  ;  made  librarian  of  the  Vatican, 
1661  ;  d.  in  Rome,  Jan.  19,  1()69. 

Allegorical  Interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, iliat  which  tinds  a  mystic  sense  below 
the  surface  of  the  sacred  writings.  It  origi- 
nated with  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  (Fhilo  and 


others),  who  sought  in  this  way  to  unite  Judaic 
institutions  with  Hellenic  culture.  The  nieih- 
cd  no  doubt  was  suggested  to  them  bv  their 
heathen  neighbors,  who,  linding  objeellonahle 
pas.sages  in  Homer,  were  wont  to  ex])lain  ail 
these  away  as  containing  myths  and  sacred 
enigmas,  and  thus  made  the  poet  speak  the 
language  of  the  philusopliers.  Philo  carried 
the  system  to  the  fullest  extent,  rarely  abiding 
by  the  plain  meaning  of  the  sim])lest  narra- 
tives, and  in  the  end  effecting  a  comjilcte  i)er- 
version  of  Scripture.  From  these  the  nictliod 
passed  over  to  the  Christian  Fathers  of  the 
Alexandrine  school,  of  whom  the  most  famou.s 
were  Clemens  and  Origen.  The  latter  went 
so  far  as  to  say  :  "  Tlie"Script\n-es  are  of  little 
use  to  them  who  understand  them  in  the  lit- 
eral sen.se. "  His  inlluence  was  wide  and  deep, 
and  its  effects  may  be  traced  in  all  the  Greek 
and  Latin  fathers,  and  even  in  the  sciioohnen, 
but  for  the  most  part  ceased  at  tlie  Reforma- 
tion. At  the  present  time  the  allegorical  meth- 
od of  interpretation  is  a  mere  name.  C. 

Allegory,  a  representation  in  wliich  the 
words  express  something  beyond  their  direct 
and  obvious  meaning.  The  line.st  (  xamjile  in 
English  literature  is  Bunyan's  Pil(jrini'.i  Prog- 
ress. In  pure  allegory  the  object  aimed  at  is 
never  directly  expressed.  There  is  always  a 
twofold  sense  :  the  immediate  or  historic 
which  is  understood  from  the  words,  and  the 
ultimate  which  is  concerned  with  the  things 
signified  by  the  words.  The  allegorical  inter- 
pretation is  not  of  the  words,  but  of  what  they 
signify,  and  may  very  well  co-exist  with  a  lit- 
eral interpretation.  Thus,  when  the  Apostle 
(Gal.  iv.  24)  i-peaks  of  a  pa.ssage  in  Genesis  as 
an  allegory,  he  does  not  metui  that  the  history 
is  unreal  as  to  the  literal  meaning,  but  that,  be- 
sides this,  the  events  narrated  have  another 
and  spiritual  signification.  C. 

Alleine,  Joseph,  Nonconformist  ;  b.  at  De- 
vizes, 86  m.  w.  of  London,  carlv  in  1(;34  ;  d. 
at  Taunton,  Nov.  17,  1668.  Eiiucated  at  0.\- 
ford,  he  became  tutor  and  chaplain  of  his  col- 
lege (Corpus  Christi),  1653  ;  junior  jiastor  at 
Taunton,  1C54  ;  was  ejected  for  non-conform- 
ity, 1662,  and  afterward  repeatedly  imiirisoned 
for  preaching.  He  was  in  his  day  eminent  as 
a  preacher  and  also  as  a  scientist,  but  it  is  as 
the  author  of  the  Alarm  to  the  l'ur<.ui,rted 
(London.  1673.  20.000  sold  ;  n.e.  under  title. 
Sure  Guide  to  Iharen,  1075.  50.<i(i(i  s(.ld  ; 
many  editions  since)  that  he  is  now  allVdion- 
atelv  and  gratefully  remembered.  (See  liis  life 
by  "Stanford.  London.  1861.) 

Allen,  Henry,  b.  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Juno 
14,  1748  ;  d.  at  Northampton,  N.  H..  F(  b.  2, 
1784.  In  1774  and  succeeding  years  lie  pr<a(  h- 
ed  through  Nova  Scotia  the  notions  that  Jiu- 
man  soids  arc  emanations  of  the  one  gn;it 
Spirit  ;  that  Adam  and  Eve.  before  tlie  fall, 
were  pure  spirits  ;  that  Christ  never  was  r.ilM'd. 
nor  will  any  other  bodvbe,  and  that  the  llihle 
is  to  be  "t-aken  spiritually.  He  published 
hymns  and  sermons,  and  made  many  ccjnvi  rts. 

Allen,  William,  D.D.  (Douay.  1571).  Ro- 
man Catholic,  canlinal  ;  b.  at  Ros.s4dl.  15.32: 
d  in  Rome.  Oct.  16.  1594.  IJeeame  H..\.  and 
fellow  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  1550  ;  princi- 


ALLEN 


(22) 


ALLIOLI 


pal  of  St.  Mary's  Hall,  1556  ;  began  to  live  at 
Louvain,  France,  1561,  because  his  strong 
Catholicism  gave  offence  at  Oxford,  wheie  he 
became  a  private  tutor  ;  clandestinely  returned 
to  England,  1562,  but  left  for  good,  1565. 
lie  established  the  English  college  at  Douay, 
1568  ;  became  regius  professor  of  divinity 
there,  1570  ;  college  moved  to  Kheims,  1578  ; 
resigned  his  professorship,  1585,  on  account 
of  health,  and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  lived 
the  rest  of  his  life.  On  Aug.  7,  1587,  he  was 
made  a  cardinal  priest.  He  was  involved  in 
many  intrigues  on  behalf  of  English  Catholi- 
cism, but  iiis  plans  came  to  nought.  The  es- 
tablishment of  the  college  in  Douay,  however, 
prevented  the  extinction  of  Catholicism  in  Eng- 
land.    He  wrote  much  in  behalf  of  his  faith. 

Allen,  WUliam,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1821), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Jan. 
2,  1784;  d.  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  July  16, 
1868  ;  graduated  at  Harvard,  1802  ;  licensed 
to  preach,  1804  ;  preached  in  Western  New 
York  ;  became  assistant  librarian  of  Harvard 
College,  1805  ;  pastor  at  Pittsfield,  Mass., 
1810  ;  president  of  Dartmouth  University, 
1817  ;  of  Bowdoin  College,  1820  ;  resigned, 
1889,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  work. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  American  Biograpliical 
and  Historical  Dictionary,  1st  ed.  (700  names), 
Cambridge,  1809  ;  2d  ed.  (1800  names),  Bos- 
ton, 1832  ;  3d  ed.  (7000  names),  Boston,  1857. 

All-Hallow's  Day,  old  designation  for  All  ] 
Saints'   Day,    •'halowc"    being   in   media-val 
English  equivalent  to  "  saint."     The  term  is 
commonest  used  in  All-Hallow  e'en,  the  even- 
ing before  All  Saints'  Day  (q.v.). 

Alliaco,  Peter.     See  Ailly,  Piekre  d'. 

Alliance,  Evangelical,  an  association  of 
Christians  of  all  denominations,  holding  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  It 
originated  in  England  in  1845,  and  the  next 
year  the  first  general  conference  was  held  in 
London.  Some  50  different  bodies  in  Europe 
and  America  were  represented.  The  platform 
was  clearly  defined  in  that  no  union  of 
churclies  was  designed,  but  simply  a  union  of 
persons  who  would  bear  no  official  or  semi- 
official character,  and  would  aim  only  to  pro- 
mote friendly  intercourse  and  effective  co-op- 
eration among  the  friends  of  Christ.  After 
deliberation  a  doctrinal  basis  was  adopted  con- 
sisting of  the  following  9  articles  :  1.  The  di- 
vine inspiration,  authority,  and  sufficiency  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  2.  The  right  and  duty 
of  private  judgment  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  3.  The  unity  of  the  God- 
head and  the  trinity  of  persons  therein.  4. 
The  utter  depravity  of  human  nature  in  con- 
sequence of  the  fall.  5.  The  Incarnation  of 
the  Son  of  God,  his  work  of  atonement  for  the 
sins  of  mankind,  and  his  mediatorial  interces- 
sion and  reign.  6.  The  justification  of  the 
sinner  by  faith  alone.  7.  The  work  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  the  conversion  and  sanctifica- 
tion  of  the  sinner.  8.  The  immortality  of  the 
soul,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  the  judg- 
ment of  the  world  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
with  the  eternal  blessedness  of  the  righteous 
and  the  eternal  punishment  of  the  wicked. 
9.  The  divine  institution  of  the  Christian  min- 


istry, and  the  obligation  and  perpetuity  of  the 
ordinances  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 
This  summary  was  not  put  forth  as  a  creed  or 
confession,  but  as  an  indication  of  the  class  of 
persons  whom  it  was  desirable  to  embrace  in 
the  Alliance.  The  second  general  confer- 
ence was  held  in  Paris  in  1855,  the  third  in 
Berlin  in  1857,  the  fourth  at  Geneva  in  1860, 
the  fifth  at  Amsterdam  in  1867,  the  sixth  at 
New  York  in  1873,  the  seventh  at  Basel  in 
1879,  and  the  eighth  at  Copenhagen  in  1884. 
These  assemblies  have  performed  a  very  great 
work  in  promoting  and  manifesting  the  union 
of  evangelical  believers,  and  in  combining  their 
efforts  in  behalf  of  liberty  of  conscience,  the 
protection  of  the  oppressed,  and  the  advance- 
ment of  Christ's  kingdom  among  men. 
Branch  associations  have  been  organized  in  7 
different  portions  of  the  field  covered  by  the 
Alliance,  some  of  which  have  been  of  great 
service  in  rallying  the  friends  of  Christ  under 
a  common  banner  and  stimulating  their  co- 
operation in  Christian  work.  The  transactions 
of  the  Alliance  are  reported  in  a  monthly  peri- 
odical, issued  under  its  auspices  in  London, 
entitl(!d  Evangelical  Christendom .  Fuller  de- 
tails are  given  in  the  proceedings  of  the  sev- 
eral general  councils,  which  contain  papers 
of  very  great  value.  C. 

Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches  hold- 
ing the  Presbyterian  system,  formed  in 
London  in  1875.  This  association  is,  as  its 
name  imports,  broadly  distinguished  from  the 
Alliance  mentioned  above.  It  is  a  combination 
of  churches  ;  only  those,  however,  that  by 
origin  or  character  are  entitled  to  the  historic 
name  Reformed— i.e.,  in  doctrine  are  Augus- 
tinian,  and  in  polity,  non-prelatical.  Their 
councils,  held  usually  at  intervals  of  4  years 
(1877,  1880,  1884,  1888),  are  composed  of  min- 
isters and  elders  delegated  by  the  various 
bodies  to  which  they  belong.  These  bodies 
are  scattered  all  over  the  world,  and  by  the 
latest  report  were  over  70  in  number.  The 
councils  have  no  legislative  authority,  either 
original  or  appellate,  and  therefore  can  only 
discuss  and  recommend,  but  for  this  very 
reason  their  moral  weight  is  immense.  They 
have  been  of  vast  service  in  making  these  vari- 
ous bodies  better  acquainted  with  each  other, 
in  encouraging  the  feeble  and  afflicted,  in 
bringing  to  view  the  various  confessions  of  the 
Reformed,  in  collecting  authentic  statistics  as 
to  numbers,  institutions,  publications,  and  the 
like,  and  particularly  in  prompting  and  urg- 
ing close  co-operation  and,  wherever  possible, 
organic  imion  among  all  the  foreign  mission- 
aries working  in  the  same  field.  C. 

Alliance,  The  Holy,  founded  in  1815  by 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  for  the  avowed 
design  of  promoting  love,  righteousness,  and 
peace  among  themselves  and  in  these  king- 
doms. Eventually  all  the  Continental  states 
save  the  states  of  the  church  went  into  it,  but 
it  did  not  realize  the  hopes  of  its  founders. 

Allioli  (al-leeo-lee),  Joseph  Franz,  D.D. 
(Regensburg,  1816),  Roman  Catholic ;  b.  at 
Sulzbach,  Austria,  Aug.  10,  1793  ;  became 
priest,  1816  ;  d.  at  Augsburg,  May  22,  1873. 
His  long  life  was  devoted  to  teaching  and  writ- 
ing on  archaeological  and  linguistic  subjects ; 


ALLIX 


(23) 


ALTAR 


but  he  is  best  known  by  liis  issvie  of  Braun's 
annotated  German  translation  of  the  Bible, 
from  the  Vulgate,  Nlirnberg,  1830-36,  6  vols. ; 
so  amended  as  to  be  practieally  a  newwork, 
and  which  was  the  first  of  its  kind  to  receive 
the  papal  approbation. 

Allix  (a'-leeks),  Pierre,  D.D.  (Oxford, 
16—),  Reformed  Church  of  France  ;  b.  at 
Alengon,  Normandy,  1641  ;  d.  in  London, 
March  3,  1717.  He  was  educated  at  Saumur 
and  Sedan,  France  :  was  pastor  in  Paris  from 
1671  to  1685,  when,  driven  out  by  the  Revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  he  came  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  ministered  till  his  death  to  the 
French  refugees.  His  service  was  modelled 
on  that  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  was 
famous  for  learning,  especially  in  languages, 
but  defended  untenable  propositions — e.cj., 
that  the  Church  of  Rome  did  not  hold  trau- 
substantiation  as  an  article  of  faith  before  the 
Council  of  Trent  ;  that  the  Waldenses  and 
Albigenses  had  always  preserved  apostolic 
truth,  and  that  the  Second  Advent  would  be 
in  1720  or  1736.  His  best  books  are,  Re-lkx- 
ions  vjwn  the  Books  of  IIoli/  Scnpivre,  Eng. 
trans.,  1688,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  Oxford,  1822; 
and  The  Judgment  of  the  Ancient  Jewish 
Church  Aqninst  the  Unitarians,  1689,  2d  ed., 
Oxford,  1821. 

Al  Koran.     See  Mohammedan  ism. 

Allocution,  the  address  delivered  by  the 
pope  to  the  cardinals  in  a  public  consistory. 

All  Saints'  Day,  a  festival  in  commemora- 
tion of  all  the  saints,  especially  those  who  have 
had  assigned  to  them  no  special  day.  It  was 
established  at  Rome  about  610.  and  is  now 
celebrated  on  Nov.  1  in  the  Roman  and  Eng- 
lish churches.  F. 

All  Soids'  Day,  observed  upon  Nov.  2  as  a 
day  of  prayer  for  the  dead,  tliat  they  may  be 
delivered  from  purgatory.  It  arose  in  the 
Roman  Church  in  the  10th  century,  without 
special  papal  direction,  and  is  extensively  ob- 
served as  a  pious  custom.  F. 

Almericians.     See  Amalric. 

Alms,  charily  to  the  poor,  was  repeatedly 
enjoined  in  the  Old  Testament  as  well  as  in- 
corporated in  the  Mosaic  law.  In  the  New  it 
is  sustained  by  the  precept  and  example  of 
our  Saviour,  by  the  institution  of  the  diaco- 
nate  (Acts  vii.),  and  by  numerous  injunctions 
of  the  Apostles.  Help  is  to  be  given  to  the 
needy  cheerfully,  unostentatiously,  and  abun- 
dantly, yet  with  intelligence.  Charity  which 
leads  to  improvidence  and  encourages  idleness 
is  neither  a  duty  nor  a  grace,  but  an  injury  to 
giver  and  receiver.  "  lilessed  is  he  that  con- 
sidenth  the  poor,"  and  studies  to  afford  relief 
in  .such  a  way  as  not  to  diminish  tli(;  re(i|)ient'.s 
self-respect  or  encourage  a  sjiirit  of  dejiend- 
ence.  (See  Barrow's  Sermon  on  Jiounty  to  the 
P<w/' and  Uhlhorn's  Christian  Charity  in  tlte 
Ancient  Church,  Edin.,  1883.)  C. 

Alogians   {dcniers  of  the   Imqos),    an   Asia 
Elinor  Anti-Trinitarian  2d  century  sect,  which 
denied  the  doctrines  of  the  Logos,  the  Para-  j 
clotp,  and  of  the  continuance  of  the  proj)hetic 
gifts  in  the  church,  and  also  attributed  the 


writings  of  John,  which  taught  these  doc- 
trines, to  Ceriuthus,  in  order  not  thereby  to 
impeach  the  authority  of  that  apostle. 

Alombrados,  a  Spanish  mystical  sect  of  the 
16lh  century,  which  was  persecuted  l)y  the 
In(]uisitioii.  Ignatius  Loyola  was  wrongly 
accused  of  belonging  to  it. 

Aloysius  (a-lo-ish'-e-us),  de  Gonzaga,  St., 
b.  of  the  princely  house  in  Castiglione,  Itulv, 
March  9,  1568  ;  became  a  .lesuil  in  Rome, 
1587  ;  devoted  himself  to  the  victims  of  the 
pestilence  which  broke  out  in  Rome,  1590, 
and  succumbed  to  it  himself,  .Jvuie  21,  1591. 
He  was  beatified  1621,  and  canonized  1726. 

Alpha  and  Omega,  the  first  and  last  letters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet,  commonly  used  as  a 
phrase  expressive  of  eternity  (Rev.  i.  8,  11  ; 
xxi.  6  ;  xxii.  13).  The  letters  were  also  used 
on  monograms  in  connection  with  a  cross  or 
sign  X  P  (for  Xp/<Tror). 

Alphonsus  Maria  de  Liguori.  See  Lu;- 
uoiu. 

Al-tar.  1.  Biblical  use.  The  structure  on 
which  sacrifices  are  offered.  The  first  on  rec- 
ord is  that  which  Noah  built  on  leaving  the 
ark  (Gen.  viii.  20).  His  example  was  followed 
by  the  patriarchs,  and  in  the  Mosaic  ritual  the 
form  and  use  of  the  structure  were  carefully 
prescribed.  In  the  tabernacle  and  temple  there 
were  two  altars,  onefor  burnt-oiferings,  which 
was  covered  with  brass,  and  hence  called 
brazen,  where  all  the  victims  were  slain  (Ex. 
XX vii.)  ;  the  other  for  incense,  which  was  cov- 
ered with  24  plates  of  gold,  and  hence  called 
golden  (Ex.  xxx.),  and  upon  it  .sweet  incense 
was  burnt  morning  and  evening,  and  the 
blood  of  the  sin-offerings  sprinkled  once  a 
year  on  the  great  day  of  atonement.  These 
were  the  prescribed  places  of  worship,  yet  Ave 
find  that  on  signal  occasions  when  there  was  a 
special  manifestation  of  the  divine  presence, 
as  in  the  case  of  Gideon,  3Ianoah,  Samuel, 
David,  etc.,  the  nde  was  suspended,  and  a 
new  altar  erected  and  used.  In  the  Christian 
church  the  term  came  to  be  applied  to  the 
conmmnion-table,  and  there  have  been  exciting 
controversies  concerning  the  propriety  of  this 
application,  the  decision  of  which  depends 
upon  the  view  which  is  taken  of  the  Eucharist. 
If  the  Lord's  Supper  is  in  any  projicr  .sense  a 
sacrifice,  having  objec-tive  validity,  then  thr 
place  where  the  words  of  institution  are  pro- 
nounced may  rightly  be  called  an  altar  ;  but 
if  it  be  simply"  a  memorial  feast  in  which 
Christ  communicivtes  himself  to  his  believing 
people,  then  the  term  is  inapplicable  and  can 
only  mish-ad.  In  the  first  praverbook  of 
King  Edward  VI.,  1549,  the  word  allar  wa.H 
used  in  the  rubric  ;  but  in  1550  an  order  wa.s 
issued  for  the  setting  up  of  tables  instead  of 
altars,  and  in  the  second  prayer-book.  1552, 
the  word  altar  wa.s  evervwhen'  repliicc d  by 
table.  In  the  pa.ssage  (lleb.  xiii.  Id).  "  we 
have  an  altar,"  etc.,  by  a  usual  mctonomy  the 
word  altar  is  put  for  sacrilice.  as  is  plain  from 
what  follows,  "  whereof  they  have  no  right  to 
eat."  This  means  the  sacrifice  which  Christ 
offered  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  and  to  cat  of 
it  means  to  ]iartake  of  the  ble.s.«ings  whick 
Christ  procured  by  that  great  bacrifice.      C  . 


ALTAR 


(24) 


AMBO 


2.  In  the  Christian  church,  "  the  table 
or  raised  surface  on  which  the  eucharist  is 
consecrated. ' '  In  primitive  times  it  was  made 
usually  of  wood,  but  from  the  time  that  the 
practice  arose  of  celebrating  on  a  martyr's 
tomb  in  the  Catacombs  (8d  century),  stone  has 
been  exclusively  used — at  least  that  part  must 
be  on  which  the  consecrated  elements  and  the 
chalice  rest.  In  the  Roman  Church  it  must 
be  consecrated  by  a  bishop  or  an  abbot  author- 
ized to  do  it  by  the  pope.  Three  cloths  cover 
it,  one  of  them  long  enough  to  reach  the 
ground,  the  others  shorter.  On  it,  besides  IJow- 
ers,  real  or  artiticial,  is  a  crucifix,  set  between 
two  candlesticks,  also  three  altar  cards,  con- 
taining certain  prayers  which  the  priest  cannot 
conveniently  read  from  the  Missal,  which  is 
placed  on  a  cushion  at  the  right-hand  side 
looking  toward  the  altar.  Under  the  altar- 
stone  the  relics  are  placed.  Originally  there 
was  only  one  altar  in  a  church,  but  now  there 
may  be  several.  The  chief  or  high  altar  looks 
toward  the  East.  It  is  approached  by  three 
steps. 

Portable  altars  are  boxes  o±  wood  or  metal, 
richly  decorated,  which  contain  the  relics,  the 
host,  and  the  consecrated  cup  ;  used  on  jour- 
neys where  there  is  no  regular  altar  for  the 
eucharistic  service. 

Altar  breads  are  the  consecrated  wafers, 
made  of  tine  white  flour,  and  usually  stamped 
with  the  figure  of  Christ  crucified,  or  the  letters 

1  11  S,  the  so-called  monogram  of  Christ. 

Altar-cloth.     See  Altar,  2. 

Altar-piece,  a  picture  placed  above  an  altar. 

Altar-rails  mark  it  off  from  the  body  of  the 
church. 

Altar-screen,  commonly  called  a  reredos, 
a  structure  often  richly  ornamented,  directly 
behind  the  altar. 

Altar,  Stripping  of,  of  its  cloths  and  arti- 
cles, in  commemoration  of  Christ  being  strip- 
ped of  his  garments,  takes  place  in  the  Roman 
Church  on  Maundy  Thursday. 

A-lyp'-i-us,  St.,  bosom  friend  of  Augus- 
tine, converted  and  baptized  at  the  same  time 
with  him,  887  ;  accompanied  him  to  Africa  ; 
established  a  monastery  at  Tagaste  ;  became 
bishop  there   894  ;  d.  about  430. 

Alzog,  Johann  Baptist,  D.D.  (Miinster), 
1835),  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Olilau,  Silesia, 
June  29,  1808  ;  studied  at  Bonn  and  Breslau  ; 
became  priest,  1834  ;  professor  of  church  his- 
tory at  Poseu,  1836  ;  at  Hildesheim,  1845  ;  at 
Freiburg,  in  Breisgau,  1858  ;  d.  there,  March 
1,  1878.  His  more  important  works  are  : 
Lehrhuch  der  Universalgeschichle  der  christ- 
liche?i  Kirche,  Mainz,   1840,   9th  ed..  1872-78, 

2  vols.;  (garbled)  Eng.  trans. ,  Manual  of  Uni- 
mrsal  Ghurch  History,  Cincinnati,  O..  1874-76, 

3  vols.  ;  Patrologie,  Freiburg,  1866,  3d  ed., 
1876  ;  Die  Deutschen  Plenarien  oder  Postil- 
leii  aiis  der  Zeit  von  1470-1522,  1874. 

A-mal-ek-ites,  a  powerful  people  of  uncer- 
tain origin,  first  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  invasion  of  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv.  7), 
and  called  by  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  20)  "  the 
first  of  the  nations."     They  were  signally  de- 


feated in  a  mean  attack  upon  Israel  at  Rephi- 
dim,  and  were  thereafter  exposed  to  God's 
judgments  (Ex.  xvii.  16).  They  were  over- 
thrown by  Ehud  (Judges  iii.  18,  15),  by  Gid- 
eon (Judges  vii.  22),  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xv.), 
whose  failure  to  exterminate  them  brought  on 
his  own  destruction,  and  finally  by  David  (1 
Sam.  XXX.),  who  completed  their  overthrow 
as  a  people,  and  their  name  perished  from  the 
earth.  Their  country  was  a  region  lying 
somewhere  between  Canaan  and  Egypt,  not 
capable  of  exact  delineation  because  they  were 
a  nomad  people.  C. 

Am-al'-ric  of  Bena,  a  teacher  of  philosophy 
and  theology  in  Paris  about  the  end  of  the  12th 
century.  His  doctrine  was  pantheistic,  and 
utterances  as  to  the  participation  of  believers 
in  the  body  of  Christ  first  awakened  suspicion. 
In  1204  he  was  condemned  by  Innocent  HI. 
After  his  death,  which  occurred  soon  after, 
traces  were  found  of  a  sect  founded  by  him, 
the  Almericians.  At  a  synod  held  on  their  ac- 
count in  Paris,  1209,  Amalric's  doctrine  was 
condemned,  and  his  bones  were  exhumed  and 
scattered  abroad.  The  doctrines  of  the  Al- 
mericians were  summarily  expressed  in  three 
propositions  :  God  is  all  ;  every  Christian 
must  believe  that  he  is  a  member  of  the  body 
of  Christ,  and  tliis  belief  is  as  necessary  to  sal- 
vation as  that  in  the  birth  and  death  of  the 
Redeemer  ;  no  sin  is  reckoned  to  those  who 
abide  in  love.  The  meaning  of  the  second 
sentence  was  that  God  had  become  incarnate 
in  believers  just  as  he  was  in  Christ.  The 
Almericians  believed  they  constituted  the  reve- 
lation of  God  as-  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  sacra- 
ments were  rejected  by  them  ;  and  the  last 
of  their  three  propositions  was  so  understood 
as  to  open  the  way  for  the  grossest  sensual  in- 
dulgence. The  sect  of  the  Free  Spirit  (qv.) 
is  a  continviation  of  this  sect.  F. 

Am'-a-sa.     See  Joab. 

Am-a-zi'-ah  (trJiom  JeJiovah  strenqtliens), 
ei2:hth  king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xiv.  1-20).  He 
succeeded  Joash,  began  by  killing  his  fathers 
murderers  ;  for  a  time  served  Jehovah,  but 
after  his  brilliant  victory  over  Edom,  in  which 
for  the  first  time  mercenary  troops  make  their 
appearance  in  the  Jewish  army,  he  worship- 
ped the  gods  of  his  conquered  foe,  and  thus 
sealed  his  own  doom.  In  his  foolish  confi- 
dence he  incited  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  to 
fight  him,  and  was  badly  beaten.  Jerusalem 
was  sacked  and  its  wall  partly  broken  down. 
Fifteen  years  afterward  he  was  murdered  at 
Lachish,  whither  he  had  fled  to  escape  a  con- 
spiracy. 

Ambition,  the  desire  of  excelling  others  and 
so  becoming  distinguished.  Milton  calls  it 
' '  that  last  infirmity  of  a  noble  mind. ' '  All  de- 
pends upon  its  object.  If  one  scorn  delights 
and  live  laborious  days  to  glorify  God  and 
benefit  his  kind,  this  is  lofty  and  admira- 
ble ;  but  if  it  be  only  for  personal  aims,  then 
is  it  low  and  mean,  and  often  "  overleaps  it- 
self." C. 

Ambo  (from  verb  "  to  go  \v[t,"  Icdorium, 
pulpitum)  the  raised  desk  in  a  church  from 
which  especially  the  Scriptures  and  the  edicts 
of  the  bishop  were  read  ;  if  there  were  two 


AMBROSE 


(25) 


AMEN 


ambones  tlion  one  was  used  for  the  gospel  and 
one  for  the  epistle  ;  if  another,  tlieu  it  was  used 
for  the  prophetieal  or  other  books  of  the  01(1 
Testament.  The  ambo  was  usually  on  the 
north  side  of  the  entrance  into  the  chancel. 

Am'-brose,  Isaac,  Nonconformist,  baptized 
at  Ormskirk,  :\I:iy  29,  1604  ;  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, served  in  several  places,  was  ejected  for 
nonconformity  from  his  charge  at  Gerstang, 
1663  ;  retired  to  Preston  and  died  ;  buried 
Jan.  25,  1663.  He  wrote  Looking  unto  Jefii/s, 
London,  1G58  ;  his  Works  were  republished, 
London.  1829  ;  again,  1835,  with  brief  3Ie- 
moir. 

Ambrose  of  Milan,  b.  at  Treves,  334  or 
340  ;  d.  at  ]Mihin.  April  3  or  4,  397  ;  is  famous 
as  a  great  ecclesiastical  leader,  and  not  unde- 
.servedly  ranked  as  one  of  the  four  great  Latin 
fatliers.  He  received  a  Christian  education, 
but  having  early  directed  his  attention  to  the 
law,  was  advanced  in  this  profession  and  in 
public  office  till  he  became  prefect  of  Liguria 
and  iEmilia,  with  his  residence  at  ]\Iilan. 
Here  it  was  that  in  374,  upon  the  death  of 
Auxentius  the  Bishop,  Ambrose  was  elected 
his  successor  by  popular  acclamation.  In 
some  respects  he  was  strikingly  unsuited  for 
the  position,  but  having  reluctantly  accepted 
it,  he  entered  upon  it  with  ardor  and  soon 
gained  eminent  litness  for  it.  He  studied  and 
taught  his  theology  at  the  same  time,  and 
though  he  mentions  this  fact  as  an  excuse  for 
some  of  his  imperfections,  it  gave  a  practical 
and  livingcharacter  to  his  system.  Augustine 
heard  him  with  delight  and  was  converted 
imder  his  preaching,  and  baptized  by  him, 
387. 

He  was  soon  involved  in  the  Arian  contro- 
versy, in  which  he  took  the  ortliodox  side.  He 
urged  the  election  of  an  orthodox  bishop  in 
Sirmium,  against  the  influence  of  the  Arian 
empress,  Justina.  In  381  a  synod  was  called 
at  A(iuileia  to  decide  upon  the  orthodoxy  of 
P^iliadius,  bishop  in  Illyria.  The  oriental 
bisliops,  though  invited,  did  not  appear,  and 
imder  Ambrose's  lead,  Palladius  was  con- 
demned. In  385-86  the  emperor  requested  the 
use  of  two  churches  in  3Iilan  for  the  worship 
of  tiie  Arians.  Ambrose  refused  to  grant  them, 
regarding  himself  as  the  divinely  appointed 
guardian  of  the  faitli.  Great  pressure  was 
brought  to  bear  upon  liim,  and  tlie  order  was 
even  issued  to  re.sort  to  violence  ;  but  the  ex- 
citement of  the  people  of  the  city  and  the  firm- 
ness of  the  bisliop  carried  the  "day.  "  If  you 
demand  my  person,"  .said  Ambrose,  "I  am 
ready  to  submit,  .  .  .  but  I  will  never  betray 
the  church  of  Christ." 

In  the  year  384  the  prefect  of  Rome,  upon 
occa.sion  of  Valentiuian  II. 's  accession  to  the 
throne,  presented  a  petition  that  the  altar  of 
victory  should  be  restored  to  its  place  in  tiie 
liall  of  tlie  senate,  and  tiiat  ailoatlis  sliould  be 
sworn  upon  it.  Ambrose  met  the  petition 
with  a  reply  in  which  he  combatted  the  argu- 
ments of  the  jirefect,  botli  as  to  their  rea.son- 
ableness  and  their  fairness.  It  was  an  equal 
conti'st  of  two  educated  Romans  arrayed  for 
trutli  and  error.  Ambrose  prevailed.  But  no 
occa-sion  so  presents  the  vigor,  courage,  and  j 
the  consequent  success  of  Ambrose  so  vividly 


as  his  contest  with  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
In  390  a  tunuilt  occurred  in  Tiiessalonica  iii 
which  an  officer  of  the  emperor  was  killed 
Tlu!  emperor  in  anger  ordered  a  promiscuous 
massacre,  in  which  about  7000  persons  were 
Icilled.  Ambrose  refu.sed  the  conmuinion  to 
the  emperor  till  he  had  performed  an  8 
months'  penance,  and  had  prcmiised  that  tliere- 
after  an  interval  of  30  davs  sliould  elapse;  be- 
fore any  sentence  of  dealh'shouldbe  executed. 
As  a  writer,  Ambrose  is  noted  for  liis  ser- 
mons, for  his  exegetical  writings  which  grew 
out  of  his  sermons,  and  for  his  moral,  ascetic, 
and  dogmatic  works.  (See  JVIigne,  l\(t.  ].nt. 
XIV.,  Eng.  trans,  of  his  Letters  in  Oxford 
Library  of  the  Fathers,  and  Oiillohj  Virr/inity, 
Oxford,  1848.)  He  does  not  discourage  mar- 
riage in  favor  of  celibacy.  His  dogmatic  posi- 
tion is  that  of  the  Council  of  Nice  in  theology 
and  in  Christology  ;  in  anthropology  lie  empha- 
sizes the  universal  sinfulness  of  man  ;  in  sote- 
riology  the  divine  grace  as  the  only  .source  of 
salvation.  Grace  is  received  by  faith.  The 
church  conveys  salvation.  The  Eudiarist  is  an 
olTering.  (See  the  next  article.)  LifebvFor- 
ster,  Halle,  1884.  '  F. 

Ambrosian  Music.  Before  the  time  of 
Ambrose  the  music  of  the  church  had  been 
performed  entirely  by  the  clergy,  and  had  con- 
sisted in  the  monotonous  recitation  of  jtsahns 
in  an  ill-regulated  and  unskilful  manner. 
Ambrose  now  introduced  the  elements  of  mel- 
ody and  rhythm,  and  gave  the  congregation  a 
part  in  this  portion  of  the  service.  As  in  the 
period  of  the  Reformation,  tlie  peoiile  availed 
themselves  with  joy  of  this  opportunity.  The 
spirit  of  Christianity  began  at  once  to  elevate 
and  improve  the  form  and  character  of  the 
music,  and  antiphonal  singing  added  still 
more  to  its  attractiveness.  Ambrose  liimself 
wrote  certain  hymns,  some  of  which  have 
come  down  even  to  us.  The  Ambrosian  form 
of  church  music  spread  throughout  all  the  Oc- 
cident, till  finally,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  6lh 
century,  it  was  superseded  by  the  Gregorian 
(q.v.).-  F. 

Ambrosiaster,  a  name  under  which  certain 
commentari(;s  upon  the  Pauline  epistles  ])a.s.s 
which  are  ascribed  by  tradition  to  Ambrose. 
They  do  not,  hoAvever,  appear  to  be  liis,  but 
rather  to  be  a  compilation  made  at  various 
times  between  the  years  380  and  80(J  by  \ari- 
ous  authors  from  Augustine,  Ciiryso.stom.  and 
Jerome,  and  ascribed  to  Ambrose  ubout^thc 
time  of  their  completion.  F. 

Am-bro'-si-u8,  deacon  of  Alexandria,  d. 
about  250,  was  the  wealthy  and  lil)eral  friend 
of  Origen,  who  paid  the  salaries  of  14  aman- 
uenses, bougiit  Bible  MS8..  and  in  all  ways 
supported  him  in  his  biblical  labors,  esjx  cially 
in  the  jiroduction  of  iiis  Hexaj)la.  He  also  in- 
cited Origen  to  write  his  great  reply  to  Ciisus. 
(See  Antc-jViceiw  Fathers,  Am.  ed.,  pp.  395- 
669.) 

Ambrosius,  Pseudo.     Sec  Ambuosiastek. 

Amen,  a  word  of  Hebrew  origin  signifying 
truth,  certainty.  It  was  used  at  the  lK.'giniiiiig 
of  a  .-sentence,  'in  John's  Gasp.-!  doubled— «".'., 
verily,  verily,  by  wav  of  emphasis.  (><<ur- 
ringat  the  end  of  a  prayer,  it  conlirmsaU  that 


AMERICAN 


(36) 


AMORITES 


has  been  said  and  invokes  the  fulfilment  of  it. 
In  the  apostolic  church  (1  Cor.  xiv.  26)  it  was 
used  as  the  response  by  tlie  people  at  the  close 
of  the  public  prayers.  Jerome  says  that  in 
his  day  the  united  voice  of  the  people  sound- 
ed like  the  fall  of  water  or  the  voice  of  thun- 
der. In  Rev.  iii.  14  our  Lord  calls  himself 
"the  Amen" — i.e.,  as  the  words  following 
show.  "  the  faithful  and  true  witness."     C. 

American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  See 
Bible  Societies. 

American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union, 

was  in  1849  formed  out  of  the  "American 
Protestant  Society,"  the  "  Foreign  Evangeli- 
cal Society,"  and  the  "  Christian  Alliance," 
in  order  to  convert  foreign  Roman  Catholics, 
and  was  prosperous  for  some  years.  But  it 
now  merely  supports  the  American  Chapel  in 
Paris. 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union,  See 
Baptist,    Missions. 

American    Baptist     Publishing    Society. 

See  Baptist. 

American  Bible  Society.  See  Bible  So- 
cieties. 

American  Bible  Union.  See  Bible  So- 
cieties. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign    Missions.     See   Congregational- 

ISTS,    5llSSIONS. 

American   Home   Mission   Society.      See 

CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

American  Sunday  -  School  Union.  See 
Sunday-Schools. 

American  Tract  Society.  See  Tract  So- 
cieties. 

Ames  (Latin  form,  Amesius),  William,  D.D. 
(Cambridge  (?),  16-),  b.  in  Norfolk,  England, 
1576  ;  d.  at  Rotterdam,  Nov.  14,  1633.  Edu- 
cated at  Cambridge  ;  became  fellow  ;  gave 
great  offence  by  his  outspoken  puritanism,  so 
he  permanently  removed  to  Holland,  1611,  and 
was  successively  at  Leyden  and  at  Rotter- 
dam ;  adviser  at  the  Synod  of  Dort,  1618-19  ; 
professor  of  theology  at  Franeker,  1622,  and 
pastor  at  Rotterdam,  1632.  He  was  a  zealous 
and  able  advocate  of  Calvinism.  His  chief 
■works  are,  Medulla  Theologia;,  Amsterdam, 
1623— Eng.  trans.,  The  Marrow  of  Sacred 
Divinity,  London,  1642  ;  first  book  repub- 
lished in  Latin,  1874  ;  arnXDe  Conscientia,  1632 
—Eng,  trans. ,  Conscience,  1639.  (See  his  Latin 
Works,  Amsterdam,  1658,  5  vols.,  with  life  by 
Nethenus.) 

Amice,  a  piece  of  linen  which  covers  the 
head,  neck,  and  shoulders,  worn  by  the  offici- 
ating priest  at  mass  in  the  Roman  Church. 
In  the  middle  a  cross  is  embroidered,  which 
must  be  kissed  on  taking  olf  and  putting  on. 

Am-mi-a'-nus  Mar-cel-li'-nus  (d.  about  390), 
a  Roman  historian,  who  is  important  for  the- 
ology on  account  of  many  bits  of  church  his- 
tory communicated  by  him.  He  was  a  Greek, 
from  Antioch,  who  served  in  the  army  under 
Constantius  and  Julian,  and  spent  the  retire- 
ment of  his  later  years  in  Rome  engaged  upon 


his  history.  It  covered  originally  the  whole 
period  from  Nerva  (b.c.  96)  to  the  year  a.d. 
378.  The  first  13  books,  to  the  year  353,  have 
perished,  but  they  were  a  compilation.  The 
position  toward  Christianity  is  that  of  a 
heathen  who  had  some  sympathy  for  its  purer 
forms.  F. 

Ammon,  Christoph  Friedrich  von,  Ger- 
man rationalist ;  b.  at  Bayreuth,  Jan.  16,  l';66  ; 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Erlangen, 
1789  ;  at  Gottingen,  1794  ;  at  Erlangen,  1804  ; 
chief  court  preacher  at  Dresden,  1813  ;  retired, 
1849  ;  d.  there,  May  21,  1850.  "  He  has  been 
called  the  Talleyrand  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
of  the  19th  century,"  because  of  his  rare 
knowledge,  great  elasticity  of  spirits,  and 
adaptability  of  character.  He  wrote  many 
books. 

Am'-mon-ites,  descendants  of  Ben-Ammi,  a 
son  of  Lot  (Gen.  xix.  38)  ;  occupied  the  moun- 
tain regions  of  Gilead,  between  the  rivers 
Arnon  and  Jabbok  ;  were  a  fierce,  cruel, 
plundering  people,  like  the  modern  Bedouin 
(cf.  1  Sam.  xi.  2  ;  2  Sam.  x.  4  ;  Jer.  xl.  14  ; 
Amos  i.  13),  and  worshipped  their  god,  Mo- 
loch, with  human  sacrifices,  especially  chil- 
dren (Lev.  xviii.  21  ;  2  Kings  xxiii.  10).  Al- 
though spared  by  God's  express  command 
when  Israel  passed  by  them  on  their  way  from 
Egypt  to  Canaan,  they  repeatedly  made  war 
upon  the  covenant  people,  but  were  defeated 
by  Jephthah  (Judges  xi.  33),  Saul  (1  Sam.  xi. 
1),  David  (2  Sam.  xii.),  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
XX.),  and  Jotham  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  5).  During 
the  captivity  they  occupied  the  Jewish  territory 
and  opposed  the  building  of  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  ii.  10).  During  the  changes  which 
followed  the  Maccabean  period  they  lost  their 
independent  position,  and  gradually  became 
amalgamated  with  the  general  Arab  popula- 
tion. C. 

Am-mo'-ni-us.  1.  Surnamed  Saccas,  a 
philosopher  of  Alexandria,  d.  241,  who  taught 
an  eclectic  system.  His  most  distinguished 
pupil  was  Plotinus.  2.  Another  philosopher 
of  Alexandria,  flourished  about  a.d.  500.  3.  A 
Christian,  spoken  of  by  Eusebius,  who  wrote 
a  harmony  of  the  gospels.  F. 

Am'-o-lo,  bishop  of  Lyon  (840),  d.  852,  wrote 
against  Gottschalk  's  predestination  views.  (See 
Migne.  Pat.  Lat.  CXVI.) 

A'-mon,  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  god,  one 
of  the  eight  of  the  first  order  and  the  chief  of 
the  Theban  triad.  Hence  he  appears  in  the 
name  of  the  famous  capital  of  upper  Egypt, 
which  Homer  calls  "  the  hundred-gated 
Thebes. "  In  Nahum  we  read  of  No-amon  (iii. 
8),  and  in  Jeremiah  (xlvi.  25)  of  Amon  of  No, 
both  referring  to  the  same  great  city,  whose 
remains  still  fill  the  visitor  with  astonish- 
ment. C. 

Am'-or-ites,  a  tribe  descended  from  Canaan 
and  occupying  the  fertile  district  bounded  on 
three  sides  by  the  rivers  Arnon,  Jabbok,  and 
Jordan,  though  some  think  the  name  denotes 
locality,  not  distinction  of  race,  and  means 
simply  mountaineers  or  highlanders.  How- 
ever this  may  be  they  wlio  bore  this  name 
when  asked  to  allow  Israel  to  pass  through 


AMORTIZATION 


37) 


ANABAPTISTS 


their  territory  on  the  ^way  to  Palestine  refused, 
and  even  offered  armed  opposition  to  their 
progress.  But  the\'  were  defeated,  and  their 
territory  was  divided  between  the  tribes  of 
Reuben  and  Gad  (Josh.  xiii.).  Nothing  more 
is  heard  of  them  in  Scripture,  except  occa- 
sionally as  moving  in  small  bands.  C. 

Amortization,  the  giving  over  of  unalienable 
property'  of  all  kinds  to  a  church,  monastery, 
or  other  foundation  so-called,  because,  inas- 
much as  the  same  was  forever  withdrawn 
from  trade,  it  was  as  if  held  by  a  dead  hand 
{manus  mortuo').  Various  acts  even  in  the 
Middle  Ages  had  to  be  passed  limiting  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  church  from  this  source.  - 

A'-mos  (bttrdeii),  the  third  in  order  of  the 
minor  prophets,  did  not  belong  to  the  pro- 
phetic order  by  birth  or  education,  but  was 
divinely  called  while  a  herdman  at  Tekoa,  a 
village  some  12  m.  s.  of  Jerusalem.  He  was 
a  contemporary  of  Hosea,  and  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  of  Jero- 
boam II.,  king  of  Israel.  His  ministry  was 
exercised  in  the  northern  kingdom,  which  at 
that  time  was  very  prosperous  and  very  sin- 
ful, and  his  discourses  are  for  the  most  part 
denunciations  of  sin  and  menaces  of  judg- 
ment ;  nor  are  they  rude,  as  some  have  said, 
but  eloquent  and  often  sublime.  As  usual 
the  book  closes  with  the  promise  of  good  in  the 
restoration  of  the  fallen  tabernacle  of  David. 
It  contains  a  remarkable  series  of  symbolic  vis- 
ions (vii.  1-ix.  7),  and  shows  the  fidelity  of 
the  prophet  in  uttering  Jehovah's  word,  even 
when  threatened  l)y  the  court.  (See  com- 
mentary on  Amos  in  Lange.)  C. 

Ampulla.  1.  A  flask  to  contain  the  wine 
and  water  used  in  the  Eucharist  in  the  Roman 
Church.  2.  A  vessel  containing  consecrated 
oil  or  chrism. 

Ams'-dorf,  Nikolaus  von,  German  reformer ; 
b.  of  noble  parents  at  Torgau  (?),  Saxony,  Dec. 
3,  1483  ;  d.  at  Eisenach,  May  14,  1565.  Edu- 
cated at  Wittenberg,  he  became  professor  of 
theology  there,  1511,  and  several  times  rector  ; 
accompanied  Luther  to  the  Leipzig  disputa- 
tion (1519),  and  to  Worms  (1521)  ;  preached 
for  him  in  Wittenberg  while  Luther  was  at 
the  Wartburg  ;  assisted  him  in  tran.slating  the 
Old  Testament.  In  1524  he  became  superin- 
tendent at  Magdeburg,  and  introduced  the 
Reformation  in  its  neighborhood.  On  Jan.  20, 
1542,  Luther  consecrated  him  bishop  of  Naum- 
burg,  but  he  was  driven  out  of  his  see  by  the 
imperial  party  during  the  Smalcakl  war(1547), 
and  in  1552  became  general  superintendent  at 
Eisenach.  He  was  active  in  establishing  the 
University  of  Jena,  and  edited  the  Jena  edition 
of  Luther's  works.  Outluthering  Luther  in 
his  opposition  to  Rome,  he  savagely  attack- 
ed tlie  Interim,  and  took  the  side  of  the 
strongest  Lutherans  in  the  ndiaphoristic,  syn- 
ergistic, and  eucharistic  controversy.  His 
famous  declaration,  bv  which  he  is  best  re- 
membered, that  "good  works  were  prejudi- 
cial to  salvation,"  was  probably  directed 
ngainst  the  supposed  .saving  value  of  good 
works  in  themselves  considered.  His  follow- 
ers were  called  Am8Dorfi.\np.  His  writings 
are  now  forgotten.     His  portrait  will  be  found 


in  Koestlin,  Mdvtin  Lutlter,  Eng.   trans     p 
522.    (See  his  life  by  Pressel,  Elberfeld.  1862.) 

Amsdorfians.     See  above. 

Am'-ulets,  something  worn  about  the  person 
to  ward  off  disea.se  or  other  evil.  The  ku]xt- 
stitious  character  of  oriental  nations  led  them 
to  the  use  of  charms  of  this  nature,  sometimes 
in  the  shape  of  carved  gems,  or  in  that  of 
words  on  parchment  tightly  rolled  uj).  This 
custom  extended  to  the  Hebrews,  and  in 
Isaiah's  description  of  female  luxury  (iii.  16- 
26)  what  in  the  Authorized  Version  is  rendered 
tabkts  is  given  in  the  Revised  as  amulets, 
and  no  doubt  correctly.  C. 

Amyot  (il-me-o),  Joseph  Maria,  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary ;  b.  at  Toulon,  France,  Feb.  18.  1718  ; 
d.  in  Peking,  China,  Oct.  8,  1793.  Entering 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1737,  he  went  to  China, 
after  rare  preparation,  in  1750,  won  the  favor 
of  the  emperor,  and  was  a  successful  mission- 
ary, and  learned  Chinese  scholar.  His  chief 
works  are  a  life  of  Confucius,  Paris,  1789  (vol. 
xii.  oi Memoires concernnnt  .  .  .  Chiiwin,  Paris, 
1776-1814,  17  vols.);  a  Tartar- Manchu-French 
Dictionary,  edited  by  Langles,  Paris, 1789-90, 
3  vols. 

Amyraldism.     See  below. 

Amyraut  (i-me-ro),  Moise,  Reformed 
Church  of  France  ;  b.  at  Bourgueil,  in  Tou- 
raine,  Sept.  1596  ;  d.  at  Sauniur,  Jan.  8, 
1664,  where  he  had  been  educated  and  had 
preached  and  taught  theology.  In  his  Traite 
de  la  Predestination  (Sauniur,  1034).  he 
sought  to  moderate  the  .strong  predc'^tination 
theory  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  by  the  vnirerm- 
lismiis  hypothcticus—i.c,  the  hypothesis  that 
God  offers  .salvation  to  all  under  the  condi- 
tions of  faith.  But  as  the  grace  which  saves  is, 
after  all,  only  given  to  the  elect,  the  moderation 
of  the  theory  was  more  in  words  than  fact. 
Repeatedly  accused  of  heresy,  he  was  as  reg- 
ularly acquitted  in  the  svnods,  but  the  dm- 
sensus  Jlelveticus  was  directed  against  liim. 
His  theory,  which  has  found  many  advocates- 
Baxter,  Andrew  Fuller,  Milner,  and  the  New 
England  divines— is  called  Amyraldism. 

Anabaptists  [lit.,  those  who  baptized  again, 
tho.se  already  baptized  in  infancy],  a  term  in- 
discriminately applied  in  the  16lh  century  to 
all  who  either  theoretically  or  practically  de- 
nied the  validity  of  infant  baptism.  But  the 
Anabaptists  of  the  16th  century  should  be 
distinctly  separated  into  not  less  than  3  cla.s.ses 
— viz.  :  Fanatics,  I^vangelical  Christiana,  and 
Mystics  or  Doctrinal  Errorists. 

I.  /rtWrt^iM.— Notable  representatives  of 
fanatical  Anabaptists  were  Thomas  Mtlnzer. 
Mclchior  Hoffman,  and  the  leaders  in  the  >MUn- 
ster  uproar.  Thoma.s  MUnzer  ((i.v.)  was  a 
man  of  learning  and  ability,  but  of  extrava- 
gant and  unbalanced  views.  HclMcarnioiii-  ol 
the  unfortunate  leaders  in  the  Pcasanls'  War. 
This  hopeless  rebellion  issued  in  fearful  slaugh- 
ter and  in  MUiizer's  capture  and  execution. 
The  provocation  wa,s  gnat,  and  MUnztr's 
svmpathy  for  the  oppres.xeil  peasjinls  was  gen 
u'ine,  but  his  prediction  of  miraculous  deliver- 
ance was  entirelv  unjustitiable.  l^fff""^' J'!'* 
death  lie  confessed  bis  error  in  incitiog  rebel- 


ANABAPTISTS 


(28) 


ANABAPTISTS 


lion,  but,  at  the  same  time  he  solemnly  warned 
princes  against  the  grievous  oppression  of  their 
subjects.  Munzer  repudiated  infant  baptism 
in  theory,  but  continued  the  practice  until  a 
few  months  before  his  death.  There  is  no 
proof  that  Munzer  was  himself  baptized  as  an 
udult,  or  that  he  ever  administered  the  ordi- 
nance to  any  believers  who  repudiated  infant 
baptism. 

Melchior  Hoffman  (q.v.)  has  been  called  the 
"  evil  genius  of  the  Anabaptists. "  lie  became 
a  Protestant  in  1523,  and  after  his  rejection 
of  infant  baptism,  about  1530,  the  Anabap- 
tists in  large  sections  of  country  were  greatly 
influenced  by  his  belief  in  the  impending  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ,  by  the  doctrine  that 
Christ  derived  his  human  body  through,  not  of 
Mary,  and  by  the  claim  of  Holfman  and  others 
that  they  were  inspired  prophets.  Hoffman 
died  in  Strasburg,  in  1543,  after  an  imprison- 
ment of  10  years.  Some  of  his  followers  were 
infatuated  fanatics,  guided  by  pretended  vis- 
ions and  dreams. 

The  excesses  at  MUnster,  more  than  any 
other  episode  in  their  history,  tended  to  bring 
Anabaptists  of  all  classes  into  disrepute.  The 
fanatical  tendencies  of  Hoffman's  teaching 
were  doubtless  a  contributing,  but  by  no  means 
a  sole  cause  of  the  Miinster  uproar.  In  1532 
Bernard  Rothmann,  the  popular  Lutheran 
preacher,  became  an  Anabaptist.  The  Prot- 
estants soon  gained  control  of  the  city,  drove 
out  tlie  Romanist  bishop  and  clergy,  and  or- 
ganized an  army  for  the  permanent  retention 
of  the  place.  Malcontents  and  fanatics  flocked 
to  Miinster.  Their  leader,  John  IMatthieson,  a 
baker  of  Haarlem,  was  slain,  with  30  of  his 
followers,  in  April,  1534.  Under  his  succes- 
sor, John  of  Leyden  (Johann  Bockhold,  b.  at 
Miinster  about  1509  ;  tortured  to  death  there, 
Januar}',  1536),  there  was  a  period  of  the 
wildest  excesses  and  indecencv.  J  ohn  claimed 
to  be  authorized  and  inspired  from  heaven. 
He  sanctioned  and  practised  polygamy.  He 
beheaded  one  of  his  wives,  and  put  to  death 
the  more  reputable  Anabaptists,  who  remon- 
strated against  his  practices  and  refused  sub- 
mission to  his  assumed  authority.  The  town 
was  finally  captured  in  June,  1535,  and  the 
leaders  of  the  Miinster  kingdom  were  put  to 
death. 

II.  Evangelical  Ghristians. — The  place  of 
honor  among  the  early  evangelical  Anabap- 
tists must  be  given  to  those  of  Switzerland  and 
southern  Germany.  There  were  Anabaptist 
tendencies  in  Switzerland  in  1523-24,  and 
some  declined  to  have  their  children  baptized, 
but  the  first  formal  repudiation  of  their  own 
baptism  in  infancy  by  persons  who  sought  the 
ordinance  on  profession  of  their  personal  faith 
occurred  in  January,  1525,  at  Ziirich.  From 
that  lime  Anabaptist  views  spread  rapidly,  and 
churches  were  formed  at  Zurich,  ZoUikon, 
Hallau,  St.  Gall,  and  elsewhere.  On  account 
of  persecution.  Anabaptists  were  driven  from 
place  to  place,  and  their  views  spread  through- 
out southern  Germany,  Austria,  the  Tyrol, 
Poland,  the  Low  Countries,  and  England. 
Prominent  among  the  Anabaptists  in  Switzer- 
land were  George  Blaurock,  Conrad  Grebel, 
Felix  Manz,  who  was  an  excellent  Hebrew 
scholar,   and     Balthazer    Hubmeier.       Hub- 


meierwas  pastor  of  a  large  Reformed  church, 
and  later  of  an  Anabaptist  church  at  Wald- 
shut,  just  across  the  Rhine  from  Switzerland, 
in  Austrian  territory.  He  disputed  with 
Zwingli  concerning  infant  baptism,  wrote 
against  intolerance,  was  imprisoned  at  Zurich, 
and  under  pressure  made  a  temporary  retrac- 
tion, which  he  entirely  withdrew  ;  after  which 
he  w^ent  to  Moravia  in  1526,  where  he  formed 
a  church.  He  was  arraigned  by  the  Austrian 
authorities,  and  burned  in  March,  1527,  at  Vi- 
enna, where,  three  days  after  his  death,  his  wife 
was  drowned  in  the  Danube.  His  writings  re- 
veal marked  ability  and  a  rare  spirit  of  devo- 
tion and  loyalty  to  Christ.  He  believed  in  the 
use  of  the  sword  for  civil  defence,  but  not  for 
religious  persecution.  He  was  a  man  of  pure 
character,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  schol- 
ars among  the  early  Anabaptists.  The  Swiss 
Anabaptists  have  been  unwarrantably  charged 
with  fanaticism  and  disloyalty.  The  famous 
case  of  the  fratricide  at  St.  Gall  has  been  con- 
clusively shown  to  be  attributable  to  either  in- 
toxication or  insanity.  The  Anabaptists  sol- 
emnly disclaimed  all  sympathy  with  such  ac- 
tion. The  better  class  of  Anabaptists  in 
Switzerland  and  elsewhere  believed  in  the  sole 
and  supreme  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  in 
the  separation  of  church  and  State,  in  the  vol- 
untary system  of  choosing  and  supporting 
pastors,  that  baptism  should  be  restricted  to 
professed  believers,  and  that  churches  should 
be  exclusively  composed  of  baptized  believers. 
Besides  these  views,  many  refused  to  take 
oaths,  to  bear  arms,  or  to  act  as  civil  magis- 
trates. Some  of  tliese  tenets  are  now  familiar 
as  those  which  have  been  transmitted  through 
the  Mennonites  to  the  modern  Friends.  Most 
Swiss  Anabaptists  held  with  Hubmeier  that 
in  this  wicked  world  civil  magistracy  is  neces- 
sary, and  the  laws  of  the  state  ought  to  be 
obeyed  when  they  do  not  contravene  the  dic- 
tates of  conscience.  But  these  men  anticipated 
modern  views  of  religious  toleration,  and  they 
could  not  act  as  magistrates  iu  the  enforce- 
ment of  laws  which  involved  persecution  for 
religious  opinions.  For  this  Hubmeier  and 
others  deserve  to  be  honored  as  men  who  were 
in  advance  of  their  age,  instead  of  being 
charged  with  want  of  patriotism  or  with  dis- 
regard for  social  order.  The  Swiss  Anabap- 
tists earnestly  co-operated  with  the  Reformers 
at  Ziirich,  in  opposition  to  the  errors  of  the  old 
church.  Yet  the  authorities  at  Ziirich,  with 
the  approval  of  Zwingli,  determined  to  crush 
by  force  opposition  to  infant  baptism  and  the 
growth  of  churches  formed  on  the  basis  of  a 
membership  restricted  to  those  who  professed 
personal  faith  in  Christ.  The  council  declared 
drowning  to  be  the  penalty  of  the  baptism  of 
those  adults  who  had  been  baptized  in  infancy. 
In  addition  to  the  large  number  who  were  im- 
prisoned or  banished,  not  less  than  6  persons 
were  put  to  death  at  Ziirich  as  Anabaptists. 
George  Wagner  and  Michael  Sattler,  in  south- 
ern Germany,  and  Hubmeier,  at  Vienna,  were 
put  to  death  by  Romanists,  but  Felix  Manz 
and  his  fellows  suffered  martyrdom  at  the 
hands  of  Zwinglians. 

III.  Mystics  and  Doctrin-al  Errorists.— 
Among  tlie  speculative  mystics  who  adopted 
Anabaptist  views,  John  Denk  and  Lewis  Hat- 


ANACHORITES 


(29) 


ANASTASIUS 


rcr  were  proiniuent.  Their  trauslatioii  of  tlie 
proplietical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  from 
the  Hebrew  original,  published  at  Augsburg, 
in  l/JST,  several  years  before  that  of  Luther, 
passed  through  several  editions  and  was  of 
acknowledged  merit.  From  the  rare  works 
of  Denk,  it  appears  that  he  believed  in  an 
inner  voice  or  illumination  and  a  natural  moral 
power  common  to  all  men,  in  the  freedoni  of 
the  will  in  a  more  appreciable  and  emphatic 
sense  than  Luther's  hold  to  freedom,  in  relig- 
ious toleration,  and  in  the  final  restoration  of 
all  men.  It  has  been  claimed  that  Denk  did 
not  believe  in  the  Deity  of  Christ.  lie  did  not 
discuss  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  technical 
terms  ;  but  if  w^e  make  proper  allowance  for 
the  mystical  vagueness  of  Denk's  writings, 
and  if  we  realize  his  profound  personal  loyalty 
to  Christ,  we  shall  find  it  ditiicult  and  even 
unjust  to  classify  Denk  with  avowed  Unita- 
rians. It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  his 
writings  do  not  contain  any  explicit  statement 
of  Trinitarian  doctrine.  Ilatzer  shared  Denk's 
mystical  views,  wrote  several  hymns  of  merit, 
and  was  "  a  model  translator  of  the  Bible,  and 
one  of  the  best  poets  of  the  old  Protestant 
Church"  (Beck).  lie  was  charged  with  hold- 
ing Anti-Trinitarian  views,  but  the  charge  is 
not  proved  (Keller).  There  were  some  Ana- 
baptists in  wdiom  the  spiritual  characteristics 
of  evangelical  Christians  blended  with  one- 
sided views  of  either  life  or  doctrine.  It  had 
been  almost  a  miracle  if,  in  the  rejection  of 
false  authority,  some  persons  had  not  become 
distrustful  of  truth  as  well  as  of  error.  Many 
Mystics,  Kationalists,  and  Anti-Trinitarians 
agreed  with  evangelical  Anabaptists  in  the 
opinion  that  the  New  Testament  does  not 
teach  infant  baptism.  The  spirit  of  Inquiry 
and  the  mental  freedom  which  characterizetl 
these  different  classes  gave  them  a  mutual  in- 
fluence over  each  other.  While  many  L^nita- 
riaus  rejected  infant  baptism  and  some  omitted 
the  ceremony  of  baptism  altogether,  the  spec- 
ulative difficulties  of  Unitarians  may  have  un- 
duly affected  not  a  few  reverent  men  like  Denk 
and  Ilatzer,  and  especially  those  Anabaptists 
who  took  refuge  in  Poland.  The  large  body 
of  carU'  Swiss  Anabaptists  firmlv  believed  in 
the  Deity  of  Christ. 

LiTEUATUKE.  —  Important  collections  of 
Anabaptist  literature  are  in  the  libraries  of  the 
liochester  and  the  Crozer  theological  sem- 
inaries. It  is  in  German,  as  are  also  the  best 
works  on  the  subject,  by  Cornelius,  Keller, 
and  Dr.  Joseph  licck.  'in  English  the  best 
book  is  H.  S.  Burrage,  A  JIist»ri/  of  the  Ana- 
haptixts  ill  Sw'izeiiaml,  Philadelphia,  1«82  ; 
see  also  llie  Iliistories  of  the  Baptists  bv  Crosby 
(London,  1738-40,  4  vols.)  ;  Cramp  (Philadel- 
phia, 1869);  and  Armitagc  (N.  Y.,  1886). 
The  last  contains  a  translation  of  the  Schleit- 
heim  Confession,  which  is  among  the  earliest 
and  most  interesting  formal  statements  of  doc- 
trine held  by  the  evangelical  Anabaptists.  It 
is  a  letter  of  uncertain'authorship,  dated  Feb. 
24,  1527,  and  addressed  by  "  certain  believing 
baptized  children  of  God  ...  to  the  congre- 
gations of  believing  baptized  Christians. "  (See 
pp.  949-52.)  B.  O.  Trit:. 

Anachorites.    See  ANcnoRiTES. 


An-a-cle'-tus,  popes  of  that  name.  1.  Ro- 
man presbyter-liishop  in  the  earliest  times. 
His  historical  reality  has  been  questioned,  but 
tradhion  is  too  clear  in  his  favor.  By  some 
he  is  reckoned  as  the  third,  and  by  some  as  the 
second  from  Peter.  2.  An  unli-pope  (Peter 
Pierleoni),  Feb.  14,  1130— Jan.  25.  1138.  De- 
scended from  a  powerful  Jewish  family,  he 
was  rai)idly  advanced  in  the  ]iapal  court,  be- 
ing created  cardinal  in  llKi,  and  elected  jiopc 
in  1180.  The  cardinals  of  the  imperial  fac- 
tion, however,  hastily  elected  and  inaugurated 
a  certain  Gregory  as  Innocent  II.  Anacletus 
compelled  his  ru-al  to  lly,  but  ])oiitical  mis- 
takes which  he  made  finally  decided  the  em- 
peror against  him,  and  at  last  he  was  forsaken 
by  all  his  adherents,  and  was  only  saved  from 
his  adversaries  by  the  hand  of  death.        F, 

Anagnost.    See  Lector. 

Anagogical  (Greek,  to  "  lead  "  or  "  bring 
up"),  a  method  of  Scripture  inter])rctation, 
very  popular  in  the  ]\Iid(llc  Ages,  by  which  the 
text  is  interpreted  in  its  bearings  on  future 
and  heavenly  things  and  conditions. 

Analogy  of  Faith.    See  Faith,  IIerme- 

NEUTICS. 

Anam'-me-lech,  the  name  of  an  idol  deity  of 
Seplarvaim,  introduced  into  Samaria  by  the 
As.syrian  settlers  (2  Kings  xvii.  31).  It  repre- 
sented the  females  ])ower  of  the  sun,  as  Adram- 
melech  did  the  male  power.  C. 

An-a-ni-aa  {Jcliorah  is  ffradous).  1.  A  pro- 
fessed convert  of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem, 
who  having  sold  his  estate  for  the  benefit  of 
the  church  kept  back  a  part  of  the  jirice.  Be- 
ing charged  by  Peter  with  his  sin  he  fell  down 
dc^ulon'the  spot.  His  wife  Sappliira  after- 
ward having  committed  the  same  sin  suffered 
the  same  doom  (Acts  v.  1-10).  2.  A  devout 
disciple  at  Damascus,  who  was  commissioned 
to  visit  Paul  after  his  conversion  and  restore 
to  him  his  sight  (Acts  ix.  10-18).  3.  A  mrm 
appointed  bv  Herod  high-priest  A.i).  48,  l)e- 
fore  whom  Paul  was  arraigned,  and  who  after- 
ward became  one  of  his  accusers  l)efore  Feli.x 
(Acts  xxiii.  2,  xxiv.  1,  xxv.  2).  lb;  died  mis- 
erably at  the  outbreak  of  the  hist  Jewish 
war.  t-'. 

Anaph'-ora  (raisin ff  vp).  1.  A  designation 
in  the  Greek  Churcli  for  the  Eucharist,  espe- 
cially the  closing  part.  2.  Among  tlie  Copts 
the  service  book.     3.  The  cover  of  the  chalice. 

An-as-ta'-si-us,  popes  of  that  name.  1.  Pojw 
398-402,  took  part  in  the  controversy  al)0ut 
Origen,  condenming  his  writings  nn<l  forbid- 
ding communion  with  Kufinxis,  who  had  trans- 
lated one  of  them.  He  also  opposed  the  Dona- 
tists.  2.  Pope  41)6-498.  He  was  earnestly  dc- 
.sirous  of  healing  the  schism  whicii  existed  in 
his  day  between  Rome  and  Constantinople, 
but  went  too  far  in  this,  and  wa.s  styled  in  a 
decree  of  Gratian's  "one  ca.st  out  by  the 
church."  For  this  rea.son  lie  was  termcil  a 
heretic  till  the  16th  century  by  church  writers. 
3.  Pope  911-913.  4.  Pope  1153-54,  was  a 
decided  opponent  of  Anaclctus  II.  in  the  elec- 
tion of  1130.  lie  recognizcil  Wiclimann  na, 
bishop  of  Naumburg  and  William  a.-*  anli- 
bibhop  of  York,  and  thus  healed  two  impor- 


ANASTASIUS 


(30 


ANDREAS 


tant  ecclesiastical  quarrels. — The  remaining 
Anastasius  was  an  anti-pope  to  Benedict  III., 
in  855.  As  cardinal- priest  he  had  shown  a 
great  deal  of  contempt  for  the  commands  of  the 
pope,  and  had  kept  himself  in  Illyria  against 
repeated  summons  home.  He  was  first  ex- 
communicated (850),  and  finally  put  under 
the  ban  (853).  When  in  855  Leo  died  and 
Benedict  was  chosen  in  his  place.  Anastasius, 
collecting  his  friends,  gained  the  imperial  am- 
bassadors for  himself,  and  then  penetrated  the 
Vatican  itself,  and  dragged  the  pope  from  his 
throne  and  subjected  him  to  indignities.  But 
Rome  stood  by  the  pope,  and  Anastasius  was 
defeated,  and  speedily  degraded.  F. 

An-as-ta'-si-us  Sinaita,  abbot  and  priest  at 
Mt.  Sinai  ;  d.  700  ;  famed  through  his  writ- 
ings in  the  Monophysite  and  Monothelite  con- 
troversies and  on  other  topics,  and  fi'om  living 
a  life  of  contemplation  amid  the  Sinailic  Moun- 
tains called  the  "New  Moses."  (Cf.  Migne, 
Pat.  Gneca,  LXXXIX.) 

A-nath'-e-ma,  what  is  set  apart  or  devoted — 
that  is,  to  destruction.  Hence  accursed,  in 
which  sense  Paul  uses  it  in  Rom.  ix.  3  and 
Gal.  i.  8,  9.  The  phrase  in  1  Cor.  xvi.  22 
strengthens  the  curse  that  is  pronounced  by 
adding  two  Syriac  words,  maran  atha  =  the 
Lord  Cometh,  implying  that  when  he  comes 
the  due  retribution  "will  be  inflicted.  C. 

An-a-to'-li-us,  d.  bishop  of  Constantinople, 
458  ;  wrote  "  Fierce  was  the  wild  Billow,"  and 
other  hymns  translated  by  Neale,  Hymns  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  London,  1863. 

Anchieta  (an-she-a'-ta),  Jose  de,  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary, "  the  apostle  of  Brazil  ;"  b.  at  Tene- 
riffe,  1538  ;  went  to  Brazil,  1553  ;  d.  at  Reli- 
rygba,  near  Vitoria,  Eastern  Brazil,  1597,  after 
a  laborious  life.  Notwithstanding  earnest  re- 
quests therefor,  he  has  not  yet  been  canonized. 
His  Brazilian  grammar  (Coimbra,  1595)  is  a 
cla.ssic. 

Anchorites,  hermits,  or  monks  who  live 
alone,  engaged  in  the  practices  of  asceticism. 
They  play  a  considerable  part  in  the  tradition- 
al account  of  the  rise  of  monasticism.  It  is 
said  that  they  were  first  known  in  the  times 
of  the  early  persecutions,  when  many  fled  from 
tlie  dangers  about  them,  and  subsequently 
took  up  their  permanent  abode  away  from  the 
resorts  and  sinful  practices  of  men.  They 
lived  in  holes  and  caves,  sometimes  upon  lofty 
pillars  (Stylites),  sometimes  performed  all 
kinds  of  strange  vows,  as  to  stand  with  the 
hands  e^er  stretched  out  toward  heaven  in 
prayer,  without  care  for  food  or  sleep.  In  the 
deyelopmont  of  Egyptian  monasticism  the 
first  of  these  anchorites  is  said  to  have  been 
Paul  of  Thebes  (q.v.),  who  was  followed  bv 
St.  Anthony  (q.v.).  after  whom  monks  begaii 
to  be  gathered  by  Pachomius  (q.v.)  into  asso- 
ciations or  convents.  But  all  this  is  now  much 
questioned  (see  art.  Anthony,  St.).  Ancho- 
rites have  continued  to  exist  to  the  present 
times,  and  are  much  more  common  in  the  East 
than  the  West,  where  they  have  often  been 
arrested  and  relegated  to  the  regular  cloisters. 
Most  of  the  regular  orders,  however,  trace 
their  origin  to  some  anchorite.  F. 

Anderledy,  Antonius,  Jesuit  general ;  b.  at 


Brieg,  Canton  Wallis,  Switzerland,  June  3, 
1819  ;  entered  the  Jesuit  order,  1888  ;  went  to 
America,  and  was  pastor  at  Green  Bay,  Mich., 
1848  ;  returning  to  Europe  became  rector  of 
the  Jesuit  establishment  at  Cologne,  1853  ;  of 
the  college  at  Paderborn,  1856  ;  provincial  of 
the  order,  1859  ;  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
(1865).  and  rector  at  Maria-Laach  (1869),  which 
he  raised  to  the  first  rank  among  the  Jesuit 
institutions  in  Germany  ;  assistant  to  the  gen- 
eral. Becks,  1870  ;  his  "vicar,  1883,  and  succes- 
sor, 1884. 

Anderson,  Lars  (Laurentius  Andrese), 
Sw^edish  reformer  ;  b.  at  StrengnJis,  1480  ;  d. 
there,  April  29,  1552.  \Vhile  chancellor  of 
Gustavus  (I )  Vasa  he  introduced  the  Refor- 
mation into  Sweden,  1523  ;  published  the  New 
Testament  in  Swedish,  1526  ;  and  the  whole 
Bible,  1541  (translated  by  himself  and  Olaus 
Petri)  ;  condemned  to  death  for  knowing  of, 
without  revealhig  to  the  authorities,  a  plot  to 
murder  the  king,  he  was  pardoned,  1540,  and 
lived  afterward  in  retirement.  (Cf.  Julius 
Weidling,  Schwedische  Geschichte  im  Zeitalter 
der  Reformation,  Gotha,  1882.) 

Anderson,  Rufus,  D.D.  (Dartmouth,  1836). 
LL.D.  (Bowdoin.  1868) ;  b.  at  North  Yarmouth, 
Me.,  Aug.  17,  1796  ;  d.  in  Bo.ston,  Mass.,  May 
30,  1880.  Graduated  at  Bowdoin  College, 
1818,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1822 ;  became  assistant  to  corresponding 
secretary  of  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  1822  ;  assistant 
secretary,  1824  ;  foreign  secretary,  1832  ; 
lecturer  on  foreign  missions,  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1867  ;  since  1869  retired. 
His  name  is  indissolubly  linked  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions.  In  1828, 1843, 1854,  and 
1863  he  made  a  tour  of  inspection  for  the  board 
through  their  missions  in  the  Mediterranean, 
among  the  Indians,  and  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  respectively.  His  published  works 
include  Observations  on  the  Peloponnesus  and 
Greek  Islands,  Boston,  1830  ;  Foreign  Missions, 
their  Relations  and  Claims.  N.  Y.,  1869;  A 
Heathen  Nation  Evangelized  [Sandwich  Island- 
ers], 1870  ;  History  of  the  Missions  of  A.  B. 
G.  F.  M.  to  the  Oriental  Churches,  1872,  2  vols., 
[and]  in  India,  1874. 

Andrea  (an-dra-a).  1.  Jakob,  D.D.  (Tu- 
bingen, 1553),  Lutheran  theologian  ;  b.  at 
Waiblingen,  Wiirtemberg,  March  25,  1528  ; 
studied  in  Tubingen  ;  founded  with  Vergeriu.s 
the  first  Bible  society  for  the  Slavonic  nations, 
1555  ;  professor  of  theology,  provost  and 
chancellor  of  Tubingen  University,  1562  ; 
was  the  prime  promoter  of  the  Form  of  Con- 
cord (see  art.),  1577  ;  d.  at  Tubingen,  Jan.  7. 
1590.  (Cf.  Schafl:,  Creeds,  vol.  i.,  p.  308.) 
2.  Johann  Valentin,  D.D.  (Tubingen,  1641), 
grandson  of  preceding  ;  b.  at  Herrenberg, 
Wiirtemberg,  Aug.  17,  1586  ;  studied  at  Tu- 
bingen, became  court-preacher  and  consistorial 
counsellor  at  Stuttgart,  1689  ;  abbot  of  Beben- 
hausen,  1650  ;  d.  at  Stuttgart,  June  27,  1654. 
Both  the  above  were  voluminous  writers. 

An-dre'-as  Cratensis  {Andrew  of  Crete)  ; 
b.  at  Damascus  about  635  ;  became  monk  at 
Jerusalem,  deacon  at  Constantinople, and  arch- 
bishop of  Crete,  sat  in  the  Monothelite  Synod, 


ANDREWES 


(31) 


ANIMALS 


712,  but  d.  in  the  orthodox  faith,  720.  He 
■was  the  inventor  of  the  canons  sung  in  the 
Greek  Church. 

Andrewres,  Lancelot,  b.  in  Tliames  street, 
parisli  of  All  Hallows,  Barking,  London,  Sept. 
25,  1555  ;  d.  at  Winchester  House,  Southwark, 
London,  Sept.  25,  1626.  Educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, he  became  master  of  Pembroke  Hall  in 
that  university,  1589,  and  also  dean  of  West- 
minster, 1601";  bishop  of  Chichester,  1605  ; 
translated  to  Elv,  1609,  and  to  Winchester, 
1619.  He  heads  "the  list  of  King  James'  Bible 
Revisers  (1607-11).  He  was  eminent  as  a  prel- 
ate, as  a  patristic  scholar,  as  a  preacher,  and 
as  an  author.  His  works  are  in  the  Library  of 
Anglo-Catholic  Theology,  Oxford,  1841-43,  5 
vols.  Best  known  and  most  useful  are  his  lit- 
tle devotional  works,  written  by  him  origi- 
nally in  Greek  and  Latin,  translated,  Ivondou, 
1648  ;  latest  ed.,  Primte  Devotions,  1883.  See 
also  his  Seventeen  Sermons  on  the  Nativity, 
n.e.,  London,  1887. 

An'-drew,  a  fisherman  of  Bethsaida.  who 
having  been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist, 
was  called  to  bo  an  apostle,  and  then  brought 
his  brother  to  the  Saviour.  Mention  is  made 
of  him  in  John  i.  35-40,  vi.  3-13,  and  xii.  22, 
Mark  xiii.  3.  Tradition  saj's  that  he  preached 
the  gospel  in  Scythia  and  Achaia,  where  he 
is  reported  to  have  been  crucified  on  a  pecu- 
liarly shaped  cross  (X),  which  hence  is  known 
as  St.  Andreic's  cross.  St.  Andrew's  Day  is 
Nov.  30.  C. 

An'-gel,  a  term  which  in  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  languages  means  messenger,  and  as  such 
is  applied  to  men.  But  in  most  cases  it  desig- 
nates a  class  of  spiritual  beings  whom  God 
uses  to  carry  out  his  will.  We  know  of  them 
only  what  the  Scripture  reveals.  From  this 
we  learn  that  they  are  holy  and  elect,  of  pro- 
digious strength  and  inconceivable  activity, 
who  sustain  an  important  office  in  the  admin- 
istration of  God's  government  on  earth,  and 
are  especially  employed  in  doing  service  to  the 
lieirs  of  salvation.  They  appear  in  every  im- 
portant stage  in  the  history  of  revelation,  were 
present  at  the  creation  (Job  xxxviii.  7),  minis- 
tered to  the  patriarchs  Abraham  and  Jacob 
(Gen.  xviii.,  xxxii.  1,  2)  ;  had  part  in  the  giv- 
ing of  the  law  (Acts  vii.  53,  Gal.  iii.  19)  ;  were 
present  at  Christ's  birth  (Luke  ii.  9-13)  ;  in 
his  agony  (Luke  xxii.  43)  ;  at  his  resurrection 
(Matt,  xxviii.  2)  ;  and  will  attend  him  at  the 
final  judgment  (Matt.  xiii.  41).  They  rejoice 
over  every  penitent  soul  (Luke  xv.  10),  are 
present  in  Christian  congregations  (1  Cor.  ix. 
10),  arc  guardians  of  Christ's  little  ones  (Matt, 
xviii.  10),  carry  the  dying  believer's  soul  to 
Paradi.se  (Luke  xvi.  22),  and  are  the  compan- 
ions of  the  saved,  here  and  liereaftcr  (Heb.  xii. 
23,  Rev.  V.  11).  Worship  and  .service  are  their 
twofold  function  as  priests  in  the  heavenly 
temple  (Isa.  vi.  1-3).  and  thence  sent  forth  on 
God's  missions  of  love  and  justice  (Ps.  xci.  11, 
12,  Matt.  xxiv.  31).  They  are  of  various  ranks 
and  orders,  "  the  principalities  and  the  powers 
in  heavenly  places"  (Eph.  iii.  10),  but  are  not 
proper  objects  of  adoration,  this  being  express- 
ly forbidden  (Col.  ii.  18,  Rev.  xix.  10.  xxii.  9). 
One  nrchanqel  or  angel  chief  is  mentioned  in 
1  Thess.  iv.  16  and  Jude  9.      The  angd  of 


the  Lord  in  such  passages  as  Gen.  xvi.  7, 
where  divine  works  are  a.scribed  to  him  i.s 
usually  considered  to  denote  the  eternal  word, 
the  manifestation  of  the  invisible  God  ;  and 
the  angel  of  his  presence  in  the  notable  state- 
ment of  Lsaiah  (Ixiii.  9)  denotes  not  Gabriel 
who  stands  "  in  the  presence  of  God  "  (Luko 
i.  19),  but  the  angel  in  whom  Jehovah  Ava.s 
personally  present.  C. 

Angel  of  the  Church,  a  generic  term  denot- 
ing those  who  are  the  representatives  of  the 
congregation,  or,  according  to  Bishop  Light - 
foot,  they  are  as  stars  in  tlie  heavenly  avofM 
what  the  candlesticks  are  in  the  lower  earth 
(Rev.  i.  20).  C. 

An-gel'-a  Merici,  b.  at  Desenzano,  1470  ; 
founded  at  Brescia  the  order  of  the  Ursulines, 
1535  ;  d.  there,  Jan.  27,  1540.  Life  by  Sint- 
zel,  Regensburg,  1842  ;  and  by  At,  Tulle,  1885. 

Angelicals,  an  order  of  nuns  foiinded  by 
the  twice-widowed  and  very  weallliy  Countess 
Luigia  di  Torelli  of  Guastalla,  at  Milan,  Italy, 
about  1530.  Its  constitutions  were  drawn  up 
by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  archbi.shop  of  Milan, 
following  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine.  Each 
nun  prefixed  the  name  of  "  Angelica"  to  lliat 
of  a  patron  saint  and  her  familj'^  name,  in  orikr 
to  be  reminded  constantly  of  her  duty  to  bring 
herself  to  the  purity  of  the  angels.  The  popo 
put  the  order  under  the  conduct  of  tiie  gen- 
eral of  the  Barnabites.     It  no  longer  exists. 

Angelus.    See  Ave  Maui.^. 

An-gel'-us  Silesius  (properly,  Johann  Schef- 
fer),  M.D.  (Padua,  1C48),  lionian  Catholic 
mystic  ;  b.  at  Breslau,  1624  ;  d.  there,  July  9, 
1677.  He  studied  medicine  ;  being  a  convert 
of  Boehme's,  he  was  persecuted  by  the  Luther- 
an clergy  ;  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  1653  ; 
priest  and  Minorite,  1661,  and  took  the  name 
Angelus.  His  pro.se  polemical  writings  wen; 
published  under  the  title  Ecclesiologia,  Nei'^.se 
u.  Glatz,  1677.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest 
poets  of  his  day  in  Germany,  and  his  ])oem3 
are  still  in  print.  (See  liis  life  by  Kahlert, 
Breslau,   1853  ;  Treblin.  1877.) 

Anglican  Church.   See  Episcgp.vl  Ciu'Rcii. 
Anglo-Catholics,  name  jjreferred  l)y  a  i>arty 
in  the  Church  of  England. 

Anglo-Saxon.s,    Conversion    of.     See  Au- 

GrSTINE,   El'ISCOIWL  Clll  lUII. 

Angus,  Joseph,  D.D.  (Brown  University, 
1852).  Baptist  ;  1).  at  Bolam,  IS'orthumlH  rland. 
Enixland,  Jan.  16.  1816  ;  graduated  31. A.  at 
Edinburgh ;  since  1849  has  been  president  of 
Regent's  Park  College.  London.  He  wrote 
Bihle  ] In  lid-hook.  London,  1854  ;  Hand-book 
of  EnglisJi  JAterainrc,  1805. 

A-nl-ce'-tus,  bi.shop  of  Rome  161  or  168  (?). 
known  priinii)ally  for  having  permitted  Poly- 
carp  when  ]w  came  to  Rome  to  celebrate  llic 
commimion  publicly,  though  lie  did  not  re- 
ceive the  Roman  method  of  observing   Ea.'-t- 

An'-imals  in  Hebrew  Law.  They  were  dis- 
tinguished into  dean  and  unclean,  a  li.st  of 
each  of  which  is  given  in  T>ev.  xi..  and  an  ab- 
stract of  the  same  in  Dcut.  xiv.     But  the  dia- 


ANNA 


(32) 


ANSGAR 


tinction  existed  much  earlier,  being  mentioned 
in  the  account  of  the  deluge  (Gen.  vii.  2). 
Indeed,  it  is  with  reason  asserted  to  exist  in 
nature,  since  every  tribe  of  mankind  would 
discriminate  between  the  sheep  and  the  hyena, 
the  pigeon  and  the  vulture  as  articles  of 
food.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  in  general,  as 
to  both  quadrupeds  and  birds,  the  law  resulted 
in  excluding  such  as  themselves  fed  on  flesh. 
The  exceptions  to  this  rule,  such  as  the  hare,  the 
ass,  the  camel,  the  swine,  the  serpent,  and  other 
creeping  things,  may  b&  accounted  for  partly 
OQ  economic  reasons  so  far  as  any  of  these 
were  serviceable  animals,  partly  on  sanitary 
grounds  as  to  the  use  of  pork  in  hot  climates, 
and  partly  on  instinctive  aversions,  as  the  ser- 
pent was  forever  associated  with  the  sad  fall 
in  Eden.  Yet  we  cannot  doubt  that  this  dis- 
crimination rested  on  still  higher  grounds, 
since  some  creeping  things  Avere  not  only  not 
allowed  a?  food,  but  by  contact  caused  an  un- 
cleanness  that  required  purification.  In  truth 
they  were  educational  in  their  effects,  and 
made  part  of  an  extensive  sj'stem  by  which 
the  people  were  Incessantly  reminded  of  their 
duty  to  be  holy  as  God  is  holy,  and  to  abstain 
from  the  least  appearance  of  pollution.  For 
sacrifice  only  such  animals  were  taken  as  were 
most  common  with  the  people,  and,  generally 
speaking,  most  useful.  Besides  cattle,  sheep, 
and  goats  of  both  sexes,  pigeons  and  turtle- 
doves were  permitted,  and  in  cases  of  extreme 
necessity  the  last  two  might  be  substituted  for 
the  others.  Whatever  was  offered  must  be 
without  blemish,  and  at  least  8  days  old. 
Maiachi  denounced  (i.  8)  in  vehement  terms 
the  disregard  of  this  rule  in  his  day.  The  use 
of  human -sacrifices  was  severely  prohibited 
(Lev.  xviii.  21,  xx.  2).  C. 

An'-na,  a  prophetess  of  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
who  after  7  years  of  married  life  became  a 
widow  and  devoted  herself  to  constant  attend- 
ance upon  the  services  of  the  temple.  In  her 
85th  year  she  heard  the  prophetic  blessing  of 
the  aged  Simeon  upon  the  infant  Jesus  (Luke 
i.  36-38),  and  joined  in  giving  thanks  to 
God.  C. 

An'-nas,  appointed  high- priest  by  Quirinus, 
A.D.  7,  and  removed  hj  Valerius  Gratus,  a.d. 
23  ;  he  continued  to  hold  the  title  after  his  dep- 
osition, and  though  his  son-in-law  Caiaphas 
Avas  the  actual  high-priest,  he  was  the  ruling 
power,  and  retained  his  influence  for  50  years, 
having  5  sons  in  succession  in  the  office.  Our 
Lord  when  seized  was  first  brought  before  him 
(John  xviii.  13),  and  he  was  mainly  responsible 
for  the  crucifixion.  He  was  also  president  of 
the  Sanhedrin  before  whom  Peter  and  John 
were  brought  (Acts  iv.  6).  C. 

Annates,  or  first-fruits,  a  certain  portion  of 
the  revenues  of  vacant  benefices  which  ought 
to  be  paid  to  the  pope,  but  which  now  form 
"  a  scarcely  appreciable  portion"  of  the  papal 
revenues.     (Cf.  Addis  and  Arnold,  s.v.) 

Annihilationism,  the  doctrine  of  those  who 
hold  that  the  everlasting  punishment  of  the 
wicked  consists  in  their  being  literally  de- 
stroyed. Its  ablest  recent  expositor  is  the  Rev. 
Edward  White,  of  London  {Life  in  Christ, 
London,  1875 ;  8d  ed.,  1878),  and  it  has  attained 


some  prevalence,  although  it  is  against  the  let- 
ter and  the  spirit  of  the  Bible,  as  well  as 
against  the  consensus  of  Christendom  in  all 
ages.  C. 

Annulus.     See  Ring. 

Annunciade,  two  nun's  orders,  founded  (1) 
in  1500  by  Johanna  of  Valois,  the  divorced 
wife  of  Louis  XII.  of  France  ;  (2)  in  1604  by 
Maria  Victoria  Fornari. 

Annunciation,  the  title  given  to  the  angel's 
joyful  message  to  the  Virgin  Mary  respecting 
the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God  (Luke  i.  26 
sqq.).  It  is  also  used  to  denote  a  festival  kept 
on  March  25  in  commemoration  of  this  event 
since  the  6th  century.  C. 

Anomoeans  (from  dissimilar),  those  radical 
Arians  who  htild  that  the  Son  was  dissimilar  to 
the  Father  and  of  a  different  substance  ;  also 
called  Anomoiites.     See  Akius,  p.  44. 

An'-selm  of  Canterbury,  b.  at  Aosta,  Italy, 
about  1033  ;  d.  at  Canterbury,  Wednesday, 
April  21,  1109.  He  came  of  a  noble  Lombard 
family.  As  a  child  he  thought  on  religious 
things,  and  would  gladly  have  entered  a  mon- 
astery. Later,  he  gave  himself  up  somewhat 
to  the  follies  of  the  world  ;  but  recovered  from 
this,  and  not  in  the  best  of  relations  with  his 
father,  he  determined  to  carry  out  his  childish 
idea,  and  selected  Bee  in  Normandy  on  account 
of  the  fame  of  Lanfranc.  Here  his  mind  was 
roused,  and  he  was  at  first  inclined  to  a  literary 
career  ;  but  recognizing  the  vanity  which 
was  threatening  to  gain  possession  of  his  soul, 
he  turned  monk  instead.  The  monastic  life 
was  good  for  him,  and  he  became  a  very  mild 
and  gentleman,  whose  principal  characteristic 
was  the  spirit  of  love.  In  1063  he  was  elected 
prior  of  Bee,  and  in  1078  abbot.  In  these  po- 
sitions he  won  great  fame  as  a  teacher.  In 
1098  William  Iirof  England  determined,  after 
long  delay,  to  fill  the  s"ee  of  Canterbur^y,  and 
selected  Anselm  for  the  post.  His  ideas  of 
the  relation  of  church  and  state  were  such  that 
he  foresaw  conflict,  and  would  gladly  have 
been  spared  the  responsibility.  As  archbishop 
he  was  involved  in  continual  difficulty,  but 
yet  was  able  finally,  through  his  compliant 
and  friendly  disposition,  without  sacrificing 
the  rights  of  the  church  as  he  saw^  them,  to 
bring  about  a  peaceful  solution.  Yet  in  1097 
he  had  been  exiled  by  the  king.  He  was  a 
truly  noble  character,  of  true  spiritual  pur- 
poses in  his  ecclesiastical  labors.  He  is  also 
equally  or  even  more  famous  as  a  writer  than 
a  bishop.  He  was  properly  the  founder  of 
scholasticism.  His  writings  are  both  philo- 
sophical and  theological.  Among  the  latter 
the  most  famous  are'ihat  on  the  Incarnation, 
Car  Dcus  Homo?  (Eng.  trans.,  n.e.,  London, 
1887),  and  one  upon  Predestination.  (In  Eng- 
lish translation  are  his  Meditations  mid  Pray- 
ers, London,  1872.)  Complete  works  in  Migne, 
Pat.  Lat.  CLV.  See  his  life  by  Hasse,  Leip- 
zig, 1843-52,  2  vols,  (abridged  trans.,  London, 
1850)  ;  Church,  London,  1875  ;  Rule,  1882, 
2  vols. ;  cf .  Freeman,  William  liufus.  See 
Atonement.  F, 

Anselm  of  Lucca.     See  Alexander  II. 

Ans'-gar,  b.  about  800,  near  Amiens,  Pic- 
ardy  ;  d.  at  Bremen,  Germany,  Feb.  3,  865  ; 


ANTEPENDIUM 


(33) 


ANTHROPOLOQT 


was  the  earliest  missionary  to  Scandinavia. 
He  was  educated  in  tlie  monastery  of  Corbie, 
and  when  an  offshoot  of  that  institution  was 
formed  in  622  in  Westphalia,  he  removed 
thither.  When  King  Harald,  of  Denmark, 
desired  a  missionary  in  826  for  his  country, 
Ausgar  was  chosen  and  despatched  with'Aut- 
bert.  They  worked  some  time  in  the  vicinity 
of  Schleswig,  but  were  compelled  with  the 
king  to  leave  the  land.  Meantime  the  request 
for  a  missionary  had  come  from  Sweden,  and 
for  more  than  a  year  Ansgar  labored  success- 
fully there,  returning  in  831.  The  same  year 
saw' the  erection  of  the  missionary  bishopric 
of  Hamburg,  of  which  Ansgar  was  the  first 
incumbent.  For  some  years  this  was  the  base 
of  operations  in  Denmark,  but  in  845  the  city 
of  Hamburg  was  destroyed,  and  the  church 
and  library  burnt.  Ansgar  fled,  and  was  made 
the  following  year  bishop  of  Bremen,  where 
he  ended  his  life  in  the  exercise  of  the  ascetic 
piety  of  that  day.  The  missionary  work  was 
continued  from  this  new  centre  as  formerly 
from  Hamburg.  Life  by  Tappehorn,  Miin- 
ster,  1863.  F. 

Antependium,  a  hanging  in  front  of  an  altar. 

Anterus,  bishop  of  Rome  from  Nov.  21, 
235,  to  Jan.  3,  236. 

Anthem  (from  Antiphon,  q.v.),  originally  a 
hymn  sung  in  parts  alternately,  but  in  ordi- 
nary usage  a  portion  of  scripture  or  liturgy 
sung  to  varied  consecutive  strains,  admitting 
of  every  diversity  of  solo,  verse,  and  chorus. 

Anthologion,  the  book  in  the  Greek  Church 
in  which  the  hymns,  prayers,  and  scripture 
readings  to  be  chanted  on  the  different  feast 
and  saints'  da^'s  are  arranged  according  to 
the  months. 

An'-thony,  St.,  the  reputed  founder  of  mo- 
naslicism  in  Egypt.  Our  knowledge  of  him  is 
derived  from  the  biography  attribixted  to 
Athanasius.  According  to  this,  he  was  b. 
about  251,  of  Christian  parents,  at  Coma, 
Egypt  ;  d.  near  the  Red  Sea,  356.  He  did  not 
know  how  to  read,  but  hearing  the  passage 
about  the  young  man  who  was  directed  to  sell 
all  that  he  had  and  follow  Christ,  read  in 
church,  he  imitated  his  example,  and  leaving 
only  enough  for  the  support  of  his  sister,  and 
finally  selling  even  that,  he  gave  all  he  had  to 
tiie  poor  aod  entered  upon  the  life  of  an  an- 
chorite. He  sojourned  in  several  places,  ever 
removing  farther  and  farther  from  mankind, 
and  contented  himself  with  the  most  meagre 
support.  In  the  course  of  time  he  became  very 
famous,  and  was  much  resorted  to  by  younger 
men  for  instruction  in  the  ascetic  life.  Twice 
he  appeared  again  among  men,  in  Alexandria; 
in  311,  during  the  persecution,  in  the  hope  of 
gaining  the  crown  of  martyrdom,  and  again 
in  351  to  bear  witness  to  the  orthodox  faith  in 
behalf  of  his  friend  Athanasius.  Finally  he 
died,  105  years  old,  and  by  liis  direction  the 
place  of  his  burial  was  concx?aled,  but  wa.s 
afterward  miraculously  discovered.  Many  of 
his  sayings  are  reported  in  Athanasius'  life, 
and  are  full  of  common-sense  and  mucli 
Christian  insight.  Long  discourses  on  mo- 
nastic ideals  and  other  themes  are  given.  Many 
miracles  are  also  related  of  him,  as  well  as 


many  temptations  victoriously  sustained.  But 
the  researches  of  Weingarten  {Dev  Umpning 
des  Moiichthtdits,  Gotlia,  1877)  seem  to  make 
it  most  probable  that  the  book  from  whicli 
this  story  is  drawn  is  not  a  production  of 
Athanasius,  and  that  St.  Anthony  is  scarcely 
to  be  regarded  as  an  historical  personage.  The 
style  of  tlic  iiarrutive  is  beneath  that  of  Atha- 
nasius' well-established  writings,  tJiere  are  in- 
consistencies with  the  genuine  writings  in  it, 
the  miraculous  element  discredits  it,  and  the 
discourses  contained  are  utterly  vmhistorical. 
Such  a  monk  as  Anthony  is  represented  to  be 
would  never  be  found  quoting  the  Greek 
classics.  F. 

Anthony,  St.,  Order  of,  was  founded  in 
1095,  in  consequence  of  the  answer  of  a  prayer 
made  at  the  alleged  grave  of  St.  Anthony. 
There  was  a  great  sickness  in  that  ])arl  of 
France  (the  Dauphine),  and  the  son  of  a  rich 
nobleman  had  fallen  sick.  He  vowed  his 
whole  property  to  the  saint  if  his  son  should 
be  restored.  When  this  had  taken  place  he 
erected  a  hospital  and  gave  himself  with  his 
sons  and  eight  companions  to  the  care  of  the 
sick.  These  lay-brethren  built  a  church 
(1208),  became  monks  in  1228.  and  in  1297 
regular  canonicals  with  the  rule  of  St.  Au- 
gustine. They  were  mendicants,  spread  ex- 
tensively in  France,  German,  and  Italy,  but 
declined  in  character,  and  in  the  period  of  the 
Refornfation  were  much  in  disfavor.         F. 

Anthony  de  Dominis.     See  Domin'is. 

Anthony,  of  Padua,  b.  at  Lisbon,  Aug.  15. 
1195  ;  entered  first  the  Augustinian,  1210,  and 
then  the  Franciscan  order,  1220  ;  went  as 
missionary  to  Africa,  1221  ;  was  later  a  pow- 
erful revival-preacher  in  Southern  France  and 
Upper  Italy  ;  opposed  the  mitigations  of  the 
Franciscan  rule  introduced  by  the  general 
Elias  of  Cortona  ;  d.  at  Padua.  1231  ;  on  the 
strength  of  his  alleged  miracles  canoni/.ed 
1232.  His  day  is  June  13.  He  is  said  once 
to  have  preached  to  the  fishes,  because  men 
would  not  listen  to  him  ;  and  hence  is  the 
patron  saint  of  the  dumb  creation.  (See  his 
mystical  and  ascetic  writings,  ed.  Horoy,  Mcdii 
mvi  biblioth.  pat.,  vol.  vi.  sqq.  ;  1880,  sqq.) 
Life  by  Seebcick,  Mainz.  1878. 

Anthropology  {the  doctrine  of  man),  in  the 
general  scientific  .sen.se  means  that  branch  of 
study  which  has  man  for  its  ol>je(1,  and  of 
course  is  very  comprehensive,  including  anat- 
omy, physiology,  i)syciiology,  ethnology,  etc. 
But  in  theology  the  term  denotes  tiiat  part  of 
the  system  which  treats  of  man  in  distinction 
from  God.  In  its  full  extent  it  includes  man 
both  a-s  created  and  as  fallen.  It  br-gins  witli 
his  creation  as  composed  of  body  and  soul, 
and  then  considers  the  soul  as  created  in  the 
image  of  God,  and  thus  discu.s.ses  the  nature 
of  holiness  and  the  liappine.ss  of  an  un fallen 
creature.  But  as  man  continued  in  his  primi- 
tive condition  but  a  brief  time,  his  history  is 
I  mainlv  made  up  of  his  apostiusy  and  its  con- 
'  sequences,  so  that  practically  anthropology  is 
chiefly  concerned  with  such  topics  as  original 
and  actual  sin.  the  free  and  the  enslaved  will. 
I  the  relation  of  the  human  to  the  divme  efti- 
'  ciency  in  regeneration,  and  the  affliiated  doc- 


ANTHROP  OMORPHISM 


(34) 


ANTIOCH 


trines.  The  subject,  although  treated  by  the 
early  fathers,  was  not  nearly  so  much  canvassed 
as  by  their  successors  in  the  5tli  century,  when 
the  Pelagian  and  semi-Pelagian  controversies 
arose,  and  afterward  in  the  post-reformation 
period  when  there  were  liot  discussions  re- 
specting Arminianisra.  The  main  points  will 
be  stated  under  their  aiDpropriate  heads.  (See 
Hodge,  Strong  and  Shedd's  Theologies.)  C. 

Anthropomorphism,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  Anthropopathism,  means  the  represen- 
tation of  God  under  a  human  form  or  with 
human  affections,  or,  more  properly,  the  figu- 
rative application  to  God  of  terms  that  properly 
relate  to  human  beings.  This  may  be  done 
in  an  imguarded  manner  and  so  lead  to  seri- 
ous error,  as  was  the  case  with  an  ancient 
Syrian  sect,  the  Audians  ;  yet  it  is  impossible 
for  us  to  think  or  speak  of  God  save  bj"  anal- 
ogies derived  from  things  cognizable  by  our 

C 


Anthropomorphites.     See  Audians. 

Anti-Burghers,  those  in  the  Secession 
Church  of  Scotland  who  denied  on  conscien- 
tious grounds  the  lawfulness  of  the  oalh  ad- 
ministered to  burghesses  iu  Edinburgh,  Glas- 
gow, and  Perth.  They  formed  a  separate 
party  in  1747.     See  Bukghers. 

Antichrist,  a  word  that  occurs  only  in  the 
Epistles  of  John.  The  four  passages  in  which 
it  is  found  (I.,  ii.  18,  22,  iv.  8  ;  II.,  7),  when 
compared,  point  to  various  persons  hojding 
heretical  opinions  as  to  the  incarnation  of 
Christ.  And  we  know  that  there  were  among 
his  contemporaries  those  who  denied  the  union 
of  the  divine  and  the  human  in  our  Lord  and 
resolved  his  history  into  a  m}^!!!.  There  is  no 
need  and  it  is  not  wise  to  confound  the  anti- 
christ of  John  with  the  beasts  from  the  abyss 
or  the  world-powers  described  in  Daniel  and 
the  Apocalypse,  or  even  with  "  the  man  of 
sin"  in  Second  Thessalonians.  C. 

Antidikomarianitae  {adversaries  of  Mary), 
or  Anti-Marians,  the  name  given  to  those 
Arabian  Christians  of  the  4th  century  who 
maintained  that  Mary  had  other  children  by 
Joseph  after  our  Lord's  birth.  This  is  now 
the  common  Protestant  belief,  but  it  was  then 
a  novelty. 

Antidoron  {rjift  in  return),  the  bread  in  the 
Greek  Church  given  to  the  people  after  mass. 

Antilegomena  {spoken  against),  a  list  of 
books  of  the  New  Testament  whose  canonical 
authority  was  for  a  time  disputed — viz.,  the 
Epistle  of  James,  Second  Peter,  Second  and 
Third  John,  Jude,  the  Hebrews,  and  the 
Apocalypse.  All  the  others  were  called  Homo- 
legoumena-— ^■.e.,  acknowledged  (Eusebius,  Ch. 
Hist.,  iii.  25).  The  existence  of  this  differ- 
ence, so  far  from  being  an  argument  against 
the  existing  canon,  is  in  its  favor,  as  't,  shows 
that  the  canon  was  not  formed  at  haphazard 
or  carelessly,  but  after  severe  scrutiny,  and  by 
the  admission  of  only  those  writings  which 
established  their    claim  to  be  inspired.     See 

C.A.NON.  C. 

Antimensium  {instead  of  table),  in  the  Greek 
Church  a  silk  cloth  consecrated  by  the  bishop 


for  use  where  there  was  no  altar,  correspond- 
ing, therefore,  to  the  portable  altar  of  the 
Latin  Church. 

Anti-Mission  Baptists.     See  Baptists. 

Antinomianism,  the  doctrine  that  Christians 
are  freed  from  obligation  to  keep  the  law  of 
God.  The  thing  existed  from  an  early  period, 
but  the  name  was  tirst  used  about  1527,  when 
Luther  applied  it  to  the  opinions  of  John  Ag- 
ricola,  who  deemed  the  use  of  the  law  incon- 
sistent with  the  Gospel,  but  afterward  retract- 
ed. The  term  sometimes  denotes  the  rejection 
of  the  moral  law  as  no  longer  binding,  so  that 
believers  can  do  what  they  please  without 
prejudice  to  their  sanctitj^  ;  which  is  simply 
monstrous.  More  commonly  it  represents  the 
view  which  refuses  to  see  in  the  Bible  any  posi- 
tive laws  binding  upon  Christians,  and  consid- 
ers that  they  are  left  to  the  guidance  of  gospel 
principles  and  the  constraint  of  Christian  love. 
This  does  not  arise  from  a  dislike  of  morality, 
but  from  a  mistaken  notion  of  Christian  lib- 
erty and  a  confounding  of  the  moral  law  with 
ceremonial  ordinances.  Nothing  is  more  cer- 
tain tlian  that  Christ  came  not  to  abrogate  th° 
law,  but  to  fulfil  it.  C. 

An'-ti-och,  a  city  of  Syria,  upon  the  Orontes, 
the  place  where  believers  were  first  called 
Christians,  a  see  of  St.  Peter's,  seat  of  the  pa- 
triarchate of  Asia,  is  an  important  town  in  the 
history  of  early  Christianity.  The  school  of 
Antioch  was  not  like  that  of  Alexandria,  orig- 
inally an  institution  for  formal  instruction, 
but  rather  a  distinct  style  of  thinking,  or  sys- 
tem of  doctrinal  views.  In  its  earlier  form  it 
owes  its  origin  to  the  martyr  Lucian  (d.  311). 
There  exists  some  connection  between  him  and 
Origen,  the  fruit  of  whose  labors  was  accessi- 
ble ^o  him  in  the  library  at  Caesarea,  and  who 
gave  an  exegetical  direction  to  the  studies  of 
the  school.  Origen 's  tendency  to  allegory 
was,  however,  rejected  by  this  school  from 
the  first.  Some  connection  of  the  school  with 
Paul  of  Samosata,  the  representative  of  pvire 
humanitarianism,  is  to  be  conjectured,  and  the 
head  of  the  later  Arian  movement,  Arius,  with 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  was  a  pupil  of  Lucian. 
The  views  of  these  men  have  this  in  common 
with  the  later  Antiochians,  that  they  main- 
tained the  separation  of  the  divine  from  the  hu- 
man with  great  firmness.  Eusebius  of  Emisa 
and  Eustathius  of  Antioch  were  also  represen- 
tatives of  this  school.  The  later  Antiochian 
school  was  in  full  sympathy  with  Niceue 
orthodoxy,  but  maintained  the  exegetical  char- 
acteristics of  the  earlier.  Its  founder  was 
Diodorus  of  Tarsus  (d.  394),  who  when  a 
presbyter  in  Antioch  had  become  a  famous 
teacher,  and  was  one  of  those  who  formed  the 
minds  of  Chrysostom  and  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia.  The  peculiarity  of  the  later  school 
appears  in  their  position  toward  the  Christo- 
logical  controversies  of  their  times,  in  which 
they  taught  the  conjunction,  rather  than  the 
union,  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ.  Their 
purpose  was  to  preserve  the  true  humanity  of 
Christ,  but  they  were  at  least  in  constant  dan- 
ger of  sacrificing  the  unity  of  his  person. 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  is  the  greatest  name 
of  this  period.  He  maintains  the  freedom  of 
the  will  in  opposition  to  Augustianism.     His 


ANTIOOHUS 


(35) 


ANTONINUS 


efforts  iu  exegesis  carried  the  school  on  toward 
the  attaiumeut  of  a  real  historical  and  graui- 
maiical  metliod,  and  he  shows  some  traces  of 
a  tendency  to  biblical  criticism,  though  not 
neglecting  the  peculiar  contents  of  the  sacred 
boolis.  Polychronius,  bishop  of  Apamea,  was 
another  representative  of  this  tendency.  The 
greatest  product  of  the  school  among  the  prac- 
tical worliers  of  the  church  was  Chrysostom. 
whose  sermons  are  largely  of  an  exegetical 
character,  and  worth  reading  to  day  by  all. 
Theodoret  gave  up  to  a  considerable  extent  the 
true  character  of  the  school.  Dogmatically, 
as  a  whole,  the  school  may  be  characterized  as 
clear  and  sensible,  but  shallow.  (See  Ph.  Her- 
genrotlier,  Die  Antiochenische  Schiile  und  ihre 
Bedeatanrf  auf  exegetischem  Gebiete,  Wiirz- 
burg,  1853.)  F. 

An-ti'-o-chus  is  the  name  of  1 2  kings  of  Syria, 
of  whom  se/eral  have  connection  with  thecove- 
nant.  Aatioohus  II.  (B.C.  3(51-346)  is  su  tposed 
to  bj  the  king  of  the  North,  whom  Dani^d 
mentions  (xi.  6)  as  forming  a  marriage  con- 
nection with  the  kiag  of  the  South  (Egypt). 
Antiochus  HI.  the  Great  (334-187),  after  being 
defeated  at  first  (xi.  11),  conquered  Palestine 
and  the  adjacent  countries,  but  afterward  ad- 
vancing into  Europe  was  defeated  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  obtained  peace  only  on  severe  con- 
ditions (xi.  18).  After  his  death,  which  soon 
followed,  came  his  brother,  Antiochus  IV., 
Epipliaues(jK«si/'iy«A)(17()-164),  a  manof  over- 
weening pride  (xi.  3o),  who  engaged  iu  an  in- 
saue  attempt  to  supplant  Jewish  institutions 
and  usages  by  Hellenic  arts  and  culture,  and 
was  guilty  of  the  most  cruel  tyranny  and  the 
foulest  sacrilege.  At  first  he  succeeded,  and 
set  up  the  abomination  that  maketh  desolate  in 
the  temple  (xi.  31),  but  in  the  end  he  roused 
the  Jews  to  a  successful  insurrection  under 
Mattathias,  Judas  Maccabaeus,  and  the  other 
members  of  that  heroic  family.  The  nation 
achieved  its  independence,  and  retained  it  un- 
til with  the  rest  of  western  Europe  it  became 
subject  to  Rome.  The  prominence  given  to 
Antiociius  Epiphanes  in  Daniel  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  his  attempt  was  the  turning  point  in 
Jewish  history,  deciding  whether  Greek  world- 
ly refinements  were  to  stifle  Israel's  true  faith. 
Persecution  was  God's  method  of  saving  his 
people  from  seductions  which  had  well-nigh 
ma  le  them  compromise  their  witness  of  his 
truth.  C. 

Antipaedobaptista  (against  child  baptism), 
those  who  object  to  the  baptism  of  infants  ; 
such  as  the  various  branches  of  the  Baptists. 
See  B.\PTisM. 

Antipas.    See  Herod  Antipas. 

Antipascha  (over  against  Easter),  in  the 
Greek  Church  a  term  for  the  Sunday  after 
Easter,  because  it  closes  Easter  vt-eek. 

Antiphon  (a  sound  in  turn).  1.  A  psalm, 
hymn,  or  prayer  sung  respousively.  2.  A 
scries  of  Scripture  ver-ses  sung  us  prelude  or 
conclusion  uf  a  service. 

Antiphonarium,  a  Roman  service-book  con- 
taining the  antiphons  and  responses  for  the 
whole  vcar  ;  collection  ascribed  to  Gregory  the 
Great." 


Antipope  (ttf/aiitst  tJte  pope),  rivals  to  the 
popes,  regularly  chosen  by  some  sovereign  or 
by  a  minority  of  the  cardinals.  During  the 
great  schism,  137H-1409,  pope  and  antipope  or 
popes  excomnmnicated  each  other.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  list  of  antipopes  : 


1.  Hippolytus,  218-223. 

2.  Novulianus,  251. 

3.  Feii.\  II.,  35r,-3m. 

4.  Urs-inus,  300. 

5.  Eiiliiliu8.  418. 

6.  Lnnri'iitiiis,  498. 

7.  Diofcorug,  MO. 

8.  Paschal,  (;87-CU2. 
!).  John,  M4 

10.  AnaBtaBiuB.  855. 

11.  Boniface  VII.,  974. 

12.  Calabritiiniis      (John 

XVI.),  !»!»7-998. 

13.  Gregory,  1012. 

14.  Silvester  III.,  1044-104G. 

15.  Cadalou8(II<)norin8lI ), 

1061. 
IG.  Wibcrtus   (Clement 
III.),  1080-1100 

17.  TheodoricuB,  1100. 

18.  AlbertUB,  1102. 

19.  MaginulfuB     (Silvester 

IV.),  1105-1111. 


20. 


Biirdinim     (Gregory 


VIII.),  1118-11 

21.  TheobalduB  Buccap«cua 

(CcluKtine),    1124. 

22.  .\nacletUB  11. ,1130-1138. 
2:1  Gregory    (Victor  IV.), 

li:W. 

24.  Ociavianut'    (Victor 

IV.),  11.5!»-ll(i4. 

25.  Guido  Cniiieiifis  (Pu8- 

chal  HI.),  Ilt54-11G8. 

26.  Johannes     (!<•     Sinium 

(Calixlus  III.),  1168- 
1178. 

27.  LandiiB  Titinus  (Inno- 

cent III  ),  1178-1180. 

28.  Clement  VII.,  1378-1394. 

29.  Benedict       XIII.      (de- 

posed    140'J,,      1394- 

30.  Clement     VIII.,    1417- 

1431. 

31.  Feli.x  v.,  1439-1449. 


Antistes,  presiding  office,  especially  of  a 
temple  ;  an  honorary  title  of  Christian  bish- 
ops, abbots,  priors,  etc.  ;  in  some  Swiss  can- 
tons {e.g.,  Zurich)  the  title  of  the  first  minister 
of  the  Reformed  city  church  and  president  of 
the  church  and  school  boards. 

Antitactae  {set  in  opposition),  an  obscure 
Gnostic  libertine  sect  of  the  2d  century,  which 
advocated  sinful  practices  on  the  ground  that 
by  them  they  avenged  the  Father  by  opposing 
the  will  of  the  second  maker. 

Anti-Trinitarianism  is  a  general  name  for 
all  the  ditfereut  vienvs  that  oppose  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity.  In  the  early  church  tiiere  were 
those  wdio  tried  to  vindicate  Monotheism, 
cither  bv  making  the  Son  so  different  from  the 
Father  that  he  became  a  mere  creature  (as  the 
Monarchians),  or  else  by  identifying  him  so 
closely  with  the  Father  that  he  was  nothing 
but  the  Father  incarnated,  crucified,  etc.  (iis 
the  Patripassians).  Botii  these  errors  were 
subdued  by  the  Council  of  Nic^-a,  but  they 
reappeared  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  iu 
some  of  the  Anabaptists,  the  llalian  human- 
ists, and  in  Sociuus  and  his  followers.  Free- 
thinkers and  rationalists  are,  of  cour.'^e.  anti- 
Trinitarians.  The  Swedenborgians  admit  a 
trinity  in  one  person,  but  not  of  persons.  C. 

Antonelli,  Giacomo,  b.  at  Sonnino,  Italy, 
April  3,  IWG  ;  studied  in  Rome  ;  made  finance 
minister  by  Gregory  XVI.,  1845  ;  cardinal  by 
Pius  IX.,  1847;  Wits  his  secretarv  of  state, 
1850-70  ;  d.  in  Rome.  Nov.  6,  187B.  His 
natural  daughter,  the  Coimtess  Lambertini, 
vainly  sued  for  her  .share  in  his  estate  of  1(K».- 
000,000  lires. 

Antonians,  a  lilx-rtine  Swiss  sect  founded  by 
the  Roman  Catholic,  Anton  linternttiirer  (b.  at 
Schupfhcim,  in  Canton  I.uzern.  hepl.  5, 17011  ; 
d.  in  prison  at  Luzern.  Junr  39,  ls34i.  in  the 
earlv  years  of  this  century,  and  lasted  about 
45  years.  It  made  the  exercise  of  licentious- 
ness its  religion. 

An-to-nl  -nui  Pi-us,  Roman  emperor  (18ft- 
161).  adopted  .son  of  Hadrian  ;  b.  near  Civita 
Laviua,  Sept.  19,  86  ;  d.  at  Castcl  di  Guido, 


ANTONINUS 


(36) 


APOLLONIUS 


March  7,  161.  His  reign  was  extremely  peace- 
ful and  prosperous,  and  tlie  Christians  were 
not  generally  molested,  although  Polycarp 
and  the  church  at  Smyrna  were  persecuted. 
See  Polycarp. 

Antoninus,  Marcus  Aurelius.     See  Marcus 

AURELIUS. 

Antrim,  Presbytery  of,  Ireland,  composed 
of  those  who  refused  (1727)  to  subscribe  to  the 
Westminster  Confession,  and  adopted  Arian 
principles. 

A-pel'-les,  Roman  Christian  in  the  2d  cen- 
tury, a  Marcionite,  who  taught  that  the  hu- 
man soul  was  sent  from  a  higher  sphere  into 
this  world  as  a  punishment  ;  but  on  request 
of  the  Demiurge,  a  lower  a^on,  God  sent  the 
higher  aeon  Christ  to  be  Saviour,  whose  body 
was  made  of  air.  Apelles  believed  the  revela- 
tions of  a  certain  virgin,  Philumine.  See 
Marcion. 

A'phek.  1.  A  royal  city  whose  king  was 
slain  by  Joshua  (xii.  18).  2.  A  city  of  Asher, 
supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Aphaea,  noted  for 
its  temple  of  Venus  (Josh.  xix.  30).  3.  The 
place  of  the  Philistines'  encampment  before 
they  took  the  ark  (1  Sam.  iv.  1).  4.  Where  the 
Philistines  encamped  before  defeating  Saul  (1 
Sam.  xxix.  1).  5.  A  walled  town  on  the  road 
to  Damascus  (1  Kings  xx.  26),  now  called  Fik, 
about  6  m.  e.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  C. 

Aphthartodocetae.     See  Monophysites. 

Aph'-ra-a-tes,  Syrian  patristic  writer  of  the 
4th  century,  23  of  whose  Homilies  were  pub- 
lished by  W.  Wright,  London,  1869. 

A'-pi-on,  a  Greek  grammarian  of  Egyptian 
descent,  who  wrote  much  and  was  noted  for 
loquacious  vanity.  Tiberius  called  him  cym- 
balummundi.  Hehated  the  Jews,  and  headed 
the  famous  Alexandrian  embassy  against  them. 
It  was  against  him  Josephus  wrote  in  defence 
of  his  nation.  C. 

A'-pis,  the  bull  worshipped  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  who  regarded  it  as  a  symbol  of 
Osiris,  the  god  of  the  Nile,  the  husband  of 
Isis,  and  the  great  divinity  of  Egypt.         C. 

Apocalypse.     See  Revelation. 

Apocalyptic  Books.  See  Pseudepigrapha 
AND  Apocrypha. 

Apocalyptic  Number  is  666  (Rev.  xiii.  18), 
generally  interpreted,  according  to  its  value  in 
Hebrew  characters,  as  meaning  Nero. 

Apocrisiarius,  the  official  title  of  the  emis- 
sary from  the  patriarchs  and  popes  to  the 
Greek  emperor. 

Apocrypha.  See  Pseudepigrapha  and 
Apocrypha. 

Apokatastasis.     See  Restorationism. 

A-pol-U-na'-ris  and  Apollinarianism.  Apol- 
linaris  (d.  390)  was  bishop  of  Laodicea, 
where  he  had  become  lector  as  early  as  335. 
His  father  was  from  Alexandria,  and  he  him- 
self was  brought  into  connection  with  Atha- 
nasius  by  writings  in  defence  of  the  Nicene 
Creed.  He  became  famous  as  a  defender  of 
this  creed,  and  even  suffered  temporary  ex- 


communication for  its  sake.  But  he  was  car- 
ried into  error  by  his  speculations  upon  the 
subject  of  Christology,  which  were  anony- 
mously condemned  in  362.  Athauasius  ap- 
peared against  him  in  371.  In  375  he  left  the 
orthodox  communion  to  form  a  sect  of  his 
own.  His  doctrine  was  finally  condemned  at 
the  Ecumenical  Council  of  381.  He  began 
his  system  by  the  denial  of  the  position  that 
identity  both  with  God  and  with  man  could 
be  predicated  of  the  nature  of  Christ.  Per- 
fect God  and  perfect  man  cannot  unite  in  one 
person.  That  would  produce  two  sons  of 
God,  a  proper  and  an  improper  [or  adoptive] 
son.  Again,  a  perfect  man  would  necessarily 
be  a  sinful  being,  since  sin  inheres  in  the  spirit 
{nous).  Accordingly,  Apollinaris  puts  this 
dilemma  ;  either  must  the  humanity  of  the 
God-man  have  vne  preponderance,  in  which 
case  the  indwelling  of  God  in  Christ  does  not 
differ  from  that  in  every  good  man,  except  in 
degree  ;  or  the  divine  must  have  the  prepon- 
derance, in  which  case  the  humanity  is  not  per- 
fect. He  accepts  the  latter  alternative.  Now, 
man  is  composed  of  spirit,  soul,  and  body.  In 
Christ  the  place  of  the  spirit  or  mind  {nous) 
was  occupied  by  the  Logos.  Hence  there  is 
but  one  nature  in  Christ  which  has  a  human 
and  a  divine  side,  which  are  so  perfectly  united 
that  it  is  ijroper  to  interchange  their  predi- 
cates. Thus  Apollinaris  takes  a  position  ex- 
actly the  contrary  to  that  of  the  Antiochian 
school,  which  taught  only  a  conjunction  of 
the  two  natures.  "The  theory  made  a  great 
stir,  was  opposed  by  all  the  principal  writers 
of  the  Alexandrian  school,  and  finally  con- 
demned, as  above  said.  F. 

A-pol-lo'-ni-a,  an  aged  Christian  virgin- 
martyr  of  Alexandria  (a.d.  249),  whose  jaw 
was  broken  and  teeth  knocked  out  because 
she  would  not  deny  Christ.  She  subsequently 
burnt  herself  to  death  upon  the  fire  her  ene- 
mies had  prepared.  (Cf.  Eusebius,  Ch.  Hist., 
vi.  41.)  She  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman 
Church  on  Feb.  9.  In  the  Middle  Age  she 
was  the  patroness  against  the  toothache. 

A-pol-lo'-ni-us  of  Tyana,  in  Cappadocia, 
was  born  about  the  date  of  the  birth  of  Christ. 
His  education  was  in  the  Pythagorean  philos- 
ophy. At  about  the  age  of  40  years  he  began 
extended  travels,  in  which  he  went  as  far 
as  India.  On  his  return  he  gave  himself  up 
to  reformatory  efforts,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  was  "for  a  time  in  favor  with  high 
officials  at  Rome,  but  was  subsequently  im- 
prisoned. Acquitted,  he  marvellously  disap- 
peared, and  finally,  after  spending  some  time 
in  the  temple  at  Olympia,  where  he  had  a 
multitude  of  scholars  and  was  much  venerat- 
ed, he  departed  from  life  in  a  mysterious  man- 
ner. Such  is  the  account  of  his  biographer, 
Philostratus  (wrote  about  200,  French  trans.. 
Paris,  2d  ed.,  1862).  The  historical  germ  of 
the  account  is  the  man  Apollonius,  who  was  a 
rigorous  ascetic,  a  philosopher,  and  a  priest  of 
Asklepios.  The  miraculous  wisdom  ascribed 
to  him,  the  miracles  wliich  he  wrought,  his 
reforms  and  political  infiuence,  belong  to  the 
region  of  myth.  He  derives  his  chief  impor- 
tance from  the  efforts  made  by  opponents  of 
Christianity  to  find  in  him  a  parallel  to  Christ 


APOLLOS 


(37) 


APOSTLES 


which  should  discredit  the  claims  of  the  Chris- 
tian system.  But  there  is  no  such  parallel  at- 
tempted by  Philostratus,  and  the  biography 
shows  only  the  most  general  acquaintance 
•with  the  life  of  Christ.  F. 

A-pol'  los,an  Alexandrian  Jew,  a  disciple  of 
John  the  Baptist,  instructed  at  Ephesus  by 
Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  preached  with 
abundant  success  in  Achaia,  and  especially  at 
Corinth,  where  a  party  called  itself  by' his 
name  (Acts  xviii.  24  sqq.  ;  1  Cor.  iii.  4).  lie 
was  an  eloquent  man  and  mighty  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, probably  more  brilliant  and  learned 
than  Paul.  Some  consider  him  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  but  the  designation, 
however  probable,  cannot  be  proved.         C. 

Apologetics,  a  modern  term  denoting  the 
scientitic  defence  of  Christianity.  The  (jues- 
tions  at  issue  are  always  the  same,  but  the 
form  of  contiict  varies  from  age  to  age.  Each 
generation  has  its  own  ditflculties  which  are  to 
be  met  and  removed.  The  Christian  litera- 
ture of  the  2d  century  was  largely  apologetic. 
The  most  prominent  of  the  Greek  apologists 
were  Justin  Martyr  and  the  autlior  of  the 
Epistle  to  Diognetus,  who  were  followed  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria.  Among  the  Latin 
defenders  of  the  faith  were  Minutius  Felix, 
Cyprian,  Tertullian,  and  Lactantius.  As  the 
Greeks  maintained  the  truth  by  logical  reason- 
ings as  philosophers,  the  Latins  argued  as  ju- 
rists and  appealed  to  the  settled  principles  of 
the  Roman  law.  In  Alexandria,  Origen  main- 
tained the  truth  against  the  neo-Platonic 
scliool.  The  series  of  early  apologues  is  closed 
by  the  Do  Cicltate  Dei  of  Augustin,  who 
claimed  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  world  as 
the  fulfilment  of  a  divine  judgment  in  favor 
of  Christianity.  Little  was  done  on  the  sub- 
ject in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  Thomas  Aquinas 
summed  up  the  controversy  in  his  work,  De 
Vera  Catfwlica  Fide  adcersus  Gentiles.  But 
with  the  Reformation  a  new  phase  appeared. 
The  revival  of  letters  brought  forward  not  a 
few  pagans  in  Christian  clothes,  and  there 
was  a  call  for  such  writers  as  Philip  de  Moruay 
and  Abbadie,  Grotius,  Limborch,  and  Huet, 
and,  above  all,  the  great  work  of  Pascal,  Pen- 
sees  Hur  III  Rcli(jii>n.  which,  though  aphoristic 
throughout,  furni.shes  some  of  the  profoundest 
suggestions  in  defence  of  the  truth.  In  P^ng- 
land  the  Deistic  sciiool  of  Herbert,  llobbes, 
Collins,  etc.,  called  forth  a  series  of  impreg- 
nable defences  by  Baxter,  Cudwortli,  Stilling- 
fleet,  Bentley,  VVaterland,  and  the  immortal 
work  of  Bishop  Butler,  which  to  this  day 
holds  its  own.  In  France  the  attacks  made 
by  Voltaire  and  the  encyclopajdists  called  forth 
energetic  defences  among  both  Roman  Caliio- 
lics  and  Protestants  ;  among  the  former  Clia- 
teaubriand  was  most  prominent,  and  of  the  lat- 
ter Bonnet.  The  movement  of  the  Englisli 
deists  was  transferred  to  Germany,  where  it 
gas'e  ri.se  to  .some  of  the  m  )st  learned,  acute, 
and  comprehensive  as.saults  ever  made  on  the 
Christian  faith.  On  one  hand,  Lessing  and 
the  Wolfonbultel  fragments  as.sailed  the  his- 
toric foundations  of  Scrii)turc,  and,  on  the 
other,  a  ho'^t  of  scholars  were  applying  criti 
cism  to  the  interpretation  of  Srriptun-  in  such 
a  way  as  to  undtrmine  its  infallible  authority. 


The  mythical  theory  which  evaporates  the  sub- 
stance of  Christianity  was  skilfully  presented 
by  Dr.  Straufss.  Of  late  years  the  severe.st  as 
saults  have  been  made  on  the  side  of  physi(-al 
science,  presenting  materialistic  or  paiUlu-is- 
tic  views.  (Two  recent  elaborate  treatises  on 
Apologetics  are  by  Ebrard,  Eng.  trans.,  Edin. 
1886-87,  3  vols.,  and  P.  Schanz  [Roman  Cath' 
olic],  Freiburg,  1887-88,  3  vols.  Small  but 
good  vols,  are  the  Manuals  of  (Jiiristian  Evi- 
dences, by  C.  A.  Row,  London  and  New 
York,    1887,  and  G.  P.   Fisher,   New   York, 


1888). 


C. 


Apostasy  in  the  Roman  Church  is  f)f  two 
kinds,  either  a  revolt  against  a  monastic  or  a 
clerical  vow,  or  an  abandonment  of  the  faith. 
Only  the  latter  kind  is  known  among  Protest- 
ants or  was  recognized  in  the  early  church. 
In  time  of  persecution  many  were  led  to  re- 
nounce the  Christian  faith,  but  after  the  .storm 
had  passed  wishcjd  to  return.  Permission  was 
refused,  and  for  a  long  time  they  were  treated 
with  great  severity.  The  proper  treatment  of 
Inpsii  and  tnulitores  was  frequently  the  subject 
of  earnest  controversy'.  Under  the  first  Chris- 
tian emperors  aposta.sy  was  viewed  and  pun- 
ished as  a  civil  crime,  and  the  Roman  Church 
at  one  time  imposed  severe  penalties  and 
sought  the  aid  of  the  state  to  secure  their  in- 
fliction. In  our  day  excommunication  is  re- 
garded as  the  only  penalty  which  ought  to  be 
imposed  in  any  case.  C. 

Apos'-tle,  a  word  meaning  messenf/ev,  in 
whicli  sense  it  occurs  in  the  New  Testnment 
(Phil.  ii.  25),  but  generallv  applied  to  the  twelve 
whom  our  Lord  selected.  The  primary  pur- 
pose of  an  apostle  was  to  bear  witness  of  the 
resurrection,  the  cardinal  fact  of  Christianity, 
and  therefore  he  must  have  seen  the  Lord. 
He  had  a  universal  commission,  and  was  not 
tied  down  to  any  particular  field.  He  enjoyed 
supernatural  gifts,  and  he  was  made  the  sub- 
ject of  special  revelations.  Other  disciples 
had  some  of  these  qualifications,  but  only  an 
apostle  enjoyed  them  all.  C. 

Apostle,  The,  an  early  ecclesiastical  term  for 
the  volume  containing  selections  from  the 
epistles  used  in  public  worship 

Apostle-spoons,  twelve  iu  number,  in  gold 
or  silver,  with  ciligies  of  the  ai)ostles  on  then), 
formerly  commonly  given  by  g<)d|)arents  of 
the  upper  classes  to  their  godchildren  at  bap- 
tism. 

Apostles'  Creed.     See  Creed. 

Apostles,  Feasts  of— i.e.,  church  festivals 
in  their  ineniorv.  1.  (-)f  the  Twelve  Apostles, 
in  tiie  (ireik  Church  on  June  30.  2.  Of  the 
Division  of  the  Apostles— j'.^.,  their  final  dis- 
persion from  Jerii.'ialem,  in  the  Roman  Church 
on  July  M.  3.  Certain  apostles  an-  commem- 
orated in  })airs  ;  thus.  Philip  and  .I.ames.  .May 
1  ;  Peter  and  Paul.  June  29  (previouslv  in  liie 
Roman  Church  all  the  apo.sties  on  tills  day) ; 
Simon  and  .Judas.  Oct.  2«.  TIk-  first  Sunday 
after  Easter  was  once  called  "  the  Sunday  of 
the  Ajiosfles." 

Apostles,  The  Twelve.  These  were  Simon 
Peter  and  .\ndrew  his  brother;  James  the 
son  of  Zelxrlee  an.l  .John  his  broih<r  ;  Philip 
and  Bartholomew,  Thomas,  and  Matthew  the 


APOSTOLIO 


(38) 


APOSTOLICAL 


publican  ;  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  and 
Thaddeus  ;  Simon  the  Canansean  and  Judas 
Iscariot.  After  Christ's  ascension  the  breth- 
ren chose  Matthias  to  fill  the  place  of  Judas, 
and  years  afterward  the  Lord  himself  called 
Saul  of  Tarsus  to  the  same  position.  (See 
imder  each  name.)  C. 

Apostolic— z.e.,  instituted  by  the  apostles 
or  in  spirit  and  doctrine  like  the  primitive 
church.  The  Roman  Church  styles  itself  the 
Apostolic  Church,  the  see  of  Rome  the  Apos- 
tolic See,  and  the  pope  the  Apostolic  Bishop, 
because  it  claims  to  have  been  founded  by 
Peter.  The  churches  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch, 
Alexandria,  and  Ephesus  have  better  claim  to 
the  epithet.  Most  Protestant  denominations 
claim  apostolic  authority  for  some,  at  least,  of 
their  doctrines  and  practices.  A  striking  use 
of  the  term  is  that  of  the  Catholic  Apostojic 
Church  (q.v.). 

Apostolic  Brothers  {ApostoHci),  one  of  me 
sect  in  the  Roman  Church  which  opposed  its 
worldly  drift,  founded  about  1260  by  Gerhard 
Segarelli,  a  mechanic  of  Parma,  who  sought 
to  call  men  to  repentance  and  restore  the  apos- 
tolic simplicity  and  community  of  goods.  He 
was  burned  alive  at  Parma,  1300,  but  the  sect 
lived  on  under  Dolcino  of  Milan's  leadership, 
and  successfully  repelled  for  two  years  the 
crusade  of  the  bishop  of  Vercelli,  but  in  1307 
Dolcino  was  slain  near  Vercelli,  and  his  fol- 
lowers mingled  with  the  Fraticelli  and  Beg- 
liards.     (See  those  arts.) 

Apostolic  Council  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.). 
This  was  called  at  the  request  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas  and  certain  members  of  the  church 
at  Antioch  to  consider  whether  circumcision 
and  the  Mosaic  law  were  binding  upon  Gentile 
converts,  and  the  apostles  and  elders  at  Jeru- 
salem met  together  witli  the  church  to  delib- 
erate. Certain  of  the  Pharisees  who  believed 
insisted  that  the  question  should  be  answered 
in  the  affirmative,  whereupon  there  was  a  full 
discussion  in  which  the  chief  representatives 
took  part,  Peter,  Paul,  Barnabas,  and  James. 
The  speeches  of  the  first  and  the  last  are  given 
at  some  length.  Peter  objected  to  the  putting 
of  such  a  yoke  upon  the  neck  of  the  disciples, 
and  James  agreed  with  him,  saving  as  to  cer- 
tain exceptions  which  he  named.  The  result 
was  a  unanimous  conclusion  in  the  form  of  a 
decree  in  almost  the  very  words  of  James.  It 
freed  the  Gentiles  from  all  obligations  of  the 
Mosaic  law  save  four.  They  were  to  abstain 
from  things  sacrificed  to  idols,  and  from  blood, 
and  from  things  strangled  and  from  fornica- 
tion. The  first  three  prohibitions  were  found- 
ed upon  the  sensitiveness  of  the  Jewish  be- 
lievers, and  for  a  time  affected  seriously  the 
mode  of  life  of  the  Gentile  converts  as  they  cut 
them  oil  fromall  heathenfestivals.  They  were, 
perhaps,  intended  only  to  be  temporary,  for 
eight  years  afterward  we  find  Paul  telling  the 
Corinthians,  when  invited  to  an  entertainment, 
to  eat  what  was  set  before  them,  asking  no 
(juestions  for  conscience'  sake  (1  Cor.  x.  27), 
but  if  their  attention  was  called  to  the  matter, 
to  abstain  for  the  sake  of  him  who  mentioned 
it.  The ,  fourth  prohibition  was  directed 
against  a  sin  everywhere  recognized  among  the 
Gentiles  as  natural  and  permissible,  and  ac- 


cordingly committed  without  shame.  The 
effect  of  the  council  seems  to  have  been  all 
that  could  be  desired.  The  decrees  met  a  cor- 
dial reception,  and,  for  the  most  part,  com- 
posed a  strife  which  was  a  great  hindrance  to 
the  infant  church.  Judaizers  were  defeated, 
and  the  heavy  yoke  of  the  ceremonial  law  was 
broken  never  again  to  be  reimposed.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  this  council  will  bear  the 
weight  which  has  been  put  upon  it  as  a  decisive 
factor  in  determining  the  divine  form  of 
church  government.  It  was  not  a  representa- 
tive body,  but  the  mother  church  giving  an- 
swer to  the  questions  proposed.  Tlie  decree 
ran  in  the  name  of  "  the  apostles  and  elders 
that  were  at  Jerusalem"  (Acts  xvi.  4),  but  the 
whole  church  was  present  during  the  discus- 
sion (Acts  XV.  12,  22),  and  seems,  in  some  de- 
gree, to  have  participated  in  the  action.  It  is 
very  certain  that  Peter  had  no  sxipremacy  iu 
the  council,  and  if  any  one  had  a  predominat- 
ing influence  it  was  James.  The  utmost  that 
can  be  said  is  that  a  doctrinal  question  that 
arose  at  Antioch  was  referred  to  an  outside 
tribunal,  the  apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem, 
and  that  the  decision  made  there  was  received 
as  authoritative  by  all  the  churches.  C. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  the  writers  of  the  post- 
apostolic  age,  the  inferiority  of  whose  writings 
is  an  indirect  proof  of  the  inspiration  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  writers  are  these  (q.v. ) : 
author  of  the  Teaching  of  the  Ttcelve  Apostles, 
Barnabas,  Clemens  Romanus,  Ignatius,  Poly- 
carp,  Hermas,  aiithor  of  the  Epistle  to  Diog- 
netus,  and  Papias  (fragments).  The  best  edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  originals  (does  not  include 
the  "Teaching")  is  by  Gebhardt,  Zahn,  and 
Harnack,  Pairum  apostolicorum  opera,  Leip- 
zig, 1875-78,  3  vols.  (vol.  i..  2d  ed.,  1876-78) 
for  the  "  Teaching"  see  Schaff,  New  York 
3d  ed.,  1889  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Ante-Nieene  Fa 
thers,  ed.  Coxe  (New  York),  vol.  i.,  1-155 
vol.  ii.,  1-58  ;  vol.  vii.,  371-383. 

Apostolic  King,  a  title  of  the  Hungarian 
kings  first  given  about  1000  by  Pope  Sylvester 
II.  to  King  Stephen  of  Hungary,  on  account 
of  his  religious  zeal,  and  in  1758  renewed  by 
the  pope  for  the  Austro-Hungary  emperors 
and  kings. 

Apostolic  Succession,  the  claim  of  unbro- 
ken ministerial  descent  from  the  apostles,  made 
by  the  Roman  Church  and  some  sections  of 
tlie  Episcopal  Church. 

ApostoUca  Sedis,  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  in 
the  West  especially,  and  later  exclusively  of 
the  pope. 

Apostolical  Canons.  See  ArosTOLiCAL 
Constitutions. 

Apostolical  Church  Directory,  an  apoc- 
ryphal work,  agreeing  in  a  measure  with  the 
seventh  and  eighth  books  of  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions,  but  independent.  It  contains 
35  articles  on  miscellaneous  subjects,  purport- 
ing to  be  the  directions  of  the  Apostle  John, 
and  concludes  with  an  exhortation  from  Peter 
to  observe  them.  There  is  a  German  transla- 
tion, with  the  Greek  text,  by  Bickell,  Oe- 
schich.te  des  Kirchenrechts  (Giessen,  1843),  pp. 
107-132.    See  Canon  Law. 


APOSTOLICAL 


(39) 


ARABIO 


Apostolical  Constitutions  and  Canons. 
The  former  iire  the  alleged  comin;in<lments  of 
the  apostles  for  the  conduct  of  life,  lay  and 
clerical,  in  8  books,  in  which  about  the  middle 
of  the  4th  century  at  least  3  different  works 
were  united  :  (1)  a  compilation  from  the  lirst 
6  books  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Apostles; 
(2)  the  seventh  book,  based  on  the  Teacltiug 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles  ;  (3)  the  eighth  book. 
From  the  oth  century  the  canons  were  added, 
which  are  50.  or,  in  later  recension,  8.1  regula- 
tions of  church  discipline.  In  the  Greek 
Church  the  two  were  received  until  the  Tridlan 
Synod  of  692,  which  enjoined  the  canons.  In 
tlie  Latin  Church  only  tlie  lirst  oO  of  the  canons 
are  received.  In  both  the  constitutions  are 
now  rejected.  The  two  ai-e  translated,  with 
notes,  in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  ed.  Coxe  (New 
York),  vol.  vii.,  387-508.     See  Cus'on  L.\w. 

Apostolici.  1.  An  ascetic  sect  in  Phrygia, 
Pamphilia  and  Cilicia  in  the  3d  century,'  also 
called  Apotactici  ("  renuntiants"),  which  pre- 
tended to  follow  the  apostles  in  renouncing 
private  property  and  in  condemning  marriage. 
2.  Similar  sects  in  the  12th  and  14th  centu- 
ries.    (Cf.  Mosheim,  ed.  Stubbs,  ii.,  159,  246.) 

Apostolicity.    See  Apostolic. 

Apostolicus,  in  the  early  church  the  title  of 
bishop-i  as  successors  of  the  apostles  ;  later,  re- 
stricted to  the  popes. 

Apotactici.     Sec  Apostolici. 

Apparitor,  the  ollicer  attached  to  an  arch- 
bishop's, bishop's  or  archdeacon's  court,  whose 
business  it  is  to  cite  persons  to  appear  before 
that  court. 

Appellants.    See  Acceptants,  Jansenists. 

Appellation  on  the  Pope  was  lirst  allowed 
in  conditional  ciises  by  the  Councilat  Sardica, 
343  ;  but  on  the  strength  of  this  permission 
Pope  Innocent  I.,  in  404,  demanded  that  all 
important  cases  should  be  referred  to  the 
pope,  and  the  Pseudo-Isidoriau  Decretals  al- 
lowed every  case  to  be  similarly  appealed. 
Pope  Innocent  III.  declared  that  the  pope 
might  be  appealed  to  from  civil  juri.sdiction. 
Against  the  abases  of  tfiis  appellation  the  re- 
forming councils  of  the  15th  century  uttered 
their  voice,  and  the  Council  of  Trent  ordained 
that  only  important  cases  should  be  appealed 
to  the  pope. 

Approbation,  the  approval  of  a  theological 
book,  given  by  a  bishop,  and  necessary  before 
it  can  be  published.  Pope  Alexander  VI.  made 
it  obligatory  for  Germany,  1501  ;  Pope  Leo 
X.,  at  the  Fifth  Lateran  "Synod,  1515,  estab- 
lished it  throughout  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
the  Council  of  Trent  threatened  heavy  penal- 
ties in  ca'^e  of  disobedience.     See  art.  Index 

LlBROKUM  PnOHIIUTOUrM. 

Appropriation  is  "  the  annexingof  a  benefice 
to  the  use  of  a  si)iritual  corporation. "     {IIoo/c.) 

Apse,  the  half-round  niche  in  Homan  basil- 
icao,  out  of  which  the  choir  under  a  separate 
rooting  was  developed  in  the  Romanic  order  of 
architecture'. 

Aquaviva,  Claudio.     See  Jesuits. 


Aq  -ui-la  and  Pris-cil  -la,  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tian couple,  tent-makers,  who,  driven  from 
Rome,  came  to  Corinth,  where  Paul  met  them, 
and  where  they  instructed  Apollos  (Acts  xviii. 
1,  2,  26  ;  Rom.  xvi.  3-5). 

Aquila,  Johannes  Kaspar,  Lutheran  re- 
former ;  b.  at  Augsburg,  Aug.  7,  1488  ;  d.  at 
Saalfeld,  Nov.  12,  1560.  He  assisted  Luther 
upon  his  translation  of  the  Old  Testament, 
while  preacher  and  teacher  in  Wittenberg, 
1524-27.  He  was  brave;  to  rashness.  He  held 
various  positions,  and  left  numerous  writings 
of  a  practical  character. 

Aquinas.    See  Thomas  Aquinas. 

A-ra'-bi-a,  in  the  Hihle  means  not  the  whole 
peninsula,  but  the  northern  i)art  contiguous 
to  Palestine.  The  larger  and  soutiiern  i)ortion 
was  called  Arabia  FdLv.  and  ha><  many  fertile 
valleys  occupied  by  an  agricultural  popula- 
tion, while  wandering  liedouin  roam  o^er 
the  mountainous  districts.  The  northeastern 
portion  was  called  DeserUi,  a  waste  of  burn- 
ing sand,  where  rain  rarely  falls  and  cultiva- 
tion is  unknown.  The  third  part,  called  Pe- 
trcea  or  Stony,  is  now  generally  known  as  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  lying  between  the  two 
arms  of  the  Red  Sea.  This  small  triangular 
region  was  the  scene  of  the  40  years'  wander- 
ing of  the  children  of  Israel.  It  is  at  present 
a  desolate  territory,  held  by  Avanderin^  tribes 
who  get  a  meagre  support  from  the  fesv  val- 
leys that  are  productive  ;  hut  the  close  observer 
finds  everywhere  indications  that  in  ancient 
times  the  case  was  otherwise,  and  a  skilful 
retention  of  the  rainfall  rendered  possible  an 
extensive  and  iirofitahle  culture.  Still  so  large 
a  body  as  the  Israelites  vuider  Moses  could  not 
have  been  su.stained  without  the  special  help 
of  Providence.  The  connections  of  Arabia 
and  its  people  with  sacred  history  are  numer- 
ous. The  po.sterit_v  of  Nahor,  of  Abraham  and 
Keturah,  and  of  Lot  formed  a  part  of  its  popu- 
lation. Jol)  is  suppo.sed  to  have  dwell  in  it. 
From  it  Solomon  received  gold  (1  Kings  x. 
15),  and  Jehoshaphat  Hocks' (2  Ciiron.  xvii. 
11).  The  prophets  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  fre- 
quently refer  to  it.  Some  of  its  people  were 
among  the  multitude  at  Jerusalem  when  the 
spirit  was  poured  out  at  Pentecost.  Paul  re- 
tired thither  after  his  conversion.  The  jx'ople 
were  originally  worshippers  of  the  lieavenly 
host,  sun,  moon  and  stars,  but  after  the  rise 
of  the  prophet  of  Mecc^i,  Sabeanism  gave  way 
to  Mohammedanism,  which  ever  since  has 
been  the  universal  religion.  To  the  Arabs  are 
due  our  arithmetical  tigures.  At  one  time 
thev  took  the  lead  of  Europe  in  astronomv, 
chemistry,  algebra,  and  medicine,  but  this 
priority  "hiis  long  since  departed.  The  lan- 
guage is  the  most  developed  of  the  Semitic 
tongues,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  richne-s  of 
its  vocabularv  and  the  nmsic  of  its  cadences. 
It  was  not  ufitil  a  late  ju  riod  that  the  Scrip- 
tures were  translated  into  it,  and  then  it 
was  tlone  in  a  rude  way  and  very  imperfect- 
Iv.  In  our  own  century  and  by  Anurican 
scholars  a  classic  version  of  great  e.vcrllence 
ha-s  been  made,  and  is  incn-ii.-ingly  rircu- 
lated  among  the  80,000,000  who  speak  tho 
Arabic  tongue.  C. 

Arabic.    Sec  Arabia. 


ARABICI 


(40) 


ARCANI 


Arabic!,  an  Arabic  sect  of  the  3d  century, 
described  by  Eusebius  {Ch.  Hist.,  vi.,  37), 
which  maintained  that  soul  and  body  died  to- 
gether and  were  raised  together.  Origen's 
arguments  induced  them  to  recant. 

Arabs.     See  Akabia. 

A'-rad,  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites,  on  the 
southern  border  of  Judah,  whose  king  opposed 
the  passage  of  the  Israelites,  and  even  captured 
some  of  them,  for  which  the  inhabitants  were 
put  under  the  ban  and  utterly  destroyed 
(Num.  xxi.  1-3).  C. 

A'-ram,  the  elevated  region  northeast  of  Pal- 
estine toward  the  Euphrates,  nearly  identical 
with  Syria.  Aram-Naharaim  (Gen.  xxi  v.  10), 
rendered  Mesopotamia,  means  the  highland 
between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris.  This 
region  was  divided  among  several  petty  king- 
doms, as  we  read  of  Aram  Dammesek,  "  the 
Syrians  of  Damascus,"  In  3  Sam.  viii.  5  ;  of 
Aram  Zobahin  1  Sam.  xiv.  47  ;  of  AramBeth- 
Rehob  in  2  Sam.  x.  6  ;  of  Aram  Maachah 
in  1  Chron.  xix.  6  ;  and  of  Aram  Geshur  in 
2  Sam.  XV.  8.  The  country  was  conquered  by 
Tiglath-pileser,  and  afterward  became  subject 
to  the  Chaldeans  and  to  the  Persians,  but  upon 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  became  in- 
dependent under  the  Seleucides.  Pompey 
made  it  subject  to  Rome  in  B.C.  64.  The 
language  spoken  belonged  to  the  Semitic  fam- 
ily, but  was  poorer  and  rougher  than  any  of 
the  others,  owing,  as  is  supposed,  to  the  fact 
that  the  Aramaeans  were  surrounded  by  non- 
Semitic  peoples,  and  often  subject  to  foreign 
conquerors.  It  had  two  branches— one,  tlie 
west  Aramaic,  originally  spoken  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, developed  into  the  Syriac,  which  pro- 
duced a  rich  literature  in  theology,  philosophy, 
and  history.  Its  most  flourishing  period  was 
from  the  4th  century  to  the  7th.  In  the  8th 
and  9th  it  was  overtaken  by  the  Arabic,  and 
in  the  ISth  it  disappeared.  The  other,  called 
in  Scripture  the  Aramaic  (Dan.  ii.  4,  marg.  of 
Revised  Version),  has  borne  since  Jerome  the 
name  of  Chaldee,  although  the  old  Chaldeans 
never  spoke  it.  In  the  time  of  the  kings  it 
was  understood  in  Jerusalem  if  not  by  all,  at 
least  by  the  educated  (2  Kings  xviii.  26),  and 
it  was  "the  business  language  throughout  the 
Assyrian  realm.  The  Persian  government 
afterward  issued  its  edicts,  so  far  as  concerned 
western  Asia,  in  the  Aramaic  tongue.  After 
the  exile  it  became  the  popular  language  of  all 
Palestine.  Christ  and  the  apostles  spoke  it,  as 
may  be  seen  from  several  words  and  jjhrases 
in  the  New  Testament  (ephphatha,  abba, 
lama  sabachthani).  The  only  specimens  of 
this  dialect  that  have  come  down  to  us  are  sec- 
tions in  the  books  of  Daniel  (ii.  4-vii.  28) 
and  Ezra  {\v.  8-vi.  18,  vii.  12-26),  and  the 
4  Chaldee  paraphrase  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  so-called  Targums.  C. 

Aramaic.     See  Aram. 

Ar'-a-rat  (lioly  land  or  high  land),  a  moun- 
tainous region  of  Asia,  bordering  on  the  plain 
of  the  Araxes,  the  resting-place  of  Noah's  ark 
(Gen.  viii.  4).  The  name  was  unknown  to 
Greek  and  Roman  geographers,  as  it  is  now  to 
the  Armenian.  Tradition  fixes  upon  a  point 
called  by  the  Turks  "Steep  mountain"  and 


by  the  Persians  Koh-i-Nuh,  or  "  Noah's 
mountain,"  as  tlie  spot  where  the  ark  rested. 
This  has  two  high  peaks,  one  of  which  is  cov- 
ered with  perpetual  snow.  But  as  the  phrase 
in  Scripture  refers  to  the  entire  range  of  ele- 
vated table-land,  some  lower  part  of  this  range 
is  more  likely  to  have  been  the  place.         C. 

A-ra'-tor,  an  Italian  Christian  rhetorician 
of  tlie  6th  century,  who  wrote  a  Latin  hex- 
ameter poem  in  two  books  on  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  prefaced  it  in  elegiac  verse  to 
Pope  Vigilius.  His  works  are  in  Migne,  Pat. 
Lat.  LXVIII. 

A-ra'-tus,  Greek  poet  of  the  3d  century  B.C., 
from  whose  poem,  the  Phanomena,  St.  Paul  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  quoted.  (Cf.  Acts 
xvii.  28.)  St.  Paul  and  he  wx^re  both  natives 
of  Cilicia,  hence  the  former's  acquaintance 
with  the  verse,  according  to  the  theory.  But 
a  similar  idea  is  found  in  Cleanthes  {Ilymns 
ill  Jovem,  5)  and  Pindar  {Nein.  6) ,  and  in  any 
case  does  not  argue  any  study  of  the  classics 
by  St.  Paul,  whose  Jewish  training  would  for- 
bid the  supposition. 

Arbues,  Pedro,  de  Epila,  Spanish  inquisi- 
tor ;  b.  at  Epila,  Aragonia,  1441  ;  became  a 
canon  regular  in  the  Augustinian  order  at 
Saragossa  ;  first  inquisitor  under  Torquemada, 
May  4,  1484,  and  won  the  reputation  of  being 
a  tireless  hunter  after  heresy  ;  was  stabbed  in 
the  cathedral  of  Saragossa  by  two  men,  in 
consequence  of  a  conspiracy  on  the  part  of  the 
friends  and  relatives  of  his  manv  victims, 
and  d.  Sept.  17,  1485.  Pope  Alexander  VII., 
in  1661,  beatified  him,  and  Pius  IX.,  in  1867, 
canonized  him.  (Cf .  life  by  Zirngiebl,  Leipzig, 
2d  ed.,  1872,  and  H.  C.  Lea,  The  Marhjrdom 
of  San  Pedro  Arbues  [in  Papers  of  American 
Historical  Association,  1888],  New  York,  1889.) 

Arcani  Disciplina  {secret  teacMng).  The 
earliest  worship  of  the  Christians  was  open  to 
all  who  chose  to  take  part.  But  with  the  in- 
creasing dilficulties  wdiich  surrounded  the 
church  from  persecutions  and  the  corrupting 
influences  of  the  heathen  world,  it  became 
more  and  more  secret.  In  the  4th  and  5th 
centuries  there  appear  evidences  of  a  distinct 
body  of  doctrines  wlych  were  concealed  from 
the  general  congregation.  Chrysostom  and 
Augustine  often  suppress  some  subject  with 
the  remark,  "  The  initiated  know."  These 
mysterious  subjects  relate  to  the  sacrament  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  baptism,  etc.  It  has,  there- 
fore, been  assumed  that  there  was  from  the 
beginning  a  body  of  secret  teaching,  and  Ro- 
man Catholic  apologists  have  used  the  suppo- 
sition to  explain  why  it  is  that  many  of  the 
peculiar  doctrines  of  their  church  are  not  men- 
tioned by  the  early  writers.  Hence  some  ex- 
treme Protestants  have  denied  the  existence  of 
any  such  teaching.  The  truth  seems  to  lie 
between  the  two  parties.  The  worship  of 
Christians  in  the  time  of  Justin  seems  to  have 
been  held  in  seclusion,  though  he  was  ready 
to  relate  in  full  the  forms  used  in  celebrating 
the  sacraments.  Later,  the  course  of  church 
discipline,  which  made  a  sharp  distinction  be- 
tween the  catechumens  and  the  full  members 
of  the  churches,  forbade  to  the  former  partici- 
pation in  the  communion,  and  finally  attend- 
ance upon  it.    As  the  rite  itself  was  concealed 


AROHiEOLOCJY 


(41) 


AROHIOAPELLANU3 


from  them,  so  all  teaching  upon  it  was  ab- 
stained from,  and  in  the  public  preachin-^, 
where  catechumens  and  also  unbelievers  were 
present,  such  subjects  were  passed  over.  The 
institution  of  a  catechumenate  was,  therefore, 
the  cause  of  this  peculiar  custom,  and  it  neither 
was  nor  is  any  part  of  the  essence  of  historical 
Christianity.  F. 

Archaeology,  Biblical,  the  name  now  given 
to  what  formjrly  was  known  as  the  study  of 
"  antiquities."  In  its  general  aspect  archajol- 
ogy  has  been  and  is  daily  growing  in  interest 
and  importancaas  the  most  trustworthy  guide 
to  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  past.  "This  is 
also  true  of  biblical  archajology.  It  has  made 
vast  additions  to  what  we  know  of  sacred  per- 
sons and  places  and  times  and  things,  and  still 
more  is  to  bj  expected  from  the  researches  of 
the  future.  It  has  been  dehned  to  bo  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  physical,  geographical,  statis- 
tical, economical,  and  social  conditions  of  the 
nation  in  which  the  Bible  originated.  Its 
chief  sources  are,  on  one  hand,  the  literature 
that  exists  of  the  Jews  themselves  and  of  all 
their  neighbors  —  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic, 
Greek,  Roman,  and  of  all  modern  travellers 
and  explorers  of  whatever  age  or  country — 
and,  on  the  other,  all  monuments  and  build- 
ings, plastic  representations,  inscriptions  and 
coins,  whether  in  Palestine  itself  or  in  Egypt, 
Babylonia,  Assyria,  Persia,  Phoenicia  and 
Syria.  The  range  is  wide,  and  the  literature 
of  the  subject  is  already  very  abundant,  and 
yet  must  continually  increase.  The  principal 
points  of  sacred  archaeology  will  be  noticed 
under  their  respective  heads.  (See  E.  C.  Bissell, 
Biblical  Antiquities,  Philadelphia,  188S.)  C. 

Archaeology,  Ecclesiastical,  that  depart- 
ment of  church  history  which  deals  with  the 
external  life  of  the  church  and  the  forms  which 
it  assumed.  By  general  consent  its  period  is 
now  defined  as  terminating  with  the  clo.se  of 
the  6th  century.  It  embraces  the  general 
topics  of  church  worship,  customs  and  con- 
stitution. Under  worship  it  treats  of  the  acts 
of  worship,  such  as  preaching,  prayer,  song, 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments  ;  and  of 
sacred  seasons,  Easter, .  etc.  Here  was  f or- 
m?rly  included  also  an  account  of  the  places 
where  worship  was  held,  churches,  etc.,  and 
their  decoration  ;  but  this  is  now  considered 
under  the  title  of  church  architecture.  Under 
customs  it  treats  of  discipline,  marriage,  bur- 
ial, etc.  The  department  of  church  constitu- 
tion handles  the  development  of  the  prie-sthood, 
the  sepiration  of  clergy  and  laity,  the  rise  of 
the  orders  of  the  clergy,  and  their  legal  and 
ceremonial  rights  and  duties.  The  authorita- 
tive work  in  English  on  the  whole  subject  for 
the  first  eight  centuries  is  Smith  and  Cheet- 
ham's  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities. 
London,  1875-80,  2  vols.  See  also  Bingham's 
Antiquities  of  the  Christian  vhurch,  several 
edd.,  c.,7.,  London,  1878,  3  vols.  F. 

Archangel.    See  Angel. 

Archbishop  primarilv  was,  and  in  the 
Church  of  England  and  Ireland  is,  the  metro- 
politan or  chief  bishop  of  a  province.  In  Con- 
stantine's  time  he  was  really  a  patriarch,  and 
as  such  ordained  all  the  metropolitans  of  his 
diocese  ;    convened  the  diocesan  synods  and 


presided  at  them  ;  rcrcivc^.l  ;i])pcals  from  mofro- 
politans  and  also  tlicir  suffra-aiis  wiicii  mdro- 
palitans  were  remiss  in  censuring  them.  But  in 
t  lie  English  Church  he  has  his  ancient  place  and 
function.  There  arc  two  archbi.shop.s— Can- 
terbury and  York— appointed  bytiiesovereign  ; 
in  the  Irish  Church  there  are  also  two— Armagh 
and  Dublin— who  are  elected  by  the  bishops 
from  among  their  own  number. 

Archdeacon,  The,  was  since  the  5th  century 
the  chief  deacon  and  the  assistant  or  deputv 
of  the  bishop  in  all  duties  which  did  not  re- 
quire special  episcop-.d  ofliues.  When  the  bish- 
oprics were  divided  into  archdeaconries  the 
archdeacons  acquired  still  greater  i)owers. 
But  the  abuses  which  crept  in,  and  their  as- 
sumption of  episcopal  j^rerogatives,  led  to  a 
material  curtailment  of  their  powers  in  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries,  and  to  the  substitu- 
tion for  them  of  vicar-generals.  The  Council 
of  Trent  gave  to  the  bishops  the  rights  yet  left 
to  the  archdeacons.  In  the  Lutheran  Church 
the  archdeacon  is  simply  the  first  pastor  of  the 
city's  churches.  In  the  Church  of  Englaml 
the  office  corresponds  to  that  in  the  ancient 
church.  The  archdeacons  are  addressed  as 
■'Venerable,"  and  have  general  oversight  of 
portions  of  the  diocese.  Tiiere  are  85  arch- 
deaconries in  that  church.  In  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  the  office,  with 
similar  functions,  has  recently  been  instituted, 
and  is  now  (1889)  found  in  the  following  dio- 
ceses (figures  in  parenthesis  give  the  number 
of  archdeacons  for  each  diocese)  :  Albanv  (4), 
Chicago  (1),  Long  Island  (,'),  Newark  (2), 
New  jersey  (,2),  New  York  (4),  Springfield  (3). 

Ar-che-la'-us  (ruler  of  the  people),  a  son  of 
Herod  the  Great,  who  succeeded  his  father 
B.C.  4,  and  maintained  his  position  against  an 
insurrection  raised  by  the  Pharisees.  Ilis 
heirship  being  disputed  by  his  brother  Antipas, 
he  went  to  Rome,  where  his  authoritv  wits 
confirmed  by  Augustus,  who  made  him  eth- 
narch  of  JudWa,  Samaria,  and  Idumea.  Being 
cruel  and  revengeful,  Joseph  and  Mary  natu- 
rallv  feared  to  live  under  his  government,  anil 
went  to  Nazareth  (Matt.  ii.  22).  After  9  years' 
reign  Archelaus  was  deposed  by  Augustus  for 
his  cruelty  and  banished  to  Vieune,  in  Gaul, 
where  he  died  (i  .v.d.  C. 

Arche.9,  Court  of  the,  so  called  becau.se  lield 
in  Bow  Church.  Sancla  Maria  de  Arcubus.  is 
an  ancient  court  of  appeal,  belonging  to  this 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  where  Ihe  confir- 
mation of  the  election  of 'l)islu)i»s  of  the  prov- 
ince of  C;anterburv  still  takes  place.  It  now 
sits  cither  in  the  Lambeth  Library  or  in  one 
of  the  ro.nns  in  the  Parliament  House. 

Ar  -che-vites,  the  name  of  a  people  tmns. 
planted  bv  the  Assvrians  into  the  d<'pr)pulat(Ml 
Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  i)).  They  were  inliabitanis 
of  Erech,  mentioned  in  Genesis  (x.  10)  as  W- 
longing  to  the  kingdom  of  Ninirod.  Tiiis  ban 
been  of  late  identiticd  in  the  ruins  of  Warka. 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  82  m.  s.e. 
from  Babylon.  ('• 

Archicapellanus  (archchaplain),  the  liead  of 
the  theologians  at  tlie  court  of  the  old  Knmk 
ish  kings,'  and  of  ecrlesia><fi(al  affair-*  in  ilu' 
kingdom.  He  was  the  hiih./st  diijnitary  in 
the  realm,  and  was  generally  an  arcliblshop 


ARCHIMANDRITE 


(42) 


AROHPRESBYTER 


also.  But  after  the  13th  century  the  high  al- 
moners superseded  the  arclichaplains. 

Archimandrite  is  in  the  Greek  Church  the 
term  for  abbot. 

Architecture,  Hebrew.  This  was  of  slow 
development.  The  patriarchs,  being  nomads, 
dwelt  in  tents.  Their  children,  living  in  Egypt, 
became  acquainted  with  architecture  as  an  art, 
and  were  compelled  to  take  part  in  the  con- 
struction of  huge  monuments  (Ex.  i.  11).  But 
during  their  wanderings  in  the  wilderness  they 
had  no  opportunity  to  display  it  except  in  the 
building  of  the  tabernacle  ;  and  when  they 
entered  Canaan  they  found  forts  and  cities 
prepared  by  their  former  owners.  A  Hebrew 
architecture  did  not  arise  till  the  time  of 
David.  He  enlarged  Jerusalem,  improved  its 
fortifications,  and  built  a  palace  on  Mount  Zion. 
Solomon  built  another  palace,  also  one  for  his 
wife,  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  huge  water- 
works south  of  Bethlehem  still  known  as  Solo- 
mon's Pools,  and  his  greatest  work,  the  tem- 
ple on  Moriah.  These  buildings  were  put  up 
with  the  aid  of  Phffinician  workmen,  and 
doubtless  reflected  something  of  their  taste  ; 
yet  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  reconstruct  the 
temple  as  it  is  described,  one  feels  that  it  is  a 
reminder  of  Egyptian  editices.  Some  remains 
of  the  original  structure  show  very  clearly  its 
ma.s.siveness,  and  the  biblical  accounts  indicate 
a  prominence  of  straight  lines  and  right  angles, 
both  which  are  dominant  features  of  the  tem- 
ples in  the  Nile  valley.  Several  of  the  kings 
of  both  Israel  and  Judah— e.g.,  Ahab  and  Uz- 
ziah — are  mentioned  as  builders.  Nor  did  the 
nation  in  captivity  forget  the  art.  When  they 
returned  they  were  able  to  rebuild  their  city 
and  their  temple  of  themselves.  After  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  especially  during 
the  reign  of  Herod,  who  was  a  great  builder, 
Greek  taste  and  style  prevailed.  All  the  state- 
ly edifices  from  that  time — gymnasiums,  baths, 
theatres,  palaces,  and  colonnades — were  Greek, 
and  so  was,  in  fact,  to  a  large  extent  therestora- 
tion  of  the  temple  effected'  by  Herod.        C. 

Architecture,  Church,  is  not  to  be  viewed 
as  a  distinct  department  of  the  art  apart  from  j 
other  architecture,  but  describes  the  modifica-  j 
tions  undergone  by  the  forms  of  secular  art  to  j 
meet  the  necessities  of  a  new  institution,  the 
Christian  Church.  There  are  distinct  tenden-  i 
cies  operative  in  the  East  and  the  West.  In 
the  West,  church  architecture  grew  out  of  the 
ancient  style  of  building  known  as  the  basil- 
ica, whicii,  at  first  an  open  court  suiTounded 
by  colonnades,  and  then  entirely  covered  by  a 
roof,  formed  a  building  strikingly  adapted  to 
Cliristian  uses.  It  was  only  necessary  to  take 
away  the  row  of  pillars  which  separated  the 
main  hall  of  the  basilica  from  the  apse  where 
tribunals  had  been  held,  and  there  were  a 
porch  for  the  penitents,  a  nave  for  the  body 
of  the  church,  the  judge's  seat  for  the  Chris- 
tian bishop,  seats  for  the  other  clergy,  and 
even  an  altar  at  the  junction  of  nave  and  apse 
for  the  celebration  of  the  sacrament.  Such  an 
application  of  the  modified  basilica  began  to 
be  made  about  the  time  of  Constantine,  before 
whose  day  there  had,  properly  speaking,  been 
no  Christian  churches.  Even  the  famous  one 
at  Nicomedia,  torn  down  in  a  few  hours  in 


303.  could  have  been  but  an  insignificant 
affair.  There  were,  however,  from  this  time 
on  a  large  number  of  extensive  and  beautiful- 
ly decorated  churches  erected,  of  which  are  to 
be  mentioned  the  basilica  of  Tyre,  begun  in 
313,  and  the  Vatican,  or  St.  Peter's  at  Rome, 
which  was  begun  about  336,  and  survived  till 
the  15th  century. 

Side  by  side  with  these  basilicas  there  were 
built  churches  in  circular  form,  and  these 
gave  rise  in  the  East  to  the  so-called  Byzan- 
tine style,  in  which  the  circle  making  the  main 
outline  of  the  church  was  crowned  by  a  cupola 
rising  to  a  lofty  height.  The  mo.s't  remark- 
able early  church  of  this  style  is  the  St.  Sophia 
at  Constantinople,  built  by  Justinian  I.  in  the 
years  532-37.  The  double  porch  is  greatly 
diminished  in  extent  ;  the  nave,  while  some- 
what elongated  and  terminating  in  an  apse, 
is  much  broader  than  in  the  regular  basilica, 
and  is  surmoimted  by  a  dome  rising  180  feet 
from  the  floor.  The  general  outline  of  the 
whole  building  is  nearly  square.  This  form 
of  construction  gave  its  distinguishing  feature 
to  the  Byzantine  style,  which  abounds  in 
domes.  The  finest  specimen  of  it  is  found  in 
St.  Mark's  in  Venice,  which  combines  the 
cruciform  outline  with  the  dome. 

The  next  development  of  church  architec- 
ture was  in  the  West,  in  the  so-called  Roman 
style,  which  extended  from  the  10th  till 
the  13th  century.  The  arch  employed  is  the 
round  arch,  whence  the  style  is  sometimes 
named.  The  cross  form  is  universal,  and  the 
lengtli  of  the  arms  is  determined  by  the  di- 
mensions of  the  square  under  their  intersec- 
tion, the  nave  being  from  two  to  three  times, 
and  the  other  arms  once  its  length.  A  crypt 
beneath  the  choir  often  raised  the  choir  itself 
many  steps  above  the  floor  of  the  nave.  Prog- 
ress was  made  in  giving  strength  and  lightness 
to  the  construction  by  combining  the  arches 
into  a  system  and  introducing  ribs  to  carry 
the  chief  weight,  the  main  body  of  the  roof 
being  mere  filling.  The  Byzantine  dome  was 
raised  over  the  intersection  of  the  arms,  and 
often  two  smaller  domes  erected  v.pon  the 
front.  The  Gothic  style  (12th  to  the  16lh  cen- 
tury) forms  the  close  of  this  development.  The 
introduction  of  the  pointed  arch  gave  greater 
flexibility  in  the  arrangement  of  spaces,  and 
enabled  the  architect  to  combine  arch  and  pil- 
lar into  one  flowing  whole.  The  system  of 
ribs  was  extended  till  even  the  walls  were  al- 
most resolved  into  them,  whereby  room  was 
given  for  the  vast  v.indows,  so  characteristic 
of  the  style,  and  greater  and  greater  loftiness 
was  secured,  the  effect  of  which  was  enhanced 
by  tall  spires.  F. 

Archontici.     See  Gnosticism. 

Archpresbyter,  or  priest,  an  ancient  office, 
once  powerful,  now  in  the  Greek  Church  cor- 
responding somewhat  to  cathedral  deans,  and 
in  the  Latin  to  the  rural  deans  of  the  Church 
of  England.  But  formerly  the  archpresbyter 
stood  next  to  the  bishop,  as  the  superior  among 
the  priesthood,  and  generally  succeeded  him. 
He  discharged  episcopal  functions,  and  grad- 
xially  the  class  became  so  independent  tliat  the 
bishops  in  the  r3th  century  had  them  put 
under  the  authority  of  the  archdeacons. 


ARCOSOLIUM 


(43) 


ARros 


Arcosolium,  a  vault  containing  sarcophagi, 
as  in  the  catacombs  of  Rome. 

Ar'-e-tas,  the  king  of  Arabia  Petraea  at  the 
time  when  the  governor  ot  Damascus  at- 
tempted to  apprehend  Paul.  Aretas  had  in- 
curred the  displeasure  of  Tiberius,  but  before 
it  reached  him  the  emperor  died,  and  the  new 
Caesar.  Caligula,  was  friendly  to  Aretas,  and 
granted  to  him  Damascus  ;  and  thus  is  ex- 
plained the  incidental  statement  made  by  the 
apostle  (3  Cor.  xi.  32).  C. 

Arianism.     See  Arius. 

A-ri-as,  Benedict  (surnamed  Montanus), 
b.  at  Frejenal  de  la  Siena,  Spain,  1527  ;  d.  at 
Seville  as  comthur  of  the  order  of  St.  lago 
and  court  chaplain,  1598.  He  was  a  famous 
Orientalist,  and  edited  the  Antwerp  Polyglot, 
1569-72,  8  vols.,  fol. 

Arimathe'-a,  a  town  in  Judaea  that  was  the 
home  of  Joseph  ;  who  begged  the  body  of  Jesus 
(Matt,  xxvii.  57).  An  old  tradition  places  it 
at  the  modern  Ramleh,  on  the  road  from  Jaffa 
to  Jerusalem.  Others  identify  it  with  Ramah, 
Samuel's  birthplace,  called  Armathaim  in  the 
LXX.  C. 

Ar-is-tar'-chu8  {most  exrxllent  ruler)  of  Thes- 
salonica,  a  companion  of  Paul  on  his  third 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xx  4,  xxvii.  2).  He 
was  dragged  into  the  theatre  at  Ephesus,  and 
nearly  killed  by  the  mob.  Paul  refers  to  him 
as  his  fellow-worker  (Philemon  xxiv.')and  also 
as  his  fellow-pri.soner  (Col.  iv.  10).  He  is  said 
to  have  been  beheaded  at  Rome.  C. 

Ar-is'-te-as,  a  high  officer  of  the  Egyptian 
court,  who  is  said  to  have  been  sent  by  Ptol- 
emy PhiladelphuH  to  procure  from  Jerusalem 
an  authentic  copy  of  the  Old  Testament  for 
the  Alexandrian  Library,  which  he  did,  and 
also  brought  70  learned  Jews,  who  translated 
it  into  Greek.  The  story  is  discredited  by 
scholars,  yet  must  have  had  some  basis  of 
fact.  C. 

Ar-is-ti'-des,  one  of  the  very  earliest  Chris- 
tian apologists,  who  presented  his  apology  to 
Hadrian  in  the  year  125  at  Athens.  In  the 
year  1878  a  fragment  claiming  to  be  a  por- 
tion of  this  apology  was  published  at  Venice 
for  the  first  time,  and  is  thought  to  be  genu- 
ine. F. 

Ar-is-to-bu'-lus  {moat  excellent  counsellor), 
the  name  of  several  noticeable  persons  in  later 
Jewish  history.  The  first  was  a  son  of  John 
Hyrcanus,  who  on  his  father's  death,  107  B.e., 
murdered  his  mother  and  brothers,  and  assum- 
ed the  throne,  but  soon  afterward  died  of  re- 
morse. The  second  was  a  younger  son  of  Alex- 
ander Jannaeus,  who  sought  the  throne  in  de- 
vious ways,  was  twice  made  prisoner  by  tlu; 
Romans,  and  finally  died  in  the  service  of 
Julius  Caisar.  Tlu;  third,  a  son  of  Herod  the  | 
Great  and  Mariamne,  fell  a  victim  to  his  fa-  | 
filer's  cruelty.  The  fourth,  a  .son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, educated  at  Rome  with  Claudius,  was 
always  in  private  life.  The  fifth,  a  great 
grandson  of  Herod,  was  made  king  of  Ar- 
menia and  Chalcis,  55-02  .\.d.  C'. 

Aristotle  in  the  Christian   Church.     The 

philosophy  of   Aristotle,   the  Greek  philoso-  ' 


pher,  who  was  b.  at  Stagira,  in  Thrace,  384 
B.C.,  whence  his  surname,  theStagirite,  launlit 
at  Athens,  and  d.  at  Chalcis,  322  b.c.  ;  wa.s  at 
first  studied  more  by  heretics  than  by  the  ortho- 
dox, as  Platonism  appealed  more  to  the  spirit- 
ually-minded. The  Syrian  Monophysites  wore 
Aristotelians.  But  when  in  later'  time  the 
schoolmen  came  to  know  about  Aristotle 
through  Arabic  and  Latin  translations,  they 
found  him  admirably  adapted  to  set  forth  the 
logic  and  metaphysics  of  Christian  theology, 
and  for  centuries  Aristnlle  reigned  supreme. 
Alexander  of  Hales  (d.  1245)  was  the  first 
.scholastic  to  employ  tlu;  Aristotelian  philoso- 
phy in  the  service  of  theoIo2:v.  Best  ed.  of 
Aristotle  by  Bekker,  Berlin,  1831-70,  5  vols.  ; 
Eng.  trans.,  T.  Taylor,  London,  1812,  9  vols. 

A-ri'-us,  Arianism.  Arius,  b.  in  Libya, 
256  ;  d.  in  Constantinople,  336.  He  was  edu- 
cated with  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  his  later 
patron,  by  Lucian,  the  founder  of  the  Anti- 
ochian  school.  He  first  appears  in  Alexandria 
under  the  bi-shopricof  Peter  (previous  to  311), 
at  which  time  he  was  already  an  old  man, 
tall,  pale,  ascetic,  and  yet  of  an  enthu.siastic 
and  friendly  disposition.  Under  the  succeed- 
ing bishop  he  was  ordained,  and  entru-sted 
with  the  charge  of  a  separate  church,  the  size 
of  the  city  demanding  this  arrangement,  so 
different  from  that  common  at  the  time.  All 
seemed  to  go  well  with  Arius,  and  he  stood  in 
good  repute  with  all  till,  on  occasion  of  i^  cer- 
tain discourse  of  the  Bishop  Alexander  upon 
the  Trinity,  the  unity  of  the  Godhead  was  so 
strongly  emphasized  that  Arius  thought  he 
detected  tlu;  old  Sabellian  heresy,  and  stood 
forward  to  contradict  the  bishop.  Alexander 
was  at  first  inclined  to  give  some  weight  to 
his  representations,  but  later,  possibly  under 
the  influence  of  Athanasius,  he  viewed  them 
differently,  called  a  jirovincial  council,  and 
had  Ariiis  and  several  adherents  deposed. 
Both  parties  now  began  to  seek  to  engage  the 
interest  of  outside  authorities,  and  Arius 
gained  the  help  of  his  old  friend  Eusebius. 
Alexander  wrote  a  multitude  of  letters,  of 
which  one  to  Alexander  of  Constantinople  is 
preserved.  Itelations  in  Alexandria  grew  so 
strained  that  Arius  was  obliged  to  leave,  and 
resorted  to  Palestine,  where  he  secured  tlie 
favor  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  and  others,  and 
then  went  on  to  Nicomedia.  Here  he  wrote 
a  letter  to  Alexander  in  justification  of  his 
doctrine,  which  .shows  conchisively  that  he 
had  not  been  misunderstood  by  that  bishop. 
He  also  composed  here  his  famous  Tlnilin,  a 
piece  in  poetical  form,  designed  to  make  his 
views  po])ular.  A  local  council  sf)on  pro- 
nounced in  liis  favor,  and  he  finally  ventured 
to  return  to  Alexandria.  He  did  not  succeed 
in  gaining  airain  his  former  position,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  Alexander  could  do  nothing 
against  him  whili;  IJcinius  h<ld  the  imperial 
power.  But  with  the  accession  of  Con.stan- 
tine,  who  desired  to  secure  luiity  in  the  church 
as  the  basis  of  unity  in  the  state,  after  efforts 
had  been  made  in  vain  to  bring  the  parties  to 
a  friendly  airreement  1)V  Hosius  of  Cordova,  a 
council  was  willed  at  N'ice  (325).  which  prov<il 
to  be  fh(!  first  of  a  great  series  of  councils  foj 
the  deterraiuatiou  of  Chri.stian  doctrine.     Un- 


ARIUS 


(44) 


ARIUS 


der  the  influence  of  Athanasius,  who  had  ac- 
companied his  bishop  to  the  council  as  deacon, 
assisted  by  the  personal  iutiuence  of  the  em- 
peror, the  council  decided  against  Arins,  and 
he  and  two  adherents  who  would  not  sign  the 
creed  of  the  council  were  banished. 

Arius's  doctrine  is  not  to  be  understood  ex- 
cept in  connection  with  the  previous  attempts 
to  explain  what  the  church  meant  by  its  faith 
in  the  Godhead  of  Christ.  Paul  of  Samosata 
had  taught  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man. 
Sabellius  taught  that  the  divine  in  Christ  was 
the  Father.  Arius  sought  an  explanation 
different  from  both  these,  and  said  that  the 
pre-existent  Christ  was  the  first  of  all  created 
beings,  but  was  created,  since  the  attribute  of 
independent  existence  belongs  to  God  alone, 
and  God  is  one.  In  the  earliest  forms  of  his 
doctrine,  when  he  was  still  in  good  reputation 
for  orthodoxy,  Arius  emphasized  the  change- 
ability and  derivation  of  Christ  so  much  that 
he  degraded  him  far  below  the  rank  assigned 
to  him  in  the  common  consciousness  of  the 
church.  Later,  when  he  was  attempting  to 
show  that  he  did  not  differ  so  much  as  had 
been  thought  from  others,  he  called  him 
"  perfect  God,"  and  yet  this  was  by  exaltation 
to  the  rank  of  God.  He  even  styles  him  "  un- 
changeable," but  he  immediately  adds  that 
"  before  he  was  made  or  created  "he  was  not, 
for  he  was  not  ingenerate."  Thus  his  doc- 
trine, before  and  after  his  troubles  with  Alex- 
ander, was  the  same,  and  may  be  conveniently 
comprised  in  the  phrase  which  he  repeatedly 
employs  :  ' '  There  was  a  time  when  he  [tlie 
Logos]  was  not." 

On  the  other  hand,  Alexander  makes  it  per- 
fectly evident  in  his  letters  that  the  common 
belief  of  the  church,  though  it  had  not  yet 
adopted  the  word  (homo-ou-sios)  which  was 
selected  by  the  Council  of  Nice  to  designate 
the  doctrine,  was  not  reconcilable  with  any- 
thing less  than  the  perfect  equality  of  the  Son 
with  the  Father  in  sharing  the  divine  nature. 
Indeed,  the  creed  of  Eusebius,  which  he  pre- 
sented at  the  council  as  the  one  which  had 
been  in  use  in  the  church  of  Cajsarea  since  the 
earliest  times,  and  which  was  rejected  by  the 
council  as  not  specific  enough  for  the  occa- 
sion, admits,  when  studied  in  the  light  of  the 
previous  discussions,  no  other  interpretation 
than  one  in  substantial  agreement  with  the 
Nicene  result  ;  and  this  result  was,  in  a  word, 
to  declare  in  the  fullest  manner  that  the  Son, 
the  pre-existent  divine  element  in  the  histori- 
cal Lord  Jesus  Christ,  was  of  the  same  nature 
with  the  Father,  and  one  in  numerical  unity 
with  him. 

But  this  result  was  one  gained  by  the  su- 
perior wisdom  and  personal  power  of  Athana- 
sius, and  under  the  pressure  of  court  influ- 
ences, rather  than  by  the  unanimous  convic- 
tion of  the  council  as  a  body  of  consulting 
divines.  Hence  the  strife  was  not  brought 
immediately  to  an  end,  and  the  history  of 
Arius  is  followed  by  the  history  of  Arianism. 
This  is  an  exceedingly  complicated  history, 
in  which  the  movements  of  thought  arc  like 
the  conflict  of  the  waves  where  two  seas  meet. 
One  party  and  then  the  other  gain  the  influ- 
ence of  emperor  and  synods  in  their  behalf, 
and  results  are  formalated,  and  laws  passed 


of  the  most  conflicting  kind.  In  general,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  East  was  divided  be- 
tween the  extremest  Arians  and  the  Semi- 
Arians,  while  the  West  generally  held  fast  to 
the  orthodox  faith. 

To  give  some  of  the  details  :  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia  had  been  banished  shortly  after 
the  Council  of  Nice,  but  he  was  soon  restored 
to  his  bishopric,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
influential  men  at  court.  Constantino  now 
came  to  view  Athanasius  as  a  disturber  of  the 
public  peace  ;  Arius  was  restored  to  favor, 
and  was  onlj^  prevented  by  death  from  having 
been  received  back  into  the  full  communion  of 
the  church  by  a  solemn  public  ceremony  ;  and 
Athanasius  was  deposed  by  the  S^-nod  of  Tyre 
(335).  Marcellus  of  Ancyra,  another  defender 
of  the  Nicene  Creed,  was  also  condemned. 
Under  Constantius,  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia 
became  bishop  of  Constantinople  (388-39). 
In  341  the  Synod  of  Antioch  set  up  the  so- 
called  Formulas  of  Antioch,  which  were  an 
attempt  to  steer  clear  of  the  extremes  of  both 
sides  and  to  furnish  a  basis  for  the  union  of 
East  and  West.  But  the  Emperor  Constans 
and  the  Western  bishops  were  not  to  be 
moved,  and  when  the  sj^nod  of  Sardica  as- 
sembled and  the  oriental  bishops  found  them- 
selves in  the  minority,  they  withdrew,  and  so 
the  decisions  of  the  synod  were  in  favor  of 
the  Nicene  Creed  (343-44).  In  the  East,  Con- 
stantius resorted  to  persecutions  against  the 
Athdnasian  party.  Ten  laymen  were  exe- 
cuted in  Adrianople.  Other  ambiguous  ef- 
forts at  union  were  made  {Long  Formula,  344), 
but  without  effect,  till  in  351  the  great  synod 
at  Sirmium  seemed  to  bring  the  contest  to  a 
conclusion  by  the  establishment  of  Semi- Arian- 
ism. Shortly  after,  at  Aries,  Athanasius  was 
again  banished.  But  this  was  not  to  be  the 
end.  Arianism  now  reappeared  in  a  form 
which  illustrated  its  true  nature,  and  by  the 
reaction  it  called  forth,  favored  the  cause  of 
the  Nicene  Creed.  Aetius,  who  had  received 
his  education  in  the  Antiochian  school,  and 
was  an  eager  debater,  in  conjunction  with  his 
pupil  Eunomius,  brought  forward  the  ancient 
Arianism,  only  in  a  more  extreme  form  than 
it  had  had  in  the  writings  of  Arius  himself. 
Arius,  under  the  influence  of  the  old  subordi- 
nationism  of  Origen,  had  not  allowed  that  the 
Son  had  a  full  knowledge  of  the  Father  ;  but 
these  Aetians  taught,  first,  that  the  Fr.ther,  as 
unbegotten,  and  l;he  Son,  as  begotten,  were 
entirely  unlike  in  all  respects  (hence  called 
Anomoi-ites),  and  that  all  men,  and  of  course 
the  Son,  had  a  full  knowledge  of  the  Father, 
since  the  nature  of  his  being  is  exhaustively 
described  in  the  word  unbegotten.  Now  ap- 
peared the  Ilomoi-ousians,  who  were  the  old 
party  of  Eusebius  of  Ca?sarea  approximating 
more  nearly  to  the  orthodox  position.  They 
taught  the  similarity  of  essence  in  Father  and 
Son,  and  finally  got  so  far  as  to  add  "  in  all 
respects"  (359).  At  the  death  of  Constantius 
(361)  this  party  was  in  the  decided  ascendant. 
The  reign  of  Julian  was  favorable  to  the 
Athanasian  party.  Athanasius  returned  to  his 
diocese,  and  by'approaching  the  Semi-Arians 
in  a  conciliatory  manner,  he  furthered  the  in- 
troduction of  a  good  understanding.  A  real 
advance  in  the  doctrine  was  made  in  the  dis- 


ARE 


(45) 


ARMENIAN 


tinction  established  between  the  words  for 
"  nature"  and  "  person"  (hypostasis).  More 
and  more  the  consensus  of  opinion  in  tlie 
church  was  in  favor  of  the  Nicene  doctrine, 
and  at  hist,  after  Gratian  had  called  back  the 
banished  bishops  (378),  and  a  large  degree  of 
religious  freedom  had  been  granted  by  him, 
the  Council  of  Constantinople  assembled  and 
reaffirmed  the  symbol  of  Nice  (381).  Arian- 
ism  now  began  rapidly  to  disappear,  under 
the  repressive  measures  of  the  government,  it 
must  be  confessed,  to  a  large  extent,  and  soon 
was  no  more  a  religious  force. 

This  result  Avas  not  gained  by  the  councils 
as  such,  but  was  the  mature  conclusion  of  the 
mass  of  the  church  when  all  the  various  forms 
of  statement  which  had  been  brought  forward 
had  been  found  defective,  and  the  waves  of 
passion  had  tossed  hither  and  thither  and  sub- 
sided, and  the  sober  judgment  of  men  was 
reached.  The  contest  has  great  v-ilue  in  show- 
ing, among  other  things,  what  an  oecumenical 
council  was  and  what  it  was  not. 

Arianism  had  a  somewhat  prolonged  life 
among  the  Goths  and  other  Germanic  nations, 
among  whom  it  was  introduced  by  the  mis- 
sionary to  the  Goths,  Ulfilas  (350).  The  Arian 
Lombards  were  a  scourge  to  Italy,  the  Arian 
Vandals  desolated  the  churches  of  Africa. 
But  all  these  Arian  peoples  either  went  over 
to  the  Catholic  Church  or  were  buried  beneath 
the  waves  of  the  Saracenic  invasion.  (See  H. 
M.  Gwatkin,  IVte  Arian  Controversy,  hondon, 
1889.)  F. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant,  a  small  chest  of 
acacia  wood,  plated  with  gold  within  and 
without,  and  covered  by  a  lid  of  solid  gold, 
which  was  called  the  "  mercy-seat, "  and  at 
each  end  of  which  was  a  golden  figure  repre- 
senting a  cherub  facing  inward  and  bending 
over  the  ark.  In  it  were  placed  the  tables  of 
the  law,  which  constituted  the  evidence  of 
God's  covenant  with  his  people  (Deut.  xxxi. 
20),  and  hence  it  was  called  the  ark  of  the 
testimony,  as  well  as  ark  of  the  covenant. 
Afterward  were  placed  in  it  the  golden  pot  of 
manna  and  Aaron's  rod  that  budded.  Upon 
the  mercy-seat  rested  the  awful  and  mysteri- 
ous symbol  of  the  divine  presence  (Lev.  xvi. 
2,  Num.  vii.  89).  The  ark  was  first  set  up  at 
Gilgal,  and  then  at  Shiloh  (Josh,  xviii.  1), 
where  it  remained  over  three  centuries.  Taken 
out  to  war,  it  was  captured  by  the  Philistines 
(1  Sara.  iv.  11),  and  when  restored  was  lodged 
at  Kirjathjearim  (1  Sam.  vii.  7),  until  it 
was  removed  by  David  to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam. 
vi.  17)  and  finally  placed  in  the  temple  by  Solo- 
mon (2  Chron.  v.  2-10).  It  disappeared  in  the 
sack  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  second  temple  con- 
tained no  ark.  C. 

Ark'-ite,  The.  A  Canaanitish  family  (Gen. 
X.  17)  settled  in  Arka,  a  town  at  the  foot  of 
Lebanon,  where  Astarte  was  worshipped, 
called  Cajsarea  Libani,  because  it  was  the 
birthplace  of  Alexander  Severus.  C. 

Armenian   Church.      Tradition   attributes 
to  the  Apostle  Thaddaius  the  first  preaching 
of  the  gospel  in  Armenia,  then  an  extensive  i 
country  of   Western   Asia,   now  divided   be-  , 
tween  "Turkey,  Russia   and  Persia  ;  but  it  is 
a  matter  of  history  that  Gregory  the  Illumi-  ' 


nator  (q.v.)  converted  the  king,  Tiridates,  and 
a  great  part  of  the  people  in  the  early  part  of 
the  4th  century,  and  is  accordinglv  the  patron 
saint  of  the  Armenian  Church.  Another 
founder  is  Mesrob  (q.v.),  who  in  406  invented 
an  Armenian  alphabet,  and  with  Saiiak  gave 
the  people,  in  440,  instead  of  the  unintelligible 
old  Syrian,  an  Armenian  Bible,  and  this  Bible 
is  the  beginning  and  corner-stone  of  their  liter- 
ature, for  by  it  a  great  impetus  was  given  ia 
literary  work,  and  strangely  enougli  we  owe 
to  Armenian  translations  our  knowledge  of  a 
consiiicrable  part  of  early  (Christian  literature. 
The  adherents  to  the  old  fire-worship  sought 
the  help  of  tlie  Persians  to  put  down  the  new 
religion,  and  it  was  not  before  485  that  peace 
was  established  by  their  submission  to  Persia, 
after  long  bloody  wars  and  cruel  persecu- 
tions. But  the  church  which  had  endured 
such  trials  was  already  tainted  with  the  I\Iono- 
physite  heresy,  and  in  491  formally  anathema- 
tized the  Council  of  Chalcedou,  aiid  has  since 
remained  separated  from  the  orthodo.v  church. 
An  attempt  at  union  with  the  Eastern  Church 
was  made  in  (532,  but  although  at  first  com- 
pletely .successful,  the  breach  opened  again,  as 
much  on  political  as  on  ecclesiastical  grounds. 
In  1439  a  union  between  the  Western  Church 
and  the  members  of  the  Armenian  Church 
outside  of  Armenia  was  effected  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Florence,  according  to  which  the  Ar- 
menians gave  up  their  Monophysite  doctrine, 
while  they  retained  their  national  and  ritual 
peculiarities.  But  this  very  union  had  the  effect 
of  splitting  the  Armenian  Church  as  a  whole 
into  two  bodies,  the  Catholic  (united)  and  the 
orthodox  (i.e.,  from  their  standpoint);  to  the 
former  belong  the  richest  and  best  educated 
part  of  the  nation,  and  the  Mechitarists  (q.v.). 
The  Catholic  Armenian  bishop  attended  the 
Vatican  Council,  but  it  Wiis  not  till  1879  that 
he  accepted  the  Infallibility  dogma. 

The  dogmas  (except  that  relating  to  the  two 
natures  in  Christ)  and  rites  of  tlie  orthodox 
Armenian  Churcii  approacli  those  of  the  old 
Greek  Church.  Peculiarities  are  the  festival 
of  the  Seven  Sacraments  ;  the  combination  of 
baptism,  which  consists  in 
and  ] louring  ;  the  use  of 
immixed  wine  and  leavened  bread,  which  is 
dipped  in  the  wine,  in  the  Lord's  Supper  ;  and 
that  extreme  unction  is  only  applied  to  ecclesi- 
astics, and  that  after  death.  The  chnrrh 
numbers  some  3,000,000,  two  thirds  being  in 
Turkey.  The  presiding  officer  of  the  church 
is  called  the  Catholicos.  and  is  the  patriarch 
of  Etchmiadzin,  but  resides  in  Russia.  There 
are  three  other  patriarchates.  Jerusalem,  Con- 
stantinople, and  Sis  (a  town  in  Asia  Minor). 
There  are  also  archbishops,  bishops,  and  varta- 
beds,  or  doctors  of  theology,  whtj  fre(juently 
have  charge  of  dioceses,  with  episcopal  func- 
tions. The  clergy  are  white  and  black,  but 
the  latter  arc  monks  and  alone  eligible  for  tlie 
higher  clerical  offices.  The  secular  clergy 
may  marrv  before  ordination,  but  canrn  t 
after  it.  the  priesthood  is  hereditary.  As  a 
rule,  the  priests  are  very  poor,  iK-ing  dep«^-nd- 
ent  upon  alms  and  fees.  Since  IK^l  Ameri- 
can Protestant  mi-^sionari's  have  worketl  sue 
cessfullv  among  the  Armeiiiflns  in  Turkey, 
the  leader  being  William  Goodcll,  and  in  1850 


confirmation  with  baptism,  which  consists  in 
trine    inunersion    and    ]>< 


ARMINIA.NISM 


46) 


ARNAUD 


reluctantly  established  among  them  the  Evan- 
gelical Protestant  Church.  Robert  College,  at 
Constantinople,  is  one  of  the  fruits  of  the 
movement.  (See  The  Life  and  Times  of  S. 
Gregory  the  Illuminator,  London,  1868  ;  The 
Divine  Liturgy  of  the  Ai'menian  Church,  1870 
[both  translated  by  S.  C.  Malan]  ;  for  the  mod- 
ern church  cf.  R.  Young,  Light  in  Lands  of 
Darkness,  London,  2d  ed.,  1884,  pp.  114-168!) 

Arminianism.     See  Arminius. 

Ar-min'-i-us,  Arminianism.  Arminius, 
James  (Dutch,  Jacobi  Ilarmensen),  b.  at  Oude- 
water,  Holland,  in  1560  ;  d.  at  Leyden,  Oct.  19, 
1609.  After  a  preliminary  training  at  Utrecht, 
he  was  sent,  in  1575,  to  the  newl}'  founded  uni- 
versity at  Leyden,  where  he  remained  six 
years,  and  gained  a  high  reputation.  In  1582 
he  went  to  Geneva  and  studied  theology  un- 
der Theodore  Beza.  Here  he  gave  offence  by 
advocating  the  logic  of  Peter  Ranuis  in  oppo- 
sition to  tliat  of  Aristotle,  and  had  to  retire  to 
Basle,  but  in  1583  returned  to  Geneva  and 
continued  his  studies  for  three  j^ars  more. 
He  then  visited  Padua  and  Rome,  and  on  his 
return  to  Amsterdam,  in  1586,  was  ordained. 
Soon  after  he  was  commissioned  to  answer  the 
sublapsarian  views  of  certain  ministers  of 
Delft,  but,  in  studying  the  subject,  became  a 
convert  to  the  opinions  he  was  set  to  oppose. 
These  new  views  found  expression  in  his  ex- 
positions of  Romans,  and  provoked  much  con- 
troversy ;  but  in  1603  he  succeeded  Fr.  Junius 
as  professor  hi  theology  at  Leyden.  Here  he 
soon  became  involved  in  fierce  disputes  with 
Gomar,  one  of  his  colleagues,  on  foreordina- 
tion,  but  still,  in  1605,  was  made  rector  mag- 
nificus  of  the  university.  The  controversy 
becoming  general,  he  asked  that  a  synod 
should  be  called  to  settle  it,  but  before  this 
could  be  done  he  died.  He  was  a  man  of 
acuteness  and  learning,  not  a  profound  scholar, 
but  an  excellent  writer,  of  winning  manners 
and  an  amiable  spirit.  (See  Life,  by  Bangs, 
New  York,  1843.) 

Arminianism. — A  system  differing  from 
Calvinism  as  usually  held  by  the  Reformed 
churches  on  the  five  points — foreordination 
universal  redemption,  the  corruption  of  man, 
conversion,  and  final  perseverance.  As  slated 
by  the  Remonstrants,  as  the  followers  of  Ar- 
minius were  called,  in  1610,  it  maintained  : 
1.  That  God  had  indeed  made  an  eternal 
decree,  but  only  on  the  condition  that  all 
who  believe  in  Christ  shall  be  saved,  while  all 
who  refuse  to  believe  must  perish,  so  that 
predestination  is  only  conditional.  2.  That 
Christ  died  for  each  and  every  man,  but  only 
those  who  believe  are  really  saved  by  his 
death.  3.  That  no  man  is  of  himself  able  to 
exercise  a  saving  faith,  but  must  be  born  again 
of  God  in  Christ  through  the  Holy  Spirit. 
4.  That  without  the  grace  of  God,  man  can 
neither  think,  will,  nor  do  anything  good  ; 
yet  that  grace  does  not  act  upon  men  in  an 
irresistible  way.  5.  True  believers  are  able, 
by  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  victoriously  to 
resist  sin,  but  whether  they  may  not  by  their 
own  remissness  fidl  from  grace  is  a  question 
to  be  determined  by  a  further  examination  of 
the  Scriptures.  On  the  last-mentioned  point 
the  later  Arminians  came  to  hold,  as  do  now 


all  who  bear  the  name,  that  the  regenerate 
may  lose  justifying  faith,  fall  from  a  slate  of 
grace,  and  die  in  their  sins.  It  is  understood 
that  the  holders  of  these  views  agree  with 
other  evangelical  Christians  as  to  the  Trinity, 
the  fall  of  man,  the  atonement,  the  obligation 
to  holiness,  and  eternal  retribution.  Armin- 
ians are  found  more  or  less  among  all  Protes- 
tants, but  their  leading  representatives  are  the 
Wesleyans  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Meth- 
odists of  America.  (See  Watson's  Institutes, 
W.  B.  Pope's  Christietn  Theology.)  C. 

Armitage,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Georgetown  Col- 
lege, Ky.,  1855)  ;  b.  at  Pontefract,  Eng.,  Aug. 
2,  1819  ;  becameaMethodistpreacher  at  16  ;  a 
resident  in  iVmerica  in  1838  ;  in  1848,  a  Bap- 
tist, and  from  that  time  to  1889  was  pastor  of 
the  Fifth  Ave.  Baptist  Church,  New  York 
City.  He  was  a  founder  of  the  American 
Bible  Union,  1850  (see  Bible  Societies),  and 
its  president,  1856-75.  He  published  A  His- 
tory of  the  Baptists,  New  York,  1886. 

Army,  Armor,  Hebrev?-.  No  representa- 
tions of  the  Hebrew  weapons  have  been  pre- 
served on  vases,  coins,  or  jewels  ;  so  that  our 
views  of  them  must  be  drawn  from  remains 
of  other  ancient  peoples  or  inferred  from  the 
words  themselves.  Of  offensive  arms,  there 
were  the  sword,  lighter  than  ours,  carried  in  a 
sheath  and  suspended  from  the  girdle  ;  the 
spear,  a  long  wooden  staff  with  a  metal  point  ; 
the  javelin,  a  shorter  lance  ;  the  dart,  still 
smaller  ;  the  bow,  sometimes  of  steel,  with 
arrotrs,  often  either  poisoned  or  fiery  ;  the 
sling,  the  usual  weapon  of  a  shepherd,  but 
also  employed  in  regular  warfare  ;  the  battle- 
axe  (Jer.  li.  20\  the  form  of  which  is  unknown. 
D  fensive  armor  consisted  of  the  shitld,  one 
form  of  which  protected  the  whole  person, 
while  another,  smaller  in  size,  was  used  for 
hand-to  hand  fight  ;  the  coat-of-mail ,  which 
covered  the  breast  and  back  ;  the  greaves, 
which  protected  the  legs  ;  the  helmet,  covering 
the  head.  The  term  "'  armor' '  and  the  various 
offensive  and  defensive  weapons  included  in 
it  are  frequently  used  figuratively  in  the  Bible, 
especially  in  Ephesians  vi.  11-1?,  where  the 
graces  of  the  Christian  character  are  repre- 
sented as  the  panoply  of  God  in  which  he 
clothes  the  believer  and  by  which  he  is  en- 
abled to  fight  victoriously  the  good  fight  of 
faith. 

The  armies  of  Israel  embraced  the  whole 
male  population,  and  when  occasion  required 
the  entire  body  could  be  assembled.  Each 
tribe  constituted  a  division,  with  a  separate 
banner,  and  this,  again,  was  divided  into 
thousands  and  hundreds,  under  their  respec- 
tive captains.  The  kings  first  established  the 
custom  of  body  guards  (1  Sam.  xiii.  2,  xxv. 
13),  and  in  later  times  a  standing  army  was 
maintained.  But  ordinarily  the  soldiers  re- 
ceived no  wages,  but  were  armed  and  sup- 
ported (1  Kings  iv.  27).  Hence  the  campaigns 
were  generally  short,  and  often  decided  by  a 
single  battle.  Horses  were  not  used,  it  is  sup- 
posed, till  Solomon's  time.  The  manner  of 
declaring  war  and  the  character  of  exempts 
are  minutely  stated  (Deut.  xx.  1-14,  xxiv.  5). 
See  War.  C. 

Arnaud  (ar-no)  Henri,  b.  at  Embrun,  Hautes 


ARNAULD 


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ARNOLD 


Alpes,  Friince,  Sept.  30.  1641;  d.  atSchonbcrg. 
Wiirtemberg,  Sept.  8,  1721.  He  is  fiiniousfor 
his  succes,sful  conduct  of  hi.s  Waldeiisian  co- 
religionists back  into  their  native  valleys,  in  the 
face  of  determined  oppo.sition,  1689-90  (cele- 
brated Aug.  and  Sept.,  1889).  They  were,  liow- 
ever,  compelled  to  leave  again.  lie  served  in 
the  army  of  the  Allies  against  France  in  1703, 
but  for  the  latter  years  of  his  life  preached  to 
the  exiled  AValdensians  at  Schonberg.  He  is 
the  author  of  The  Ohrious  Recovery  by  the 
VaudoisofthnrVaUeysiovig.  French,  iVlO,  n.e. 
Neuchatel,  1845  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1827). 

AmaiUd  (ar-no).  The  name  of  a  Frencli 
family  celebrated  for  their  Jansenism.  1 .  An- 
toine,  the  father  ;  b.  in  Paris,  1560  ;  d.  tliere, 
Dec.  39,  1619  ;  advocate-general  and  member 
of  parliament,  Paris,  Avhose  speech,  July  13, 
13,  1594  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1594),  against 
the  Jesuists  caused  their  temporary  banish- 
ment. He  had  20  children,  of  whom  several 
became  prominent.  2.  Robert  d'Andilly,  his 
eldest  son;  b.  in  Paris,  1588  ;  after  his  wife's 
death  he  entered  the  Cistercian  convent  of  Port 
Royal,  Paris,  1643,  with  five  of  his  daughters, 
giving  lip  his  influential  position  at  court,  and 
henceforward  devoted  himself  to  literature,  on 
the  side  of  Jansenism  ;  d.  there,  Sept.  37,  1674. 
He  wrote  Lives  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Desert 
(Eng.  trans.,  London,  1757,  3  vols.)  and  other 
translations.  3.  Henri,  younger  son  ;  b.  in 
Paris,  1597  ;  became  bishop  of  Angers,  1649  ; 
d.  there.  June  8,  1693,  respected  by  his  theo- 
logical opponents  and  beloved  by  his  flock.  4. 
Antoine,  stvled  "  the  Great,"  j'oungest  son  ; 
b.  in  Paris,  Feb.  6,  1612  ;  d.  at  Brussels,  Aug. 
8,  1694.  He  was  the  great  leader  of  the  Jan- 
senists.  Turning  from  philo.sophy  and  law  to 
theology,  he  became  a  priest,  1641,  and  the 
next  year  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonue,  and  in  1643 
the  recognized  head  of  the  Jansenist  party  in 
France.  From  then  on  Jesuitism  had  no  more 
learned  or  indefatigable  opponent.  To  escape 
his  foes,  he  retired  to  the  convent  of  Port 
Roj-al,  Paris.  In  1656  his  declaration,  that  it 
vsras  not  true  that  certain  propositions  alleged 
to  be  in  Jansen's  book  Augustinus,  and  con- 
demned b}^  the  pope  as  heretical,  were  found 
in  it  in  the  sense  ascribed  to  them  by  his  op- 
ponents, led  to  his  expulsion  from  the  Sor- 
bonne,  but  also  to  the  composition  by  Pascal 
of  the  famous  Proviiicinl  Letters.  From  1679 
till  his  death  he  lived  in  Belgium,  mostly  in 
Brussels.  Here  he  worked,  in  connection  with 
Quesnel  ((j.v.),  upon  the  old  themes— defence 
of  Jansenism,  opposition  to  Jesuitism.  His 
writings  make  45  vols.,  Paris  and  Lau.sanne, 
1775-83  (with  his  Life  by  Majainville),  but  are 
entirely  forgotten,  except  that  prepared  with 
Nicole.  Ihe  Port  lloynl  Logic  (Eng.  trans  ,  10th 
ed.,  Edinburgh,  1887).  5.  Jacqueline  Marie 
(religious  name,  Marie  Angeliqne  de  /^te.  Ma- 
deleine), second  daughter  ;  b.  in  Paris,  Sept.  8, 
1591  ;  d.  there,  Aug.  6,  1661.  Her  father  by 
fraud  secured  her  nomination  as  abbess  of  Port 
Royal  when  she  was  only  11  years  old  !  Quite 
naturally,  she  did  not  take  her  position  seri- 
ously at  first,  but  in  1608  she  was  converted, 
and  at  once  began  convent  reforms  which  at- 
tracted wide  attention,  and  led  to  her  doing 
similar  work  in  the  convent  of  Maubuissou, 


near  Paris,  in  1618.  In  1626  she  laid  down  her 
office  at  Port  Royal  ;  from  1633  to  1636  she 
was  superior  of  a  new  community  of  nuns,  but 
became  prioress  of  Port  Royal  in  the  latter 
year.  (See  Miss  Frances  Martin,  An;,eli(iii,  Ar- 
nauld,  London,  1873.)  6.  Angelique  de  St. 
Jean,  daughter  of  Robert ;  b.  in  Paris,  Nov. 
24,  1624  ;  with  three  other  sisters  became  imn 
in  the  P<jrt  Royal  convent,  subpriore.ss,  1053, 
abbess.  1678,  in  which  po.sition  she  died  Jan. 
29.  1684.  She  was  the  principal  author  of 
Memoires  pour  servir  d  I'histoire  de  Fort  Itiiyul 
(Utrecht,  1742,  3  vols.).     See  Jansenism. 

Arndt  (arnt),  Johann,  German  Lutheran  ;  b. 
at  Ballenstedt,  Anhalt,  Dec.  27,  1555  ;  studied 
at  Helmstedt.  Wittenberg,  and  elsewhere  ;  be- 
came diakoaiis  at  Ballenstedt,  1581  ;  pastor  at 
Badeborn,  1583  ;  at  Quedlinburg,  1590  ;  at 
Braun.schweig,  1599  ;  at  Eisleben,  1608  ;  gen- 
eral superintendent  at  Celle,  1611  ;  d.  there, 
May  11,  1621.  Shocked  by  the  unevangelical 
tone  of  most  contemporary  theologians,  he 
endeavored  to  set  forth  the  claims  of  religion 
upon  the  heart  and  the  outward  life,  and  so 
became  a  teacher  of  the  "  indwelling  kingdom 
of  God. "  His  writings  are  to  this  day  among 
the  most  esteemed  German  devotional  treatises, 
and  one  of  them,  True  Vhristianity  (original, 
Bk.  I.,  Frankfort-on-:Main,  1605  ;  the  4  books 
complete.  ^Magdeburg,  1609  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1712-14,  2  pts.  ;  new  ed.  rev.,  bv  C.  F. 
Schaeffer,  Philadelphia,  1868),  has  been  trans- 
lated into  all  European  languages.  Another 
great  favorite  of  his  is  The  Garden  of  Paradise 
(original,  Leipzig,  1612  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1716).  Complete  ed.  of  his  works,  Leipzig  and 
Gorlitz,  1734-36,  3  vols. 

Ar-no'-bi-us,  an  early  apologist,  who  wrote 
not  long  after  the  persecution  of  303.  His 
work  is  entitled  Against  the  Heathen,  and  has 
come  down  to  us  in  ses'en  books  (Eng. 
trans.,  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  ed.  Coxe.  Chr. 
Lit.  Co.,  New  York,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  405-543). 
It  is  said  that  he  was  a  bitter  opposer  of 
Christians,  and  that  when  he  was  converted 
the  bishop  would  not  admit  him  to  the  church 
till  he  had  proved  his  conversion  by  this  apol- 
ogy. The  contents  correspond  to  this  legend, 
for  his  conception  of  Christianity  is  .'iomewhat 
crude.  But  the  apology  was  calculated  to  do 
the  heathen  good.  F. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  b.  at  Brescia,  60  m. 
e.n.e.  of  Milan,  Italy,  about  1100;  d.  at 
Rome,  1155.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Abclard's, 
who,  on  his  return  to  his  native  city,  began  to 
preach  moral  reforms.  He  attempted  no  doc- 
trinal reform  of  the  church,  but  seeing  the 
corrupting  effects  of  worldliness,  he  ascribed 
the  evils  of  the  church  to  its  wealth  and  to  its 
participation  in  secular  government,  and  ad- 
vocated the  relinquishment  of  these.  It  i.s-^not 
prol)able  that  he  owed  these  views  to  other 
preceding  agitators,  such  as  the  Waldcn.ses, 
but  they'were  the  fruit  of  his  own  observar 
tions  and  thoughts.  In  1139  the  pope  im- 
posed upon  him  an  oath  to  keep  silence,  and 
he  soon  departed  for  France,  wliere  Ik-  in- 
curred the  enniitv  of  St.  Bernard.  Con- 
demned with  Abelard,  and  in  danger  <'f  \m- 
prisonment,  he  tied  to  Switzerland  (n4()). 
whence  he  returned  home,  and  is  found  in 


ARNOLD 


(48) 


ARTICLES 


Rome  in  1145.  He  soon  began  to  preach  his 
doctrines,  which  found  the  more  liearty  ac- 
ceptance among  the  Romans  that  he  now 
sought,  not  only  to  establish  a  connection 
with  the  emperor  and  secure  the  independence 
of  the  city  from  the  pope,  but  to  set  up  again 
the  ancient  Roman  senate  and  people.  But  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  Romans  cooled  as  rapidly  as 
it  had  risen,  and  when,  in  1155,  the  pope  put  the 
city  under  the  ban,  and  the  king,  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  who  desired  the  imperial  crown, 
and  could  not  foresee  his  own  conflicts  with  the 
papal  power,  proceeded  against  Arnold,  they 
delivered  him  to  his  enemies,  and  he  was 
hanged,  his  body  burned,  and  the  ashes  scat- 
tered upon  the  Tiber.  His  efforts  for  reform 
thus  met  with  no  permanent  success.  (See 
Life  by  Bonet-Maury,  Paris,  1881.)  F. 

Arnold,  Gottfried,  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Anna- 
berg,  Saxony,  Sept.  5,  1666  ;  studied  at  Wit- 
tenberg ;  was  professor  of  history  at  Giessen, 
1697-98  ;  court  preacher  at  Allstedt,  1701, 
then  preacher  at  Werben,  1704,  and  Perleberc, 
1707,  and  d.  there.  May  30,  1714.  His  most 
famous  book  is  the  Unparteiische  KircMn-  rind 
Ketzerhistorie  (Frankfort,  1699  sqq. ;  best  ed., 
Schaffhausen,  1740-42,  3  vols.),  in  which  he 
claims  for  the  heretics  a  striving  after  true 
Christianity,  and  justifies  their  existence  on  the 
ground  of  the  defects  and  degeneracy  of  the 
church.  He  was  a  Pietist  of  the  school  of 
Spener,  and  wrote  several  favorite  hymns. 
(Life  by  Dibelius,  Berlin,  1873.) 

Arnold,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1828), 
head  master  of  Rugby  school  ;  b.  at  West 
Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  June  13,  1795  ;  d.  at 
Ragby,  June  12,  1842.  Educated  at  Oxford  ; 
elected  fellow  of  Oriel,  1815  ;  lived  at  Lale- 
ham,  ' '  a  quiet  village  on  the  broad  Thames, ' ' 
as  private  tutor,  1819 ;  became  master  of 
Rugby,  1827.  He  exerted  an  extraordinary 
intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual  influence. 
He  was  a  living  epistle  of  goodness  and  truth. 
His  school  was  a  power  and  a  blessing,  his 
pupils  being  marked  as  unusually  "  thought- 
ful, manly-minded,  and  conscious  of  duty  and 
obligation."  He  was  elected  regius  professor 
of  history  at  Oxford,  1841,  but  did  not  give 
up  his  school.  His  chief  works  were  The 
Early  History  of  Rome,  London,  1838-^3,  3 
vols.,  and  Lectures  on  the  Stndy  of  31odern 
History,  Oxford,  1842  ;  his  Sermons,  ed.  by 
]iis  daughter,  Mrs.  W.  G.  Forster,  1878,  6 
vols.  (Cf.  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.)  His  Life  and 
Correspondence,  by  Dean  Stanley,  London, 
1844,  2  vols.,  12th  ed.,  1881,  is  an  English 
classic. 

Amoldists,  followers  of  Arnold  of  Brescia 
(q.v.). 

Ar'-non  {noisy),  the  torrent  boundary  be- 
tween Moab  and  the  Amorites  (Num.  xxi.  13), 
running  into  the  Dead  Sea  from  the  east.  It 
is  full  in  winter,  but  nearly  dry  in  summer. 
It  runs  through  a  deep  ravine  with  precipitous 
cliffs  on  either  side.  C. 

Amot,  William,  Free  Church  of  Scotland  ; 
b.  at  Scone,  Nov.  6,  1808  ;  educated  at  Glas- 
gow ;  pastor  there,  1838  ;  at  Edinburgh,  1863  ; 
d.  there,  June  3,  1875.  He  declined  a  D.D. 
from  the  universities  of   Glasgow  and  New 


York.  He  wrote  Latcs  from  Heaven  for  Life 
on  Earth  :  Lllust rations  of  the  Book  if  Prov- 
erbs, London,  1857-58,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1883, 
and  other  popular  works.  (See  his  Autobiog- 
raphy arul  Memoir,  London,  1877.) 

Ar-phaK-ad,  a  son  of  Shem,  ancestor  of 
Eber,  and  also,  according  to  Josephus,  of  the 
Chaldeans.  The  etymology  of  the  name  is 
much  disputed,  but  it  is  generally  admitted 
that  as  it  occurs  in  Gen.  x.  22,  24,  it  denotes 
the  district  called  by  the  Greeks  Arrapachi- 
tis.  C. 

Ar-se'-nl-us,  Greek  patriarch,  entrusted 
with  the  education  of  the  son  of  the  Em- 
peror Lascaris,  pronounced  excommunication 
against  the  usurper  Michael  Palaeologus,  who 
had  caused  the  legitimate  successor  to  the 
throne  to  be  blinded.  Arsenius  was  therefore 
deposed,  and  died  upon  an  island  in  the  Pro- 
pontis  in  1273.  The  followers  of  Arsenius, 
who  were  numerous,  maintained  a  schismatic 
existence  till,  in  1312,  the  course  of  Arsenius 
was  declared  to  have  been  right,  and  he  him- 
self was  canonized.  F. 

Ar-ta-xerx'-es  {the great  warrior),  the  name 
of  two  Persian  kings  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
One  was  he  who  stopped  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple  (Ezra  iv.  7-24),  supposed  to  have  been 
Smerdis  the  Magian,  who,  by  usurpation, 
reigned  for  eight  months.  The  other  was 
Longimanus,  son  of  Xerxes,  who  reigned  B.C. 
464-425,  and  permitted  Ezra  to  return  to 
Judaea  with  those  who  chose  to  follow  him, 
and  afterward  granted  the  same  favor  to 
Nehemiah.  C. 

Ar'-te-mon  came  out  in  Rome  with  the  opin- 
ion that  the  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Christ 
was  an  innovation  and  a  relapse  into  heathen 
polytheism.  He  was  excommunicated  prob- 
ably by  Zephyrinus  (202-17).  He  made  some 
use  of  Aristotle.  F. 

Articles  of  Religion.  I.  English.  These 
were  framed  by  Archbishop  Cranmer,  with  the 
aid  of  Ridley  and  Latimer  and  the  foreign 
divines,  Butzer,  Peter  Martyr,  and  John  S 
Lasco,  and  when  published  by  authority,  in 
1553,  were  42  in  number.  Set  aside  under 
Mary,  they  were  revised  under  Elizabeth,  re- 
duced to  39,  and  published  in  the  shape  which 
they  have  ever  since  retained.  For  a  long 
period  they  were  made  binding  upon  all  min- 
isters and  students  in  the  university,  but  relief 
was  given  to  dissenting  ministers  by  the  toler- 
ation act  of  William  and  Mary,  and  in  1871  an 
act  was  passed  exempting  all  students  from 
subscription  and  throwing  the  universities 
open  to  Dissenters.  This  important  doctrinal 
formula  covers  nearly  all  the  heads  of  the 
Christian  faith,  especially  those  which  are  dis- 
puted with  Romanists.  They  affirm  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  of  the  trinity  and  incarnation, 
the  Augustinian  views  of  free  will,  total  de- 
pravity, grace,  faith,  good  works,  election, 
and  the  Calvinistic  statement  of  the  sacra- 
ments. They  have,  therefore,  an  eclectic  and 
comprehensive  character  which  commends 
them  doctrinally  to  general  acceptance.  Not 
so  with  the  Erastian  feature,  which  makes  the 
sovereign  supreme  governor  of  the  Church  of 
England.       There  are    great    differences    of 


ARTOT7RITE3 


(49) 


ASCETICS 


opinion  as  to  their  proper  interpretation,  and 
opposing  sciiools  luive  alike  claimed  them  as 
favoring  their  views.  But  Ihey  must  be  un- 
derstood in  their  grammatical  sense,  and  when 
this  is  doubtful  recourse  should  be  had  to 
the  Books  of  Homilies,  the  Catechism,  the 
private  writings  of  the  Reformers,  and  the 
great  Elizabetiian  divines.  The  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  adopted 
these  articles,  save  those  which  are  political, 
omitting  also  any  reference  to  the  Athanasian 
Creed.  The  25  articles  of  the  jMethodist  Epis- 
copal Church  and  the  85  of  the  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church  in  America  are  based  upon 
the  Anglican  articles,  much  of  whose  sub- 
stance and  phraseology  they  retain.  (See  Har- 
old Brown's  E-vposilioii  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  and  Schatf's  Creeds  of  Christendom, 
i..  592. sqq.;  iii.,  486-516.)  H.  Irish.  These. 
104  in  number,  were  framed  by  Archbishop 
Usslier  when  professor  of  divinity  in  Dub- 
lin, and  adopted  by  the  convocation  of  the 
Irish  Church  at  its  first  meeting,  1615.  They 
form  a  connecting  link  between  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  and  the  Westmin.ster  Confes- 
sion, being  considered  a  chief  source  of  the 
latter.  At  first,  subscription  to  them  was  re 
quired,  but  in  1635  they  were  quietly  ignored, 
the  English  Articles  being  formally  adoptetl 
by  the  convocation.  (See  Schaff's  Greeds, 
i..  662-665;  iii.,  526-544.)  Ill  L.oibetii. 
So  called  because  drawn  up  at  Lambeth  Pal- 
ace  (1595)  by  Dr.  William  Whitaker  and  ap- 
proved by  Archbishop  Whitgift.  Tliey  were 
sent  to  Cambridge,  where  the  scholars  were 
directed  to  conform  to  them,  but  at  the  in- 
stance of  Queen  Elizabeth  were  suppressed. 
Tliey  are  strongly  Calvlnistic.  Dr.  Reynolds, 
at  the  famous  Hampton  Court  Conference 
(1604),  requested  that  these  be  added  to  the 
Thirty  nine  Articles.  (See  Schaff's  Creeds,  i., 
658-6'82;  iii.,  523-525.)  C. 

Artotyrites  {hread-cJieese),  a  branch  of  the 
Montanists  who  used  cheese  in  place  of  bread 
in  the  Eucharist. 

Arundel,  Thomas,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Arun- 
del ;  b.  at  Arundel  Ca.stle,  Sussex,  1353  ;  be- 
came bishop  of  Ely,  1373  ;  archbishop  of  York, 
1388  ;  tran.slated  to  Canterbury,  1396  ;  ban- 
ished by  King  Richard  II.  for  alleged  impro- 
priety as  chancellor,  1397  ;  returned  with 
Henry  IV.,  1399,  and  was  reinstated  ;  per- 
secuted the  Lollards,  and  d.  at  Canterbury, 
Feb.  19,  1413.  It  was  by  him  that  Lord  Cob- 
ham  (q.v.),  the  Lollard  chief,  was  condemned. 

A'-sa  (pnt/sicia/i),  third  king  of  Judah.  He 
reigned  41  years.  At  first  so  devoted  to  truth 
that  he  deposed  his  mother  for  making  an 
idol  to  Ashera  (1  Kings  xv.  8-24),  he  pros- 
pered greatly,  and  defeated  the  invader  Zerah, 
at  the  head  of  a  million  of  men  ;  but  afterward 
,allied  himself  with  the  heathen  Benhadad, 
king  of  Syria,  and  when  smitten  witli  disease 
sought  to  the  physicians  and  not  to  the  Lord, 
and  .so  died  under  a  cloud  (B.C.  915).  C. 

A'-saph  (assembler),  a  Levite,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  David's  choir  (1  Chron.  vi.  39),  an 
inspired  seer  (2  (?hron.  xxix.  30),  and  a  musi- 
cal composer  on  a  par  with  David  (Neh.  xii. 
46).    To  him  are  attributed  Psalms  1.,  Ixxiii.- 


Ixxxiii.;  but  as  several  of  these  appear  to 
be  later  than  his  time,  the  name  in  the  title 
must  in  such  cases  mean  one  of  "  (he  sons  of 
Asaph,"  a  school  of  singers  or  psalmists,  so 
called  (Ezra  ii.  41).  C. 

Asbury,  Francis,  first  Methodist  1)i.Hhop  ;  b. 
atHampstcad  Bridge,  near  Birmiiigham,  Eng. 
Aug.  20  or  21,  1745  ;  d.  uninanird  in  Spott- 
sylvania,  Va.,  Sunday,  March  31,  1H16.  He 
began  to  preach  among  tlic  VVesleyans  at  18  ; 
being  appointed  by  Wesley  superintendent  of 
missionarv  operations  to  America,  lie  landed 
in  Pliiladelphia,  Oct.  27,  1771  ;  stayed  by  his 
CO  religionists  during  the  wars  ;  was  ordained 
superintendent  by  Rev.  "William  Philip  Otter- 
beiu  and  Kev.  Thomas  Coke,  !>.(!.  L.,  at  the 
Baltimore  Conference,  Dec.  27,  1784.  "  Coke 
suggested  the  use  of  the  title  bishop,  and  the 
conference  agreed  to  constitute  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  of 
America."  llin  Journal  (New  York,  1852,  3 
vols.)  "  shows  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  sim- 
ple and  winning  character,  administiative 
power,  and  pith}'  expression  ;  his  piety  is  both 
frank  and  deep."  He  did  a  great  work  in 
upbuilding  Methodism  on  the  frontier  at  a 
time  when  the  means  of  transportation  were 
meagre  and  travelling  not  only  dillicult  but 
dangerous  from  the  Indians.  (See  his  Life 
by  Strickland,  New  York,  1858.  Cf.  Stephen, 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.v.) 

Ascension  Day,  Feast  of,  or  Holy  Thurs- 
day, in  coinmenKjralion  of  Ciirist's  ascension  ; 
one  of  the  primitive  Christian  festivals,  and 
put  on  a  plane  with  Christmas,  Epiphany, 
Easter,  and  Whitsunday. 

Ascetical  Theology,  a  technical  term  mostly 
in  use  by  Roman  Catholics,  meaning,  1.  Every 
edifying  presentation  of  religious  truths  in 
sermons  or  books  of  devotions.  2.  "  The  sci- 
ence which  treats  of  virtue  and  perfection,  and 
the  means  bv  which  thev  are  to  be  attained." 
(Cf.  Addis  and  Arnold.) 

Asceticism,  the  extirpation  of  the  passions. 
This  hc-atlicn  i)rin<iple,  arising  naturally  from 
the  position  tliat  matter  in  itself  is  something 
evil  and  the  source  of  all  sin,  entered  the 
church  tlirougli  contact  with  the  Alexandrian 
school  of  pliiliisDphy.  It  prevailed  in  all  the 
forms  of  (Jnosiicism,  and  in  them  was  re- 
sisted, but  afterw;u-d  came  by  degrees  to  he 
generallv  acceptctd  by  the  ortliodox,  it  being 
admitted  that  while  ail  Christians  sliotdd  keep 
the  law,  the  higher  class  should  renounce 
what  was  lawfid,  and  thus  gain  sujH'rior  merit. 
And  thus  monasticism  originated.  But  the 
ascetic  spirit  exi.sts  wherever  self-denial  or  the 
mortification  of  the  flesh  is  valued  for  it.s  own 
.sake,  as  if  it  pleased  God  to  see  his  children 
suffer;  whereas  the  tnie  groimd  is  that  (Jod 
giveth  us  all  things  richly  to  enjoy,  and  re- 
quires self-sacrifice  only  wln-n  by  svuh  a 
course  we  mav  the  l)elter  advance  his  king- 
dom and  benefit  our  kind.  Pjissions  and  ap- 
petites need  not  Iw  extirpated,  but  are  to  be 
controlled,  and  this  (control,  when  intelligent 
and  habitual,  is  the  highest  norm  of  jierson&I 
virtue.  ^■ 

Ascetics,  the  name  given  to  the  Christians 
who  about  the  middle  of  the  2d  century  prac- 


ASCODRUGITiE! 


(50) 


tised  severe  and  frequent  fasting  and  com- 
plete continence,  and  gave  away  tlieir  property 
to  the  poor.  They  were,  however,  not  bound 
by  any  irrevocable  vow  to  life-long  self-ie- 
straint.  For  the  better  attainment  of  their 
ends,  they  associated  women,  called  virgins, 
■with  them.  The  bishops  and  synods  of  the 
3d  century  protested  against  their  moral  ex- 
cesses. One  of  the  most  famous  ascetics  was 
Hierakas,  who  lived  at  Leontopolis,  in  Egypt, 
about  300.  (Cf.  arts.  Anchorites,  Hermit, 
Monastery.) 

Ascodrugitae,  a  Galatian  sect  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury, which  performed  a  sort  of  Bacchanalian 
worship  around  an  inflated  wine-skin. 

Ash'-dod  {stronghold),  one  of  the  five  con- 
federate cities  of  the  Philistines,  the  chief  seat 
of  Dagon  worship.  It  was  3  m.  from  the 
Mediterranean  and  midway  between  Gaza  and 
Joppa.  The  place  is  called  Azotus  in  the  New 
Testament,  which  states  that  Philip  preached 
there  (Acts  viii.  40).  C. 

Asher.     See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Ash-e-ra  and  As-tar-te.  The  former  was  the 
Greek  and  Latin  name  for  the  chief  Phoeni- 
cian female  divinity,  the  correlative  of  Baal, 
the  chief  male  deity.  In  Hebrew  she  is  known 
as  Ashtoreth.  She  was  worshipped  even  in 
the  time  of  Abraham  by  the  Philistines,  who 
in  Saul's  days  had  a  temple  in  her  honor 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  10).  Solomon  introduced  her 
worship  into  Jerusalem  (1  Kings  xi.  5).  Orig- 
inally she  was  a  Babylonian  goddess  (Istar), 
and  was  worshipped  both  as  the  author  of 
procreation  and  as  a  source  of  success  in  war. 
She  was  "  the  queen  of  heaven,"  to  whom  the 
women  of  Israel  made  moon-shaped  cakes  and 
poured  libations  (Jer.  vii.  18,  xliv.  17),  thus 
doing  grievous  dishonor  to  him  who  is  the 
true  and  only  "  King  of  heaven"  (Dan.  iv. 
87). 

The  latter  was  also  a  goddess,  though  the 
word  in  the  Authorized  Version  is  uniformly 
mistranslated  "grove."  It  always  means  a 
statue  or  image,  usually,  if  not  always,  of 
wood.  These  the  Israelites  were  directed  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  13)  always  to  cut  down,  yet  there  was 
one  in  the  household  of  Gideon's  father  (Judges 
vi.  25),  and  almost  their  first  idolatry  was  to 
worship  Baalim  and  the  Ashtaroth.  From 
time  to  time  it  reappears  in  the  history  of  both 
the  southern  and  the  northern  kingdom.  Even 
Asa's  mother  had  made  "  an  abominable  im- 
age for  Ashera"  {lit.,  a  horror),  and  for  this 
justly  lost  her  position  as  queen-mother.  The 
form  of  the  worship  rendered  to  Ashera  is 
not  known,  but  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt 
that  it  was  sensual  in  the  extreme.  Whether 
Ashera  was  another  name  for  Astarte  has  not 
yet  been  determined.  At  present  the  evidence 
is  rather  against  any  identification  of  the 
two.  (Cf.  Scholz,  Ootzendienst,  Regensburg, 
1877.)  C. 

Ash-i-ma,  one  of  the  divinities  introduced 
by  the  Hamathites  when  they  settled  in  de 
populated  Samaria.  Some  identify  it  with 
the  Pan  of  the  Greeks  (3  Kings  xvii.  30).    C. 

Ash'-ke-lon,  or  As-ke-lon,  a  seaport  town 
10  m.  n.  of  Gaza  ;  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the 


Philistines  (Judges  i.  18)  ;  the  birthplace  of 
Herod  the  Great.  Many  ruins  on  its  site  bear 
witness  to  its  former  importance.  C. 

Ash'-ta-roth  (Judges  ii.  13  ;  1  Sam.  vii.  3, 
etc.),  the  plural  form  of  Ashtoreth,  and  the 
one  more  commonly  used  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the  Old  Testament  ;  corresponding  to  Baalim, 
plural  of  Baal.     See  Ashera. 

Ash'-to-reth.     See  Ashera. 

Ash- Wednesday,  the  beginning  of  Lent  in 
the  Boman  and  English  churches.  Since  the 
custom  in  the  Roman  Church  was  to  except 
the  Sundays  from  the  obligation  of  fasting, 
Gregory  the  Great  fixed  the  Wednesdaj'  of 
the  seventh  week  before  Easter  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fast,  in  order  that  there  might  be 
40  days  of  real  fasting.  On  this  day  it  is  the 
custom  in  the  Roman  Church  (since  as  early 
as  1091)  to  put  consecrated  ashes  upon  the 
head,  in  memory  of  the  transitoriness  of  life, 
with  special  prayers  for  the  forgiveness  of 
sins.  The  passages  of  Scripture  read  are  Joel 
ii.  12-19,  Matt.  vi.  16-21.  F. 

As'-ke-lon.     See  Asiikelon. 

Askev7,  Anne,  English  Protestant  martyr  ; 
b.  at  Stallingborough,  near  Grimsby,  1521  ; 
burned  at  the  stake  at  Smithtield  (London), 
July  16,  1546.  She  was  highly  educated  and 
particularly  well  read  in  the  Bible.  She  mar- 
ried Thomas  Kyme,  of  Kelsey,  and  had  two 
children  by  him,  but  was  subsequently  di- 
vorced. In  March,  1545,  she  was  imprisoned 
for  having  denied  transubstantiation.  Bishop 
Bonner  released  her.  Arrested  again  the  next 
3-ear,  she  was  examined  and  cruelly  racked, 
and  finally  executed.  (See  her  touching  ac- 
counts of  her  trials  in  Foxe,  Acts  and  Monu- 
ments, ed.  Townsend,  London,  1846,  vol.  v.. 
pp.  537-550.) 

As-mo-de'-us,  an  evil  genius  or  demon  men- 
tioned in  the  later  Jewish  writings.  In  the 
apocryphal  book  of  Tobit  (chap,  vi.,  vii.)  he 
is  represented  as  slaying  the  seven  successive 
husbands  of  Sara,  the  daughter  of  Raguel.  In 
the  Talmud  he  is  a  prince  of  demons,  and  is 
said  once  to  have  driven  Solomon  from  his 
kingdom,  but  was  afterward  compelled  to 
work  on  the  temple,  and  did  so  noiselessly, 
thanks  to  his  mysterious  stone  Shamir.      C. 

Aspergillum,  a  brush  in  the  Roman  Church 
for  sprinkling  holy  water  over  objects  to  be 
blessed. 

Aspersion.     See  Baptism. 

Ass,  a  domestic  animal  highly  valued  and 
greatly  used  in  the  East.  In  its  wild  state  it 
%vas  intractable,  as  represented  in  Job  (xxxix. 
5-8),  but  after  Solomon's  day  was  never  used 
for  warlike  purposes,  and  hence  Zechariah  (ix. 
9),  in  predicting  our  Lord  as  a  lowly  king, 
represents  him  as  riding  upon  an  ass.  The 
fulfilment  is  recorded  in  Matt.  xxi.  11.      C. 

Ass,  Feast  of  the,  a  popular  scriptural 
play  of  the  Middle  Ages,  designed  to  bring 
vividly  before  the  mind  of  the  people  those 
scenes  of  the  Bible  in  which  the  ass  plays  a 
part.  At  Rouen  the  principal  part  was  the 
history  of  Balaam's  ass,  which  was  made  to 


ASSASSINS 


(51) 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


speak  and  prophesy  of  Christ.  At  Beauvais 
it  was  the  journey  of  the  holy  family  to 
Egypt.  F. 

Assassins,  a  secret  military  and  religious 
sect  formed  in  Persia  and  Syria  during  the 
11th  century  a.d.,  founded  by  Abdallah  ibn- 
Maimun  Kadah,  a  Persian  magi,  who  be- 
longed to  the  Ishmaelites,  a  branch  of  the 
Shiites.  (See  Persia.)  They  believed  in  and 
practised  the  secret  assassination  of  all  ene- 
mies. Their  power  was  broken  in  Persia  in 
1256,  but  it  is  believed  small  bodies  of  them 
still  exist  in  the  mountains  of  Sj'ria. 

Asseburg,  Rosamunde  Juliane  von   der, 

b.  at  Eigenstedt,  near  Magdeburg,  Nov., 
1672  ;  from  her  Petersen  the  Chiliast  (q.v.) 
claimed  to  have  received  visions  of  the  future 
world  ;  after  1708  she  is  unheard  of. 

Assemanni,  a  family  of  United  Maronites, 
of  wliom  four  are  famous  scholars.  1.  Joseph 
Simon,  b.  at  Tripoli,  Syria,  1687  ;  studied  at 
the  Maronite  College  at  Rome,  and  d.  there  as 
custodian  of  the  Vatican  Library,  Jan.  14, 
1768.  Author  of  Bihliotheca  Orieiitalis  Clein- 
entino-  Vaticaiut,  Rome,  1719-28,  3  vols.  (4 
parts)  ;  Italic^B  HistoricB  Scriptores,  1751-53, 
4  vols.  ;  Kalendaria  Ecdesice  Universm,  1755, 
6  vols.  2.  Joseph  Aloysius,  his  brother  ;  b. 
at  Tripoli,  1710  ;  d.  as  professor  of  Syriac  at 
Rome,  Feb.  9,  1782.  Author  of  Codex.  Litur- 
gicus  Universce  Ecdesice,  1749-66,  13  vols. 
3.  Stephan  Evodius,  cousin  of  the  preceding  ; 
b.  at  Tripoli,  1707  ;  d.  at  Rome  as  archbishop 
of  Apamaea  (in  partibus)  and  custodian  of  the 
Vatican  Library,  Nov.  24,  1782.  Author  of 
Acta  Sdnctorum  Martyrum  Orientnlium  et  Oc- 
cidsntalium,  1748,  2  vols.  4.  Simon,  b.  at 
Tripoli,  March  14,  1749  ;  d.  at  Padua  as  pro- 
fessor of  oriental  languages,  April  7,  1821. 

Assent,  that  act  of  the  mind  by  which  we 
accept  any  proposition  as  true.  It  is  a  neces- 
sary part  of  judgment,  for  if  you  take  awaj- 
from  judgment  affirmation  or  denial,  noth- 
ing remains  but  a  simple  conception  without 
logical  value.  Assent  is  the  consequence  of 
a  conviction  of  the  understanding  :  consent 
arises  from  the  state  of  the  disposition  and  the 
will.  The  former  accepts  what  is  true  ;  the  lat- 
ter embraces  it  as  both  true  and  good.       C. 

Associate  Presbyterian  Church.  See 
Pkesbyterian  Ciiuhciies. 

Assumptio  Mosis  {Assumption  of  Moses), 
an  apocryphal  book,  quoted  by  Jude  in  verse 
9  (according  to  Origen),  lately  discovered  in 
fragmentary  condition  and  edited  by  Ceriani, 
1861.     See  Pseodepigrapha  and  Afocry- 

PUA. 

Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Feast 

of,  held  on  Aug.  15,  both  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  commemorates  the  alleged 
preservation  of  the  dead  body  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  its  union  with  her  soul  in  heaven. 
The  corporal  assumption  is  not  an  article  of 
faith,  still  it  is  generally  believed.  The  festi- 
val dates  from  the  6th  century. 

Assurjince  of  Faith  is  a  firm  belief  in  Christ 
as  he  is  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  with  an  e.\- 
clusive  dependence  on  liim  for  salvation 
(Heb.  X.  22,  where  Revised  Version  has  "  ful- 


ness of  faith").  It  is  distinguished  in  the 
New  Testament  from  the  iussurance  of  the  un- 
derstanding (Col.  ii.  2)  and  from  that  of  hope 
(Ileb.  vi.  11).  The  assurance  of  one's  salva- 
tion, which  is  what  is  commonly  meant  by  the 
phrase,  is  to  be  sought  not  so  nmcli  in  the  evi- 
dence of  regeneration  in  a  man's  own  experi- 
ence as  in  the  promises  and  provisions  of 
grace.  In  Rom.  v.  1-10  and  viii.  31-39  the 
strength  and  briglitncss  of  the  believer's  hope 
are  made  to  rest  not  on  his  love  to  God,  but 
on  God's  love  to  him.  (C.  llodge,  Theol., 
iii.,  107.)  C. 

Assyriology  and  the  Bible.  Assyriology, 
in  common  usage,  denotes  that  systematized 
knowledge  which  is  derived  from  the  cunei- 
form or  wedge-shaped  writing  of  ancient  As- 
syria and  Babylonia.  As.syria  is  made  prom- 
inent in  the  name  of  the  science— although 
the  Babylonian  civilization  was  the  older,  and 
although  Babylonia  controlled  Western  Asia 
long  after  Assyria  had  fallen— beeau.se  the  at- 
tention of  e.vplorers  and  decipherers  was  early 
directed  to  the  palaces  and  the  historical  in- 
scriptions of  the  great  Assyrian  kings.  Since 
wedge  writing  was  used  in  Persia,  Media, 
Elam,  and  in  tlie  region  near  Lake  Van  (Oroo- 
miah),  Assyriology  is  sometimes  made  to  cover 
these,  but  they  are  of  less  importance  for  the 
present  purpose. 

Land  and  People. — The  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris  rise  not  far  from  one  another  in  the 
Armenian  mountains,  separate  widely  in  their 
earlier  course,  and  at  length,  after  a  long  and 
gradual  approach,  unite  and  pour  their  waters 
through  common  channels  into  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  middle  and  lower  courses  of  these 
rivers,  togetherwiththeirtributaries,  mountain 
ranges  to  the  east  and  northeast,  deserts  on 
the  west  and  southwest,  and  the  Persian  Gulf 
on  the  south,  form  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  Babylonio- Assyrian  territorv  and  its 
boundaries.  Its  precise  limits  varied  with  the 
fortunes  of  concjuest  and  revolt.  Roughly 
speaking,  it  was  about  500  miles  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  and,  in  the  widest  part,  per- 
haps 300  miles  from  east  to  west,  including 
substantially  what  we  know  as  Mesopotamia, 
in  its  wide  sen.se.  though  stretching  a  little  to 
the  east  of  the  Tigris  and  in  Babylonia  a  little 
to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates.  The  one  im- 
portant natural  feature  which  has  greatly 
changed  in  recent  centuries  is  the  Persian 
Gulf  ;  in  ancient  times  this  e.\tendcd  about  130 
miles  farther  to  the  northwest  than  it  does 
now.  so  that  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  entered 
it  by  mouths  near  together,  indeed,  but  sep- 
arate. The  mud  washed  down  by  these  pow- 
erful rivers  has  filled  up  this  northern  exten- 
sion of  the  gulf,  and  the  waters  have  retreated 
southward. 

Assyria  occupied  the  northern  part  of  this 
territorv  and  Babylonia  the  .southern.  The 
dividing  line  was  not  fixed  and  permanent, 
but  was  trenerallv  either  tiie  Turnat.  win  n  the 
A.ssyrians  crowdeil  it  down,  or  tlie  Low.t 
Zab.  when  the  Babvlonians  forceil  it  up  ; 
both  of  these  streams  ilow  into  the  Tigris  from 
the  northeast. 

Both  parts  of  the  land  were  productive. 
The  climate  was  cooler  in  the  north,  but  the 


ASSYRIOLOGT 


(52) 


ASSYRIOLOGT 


ground  was  slightly  more  diversified,  and  the 
rain  more  abundant.  In  the  soutli,  irrigation, 
by  means  of  canals  led  from  the  Euphrates, 
was  a  main  source  of  fertility.  Wheat  and 
other  grains  grew  plentifully',  the  date-palm 
was  cultivated  everywhere  in  Babylonia,  and 
the  lemon-tree  in  Assyria. 

A  common  designation  for  Babylonia  in  the 
inscriptions  is  "  Shumerand  Akkad  "—some- 
times '•  Akkad  "  alone.  It  is  quite  likely  that 
Shumer  is  the  same  with  the  biblical  Shinar 
(Gen.  X.  10,  xi.  2  sqq.).  The  boundaries  be- 
tween these  territories,  and  indeed  their  rela- 
tive location,  have  been  variously  conjectured. 
Perhaps  the  most  likely  view  is  that  Akkad 
was  originally  the  highland  between  the  Tigris 
and  the  mountains  east  of  it,  in  Elam  and 
Media,  while  Shumer  denoted  the  plain  be- 
tween the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  although 
"  Akkad  "  was  at  times  extended  to  cover  all 
Babylonia.  The  "  Accad "  of  Gen.  x.  10 
seems  to  be  the  Babylonian  city  Agade,  north 
of  Babylon  (called  also  Sipparaof  Aniinit,  one 
of  the  twin  cities  making  the  Hebrew  Sephar- 
vaim,  which  has  a  dual  termination),  and  to 
liave  no  proper  connection  with  the  name  of 
the  territory,  Akkad. 

The  entire  land  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
during  the  period  which  most  concerns  us, 
was  in  the  possession  of  a  people  speaking  a 
language  related  to  the  Hebrew,  and  belong- 
ing to  the  Shemitic  race.  The  linguistic  dif- 
ferences between  Assyria  and  Babylonia  were 
slight.  They  used  in  writing  the  same  system 
of  wedge  signs,  although  they  simplified  the 
original  signs  in  slightly  different  ways. 

The  wedge  signs  were  originally  rude  pic- 
tures, representing  objects  or  symbolizing 
ideas.  By  degrees  their  pictorial  form  w-as 
lost,  and  they  became  conventional  notations, 
although  a  suggestion  of  their  first  character 
is  preserved  in  a  few  cases.  They  are  both 
ideograms — i.e.,  signs  for  objects  or  ideas,  and 
pliODOgrams— ^■.«.,  signs  for  mere  sounds,  like 
the  letters  of  our  alphabet,  except  that,  as 
phonograms,  they  stand  usually  for  syllables, 
and  not  for  the  component  parts  of  a  syllable. 
The  fact  that  the  same  sign  is  frequently  used 
both  as  an  ideogram  and  as  a  phonogram,  and 
that  the  syllable  indicated  by  it  as  a  phono- 
gram has  usually  no  connection  in  sound  with 
the  Shemitic  word  expressed  by  it  as  an  ideo- 
gram, and,  further,  that  some  of  the  oldest  in- 
scriptions are  written  with  the  use  of  ideo- 
grams alone,  has  led  to  the  conclusion,  at  one 
time  almost  universally  accepted  by  Assyriol- 
ogists,  later  disputed  hotly,  but  still  probably 
correct,  that  the  inventors  of  the  cuneiform 
signs  were  an  earlier,  non-Shemitic  race,  from 
wliom  the  Shemitic  Babylonians,  perhaps  first 
conquering  them,  learned  the  arts  of  civiliza- 
tion. This  race  has  sometimes  been  called 
Shumerian,  sometimes  Akkadian  ;  neither 
name  is  scientifically  established. 

The  material  upon  wliich  the  signs  are  in- 
scribed is  various.  Alabaster  slabs,  clay  tab- 
lets and  barrels,  little  cylinders  of  stone  and 
hematite,  as  well  as  plates  of  bronze,  are  found 
with  inscriptions.  The  earliest  component 
parts  of  the  signs  were  simple  lines.  When 
these  lines  were  made  by  pressing  a  flat  stylus 
into  clay,  one  corner  of  this  sank  deeper  than 


the  others,  and  gave  the  mark  the  appearance 
of  a  wedge.  Hence  the  wedge  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  proper  element  of  the  character. 

Whence  the  Shemitic  people  of  Mesopotamia 
came  we  do  not  clearly  know.  The  primitive 
home  of  the  Shemites  is  still  under  debate. 
From  whatever  direction  they  entered  Meso- 
potamia, however,  they  planted  themselves 
firmly  there  and  remained  for  thousands  of 
years.  The  oldest  monuments  which  betoken 
their  presence  carry  us  back  far  beyond  the 
time  of  Abraham.  Many  scholars  hold  that 
B.C.  4000  is  not  too  remote  a  date  ;  this  is  on 
the  authority  of  Nahonidiis,  a  Babylonian 
king  of  the  "6th  century  b.c,  who  speaks  of 
Naram  Sin,  founder  of  a  certain  temple,  as 
having  lived  B200  years  before.  But,  granting 
Nabonidus'  good  faith  and  the  correctness  of 
the  decipherment,  we  do  not  know  the  source 
of  his  information,  and  while  the  date  is  not 
incredible,  it  is  not  yet  securely  established. 
Undoubtedly  there  were  otficially  dated  rec- 
ords, and  the  Babylonians  themselves  en- 
deavored to  construct  their  own  chronology. 
By  means  of  such  of  these  aids  as  have  been 
thus  far  discovered,  as  well  as  occasional  state- 
ments in  the  later  historical  inscriptions,  we 
can  at  least  say  that  B.C.  2500,  or  even  3000, 
is  probably  well  within  the  truth  as  the  time 
of  the  beginning  of  Shemitic  dominion  in 
Mesopotamia. 

As  already  intimated,  the  earliest  monu- 
ments are  found,  not  in  Assyria,  but  in  Baby- 
lonia. The  cities  of  Ur,  Erech,  Larsa,  Nip- 
pur, and  Babylon  itself,  were  already  ancient 
when  Asshur,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
became  the  capital  of  Assyria,  and  far  ante- 
dated Calah  and  Nineveh.  Assyrian  culture 
was  derived  from  Babylonia.  This  accords 
with  Gen.  x.  10,  11  :  "  And  the  beginning  of 
his  kingdom  was  Babel,  and  Erech,  and  Ac- 
cad, and  Canech,  in  the  land  of  Shinar.  Out  of 
that  land  he  went  forth  to  Asshur,  and  builded 
Nineveh,  and  Rehobolh-Ir,  and  Calah,"  etc. 

Politically,  Babylonia  and  Assyria  passed 
through  various  changes.  The  earliest  condi- 
tion appears  to  have  been  that  of  independent 
or  semi  independent  cities  ;  gradually  these 
were  united  under  the  hegemony  of  one  espe- 
cially powerful.  About  B.C.  2100,  after  a 
period  of  subjugation  at  the  hands  of  a  suc- 
cession of  Elamitic  kings  from  the  mountains 
to  the  eastward,  Gliammuvnhi,  an  energetic 
native  ruler,  gained  the  chief  power  and  made 
Babylon  the  seat  of  his  government.  Oilier 
dynasties  followed  his,  until  about  B.C.  1500 
the  Assyrian  power  began  to  overshadow  the 
Babylonian.  Isme-dagan,  priest-prince  of  As- 
shur (c.  B.C.  1850),  is  the  earliest  Assyrian 
ruler  known  to  us.  It  was  not  very  long  be- 
fore the  title  of  king  was  used  in  Assyria,  and 
from  the  14th  century  B.C.  to  the  end  of  the 
7th  Assyria  Avas  the  leading  power  in  Western 
Asia,  though  with  a  period  of  comparative 
weakness  and  inefficiency  in  the  11th  and  10th 
centuries.  Babylonia,  meanwhile,  preserved 
I  her  independence,  if  not  her  influence,  until 
the  time  of  Tiglath-pileser  HI.  (b.c.  731),  be- 
gan to  revive  less  than  a  century  later,  gained 
force  with  astonishing  rapidity,  under  intrepid 
leaders,  as  A.ssyria,  vinder  weak  ones,  lost  it, 
united  with  the  Medes  to  crush  her  former 


ASSTRIOLOaT 


(53) 


ASSTRIOLOCJT 


suzerain,  brought  about  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
(c.  B.C.  607  or  606)  and  the  dissolution  of  the 
Assyrian  empire,  and  entered  upon  a  brilliant 
period  of  conquest,  interrupted  by  the  rise  of 
Persia  and  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus 
(B.C.  538),  to  be  continued,  in  the  hands  of  a 
new  and  vigorous  race,  under  this  conqueror 
and  his  successors. 

Tlie  history,  of  Mdiich  a  rapid  outline;  has 
just  been  given,  is  known  to  us  in  fragments 
through  tlie  Bible  and  the  untrustworthy  re- 
ports of  Greek  historians,  but  chiefly  througli 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  The  "decipher- 
ment of  these  inscriptions,  therefore,  has  made 
an  epoch  in  the  study  of  ancient  history. 
After  these  old  nations  had  passed  awaj^  and 
their  cities  were  heaps  of  forgotten  ruins,  bits 
of  inscription,  found  by  travellers,  were 
brought,  in  copy,  to  Europe.  Tlie  tirst  suc- 
cessful attempt  to  nuid  a  cuneiform  inscription 
wa-s  made  by  G.  P.  Grotefend,  of  Hanover, 
Germany,  in  1802.  Tlie  inscription  was  a 
short  Persian  one  of  the'time  of  Xerxes.  Now, 
because  of  the  differences  in  language  among 
their  subjects,  it  was  the  habit  of  these  Per- 
sian kings  to  has^e  inscriptions  written  in  three 
languages,  all  using  cuneiform  signs.  The 
Persian  inscription  deciphered  by  Grotefend. 
and  others  which  followed,  became  thus  the 
key  to  the  parallel  columns  in  tlie  tri-lingual 
inscriptions,  and  one  of  these  columns  was 
written  in  the  Sliemitic  Babylonian,  or  As- 
syrian, which  has  unlocked  for  us  so  much 
ancient  history.  Meantime,  exploration  and 
excavation  hail  begun,  slabs  and  tablets  were 
found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Mesopotamian 
mouiuls,  ithe  material  for  the  deciplierer  ac 
cumulated  faster  than  he  could  read  it,  and 
we  are  even  now  looking  forward  with  eager- 
ness to  what  may  be  brought  us  by  fresh  inter- 
pretations. 

The  contents  of  the  inscriptions  are  of  many 
different  kinds,  such  as  history,  mytholog}^ 
lexicography,  grammar,  astronomy,  astrology, 
mathematics,  letters,  and  bu.siness  contracts, 
with  poems,  both  epic  and  lyric. 

Among  the  results  already  gained,  those 
whicli  concern  the  religion  of  the  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians  belong  to  the  most  interesting, 
though  not  the  most  complete.  The  religion 
was  substantially  the  same  in  the  two  coun- 
tries. It  was  polytheistic  and  idolatrous. 
The  gods  were  arranged  in  ratdis  according 
to  a  (letinite  .system.  Different  cities  wer.j  the 
chief  seats  of  the  worship  of  particular  deities, 
without  having  a  monopoly  of  any.  Temples 
were  many  an. I  costly.  There  were  well-organ- 
ized bodies  of  jiriests.  Religion  was  a  prc^sent 
fact  in  the  minds  of  the  rulers.  A  large  propor- 
tion of  tlie  inscriptions  authorized  by  Baby- 
lonian kings,  as  far  as  yet  discovered,  have  to 
do  with  the  building  and  restoration  of  tem- 
ples. To  a  less  degree  such  accounts  are 
found  in  Assyria  also.  The  historical  inscrip- 
tions of  Assyrian  kings  abound  in  references 
to  the  gods  who  have  set  them  on  the  throne, 
and  under  whose  protection  they  fight  and 
conquer.  There  is  religious  literature,  in  the 
form  of  hymns  and  prayers  to  the  gods.  Be- 
lief in  the  snpernaturalof  a  lower  kind  is  in- 
dicated by  the  numerous  incautations.  My- 
thology is  strongly  developed. 


Among  the  i)articular  gods  of  special  ])roni- 
inence,  the  triad  consisting  of  Anu,  Bel,  and 
Ea  must  be  named  first.  These  were,  in  his- 
toric times,  the  most  widely  and  highly  re- 
vered gods  of  Babylonia,  and  tlicir  worshij) 
pa,s.sed  into  A.ssyria  and  maintained  its  jtroin- 
inence  there.  Ann  was  loftier  tiian  tlie  other 
two,  the  king  of  the  gods,  the  god  of  tin; 
highest  heaven  ;  Bel  was  the  god  oi  force  (his 
name,  the  Hebrew  Baal,  signifies  "  lord  "), 
of  violence,  puni.shment,  war,  and  death  ;  Ea 
was  the  protecting  and  helping  god,  thr  god 
of  wisdom,  the  god  of  life  and  healing, 
and  also  the  god  of  the  depths  of  the  sea. 
The  attributes  and  powers  of  these  gods  were 
not  invariable.  'I'lie  priest  or  worshipper 
easily  ascribi'd  to  the  particular  god  he  ad- 
dressed (pialities  and  powers  which  in  the  sys- 
tem would  appear  to  belong  projierly  to  an- 
other. Perhaps  in  this  fact  there  is  a  trace  of 
early  local  worship,  by  virtue  of  which,  when 
tli(!  several  cities  were  combined  under  a  cen- 
tral government,  their  gods  also  were;  com- 
bined into  a  group  and  endowed  with  somn- 
what  varied  functions.  At  anj'  rate,  the  char- 
acteristics mentioned  are  the  prevailing  ones. 
These  gods  had  each  a  goddess  as  consort— 
Antum,  Belit,  and  Davkina,  with  more  or  less 
independent  power — and  each  had  a  son, 
Kamman,  the  weather-god,  Win,  the  moon- 
god,  and  Shamash,  the  sun-god,  forming  an- 
other triad.  These,  too,  appear  to  have  all 
had  corresponding  goddesses.  The  grcuit 
goddess  Ishtar,  however,  far  surpassed  any  of 
the.se  in  dignity  and  power.  She  was  wor- 
shipped in  many  places,  and  under  different 
forms  and  names.  Anunit,  wif<!  of  Shamash, 
was  one  of  these.  But  Ishtar  combined  attri- 
butes that  seem  to  contradict  each  other.  She 
was  goddess  of  the  morning-star  (.Vnunit), 
warlike,  severe  ;  she  was  also  goddess  of  the 
evening  star,  voluptuous  and  fruitful.  Prob- 
ably these  characteristics  belonged  originally 
to  different  goddesses,  now  united  in  name. 
Other  gods  were  Adar,  god  of  light,  fire,  and 
fertility;  Nergal,  god  of  war  and  the  cha.se  ; 
Nabu  (Xcbo),  god  of  revelation  and  all  wis- 
dom ;  with  corresponding  godde.s.ses,  and  a 
multitude  of  deities  of  lower  orders,  down  to 
mere  serving  spirits.  But  in  the  time  of  the 
later  Babylonian  empire — c.n..  under  Nei)n- 
chadne/zar— the  ancient  tutelary  god  of  Bal)y- 
Km,  Mardiik  (Merodach).  came'to  almost  un- 
equalled honor  and  distinction,  also  under  the 
name  of  Bel— originally  distinct  from  Bel  of 
the  earlier  triad,  yet  later  confounded  with 
him.     His  con.sortwas  the  godile.ss  Zir|>anil. 

In  Assvria  there  was  one  deity  not  found  in 
Babylonia,  althomrh  in  almost  every  other  ri'- 
spect  their  worshi|)  was  substantially  the  .same. 
This  deitv.  often  r«-garde<l  as  supiTi(H-  lo  ail 
others,  was  Ashur,  tutelary  god  of  the  ()l(l 
capital  of  the  Assyrian  Empire.  He  retained 
his  ])lace  in  Assyrian  regard  from  the  earlicnt 
times  lo  the  latest,  disappearing  with  the  full 
of  Nineveh. 

All  the.sedeiti<'s  were  worshipped  in  temples 
where  their  imaires  were  j>laee<l.  OlTering.'* 
were  made  to  them,  consisting  of  animals, 
fruits,  oil,  and  wine.  Of  human  .sacrifice, 
then'  is  no  contemporary  evidence,  but  it  was 
pri)bably  not  wholly  unknown. 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


(54) 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


Asftyriology  and  Old  Testament  Oeogra'phy . 
— In  the  foregoing  paragraphs  reference  has 
been  made  to  some  results  of  Assyriology  in 
the  identification  of  cities,  rivers,  and  coun- 
tries ;  otliers  will  come  hereafter.  "We  gather 
a  number  of  such  results,  for  convenience' 
sake,  under  the  above  heading.  Vigorous  at 
tempts  have  been  made  to  locate  the  "  garden 
eastward,  in  Eden  "  (Gen.  ii.  8,  etc.)  in  Baby- 
lonia, al. hough  no  parallel  to  Gen.  ii.,  iii.  has 
been  found  in  the  inscriptions.  Abandoning 
the  old  attempts  to  identify  the  Pison  with 
the  Indus  or  the  Ganges,  Havilah  with  India, 
and  the  Gihon  with  the  Nile  (Cush  =  Ethio- 
pia) or  the  Oxus  (Cush  =  the  land  of  the  Cos- 
saeans),  or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Pison  with 
the  Phasis  (Havilah  =  Colchis),  and  the  Gihon 
with  the  A  raxes  (Cush  =  Cosssean  land),  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris  being,  in  any  case,  the 
well-known  rivers,  the  advocates  of  the  Baby- 
lonian theories  have  sought  the  main  "  river" 
(Gen.  ii.  10)  in  the  combined  flow  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris  in  their  lower  course.  One 
proposal  has  been  to  see  it  in  the  8hatt-el- 
Arab,  the  river  in  which  they  now  unite  near 
the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Pison  and  the  Gihon 
being  two  main  mouths  or  two  tributaries 
from  the  east,  while  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
before  their  junction  are  the  other  two 
"  heads."  A  sufficient  answer  to  this  is  that 
in  ancient  times  the  Shatt  el-Arab  did  not  ex- 
i.st.  The  other  proposal  is  to  regard  the  main 
river  as  the  body  of  water  formed  by  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris  and  connecting  canals,  a 
little  north  of  Babylon,  while  the  Gihon  and 
Pison  are  two  branches  of  the  Euphrates  be- 
low. But  it  has  not  been  made  clear  that  this 
can  explain  the  language  of  the  Hebrew 
writer,  even  though  tlie  ^' Cush"  of  Gen.  ii. 
13  should  be  identitied  with  the  Kash  of  Kash- 
(lim  (cf.  Ur  Kasdim). 

Coming  down  to  historic  times,  we  find 
mention  in  tlie  inscriptions  of  Persia  (Par- 
f<ua),  Elam  (Elamtu),  with  Susa  {S/iushan, 
cf.  iieh.  i.  1,  etc.),  its  capital,  and  Media 
(Mada),  with  Ecbatana  {Agamtanu  =  Ach- 
metha,  Ezra  vi.  2),  its  capital,  and  Armenia 
{Urartu  —  Ararat,  2  Kings  xix.  87),  and  the 
land  of  the  Hittites  {Chatti),  who,  we  thus 
learn,  as  well  as  from  the  Egyptian  inscrip- 
tions, had  their  chief  seat  far  to  the  north  of 
Damascus— Carchemish  {Gargamuh),  their 
capital,  being  on  the  Euphrates,  not  far  from 
the  latitude  of  Nineveh  (modern  Jerabis). 
The  river  Habor  (Vhabur),  of  2  Kings  xvii.  6, 
'is  a  river  often  named  that  flows  into  the  mid- 
dle Euphrates  from  the  northeast,  and  Gozan 
(Guzanu)  {ib.)  is  a  city  and  district  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity.  These  are  but  a  few  of  the 
important  identifications. 

Assyriologif  and  the  Early  Chapters  of  Oen- 
esjs.— The  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  bad 
narratives  of  the  creation  agreeing  in  some 
respects  with  those  of  Genesis,  but  differing 
wholly  in  the  relation  of  deity  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants.  The 
gods  themselves  emerge  from  chaos,  showing 
a  lack  of  that  discrimination  between  deity 
and  the  world,  and  that  complete  power  of  the 
deity  over  the  world,  which  are  so  marked  in 
Genesis. 

The  Babylonian  flood- story  is  much  more 


striking  in  its  resemblances.  In  it  the  flood 
appears  as  a  visitation  due  to  divine  wrath  ; 
a  divine  warning  leads  Pir-napislitim ,  or  Hasi- 
sadra  (Xisuthros),  the  Babylonian  Noah,  to 
build  a  ship  and  cause  his  family  and  all  kinds 
of  animals  to  embark  in  it.  The  rainstorm 
comes  ;  everything  is  swallowed  up  except  the 
ship  of  Pir-napishtim.  After  a  while  the  ship 
grounds  on  a  mountain.  At  length  he  sends 
out  a  dove,  a  swallow,  and  a  raven,  and  finally 
is  able  to  disembark,  and  offers  sacrifice  in 
thanksgiving.  The  absence  of  flood  in  the 
future  is  promised.  The  poem  is  a  vigorous 
and  vivid  one,  but  full  of  polytheism.  The 
gods  are  not  united  in  purpose.  Bel  wishes 
all  men  to  be  destroyed.  Ea  warns  Pir-napish- 
tim. Ishtar  weeps  over  the  drowned  multi- 
tudes. They  have  to  resort  to  Anu  to  decide 
the  future.  The  Hebrew  flood-story  is  loftier 
and  purer. 

The  Nimrod  of  Gen.  x.  8  sqq.  has  been 
identified  with  the  Babylonian  Izdubar,  the 
chief  hero  of  a  great  epic,  in  which  the  Baby- 
lonian flood-story  forms  a  canto,  but  the  iden- 
tification is  hardly  more  than  conjectural. 
The  other  early  narratives  of  Genesis  are,  so 
far  as  is  at  present  known,  without  cuneiform 
parallel,  unless  in  separate  details. 

Contact  between  the  Babylonians  and  As- 
syrians and  the  Hebrews. — Before  passing  to 
the  historical  events  which  fall  under  this 
head,  one  great  service  of  the  cuneiform  rec- 
ords to  the  Hebrew  history  must  be  mentioned 
as  a  preliminary.  They  give  us  a  well-estab- 
lished chronology  for  several  important  pe- 
riods. The  Hebrew  accounts  depend  for  a 
consecutive  chronology  upon  the  ages  of  patri- 
archs and  other  leading  men,  and  upon  the 
length  of  reigns,  with  no  reference  to  a  fixed 
era.  The  nearest  approach  to  such  reference 
is  the  statement  (1  Kings  vi.  1)  that  the  temple 
was  built  in  the  480th  year  from  the  Exodus, 
but  this  is  exceptional.  Nor  have  we  access 
to  such  original  chronological  records  as  the 
Hebrews  kept,  but  only  "to  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  extracts  from  them.  A  sin- 
gle error  in  such  an  extract  might  introduce 
great  confusion.  Such  confusion  has  actually 
been  introduced.  One  illustration  of  this  ap- 
pears in  the  fact  that  between  Jehu  and  Atha- 
liah  (whose  reigns  began  together,  2  Kings  ix. 
X.)  and  the  fall  of  Samaria  (2  Kings  xvii.) 
there  appear,  by  adding  the  regnal  years,  to  be 
165  years  for  judah  and  only  144  for  Israel. 
This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  various 
ways  of  avoiding  the  difficulty  ;  but  we  are 
fortunate  to  have  in  the  inscriptions  a  much 
greater  amount  of  chronological  material,  in 
a  form  antedating  by  many  centuries  our  old- 
est Hebrew  Mss.  For  Babylon  we  have  lists 
of  kings  and  dynasties  with  the  number  of 
years,  giving  us  an  outhne  of  the  history,  with 
breaks,  it  is  true,  from  about  B.C.  2300  to  B.C. 
647  ;  also  a  sort  of  chronicle,  extending  from 
B.C.  747  to  667,  giving  the  order  of  the  kings, 
the  date  of  their  accession  and  death,  with 
some  important  events  ;  also  some  fragments 
of  annals  from  kings  of  the  6th  century  B.C.; 
besides  these  many  contract  and  other  business 
tablets  dated  by  the  year  of  the  reigning  king. 
For  Assyri.",  we  have  the  Eponym-Canon,  a  list 
of  otficials  who  gave  names  to  the  successive 


ASSYRIOIiOGT 


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ASSYRIOLOGY 


years  (cf.  the  Roman  consuls).  This  list,  in 
.several  copies,  is  continuous  from  c.  B.C.  900 
to  B.C.  666.  One  copy  contains  brief  histori- 
cal notes.  There  is  also  a  "  synchronistic  his- 
tory" of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  covering  about 
B.C.  1450-850.  Besides,  we  have  extended 
annals  from  the  most  noted  kings.  Finally, 
the  practice  seen  once  in  the  Old  Testament, 
of  connecting  an  event  with  one  long  jireced- 
ing  it  in  time  (viz.,  the  temple  building,  cf. 
above),  is  not  infrequent  in  Assyria,  and  in 
one  important  case,  that  of  Nabonidus  and 
his  reference  to  Naram  Sin— see  above— is 
found  in  Babylonia.  Not  only  have  we  from 
all  these  sources  rich  chronological  material 
for  relative  dates,  but  we  have  the  means  of 
fixing  certain  points  absolutely.  Claudius 
Ptolemy,  the  Egyptian  mathematician,  as- 
tronomer, and  geographer  (2d  century  a.d.), 
compiled  a  list  of  Babylonian,  Greek,  and 
Roman  rulers  from  b.c.  747  to  his  own  time. 
The  Bab^donian  list  of  kings  and  chronicle, 
already  referred  to,  coincide  with  this — the 
one  for  100,  the  other  for  80  years.  The  agree- 
mentis close.  Again,  Ptolemy's  "  Canon,"  so 
called,  makes  Sargou  begin  to  rule  over  Baby- 
lon B.C.  709.  The  Assyrian  Sargon  conquered 
Babylon  and  announced  himself  as  king  of  it  in 
that  year.  Thus  the  Assyrian  Epony m-  Canon 
is  fixed  at  B.C.  709  — Sargon's  13tli  year  as  king 
of  Assyria.  A  historical  note  in  the  Eponj'm- 
Canon,  54  years  earlier,  speaks  of  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun  in  the  month  Sivan,  which  has 
been  identified  with  the  eclipse  of  June  15, 
B.C.  768.  In  the  Babylonio  Assyrian  chro- 
nology, then,  we  have  a  welcome  guide  and 
corrective,  amid  the  perplexities  of  the  more 
meagre  and  imperfect  Hebrew  dates.  It  does 
not  solve  all  ditticulties,  but  it  does  give  some 
firm  ground  on  which  to  proceed. 

Willi  tliis  preliminary  statement,  we  pass  to 
some  particular  events. 

The  Hebrews  and  the  Shemitic  Babylonians 
came  from  the  same  stock.  Their  language 
and  many  of  their  usages  and  traditions  show 
close  resemblance.  They  seem  to  have  re- 
mained togetiier  longer  than  the  other  branches 
of  the  family.  It  is,  therefore,  not  surprising 
that  we  should  find  the  narratives  of  Genesis 
pointing  to  Babylonia  as  the  early  home  of 
Abraiiam,  ancestor  of  the  Hebrews.  Abra- 
ham came  from  Ur  Kasdim  (Ur  of  the  Chal- 
dees),  according  to  Gen.  xi.  28,  31,  xv.  7  ; 
Neh.  ix.  7.  The  only  known  Ur  situated  in 
the  territory  of  the  Chaldeans  is  the  venerable 
city  of  Uru,  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  far  below  Babylon,  whose  site 
now  bears  the  name  Mnqmiyar.  The  identifi- 
cation of  this  with  the  biblical  Ur  Kasdim  has 
been  disputed,  but  the  arguments  against  it 
are  not  conclusive,  and  no  otiier  satisfactory 
identification  has  been  proposed.  We  are 
therefore  entitled  to  hold  that  the  Hebrews 
were,  from  the  bL'ginniiig  of  tlieir  history. 
under  the  infiuence  not  oidy  of  tlie  common 
.stock  of  Sliemitic  endowments,  customs,  and 
beliefs,  but  also  of  those  tliat  were  specificjdly 
Babylonian. 

After  tlie  Hebrew  migration  from  Ur.  the 
first  known  contact  between  them  and  their 
former  compatriots  is  tliat  recorrled  in  Gen. 
xiv.     This  chapter  relates  the  marauding  ex- 


cursion of  four  Babylonian  kings  into  the  terri- 
tory lying  east,  soiitli,  and  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan valley,  involving  Abraham,  especially 
through  his  relalionsliip  with  Lot.  8uch  an 
expedition  is  of  a  piece  with  wliat  we  know 
of  the  later  usage  of  the  Mesopotamian  kings, 
and,  if  the  records  are  to  be  believed,  Sargon 
I.,  many  centuries  earlier,  had  repeatedly  led 
an  army  to  the  Pluenician  coast,  and  even 
reached  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Therefon-  the 
lack  of  reference  in  the  cuneiform  records  t(» 
this  particular  expedition  does  not  make  it 
incredible.  Looking  closely  at  the  bibiicid 
account,  we  find  tliat  Chedorlaomer,  wlio 
seems  to  have  been  the  leader  among  the  four 
invading  kings,  is  called  "king  of  Elain." 
We  know  that  the  Elaiuites  at  diftVrent  periods 
had  a  foothold  in  Babylonia.  One  of  tliose 
periods  was  that  of  Kii(liiriianclntii(U,  who 
conquered  Ereeh  B.C.  2285  (according  to 
Ashiirbanipal,  who,  in  the  year  B.C.  65((,  fixed 
the  date  as  "  1635  years  before").  Anoliier, 
somewhat  later*  was  that  of  KnduDiinhuk, 
who  conquered  Larsa.  Both  of  these  names 
agree  witii  that  of  Chedorlaomer  in  the  former 
part  (Kudur-Chedor),  and  "  Laomer,"  in  its 
Hebrew  form,  nearly  agrees  witii  Lur/diiKtru, 
known  to  be  the  name  of  an  Elaniilie  god. 
Chedorlaomer,  then,  although  not  yet  identi- 
fied, bears  a  name  entirely  suited  to  his  na- 
tionality. "  Arioch,  king  of  Ellas^ar,"  has 
been  plausibly  identified  with  EriAku,  son 
of  Kudurmabuk,  and  vassal  king  of  Lars:i. 
Ainrnphii  is  very  likely  tiie  mutilated  form  of 
Chammurabi,  who  became  the  suprenu'  ruler 
of  Babylonia,  witii  his  capital  at  Babylon 
(which  'was  in  "  Shinar,"  mentioned  Gen.  xiv. 
1).  Thus  either  an  identification  or  a  partial 
explanation  is  found  for  each  of  the  names 
except  that  of  "Tidal,  king  of  nations." 
Probably  the  Hebrew  word  rendered  "  na- 
tions" is  really  a  corruption  of  some  ])roper 
name  indicating  Tidal's  home,  but  nothing  is 
as  yet  known  of  him. 

Besides  the  evidence  that  such  an  exix-dition 

is  intrinsically  credible  and  the  explanation  of 

most  of  the  names  of  the  invaders,  the  dale 

of  the  occurrence,  and  hence  of  Abraham's 

•sojourn  in  Canaan,  and  even  of  his  birth,  is 

approximately  fixed  with  a  good  degn-e  of 

probability  ;  for  tiie  recent  discovery  of  lists 

of  Babylonian  kings  and  dynjislics  jmts  the 

i  date  of Ohammurabi  (Amraplul)  about  b.c. 

I  2100.     His  alliance  with   Cliedorlaoiner  and 

the  others,  for  a  western  foray,  was  doubtless 

I  before  his    mastery   of   Babylonia,   since   he 

^  overthrew   the  dynasty   of    Larsa    to    make 

:  Babylon  the  «ipital.     A  little  rarlier  than  n.c. 

2100' would,  then,  be  a  probable  dale  for  the 

foray,  and  at  this  time  Abraham  wa-s  living  in 

Canaan.     If  he  had  recently  come  there,  as 

the  preceding  chapters  would  .seem  to  indicate, 

then,  since  he  was  75  years  old  when  he  left 

Haran  (Gen.   xii.   A),  his  birth   in   B.ibylonia 

would  fall  .somewlierc  about  B.(-.  2175. 

For  mor.-  than  12(K>  years  aftir  Abraham 
we  hear  nothing  of  contact  Ixtwicii  th«'  He- 
brews and  their  Slicinitic  brethren  on  the 
lower  Eupliratcs  and  the  Ti-ris.  For  u  con- 
.siderable  part  of  that  time  the  Hebrews  were 
in  Egypt,  and  for  anotlur  i)art  there  s<-em.s  to 
have  been  a  decline  of  power  on  the  part  o£ 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


(56) 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


both  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  The  recent 
discovery  at  Tell-el  Amarna,  in  Egypt,  of  cu- 
neiform tablets  from  the  15th  century  B.C., 
with  letters  from  Babylonian  and  other  Asiatic 
rulers  to  Egyptian  kings,  gives  us  a  hint  of 
light  that  may  yet  be  expected  on  the  Hebrew 
history  during  this  interval.  In  the  9th 
century  B.C.,  however,  the  might  of  Calah 
and  Nineveh  began  to  reassert  itself,  and  the 
kings  of  Assyria  began,  as  of  old,  to  reach 
out  after  the  spoils  of  conquest.  Ashurnnsir- 
pal  (B.C.  885-860)  was  the  first  really  formid- 
able monarch  in  this  new  era.  It  is  from  him 
that  most  of  the  alabaster  slabs  with  bas- 
reliefs  and  inscriptions  date,  Avhich  have 
found  a  place  in  many  American  museums. 
But  it  was  reserved  for  his  sou,  SJiulman- 
asharid  (Shalmaneser)  II.  (860-825),  to  make 
himself  especially  felt  west  of  the  Euphrates. 
He  crossed  that  river  repeatedly,  and  became 
a  terror  to  the  smaller  kings  and  princes  in 
the  Orontes  valley,  down  as  far  as  Hamath, 
and  even  to  the  fierce  and  aggressive  kingdom 
of  Damascus. 

It  was  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Shul- 
Bianasharid  II. — i.e.,  B.C.  854— that  he  came 
across  the  river,  and  encountered  a  league  of 
kings,  apparently  under  tiie  leadership  of 
Dad'idri  of  Damascus  (=  Benhadad)  ;  these 
had  come  to  the  aid  of  Irchulin  of  Hamath, 
against  whom  Shulmauasharid  directed  his 
main  attack.  It  was  really  a  common  cause 
for  these  allied  princes.  Hamath  was  a  kind 
of  outpost.  If  that  fell,  they  would  all  suffer. 
Shulmauasharid  records  the  names  of  the 
allies  and  the  amount  of  their  contingents. 
Among  them  appears  "  Achn-abbu  mat  iiir- 
'lai,"  who  has  been  reasonably  identified 
with  "  Ahab  of  the  Israelitish  land."  The 
two  personal  names  agree  phonetically  in  He- 
brew and  Assyrian,  and  although  Sir'lai  is 
not  elsewhere  found,  and  the  first  syllable  of 
Tisrael  (Israel)  is  lacking  in  Si'r'lai,  this  ab- 
breviation is  a  simple  one,  and  in  other  re- 
spects the  similarity  is  very  close — ai  being 
simply  the  adjective  ending  in  Assyrian. 
Moreover,  the  probabilities  are  all  in  favor  of 
Ahab's  uniting  with  other  princes,  to  the 
northeast  of  him,  in  order  to  keep  the  dreaded 
Assyriiin  at  a  distance.  It  is  true  that,  as  the 
incursion  of  Chedorlaomer  is  known  to  us 
only  from  the  Bible,  so  the  campaign  of  Shul- 
manasharid  II.  is  reported  by  the  inscriptions 
alone.  This  does  not  make  it  unlikely  that 
the  reference  is  here  to  the  biblical  Ahab. 
The  Bible  tells  us  nothing  at  all  of  this  As- 
syrian king,  and  yet  we  know  that  he  fought 
with  Benhadad  and  Hazael,  and  received  trib- 
ute from  Jehu.  The  biblical  record  is  not 
exhaustive.  There  is,  however,  strong  cir- 
cumstantial evidence  in  the  Bible  favoring  the 
view  here  taken.  The  surprise  one  feels  at 
"^  Ahab's  lenient  treatment  of  the  conquered 
Benhiidad  (1  Kings  xx.  32-34)  is  certainly  di- 
minished when  we  learn  that  both  were  threat- 
ened by  Assyrian  invasion,  and  had  good 
ground  to  forget  their  quarrel  and  combine 
against  the  common  foe.  Perhaps,  too,  the 
large  number  of  chariots  assigned  to  Ahab  in 
the  Assyrian  record— 2000— will  .seem  more 
credible  when  it  is  remembered  that  Ahab 
had  twice  defeated  and  despoiled  Benhadad, 


and  doubtless  enriched  himself  thereby  with 
all  kinds  of  warlike  equipments.  It  is  to  be 
observed  that  while  Shulmauasharid  claims  a 
victory  over  the  allies,  he  does  not  appear  to 
have  followed  it  up  ;  and  this,  too,  is  in  con- 
formity with  the  silence  of  the  books  of  Kings 
in  regard  to  him.  Indeed,  the  only  real  reason 
for  doubting  that  Shulmauasharid  here  speaks 
of  the  biblical  Ahab  is  that  Shulmauasharid 's 
sixth  year,  when  the  battle  against  the  allies  (at 
Karkar)  was  fought,  is  b.c.  854,  when,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditional  chronology  of  Kings, 
Ahab  was  long  dead.  In  fact,  this  is  one'of 
many  instances  in  which  the  Ass3'rian  dates 
enable  us  to  correct  the  Hebrew. 

Shulmauasharid  II.  speaks  further  of  having 
in  his  eighteenth  year  crossed  the  Euphrates  for 
the  sixteenth  time,  defeated  Chaza-'ilu  (Hazael) 
of  Damascus,  and  received  tribute  from  ''laua, 
son  of  Omri."  Although  it  is  noteworthy 
that  Jehu,  who  destroyed  the  house  of  Omri, 
should  be  called  his  son,  yet  such  was  Omri's 
fame  that  "  land  of  the  house  of  Omri"  is  a 
standing  designation  of  Northern  Israel  among 
the  Assyrians,  and  these  paid  little  attention 
to  changes  of  dynasty  among  remote  peoples. 
The  term  means  no  more  than  "  successor  of 
Omri."  Serious  objection  cannot  be  made  to 
the  identification  of  these  two  princes  with  the 
Hazael  of  2  Kings  viii.  sqq.  and  the  Jehu  of  2 
Kings  ix.  sqq.  The  traditional  chronology 
is  again  corrected,  for  the  eighteenth  year  of 
Shulmanasharid  was  B.C.  842.  This  must  have 
been  at  the  very  beginning  of  Jehu's  reign, 
when  internal  affairs  absorbed  him,  and  he 
bought  off  the  Assyrians  by  a  handsome,  if 
not  quite  voluntary,  present. 

For  the  next  important  contact  of  which  we 
know  details  we  must  come  down  100  years. 
Tukulti  -  pal  -  esharra  (Tiglath  -  pileser)  III . 
reigned  in  Assyria  B.C.  745-727.  He  is  the 
first  Assyrian  king  named  in  the  Bible  (3 
Kings  XV.  29,  cf.  1  Chron.  v.  26,  2  Chron. 
xxviii.  20).  He  is  identical  with  "  Pul,  king 
of  Assyria"  (2  Kings  xv.  19,  cf.  1  Chron.  v. 
26),  although  the  Hebrew  writers  seem  to  dis- 
tinguish them.  Not  only  do  Assyrian  history 
and  chronology  leave  no  room  for  Pul  as  a 
separate  king,  but  there  is  positive  proof  of 
the  identity.  Tiglath-pileser  (Chron.,  less  ac- 
curately, "  Tiglath-pilneser")  III.  tells  us  in 
his  own  inscriptions  that  he  conquered  Vkinzir 
of  Babylon  (b.c,  731),  and  himself  assumed  the 
sovereign  power  of  Babylon.  Ptolemy's  Can- 
on makes  one  Poros  the  successor  of  Ukin- 
zir  ;  the  Babylonian  list  of  kings  (referred  to 
above)  calls  him  Pidu,  while  the  Babylonian 
chronicle  (also  referred  to  above)  calls  him 
Tvklat-pal-esharra.  This  king  was  evidently 
known  by  two  names. 

We  learn  from  the  inscriptions  that  he  in- 
vaded northern  Syria  between  B.c.  742  and 
740,  received  tribute  from  Miniclnunni  (Mena- 
hem)  of  Samaria  in  738,  devastated  Gilead  and 
upper  Israel  (Galilee)  in  734,  and  matle  ex- 
peditions against  Damascus  in  733  and  732. 
In  the  first'of  these  compaigns  he  speaks  re- 
peatedly of  Azariah  of  Judah  as  an  ally  of  his 
foes,  but  not  of  any  direct  contact  with  him. 
This  accords  with  what  we  know  of  Azariah 
and  Jotliam,  bis  son  and  regent,  who  Avere 
powerful,    efficient    rulers    (2   Chron.    xxvi.. 


ASSYRIOIiOGT 


(57) 


ASSYRIOLOQT 


xxvii.).  The  campaign  of  B.C.  738  is  the  one 
referred  to  under  the  name  of  Pul  {2  Kinj^s 
XV.  19,  cf.  1  Chron.  v.  36).  That  of  a.c.  734 
is  the  one  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Ahaz 
(2  Kings  xvi.  7  sqq.,  cf.  2  Chron.  xxviii.  16 
.sqq.).  when  he  was  threatened  by  Rezin  of 
Damascus  and  Pekah  of  Israel  (see  also  Isaiah 
vii.  1  sqq.).  Tiglathpilcser  says  that  he  re- 
ceiwd  tribute  from  Iauch(i~i  (Alia/)  of  Judah, 
and  also  that  he  killed  Pakaclut  (Pekah),  the 
king  of  '■  the  land  of  the  house  of  Omri,"  and 
set  A-iisi'  (Iloshea)  in  his  place.  In  other 
words,  Tiglath  pileser  fuUilled  his  promise  to 
Ahaz,  at  least  in  part,  by  fomenting  civil  dis- 
cord in  Israel,  and  allying  himself  with  con- 
spirators (cf.  3  Kings  XV.  30).  He  turned  to 
Damascus,  and  after  two  years  conquered  it 
and  killed  Kezin.  Several  of  the  foregoing 
statements  involve  modification  in  the  biblical 
chronology,  but  do  not  therefore  become  un- 
trustworthy. 

Probably  Pekah,  an  ambitious  king,  had 
discontinued  the  payment  of  tribute  exacted 
from  Menahem,  so  that  Tiglath  pileser  not  only 
was  enriched  b^''  Ahaz's  tribute,  but  also,  in 
fultilling  the  wish  of  Ahaz,  was  taking  ven- 
geance on  his  own  account,  and  securing  a 
more  tractable  ruler  for  Israel.  3  Kinirs  xvii. 
4  seems  to  show  that  Hoshea  paid  tribute  an- 
nually until  well  into  the  reign  of  Shulmau- 
asharid  IV. 

In  3  King.s  xv.  we  have  the  first  mention  of 
that  common  usage  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  to 
secure  thorougli  conformity  to  their  will  on 
the  part  of  subjugated  peoples  by  means  of 
exile  (^rerse  39).  It  is  more  fully  illustrated  a 
little  later. 

Tiglath  pileser 's  son  and  successor  was  Shul- 
manasharid  (Shalmaneser)  IV.,  mentioned  in 
2  Kings  xvii.  3  as  having  difficulty  with 
Hoshea.  This  king's  reign  was  brief,  and  we 
know  little  of  it.  His  successor  was  Sliar- 
ukin,  or  Shargiiia  (Sargon),  (b.c.  733-705), 
and  his  reign  was  fatal  to  the  existence  of  the 
northern  kingdom.  We  learn  from  his  in- 
scriptions that  while  Shalmaneser  began  the 
siege  of  Samaria,  the  city  did  not  fall  until 
after  Shalmaneser 's  death.  Sargon  was  not 
the  sou  of  Shalmaneser,  but  he  had  the  quali- 
ties of  a  ruler,  and  showed  himself  a  powerful 
and  skilful  monarch. 

The  deportation  of  the  conquered  Israelites, 
a  practice  already  referred  to  in  the  case;  of 
Tiglath-pileser,  and  the  establishment  of  colo- 
nists from  distant  regions  in  tlu-ir  place  (3 
Kings  xvii.  6,  34),  is  amply  coutirmed  from 
the  inscriptions.  Sargon  says  :  "  The  city  of 
Samaria  I  besieged,  1  captured  ;  37,3!S0  of 
his  inhabitants  I  carried  away  ;"  and  again  : 
"  In  their  place  I  settled  the  men  of  the  coun- 
tries I  had  coiKiuered."  Tiiere  are  in  his  rec- 
ords other  references  to  such  transplantings. 
although  the  names  of  the  cities  given  in  3 
Kings  xvii.  34  are  not  mentioned  by  him  in 
this  connection.  He  tdls  us.  however,  that 
he  transported  captives  from  Babylonia  to 
Syria  (in  731),  and  that  in  730  he  conijuered 
liamath,  so  that  Hamath.  Sci)iiarvaim  (ancient 
Sippum.  modern  Abu  Hat)l)a,  north  of  Baby- 
lon), and  Cutha  (modern  Tel  Ilirahim,  east  of  . 
Babylon)  are  natural  sources  for  such  enforced 
colonies  (of  Aca  we  know  nothing).      The 


work  of  transplanting  was  not,  however,  done 
once  for  all.  As  late  as  713  we  tind  Sargon 
bringing  colonists  to  "  the  land  of  the  hou.se 
of  Omri,"  or,  as  it  runs  in  a  parallel  inscrip- 
tion, to  "  the  city  Samaria." 

There  is  also  indirect  confirmation  of  the 
provision  made  by  Sargon  for  the  religious 
needs  of  the  new  s'ettlers  in  Samaria  (3  Kings 
xvii.  35-38),  in  the  statement  made  in  one  of 
his  inscriptions  that  he  sent  priests  to  another 
body  of  enforced  colonists,  "to  teach  them 
the  fear  of  God  and  king  ;"  tliis  may  well 
have  been  his  practice,  for  the  sake  of  making 
the  colonists  feel  at  home  and  .sale  in  their 
new  surroundings. 

The  seventeen  years  of  Sargon 's  reign  were 
years  of  restless  activity.  Amoim-  his  campaigns 
we  may  notice  that  against  Gaza  (730),  whose 
Egyptian  allies  under  Sdbi  i  (So,  better  Seveh, 
3  Kings  xvii  4)  he  defeated,  and  captured  the 
city,  and  particularly  that  against  Ashdod 
(711),  which  gives  occasion  for  the  only  men- 
tion of  Sargon's  name  in  the  Old  Testament 
(Isa.  XX.  1).  He  fought  with  }f(irdiikp(il- 
iddina  (Merodachbaladan)  of  Babylonia,  in 
731,  710,  and  709,  becoming  final  victor  in 
this  last  year.     He  died  in  705. 

Sargon's  son  and  successor  was  Sin-nchiirba 
(Sennacherib),  who  reigned  B.C.  705-681. 
Three  points  are  liero  of  special  interest  :  his 
campaign  against  Phamicia,  Philistia,  and 
Judah,  his  conquest  of  Merodachbaladan,  and 
his  death.  3  Kings  xviii.,  xix.  (cf.  Isa. 
xxxvi.,  xxxvii.)  relate  the  tribute  paid  by 
Hezekiah  to  Sennacherib,  the  sub.sequent  ap- 
pearance of  an  Assyrian  detachment  iM-forc 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem  summoning  the  city  to 
surrender,  Hezekiah 's  refusal,  in  accordance 
with  the  exhortations  of  Isaiah,  the  approach 
of  the  Ethiopian  army,  and  the  As.syrian  re- 
treat after  severe  loss  by  wliat  ap|X'ars  to  have 
been  a  pestilence.  This  campaign  is  reported 
at  length  in  the  inscriptions.  It  seems  that 
the  whole  Phcenician  and  Philistine  coiist, 
which  had  recognized  the  supremacy  of  Sar- 
gon, declined  to  submit  to  Sennaclurih.  Sen- 
nacherib marched  with  a  powerful  army  to 
Phujnicia,  and  thence  down  the  coast,  reach- 
ing a  point  some  distance  south  of  the  latitude 
of  Jerusalem.  Padi.  the  king  of  Ekron,  was 
friendly  to  As.syria,  but  had  been  rhposed  bv 
the  nobles  and  people,  and  .sent  to  Hczeki.ihat 
Jerusalem  for  .safe  keeping.  The  neighbor- 
hood of  the  As.syrians.  however,  was  loo 
tiireatening,  Judah  wjis  devastated,  and  Jeru- 
salem blockaded.  Accordingly  Padi  was  sent 
back  from  Jerusalem  and  reinstated,  while 
Hezekiah  paid  a  h'-avy  tribute.  The  com- 
biueil  armies  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  came  <)Ul 
airainst  Sennacherib,  doubtless  in  league  with 
th(!  eoast  cities,  biit  were  defeated  in  battle, 
and  the  Assyrian  army  marched  home  with 
its  spoil. 

Thus  we  .see  that  the  campaign  was  not'di- 
rectly  airainst  Jeru.salem,  and  that  Hezekiah 
him.self  was  jiartly  accounlalile  for  beinu  in- 
volved in  it  bv  allowing  hims-lf  to  \k'  en 
tangled  in  the  I'.olitical  strifes  of  his  neiiihbors. 
The  approach  of  the  Ethiopi.m  army  is  ex- 
plained somewhiit  more  fully,  and  we  are  able 
to  understand  lx.'tter  the  refi-rences  to  Eu'vpt 
in  the  words  of  the  Kabshak,  when  with  the 


ASSYRIOLOGT 


(58) 


ASSYRIOLOGT 


Turtanu  and  the  Rabsaris  he  was  sent  to  de- 
maud  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kings 
xviii.  17  sqq.  These  three  words  are  titles  of 
high  Assyrian  otticials,  and  not  proper  names). 
The  payment  of  tribute  is  sufticieut  evidence 
that  Sennacherib  had  the  advantage,  but  the 
inscriptions  make  no  mention  of  any  capture 
of  Jerusalem,  and  thus  silently  agree  with  the 
Bible.  The  amount  of  the  tribute  is  stated  (2 
Kings  xviii.  14)  at  300  talents  of  silver  and  30 
talents  of  gold.  The  Assyrian  account  makes 
it  800  talents  of  silver  anil  30  of  gold.  It  has 
been  made  extremely  likely  that  the  difference 
in  the  number  of  the  talents  of  .silver  is  due 
to  a  difference  in  the  talent,  the  Babylonian,  in 
which  the  Assyrian  reckoned,  being  to  the 
Hebrew  as  3  to  8.  Difficulties  greater  than 
this,  however,  are  presented  at  some  points  of 
the  compari.son.  The  As.syrian  account  men- 
tions the  tribute  of  Hezekiah  at  the  very  end, 
after  the  campaign  is  over,  while  the  Hebrew 
puts  it  before  the  formal  demand  that  Jerusa- 
lem surrender.  Probably  one  of  two  explana- 
tions is  to  be  adopted.  Either  the  tribute  was 
actually  sent  when  the  Assyrians  first  came, 
accompanied  by  Padi,  the  captive  king  of 
Ekron,  and  the  Assyrian  record  put  it  last  for 
greater  effect,  or  the  present  position  of  verses 
14-16  is  not  chronologically  accurate.  These 
verses  are  probably  not  an  original  part  of  the 
main  narrative  of  2  Kings  xviii.,  xix.,aud  while 
they  certainly  refer  to  the  same  campaign, 
may  not  have  been  inserted  in  the  actual  order 
of  occurrence.  Probably  the  former  possi- 
bility accounts  most  easily  for  the  facts.  An- 
other difficulty  is  the  absence  from  the  As- 
syrian account  of  any  mention  of  the  pesti- 
lence (2  Kings  xix.  35).  But  the  inscriptions 
give  no  reason  at  all  for  the  Assyrians'  return 
without  a  following  up  of  their  advantage  in 
the  battle  with  the  Egyptians.  The  pestilence 
is  certainly  more  credible  than  Herodotus' 
story  that  the  Assyrians  were  defeated  by  the 
Egyptians  because  field  mice  had  eaten  their 
bows  and  quivers.  Another  difficulty  is 
chronological.  2  Kings  xviii.  13  puts  the  cam- 
paign of  Sennacherib  in  the  fourteenth  year  of 
Hezekiah 's  reign.  Verses  9,  10  say  that  the 
siege  of  Samaria  began  in  Hezekiah 's  fourth 
year,  and  ended  in  his  sixth  year.  The  siege 
of  Samaria  took  place  B.C.  724-722.  Accord- 
ing to  this,  Hezekiah 's  first  year  would  have 
been  b.c.  727,  and  his  fourteenth  year  B.C.  714. 
But  Sennacherib  did  not  ascend  the  throne 
till  705,  and  the  Syrian  campaign  was  in  701. 
It  seems  evident,  therefore,  that  there  is  a  mis- 
take either  in  "  the  fourteenth  year"  of  verse 
14,  or  in  "  the  fourth  year"  and  "the  sixth 
year"  of  verses  9,  10.  The  latter  are  the  more 
likely  to  be  in  error,  the  cross-dates,  fixing  an 
event  in  one  kingdom  by  the  year  of  a  reign 
in  the  other  kingdom,  being  more  liable  to 
confusion  than  those  based  on  actual  records 
of  the  kingdom  concerned.  In  this  case, 
Hezekiati's  first  year  was  b.c.  714-715.  and  he 
was  not  on  the  throne  when  Samaria  fell. 
Other  difficulties  are  removed  by  this  view, 
such  as  the  remarkable  inference  from  2  Kings 
xvi.  2  and  xviii.  2,  that  Ahaz,  dying  at  36, 
left  a  son  25  years  old  ;  and  (in  part )  the  great 
excess  of  regnal  years  in  Judah  over  those  in 
Israti  between  Jehu  and  Hoshea  (see  above). 


It  is  hardly  doubtful  that  Sennacherib  was 
indirectly  responsible  for  the  embassy  of 
Merodachbaladan  to  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xx.). 
Marduk-pal-iddina,  a  restless,  vigorous  Baby- 
lonian prince,  had  given  Sargon  much  trouble, 
and  been  at  length  defeated  by  him  b.c.  709. 
One  of  the  same  name  had  paid  tribute  to 
Tiglath-pilcser  III.  in  b.c.  731.  Sennacherib 
had  defeated  him  in  b.c.  704.  The  final  over- 
throw of  his  power  was  in  b.c.  700.  Now,  it  is 
evident  that  it  was  important  for  him  to  secure 
as  many  allies  as  possible,  and  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that,  hearing  of  Sennacherib's  attitude 
toward  Hezekiah,  Mardukpaliddina  tried,  by 
pretending  interest  in  his  health,  to  gain  his 
adherence  in  the  desperate  struggle  he  himself 
was  making,  or  about  to  make,  with  the  As- 
syrian king. 

The  murder  of  Sennacherib  (2  Kings  xix. 
37)  is  related  in  the  Babylonian  chronicle  sev- 
eral times  mentioned.  Only  one  son  is  re- 
ferred to,  and  the  name  of  this  son  is  not 
given,  but  he  apparently  headed  a  rebellion. 
The  language  is  :  "In  the  month  Tebet,  on 
the  20th  day,  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria, 
his  son  in  a  revolt  killed."  Evidently  many 
persons  were  concerned,  for  Esarhaddon,  who 
secured  the  throne  after  some  weeks'  struggle, 
pursued  an  army  of  the  rebels  and  conquered 
them  on  the  borders  of  Armenia  ( Urartu  = 
"  land  of  Ararat,"  2  Kings  xix.  37). 

Asliur-ach  iddina  (Esarhaddon),  who  reign- 
ed B.C.  681-668,  appears  to  have  come  little 
into  contact  with  Judah,  although  he  was 
an  enterprising  and  successful  monarch,  who 
made  his  power  felt  as  far  as  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  even  into  the  land  of  Egypt. 
Judah  seems  to  have  given  him  no  occasion  of 
hostilities.  Manasseh  was  on  the  Judaan 
throne  when  Esarhaddon  began  to  reign,  and 
outlived  him,  and  in  a  list  of  western  kings 
tributary  to  Esarhaddon  we  read  the  name  of 
"  Minmhi,  king  of  the  land  of  Judah." 

The  name  Ashiir-bani-pal  (son  and  successor 
of  Esarhaddon)  does  not  appear  under  this 
form  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  yet  there  are 
probably  two  or  three  references  to  his  achieve- 
ments. One  is  in  Ezra  iv.  10,  where  "  the 
great  and  noble  Asnapper"  (or  "  Osnappar" — 
a  mutilated  form  of  Ashurbanipal)  is  said  to 
have  brought  captives  from  "  the  Elamites," 
among  many  other  Eastern  peoples  ;  Ashur- 
banipal was  the  conqueror  of  Elam.  Another 
is  in  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11,  where  it  is  said  that 
"  the  Lord  brought  upon  them  the  captains  of 
the  host  of  the  king  of  Assyria,  which  took 
Manasseh  in  chains,  and  bound  him  with  fet- 
ters, and  carried  him  to  Babylon."  The  sit- 
uation is  most  easily  explained  by  what  took 
place  about  the  middle  of  the  reign  of  Ashur- 
banipal. Babylonia  was  at  this  time  subject 
to  Assyria  and  governed  by  viceroys.  The 
viceroy  Shamash-skum-ukin,  who  was  a  brother 
of  Ashurbanipal,  had  rebelled  and  tried  to 
make  himself  independent.  The  rebellion 
was  put  down,  and  Ashurbanipal  himself  ad- 
ministered the  affairs  of  Babylon  thereafter, 
probably  holding  his  court  there,  for  a  longer 
or  shorter  time.  Shamashshumukin  had  en- 
deavored, like  Mardukpaliddina  before  him, 
to  enlist  "  the  kings  of  the  West  land  "  in  his 
cause,  carrying  on  intrigues  even  with  Ethic- 


ASSTRIOLOGY 


(59) 


ASSTRIOLOGY 


pia.  Probably"  Manasseh  had  been  in  some 
way  implicated,  aud  c.  B.C.  747  had  been  seized 
and  brought  to  Ashurbanipul  at  Babylon.  It 
is  curious  that  we  have  a  close  parallel  to  the 
Assyrian  king's  mild  treatment  of  him,  in  the 
way  in  which  the  same  Ashurbanipal  treated 
Necho  of  Egypt.  We  read  that  ISharludari  aud 
Neclio  were  seized,  bound  hand  and  foot  with 
iron  bands  and  iron  fetters,  in  consequence  of 
supposed  complicity  in  rebellion,  and  that, 
after  they  had  been  brought  to  Nineveh, 
Necho  was  sent  back  in  honor,  with  every 
token  of  royal  favor.  Still  another  reference 
to  Ashurbanipal's  conquests  is  found  in 
Nahum  iii.  8-10,  where  the  fall  of  No  anion 
(Thebes),  which  Ashurbanipal  accomplished, 
is  portrayed  in  a  few  vivid  lines.  These  refer- 
ences only  hmt  at  the  power  of  one  of  the 
most  magniticent  aud  formidable  monarchs 
of  the  ancient  world. 

Quite  apart  from  the  military  power  and 
the  luxury  of  Ashurbanipal,  we  owe  him  a 
debt  of  gratitude  for  his  literary  zeal,  and  all 
the  more  because  this  did  not  take  shape  so 
much  in  fostering  original  talent,  as  in  tlie 
careful  collection  aud  preservation,  at  least 
in  copy,  of  the  treasures  of  Babylonian  lit- 
erature and  science,  many  of  them  of  very 
ancient  date.  He  set  apart  vast  rooms  for 
libraries,  anil  the  clay  tablets  found  by 
thousands  among  the  ruins  of  his  palaces  are 
one  precious  source  of  our  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  history,  the  beliefs,  the  traditions, 
and  the  usages  of  the  earlier  centuries. 

Ashurbanipal's  reigu  did  not  continue  later 
than  B.C.  626,  and  perhaps  ended  sooner. 
Weak  princes  followed  him.  The  empire  was 
gradually  and  yet  quickly  disintegrated.  In 
B.C.  607  or  608"  Niueveli  'fell  under  the  com- 
bined power  of  the  Babylonians  and  the 
Modes.  The  rapidly  developed  strength  of 
Baby!)a  became  suddenly  a  terror  to  (he 
world,  as  that  of  Assyria  had  been.  Tlie  first 
and  principal  name  which  we  here  encounter 
is  that  of  Xabu-kudurri -usii r  (Nebuchadrez- 
zar —  less  correctly  Nebuchadnezzar),  who 
reigned  b.c.  604-561. 

Nabukudurri  usur  was  the  son  of  that 
Kdbu-palusnr  (Naljopolassar)  of  Babylon  wlio 
was  one  main  agent  in  the  ovcrtlirow  of  Nine- 
veh, and  he  was  a  proved  soldier  and  general 
before  his  father  died.  Nothing  interrupted 
his  career  of  conquest  after  lie  became  king 
until  the  end  of  his  reign.  His  energy,  swift- 
ness and  relentlessne.ss  were  as  great  as  lho.se 
of  Aslmrbanipal  in  his  prime.  He  wtus  also  a 
great  builder  ;  even  Anti-Lebanon  furnished 
him  witli  timber.  He  was  indefatigable  in 
the  erection  and  adornment  of  palace  and  tem- 
ple. Almost  all  his  inscriptions  yet  found  are 
concerned  with  things  lilie  lhe.se.  Tlius  far 
no  mention  has  been  discovered  in  anv  of 
them  of  the  defeat  of  Pharaoh  Necho  (2  Ivings 
xxiv.  7),  of  the  humiliation  of  Jehoiakim  of 
Judah  (verses  1  sqq  ),  of  the  first  plundering 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  carrying  away  of  Je- 
hoiachin  b.c.  597  (verses  10  sqcj),  nor  of  the 
final  two-years'  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  the  time 
of  Zedekiah,  ending  in  its  fall,  destruction 
and  loss  of  inhabitants,  b.c.  586,  although  the 
historiail  character  of  these  events  is  beyond 
question.     The  Babylonian  sound  of  his' gen- 


eral's name,  Nebuzaradan  {Nabu-zir-iddina), 
is  too  [)laiu  to  need  comment. 

An  historical  fragment  which  has  come  into 
our  hands  from  this  reign  aids  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  a  prophetic  pa.ssage.  This  frag- 
ment tells  us  that  Nabukudurriusur  was  in 
Egypt  in  his  thirty-seventh  year  (b.c.  563), 
and  defeated  a  king  whose  name,  though  im- 
perfect, is  probably  the  equivalent  of  "  Ama- 
sis."  It  was  to  this  campaign,  probably,  that 
Jeremiah's  prediction  refers  (Jer.  xliii."»,  10), 
that  Nebuchadrezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  shall 
set  up  his  throne  upon  the  stones  hid  by  Jere- 
miah "  in  the  mortar,  in  the  brickwork,  which 
is  at  the  entry  of  Pharaoh's  house  in  Tah- 
panhes"  — in  the  extreme  northeast  of  Egypt. 
(Of.  Egyptology  and  tiik  Bihlk.)  Nebu- 
chadrezzar's presence  in  Egypt  is  confirmed, 
also,  by  the  discovery  there  of  inscribed  cylin- 
ders from  his  reign. 

His  son  and  successor  was  Amil-  (or  AHl) 
Mdvdnk  (Evil  Merodach),  who  reigned  b.c. 
501-560,  according  to  Ptolemy's  Canon  and 
dated  tablets  from  his  reign.  2  Kings  xxiv. 
27-80  relate  bis  kindness  to  the  captive  king, 
Jehoiachin  of  Jiulah. 

The  last  Babylonian  king  before  the  Persian 
conquest  was  iV«/>«-/ia-jVZ(Nabonidus),  and  he 
reigned  b.c.  555-538.  It  is  he  who  gives  the 
date  of  Naram  Sin,  son  of  Saigon  I.,  as  3200 
before  his  own  time.  He  was  apparently 
neither  very  ellicieut  nor  very  politic.  The 
annals  of  his  reign  which  we  po.ssess,  and  a 
poem  celebrating  the  victory  of  Cyrus  over 
Babylon,  indicate  that  especially  b,y  inatten- 
tion' to  customary  religious  ceremonies  he 
failed  to  conciliate  the  priests.  He  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  aud  is  of  consequence 
here  only  because  the  inscriptions  referred  to 
explain  the  circumstances  of  Cyrus'  victory, 
and  becau.se  Nabonidus  was  the  father  of  Bii- 
«/(«/■  M5i/r  (Belshazzar;  of  Dan.  v. 

Belsharusur  seems  to  have  never  been  the 
formal  king,  but  he  was  his  father's  g«;neral, 
and  popular  with  the  army.  After  Babylon 
had  fallen  and  Nabonidus  Avas  taken  ]>risuniT, 
he  held  out,  in  a  fortified  part  of  the  city,  for 
three  or  four  months,  until,  on  the  night  of 
the  11th  of  Marcheswan,  ((Xtober-Noveml)er). 
B.C.  538,  his  citadel  was  taken  and  he  him.self 
killed.  The  native  Babylonian  dynasty  thus 
came  to  an  end,  and  the  'Persian  race  took  the 
lead  in  Western  Asia. 

Kurmh  (Cyrus)  was  the  liereditary  prince 
of  Anzan,  or  Elam.  and  ascended  the  throne 
B.C.  558.  Complications  with  Media  filled 
several  years,  ending  with  the  final  concpiesl 
of  that  country,  b.c!  550.  But  this  could  not 
satisfy  so  enterprising  and  ambitious  a  king. 
In  B.C.  547  he  had  already  marched  westward 
to  the  extreme  limit  of  Asi'a.  conqueren  Cra-sus 
of  Lydia,  and  captured  Sardis.  plight  years 
of  uninterrui)ted  vietorv  in  various  (piarters 
followed,  and  at  leUL'th,  in  5:iS,  he  turned 
toward  Babvlonia.  His  unol)stru<trd  success 
thus  far  proves  the  decline  of  Babylonian 
power,  and  his  conquest  of  H^ibylonia  was 
correspond inglv  ea.sy.  He  entered  Sippara 
without  striking  a  blow  ;  two  days  later 
Qobryas  occupied  Babvlon  ;  Nabonidus  Ih.- 
came'  a  prisoner  ;  within  a  few  weeks  every 
vestige  of  resistance  was  gone,  and  Cyrus  was 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


(60) 


ASSTRIOLOGT 


undisputed  monarch  of  the  vast  empire.  He 
was  not  merely  a  conqueror.  He  had  the  in- 
stincts of  a  statesman.  He  was  considerate 
and  politic.  He  paid  all  respect  to  the  usages, 
and  especially  the  religions,  of  the  Babylonians 
and  other  subjugated  peoples.  He  laid  the 
foundations  of  that  great  system  of  govern- 
ment which  Darius  carried  to  a  high  degree 
of  completeness. 

The  Jews,  toward  the  end  of  the  exile  and 
later,  regarded  Cyrus  as  their  great  deliverer 
from  exile.  Isaiah  xliv.  28,  xlv.  1  sqq.,  xlvi. 
1  sqq.,  etc  ,  iadicate  the  expectations  con- 
nected with  his  name.  Ezra  i.  1  sqq.  (cf.  2 
Chron.  xxxvi.  22,  23)  and  vi.  3  sqq.  majie 
historical  statements  in  regard  to  his  active  aid 
in  their  restoration.  No  reference  to  this  par- 
ticular event  is  found  in  the  inscriptions,  but 
it  is  of  a  piece  with  his  general  policy.  He 
knew  that  they  would  be  more  valuable  sub- 
jects if  they  were  living  in  their  old  home, 
enjoying  their  old  religion,  and  that  they  were 
not  strong  enough  to  be  formidable.  His 
statesmanship  granted  their  wish,  and  results 
showed  that  he  was  wise.  They  remained 
loyal  subjects  of  Persia  as  long  as  Persian 
kings  ruled  in  Babjdon,  while  their  religious 
life  was  untrammelled  and  their  usages  undis- 
turbed. 

Troublesome  neighbors  did,  indeed,  vex 
them.  Many  of  these  were  foreigners,  who 
took  advantage  of  the  fall  of  Judah  to  possess 
themselves  of  valuable  lands.  In  one  case  we 
find  a  man  with  a  distinctly  Babylonian  name, 
"  Sanballat  £=  Siti-nballU]  the  Horonile"  — 
i.e. ,  probably  one  whose  residence  was  in  Beth- 
boron,  in  Ephraim — plotting  violence  against 
the  returned  exiles  (Neh.  ii.  10,  19,  iv.  1  sqq., 
vi.  1  sqq.,  etc.).  But  the  Persian  kings  seem 
lo  have  been  in  such  instances  protectors  of 
the  Jews. 

Brief  notices  must  suffice  of  the  other  Per- 
sian kings  whose  names  appear  in  the  Bible. 
"Darius  the  Mede,"  of  Dan.  v.  31  sqq., 
strangely  called  "  the  son  of  Ahasnerus" 
(Xerxes),  Dan.  ix.  1,  is  not  named  in  the  in- 
scriptions, which,  indeed,  do  not  seem  to 
leave  room  for  him.  The  Darius  (Hj'staspis) 
who  reigned  b.c.  521-486,  and  has  left  us,  be- 
sides records  of  less  importance,  a  great  in- 
scription carved  on  the  rocks  of  Behistun,  is 
mentioned  in  Ezra  iv.  5,  24,  v.  5,  vi.  1  sqq. 
(Cf.  Hag.  i.  1,  15  ;  Zech.  i.  1,  7,  vii.  1.)  He 
appears  as  the  same  sagacious  and  just  ruler 
that  secular  history  has  depicted,  confirming 
and  carrying  out  the  promises  formally  made 
by  Cyrus. 

The  Ahashwerosh  (Ahasuerus)  of  Ezra  iv.  6 
and  the  book  of  Esther  is  Xerxes,  the  son  of 
Darius  (b.c.  486-464),  and  the  Artachs/iashta 
(Artaxerxes)  of  Ezra  iv.  7,  8,  11,  23,  etc..  Neb. 
ii.  1,  V.  14,  etc.,  is  the  son  of  Xerxes,  Artax- 
erxes Longimanus(B.c.  464-425).  Ezra  iv.  7, 
8,  etc.,  is  thought  by  many  to  refer  to  the 
false  Smerdis,  the  pretended  brother  of  Cam- 
byses,  who  in  b.c.  522  reigned  eight  months  ; 
but  the  difficulty  in  supposing  both  that  he 
had  the  name  Artaxerxes  and  that  Artaxerxes 
in  the  different  passages  does  not  refer  to  the 
same  persons  is  too  "great.  Finally,  in  Neh. 
xii.  22  we  have  a  reference  to  Darius  Codoman- 
nus  (B.C.  336-330).     AH  these  Persian  kings 


are  known  to  us  more  through  Greek  than 
through  Babylonian  historians. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  Old  Testa- 
ment religion  should  show  Assyrian  or  Baby- 
lonian influence  in  any  of  its  essential  features. 
That  the  ancestors  of  the  Hebrew  race  were 
polytheists  we  know  from  Josh.  xxiv.  14,  15, 
and  the  same  passage  tells  us  that  the  He- 
brews were  inclined  to  fall  back  into  this  old 
polythei-sm.  This  might  conceivably  refer  to 
Aramaean  worship  in  and  about  Haran,  and 
the  teraphim  such  as  Rachel  brought  with  her 
(Gen.  xxxi.  19  sqq.),  which  were  highly  re- 
garded by  many  of  the  people  {e.g.,  1  Sam. 
xix.  13  sqq.),  may  be  referred  to  this  region. 
But  the  golden  calf  made  by  Aaron  at  ISinai 
(Ex.  xxxii.)  and  those  set  up  by  Jeroboam  at 
Bethel  and  Dan  (1  Kings  xii.  28  sqq.)  suggest 
the  bulls  of  Babylonio-Assyrian  worship. 
These  reminiscences  of  an  earlier  age  belong, 
however,  to  illicit  worship.  It  would  not  be 
impossible  that  the  Hebrews  should  have  re- 
tained some  rites,  institutions  or  religious 
usages  from  their  earliest  ancestors,  and  that 
these  should  have  been  adopted  into  the  new 
religion  and  given  a  new  content  and  signifi, 
cance  ;  but  this  subject  has  been  as  yet  too  lit- 
tie  investigated. 

As  to  community  of  religious  ideas,  not 
much  can  be  here  said.  The  Babylonians 
were  marked  by  zeal  for  religion  and  scru- 
pulousness in  religious  observance.  Their 
thoughts  of  the  gods  were  vivid,  and  there 
existed  among  them  a  consciousness  of  depend- 
ence, of  need,  even  of  sin,  embodied  in  their 
penitential  hymns,  which  is  found  nowhere 
else  except  among  the  Hebrews,  where  it  ap- 
pears at  once  more  intelligent  and  more  pro- 
found. But,  so  far  as  this  betokens  any  con- 
nection, it  is  one  of  kinship  rather  than  of 
direct  influence. 

One  of  the  most  striking  diffcronces  in  relig- 
ious things  is  the  absence  among  the  Hebrews 
of  any  mythology. 

As  to  literature,  the  Babylonians  possessed 
the  art  of  writing  long  before  Abraham  left  Ur 
Ivasdim.  It  has  been  suggested'  that  the  old 
Hebrew  alphabet  was  derived  from  the  archaic 
form  of  the  Babylonian  signs  for  words  and 
syllables,  but  the  proof  advanced  for  this  has 
not  been  universally  accepted.  In  regard  to 
poetical  narratives  which  the  two  civilizations 
had  more  or  less  in  common,  such  as  the  stories 
of  creation  and  the  flood,  a  direct  connection, 
in  the  literary  form,  can  hardly  be  traced. 

Literature.— C.  P.  Tiele,  Babylonisch- 
Assyrische  Geschiehte,  Gotha,  1886-88.  Eng. 
trans,  of  one  section  (especially  important  for 
the  religion)  by  A.  S.  Carrier,  Tiele  on  Baby- 
lonian-Assyrian Culture,  in  "  Old  Testament 
Student,"  Jan. -May,  1889. 

Max  Duncker,  Ueschichte  des  Altertlnims, 
5  vols.,  5th  ed.,  Leipzig.  1878-81  ;  Eng.  trairs. 
by  Evelyn  Abbott,  6  vols.,  Loudon,  1877-82. 

George  Rawlinson,  llie  Fite  Great  Monar- 
chies ofthe  Ancient  Eastern  World,  3  vols.,  4th 
ed.,  London,  1879  ;  New  York,  1880. 

Z.  A.  Ragozin,  The  Story  of  Chaldea,  New 
York  and  London,  1886;  id..  The  Story  of 
Assyria,  New  York  and  London,  1887  ;  id., 
The  Story  of  Media,  Babylon  and  Persia, 
New  York  and  London,  1888. 


ASTARTE 


(61) 


ATHANASIUS 


A.  H.  Sayce,  The  Ancient  Empires  of  the 
Eti.it,  London  and  New  York,  18H4  ;  id.,  Lec- 
tures an  the  Origin  (ind  Growth  »f  lii-lif/ion  dn 
Illustrated  by  tfui  Religion  of  the.  Aiwiiiit  Baby- 
lonians (Hibl)ert  Lectures),  London,  1887. 

E.  Sclirader,  Die  Keilinschriften  u.  d<ts 
Alte  Testament,  2d  ed.,  Giessen,  1883  ;  Eng. 
trans,  by  O.  Whitehouse,  The  Giineiform  In- 
scriptions and  the  Old  Testament,  3  vols.,  Lon- 
don,  188r)-88.     (The  standard  work   on  the 

SUbJL'Ct.) 

Cunnin'^ham  Gcikie,  Hours  with  the  Bible, 
6  vols.,  London,  1880-84;  New  York,  1881- 
84. 

A.  H.  Sayce,  Fresh  Light  from  the  Ancient 
Monuments,  London,  u.d.  [1883]. 

George  Smith,  Tne  Ckaldean  Account  of 
Genesis,  London  and  New  York,  1876.  Re- 
vised ed.,  by  A.  H.  Sayce,  1880. 

Fran9ois  Lenormant,  Les  Origines  de  I'llis- 
toire,  vol.  i.  and  ii.,  Paris,  1880-84;  Eng. 
trans,  of  vol.  i.,  The  Beginnings  of  History, 
New  York,  1883. 

Henry  G.  Tomkins,  Studies  in  tlie  Times  of 
Abraliani,  i.,  London,  1879. 

W.  R.  Smitli,  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  Edin- 
burgh and  New  York,  1883. 

S.  R.  Driver,  Isaiah,  His  Life  and  Times, 
London  and  New  York,  n  d.  [1888]. 

T.  K.  Ciieyne,  Jeremiah,  His  Life  and 
Times,  London  and  New  York,  n.d.  [1888]. 

J.  Meinhold,  Beitrage  zur  Erkldrung  des 
Buchcs  Daniel,  {.,  Leipzis:,  1888. 

W.  H.  Ward,  The  Historical  Chapters  of 
Daniel  attested  by  Contemporary  Records, 
"Journal  of  Christian  Philosophy,"  Oct., 
1883.  James  Orr,  Assyrian  and  Hebrew  Chro- 
nology, "Presbyterian  Review,"  Jiin.,  1889. 
Francis  Brown. 

Astarte.     See  Ashera. 

Astrology  {science  of  the  stars),  treated  un- 
der two  heads  :  1.  Judicial  astrology— i.e..  tlie 
pretended  siuence  of  the  influence  of  tlie  stars 
on  terrestrial  life,  especially  that  of  men,  and 
the  art  to  determine  for  each  individual  the 
state  and  quality  of  this  influence.  3.  Xat- 
vral  astrology— i.e.,  the  prediction,  by  means 
of  the  stars,  of  the  coming  of  natural  effects, 
us  rain,  etc.  Astrology  reached  its  culmina- 
tion at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  and  its 
profes.sors  were  consulted  about  everything. 
Princes  and  popes  {e  g.,  Si.\tus  IV..  Julius  II., 
Leo  X.,  Paul  III.)  put  implicit  faith  in  it  ; 
Luther  anil  Melanchtlion  belie^'ed  in  it  ;  medi 
cine  was  built  upon  it  ;  but  it  gradually  lost 
its  hold  as  true  science  spread. 

Astruc,  Jean,  Roman  Catholic,  physician 
and  professor  of  medicine  in  Paris  ;  b.  at 
Sauve,  in  Languedoc,  France,  March  19, 
1684  ;  d.  in  Paris.  May  5.  1766  ;  published  at 
Brussels,  in  1753.  his  Conjectures  sur  les  Me- 
inoires  oHginaux,  dont  il  paroit  que  Moyse  s'est 
ftervi  pour  composer  le  livrc  de  la  Oenese',  where- 
in, by  calling  attention  to  the  existence  of 
Elohistic  and  Jeliovistic  sources  in  Genesis,  as 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  Elohim  and  in 
others  Jehovah  is  the  name  for  God,  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  modern  Peiitatcuchal  rriti- 
c[3m.  The  Union  Theological  Seminary.  New 
York,  h}is  a  copy  oS»this  rare  book.  He,  how-  j 
ever,  believed  in  the  Mosaic  authorship. 


Asylum,  an  inviolable,  holy  place,  in  which 
the  ottViider  is  safe  against  the  avenger.  In 
the  Mosaic  legislation  6  cities  of  refuge  were 
ordered,  but  only  innocent  manslayers,  and 
not  intentional  murderers,  were  "protected 
tiicrein  (Num.  xx.xv.  0-34).  The  Clnisiian 
Roman  em|)erors  gave  the  churclies  (ompre- 
hensive  rights  of  asylum  ;  hut  Jusiiiiimi  ex- 
cepted tliose  guilty  of  murder,  adultery,  aii.l 
rape  from  their  protection,  and  the  ciiurch 
it.sclf,  in  the  13th  century,  in  addition,  high- 
way robbery.  The  right  of  asylum  is  now 
nearly  universally  abrogated. 

At-ar -ga-tis,  a  Syrian  goddess  not  men- 
tioned in  canonical  scripture,  but  in  2d  Mac- 
cabees (xii.  -US)  it  is  said  that  at  her  temple 
in  Carnion,  Judas  Maccabeus  slew  tive-and- 
twenty  tliousand  persons.  No  satisfactorv 
etymology  of  the  word  has  been  discovereJ. 
The  Greek  and  Roman  writers  represent  her 
as  a  tish-goddess,  the  cause  of  the  seas'  fruit- 
fulness.  It  seems  likely  that  Ataigatis  was  a 
name  under  which  the  Syrians  worshipped 
some  modification  of  the  same  power  which 
was  adored  under  that  of  Astarte.  She  was 
doubtless  an  oriental  Aphrodite,  and  her  rites 
were  impure  and  sensual.  C. 

Ath-a-li  -ah  {whom  Jah  afflicts),  daughter  of 
Ahab  and  mother  of  Aha/.iah.  tiftli  king  of 
Judah.  She  introduced  Baal  worsliip  into 
Judah,  and  after  her  son's  death  dotroyeil  all 
the  seed  royal  and  assumed  the  sceptre.  But 
one  of  the  king's  sons  had  been  preserved,  and 
he,  after  seven  years,  ascended  the  throne,  and 
Athaliah  was  slain.  C. 

Athanasian  Creed.     See  below. 

Ath-a-na'-si-us,  b.  at  Alexandria  about  296  ; 
d.  there.  May  31,  373.  His  parer.ls  were 
Christians.  He  was  trained  in  the  learning  of 
his  day,  with  the  added  advantage  of  early  re- 
ligious in.struction,  and  was  inclined  to  a  re- 
ligious life  from  his  childhood.  He  became 
deacon  in  Alexandria  under  the  bi.shop  Alex- 
ander, and  was  clo.sely  associated  wiiii  him, 
though  how  far  he  took  part  in  the  conlesl 
with  Arius  before  the  Council  of  Nice(32r)) 
cannot  be  certainly  made  out.  But  in  the 
council  his  work  was  of  the  most  influential 
and  decisive  character.  Returned  fmm  Nice, 
he  devoted  his  life  to  the  defence  of  the  doc- 
trine formulated  there.  He  was  advanced, 
upon  the  death  of  Alexander,  to  the  bi-hopric 
(June  8,  338).  The  remnants  of  the  .Meletian 
party  and  of  the  followers  of  Arius  caused 
him  endless  trouble,  and  are  the  diief  explana- 
tion of  his  tempestuous  life.  He  8uccee«led  in 
avoiding  the  reception  of  Arius  into  the  com- 
munion of  the  church,  hut  was  soon  sum- 
moned upon  accusations  pertaining  to  his  ad- 
ministration before  the  emperor.  It  took  him 
a  vear  to  secure  his  acquittal.  Itelurncd 
home,  his  dilliculties  continued,  and  in  33r)  he 
was  summoned  iM-fore  the  Synod  of  Tyre,  anil 
here  he  was  deposed.  He"  repaired  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  for  a  time  .seemefl  to  gain  the 
favor  of  Constantine.  but  Eusebius  had  other 
complaints,  and  .\thanjisius  wa-s  l>ani.--hed  to 
Treves  (33.^).  He  was  kindly  receive<l  here 
bv  Constantine  the  younger,  and  his  rc.'<idenc« 
in  the  Occident  didmucii  to  gain  the  lirm  and 


ATHANASIUS 


(62) 


ATHOS 


unwavering  adherence  of  that  part  of  Chris- 
tendom to  his  cause.  In  388,  after  the  death 
of  Coustantine,  Athanasius  returned  to  Alex- 
andria. But  new  accusations  were  made— e.g. , 
that  he  was  a  bad  administrator,  and  had  em- 
bezzled the  money  sent  to  tlie  relief  of  the  poor 
by  the  emperor.  Again  (March  19,  340)  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  Alexandria.  He  went  to 
Rome  to  the  bishop  Julius,  and  was  well  re- 
ceiv^ed.  He  was  present  at  the  Synod  of  Sar- 
dica,  which  recognized  his  right  to  liis  see. 
In  346  he  was  able,  through  a  change  in  the 
feelings  of  the  court  toward  him,  to  return 
again  to  Alexandria.  The  death  of  Constans 
made  his  position  again  insecure,  and  from 
356  to  361  he  was  again  in  exile,  the  third 
time.  The  fourth  exile  was  during  the  year 
362-363.  In  365  he  was  for  the  last  time  an 
exile,  and  from  366  to  his  death  he  remained 
in  Alexandria,  active  in  the  duties  of  his 
omce. 

The  greatness  of  Athanasius  consists  in  the 
fact  that  he  saw  the  full  meaning  of  the  Arian 
movement,  and  unflinchingly  resisted  its  ad- 
vance at  whatever  cost  to  himself.  He  is 
identified  with  that  form  of  expressing  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  which  was  adopted  at 
Nice  under  his  intiuence,  that  the  Son  is 
Homo-ousios  {i.e.,  of  the  same  substance)  with 
the  Father.  The  great  dogmatic  idea  under- 
lying his  treatment  of  the  theme  is  the  neces- 
sity that  God  himself  should  take  hold  of  us 
for  our  salvation,  which  requires  that  Christ 
should  be  truly  God.  But  exegetical  and  log- 
ical arguments  were  not  wanting.  Innumera- 
ble texts  of  Scripture  are  quoted  and  enforced 
by  liin».  The  various  consequences  of  the 
Arian  phrase  "  there  was  a  time  when  he  was 
not"  are  developed.  If  he  had  a  beginning, 
then  he  was  a  creature  and  could  not  be  the 
Creator.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  here- 
tofore received  in  the  church  is  made  impossi- 
ble, since  it  is  then  composed  of  heterogeneous 
elements.  And  the  very  idea  of  a  medium  for 
the  creation  of  the  world  is  self -contradictory, 
since  then  a  being  for  the  creation  of  this  me- 
dium is  required,  and  another  for  him,  etc.  ad 
infinitum.  Building  upon  the  word  Son, 
which  he  understands  to  indicate  the  true 
inner-trinitarian  relations  of  the  Godhead, 
Athanasius  teaches  that  the  Son  is  generated 
of  the  Father  by  an  eternal  act  proceeding 
from  the  necessity  of  his  nature.  This  is  the 
Origenistic  idea  reproduced.  Upon  this  rests 
the  doctrine  that  he  is  of  the  same  nature  with 
the  Father,  and  exists  with  him— not,  however, 
as  another  individual  of  a  species,  but  in  nu- 
merical unity  with  him.  In  his  Christology, 
Athanasius  does  not  always  distinguish  clearly 
between  the  ideas  of  an  assumption  of  human 
nature  and  of  a  human  body,  though  at  times 
clearly  upon  the  side  of  the'  former.  He  thus 
prepared  the  way  for  the  rise  of  Apollinarian- 
ism  (q.v.).  As  to  the  effects  of  the  incarna- 
tion, Athanasius  sometimes  presents  the  mys- 
tic idea  that  the  race  is  redeemed  by  the  mere 
fact  of  the  entrance  into  it  of  the  God  man, 
as  if  this  were  the  sum  and  substance  of  the 
matter,  but  he  elsewhere  emphasizes  the  ne- 
cessity of  an  atonement,  and  presents  more 
clearly  than  any  other  writer  down  to  the  time 
of  Anselm  the  objective  necessity  of  an  atone- 


ment as  a  satisfaction  for  sin.  His  works 
were  numerous  (see  Migne,  Fat.  Or.  XXV.- 
XXVIII.),  the  chief  one  being  the  Orations 
against  the  Avians,  translated  in  The  Library  of 
the  Fathers,  Oxford,  1843,  2d  ed.,  London, 
1861.  'dee  ?i\&o\\\s  Historical  Tracts,  1849,  and 
Festal  Epistles,  in  the  same,  1854.  For  his 
life  and  life  work  see  H.  R.  Reynolds,  Atha- 
nasius, London,  1889. 

The  Athanasian  Creed,  a  long  symbol 
used  still  in  the  worship  of  the  English  Church, 
has  no  connection  with  Athanasius,  but  is 
founded  upon  Augustine's  forms  of  doctrinal 
statement.  It  treats  of  the  Trinity  and  of  the 
incarnation  and  work  of  Christ.  The  earliest 
certain  trace  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  Csesarius 
of  Aries  (503-543).  The  Greek  Church  became 
acquainted  with  it  about  the  year  1000,  but 
would  not  receive  it.  Its  author  is  entirely 
unknown.  F. 

Athanasian  Creed.     See  above. 

Atheism,  the  doctrine  that  there  is  no  God. 
The  term  has  sometimes  been  misapplied,  as 
when  the  lirst  Christians  were  called  atheists 
beca\ise  they  denied  the  gods  whom  the  state 
worshipped.  But  there  have  been  and  there 
are  those  who  absolutely  deny  that  there  is  a 
divine  being,  or  that  the  human  mind  can  dis- 
cover whether  there  is  or  is  not  such  a  being. 
What  is  called  practical  atheism  is  not  a  be- 
lief, but  a  mode  of  life.  Absolute  atheism 
has  no  logical  basis.  It  can  be  justified  only 
by  inlinite  knowledge.  The  universe  must  be 
scanned  in  all  its  length  and  breadth  before 
any  one  can  say  there  is  no  trace  of  God's  ex- 
istence. Equally  presumptuous  is  it  to  deny 
that  God  can  be  known,  for  this  limits  alike 
human  attainment  and  divine  power.  He 
who  makes  such  a  denial  determines  before- 
hand what  advances  in  knowledge  man  can 
make,  and  he  also  assumes  that  he  knows 
what  an  infinite  mind  is  capable  of.  But  the 
confidence  of  atheists  is  usually  in  an  inverse 
ratio  to  their  logical  force.  (See  Flint's  Anti- 
theistic  Theories,  Edinburgh  and  Loudon,  3d 
ed.,  1885.)  C. 

Ath-e-nag'-o-ras,  a  Christian  apologist  of 
the  2d  century,  of  whom  nothing  is  known 
except  what  is  derived  from  the  two  works 
bearing  his  name  which  have  come  down  to 
us.  (Eng.  trans.,  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  ed. 
Coxe,  Chr.  Lit.  Co.,  New  York,  vol.  ii.,  129- 
162.)  These  are  a  plea  for  the  Christians,  and 
a  treatise  upon  the  resurrection.  The  former 
was  written  between  176  and  178.  It  follows 
closely  in  the  line  of  Justin,  and  gives  consid- 
erable evidence  of  acquaintance  with  the  Greek 
philosophy.  The  defence  of  the  resurrection 
is  conducted  upon  the  basis  of  natural  theol- 
ogy. F. 

Athos,  a  peak  terminating  the  peninsula 
promontory  of  Chalcis,  off  the  coast  of  Mace- 
donia, is  tlie  location  of  a  great  aggregate  of 
20  monasteries  and  many  hermitages,  under 
the  authority  of  the  Protos.  The  oldest  is 
from  the  9th  and  the  latest  from  the  16th  cen- 
tury. During  the  Crusades  they  placed  them- 
selves temporarily  under  the  protection  of 
Pope  Innocent  III.  (1204). •The  Areopagitinian 
mysticism  is  diligently  cultivated  in  them,  and 


ATONEMENT 


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ATRroM 


as  a  result  the  sect  of  the  Hesychasts  started 
there  in  the  14th  century.  They  are  at  pres- 
ent a  sort  of  monastic  republic,  paying  a 
yearly  tribute  to  the  Sultan,  and  governed  by 
a  yearly  elected  body,  the  Holy  yjmod,  con- 
sisting of  pne  representative  from  each  of  the 
monasteries.  No  female,  even  of  the  lower 
animals,  is  allowed  to  come  to  Jit.  Athos. 
(See  accounts  bv  A.  Riley  [London,  1887]  and 
Tozer  [London,'  1869].) 

Atonement  presupposes  the  existence  of  sin 
and  expresses  the  means  by  which  fallen  man 
is  restored  to  the  favor  of  his  Maker.  All 
Christians  are  agreed  that  reconciliation  is 
effected  by  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  but  there 
is  sreat  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  way  in 
•which  he  accomplishes  the  work.  In  the 
early  church  it  was  for  a  long  period  held 
that  Christ's  sufferings  were  a  ransom  offered 
to  the  devil  in  order  to  rescue  men  from  the 
dominion  he  had  acquired  over  them  by  right 
of  conquest.  Among  the  advocates  of  this 
view  were  Origen,  Gregory  of  Ny.s.sa,  and 
Augustine,  but  it  was  ably  controverted  by 
Alhanasius.  The  doctrine  of  the  Atonement, 
however,  was  in  an  undeveloped  condition 
until  the  time  of  Anselm  (d.  1109),  wlio  taught 
that  sin  bein^  a  debt,  it  was  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  this  debt  should  be  paid,  but  no 
mere  creature  being  able  to  discharge  it,  a 
substitute  was  found  in  Jesus  Christ,  who, 
being^  the  incarnate  Son  of  God,  offered  a 
vicarious  satisfaction  to  divine  justice.  The 
best  of  the  schoolmen,  with  some  modifica-  , 
tion,  accepted  this  view,  and  at  the  lime  of  the  } 
Reformation  it  met  with  general  favor  and 
was  incorporated  into  the  creeds  of  nearly  all 
the  churches.  This  juridical  view,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  puts  the  necessity  of  the 
atonement  in  the  Dcrfections  of  the  divine  na- 
ture, and  holds  that  it  was  a  complete  satis- 
faction to  the  claims  thence  arising.  From 
this  Socinus  strongly  dissented,  maintaining 
that  Christ  is  a  Saviour  because  he  announced 
and  confirmed  the  way  of  salvation,  and  dis- 
played it  in  his  own  person  by  his  example 
and  his  resurrection,  and  because  he  will  give 
to  believers  eternal  life.  In  opposition  to  him, 
Grotius  set  fortii  what  is  called  the  govern- 
mental theory — viz.,  that  God,  as  moral  gov- 
ernor of  the  world,  must  enforce  precept  and 
penalty,  and  since  gratuitous  remis.sion  of  sin 
would  weaken  authority,  there  was  required 
such  an  example  of  suffering  in  Christ  as  to 
show  that  sin  sliall  not  escape  with  impunity. 
Not  a  few  modern  writers  deny  any  form  of 
th..'  satisfaction  tlieory,  and  explain  the  whole 
conception  of  atonement  as  a  sort  of  moral  in- 
fluence exerted  upon  men.  Thus  Dr.  Bush- 
nell  taught  that  Christ  suffered  with  us 
through  sympathy  in  such  way  as  to  give  him 
the  power  of  quickening  and  spiritually 
moulding  men  by  his  love  and  example.  The 
Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice,  with  whom  Robertson 
of  Brighton  agreed,  held  that  Christ's  suffer- 
ings and  death  were  designed  to  illustrate  in  a 
conspicuous  way  the  principle  of  self-sacrifice 
due  from  all  intelligent  creatures  to  their 
Maker.  McLeod  Campbell  sought  a  middle 
jrround  between  the  satisfaction  and  the  njoral 
inffucDcc  theories,  holding  that  Christ,  by  his 


sympathy  both  witii  us  and  with  the  law  we 
have  broken,  so  idenfilied  himself  with  us  as 
sinners  that  he  offered  to  God  a  perfect  con- 
fession and  adequate  repentance  of  our  sins, 
and  thus  met  all  the  demands  of  tiie  lawi 
which  are  in  his  view  repentance  or  punish- 
ment. What  has  been  called  the  Mystical 
Theory  is  an  opinion  held  by  some  of  the 
Platonizing  fathers,  by  the  disciples  of  Scotus 
Erigena,  by  Osiantler,  and  by  the  school  of 
Schleiermacher,  that  the  reconciliation  eifected 
by  Christ  is  brought  about,  not  by  his  .'Jacri- 
ticial  death,  but  by  the  mysterious  union  of 
God  and  man  accomplished  by  the  incarna- 
tion. The  common  church  doctVine,  altliough 
so  often  and  severely  assailed,  is  sustained  by 
the  sacrificial  system  of  the  Old  Testament. 
by  the  express  teaching  of  our  Lord  and  his 
apostles,  by  the  moral  nature  of  man,  and  by 
the  experience  of  believers  in  all  ages.  (See 
Crawford  on  Atonement,  Edinburgh,  2d  ed., 
1874;  Dale  on  do.,  London,  9th  ed.,  1883; 
Prof.  Park,  Boston,  1860.)  C. 

Atonement,  Day  of,  the  great  day  of  na- 
tional humiliation,  the  only  prescribed  fast  in 
the  Old  Testament,  the  culminating  point  of 
Hebrew  worship.  It  was  kept  on  the  tenth 
day  of  the  seventh  month  (Tisri — i.e.,  Octo- 
ber). The  high-priest,  dressed  in  whit(,'  linen 
and  without  his  ornaments,  offered  a  bullock 
for  a  sin-offering  and  a  ram  for  a  burnt-offer- 
ing on  his  own  behalf,  and  then  brought  two 
young  goats  for  a  sin-offering,  upon  which 
he  cast  lots,  one  for  Jehovah  and  the  other  for 
Azazel  (q.v.).  When  the  bullock  for  him.self 
was  slain,  he  carried  the  blood  within  and 
sprinkled  it  on  the  east  side  and  in  front  of 
the  merc}'-.scat.  Afterward  the  same  was 
done  with  the  blood  of  the  goat  which  re- 
ceived the  lot  "for  Jehovah."  Then,  the 
purification  of  the  holy  place  being  completed, 
the  other  goat  was  broiiglit  forward,  and  the 
high-priest,  laying  his  hands  upon  its  head, 
confessed  over  it  all  the  sins  of  the  people  ; 
after  which  it  was  led  away  by  a  man  dioscu 
for  the  purpose  info  a  land  not  inhabited  and 
there  let  loose.  Then  the  high-priesl  bathed 
himself  again,  put  on  his  usual  garments, 
offered  his  burnt -oirering  and  that  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  burned  Ihe  fat  of  the  sin-olfering 
upon  the  altar,  and  the  service  was  ended. 
In  this  special  oblation  there  was  a  fuller  ac 
knowledgment  of  human  weakness  and  sin 
fulness  than  on  ordinary  oeoi-sions.  Even  the 
holy  place,  having  been  rendered  unclean  by 
its  position  in  the  midst  of  sinners,  needed 
and  received  expiation.  The  twofold  victim 
seems  to  have  been  appointed  in  order  to  ex- 
press two  truths  intimately  conioiued  — viz., 
that  the  sins  were  atoned  for  ancl  expiated  aH 
shown  by  the  sprinkled  blood,  and  then  that 
they  were  removed  far  away  from  him  who 
committed  them  ("  far  as  the  eiist  is  from  the 
west,"  Ps.  ciii.  12),  as  shown  by  the  removal 
out  of  sight  of  the  living  goat,  the  two  goat.H 
presented  two  views  of  one  and  the  same  sac- 
rificial service.  C. 

Atrium,  the  open  place,  or  court,  immedi- 
ately before  the  entrance  to  the  church  ;  here 
the  first  cla.ss  of  penitents  stood  in  the  early 
Christian  times. 


ATTERBURY 


(64) 


AUGSBURG 


Atterbury,  Francis,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1701?), 
bisho()  of  Rochester  ;  b.  at  Milton  or  Middle-  | 
ton  Keynes,  Buckingliiinishire,  Eng.,  March 
6,  1662  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Feb.  15,  1731.  Educated 
at  Oxford,  had  as  pupil  Hon.  Charles  Bo^de, 
and  wrote  in  his  name  a  defence  of  the  Epis- 
tles of  Pldlaris ;  became  chaplain  to  King 
William  and  Queen  Mary,  1691  ;  fought  the 
cause  of  the  clergy  ;  was  made  dean  of  Car- 
lisle, 1704  ;  bishop  of  Rochester  and  dean  of 
Westminster,  1713.  Banished  for  his  part  in 
Jacobite  plots,  he  left  England  for  good  in 
1723,  and  went  first  to  Brussels,  then  to  Paris. 
He  was  a  chief  adviser  of  the  Pretender.  He 
•was  much  admired  for  eloquence,  and  had  as 
fiiends  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  day. 
(See  his  Correspondence,  London,  1783-90,  5 
vols.  ;  Memoir  and  vorrespondence,  ed.  F. 
Williams,  Loudon,  1869,  2  vols.) 

Attributes,  the  several  perfections  of  the 
divine  nature.  They  are  commonly  divided 
into  communicable  and  incommunicable,  the 
former  being  those  of  which  there  is  some  re- 
semblance in  men,  such  as  wisdom,  goodness, 
etc.  ;  the  latter  those  of  which  there  is  no  ap- 
pearance or  shadow  in  men,  such  as  immen- 
sity, immutability,  eternity.  (See  Charnock 
on  the  Attributes.)  C. 

Attrition,  a  term  used  in  the  casuistry  of 
the  Roman  Church  to  express  the  lowest  de- 
gree of  penitence— «.€.,  such  as  arises  from  a 
sense  of  shame,  or  from  any  inconvenience  re- 
sulting from  the  commission  of  sin,  or  merely 
from  fear  of  punishment  ;  and  to  this  certain 
privileges  are  allowed.  Protestants  deny  that 
such  feelings  constitute  any  part  of  evangeli- 
cal repentance.  C. 

Auberlen  (ow-ber-len),  Karl  August,  D.D. 

(hon.  Basel,  1860),  German  theologian  ;  b.  at 
Fellbach,  near  Stuttgart,  Nov.  19,  1824  ;  edu- 
cated at  Tubingen  ;  became  professor  extra- 
ordinary of  theology  at  Basel,  1851  ;  d.  there. 
May  2,  1864.  Author  of  The  Prophecies  of 
Ddtiiel  and  the  Revelation,  Basel,  1854  ;  2d  ed., 
1857  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh  (Clark),  1856  ; 
and  The  Divine  Revelation,  Basel,  1861-64,  2 
vols.  ;  Eng.  trans,  (with  Memoir),  Edinburgh 
(Clark),  1867. 

Aubigne  (o-ben-ya).    1.  Theodore  Agrippa 

d',  French  Protestant,  soldier  and  author  ;  b. 
at  Pons  en  Saintonge,  Feb.  8,  1552  ;  fought 
valiantly  in  the  Huguenot  cause,  enjoyed  the 
confidence  of  Henry  IV.,  but  was  repeatedly 
dismissed  from  court  on  account  of  his  rough- 
ness and  candor.  In  1620  he  fled  to  Geneva 
to  escape  persecution,  and  there  died,  May  9, 
1630.  His  principal  work  is  L'Histoire  uni- 
verselle,  Maille,  1616-20,  3  vols,  (from  1550- 
1610).  (See  his  autobiography  [Memoires], 
Paris,  1854.)  2.  Merle  d'Aubigne.  See 
Merle. 

Auburn  Declaration.  See  Presbyterian 
Church. 

Audians.     See  AuDius. 

Audience,  Court  of,  is  that  in  which  the 
archbishop  of  the  Church  of  England  tries 
cases  reserved  for  his  own  personal  hearing. 

Audientes  {hearers),  the  first  class  of  cate- 


chumens (q.v.),  who  were  allowed  to  listen  to 
the  public  preaching  and  Scripture  reading, 
but  not  to  stay  to  communion.  Also  the  sec- 
ond class  of  those  who  had  fallen  and  desired 
to  be  restored,  who  had  only  like  privileges. 

Audientia  Episcopalis  {Episc»pal  judg- 
ment), the  riglic  bishops  once  enjoyed  of  de- 
ciding civil  cases  at  the  request  of  one  of  the 
parties. 

Audin  (o-dan),  Jean  Marie  Vincent,  b.  at 
Lyons,  1793  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Feb.  21,  1851, 
where  he  had  been  a  bookseller  since  1814. 
He  studied  first  theology,  then  law,  but  never 
practised.  His  chief  works,  all  marred  by 
prejudice,  are  a  history  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
night  (Paris,  1826,  2  vols.),  and  lives  of  Lulher 
(1839-46,  8  vols.,  7th  ed.,  1856;  Eng.  trans., 
Philadelphia,  1841)  and  Calvin  (1841,  2  vols.). 
(See  his  biography  by  J.  A.  Barbey  d'Au- 
revilly,  Paris,  1856.) 

Au'-di-us,  a  preacher  of  morals  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, who  became  offensive  to  the  clergy  and 
left  the  church  to  found  a  sect  of  his  own,  the 
Audians.  He  was  consecrated  bishop,  after- 
ward banished  to  Scythia,  preached  Chris- 
tianity there,  and  died  previous  to  372.  His 
doctrinal  error  was  anthropomorphism.     F. 

Auger  (o-zlia  ;  Latin  form  Augerivs),  Ed- 
mond,  "  the  Chrysostom  of  France  ;"  b.  at 
AUeman,  near  Troyes,  France,  1530  ;  d.  at 
Como,  June  17,  1591.  He  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  Italy,  1562,  and  was  sent  to  France 
as  missionary  preacher,  and  by  his  eloquence 
is  said  to  have  led  40,000  (!)  Huguenots  back 
to  the  Roman  Church.  He  became  confessor 
and  preacher  to  King  Henry  III.,  1575  ; 
founded  the  Congregation  of  the  Penitents  of 
the  Annunciation  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  1583  ; 
but  was  compelled  to  leave  France  after  the 
death  of  the  king  (1589).  He  wrote  the  fa- 
mous French  Catechism  (Paris,  1568;  self- 
made  trans,  into  Latin  and  Greek,  1569), 
which  played  the  same  part  in  France  that 
Canisius'  has  in  Germany.  (See  his  life  by 
Bailly,  Paris,  1652  ;  and  by  Dorigny,  Lyons, 
1716,  rep.  Avignon,  1828.) 

Augsburg  Confession  (Covfessio  Aiigvs- 
tanu),  the  chief  symbolical  book  of  tlie  Lu- 
therans, read  before  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
at  the  Imperial  Diet  of  Augsburg,  June  25, 
1530,  as  the  confession  of  the  evangelical  faith. 
It  was  written  by  Melanchthon,  at  Augsburg, 
May  2-10,  on  the  basis  of  the  17  Articles  of 
Schwabach  (Oct.  16,  1529)  and  the  15  Articles 
of  Torgau  (March  20,  1530),  which  were  sub- 
stantially identical  with  the  15  Articles  of 
Marburg  (Oct.  4,  1529)  ;  and  on  the  11th  sent 
to  Luther,  who  warmly  approved  of  it,  al- 
though its  tone  was  milder  than  his  would 
have'been.  It  was  subscribed  on  June  23  by 
John,  Elector  of  Saxony  ;  George,  Margrave 
of  Brandenburg  ;  Philip,  Landgrave  of 
Hesse  ;  John  Frederick,  Duke  of  Saxony  ; 
Frank,  Dukeof  Liineburg  ;  Wolfgang,  Prince 
of  Anhalt,  and  the  cities  of  Nuremberg  and 
Reutlingen,  and  read  in  the  German  language 
the  next  day  in  the  chapel  of  the  episcopal 
palace.  The  emperor  took  both  the  Latin  and 
the  German  copies.  The  former  was  "  lost" 
from  the  Brussels  archives  while  Alva  was 


AUGSBURG 


(65) 


AUGUSTINE 


there  ;  the  latter  was  sent  to  the  Council  of 
Trent,  but  never  returncfl.  The  Confession 
consists  of  two  parts  :  (1)  21  Articles  which 
set  forth  the  evangelical  Lutheran  faith  in  a 
form  as  little  antagonistic  to  Romanism  as 
passible;  (2)  7  Articles  "in  which  are  re- 
counted the  abuses  which  have  been  cor- 
rected" {a)  of  both  kinds  [in  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per] ;  ('/)  of  the  marriage  of  i>riests  ;  (^0  of  the 
mass  ;  (d)  of  confession  ;  (c)  of  the  distinction 
of  meats,  and  of  traditions  ;  (/)  of  monastic 
vows  ;  (7)  of  ecclesiastical  power. 

In  1531  Melanchthon  brought  out  a  German 
aud  a  Latin  edition  ;  in  1540  he  altered  the 
text,  especially  in  the  part  relating  to  the  Eu- 
charist. Hence  the  Lutherans  distinguished 
between  the  Aagnsttna  inpariata  ("  unal- 
tered," i.e.,  ed.  1531)  and  variata  ("  altered," 
i.e.,  ed.  1540).  The  Flacians  (q.v.)  were 
particularly  strenuous  for  the  former.  [Cf. 
art.  Tetr.vpohtan  Confession  ;  and  Schaff, 
Ch.  Hist.,  \l,  695-700,  706-715  ;  and  text 
(Latin  w.  Eng.  trans.)  in  his  Creeds,  vol.  iii., 
1-73.] 

Augsburg  Confession,  Apology  of  the,  Me- 

lanchthon's  refutation  of  the  Roman  confuta- 
tion, in  16  articles,  of  the  Confession,  Avritten 
by  Eck,  Faber,  Cochlaeus  and  Wimpina,  at 
command  of  the  emperor,  and  read  to  the 
Protestants,  Aug.  3,  but  not  given  to  them. 
It  was  presented  in  its  first  draft  to  the  em- 
peror, Sept.  22,  1530,  but  not  received,  and  in 
its  finished  state  published  in  Latin  and  Ger- 
man in  1531.  It  is  now  embodied  in  the  Book 
of  Concord.  (Cf.  Schaff.  Ch.  Hist.,  xl,  715- 
718.) 

Augsburg  Interim.     See  Interi.j. 

Augsburg,  Religious  Peace  of,  Sept.  25, 
1555  ;  assured  the  absolute  ])rotection  of  the 
adherents  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  in  the 
empire  from  persecution  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, and  ^'ice  versa. 

Augusti  (ow-goostee),  Johann  Christian 
Wilhelm,  German  theologian  ;  b.  at  Eschen- 
berga,  Gotha,  Oct.  27,  1772  ;" studied  at  Jena, 
became  professor  of  Orientalia  tliere,  1803  ; 
of  theology  at  Breslau,  1812  ;  at  Bonn,  1819  ; 
d.  at  Coblenz,  April  28,  184:1.  At  first  a  ra- 
tionalist, he  became  a  leader  of  orthodo.xy. 
Author  of  Lehrbuch  der  diristlichen  Dnrjmen- 
geschichte,  Leipzig,  1805  ;  4th  ed.,  1835  :  Denk- 
wurdigkeiten.  aus  der  christlichcn.  Arckiiy>lor/ie, 
1817-31,  13  vols.  ;  Ilnndbuch  der  christlic/uin 
ArcJuwlogic,  1836-37,  3  vols. 

Au-gus-tine  (or  Austin),  d.  at  Canterbury, 
May  26,  604  ;  the  chief  iuis.sionary  .sent  by 
Gregory  I.  to  convert  the  Anglo-Saxons  to 
Christianitv.  lie  landed  in  596  upon  the  JNlaiid 
of  Thanet,  off  the  coast  of  Kent,  witli  39  Bene- 
dictine monks,  and  announced  his  arrival  to 
the  king,  Ethelbert.  The  queen  was  Bertha  of 
Paris,  and  a  Christian.  The  king  was  induced 
by  her  to  give  the  strangers  a  friendly  recep- 
tion, though  still  enough  under  the  power  of 
heathenism  to  cause  him  to  adopt  measures  to 
counteract  the  spells  which  he  thought  they 
might  attempt  to  cast  upon  him.  He  allowed 
them  to  engage  in  their  missionary  work  in 
his  capital  city  of  Canterbury,  and  was  liim- 
self  converted"  the  following  year.     From  this 


time  the  work  of  conversion  went  rapidly  on. 
Augustine  was  made  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury at  Aries,  France,  in  598.  lie  was  a  true 
son  of  the  Roman  Church.  He  took  the  ut- 
most pains  to  conform  rigidly  to  the  desires 
of  Gregory  in  the  minutest  particulars,  so  that 
the  conversion  of  England  may  be  said  to 
have  been  Gregory's  work  as  much  as  Augus- 
tine's. The  introduction  of  Cliristianity  was 
the  first  .step  toward  the  union  of  the  dilTer- 
ent  tribes  into  one  English  nation.  Augus- 
tine continued  to  work  in  the  mission  till  his 
death.  F. 

Au-gus-tine,  Aurelius,  the  great  church 
father  ;  b.  at  Tairaste,  Nov.  13,  354  ;  d.  at 
Hippo,  Aug.  28,  430  ;  both  places  in  Xumidia, 
North  Africa.  When  he  was  born  his  father 
was  a  pagan,  but  his  mother,  Monnica,  was  an 
earnest  Christian,  to  whose  prayers  were 
granted  in  the  end  both  husband  and  son,  and 
who  has  become  a  type  of  maternal  fuitlif ill- 
ness to  the  church.  Possessed  of  sutficient 
means,  the  father  had  the  son  educated  in  all 
the  learning  of  the  time  and  place,  and  then 
(raiued  to  the  rhetorician's  profession.  Thus 
he  became  acquainted  with  the  principal  Latin 
authors  and  was  also  somewhat  read  in  Greek. 
During  this  period  of  education  his  religious 
life  was  far  from  what  it  should  have  been, 
and  he  plunged  into  the  too  common  immorali- 
ties of  the  age,  farming  an  illicit  connection, 
the  fruit  of  which  was  his  son  Adeodatus.  He 
was  also  a  frequent  attendant  upon  the  theatre, 
a  practice  which  he  afterward  condemned. 

The  reading  of  Cicero's  .IIortt'n.tin.i  (a  book 
now  lost)  when  he  was  about  19  first  turned 
his  mind  to  speculative  subjects.  Dissatisfied 
with  his  spiritual  condition,  he  sought  for 
peace  in  the  various  systems  of  the  time,  being 
first  drawn  into  connection  with  the  .Alaiii- 
chteists.  He  aspired  to  become  one  of  their 
"  elect,"  but  a  discussion  which  he  had  with 
their  leader,  Faustus,  disappointed  him,  and 
he  withdrew  from  them.  About  this  time  he 
proceeded  to  Rome  for  the  purjiose  of  exercis- 
ing his  profession,  but  was  displeased  with 
the  life  of  the  city  as  he  saw  it,  and  gladly 
accepted  an  invitation  to  Milan.  Here  he 
heard  Ambrose  the  bishop.  At  first  he  at- 
tended to  what  ho  said  with  regard  only  to 
the  exercise  of  the  rhetorical  art,  but  the 
power  of  his  words  soon  began  to  be  felt  by 
the  hearer,  and  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  St.  Paul.  The  long  search  for  iK?ace 
which  he  had  made  in  vain  was  now  drawing 
to  an  end,  but  his  agony  wa.s  at  first  incre:iseil. 
It  became  intolerable;,  anrl  there  are  in  his  ex- 
pressions the  evidences  of  that  very  profound 
c.jnvietion  of  sin  wliich  Ini.s  marked  the  ex- 
IKTiences  of  irreat  saints  in  every  age  since, 
and  often  marks  them  to-day.  At  last  a  voice 
seemed  to  sav  to  him.  in  reference  to  the  di- 
vine word,  "Take  up  and  read."  He  <lid  so, 
and  opening  at  Rom.  xiii.  13,  14.  lie  read  : 
"  Put  ve  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  make 
not  provision  for  the  fiesh  to  fulfil  the  lusts 
thereof."  Liizht  streamed  into  his  soul,  and 
peace  came  with  the  sense  of  reconciliation  to 
God. 

This  conversion  was  probably  in  the  year 
386.    Augustine  retired  for  a  time  with  his 


AUGUSTINE 


(66) 


AUGUSTINE 


mother  and  certain  friends  to  a  country  villa 
for  naeditation  and  study,  and  then,  when 
Monnica  had  died,  he  returned  to  Tagaste. 
Here  he  associated  himself  with  several  friends 
in  a  small  religious  community,  something 
like  a  monastery,  only  Avithout  perpetual 
vows,  and  dwelled  with  them  in  this  way  for 
about  3  years.  Going  to  Hippo,  he  was  elected 
by  the  people  against  his  Mill  a  presbyter,  391, 
became  colleague  of  their  bishop,  395,  and 
succeeded  him,  396.  For  33  years  he  held 
this  office,  and  his  activity  and  fame  became 
widely  extended.  His  life  was  distinguished 
l)y  the  various  controversies  in  which"  he  en- 
gaged, the  progress  of  which  is  portrayed  in 
the  writings  which  contain  the  part  he  con- 
tributed to  them.  His  last  da^ys  were  filled 
with  sorrow  from  the  advance  of  the  Vandals, 
who  were  besieging  his  city  of  Hippo  as  he 
passed  away. 

The  theological  work  of  Augustine  marks  a 
decided  advance  in  the  system  of  Christian 
doctrine.  The  Greek  Church  had  been  con- 
cerned with  the  doctrines  of  theology  and 
christology,  and  had  to  a  large  degree  brought 
these  to  a  conclusion.  Yet  the  full  presenta- 
tion of  even  these  was  not  made  without  Au- 
gustine's help.  But  more  than  this,  he  did 
the  great  work  of  opening  a  new  field,  to  the 
thought  of  the  church,  and  of  changing  its 
conception  of  the  Christian  life  as  one  mainly 
engaged  in  an  intellectual  contemplation  of 
God  to  that  of  one  consisting  in  the  right  re- 
lation of  the  will  toward  God. 

In  developing  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
Augustine  is  actuated  by  a  truly  religious  in- 
terest, and  seeks  to  set  forth  the  immanent 
Trinity  as  the  foundation  of  the  economical. 
He  occupies  himself  with  illustrative  analogies 
or  proofs  to  a  large  extent,  as  when  he  ex- 
plains the  doctrine  by  the  existence  of  mem- 
ory, intellect,  and  will  as  necessary  parts  of 
the  human  spirit.  This  is  scarcely  fruitful  of 
much,  but  the  whole  discussion  serves  one 
very  important  end,  for  it  frees  the  doctrine 
of  all  remains  of  the  subordinationism  of 
Origen,  which  arose  from  the  application  of 
the  term  '  Son"  to  the  second  person  of  the 
Trinity.  The  inner-trinitarian  relations  are 
now  rather  those  of  mutual  operation  than 
of  derivation.  Augustine  emphasizes  the  uni- 
ty of  God  more  distinctly  than  Athanasius  had 
done,  and  thus  brings  out  all  the  elements  of 
the  doctrine  more  clearly  than  before.  The 
Holy  Spirit  receives  a  fuller  treatment  from 
him  than  from  any  of  his  predecessors. 

In  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ,  Au- 
gustine's intluence  was  not  less  great  or  de- 
cisive. The  speculations  of  the  later  Greek 
writers  had  been  directed  toward  securing  a 
better  conception  of  the  true  unity  of  Christ's 
l^erson.  Augustine  has  the  same  purpose  in 
mind,  but  his  philosophy  of  the  universe, 
which  gave  to  matter  a  certain  substratum 
which  was  not  of  God,  prevented  him  from 
realizing  this  purpose.  The  two  natures,  hu- 
man and  divine,  exist,  according  to  his  con- 
ception, rather  side  by  side  than  in  a  true 
union.  At  least,  he  gives  us  no  help  in  our 
attempts  to  conceive  the  union.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  it  was  in  Augustine's  writings 
that  Leo,  whose  letter  to  Flavian  gave  the  de- 


cisive contribution  to  the  creed  of  Chalcedon, 
found  the  form  of  the  doctrine  which  he  pre- 
sented in  his  famous  letter  ;  and  hence  it  was 
that  through  this  means  the  work  of  Augus- 
tine became  the  decisive  element  in  the  formu- 
lation of  the  faith  of  Christendom. 

But  the  greatest  service  of  Augustine  was 
rendered  in  the  Pelagian  controversy.  Pela- 
gius  (q.v.)  was  a  man  who  had  not  had  the 
deep  religious  experiences  of  Augustine,  and 
whose  whole  life  was  calculated  to  make  him 
lay  the  chief  emphasis  upon  the  powers  of  the 
human  will.  His  theological  system  starts  out 
from  the  principle  of  the  freedom  of  the  will 
conceived  in  the  sense  of  absolute  self-deter- 
mination. Man  in  his  present  condition  has  the 
power  to  choose  the  good  in  exactly  the  same 
sense  that  he  has  to  choose  the  evil.  He  is  in- 
clined and  disposed  neither  to  the  good  nor 
the  evil,  but  stands  in  perfect  indifference  to 
them  both.  The  will  does  not  stand  even  un- 
der the  influence  of  motives.  Hence  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  a  certainty  of  sinning,  and 
the  future  of  every  individual  is  perfectly  un- 
certain. He  may  be  a  saint,  or  he  may  be  a 
sinner.  Indeed  certain  men  have  lived  en- 
tirely without  sin,  and  so  might  every  one. 
The  sin  of  Adam  was  a  light  affair,  and  in- 
jured no  one  but  himself.  And  yet  Pelagius 
was  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  general 
prevalence  of  sin,  and  this  he  sought  in  a  cer- 
tain way  to  explain.  It  comes  from  the  sen- 
suous nature  of  man,  which  has  nothing  in  it 
in  itself  sinful.  Imitation  of  others  and  habit 
are  enough  to  explain  it  all.  If  there  be  a  sin 
of  nature,  it  is  destructive  of  the  idea  of  free- 
dom, of  responsibility,  and  really  of  sin. 
Hence  infants  are  not  guilty  and  are  not  lost  ; 
and  hence  grace  is  only  illumination  and  assist- 
ance. It  only  enables  man  to  do  more  easily 
what  he  can  do  without  it.  The  action  of  the 
human  will  comes  first,  and  then  grace  is 
given  according  to  merit. 

Augustine's  whole  experience  and  stjie  of 
thinking  combined  to  lead  him  to  oppose  this 
conception  of  the  matter  from  the  beginning, 
as  subversive  of  the  grace  of  God  and  the  way 
of  salvation.  His  own  struggles  showed  him 
the  inability  of  the  human  will  to  free  itself 
from  the  dominion  of  sin,  and  his  philosophy 
led  him  to  look  for  all  good  to  the  same  source 
as  did  his  religion — "  Ail  good  is  either  God, 
or  comes  from  God."  Man  is  not  free  ;  he 
lias  no  holiness,  no  communion  with  God,  no 
joy,  no  hope,  and  no  possibility  of  obtaining 
any  of  these  of  himself.  The  grace  of  God 
must  come  to  him,  must  set  his  will  free, 
must  persuasively  incline  him  to  that  which 
is  good,  and  thus  enable  him  to  choose  that 
which  is  right,  or  else  he  is  forever  lost.  It  is 
a  question  about  Avhicli  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  the  meaning  of  this 
"  bondage"  of  Augustine's.  Is  it  entirely  in- 
consistent with  the  freedom  of  spontaneit}'^  in 
the  will,  or  is  it  a  practical  bondage,  which 
governs  the  man  but  leaves  the  metaphysical 
power  of  choice  imaffected  ?  Most  Calvinists 
would  say  the  former,  and  most  German  stu- 
dents of  ihe  history  of  doctrine  would  say  the 
lattc  r.  This  state  of  bondage,  however  under- 
stood, results  from  Adam's  sin.  Man  was 
created  upright,    and   with  freedom  to   the 


AUGUSTINIANS. 


(67) 


AURIFABER 


good,  but  he  fell,  and  the  result  is  that  all 
men  are  fallen,  corrupt,  and  under  the  con- 
demnation of  God.  Augustine  is  not  consis- 
tent in  his  explanations  of  the  connection  of 
Adam  with  his  posterity.  Men  sinned  "  in 
Adam."  This  is  a  mystery.  The  corruption 
is  transmitted  in  ordinary  generation,  and  the 
sin  with  it.  Or,  the  race  is  a  mass,  and  sinned 
thus.  Or,  man  is  in  Adam  seminally.  All 
these  are  ways  of  explaining  something  which 
the  mind  cannot  fully  grasp,  but  which  Au- 
gustine recognizes  as  a  most  terrible  fact. 
And  hence  it  is  that  infants  are  condemned 
and  guilty,  and  must  be  lost.  The  exceptions 
we  shall  see  later.  The  prevenient  grace  of 
God,  thus  necessary  to  our  salvation,  is  given 
in  accordance  with  the  predestination  of  the 
divine  will.  This  is  absolute,  and  does  not 
follow  upon  faith,  but  is  given  to  produce 
faith.  Augustine  is  not  a  Supralapsarian,  for 
he  does  not  teach  that  the  fall  of  man  was  pre- 
destined, only  permitted,  and  logically  his 
view  of  the  will  forbids  that  theory.  The 
whole  doctrine  is  proved  by  abundant  cita- 
tions from  the  Scriptures,  and  speaks  both 
Augustine's  personal  experience  and  his  read- 
ing of  the  word  of  God. 

The  exception  in  the  case  of  some  infants  to 
the  universal  execution  of  the  decree  of  dan.- 
nation  arises  in  consequence  of  baptism.  This 
is  made  because  of  Augustine's  conception  of 
the  church.  Baptism  washes  away  original 
sin,  and  infants  which  have  received  it  may 
have  a  certain  obscure  release  from  the  proper 
punishment  of  eternal  death.  It  was  the  con- 
troversy with  the  Donatists  which  brought 
out  this  doctrine  of  the  church.  Out  of  it 
there  is  no  salvation.  The  church  possesses 
the  Holy  Spirit  and  all  the  necessary  means 
of  grace.  The  outlines  of  the  Roman  concep- 
tion of  the  church  are  all  here,  even  to  the  in- 
delible character  of  the  priesthood. 

We  see  thus  the  pre-eminent  worth  and  ser- 
vice of  Augustine,  and  at  the  same  time  his 
limitations.  While  he  did  more  than  any 
man  of  his  times,  or,  it  may  be  said,  of  all 
times,  to  establish  the  doctrines  of  the  church, 
he  was  yet  a  man,  and  he  worked  under  the 
same  historical  limitations  as  all  other  teachers. 
His  works  are  very  voluminous.  (See  Migne, 
Pat.  Lilt.  XXXII.-XLVII.)  The  most  famous 
are  the  treatise  upon  the  Trinity,  which  was 
many  years  in  writing,  and  is  the  only  one 
that  in  no  way  arose  from  his  controversies  ; 
Tiie  City  of  God,  an  extended  apology  for  the 
Christian  religion  ;  The  Confemotis,  a  spir- 
itual biography  ;  and  the  anti-Pelagian  writ- 
ings. An  Engli.sh  translation  of  these  and 
many  others  of  his  writings  appeared,  Edin- 
burgli.  187'^-76.  15  vols.  ;  reprinted  in  revised 
and  enlarged  form  by  the  Christian  Literature 
Company,  New  York,  1886-88.  8  vols.  The 
best  biography  of  Augustine  is  his  ConfeKsifin.i, 
as  far  as  it  goes  ;  of  modern  lives,  those  by 
Kli)th,  Aaclien,  1840.  and  Bindemann.  Berlin, 
1844-(59,  3  vols.  ;  for  a  sketch  see  SchalT,  St. 
AugiLstin,  New  York,  1886.  F. 

Aufustinians.  1.  Hermits  (or  Friars)  ; 
the  fourth  and  last  great  mendicant  order 
of  the  Roman  Church  ;  the  result  of  the 
union  of  sever^-l  hermit  orders  in  Italy,   to 


whom  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  on  Dec.  16,  1243, 
and  Jan.  17,  1244,  gave  the  rule  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, so  called,  which  really  was  merely  an 
adaptation  of  his  treatise  On  the  Morals  of  the 
Clerf/i/  and  his  letter  (Kp.  211,  al.  109),  and  is 
very  mild  compared  with  the  Franciscan.  Do- 
minican or  Carmelite.  Alexander  IV.,  on 
April  13.  1256,  confirmed  their  existence,  en- 
larged their  rule,  and  in  1257  exempted  them 
from  epis(!opal  control.  They  (piickly  fell 
into  disorder,  and  this,  in  turii,  called"  forth 
reformed  "  congregations."  Thus  in  tlie  16th 
century  the  order  had  28  provinces,  in  the 
17th,  40.  and  13  "congregations."  Staupitz 
and  Luther  were  August inians.  and  belonged 
to  the  "  congregation"  of  Saxony.  The  French 
Revolution  marks  the  practical  dissolution  of 
the  order.  There  are  a  few  houses  of  the 
order  in  the  United  States. 

2.  Ndns. — The  order  boasts  of  descent  from 
the  nunnery  at  Hippo,  which  Augustine's  sis- 
ter Perpetua  headed.  A  nunnery  is  known 
to  have  existed  in  Venice  in  1177.  A  branch 
of  the  order  was  the  Barefooted  Augustinian 
nuns,  of  which  4  congregations  exist  in  Spain, 
established  during  the  16th  and  17lh  centuries. 
There  are  other  orders  of  nuns  which  take  the 
rule  of  Augustine. 

3.  Canons  Regular. — The  Coimcil of  Aix- 
la  Chapelle  in  816  drew  up  rules  for  the  life 
of  canons,  and  those  canons  living  by  it  sub- 
sequently adapted  certain  directions  of  Augus- 
tine to  their  needs.  Until  the  12th  century 
they  took  no  vows,  nor  did  they  assume  the 
name  of  "'  Regular  Canons  of  St.  Augustine" 
until  a  later  period.  They  were  introduced 
into  England  about  1105,  and  spread  rapidly, 
so  that  at  one  time  they  had  nearly  200  hou.ses 
in  England  and  Wales. 

4.  The  name  taken  by  the  Janscnists  to  in- 
dicate their  adhesion  to  "the  doctrine  of  Augus- 
tine on  divine  grace. 

Augustinus.     See  Augustine  of  Hippo. 

Au-re'-li-an,  Roman  emperor.  270-275.  who 
at  first  protected  but  later  persecuted  the  Chris- 
tians. 

Aureola.     See  Hai.o. 

Auricular  Confession,  the  confession  of 
sin  into  the  ear  of  the  priest,  which,  as  a  part 
of  penance,  belongs  to  tlie  seven  sacraments 
of  the  Roman  Church.  First  enjoined  by 
Leo  the  Great  (440-461),  it  was  made  obliga- 
tory by  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215) 
once  a  year,  upon  pain  of  t-.xcommunicatiou. 
As  it  is  declared  by  the  Council  of  Trent  to 
be  indispensable  to  salvation,  and  forpivcne-ss 
depends  upon  the  will  of  the  priest,  it  is  ob- 
vious how  greatlv  priestly  power  is  enhanced 
by  the  usage.  I'rotestaiils  in  general  deny 
auricular  confession,  but  it  is  allowed  l>y  the 
Lutherans  and  is  practised  in  certain  portions 
of  th(!  Anglican  Church.  C. 

Aurifaber  (ow  -ree-fi\-l)er),  Johann,  called 
fordisliiiclion  .Johaniux  Vinori,  /mm  .■  the  Cut- 
nian  faniilv  name  was  Goldscinnidt  ;  b.  in 
Mansfeld,  1519;  educated  al  UitlrnlMrg;  d. 
as  preacher  at  Erfurt,  Nov.  IH.  1575.  He  wa.8 
Luther's  i>rivate  secretary.  1545,  and  edited 
the  German  writings  of  Luther.  EisleN-n. 
1564-65,  2  vols.;  added  two  volumes  of  Lu- 


AUTHORIZED 


(68) 


BAADER 


tiler's  letters  (Jena,  1550,  Eisleben,  1565)  and 
the  famous  Table  Talk  (1566  and  often).  He 
was  a  Flacianist. 

Authorized  Version.  See  Bible  Ver- 
sions. 

Autocephali.     See  Acephali. 

Auto-da-fe.     See  Acts  op  Faith. 

A-ve  Ma-ti-a.  This  familiar  prayer  of  Eo- 
man  Catholics,  called  also  the  Angelical  Salu- 
tation, consists  of  two  parts  :  1.  The  salutation 
of  the  archangel  Gabriel  (Vulgate  of  Luke,  i. 
28)  :  "  Ave  [Maria]  gratia  plena  !  Dominus 
tecum,  benedicta  tu  in  mulieribus  !"  (Luke  i. 
28)  joined  to  the  words  of  Elizabeth  to  Mary 
(verse  43)  :  "  et  benedictus  fructus  ventris 
tui."  2.  An  unscriptural  addition  :  "  Sancta 
Maria,  Mater  Dei,  ora  pro  nobis  peccatoribus 
nunc  et  in  hora  mortis  nostras."  The  whole 
prayer  is  this,  in  English  :  "  Hail  Mary,  full 
of  grace  !  the  Lord  is  with  tliee  ;  blessed  art 
thou  among  women  !  and  blessed  is  the  fruit 
of  thy  womb.  Holy  Mary,  Mother  of  God, 
pray  for  us  sinners  now  and  at  the  hour  of 
our  death."  The  Scripture  part  did  not  pass 
into  use  as  a  formula  before  the  end  of  the 
11th  century,  nor  the  second  part  until  the  15th, 
and  is  first  autliorized  by  Pius  V.,  1568. 

Tlie  "  Crown  of  the  Virgin"  (date,  12th  cen- 
tury) consists  of  63  Ave  Marias,  with  the 
Lord's  Prayer  after  each  tenth  one.  The 
"  Rosary  or  Psalter  of  the  Blessed  Virgin" 
(date,  1210,  author,  St.  Dominic  ?)  consists  of 
150  Ave  Marias,  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  after 
each  tenth  one.  The  "  Angel  us"  (date,  1287, 
author,  Buonvicino  da  Riva,  of  Milan)  con- 
sists of  3  Ave  Marias  at  the  sound  of  the 
"Angelus"  bell  in  the  morning,  at  midday, 
and  at  evening — preceding  the  first  one  with, 
in  Latin,  ".  The  angel  of  tlie  Lord  \_Angelus 
Domini,  whence  the  name]  announced  to 
Mary,  and  she  conceived  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;" 
the  second  with,  "  Behold  the  handmaid  of 
the  Lord.  Be  it  unto  me  according  to  thy 
word;"  and  the  third  by,  "The  word  was 
made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us;"  closing 
with  a  versicle  and  response  with  prayer. 
One  of  the  most  famous  of  modern  paintings 
is  J.  F.  Millet's  The  Angelus,  which  represents 
peasants  praying  in  the  field  at  the  sound  of 
the  "Angelus"  boll.  (Cf.  Sinith  and  Cheet- 
liam,  s.v.  "  Hail  Mary.") 

Angelus  Indulgence,  that  for  10  days  granted 
by  Pope  John  XXII.,  in  1318,  for  saying  an 
Ave  Maria  to  the  sound  of  a  bell  rung  at 
night. 

Avignon  is  on  the  Rhone,  53  m.  n.n.w.  of 

Marseilles.  There  from  1309  to  1377.  the  so- 
called  "  Babylonian  E.xile"  of  the  papacy,  the 
popes,  and  from  1378  to  1418  tlie  French  anti- 
popes,  held  court.  The  Reformation  was  in- 
troduced there  in  1522. 

Avis  Order,  Portuguese,  originally  military 
for  defence  against  the  Moors,  1145  ;  made 
spiritual  and  confirmed  by  Pope  Innocent 
III.;  but  since  1789  it  has  been  a  military  or- 
der of  merit.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  city 
Avis,  where  they  had  a  fortress. 


A-vi'-tus,  Alcimus  Ecdicius,  b.  at  Vienne, 
Burgundy,  about  450  ;  became  bishop  there, 
490  ;  d.  there,  Feb.  5,  523.  He  was  in  liis  day 
the  most  important  bishop  in  the  Church, 
and  very  influential  in  checking  the  spread 
of  Arianism  in  Gaul.  He  was  also  an  eminent 
poet.    (See  his  works  in  Migne,  Put.  Lat.  LIX.) 

Avoidance  "  is  where  there  is  a  want  of  a 
lawful  incumbent  on  a  benefice,  during  which 
vacancy  the  church  is  quasi  mduata  ["as  if 
bereft"],  and  the  possessions  belonging  to  it 
are  in  abej^ance."    (Hook,  s.v.) 

Awakening,  a  term  denoting  that  work  of 
the  Spirit  by  which  a  man  is  roused  to  the 
consciousness  of  his  sinful  condition  before 
God,  as  were  the  hearers  of  the  Apostle  Peter 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  But  conviction  of 
sin  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  conversion 
from  sin.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  revivals 
of  religion,  the  work  of  grace  in  the  last  cen- 
tury under  the  preaching  of  Whitefield,  Ed- 
wards, Frelinghuysen  and  others,  being  com- 
monly known  as  the  Great  Awakening.      C. 

Az-a'-zel.  This  is  a  transliteration  of  the 
Hebrew  word  (Lev.  xvi.  8  ff.)  rendered 
'  ■  scape-goat. "  Its  meaning  is  much  disputed. 
One  view  takes  it  to  mean  the  personal  being 
to  whom  the  goat  was  sent,  in  which  case  the 
idea  is  to  send  the  sins  home,  to  the  being  to 
whom  they  properly  belong— z.e.,  Satan  ;  an- 
other is  that  it  means  simply  removal— i.e., 
that  the  sins  confessed  over  the  living  goat 
should  be  taken  altogether  away,  far  out  of 
sight.  C. 

Azymites,  a  name  signifying  users  of  un- 
leavened bread,  applied  to  the  Roman  Church 
by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Michael 
Cserularius,  in  1058.  Photius,  a  former  patri- 
arch, had  accused  the  Roman  Church  of  sev- 
eral grave  departures  from  orthodo.xy,  and  a 
decided  breach  had  been  made.  But  Caeru- 
larius  had  added  new  charges,  as  of  the  use  of 
blood  and  of  things  strangled,  and  invented 
this  nickname.  Correspondence  and  negotia- 
tions followed,  but  the  result  was  the  excom- 
munication of  the  Greek  patriarch  and  church 
in  1054,  F. 


B. 


Baader  (ba-der).  Benedict  Franz  Xaver 
von,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Munich,  March  27, 
1765  ;  d.  there.  May  23, 1841.  In  early  life  he 
was  an  eminent  nmiing  engineer  ;  but  from 
1826  till  his  death  was  professor  of  philosophy 
and  speculative  theology  in  the  university  of 
Munich,  and  was  the  greatest  speculatiye  the- 
ologian of  the  Roman  Catiiolic  Church.  He 
was  himself  greatly  influenced  by  the  teach- 
ings of  Jakob  Boehme.  Among  other  things, 
he  taught  that,  "  in  consequence  of  the  fall  of 
man,  man  was  placed  by  God  in  time  and 
space,  in  order  that  by  accepting  salvation  in 
Clu-ist,  he  might  recover  immortality  and  sal- 
vation ;  or,  in  case  of  his  non  acceptance  of 
salvi^tion,  be  subjected  to  punishment  for  his 
purification,  either  in  this  life  or  in  Hades,  or 
in  the  pit  of  hell.  Souls  in  Hades  may  still 
be  redeemed,  but  not  souls  in  hell.     Time  and 


BAAL 


(69) 


BACKUS 


matter  will  cease  ;  after  the  cessation  of  the 
'region  of  time,'  it  remains  still  possible  for 
the  creature  to  pass  from  the  eternal  region 
of  hell  into  the  eternal  region  of  heaven— but 
the  reverse  is  not  true.  [He]  was  uiif ricndlj-  to 
the  papacy,  but  adhered  to  Catholicism,  and 
censured  'the  founders  of  Protestantism  for 
having  not  been  reformers,  but  revolution- 
ists." (Ueberweg,  ii.,  229.  See  his  complete 
works,  Leipzig,  1851-60,  16  vols.)  Two  of 
his  best  works  are  Fermenta  C('r/n///oiu's,  in 
which  he  combats  modern  philosophy  and 
recommends  Boehine,  and  ^pckii/afire  Dog- 
matik.  His  biography  is  b}'  F. .  Hoffmann, 
Leipzig,  1857,  and  in  his  complete  works. 

Ba'-al  {lord,  in  the  sense  of  owner),  the  name 
of  the  chief  male  deity  of  the  Canaanites  and 
Phoenicians,  as  Ashtoreth  was  their  chief  god- 
dess. They  are  commonly  supposed  to  repre- 
sent the  active  (generative)  and  passive  (recep- 
tive) powers  of  nature,  or  the  sun  and  moon 
respectively,  but  some  think  that  tiiey  corre- 
spond with  the  Greek  Zeus  and  Aphrodite. 
The  plural  form  Baalim  denotes  the  different 
aspects  under  which  Baal  was  worshipped. 
Human  victims  were  sometimes  offered  to 
him  (Jer.  xix.  5).  High  places  were  chosen 
for  his  altars,  and  in  some  cases  the  roofs  of 
houses  (Jer.  xx.xii.  29).  His  priests  and  proph- 
ets were  numerous.  Baal  worship  prevailed 
often  in  Israel.  It  began  as  early  as  Moses' 
time  (Xum.  xxv.),  reappeared  under  the 
Judires  (ii.  11-13),  became  dominant  under 
Ahal)  (1  Kings  xvii.  31),  was  renewed  by  Ahaz 
(2  Chron.  xxviii.  2)  and  by  Manasseh  (2  Kings 
xxi.  3),  and  did  not  finally  cease  until  after 
the  exile.  The  name  was  often  used  in  com- 
pounds, among  which  may  be  mentioned 
B.\AL  Berith  {lord  of  the  covenant),  wor- 
shipped by  the  Shechemites  after  Gideon's 
death  (Judges  viii.  33)  ;  B.\al  Pegu  {lord  of 
the  opening,  alluding  to  the  rites  of  worship), 
the  licentious  deity  to  whom  Israel  w^as  joined 
in  Moab  (Num.  xxv.  3)  ;  and  B.\.\l-zebui5 
{lord  offlif'K),  the  form  worshipped  at  Ekron, 
which  Ahaziah  sinfully  sought  to  consult  (2 
Kings  i.  2,  16). 

The  term  was  also  applied  to  places,  as  Baal- 
Gad,  Baal-Meon,  etc.,  but  did  not  always  de- 
note that  Baal  was  worshipped  there.        C. 

Baal-bekj  called  by  the  Greeks  Ileliop'olis 
(n't)/  of  the,  an n),  a  ruined  Syrian  town  at  tlie 
foot  of  Anti  Libanus,  who.se  origin  is  lost  in 
remote  antiquity.  Its  extensive  remains  show 
three  temples,  two  of  them  formed  with  im- 
mense stones  and  numerous  columns  and 
altars.  The  chief  temple  was  erected  by  An- 
toninus Pius  (150  A.D.),  and  was  so  large  and 
stately  as  to  be  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  Some  of  the  stones  in  its  substruction 
are  64  feet  long  and  13  feet  thick.  It  subse- 
quently became  a  Christiau  church.  The  city 
continual  to  be  a  place  of  great  importance 
down  to  the  time  of  the  Moslem  invasion, 
when  it  was  captured  (636  a.d.),  .sacked  by 
the  caliph  of  Damascus  (748).  anil  finally  pil- 
higed  by  Timur  Beg  (1-100).  What  the  Arabs. 
Tartars",  and  Turks  had  sjiared  was  destroyed 
by  an  eartiuiuake  in  1759.  It  is  now  an  in- 
signilicant  village.     It  cannot  be  satisfactorily 


identified  with  any  place  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  (J 

Baalim,  Hi'brew  plural  of  Baal  (q.v.). 

Baanites.     See  Paulicians. 

Ba'-a-sha  {irirked),  third  king  of  Israel. 
He  reached  the  throne  by  conspiring  against 
Nadab,  son  of  Jeroboam",  and  destroyiiig  all 
his  house.  He  was  abh;  and  warlike,  and 
reigned  24  years  (ij.c.  !)55-932).  The  beauti- 
ful citv  of  tirzah  was  his  capital.  (Cf.  1  Kings 
XV.  27-xvi.  6.)  C. 

Ba'-bel  {ronfimon),  Nimrod's  city,  Gen.  x. 
10.     See  Bahylon. 

Babi,  a  Persian  Mohammedan  sect,  founded 
by  Mirza  Ali  Mohammed,  the  Bab  (('.<■.,  the 
gutc),  at  Sliiraz,  in  1844.  It  grew  raindly,  but 
was  suppressed  wilh  bJoodslieii,  1^50-52.  It  is 
now  widely  diffiised  us  a  sort  of  secret  .society. 
Its  teaching  is  essentially  Pantheism,  and  lays 
stress  on  a  pure  and  hospitable  life.  It  for- 
bids polygamy  and  concubinage,  tlie  u.se  of 
the  veil,  and  raises  women  to  an  equality  with 
men.     See  Persia. 

Bab'-y-lon,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates,  60  m.  s.w.  from  the  present 
Bagdad.  It  is  now  only  a  mass  of  ruins,  but 
once,  according  to  Herodotus,  it  included 
within  its  walls  200  sq.m.  It  is  named  250 
times  in  the  Bible.  Founded  by  Nimrod,  it 
rose  ultimately  to  great,  glory  under  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. Thither  tlie  Jews  were  carried 
captive.  Cyrus  captured  it  (Dan.  v.),  as  did 
also  later,  Alexander  the  Great,  who  died 
there.  Its  overthrow  was  frequently  foretold 
(Isa.  xiii.  4-22;  Jer.  xxv.  12;  1.  "2,  3;  li.; 
Hab.  i.  5-10.)  See  Assyriology  a.nd  inv, 
Bible. 

Babylonia.  See  Assyriology  and  the 
Bible. 

Babylonian  Captivity.     See  Captivity. 

Baccanarists,  followers  of  Nicolao  Jiaeca- 
nari,  wiio  founiled  in  1773,  at  Borne,  a  society 
which  was  only  that  of  the  Jesuit.s— sup- 
pressed in  that'  year— in  another  form  ;  so 
it  was  united  with  them  in  1814,  when  the 
Jesuits  were  re-established. 

Bach  (bok),  Johann  Sebastian,  musician  ; 
b.  at  Ei.senach.  .March  21.  16K")  ;  d.  at  Liip- 
zig,  July  28,  1750.  He  became  court  organist 
at  Weimar,  1708  ;  musical  conductor  to  the 
duke  of  Kiithen,  1717  ;  cantor  at  the  Thouum- 
nrhule,  Leipzig.  1723.  He  had,  by  Ids  two 
wives,  11  sons  and  9  daughters,  ife  i)ecame 
blind  in  1749.  Posterity,  thanks  to  Mendels- 
sohn,  honors  him  lus  the""'  founder  and  falher 
of  German  nuisic,"  and  his  Christmas  ora- 
torio. Passion  nuisic  to  the  words  of  St.  Jolm. 
and  that  to  St.  Matthew's,  his  Mass  in  B  minor, 
and  his  Mngnificat  in  D.  not  to  speak  of  others, 
have  given  him  immortality  its  a  compo.scr  of 
.sacred  music. 

Backus,  Isaac,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Norwich. 
Conn.,  Jan.  9,  1724  ;  U-camo  pastor  of  a  S.  p- 
arate  or  New  Light  society  in  .Middleborough 
(Titicut  precinct),  Ma.s.s.'.  1748  ;  formed  a 
Baptist  church  there  out  of  his  own  mcml^ers. 


BACON 


(70) 


BAHRDT 


1756  ;  was  a  delegate  to  the  federal  constitu- 
tional convention  of  1778  ;  d.  at  Titicut, 
Nov.  30,  1806.  He  wrote  A  History  of  New 
Eagland,  with  Particular  Reference  to  the  Dc- 
iiominatioti  of  GhHstians  called  Baptists,  Bos- 
ton, 1777-96,  3  vols.;  n.e.,  David  Weston, 
Newton,  Mass.,  1871,  2  vols,  (an  authority, 
though  partisan).  (See  his  life  by  Prof.  A. 
Hovey,  Boston,  1858  ;  and  Spragiie,  Annals, 
vi.,  54-58.) 

Bacon,  Francis,  English  philosopher  ;  b. 
at  Yoik  House,  London,  Jan.  22,  1561  ;  d.  of 
bronchitis  at  Highgate,  London,  April  9, 1626. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  admitted  to  Gray's  Inn,  London, 
as  student  of  law,  1575,  and  became  barrister, 
1582.  In  1584  he  entered  parliament,  and 
served  continuously  until  raised  to  the  peer- 
age. He  soon  showed  himself  a  statesman  of 
far-reaching  views,  and  for  the  advancement 
of  his  schemes  he  allied  himself  first  to  Essex 
and  later  to  Buckingham,  but  both  disap- 
pointed him.  He  also  assiduously  cultivated 
the  good  will  of  his  sovereigns,  Elizabeth  and 
James  I.  But  it  was  his  fortune  to  be  long 
unrewarded.  It  was  not  until  1604  that  he 
began  to  ascend  in  public  office,  being  made 
one  of  the  king's  learned  council.  In  1603 
he  was  knighted,  in  1607  he  became  solicitor- 
general,  in  1613  attorney-general,  in  1616  a 
privy-councillor,  in  1617  lord-keeper,  in  1618 
lord-chancellor,  and  a  few  months  later  Baron 
Verulam  ;  in  1621  Viscount  St.  Albans.  But 
Ms  somjwhat  tortuous  course,  which  requires 
defence  at  almost  each  step,  although  it  can  be 
defended,  had  an  abrupt  termination.  His 
defence  of  the  odious  monopolies  rendered 
liim  unpopular,  but  his  enemies  could  not  at- 
tack hini  on  that  score.  They  soon  found 
out,  however,  that  he  had  received  bribes  on 
three  occasions,  although  he  had  decided 
against  the  persons  whose  money  he  had 
taken.  Charged  with  this  offence,  he  could 
m  ike  no  defence.  Ho  was  found  guilty  and 
his  sentence  was,  to  be  fined  £40,000,  im- 
prisoned during  the  king's  pleasure,  disabled 
from  sitting  in  parliament,  and  prohibited 
from  coming  within  12  miles  of  the  court. 
The  fine  was,  however,  remitted,  his  imprison- 
ment in  the  Tower  lasted  only  a  few  days,  and 
the  last  disability  was  removed,  but  he  never 
received  a  full  pardon. 

As  a  p'.iilosopher,  it  was  his  glory  to  empha- 
size the  importance  of  the  inductive  method — 
i.e.,  of  deriving  principles  from  wide  and 
varied  collections  of  facts,  which  yet  are  not 
mere  accumulations.  Ethics  he  considered 
as  the  "  handmaid  "  of  theology.  His  most 
popular  book  is  his  Essays,  first  published  in 
1597,  but  then  there  were  only  10  of  them,  last 
issued  by  him  in  1625,  when  their  number 
had  grown  to  58.  There  are  many  modern 
editions,  noticeably  that  by  Archbishop 
"Whately.  London,  1856,  in  which  the  annota- 
tions almost  equal  the  text  in  quality.  Best 
ed.  of  his  works  by  Spedding,  Ellis  &  Heath, 
London,  1857-59,  7  vols.  ;  2d  ed.,  1870  ;  select 
works.  New  York,  1877.  2  vols. ;  biography  by 
Spedding.  London,  1862-74,  7  vols.  ;  by  R. 
W.  Cliurch,  1884,  and  by  E.  A.  Abbott,  1885. 
(Cf .  art.  Diet.  Nat.  Biog,  s.  v.) 


Bacon,  Leonard,  D.D.  (Hamilton,  1842), 
LL.D.  (Harvard,  1870),  Congregationalist  ;  b. 
at  Detroit,  Mich.,  Feb.  19,  1802;  graduated 
at  Vale  College,  1820,  and  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1823  ;  became  pastor  of 
the  First  church.  New  Haven,  1825,  and 
so  continued  until  his  death  there,  Dec. 
24,  1881.  From  1866  to  1871  he  acted  as  pro- 
fessor of  revealed  theology  in  the  theological 
department  of  Yale  College,  and  thereafter 
lecturer  on  ecclesiastical  polity  and  American 
church  history.  In  his  later  life  he  was  gen- 
erally considered  the  leading  American  Con- 
gregationalist. He  was  a  copious  writer  and 
a  tireless  controversialist.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  New  Englander,  reviesv,  New 
Haven,  1843,  and  the  Independent,  weekly 
newspaper,  New  York,  1848.  His  views  on 
the  slavery  discussion  were  important  and 
were  accepted  by  Abraham  Lincoln.  He 
wrote  Genesis  of  the  New  England  Churches, 
New  York,  1874,  and  other  books. 

Bacon,  Leonard  Woolsey,  M.D.  (Yale, 
1856),  D.D.  (Yale,  1879),  Congregationalist  ; 
b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  1,  1830  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College,  1850,  and  at  Yale  The- 
ological Seminar^',  1854  ;  has  been  pastor  and 
preacher  in  various  places  ;  author  of  Life  of 
Mrs.  Emily  Bliss  Gould,  New  York,  1878  ; 
The  Simplicity  that  is  in  Christ  (sermons), 
1886;  2d  ed.,  1889. 

Bacon,  Roger,  b.  at  Ilchester,  England, 
1214  ;  d.  at  Oxford,  1294.  He  was  of  a 
wealthy  family  and  studied  at  Oxford.  He 
probably  took  orders  in  1233,  and  soon  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  remained  till  about  1250, 
when  he  returned  to  Oxford  and  entered  the 
Franciscan  order.  Brought  under  suspicion 
of  heresy,  he  was  sent  to  Paris  in  1257,  and 
remained  there  in  confinement  for  10  years. 
Clement  IV".,  who  was  pope  from  1265  to  1268, 
refjuested  him  to  prepare  a  treatise  upon  the 
sciences  for  his  private  use,  from  which  arose 
his  principal  works,  the  so-called  Opera.  On 
his  release  he  returned  to  Oxford  (1268),  con- 
tinued his  studies,  and  wrote,  among  other 
things,  a  book  upon  the  study  of  philosophy, 
in  which  he  inveighed  against  the  monks  as 
withstanding  the  progress  of  true  knowledge, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  was  imprisoned 
for  14  years  (1278-92). 

Bacon  was  a  universal  scholar  whase  writ- 
ings treat  of  nearly  all  the  physical  sciences,  as 
well  as  of  philosophy  and  theology.  He 
seems  not  to  have  diverged  so  much  from  the 
Avell-established  methods  of  his  day  as  to  have 
pursued  these  with  great  system  and  vigor. 
His  fame  for  mechanical  discoveries  is  greater 
than  his  deserts.  He  figures  in  English  legends 
as  Friar  Bacon,  the  great  necromancer.  In 
theology  he  emphasized  the  necessity  of  con- 
forming our  theology  to  the  Scriptures,  and 
did  what  he  could  to  call  the  attention  of  men 
again  to  the  Bible,  as  well  as  to  give  numer- 
ous suggestions  as  to  the  preparation  for  and 
methods  of  its  study.  (See  his  Opei'a,  ed.  J.  S. 
Brewer,  London,  1859.  Best  biog. ,  the  French 
work  of  E.  Charles,  Paris,  1861.)  F. 

Bahrdt  (bart),  Karl  Friedrich,  b.  at  Bis- 
chofswerda,  20  m.  e.u.e.  of  Dresden,  Aug.  25, 


BAIER 


(71) 


BALLOU 


1741  ;  (1.  at  Ilalle,  April  23, 1792.  He  studied 
at  Leipzig,  became  professor  extraordinary  of 
biblical  philology  there,  1766  ;  professor  of 
biblical  auti(iuities  at  Erfurt,  1768  ;  preacher 
and  professor  at  Giessen,  1771  ;  general  super- 
intendent at  Durkheim,  1776  ;  being  deprived  ' 
of  all  ministerial  functions  in  1779,  he  removed  i 
to  Halle  and  started  an  inn.  He  was  a  ration- 
alist of  the  extremest  type,  and  owed  his  fre- 
quent changes  of  position  to  the  excitement 
caused  by  his  speeches  and  numerous  writ- 
ings. (Cf.  life  by  Leyser,  Neustadt,  2d  ed., 
1870.) 

Baler  (by-er),  Johann  Wilhelm,  Lutheran  ; 
b.  at  Nuremberg,  Nov.  11,  1647  ;  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Jena,  1674  ;  at  Halle,  ' 
1694  ;  d.  as  chief  court  preacher  at  Weimar, 
Oct.  19,  1695.  His  compendium  of  positive 
theology  in  Latin  (1686  ;  last  ed.,  Berlin,  1864) 
was  for  a  long  time  the  favorite  manual 
in  that  department  in  Lutheran  universi- 
ties. 

Baird,  Charles  Washington,  D.D.  (Univer- 
sitv.  New  York  city,  1876),  Presbyterian  ;  b. 
at  "Princeton,  N.  J.,  Aug.  28,  1828  ;  graduated 
at  the  University  of  New  York  city,  1848, 
and  at  Union  Tlieological  Seminary,  1852  ; 
became  pastor  at  Rve,  N.  Y.,  1861  ;  d.  there, 
Feb.  10,  1887.  He  wrote  History  of  the 
Huguenot  Emigrntion  to  America,  New  York, 
1st  and  2d  ed..  1885,  2  vols.  ;  French  trans., 
Toulouse,  1887. 

Baird,     Henry    Martyn,     Ph.D..    LL.D. 

(Princeton,  1867,  1882),  D.D.  (Rutgers,  1877), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  17, 
1832  ;  graduated  at  the  University  of  New 
York  city,  1850,  and  at  Princeton  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  1856  ;  became  professor  of 
Greek,  University  of  New  York  city,  1859. 
He  wrote  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Hugnenots 
of  France,  New"  York,  1879,  2  vols.  ;  2d  ed., 
1883  ;  TTie  Huguenots  and  Henry  of  ]Sacarre, 
1886,  2  vols. 

Baird,  Robert,  D.D.  (Jefferson  College, 
1842),  Presbyterian  (father  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding) ;  b.  near  Uniontovvn,  in  Fayette  co., 
Pa..  Oct.  6,  1798  ;  d.  at  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Sun- 
day, March  15,  1863.  He  graduated  at  Jef- 
ferson College,  Pa.,  1818,  and  at  Princeton 
(N.  J.)  Theological  Seminary,  1822  ;  for  next 
5t  years  was  principal  of  the  academy  at 
Princeton  ;  hencefortli  his  life  was  spent  in 
the  service  of  different  religious  societies. 
He  resided  in  Europe  as  agent  of  the  French 
As.sociation,  later  of  the  Foreign  p]vangelieal 
Society,  from  1H35  to  1843,  and' again  1846-47. 
and  powerfully  advocated  Protestantism,  total 
abstinence,  and  education.  He  was  correspond- 
ing secretary  of  the  American  ..nd  Foreign 
Christian  Union,  1849-55.  1861-63.  His  elo- 
quence, his  Protestant  zeal,  his  lioly  boldness 
cbmbined  to  attract  much  attention  to  him. 
His  History  of  the  Tempera  nee  S/irietiesi  French 
orig..  Paris."  1836)  and  Religion  in  America 
(Glasgow,  184-1  ;  New  York,  1S44)  were  trans- 
lated into  several  languages  and  widely  circu- 
lated. (See  his  life  by  his  sou,  H.  3L  Baird. 
New  York,  1866.) 

Bairut.    See  Beykovt. 


Baius  (ba' yus),  also  Bajus,  (properly  de 
Bay),  Michael,  D.D.  (Louvain.  1549),  Komau 
Catholic,  theologiiui  ;  b.  at  Mehu,  BeiLdum 
1513  ;  d.  at  Louvain,  Sept.  16.  1589.  He  .stud- 
ied and  later  became  j)rofessor  of  theology  at 
Louvain,  1551,  and  was  sent  bv  the  king  of 
Spain  as  delegate  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  1563. 
AVhen  Pius  V.,  in  1567,  condenmed  76  proposi- 
tions alleged  to  be  derived  from  his  writings, 
he  denied  that  he  was  the  author  of  them,  and 
the  bull  of  excommunication  was  not  executed. 
In  1587  he  declared  34  propositions  of  the 
Jesuits  to  be  Pelagian  and  imjnoral.  His  sys- 
tem of  theology  was  derived  from  Augiistme 
and  was  the  basis  of  Jansenism,  wliich  see. 
(Cf.*Linsenmann,  ^f.  B.  vnd  die  Grundltgung 
des  Jansenismus,  Tiibingen,  1867.) 

"Ba  -\adivn.{foreigner ,  or  dtstroyer),  a  prophet 
of  Jehovah,  living  in  Pethor,  a  city  of  Meso- 
potamia, a  proof  along  Avitli  Melcliizedek, 
Jethro,  etc.,  that  knowledge  of  tlie  true  God 
was  no*,  confined  to  tjie  se<'d  of  Abraliam. 
When  Israel  reached  Moab,  Balak,  the  king, 
sent  for  Balaam  to  come  and  curse  Israel. 
At  first  he  refused  at  God's  bidding,  but  after- 
ward for  gain  consented  to  go.  On  the  way 
he  was  rebuked  by  the  voice  of  the  a.ss  (2  Pe- 
ter ii.  15),  but  still  went  on.  When,  how- 
ever, he  undertook  his  task  he  uttered  a  bless- 
ing instead  of  a  curse,  and  that  in  words  of 
exquisite  force  and  beauty.  Yet  what  he 
could  not  effect  in  this  way  he  .nought  in  an- 
other. He  counselled  the  Midianites  to  .seduce 
Israel  to  idolatry  by  means  of  the  Moabite  and 
Midianitc  women,  which  was  done  and  for  a 
time  succeeded,  but  a  war  broke  out  in  whidi 
Balaam  was  killed.  He  stands  as  the  type  of 
all  who  love  the  wages  of  unrighteousness, 
and  it  was  fitting  that  a  dumb  beast  slioidd 
be  used  to  reprove  his  perversene.ss.  (See 
Num.  xxii.-xxv.,  xxxi.  8,  16;  Micah  vi.  5; 
Jude  11  ;  Kev.  ii.  14.)  C. 

Baldachin  (fr.  Baldacco,  Ital.  form  of  Bag- 
dad,  because  the  materials  were  originally 
brought  from  there),  a  canopy  over  the  altar 
in  Koman  Catholic  churches,  cr  the  movable 
one  carried  over  the  host  through  the  street.**. 
or  over  the  pope  on  the  occa.sion  of  his  proces- 
sions.    They  are  generally  made  of  silk. 

Ballon,  Hosea,  Universalist  ;  b.  at  Bich- 
mond,  N.  11..  April  30,  1771  ;  originally  a 
Baptist,  )>ecame  pastor  of  tlie  Second  Univer- 
salist Society  of  Boston,  1817  ;  d.  there,  June 
7,  1S52.  He  was  foiuider  of  the  L'nirtrsnlint 
Magazine,  Boston,  1819  (now  Ihe  Christian 
/.coder),  and  of  the  Vnirersalist  h'.rjkmitor 
(now  tlie  Vnircrsnlist  Quarterli/),  and  wrote 
yotes  on  the  Paraldcs,  Haiulolph.  Vt..  1K(M  ; 
Examination  of  the  Doctrine  <f  Futtirr  littri- 
hiition,  Boston.  is;i4.  and  olher  b(»oks  and 
pampidets  in  defence  of  his  creed.  (See  his 
Life  bv  .M.  M.  Ballou  and  Thomas  Whilt.' 
more,  Boston.  1854.  and  <).  F.  SalTord,  IM 
and2ded.,  IHS!).) 

Ballou,  Hosea,  2il,  n«-nhew  of  the  pnced- 
inir,  S.T.D.  (Harvard.  ls44)  :  b.  at  llalifa.x. 
Vt..  Oct.  18.  1796  :  after  .»;erving  iis  pa.Klor  in 
diffl'rent  plai'cs.  Iwcaine  president  of  Tufls 
College,  Mass.,  1S.53  ;  d.  at  Somervilie,  Ma«is.. 
May  27,'  1861.     He  wrote  T/ui  Ancient  History 


BALMEZ 


(73) 


BAPTISM 


of   Universalism,  Boston,  1839,  Sd' ed.,  1843, 
and  edited  various  denominational  periodicals. 

Balmez,  Jaime  Luciano,  D.D.  (Cervera, 
Spain,  1835),  lionian  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Vich, 
37  m.  n.n.e.  of  Barcelona,  Spain,  Aug.  38, 
1810  ;  d.  there,  July  9,  1848.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Cervera  ;  was  ordained  priest, 
1833  ;  became  teacher  of  mathematics  at  Vich, 
1837  ;  removed  to  Barcelona,  1840  ;  next  year 
finally  to  Madrid.  He  owes  his  great  fame  to 
his  Protestantism  and  CatJwUcity  Compared  in 
their  Effects  on  the  Civilisation  of  Europe  (orig. 
Barcelona,  1843-44,  4  vols.  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1849  ;  10th  ed.,  Baltimore,  1888  ;  trans. 
into  several  languages),  in  which,  after*  the 
pattern  of  Guizot's  history  of  civilization,  he 
strives  to  defend  tlie  tliesis  that  Catliolicity  has 
been  a  good  thing  for  Europe.  Other  works 
of  his  in  English  are.  Fundamental  Philosophy, 
New  York,  1856  ;  The  Foundations  of  Re- 
ligion Explained,  London,  1858,  and  Letters  to 
a  Sceptic  on  Eelir/ious  Matters,  Dublin,  1875. 
(See  liis  life  by  A.  de  Blanche-Raffin,  Paris, 
1850.) 

Baluze  (ba'-luze),  l^tienne,  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  at  Tulle,  France,  Dec.  34,  1030  ;  d.  in 
Paris,  July  38,  1718.  He  studied  law  at 
Toulouse  ;  became  librarian  to  the  famous 
minister  Colbert,  1667-70 ;  director  of  the 
royal  college  at  Paris,  1707  ;  was  banished  in 
•1710  because  of  his  Ilistoire  genealogique  de 
la  miison  d'Au.oergne  (Paris,  1708,  3  vols.), 
which  he  had  prepared  for  Cardinal  Emmanuel 
Theodosius  de  Bouillon  (who  fell  from  favor 
in  1710),  but  was  recalled  in  1713.  He  was 
able  to  do  much  to  advance  his  favorite  studies 
of  church  history  and  canon  law,  especially 
through  his  Miscellaneorwm,  librivii.,  1677- 
1715,  7  vols.,  ed.  by  Mansi,  Lucca,  1761,4 
vols,  (contains  much  freshly  discovered  mat- 
ter) ;  Epistolarum  Innocentii  III.,  libri  xi., 
1683,  3  vols,  (not  those  in  Vatican)  ;  Nova  Col- 
leetio  Conciliorum,  1683  (unfinished)  ;  Vitm 
paparum  Avenionensium  (1305-94),  Paris, 
1693,  3  vols,  (put  on  the  Index  because  of  its 
Gallicanism).  He  edited  the  works  of  Charles 
the  Great  and  Servatus  Lupus,  now  in  Migne, 
Pat.  Lat.  XCVIL,  XCVIII.  and  CXIX. 

Bambino  (Italian,  little  boy),  the  name  of 
the  figure  of  the  infant  Jesus  exhibited  in 
Roman  Catholic  churches  at  Christmas  time, 

Bampton  Lectures,  an  annual  course  of  8 
lecture-sermons  at  Oxford,  in  defence  of  the 
Christian  faith,  founded  by  Rev.  John  Bamp- 
ton, b.  1689  ;  d.  a  canon  of  Salisbury,  1751  ; 
and  delivered  annually  since  1779:: 

Bancroft,  Richard,  D.D.  (Cambrflage,  1585  ; 
Oxford,  1608)  ;  b.  at  Faruwortli,  Lancashire, 
Sept.,  1544  ;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  3,  1610.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became  rec- 
tor near  it  in  1575  ;  and  rose  in  ecclesiastical 
position,  becoming  bishop  of  London,  1597  ; 
and  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1604.  He  was 
an  intolerant  prelate  and  persecutor  of  the 
Puritan  party. 

Bangorian  Controversy.  See  Hoadly, 
Bp.  Bknjamin. 

Bangs,  Nathan,  D.D.  (before  1831),  Meth- 
odist ;  b.  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  May  3,  1778  ;  d. 


in  New  York  city.  May  3,  1863.  He  was  a 
leader  and  tilled  various  positions  (head  of  the 
Methodist  Book  Concern  ;  editor  of  the  Chris- 
tian Advocate,  of  the  Methodist  Quarterly  lie- 
view  ;  president  of  Wesleyan  University,  Mid- 
dletown.  Conn.),  until  his  superannuation  in 
1853.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the  M.  E.  Church 
from  1776  to  1840,  New  York,  1839-43,  4 
vols.  (See  his  life  by  Abel  Stevens,  New 
York,  1863.) 

Banns  of  Marriage,  "such  proclamations 
as  are  solemnly  made  in  the  church,  or  in 
some  other  lawful  congregation  of  men,  in 
order  to  the  solemnization  of  marriage." 
{Hook.)  In  the  Church  of  England  it  is  or- 
dered that  they  shall  be  published  upon  three 
Sundays  preceding  the  marriage,  during  morn- 
iug  service  ;  or  during  evening  service,  if 
there  be  no  morning  service.  In  the  Church 
of  Rome  it  is  similarly  ordered  that  they  shall 
be  published  at  tiie  principal  mass  during 
three  successive  Sunday's  or  on  holidays  of 
obligation.  Banns  are  not  published  in  the 
United  States,  except  in  the  Church  of  Rome, 
The  object  of  banns  is  to  give  those  who 
know  of  any  impediment  to  the  intended  mar- 
riage opportunity  to  state  it  to  the  proper 
authorities. 

Baptism  (Gr.  haptizb,  to  dip  or  wash),  one 
of  the  sacraments  of  the  Christian  Church,  a 
sign  of  the  spiritual  puritication  of  believers, 
and  a  seal,  i.e.,  a  conlirmatiou  of  the  promise 
to  bestow  this  upon  all  worthy  recipients.  It 
is  administered  only  once,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Christian  life.  It  is  required  to 
be  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  by  a  properly  authorized 
person,  and  the  only  element  to  be  used  is 
water.  The  name  and  the  rite  were  not  new 
when  Christ  instituted  the  ordinance.  There 
were  numerous  ablutions  in  the  Old  Dispensa- 
tion, and  these  are  spoken  of  in  tlie  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  (ix.  10)  as  "divers  washings" 
(Gr.  baptisms).  And  when  John  the  fore- 
runner administered  a  baptism  unto  repent- 
ance, its  meaning  appears  to  have  been  at  once 
understood.  Allhough  our  Lord  did  not  per- 
sonally baptize,  yet  his  disciples  did  (John  iv. 
1,  3),  and  just  before  his  ascension  he  made 
this  a  feature  of  the  great  commission  (Matt, 
xxviii.  19).  All  Christians  save  the  Friends 
recognize  the  validity  of  the  rite,  but  they 
differ  widely  as  to  its  mode,  its  subjects,  and 
its  efficacy. 

1.  Its  Mode. — The  Baptists  insist  that  bap- 
tism requires  the  submersion  of  the  candidate 
in  water.  They  say  that  this,  by  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  all  lexicographers,  is  the  meaning 
of  the  word  ;  that  the  New  Testament  exam- 
ples of  the  rite  occur  in  rivers  (Matt.  iii.  6)  or 
pools  (Acts  viii.  36)  ;  that  it  is  referred  to  as 
a  "  burial  "  (Rom.  vi.  4 ;  Col.  ii.  13),  and  by 
Peter  (I.  iii.  31)  is  called  the  antitype  of  the 
Hood  ;  that  immersion  was  the  rule  ia  the 
ancient  church  for  many  hundred  years,  as  is 
shown  by  literature,  by  the  ancient  baptis- 
teries, and  by  archaeological  monuments  ; 
that  it  is  still  the  practice  in  the  Oriental 
churches,  and  was  introduced  into  the  West- 
ern churches  only  by  degrees  in  the  Middle 
Ages.     The   Roman  Church  and  nearly  all 


BAPTISM 


(73) 


BAPTISM 


Protestants  accept  sprinkling  as  sufficient. 
They  claim  that  the  word  docs  not  always 
mean  immersion  in  water  (1  Cor.  x.  2)  ;  that 
it  is  s(Tipturaily  used  as  the  equivalent  of 
nipto,  to  wash  (Mark  vii.  3  and  Luke  xi.  38)  ; 
that  the  Septuagint  usage  of  the  word  is 
against  immersion  in  Dan.  iv.  33  and  Judith 
xii.  7  ;  that  the  requirement  of  immersion 
belongs  to  a  period  when  baptism  was  held 
to  be  regeneration  itself  ;  that  the  oldest  church 
manuar(27(Y;  Didache,  a. p.  100-160)  says  that 
baptism  may  be  performed  by  pouring  ;  that 
since  the  rite  is  symbolical,  a  few  drops  ex- 
press the  sense  as  well  as  any  conceivable 
quantity  ;  and  that  it  is  unlikely  that  Christ 
would  require  an  external  service  that  at  cer- 
tain times  and  in  certain  places  would  be  diffi- 
cult and  dangerous. 

2.  Its  Subjects. — The  Baptists  maintain  that 
infant  baptism  is  an  error.  They  hold  that 
the  rite  was  appointed  only  for  such  as  be- 
lieve and  repent  (Mark  xvi.  16  ;  Matt,  xxviii. 
19,  20)  ;  that  it  was  administered  only  to  such 
in  apostolic  times  (Acts  ii.  38,  viii.  12,  etc.)  ; 
that  what  is  affirmed  of  the  baptized,  dying  to 
sin,  putting  on  Christ,  putting  awav  the  tilth 
of  the  flesh  (Rom.  vi.  4  ;  Gal.  iii.  27  ;  1  Peter 
iii.  21),  belongs  to  believers  alone  ;  that  the 
custom  of  infant  baptism  came  in,  in  the  2d 
century,  only  as  a  result  of  the  view  that  the 
ordinance  was  essential  to  salvation,  and  did 
not  become  general  until  the  5th  century  ;  and 
that  the  principle  that  men  are  born  into  the 
church  is  sure  to  impair  its  purity  and  weaken 
its  power.  All  the  rest  of  Christendom  hold 
the  view  that  the  church  consists  of  believers 
and  their  children.  They  say  that  baptism  is 
called  "  the  circumcision  of  Christ"  (Col.  ii. 
11),  and  as  it  means  the  same  thing  as  the  Old 
Testament  rite  must  needs  have  the  same  sub- 
jects, or  if  not  we  would  expect  the  contrary 
to  be  stated  ;  that  the  scripture  records  of 
hou.sehold  baptism  (Acts  x.  48,  xvi.  15,  33  ;  1 
Cor.  i.  16,  xvi.  15)  reasonably  imi)ly  the  pres- 
ence of  young  children  ;  that  Paul's  affirma- 
tion that  the  children  of  believers  are  "  holy" 
(1  Cor.  vii.  14)  furnishes  an  ample  ground  for 
the  administration  of  the  ordinance  to  them  ; 
that  the  custom  tits  in  adiniral)ly  with  the 
scripture  idea  of  the  family  ;  tii'at  it  bears 
striking  witness  to  the  cardinal  doctrines  of 
man's  ruin  and  recovery  ;  and  that  so  far 
from  weakening  the  church,  it  is  one  of  the 
best  aids  to  its  continuance  and  enlargement  ; 
that  as  to  its  origin  it  was  certainly  early,  and 
if  it  had  been  an  innovation,  it  would  have 
provoked  some  protest  ;  tlial  lren;uas(ij.  rirrn 
125)  bears  witness  to  if,  and  so  does  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  and  Origen  ;  and  that  even 
Tertullian,  when  opposing  the  administration 
of  the  ordinance,  does  so  not  because  it  i.s  im- 
propiT,  but  because  it  is  inexpedient,  on  the 
groiuui  that,  in  case  of  relapse,  one  would  for- 
feit forei'cr  the  hope  of  rcmi.ssion. 

3.  Its  Efficacy. — As  applied  to  infants,  the 
earlv  fathers  varied  in  respect  to  its  force. 
Some  held  that  it  cleansed  from  original  sin 
and  the  sins  committed  in  a  pre-exisfent  state, 
while  otiiers  referred  its  principal  influence  to 
the  sul)se(iuent  life.  Tlie  Roman  Catholic 
Churcli  teaches  that  it  impresses  an  indelible 
character  upon  the  soul,  washing  away  all 


sin,  original  and  actual,  and  incorporating 
the  recipient  into  Christ  (C^onc.  Trid.,  Scss.  v. 
cap.  5).  This  view  is  held  by  all  the  Oriental 
churches.  Among  Protestants,  the  Lutherans 
as  a  body  hold  what  is  stated  in  the  Aug.-burg 
Confession  (Art.  ix.),  that  infants  being  ofTcred 
to  God  in  baptism  "  are  received  into  Gods 
favor,"  or  "  are  presented  to  God  and  hecnnie 
acceptable  to  him,"  phrases  which  contain  tiie 
idea  of  baptismal  grace.  Many  in  the  Church 
of  England  and  its  daughter  in  America  hold, 
as  the  liturgical  office  for  the  onliname  at 
least  seems  to  teach,  that  the  rite  actually  con- 
fers regeneration.  In  the  Reformed  churches 
in  general  the  view  is,  that  whik^  tin;  divine 
Spirit  may,  along  with  the  ordinance,  bestow 
the  grace  which  it  rejjresents,  yet  this  grace 
is  by  no  means  uniformly  tied  to  the  adminis- 
tration, so  that  as  many  as  are  baptized  are 
therefore  regenerated.    See  B.vptistb  ;  Immeu- 

SION.  C. 

Literature.  —The  following  are  a  few  of 
the  better  and  later  works  in  English  :  W. 
AVall  (Church  of  England),  History  of  Infant 
P,aptism[\10Ti\,  together  irich  Mr.  [John]  Uale's 
[Baptist]  Reflections  [1711],  and  Mr.  Wall's 
Defence  [the  cla.ssical  work]  ;  n.e.  Oxford. 
1862,  2  vols.  ;  Moses  Stuart  (Congregation- 
alist).  Mode  of  Christian  Baptism  Pnscri/nd 
ill  the  Kew  Testament,  Andover,  1833,  rep. 
Nashville,  1876;  Alexander  Carson  (Bai)tist). 
Baptism  in  its  Modes  and  Subjects  [a  Baptist 
authority],  London,  1844,  rep.  Pliiladelpiiia 
and  Nashville ;  Alexander  Campbell  (Dis- 
ciple), Christian  Baptisni.BcWvdTiy,  1S48,  Cin- 
cinnati, 1876  ;  Thomas  J.  Conant  (Baptist), 
Meaninr/  and  Use  of  "  Baptizein,"  New  York. 
1860  ;  j.  B.  Jlozley,  Revieir  of  the  Baptismal 
Controversii,  London,  1862  ;  2d  ed.,  18H3 ; 
James  W.'Oale,  T'Af.v.v/c  (1867).  Judaic  (IHTl), 
Johanuie  (1872),  Chrixlicand  PatriKtic  (IHIA) 
Biiptisni  [bv  far  th(!  most  elaborate  monograph 
on  tlie  subject],  Pliiladelphia,  4  vols.  ;  D.  B. 
Ford  (Baptist),  Studies  on  the  Baptismal  Ques- 
tion, includinq  Rtview  >f  Dr.  Dali'x  Iiapriri/, 
New  York,  1879  ;  IL  S.'Burrage  (Baptist),  The 
Act  of  Baptis)a  in  the  Ilistori/  (f  the  Chri.-<tian 
Church,  Philadelphia,  187*9 ;  G.  D.  Arm- 
strong (Presbyterian),  The  Sacrawents  of  the 
Xew  Testament.  New  York,  1880;  J.  B. 
Thomas  (Bapti-st).  The  Mould  of  Doctrine, 
Piiiladeiphia,  1883;  IL  W.  Pereira  (Church 
of  Eiisiiand),  .1  Commentari/  on  the  Office  for 
/foil/  Ihiotism,  London,  1HS3 ;  J.  W.  Eller 
(Lnited  Brethren),  Doctrine  of  <  hristian  liap- 
tlsni  ;  its  Mature,  Subjicts,  Modes  and  Duty, 
Dayton,  ().,  IHSS  ;  Y.  N.  Oxenham,  Lay  Bap- 
tism, London.  2d  ed.,  1S88.  S.  M.  J. 

Baptism  by  Heretics.  The  validity  of 
suih  liaplism  was  for  a  long  time  n  matter  of 
(luestion.  A  controversy  about  it  arose  in  Iht- 
3d  centurv  between  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Car 
tluure,  an'd  Stephen,  "bishop  of  Home.  It 
hroi<e  out  atrain  in  the  5th  century,  when  tin- 
Donatists  (see  title)  rebaiUized  tiieir  convtrls 
from  the  church  catholic.  It  was  taken  up 
in  several  of  the  councils  with  various  rcsidts. 
At  present  it  is  i)ractic.illy  allowed  in  the  Ho- 
man  Catliolic  l)ody.  Aniong  Protest jints  it  is 
customarv  to  recoirnize  as  valid  all  baptisnj  \n 
the  name  of  the  Trinity,  although  when  a 


BAPTISM 


(74) 


BAPTISTS 


couvert  from  Romanism  desires  rebaptism  the 
•wish  is  usually  complied  with.  C. 

Baptism  for  the  Dead.  The  only  reference 
to  this  custom  is  found  in  1  Cor.  xv.  29. 
Various  explanations  of  the  passage  have  been 
given.  Most  of  the  modern  critics  (De  Wette, 
Meyer,  Stanley,  Alford,  Heinrici,  Hodge, 
Beet,  Principal  Edwards,  and  Bishop  EUicott) 
think  that  the  allusion  is  to  the  baptism  of  a 
living  believer  in  the  place  of  another  who 
had  been  hindered  by  untimely  death  from 
receiving  the  ordinance.  But  there  is  no  trace 
of  such  a  custom  prior  to  the  3d  century  ; 
then  it  was  found  only  among  some  obscure 
heretics  ;  Clirysostom  scornfully  repudiates 
it  ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  see  how  the  apostle 
could  even  seem  to  sanction  vicarious  baptism. 
It  is  better  to  accept  the  interpretation  of  the 
Greek  expositors  (Chrysostom,  Theophylact, 
Theodoret),  who  think  that  the  question  is, 
"  What  are  they  to  do  who  receive  baptism 
with  a  view  to  the  dead,"  i.e.,  as  those  who 
are  to  rise  again  ?  If  the  dead  do  not  rise, 
those  persons  who  in  baptism  profess  their 
faith  in  the  resurrection  must  be  miserably 
disappointed.  Eihle  (Speaker's)  Commentary, 
ill  loco.  C. 

Baptism  with  the  Holy  Ghost  is  a  figura- 
tive expression  for  a  copious  outpouring  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  church,  as  upon  the 
day  of  Pentecost  aud  subsequently.  Such  a 
baptism  was  promised  by  John  (Matt.  iv.  11), 
and  our  Lord,  just  before  his  ascension,  re- 
newed the  promise  and  indicated  its  speedy 
fulfilment  (Acts  i.  5).  This  promise  was  re- 
called by  Peter  when  he  gave  account  to  the 
church  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  xi.  15,  16)  of  his 
reception  of  Cornelius  into  the  church  with- 
out requiring  him  first  to  become  a  Jew.  In 
the  phrase  of  John  above  referred  to,  "  he 
shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
with  fire,"  the  last  two  nouns  are  usually  ex- 
plained as  the  powerful  and  purifying  influ- 
ences of  the  Spirit.  But  as  the  word  ^?*<s  oc- 
curs in  its  literal  sense  in  the  previous  verse 
and  also  in  the  following  one,  it  seems  better 
to  suppose  a  contrast  intended,  a  baptism  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  to  believers  and  a  baptism  of 
tire  to  unbelievers,  even  as  Simeon  told  Mary 
tliat  her  son  was  set  for  the  falling  as  well  as 
for  the  rising  up  of  many  in  Israel  (Luke  ii. 
34).  C. 

Baptistery,  an  ecclesiastical  structure  for 
baptisms  wiiich  came  into  use  in  the  lime  of 
Constantine.  Before  this  any  body  of  water 
had  been  used,  and  in  times  of  persecution 
even  caves  and  prisons  had  witnessed  bap- 
tisms. But  when  in  the  times  of  peace  fol- 
lowing the  edict  of  toleration,  great  multitudes 
went  over  to  Christianity,  special  places  for 
baptism  became  necessary.  They  were  gen- 
erally connected  with  the  cathedrals,  and  bish- 
ops alone  performed  the  rite.  They  were 
generally  rotund  or  octagonal,  with  the  bap- 
tismal tank  in  the  centre,  which  was  itself  also 
round,  or  octagonal,  or  cruciform,  sometimes 
even  in  the  form  of  a  grave  (Rom.  vi.  4). 
With  the  greater  extension  of  Christianity, 
baptism  was  administered  by  priests  also,  and 
in    all    churches.     As    infant    baptism    sup- 


planted adult,  baptisteries  ceased  to  be  univer- 
sal, and  the  basin  became  finally  a  font,  the 
conmion  octagonal  form  of  which  still  re- 
minds the  spectator  of  the  original  form  of 
the  baptistery.  F. 

Baptists  (probably  originally  a  contraction 
of  Anabaptists,  by  which  name  they  were  first 
called),  a  name  given  by  their  opponents  to  a 
body  of  Christians  who,  in  their  earliest  con- 
fessions, called  themselves  "the  brethren"  or 
"  baptized  believers,"  but  afterward  accepted 
by  them  as  a  convenient  designation,  though 
by  no  means  descriptive  of  their  distinctive 
beliefs.  The  various  churches  included  under 
the  name  "  Baptist"  agree  in  holding  the  fol- 
lowing beliefs  : 

1.  The  Holy  Scriptures,  being  given  by  in- 
spiration of  God,  apart  from  errors  of  tran- 
scription and  when  rightly  interpreted,  to- 
gether constitute  an  infallible  and  sufficient 
rale  of  faith  and  practice.  Baptists  regard 
this  as  their  cardinal  principle,  though  it  is 
also  professed  b}^  most  Protestant  bodies. 
They  hold  that  the  Bible  does  not  merely  con- 
tain, but  that  it  is,  the  word  of  God.  For 
convenience  and  for  the  information  of 
others,  Baptists  have  from  time  to  time  issued 
compendious  statements  of  their  views  of 
scripture  truth,  but  these  are  not  authoritative 
standards  or  creeds.  Subscription  to  them  is 
not  required  of  ministers  or  laymen,  and  any 
Baptist  is  free  to  make  a  different  statement 
of  his  belief  if  he  chooses,  so  that  he  conforms 
to  the  teaching  of  Scripture. 

2.  The  church  of  Christ  is  a  spiritual  body, 
and  should  consist  only  of  such  as  have  given 
credible  evidence  of  regeneration  and  have 
been  baptized  on  profession  of  faith.  This  is 
the  chief  distinctive  principle  of  Baptists,  the 
question  on  which,  both  historically  and  logi- 
cally, they  have  separated  and  are  still  sepa- 
rated from  other  evangelical  Christians.  It 
follows  from  this  principle  that  the  baptism 
of  infants  is  invalid,  since  they  have  not  exer- 
cised and  cannot  profess  personal  faith  in 
Christ.  The  practice  is  general  in  Baptist 
churches  of  requiring  candidates  for  member- 
ship to  relate  their  Christian  experience,  as  a 
means  of  testing  the  credibility  of  their  pro- 
fession of  faith,  but  this  is  not  regarded  as  a 
necessary  mode  of  procedure  and  is  sometimes 
dispensed  with  when  other  satisfactory  proof 
of  conversion  is  at  hand. 

3.  Baptism  is  the  inuuersion  of  a  believer 
in  water,  "  into  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  This  is 
not,  as  is  so  generally  supposed,  a  distinctive 
Baptist  principle,  since  immersion  was  the 
general  practice  of  the  whole  church  for  many 
centuries,  and  is  now  practised  by  the  Greek 
Church  and  numerous  modern  denominations 
besides  the  Baptists.  It  is,  however,  the  one 
tiling  with  wiiich  the  Baptist  body  is  popu- 
larly identified,  and  circumstances  have  given 
to  it  a  relative  importance  in  Baptist  literature 
to  which  it  is  not  intrinsically  entitled. 

4.  In  common  with  nearly  all  Christians, 
from  the  earliest  times  until  now,  Baptists 
hold  that  New  Testament  teaching  and  prec- 
edent limit  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per to  those  who  have  been  baptized.     This  is 


BAPTISTS 


(75) 


BAPTISTS 


the  so-called  "  close  communion"  practised 
by  Baptists — that,  in  inviting  communicants 
to  tlie  Lord's  table,  they  do  not  feel  author- 
ized to  make  any  other  terms  than  those 
made  by  the  Lord  himself  and  his  apostles. 
Their  practice  is  tlie  necessary  and  logical 
result  of  their  doctrine  with  reference  to  bap- 
tism. 

5.  The  local  churches  are  independent,  as 
to  doctrine  and  discipline,  of  any  outside  au- 
thority, being  each  responsible  to  tiie  great 
Head  and  Lawgiver  of  the  church,  and  to  him 
alone.  Hence,  any  voluntary  organizations 
into  which  tliese  churches  enter  are  destitute 
of  legislative  power.  Councils  are  called  by 
cimrches  that  are  about  to  ordain  a  pastor  or 
to  depose  an  unworthy  pastor  from  the  minis- 
try, and  for  advice  in  numerous  cases,  and  the 
decisions  of  these  councils  generally  carry 
Avith  them  such  moral  force  that  they  are  ac- 
cepted by  all  the  churches.  Associations  of 
neighboring  churches,  and  conventions  of  the 
churches  in  a  single  state,  as  well  as  mission- 
ary organizations  national  in  representation 
and  work,  are  wholly  without  legislative 
power,  being  either  leagues  for  carrying  on 
local  missionary  work  and  to  promote  spir- 
ituality and  growth  in  the  constituent  churches, 
or  bodies  corporate  that  serve  as  the  execu- 
tives of  the  churches  in  enterprises  too  large 
to  be  otherwise  undertaken.  But  Baptists 
believe  not  only  in  the  independence,  but 
in  the  interdependence  of  the  churches— that 
churches  as  well  as  individual  Christians 
should  bear  one  another's  burdens,  comfort 
each  other  in  trouble,  assist  each  other  in 
need,  and  generally  co-operate  to  further  the 
interests  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  It  is  a  rule 
of  church  comity  among  them  also,  that  each 
church  shall  regard  as  valid,  save  in  very  ex- 
traordinary circumstances,  the  a{;ts  of  every 
other  church,  and  not  reverse  them  by  its  act 
save  on  advice  of  a  council. 

6.  The  complete  separation  of  the  church 
from  the  state  is  a  necessary  corollary  of  the 
Baptist  doctrine  of  the  constitution  of  the 
church,  and  accordingly  it  has  been  taught 
from  the  first  by  Baptists.  Every  Baptist 
confession  extant  emphasizes  tliis  duty  to  ren- 
der unto  Cajsar  the  things  that  are  C;esar's,  and 
to  God  the  things  that  arc  God's.  As  a  re- 
sult, Baptists  were  in  the  forefront  in  the 
struggle  for  religious  liberty,  and  the  lirst 
government  to  give  absolute  freedom  of  con- 
science to  all  men  of  whatever  faith  was  the 
colony  of  Rhode  Island,  founded  by  Baptists. 
Many  religious  bodies  have  favored  toleration, 
but  to  Baptists  the  very  word  seems  an  im- 
pertinence. If  the  right  of  private  judgment 
be  admitted,  no  man  has  a  right  to  condemn 
another  for  his  religious  belief  :  and  if  religion 
is  a  personal  matter  between  the  individual 
soul  and  God,  there  can  be  no  .such  thing  as  a 
state  or  national  church. 

TiiK  Baptists  ok  England. — The  fir.st 
Baptists  of  England  were  refugees  who  Hed 
thither  from  Holland  and  Germany  to  escape 
persecution.  Congregations  of  them  were 
settled  in  London,  at  Norwich,  and  other 
places.  Our  knowledge  of  thcni  is  cbielly 
confined  to  their  arre.st  and  condemnation  on 
charges  of  heresy.     A  proclamation  issued  by 


Henry  VIII.,  in  1540,  denounces  thum  as 
holding,  among  other  things,  that  intaiusouiiht 
not  to  be  baptized,  and  that  it  is  not  liiwlui 
for  a  Christian  man  to  bear  olHee  or  rule  in 
the  commrmwealth.  The  writings  of  this 
period  and  tiie  published  .sermons  of  Enirlish 
divines  (such  as  J.atimer,  Craiuner.  Hulchin- 
son,  Whitgift,  and  Coverdale)  are  full  of  refer- 
ences to  tiie  Anabaptists  and  their  heresies. 
The.sc  traces  of  their  presence  in  the  kingdom 
continue  through  the  n-ign  of  Elizabeth,  but 
with  the  decline  of  persecution  on  the  conti- 
nent their  numbers  dwindled  until  they  dis- 
appeared. They  may  have  converted  to"  their 
views  a  few  Englishmen  here  and  tliere,  but 
they  do  not  seem  to  have  made  any  ])ermanent 
impression  on  the  English  people.  It  is  not 
until  the  17th  century  that  the  real  history  of 
the  English  Baptists  begins.  In  the  year  i(il  I 
the  first  General  Baptist  church  was"  founded 
in  London  by  Thomas  Helwys  and  otliers, 
who  came  thither  from  Holland,  where  they 
had  been  ba]itized  on  profession  of  faith  by 
the  Rev.  John  Smyth.  This  erratic  though 
able  man  Imd  been  a  clergymin  of  the  Church 
of  England,  and  vicar  of  Gainsborough,  Lin- 
colnshire. Becoming  a  Separatist,  or  Inde- 
pendent, he  emigrated  on  account  of  persecu- 
tion to  Amsterdam,  where  he  united  with  the 
Englisli  Separatist  Church,  but  was  soon  ex- 
communicated on  account  of  a  work  called 
Tlte  Chnracter  of  the  Bed.tt.  in  which  he  op- 
posed infant  baptism.  With  Helwys  and 
others  he  formed  a  church  on  the  Bajitist 
model,  and  having  first  baptized  himself  bap- 
tized them.  This  se-baptism  was  probably, 
though  not  certainly,  an  allusion,  the-  early 
Baptists  practising  both  affusion  and  immer- 
sion, and  laying  stress  rather  on  the  nature  of 
the  church  and  the  unscripturalness  of  infant 
baptism  than  on  the  method  of  administering 
the  ordinances.  This  church,  founded  by 
Helwys,  was  Arminian  in  theology.  Baptists 
of  thfs  persuasion  are  calh d  in  England  Gen- 
eral Baptists,  from  the  fact  that  they  held  that 
God's  grace  is  offered  through  the  atoning 
merits  "of  Christ  to  all  men  alike.  In  spite  of 
persecutions,  the  General  Baptists  tlirove,  and 
by  162(»  they  had  eleven  churches  in  England, 
while  in  1644,  bv  the  admission  of  a  bitter  op- 
ponent (Featley),  they  had  47.  Tiie  first  Cal- 
vinistic  or  Particidar  Baptist  church,  of  wIiom- 
history  we  have  authentic  parlicidars,  was 
founded  in  London,  in  Ki^S.  l)y  a  nundier  of 
.seceders  from  the  first  London  church  (.f  the 
Independents.  Tlu;  jtastor  of  this  cloin  h  was 
John  Si)ilsl)urv.  and  among  its  early  memlK  rs 
were  William  Kifiin  and  Thomas  WiKon.  By 
1644  the  number  of  Hk;  Calvinistic  churclus 
I  lia  1  increased  to  7.  In  that  year  these  7 
cluirches  and  1  French  church  of  the  same 
i  faith  united  in  issuing  a  confession  of  faith, 
j  composed  of  .")()  articles,  wliich  is  one  of  the 
I  chief  landmarks  of  Baptist  history. 
I  This  confes.sion  is  the  fir>t  to  define  the 
I  Baptist  practice  in  the  matter  of  baptism,  in 
i  these  words  :  "  That  tin;  way  and  niaiuur  of 
i  the  dispensing  this  ordinance  is  dijiping  «'r 
■  plumring  the  bodv  uniler  watei."  It  is  ••.  r- 
:  tain  that  from  the  year  1640  or  \M\  this  was 
the  uniform  i>raelic"e  of  Enjilish  Bajwists.  In 
'  the  former  year  Richard  Blunt  went  to  Hoi 


BAPTISTS 


(76) 


BAPTISTS 


land  and  received  baptism  at  the  hands  of 
Jjhn  Batte,  and  on  his  return  baptized  Sam- 
uel Blacklock,  and  they  two  baptized  a  large 
company  of  believers.  Immersion  was  not  a 
new  idea  to  English  Baptists  in  1640,  how- 
ever, for  we  find  Leonard  Buslier,  "  a  citizen 
of  London,"  as  he  describes  himsQlf,  writing 
as  early  as  1614  in  his  Religion's  Peace :  "  And 
such  as  shall  willingly  and  gladly  receive  it 
[the  gospel],  he  hath  commanded  to  be  bap- 
tized in  the  water  ;  that  is,  dipped  for  dead  in 
the  water. ' '  The  confession  of  the  7  churches 
also  states  the  prevailing  Baptist  belief  regard- 
ing the  Lord's  Supper,  saying  of  disciples. 
"  who  upon  profession  of  faith  ought  to  be 
baptized,  and  after  to  partake  of  the  Lord's 
Supper."  The  same  teaching  is  contained  in 
one  of  the  fourfold  confessions  issued  by  the 
8myth-Helw3^s  church  in  Holland:  ''The 
Hoiy  Supper,  according  to  the  institution  of 
Christ,  is  to  be  administered  to  the  baptized." 
This  continued  to  be  the  doctrine  and  practice 
of  the  English  Baptists,  General  and  Particu- 
lar, with  insignificant  exceptions,  until  the 
present  century. 

During  the  civil  war  and  the  Common- 
wealth, the  Baptists  escaped  persecution,  and 
their  numbers  increased  with  great  rapidity, 
so  that  the  Independents  and  Presbyterians 
were  greatly  disquieted  thereby,  and  made 
various  attempts  to  restrain  their  growth. 
The  Restoration  was  the  signal  for  persecu- 
tion of  a  bitter  sort,  and  a  pretext  was  found 
for  it  in  the  insurrections  of  the  Fifth  Mon- 
archy men.  These  were  chiliasts,  who  be- 
lieved that  Christ  was  at  once  coming  to  set 
up  his  kingdom  among  men,  and  that  they 
were  to  help  establish  it  by  the  sword.  A 
number  of  the  Baptists,  notably  General  Har- 
rison, the  lieutenant  of  Cromwell,  joined  these 
enthusiasts,  and  this  threw  some  suspicion 
upon  the  rest.  The  great  bulk  of  the  body, 
however,  showed  both  by  their  actions  and  by 
their  writings  that  they  had  no  wish  to  over- 
throw the  state,  but  were  loyal  subjects.  Not 
ai  single  man  known  to  be  a  Baptist  is  among 
the  lists  preserved  of  those  who  took  part  in 
these  risings.  Nevertheless,  persecution  on 
account  of  their  alleged  disloyalty  and  heresies 
was  active  and  bitter,  and  \\  it  did  not  cause 
many  to  fall  away,  it  seriously  interrupted 
the  spread  of  Baptist  principles  and  the  growth 
of  the  churches.  Among  tliose  cast  into  jail 
during  this  period  was  John  Bunyan  (q.v.), 
whose  offence  was  that  he  would  preach  the 
gospel,  not  being  an  ordained  minister  of  the 
Church  of  England.  To  his  third  and  last 
imprisonment  we  owe  the  immortal  allegory, 
Th6  Pilgrim's  Progress,  a  book  for  all  people 
and  for  all  time — a  book  rendered  into  more 
languages  than  any  other  save  the  Bible  itself, 
and  which,  next  to  the  Bible,  has  been  the 
teacher  and  comforter  of  the  peasant  and  of 
the  prince,  of  hoary  age  and  of  buoyant  youth. 
The  overthrow  of  the  Stuarts  ended  this 
troublous  period,  and  from  the  passage  of  the 
Act  of  Toleration,  in  1689,  though  they  were 
not  placed  on  an  equality  wiUi  the  State 
Church,  the  worst  disabilities  of  Baptists  were 
removed,  and  of  active  persecution  they  suf- 
fered no  more.  The  confessions  issued  by 
them  at  about  this  time  show  how  cjuickly 


they  felt  the  impulse  of  hope  and  how  rajiid 
for  a  time  was  their  development.  In  1677 
the  Particular  wing  published  a  modified  form 
of  the  Westminster  Confession,  reissued  in 
1689,  which  is  still  held  by  many  of  the 
churches,  and  which  in  this  country,  under 
the  name  of  the  Philadelphia  Confession,  is 
the  system  of  doctrine  approved  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  churches  in  the  South  and 
Southwest.  The  General  brethren  issued 
their  confession  in  1678,  and  it  is  noticeable 
that  its  Arminianism  is  of  a  type  that  can 
hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  milder  forms 
of  Calvinism.  But  while  the  immediate  effect 
of  toleration  was  stimulating,  its  later  result 
was  unfavorable  to  sound  growth.  False 
doctrine  crept  in,  centralizing  tendencies  mani- 
fested themselves,  and  there  was  a  marked  de- 
cline of  spiritual  power.  The  associations  of 
the  churches  began  to  assume  inquisitorial, 
judicial,  and  legislative  powers,  and  the  Gen- 
eral Assemblies  that  were  established  (of  the 
Particular  Baptists  in  1689,  of  the  General 
Baptists  before  1671)  fell  more  or  less  into 
this  fault,  particularl}^  among  the  General 
brethren.  There  were  troublers  of  the 
churches  who  professed  Antinomian  doctrines 
and  complete  sanctification  ;  the  results  of 
which  teachings  were  disputes  and  divisions 
that  caused  a  great  decline.  Hyper-Calvinism 
was  developed  among  one  section  of  the  Par- 
ticular churches,  and  everywhere  proved  a 
blighting  doctrine.  Among  the  General 
clmrches  there  was  a  very  marked  lapse  from 
orthodoxy,  resulting  in  the  adoption  of  pro- 
nounced anti-Trinitarian  views  by  a  large 
number.  Ail  the  Baptist  churches,  of  both 
bodies,  sympathized  with  the  general  religious 
state  of  the  realm,  which  was  deplorable,  and 
there  was  no  change  for  the  better  until  the 
Wcsleyan  revival. 

The  Baptists  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries 
had  many  curious  customs,  some  of  which 
were  borrowed  from  them  by  the  Friends  and 
survive  among  the  latter  body  to  this  day. 
The  quaint  garb  of  the  Quaker  is  that  of  the 
16th-century  Baptist.  In  public  worship  men 
and  women  sat  on  opposite  sides  of  the  house, 
both  participating  in  the  exhorting  and  "  pro- 
phesying" as  the  "  Spirit  moved."  Whether 
singing  was  an  allowable  part  of  worship  was 
fiercely  disputed,  and  a  salaried  or  "  hireling" 
ministry  was  in  great  disfavor.  The  imposi- 
tion of  hands  was  practised,  in  the  ordination 
not  only  of  pastors  but  of  deacons,  and  in 
many  churclies  hands  were  laid  on  all  who 
had  been  baptized — an  act  that  has  given  place 
among  American  Baptists,  at  least,  to  the 
"hand  of  fellowship."  Fasting  was  a  com- 
mon observance,  feet-washing  was  practised 
by  many  cliurches,  though  its  obligation  was 
earnestly  questioned,  and  tlie  anointing  of  the 
sick  was  so  common  as  to  be  almost  the  rule. 
Pastors  and  deacons  were  often  elected  by  the 
casting  of  lots,  and  love-feasts  before  tiie 
Lord's  Supper  were  a  common  practice.  The 
supervision  of  members'  lives  was  strict  ; 
marrying  out  of  meeting,  as  among  the 
Friends,  was  followed  by  excommunication, 
and  the  amusements  that  might  be  indulged 
in  were  carefully  limited.  Disputes  between 
husbands  and  wives,  between  masters  and  ser- 


BAPTISTS 


(77) 


BAPTISTS 


vants,  were  made  subjects  of  church  discipline 
and  adjudication,  and  such  offences  as  covct- 
ousness,  slander,  and  idleness  were  severely 
dealt  with.  To  the  Baptists  of  to-day  this 
seems  a  meddlesome  interference  with  per- 
sonal riiJS'hts  and  private  alTairs,  and  such  dis- 
cipline has  fallen  into  disuse  in  all  but  a  few 
loculilii's. 

In  the  general  awakening  in  England  re- 
sulting from  the  preaching  of  the  Wesleys  and 
Whiteticld  tl'e  Baptists  participated,  and  from 
that  time  their  growth  was  more  rapid.  Im- 
portant moditications,  in  both  doctrine  and 
practice,  were  made.  A  modilied  form  of 
Calvinism  was  taught  by  Andrew  Fulfer  and 
other  divines.  Many  of  the  old,  peculiar  cus- 
toms were  gradually  dropped.  "  Open"  com- 
munion—that is,  the  practice  of  inviting  to 
the  Lord's  Supper  all  Christians,  whether  bap- 
tized or  not — had  always  advocates  and  prac- 
tisers  among  Baptists,  and  at  one  time  made 
considerable  headway  under  the  leadership  of 
John  Bunyan.  Now,  it  was  powerfully  and 
successfully  advocated  by  Robert  Hall,  one  of 
the  most  eloquent  preachers  of  modern  times, 
and  large  numbers  of  Baptist  churches  became 
"open."  This  change  has  been  followed  by 
its  logical  result,  the  formation  of  churches  of 
mixed  membership.  In  many  so-called  Bap- 
tist churches  of  England  the  ordinance  of  bap- 
tism is  seldom  or  never  administered  ;  Pedo- 
baptists  are  received  to  membership,  are  chosen 
to  office,  and  even  in  some  cases  to  the  pastor- 
ate. The  same  church  is  not  infrequently 
claimed  by  both  Baptists  and  Independents  in 
their  church  statistics. 

The  greatest  development  of  Baptists  during 
the  last  century  has  been  in  connection  witli 
missions  and  education.  In  October,  1792,  a 
missionary  society  was  formed  with  12  mem- 
bers, who  contributed  £13  2s.  Gd.  to  its  treas- 
ury. From  this  meeting  dates  the  beginning 
of  modern  missionary  enterprise.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  William  Carey  sailed  for  India, 
and  was  soon  after  followed  by  Joshua  3Iarsh- 
man  and  William  Ward.  From  the  first  the 
mission  prospered,  in  spite  of  the  obstacles 
thrown  in  its  way  by  British  ofhcials.  The 
society  has  at  various  times  extended  its  oper- 
ations, and  independent  missionary  enterprises 
in  Africa  and  Italy  have  been  conducted  by 
churches  and  individuals.  In  this  work  and 
in  many  other  enterprises  General  and  Par- 
ticular Baptists  unite.  The  .society  in  1888  had 
in  India,  Ceylon,  and  Burmah  806  churches. 
249  missionaries  and  pastors,  and  61, .541  mem- 
bers. Most  of  the  English  Baptists  are  affili- 
ated through  the  Baptist  Union  of  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Ireland,  a  home  missionary  and  social 
organization,  for  1888  reporting  2742  churches, 
1868  ministers,  and  302,615  members,  be- 
sides 25,000  (estimated)  non-reporting  Bap- 
tists. The  Particular  Baptists  as  such  (tlieir 
churches  generally  practising  "close"  com- 
munion) sustain  a  tract  and  book  socit-ty 
and  a  theological  school  at  ^lanchester.  Other 
theological  schools,  or  "  colleges,"  as  they  are 
called,  are  located  at  Bristol,  Bawdon,  Lon- 
don (in  connection  with  the  Metropolitan 
Tabernacle),  Regent's  Park,  Pontypool, 
Haverford-West.  Societies  for  Bible  transla- 
tion, the  support  of  aged  ministers,  and  the 


like,  are  also  well  supported.  In  these  enter- 
prises the  Baptists  of  Scotland  and  Wales 
unite.  In  the  latter  country  they  have  been 
a  flourishing  people  from  the  middle  of  llic 
17th  century.  In  Scotland  their  numbers 
have  always  been  small. 

Besides  the  General  and  Particular  Baptists, 
there  have  been  several  organizations  in  Eng- 
land holding  Baptist  ]irinci[)hs  in  general,  but 
adding  to  them  somcMlistiiiguishingixcidiarity 
of  faith  or  practice  :  Tlie  ^t.i-Pniici/>lt'  lUtp. 
tlxtK  were  so  called  from  tlie  special  stress  they 
laid  on  the  "six  principles"  enumerated  ia 
Ileb.  vi.  1,  2  :  repentance,  faith,  baptism, 
laying  on  of  liands,  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  and  eternal  life.  In  ^larch,  KiilO,  the 
churches  holding  these  six  princiijlcs  formed 
an  association,  which  contimied  with  varying 
fortunes  for  some  years,  when  the  Calvin'istic 
Baptists  withdrew  and  the  rest  were  aI)sorbed 
into  the  General  Baptist  body.  The  Sirnith- 
(htji  Bapdxts  (so  called  from  their  observance 
of  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  instead  of  the 
first  as  the  Sal)bath)  were  founded  by  the 
Rev.  Francis  Banipticld,  in  1G76.  It  lias  al- 
ways been  a  small  body,  and  at  the  present  time 
but  one  church  survives,  in  Whitechapel,  Lon- 
don. The  Srntrh  JiitptititH  were  founded  l)v  tlie 
R-v.  Archibald  :»IcLean,  about  17G5.  .AIcLean 
was  originally  a  Presbyterian,  then  a  (Jlasitc 
or  Saudemaniaii,  but  linally  adojited  xUt'.  Jiajv 
tist  view  of  the  constitution  of  the  church. 
From  many  of  his  Saiidenianian  views  lie  nev(  r 
freed  him.self,  and  the  Scotcli  Ba])lisls  still 
insist  on  a  plurality  of  elders  in  eacii  church, 
on  the  weekly  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, and  the  like.  They  are  Calvinistic  in 
doctrine,  lay  much  stress'  on  the  duty  of  bap- 
tism, and  ai'e  strict  comnmnioni.sts.  The  Knn 
Connection  of  General  Baptists  owed  its  rise  to 
a  protest  against  the  anti-Trinitarian  views 
that  became  common  among  the  older  body 
of  General  Baptists.  Its  founder  was  Dan 
Taylor,  a  Yorkshire  miner  converted  under 
the  Wesleyan  preaching,  a  man  of  little  edu- 
cation, but  of  great  natural  parts  and  a  hard 
worker.  Their  theology  is  not  strongly  Ar- 
minian.  In  the  matter  of  conmiunion  tlieir 
practice  is  not  uniform  ;  until  late  years  all 
tlie  churches  practised  strict  communion,  but 
tiie  practice  of  inviting  all  Christians  has 
grown,  until  probably  most  of  the  ciiurelies 
are  "  open. "  They  now  report  203  churciies, 
134  pastors  and  missionaries,  and  27,2.">6  mem- 
bers. They  maintain  a  theologicjil  school  at 
Nottingham,  founded  in  1797. 

Baptists  in  thk  Umtkd  Statks.— A  few 
English  Baptists  are  known  to  have  come  to 
America  among  the  earlv  emigrants  ;  llanserd 
Knollvs  was  one,  and  for  a  time  lie  dwelt  at 
what  IS  now  Dover,  N.  II.  but  soon  returned 
to  EnL'land.  Individuals  among  tlie  Puritans 
avowed  Baptist  principles  ;  such  a  case  was 
tliat  of  Hdirv  Dunstcr,  the  first  president  of 
Harvard  College.  Tlie  liistory  of  American 
Baptists  H'allv  begins,  however,  with  tlie  ban- 
ishment of  Roger  Williams  from  tiie  colony 
of  Massachu-setts  in  OctoUr,  1635.  for  diny- 
ing  the  power  of  tlic  civil  magistrate  to  deal 
with  matters  of  con.science  and  religion. 
Williams  settled  at  Providence  in  June,  1636, 
and  founded  a  colony  which  is  now  the  Stat© 


BAPTISTS 


(78) 


BAPTISTS 


of  Rhode  Island.  The  foundation-stone  of 
this  new  government  was  absolute  religious 
liberty  for  every  man,  the  first  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  mankind  that  this  principle  was  em- 
bodied in  the  organic  law  of  a  people.  Will- 
iams was  led  to  adopt  the  Baptist  view  of  the 
constitution  of  the  church,  and  to  regard  his 
baptism  in  infancy  as  invalid.  There  being 
no  minister  within  the  small  colony,  he  was 
baptized  by  Ezekiel  Holliman,  who  had  been 
a  member  of  his  church  at  Salem,  and  then 
Williams  baptized  Holliman  and  some  ten 
more.  This  occurred  some  time  about  March, 
1639,  and  the  Providence  Baptist  church  was 
thereupon  organized.  Williams  did  not  him- 
self remain  long  a  member  of  it,  not  being 
satisfied  with  the  validity  of  this  baptism,  and 
during  his  remaining  years  was  a  "seeker" 
unconnected  with  any  church.  It  is  uncer- 
tain whether  it  has  had  a  continuous  history 
since  that  date,  but  if  this  be  admitted  it  is 
the  oldest  church  among  American  Baptists. 
A  church  was  formed  at  Newport  in  1644  by 
John  Clarke.  His  successor  was  Obadiah 
Holmes,  who  was  publicly  wliipped  in  Boston 
in  September,  1651,  for  the  heinous  crime  of 
denying  infant  baptism.  The  first  church  in 
Massachusetts  was  formed  at  Swansea  in  1663 
by  John  Miles  and  seven  other  brethren,  and 
two  years  later  a  church  was  organized  in 
Boston.  A  Baptist  church  was  organized  in 
New  York  City  in  1669,  but  survived  persecu- 
tion only  a  few  months  ;  it  was  revived  in 
1703,  and  has  had  a  continuous  existence  ever 
since.  A  church  was  formed  in  Kittery,  Me., 
in  1683  ;  one  in  South  Carolina,  near  what  is 
now  Charleston,  in  1683,  that  still  survives  as 
tlie  First  church  of  Charleston.  The  first 
church  in  Pennsylvania  was  organized  in  1684  ; 
in  New  Jersey,  1688  ;  in  Connecticut  (Groton), 
1705  ;  in  Virginia,  1714.  In  1770  there  were 
only  77  churches,  and  the  total  membership 
cannot  be  estimated  higher  than  6000.  The  first 
trustworthy  statistics  are  those  of  1784,  when 
there  were  471  churches,  434  ministers,  and 
35,101  members.  Thenceforth  their  growth 
was  remarkable,  and  a  century  afterward 
there  were  reported"  28,599  churches,  16,678 
ministers,  and  2,507,753  members.  The  num- 
ber of  members  in  1889  was  fully  3,000,000 
(these  figures  are  of  the  regular  Baptists  alone). 
The  history  of  Baptists'in  the  United  States 
is  for  many  years  mainly  a  record  of  the  per- 
secutions suifered  by  them  from  the  churciies 
established  by  law  in  the  several  colonies  and 
states.  Massachusetts  banished  and  whipped 
them  ;  New  York  fined,  imprisoned,  and  ban- 
ished them  ;  Virginia  cast  them  into  prison 
for  preaching  the  gospel,  and  even  for  hearing 
it ;  the  first  church  established  in  Maine  was 
so  harried  by  violence,  fines,  and  imprison- 
ment that  it  was  broken  up.  Milder  treat- 
ment was  experienced  in  some  of  the  colonies, 
notably  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  South 
Carolina,  and  in  the  latter  state  Baptists  in- 
creased rapidly.  After  the  revolutionarv  war 
the  several  .states  speedily  adopted  toleration 
acts,  that  removed  tlie  chief  disabilities  of  Bap- 
tists ;  but  it  was  not  until  1833  tliat  Massa- 
chasetts  abolished  the  last  vestige  of  the  union 
of  church  and  state,  and  perfect  religious 
equality  was  secured  to  all  faiths. 


A  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  Baptists 
of  America  by  their  providential  call  to  the 
work  of  foreign  missions.  In  1813  Adoniram 
Judson  and  his  wife,  Ann  Hasseltine  Judson, 
and  Luther  Rice,  were  appointed  missionaries 
by  the  newly  organized  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  and 
sailed  for  India.  On  the  voyage,  from  study 
of  the  Scriptures  and  without  consultation 
with  each  other,  they  came  to  adopt  Baptist 
views,  and  when  they  reached  Calcutta  were 
baptized  on  profession  of  their  faith  by  an 
English  Baptist  missionary.  They  had  thus 
voluntarily  and  from  a  sense  of  duty  severed 
their  "connection  with  the  Congregational 
churches,  and  left  themselves  in  a  strange  land 
without  support.  Mr.  Rice  returned  to  this 
country,  and  travelled  among  the  Baptist 
churches,  relating  these  facts  and  appealing 
for  the  support  of  himself  and  the  Judsons  in 
this  work.  In  May,  1814,  36  delegates  from 
11  states  and  the  District  of  Columbia  met 
in  Philadelphia  and  organized  the  Baptist 
General  Convention,  which  afterward  became 
known  as  the  Triennial  Convention,  from  its 
meeting  once  in  three  years.  In  the  mean 
tinie  the  Judsoas  had  been  driven  out  of  Brit- 
ish India  by  bigoted  English  officials,  and  had 
established  themselves,  in  July,  1813,  in  Ran- 
goon, where  they  began  missionary  work 
among  the  Burmese.  In  July,  1819,  the  first 
convert,  Moung  Nau,  was  baptized.  The  war 
between  England  and  Burmah  broke  out  just 
as  the  work  began  to  prosper,  and  Judson  was 
thrown  into  prison,  and  for  three  years  he  and 
his  devoted  wife  suffered  incredible  tortures 
of  body  and  spirit.  After  the  war  the  mission 
was  imder  British  protection  and  prospered. 
A  mission  to  tJie  Karens  was  begun  about  this 
time  by  Rev.  George  Dana  Boardman  ;  and 
missions  were  successively  established  in  As- 
sam, in  Siam,  among  the  Telugus  in  Southern 
Hindustan,  in  China,  and  in  Japan. 

For  thirty  years  all  the  foreign  mission  work 
of  American  Baptists  was  done  through  this 
one  convention,  but  in  1844  the  differences 
between  the  Northern  and  Southern  churches 
growing  out  of  the  anti-slavery  agitation  then 
going  on  culminated  in  a  separation.  The 
ciiurches  of  the  Southern  states  organized  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  this  convention  is  their  agent, 
through  various  standing  boards,  for  all  their 
general  missionary  operations.  The  conven- 
tion is  a  strictly  delegated  body,  and  its  meet- 
ings are  held  for  tiie  transaction  of  business, 
not  for  platform  oratory.  The  Home  Mission 
Board  emplo^ys  287  missionaries,  who  labor 
in  15  states  and  territories,  supplying  1114 
churches  and  stations,  to  which  in  1888  their 
labors  added  7496  members.  The  board  also 
maintains  a  mission  in  Cuba  and  publishes 
a  series  of  Sunday-school  papers  and  lielps. 
It  raised  and  expended  in  1888,  $178,953.  The 
Foreign  Board  sustains  missions  in  Mexico, 
Brazil,  Italy,  South  Africa,  and  Northern 
China — in  all  115  missionaries,  who  labor 
among  59  churches  having  a  membership  of 
1967.  The  expenditures  in  1888  were  $84,- 
848.  The  Southern  Baptist  Convention  repre- 
sents the  white  Baptists  of  the  South  ;  the 
colored  Baptists  have  a  separate  organization 


BAPTISTS 


(79) 


BAPTISTS 


—the  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  Convention 
of  the  United  States.  Tliougli  very  numerous 
in  the  South,  they  are  poor,  and  tlieir  cliief 
present  enterprise  is  the  maintenanee  of  a  mis- 
sion in  West  Central  Africa.  The  Baptists  of 
the  South,  white  and  colored,  are  fully  two- 
thirds  of  the  3,000,000  now  reported  by  tlie 
"  regular"  churches  of  the  United  States. 

When  the  Soutliern  Baptists  withdrew  from 
the  Triennial  Convention  that  body  was  suf- 
fered to  die,  and  the  Northern  churches  pro- 
vided for  the  carrying  on  of  their  foreign  work 
by  organizing,  in  1846,  the  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union,  with  headquarters  at  Bos- 
ton. Though  this  body  is  nominally  com- 
posed of  delegates  appointed  on  a  fixed  basis, 
its  meetings  have  been  for  many  years  mere 
mass-meetings,  in  which  little  business  is  trans- 
acted and  most  of  the  time  is  given  to  popular 
oratory.  The  real  business  isdone  by  a  board 
of  managers,  of  whom  one-third  are  elected 
at  each  annual  meeting,  and  by  an  executive 
committee  chosen  by  this  board.  In  spite  of 
this  loose  and  defective  organization,  the 
union  has  done  a  great  work  in  the  foreign 
field.  Its  chief  labors  liave  been  in  Asia,  but 
missions  have  also  been  maintained  in  Ger- 
many, France,  Spain,  Greece,  Italy,  and 
Sweden  ;  and  within  a  few  years  an  estab- 
lished mission  in  Central  Africa  has  been 
turned  over  to  American  Baptists  and  is  con- 
ducted by  them.  In  the  various  missions  of 
the  union  there  are  now  642  churches,  1477 
missionaries  and  pastors,  and  65,273  members. 
The  union  raised  and  expended  in  1888  over 
$400,000.  Two  auxiliary  organizations  were 
formed  in  1871.  The  Woman's  Baptist  For- 
eign Missionary  Society  has  its  headquarters 
in  Boston,  and  supports  34  missionaries,  57 
Bible  women,  and  109  schools  containing  3850 
pupils,  raising  for  all  these  purposes  in  1888, 
$74,433.  The  Woman's  Baptist  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society  of  the  West  has  its  headquar- 
ters at  Chicago,  supports  30  missionaries,  26 
schools  having  1375  pupils,  and  raised  in  the 
same  year  $31,602. 

The  work  of  home  missions  was  begun  by 
Baptists  as  soon  as  they  had  any  existence  in 
this  country,  but  no  satisfactory  provision 
was  made  for  its  systematic;  conliiuianee  until 
1832,  when  the  Ainerican  J5aptist  Home  Mis- 
sion Society  was  organized  in  New  York  City, 
where  it  has  ever  since  had  its  headcjuarters. 
This  society,  in  188S,  raised  and  expended 
$551,595,  maintaining  mi.ssionary  operations 
in  45  states  and  territories,  having  in  all  743 
laborers,  who  cared  for  1594  churches  and 
stations,  performed  24,715  weeks  of  labor  and 
baptized  2886  persons.  Missionaries  in  tlieir 
own  languages  are  employed  among  the  Ger- 
mans, Scandinavians,  French,  Boliemians, 
Poles,  and  Chinese,  as  well  as  among  the 
colored  race  and  the  Indians.  A  ^Fexican 
mi.ssion  is  also  supported,  tlie  society  taking 
the  whole  of  North  America  as  its  field  of 
operations.  ]\Iany  of  tlie  most  flourisliing 
churciies  of  the  Central  and  Western  states 
owe  their  existence  to  this  society,  than  whirli 
there  has  been  no  other  agency  more  effective 
in  planting  and  nourishing  Baptist  churches 
in  the  various  states  as  they  have  been  settled 
and  developed.     The  society  has  a  Church 


Edifice  Fund,  from  which  gifts  and  loans  are 
made  to  chiirclies  in  the  newer  parts  of  the 
country.  By  an  expenditure  of  $53,000  in 
1888,  this  fund  .secured  to  the  denomination 
property  worth  $200,000.  The  society  has 
also  done  a  valuable  educational  work  "in  the 
South  and  the  Indian  Territory,  where  it  main- 
tains 18  institutions  of  academic  and  collegiate 
grade,  in  whicli  there  arc  135  teachers  and 
3661  pupils.  The  value  of  the  property  pos- 
sessed by  these  schools,  or  held  by  the  society 
for  their  maintenance,  is  $772,000.  Two 
Women's  Home  Mission  Societies  were  organ- 
ized in  1877,  one  with  headquarters  at  Chi- 
cago, and  one  located  at  Boston.  Tlie  West- 
ern Society  maintains  a  training  scliool  at 
Chicago  for  missionary  workers  (women)  and 
has  in  its  employ  70  missionaries,  mainly  in 
the  South  and  West.  A  beneficent  feature  of 
the  work  is  the  employment  of  experienced 
w:omen  to  work  among  the  newly  landed  im- 
migrants at  Castle  Garden,  and  in  several  of 
the  great  Eastern  cities.  The  Boston  society 
is  more  auxiliary  to  the  Home  Mission  Society, 
and  its  chief  work  is  furnishing  instructors  for 
the  schools  among  the  negroes  and  Indians 
under  the  society's  control. 

The  Baptists  early  recognized  the  power  of 
the  printing-press  for  the  propagation  of  the 
trutli,  and  in  1824  adenorninational  Tract  So- 
ciety was  organizeil  in  "\^'aslliIl^■t()n.  In  1826 
it  w^as  transferred  to  Pliiladtlpiiia,  and  in  1845 
the  name  was  changed  to  Tlie  American  Bap- 
tist Publication  Society,  which  it  still  bears. 
From  small  beginnings  it  has  grown  to  be  one 
of  the  largest  publishing  houses  in  this  coun- 
try. It  has  net  assets  of  over  $700,000.  and  it 
did  in  1888  a  liusiness  of  over  $500,(100.  It 
maintains  a  missionary  department,  w  hie  h  ex- 
pended during  that  year  $90,280  in  colporteur 
and  Sunday-school  work.  It  maintains  also 
a  Bible  department  for  the  circulation  of  tlie 
Scriptures,  which  expended  nearly  $40,000. 
Its  chief  work,  however,  is  the  publication 
of  religious  and  denominational  literature, 
including  Sunday-school  books,  children's  pa- 
pers, and  lesson  "helps.  Ofthe.se  periodicals, 
in  1888  it  published  28,115,225  copies. 

The  growth  of  Baptists  in  the  United  States 
has  been  much  hindered  by  unfortunate  de- 
nominational controversies,  that  liave  resulted 
in  divided  counsels  and  counter  elTorts.  The 
elTect  of  the  anti-slavery  agitation  has  already 
been  described.  The  Northern  diurclies  liad 
several  experiences  of  this  kind,  only  less  di- 
visive in  their  results.  The  first  grew  out  of 
(pie.stions  relating  to  Bible  work.  When  llie 
American  Bible  Society  was  first  organized. 
Baptists  co-operated  lieartily,  in  proportion 
to  their  means,  in  the  work  of  translating  and 
circulating  the  word  of  (iod  at  home  and 
abroad.  Botli  in  this  country  and  in  England 
their  missionary  operations  forced  them  to  Ik: 
pioneers  in  this"  work.  Baptists  liave  liaii  the 
lionor,  in  many  instances,  of  being  the  first 
to  give  the  iiibJe  to  a  heathen  people,  in  some 
ca.ses  lieing  the  first  to  rcfluce  the  language  to 
writim;  and  begin  a  literature.  William  Carey 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  B(  npalcc 
about  1800,  which  was  the  first  version  made 
in  modern  limes  in  a  heathen  tongue.  He 
afterward  assisted  in  translating  the  Scriptures 


BAPTISTS 


(80) 


BAPTISTS 


into  no  fewer  than  24  different  languages  and 
dialects  of  India,  and  these  versions  (upon 
which  he  did  far  the  largest  share  of  the  work) 
are  said  to  be  capable  of  being  read  by  one- 
third  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe.  The 
first  version  into  Chinese  was  made  by  Joshua 
Marshman,  Carey's  fellow-laborer.  Many  vcr- 
sfons  have  also  been  made  by  American  Bap- 
list  missionaries  :  The  first  and  only  version 
in  Burmese  was  made  by  Adonirara  Ju:l- 
son  ;  the  first  and  only  version  in  Karen  by 
Francis  Mason  ;  the  first  version  in  Siamese 
by  John  Taylor  Jones  ;  the  first  complete  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible  in  both  Assamese  and  Japan- 
ese by  Nathan  Brown,  and  the  first  complete 
version  in  Telugu  was  that  of  Lyman  Jewett. 
Besides  these,  versions  are  at  present  projected 
or  partially  completed  in  the  Garo,  Naga, 
Congo,  Bateke,  and  Balolo  languages — the 
last  three  being  languages  spoken  in  Central 
Africa.  For  the  publication  and  circulation 
of  the  earliest  versions  made  by  Baptist  mis- 
sionaries, the  American  Bible  Society  voted 
appropriations.  After  a  time  objection  was 
made  to  them  that  they  rendered  "  baptizo" 
uniformly  by  a  Burmese  word  signifying 
"  dip"  or  "  immerse,"  and  in  May,  1836,  the 
society  adopted  a  rule  to  "encourage  only 
such  versions  as  conform  in  the  principle  of 
their  translation  to  the  common  English  ver- 
sion ;"  that  is,  versions  that  transliterated 
"baptizo"  instead  of  translating  it,  whether 
according  to  the  Baptist  or  the  Pedobaptist 
view  of  the  true  meaning  of  the  word.  The 
Baptist  members  of  the  board  vainly  urged 
that  the  •society  had  already  appropriated 
$18,000  for  the  circulation  of  Dr.  Judson's 
version,  with  full  knowledge  of  its  nature  ; 
that  this  was  the  only  version  in  Burmese  in 
existence,  and  that  the  alternative  was  either 
to  circulate  this  or  deprive  the  Burmese  of  the 
gospel ;  and  that  the  adoption  of  the  rule  in- 
troduced a  new  and  necessarily  divisive  prin- 
ciple into  the  society's  policy.  On'the  adop- 
tion of  the  rule,  they  felt  constrained  to  with- 
draw from  co-operation  with  the  society,  and 
in  April,  1837,  a  convention  held  at  Philadel- 
phia organized  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  to  "  aid  in  the  wider  circulation 
of  the  Holy  Scripture  in  all  lands."  From 
the  first  there  was  a  division  of  sentiment  in 
the  new  society.  Some  were  in  favor  of  con- 
tinuing the  circulation  of  the  King  James  ver- 
sion, and  confining  the  work  of  making  new 
translations  wholly  to  foreign  tongues  ;  while 
another  party  insisted  that  the  principle  of 
faithful  translation  required  the  society  also 
to  revise  the  English  Scriptures,  or  make  a 
new  translation.  This  conflict  of  opinion 
finally  broke  out  into  a  violent  controversy, 
and  in  1850  a  strong  minority  withdraw  and 
formed  the  American  Bible  Union,  whose  ob- 
ject was  declared  to  be  "  to  procure  and  cir- 
culate the  most  faithful  versions  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  all  languages  throughout  the  world." 
The  principle  of  translation  adopted  by  the 
union  was  to  render  every  word  of  the  orig- 
inal Scriptures  into  that  vernacular  word 
which  would  mpst  nearly  represent  its  mean- 
ing, as  determined  by  the  best  modern  scholar- 
ship. A  version  of  the  New  Testament,  made 
on  these  principles,  was  issued  in  1865,  and 


from  time  to  time  parts  of  the  Old  Testament 
have  been  published,  but  no  complete  version 
of  ft  has  been  yet  made.  The  Bible  Union  ver- 
sion, while  it  has  a  certain  value  as  a  literal 
and  scholarly  rendering  of  the  New  Testament 
in  English,  was  a  failure  from  the  first  as  a 
version  for  popular  circulation.  It  was  stig- 
matized as  a  "  sectarian"  translation,  and  its 
use  among  Baptists  themselves  has  never  been 
large.  Thousands  of  Baptists  have  never  seen 
a  copy  ;  many  have  never  even  heard  of  it. 
For  a  time  these  two  Bible  societies  flourished 
and  had  devoted  adherents  ;  but  those  who 
founded  them  for  the  most  part  passed  away 
years  ago,  and  a  generation  succeeded  that 
was  indilTerent  to  either  or  hostile  to  both. 
The  work  declined,  but  the  controversies  con- 
tinued. At  length,  in  the  year  1883,  a  Bible 
convention  at  Saratoga  effected  a  settlement 
of  the  questions  at  issue  ;  recommending  that 
the  foreign  Bible  work  be  done  by  the  Mis- 
sionary Union  and  the  home  work  by  the 
Publication  Society  ;  and  that  the  latter  should 
circulate  according  to  demand  the  Bible  Union, 
King  James  and  Revised  versions. 

No  controversy  was  more  disastrous  to  the 
Baptist  churches  of  the  Middle  states  than  the 
anti-Masonic  struggle  between  the  years  1826 
and  1840.  One  William  Morgan,  a  Mason, 
who  had  published  a  book  purporting  to  ex- 
pose the  secrets  of  the  order,  suddenly  disap- 
peared in  1826  and  was  believed  to  have  been 
foully  dealt  with.  A  body  was  discovered 
and  identified  as  his,  though  the  indentifica- 
tion  has  always  been  regarded  as  doubtful. 
Excitement  against  the  Masons,  and  secret 
fraternities  generally,  rose  high,  until  the  dis- 
pute became  a  political  issue  in  state  and  even 
national  elections,  and  the  churches  took  the 
matter  up.  In  a  large  number  of  Baptist 
churches  the  majority  opposed  secret  fraterni- 
ties, declaring  them  to  be  unscriptural  and 
dangerous  to  the  peace  and  liberties  of  the 
commonwealth.  In  many  cases  the  minority 
were  disfellowshipped,  and  not  a  few  fiour- 
ishing  churches  were  crippled  or  even  extin- 
guished, while  the  growth  of  all  was  neces- 
sarily much  retarded.  The  lessons  of  that 
period  have  taught  American  Baptists  to  be. 
chary  of  interfering  through  church  discipline 
with  questions  not  strictly  religious,  and  to 
beware  of  attempting  to  settle  by  an  authorita- 
tive rule  questions  of  conduct  that  it  is  each 
Christian  man's  right  and  duty  to  decide  for 
himself.  Thus,  wliile  at  the  present  time  the 
majority  of  Baptists  favor  strongly  total  ab- 
stinence as  a  rule  of  personal  conduct  and 
prohibition  as  a  practical  policy,  in  very  few 
churches  is  either  made  a  test  of  fellowship. 

The  Baptist  churches  of  the  South  and 
West  were  much  disturbed  during  the  second 
quarter  of  this  century  by  the  agitation  that 
culminated  in  the  establishment  of  the  Dis- 
ciples or  Campbellites  as  a  separate  body. 
[See  Disciples.]  Under  the  leadership  of 
Alexander  Campbell  the  entire  Mahoning  Bap- 
tist Association  of  Ohio  adopted  tlie  new 
views,  and  a  large  number  of  churches  in  other 
Ohio  associations  followed  this  example.  The 
"reformation,"  as  it  was  called,  spread  to 
Kentucky  and  Virginia,  dividing  churches  and 
associations,  and  causing  fierce  religious  con. 


BAPTISTS 


(81) 


BAPTISTS 


trovcrsy.  It  has  always  been  aud  still  is  a  tk- 
batable  question  liovv  far  Alexander  Camp- 
bell's views  really  differed  from  such  as  have 
always  been  tolerated,  if  not  approved  in  Bap- 
tist churches,  nor  is  it  easy  to  apportion  justly 
the  blame  of  the  schism  that  occurred.  Men 
of  strong  wills,  incisive  intellects  and  groat 
controversial  gifts  ranged  themselves  on  op- 
posite sides  of  the  question.  The  first  overt 
acts  of  separation  Avero  committed  by  the  Bap- 
list  rluirches,  for  what  tlicy  deemed  not  only 
sullk'ient,  but  controlling  reasons.  The  Beaver 
A.ssociation  of  Oiiio  about  1S29  issued  a  circu- 
lar denouncing  the  jNIahoning  Association  and 
Mr.  Campbell  as  disbelieving  many  of  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  In  the  autumn 
of  1832  the  Dover  Association  of  Virginia, 
after  careful  deliberation,  advised  the  churches 
constituting  it,  "  to  separate  from  their  com- 
munion all  such  persons  as  are  promoting  con- 
troversy and  discord  under  the  specious  name 
of  '  Reformers.'  "  This  advice  was  given  on 
the  avowed  ground  that  the  doctrines  taught 
were  "  not  according  to  godliness,  but  subver- 
sive of  the  true  spirit  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ,  disorganizing  and  demoralizing  in  their 
tendency,  and,  therefore,  ought  to  be  dis- 
avowed and  resisted  by  all  the_ lovers  of  truth 
and  sound  piety."  TWenty  years  after.  Rev. 
Jeremiah  B.  Jeter,  one  of  the  ablest  Baptist 
opponents  of  the  Disciple  movement,  and  one 
of  the  authors  of  this  resolution,  published  it 
as  his  belief  tliat  the  report  adopted  by  the 
Dover  Association  contained  "  some  unguard- 
ed, unnecessarily  harsh  expressions,"  and  par- 
ticularly acknowledged  that  this  characteri- 
zation of  the  doctrines  of  Campbell  as  "de- 
moralizing in  their  tendency"  was  unjust. 
From  this  time  those  who  sympathized  with 
Mr.  Campbell  cither  voluntarily  withdrew 
from  the  Baptists  or  were  disfellowshipped 
by  them,  and  in  a  decade  the  separation  was 
complete.  To  do  this  rent  the  denomination 
in  twain  in  the  West  and  South.  Churches 
were  split  in  two  or  completely  dissolved,  or 
even  went  over  bodily  to  the  new  sect  ;  a  few 
whole  '  associations  became  Disciples  ;  and 
seeds  of  bitterness  and  discord  were  sown 
that  have  borne  fruit  in  more  than  a  genera- 
tion of  unfraternal  strife  and  disorganization. 
Still  another  fruitful  source  of  divisions  has 
been  found  in  educational  projects  among 
American  Baptists.  The  New  England 
churches  Ijave  been  happily  free  from  this 
trouble.  Very  early  in  their  history'  a  school 
was  founded  at  Warren,  R.  I.,  to  which  the 
name  of  Rliodc  Island  College  was  first  given. 
In  176.")  James  .Manning  -was  elected  president, 
and  the  first  commencement  was  held  Sep- 
tember 7,  1769,  when  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts  was  conferred  on  seven  young  men. 
In  1770  the  college  was  r(!moved  to  Provi- 
dence, and  in  1804  its  name  was  changed  to 
Brown  University,  in  honor  of  a  generous 
benefactor,  Nicholas  Brown.  This,  tiie  oldest 
and  best- known  Baptist  institution  of  learning, 
has  a  long  and  distinguished  roll  of  alumni, 
and  a  property  valued  at  $2,875,000.  The 
Newton  Theological  Institution  owes  its  origin 
to  a  meeting  of  ministers  and  laymen  helil  in 
Boston  in  182o.  Its  early  years  "were  marked 
by  difficulties  and  debts," but  at  length  a  per- 


manent endowment  was  secured.  It  has  grad- 
uated or  instructed  about  800  studentsrand 
among  its  alumni  are  many  of  the  most  viseful 
and  distinguished  preachers  and  teat-hers  of 
the  denomination.  Another  New  England 
institution  is  Waterville  College,  Me.,  which 
was  founded  in  1818  by  the  Rev.  Jeremiah 
Chaplin,  as  the  outcome  of  a  private  school 
maintained  by  him  at  Danvers.  Tiie  colle- 
giate charter  was  granted  in  1820.  The  early 
history  of  the  institution  was  one  of  continual 
struggle  with  adversity,  but  of  late  years  it 
has  found  generous  friends.  In  recoixnition 
of  the  benefactions  of  one  of  these,  fJanliuT 
Colby,  the  name  was  changed  in  18G7  to  Colby 
University.  It  is  now  generously  endowed, 
and  has  three  academies  coimected  with  it. 

In  the  Middle  and  Western  states,  and  to 
some  extent  in  the  South,  there  has  not  been 
this  unity  of  action  in  educational  matters. 
New  York  Baptists  had  a  school  for  higher 
education  as  early  as  1820,  which  in  ]8;M  dc;- 
veloped  into  the  Hamilton  Literary  and  The- 
ological Institution.  In  1846  the  "literary  de- 
partment was  chartered  as  a  university,  its 
name  being  changed  to  Madison  University, 
the  theological  seminary  being  maintained  as 
a  separate  institution,  but  in  harmony  with  the 
college.  The  village  of  Hamilton  was  thought 
by  many  Baptists  to  be  an  \nisuital)le  site  for 
a  denominational  school,  and  in  1847  an  elTort 
was  made  to  remove  it  to  a  better  location. 
The  city  of  Rochester  offered  spec-ial  induce- 
ments and  was  decided  upon  as  the  new  site. 
But  a  party  rallied  to  the  defence  of  the  old 
site,  discussions  grew  warm,  passionate  feel- 
ings were  excited,  aud  the  end  was  a  division 
— part  of  the  faculty  and  supi)orters  going  to 
found  a  new  institution,  since  known  as  the 
University  of  Rochester.  The  new  institution 
opened  its  doors  to  students  in  1850.  For  a 
time  the  collegiate  and  theological  department.s 
at  Rochester  were  maintained  in  close  connec- 
tion, but  since  1855  the  Rochester  Theological 
Seminary  has  been  an  independent  school.  It 
has  a  German  department  for  the  education  of 
students  to  preach  the  gospel  in  that  language 
to  their  own  countrymen,  and  the  general  cata- 
logue of  1889  reports  979  students  lus  having 
been  educated  for  the  ministry  during  its  his- 
tory. The  division  of  the  New  York  Baptist 
institutions  has  been  marked  by  a  correspond- 
ing division  among  the  churches,  part  of 
wiiich  have  supported  the  one  and  part  the 
other.  The  olil  l)itterness  ha.s  somewhat  sub- 
sided of  late  years,  but  it  is  in  the  higiust  de- 
gree unfortunate  that  the  present  generation 
should  seem  willing  to  perpetuate  clivisions 
caused  by  the  unwisdom  and  contentioiisnesj 
i  of  their  "fathers.  This  experience  has  been 
!  duplicated  in  several  Western  states,  where 
I  rival  institutions  have  been  founded  in  excess 
of  educational  needs,  with  the  result  of  mak- 
ing all  l)oor  and  ineflicient,  whire  a  sinRle 
strong  institution  might  have  been  established. 
The  other  principal  schools  founded  or  con- 
trolled bv  liaptists  jire  :  Baptist  Union  The- 
ological Seminarv.  Morgan  Park.  III.  (1^'67)  ; 
Crozer  Theolo-iical  Seminary.  Ufiland,  Pa. 
(1868)  ;  Southern  Baptist  Theolo-ical  Sem- 
inary, Louisville,  Kv.  (1858)  ;  Bticknell  Uni- 
versity, Lewisburg,'Pa.   (1846);    Columbian 


BAPTISTS 


BAPTISTS 


University,  Washington  (1821)  ;  Richmond 
College,  ilichmond,  Va.  (1832j  ;  Denison  Uni- 
versity, Granville,  O.  (1832).  la  all  there  arc 
7  theological  schools  and  34  colleges,  besides 
33  institutions  of  collegiate  grade  for  young 
women  exclusively.  Of  these  Vassar  College, 
founded  in  1861,  at  Pv^ughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  by 
the  beneficence  of  Matthew  Vassar,  is  the  best 
endowed  college  for  women  in  the  world. 
There  are  also  42  academic  institutions,  most 
of  which  are  unendowed,  and  17  schools  for 
negroes  and  Indians.  In  all.  Baptists  conduct 
132  institutions,  in  which  17,552  pupils  were 
instructed  in  1888,  and  the  value  of  the  edu- 
cational plant  (many  institutions  not  reporting) 
is  returned  at  $19,676,379.  In  1888,  besides  un- 
reported gifts,  $739,000  was  given  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  There  was  organized  at 
Washington,  in  May,  1888,  an  American  Bap- 
tist Education  Society,  which  is  expected  to 
do  much  in  the  way  of  advancing  and  espe- 
cially of  unif.^ing  and  consolidating  the  edu- 
cational work  of  Baptists.  Local  educationa' 
societies  have  for  many  years  past  done  a  good 
work  in  this  line,  but  this  organization  is 
national  in  its  scope. 

Besides  the  agencies  already  mentioned  for 
uniting  the  Baptist  churches  in  missionary 
work,  the  local  and  state  associations  demand 
notice.  Local  associations  in  the  older  states 
commonly  follow  county  lines,  but  in  the 
newer  states  embrace  larger  territories.  These 
associations  meet  annually,  and  with  the 
churches  composing  them,  appoint  delegates 
to  a  larger  body,  called  the  General  Associa- 
tion, or  State  Convention.  A  good  type  of 
these  bodies  is  the  Baptist  Missionary  Conven- 
tion of  the  State  of  New  York,  whose  object 
is  declared  to  be  "  to  promote  the  preaching 
of  the  gospel,  and  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  Baptist  churches  in  the  State  of 
New  York  ;  to  encourage  the  conunon  educa- 
tional interests  of  the  denomination  within  the 
state  ;  the  general  care  and  encouragement  of 
denominational  Sunday-school  work  ;  to  pro- 
mote denominational  acquaintance,  fellow- 
ship, and  growth."  Forty-three  local  associa- 
tions are  found  in  the  territory  of  this  conven- 
tion, and  the  873  churches  composing  them 
report  122,142  members,  chunih  property  val- 
ued at  $11,890,212,  and  $274,193  rai.scd  for 
missionary  and  benevolent  work,  of  which 
$13,520  was  raised  and  expended  by  the  con- 
vention itself  in  its  special  work.  A  good 
type  of  the  local  associations  (of  which  there 
are  1312  in  the  United  States)  is  the  Southern 
New  York,  whose  object  is  defined  in  its  con- 
stitution as  "  the  cultivation  of  fraternal  sym- 
pathy, the  promotion  of  each  other's  spiritual 
welfare,  and  the  establishment  and  strengthen- 
ing of  Baptist  churches  within  its  bounds." 
Its  61  churches  have  a  total  membership  of 
15,452,  and  expended  over  $46,000  for  mis- 
sions in  New  York  City. 

Besides  the  "  regular"  Bapti.sts,  there  are  a 
number  of  bodies  that  agree  witli  them  in  the 
fundamental  doctrine  of  the  constitution  of 
the  church  and  the  nature  of  baptism.  The 
most  important  of  these  are  the  li'i-ecwill  Bap- 
tists, or  Free  Baptists,  as  they  now  call  them- 
selves. Their  separate  organi'zation  dates  from 
1780,  when  Benjamin  Randall  organized  the 


first  church  of  this  order  at  New  Durham, 
N.  II.  lie  had  been  converted  under  the 
preaching  of  W^hiteficld,  and  was  at  fiist  a  Con- 
gregatioualist,  but  adopted  Baptist  views  and 
joined  a  regular  Baptist  church,  by  which  he 
was  disfellowshipped  for  rejecting  Calvinistic 
doctrines.  The  Freewill  Baptists,  as  their 
name  im.plies,  have  been  Arminiaa  in  theology, 
and  practise  "  open"  communion.  In  1827 
they  organized  a  General  Conference,  which 
meets  triennially.  During  the  anti-slavery 
agitation  they  took  strong  ground  in  favor  of 
abolition,  and  declined  overtures  for  union 
made  by  about  12,000  Baptists  of  Kentucky, 
because  the  latter  favored  slavery.  The  Free- 
will Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society  was  or- 
ganized in  1833,  and  has  a  vigorous  mission  in 
India.  A  Home  Mission  Society  was  formed 
in  1834,  and  an  Education  Society  in  1840. 
The  denomination  sustains  Hillsdale  College, 
in  Michigan,  Bates  College,  in  Maine,  besides 
numerous  schools  of  academic  grade.  They 
also  have  a  publishing  house,  formerly  located 
at  Dover,  N.  II.,  but  now  at  Boston,  Mass. 
They  now  have  1531  churches,  1314  ministers, 
and  82,686  members.  The  Separates  or  Free 
Communion  Baptists  rose  in  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut  during  the  Whitefield  revivals, 
organizing  themselves  into  the  Grotou  Union 
Conference  in  1785.  Since  1841  they  have 
been  mainly  absorbed  by  the  Freewill  Bap- 
tists, though  there  are  still  returned  43  min- 
isters and  5827  members  of  this  persuasion. 
A  few  Baptists  are  known  as  the  Cumberland 
Free  Baptists,  but  they  have  no  separate  or- 
ganization and  publish  no  statistics  ;  their 
numbers  are  estimated  at  1000.  Various  other 
unassociated  Baptist  churches,  holding  Free- 
will doctrines,  are  said  to  exist,  to  the  estimated 
number  of  13,190.  In  1822  a  small  denomi- 
nation, holding  Arminian  views,  but  practising 
strict  communion,  was  formed  in  the  West, 
principally  in  the  states  of  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Missouri,  and  Kentucky,  under  the  name  of 
General  Baptists.  They  were  estimated  in  1888 
to  have  over  2000  churches  and  13,000  mem- 
bers. A  considerable  number  of  the  regular 
Baptists  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  sep- 
arated from  the  other  churches,  on  account  of 
doctrinal  and  practical  dilferences.  Holding  a 
hyper-Calvinistic  theology,  they  were  opposed 
to  missions,  Sunday-schools,  and  all  "con- 
trivances which  .seem  to  make  the  salvation 
of  men  depend  on  human  effort. ' '  They  have 
been  known  as  Anti-Mission  Baptists,  "  Anti- 
Effort,"  "Old,"  and  "Hardshell"  Baptists. 
In  1854  they  had  66,500  members,  but  they 
have  gradually  decreased  in  numbers  and  in- 
fluence, though  they  are  still  strong  in  the 
country  regions  of  Georgia  and  other  South- 
ern states.  They  had  in  1888  about  1800 
churches  and  46,000  members.  The  Screnth- 
Day  Baptists  had  their  origin  in  Rhode  Island, 
a  church  being  founded  at  Newport  in  1671 
by  Stephen  Mumford,  an  emigrant  from  Eng- 
land. A  General  Conference  was  organized 
early  in  the  present  century,  which  has  met 
triennially  since  1846.  They  formed  a  For- 
eign Missionary  Society  in  1842,  and  support 
a  tract  and  publishing  house.  Their  head- 
quarters are  at  Alfred  Centre,  N.  Y.  They 
have  110  churches  and  9000  members.     Ger- 


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BAPTISTS 


man  immigrants,  settling  at  what  is  now  Gcr- 
mantown,  Pa.,  in  1723  formed  tlic  first  Ger- 
i>ian  Seventh-Bay  Baptixt  Church,  and  thej' 
liave  since  grown  to  an  estimated  membership 
of  3500.  From  the  year  1639  Si.v-Priimjdc 
i>a/>f/.«*^  churches  liave  existed  in  Rhode  Island, 
and  the  churches  of  this  order  have  a  present 
membership  of  1450. 

The  Tunkers,  called  also  "  Dunkers," 
"Dunkards,"  "German  Baptists,"  and 
"Brethren,"  are  found  mainly  iu  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  they  settled  in  considerable  num- 
bers from  1719  to  1730,  and  have  prospered 
greatly  in  numbers  and  wealth.  They  hold 
in  the  main  the  same  doctrines  as  the  nsgular 
Baptists,  but  add  some  peculiarities  of  prac- 
tice. They  have  a  regular  ministry,  but  pay 
them  no  salary,  regarding  even  the  receiving 
of  fees  with  great  disfavor.  They  oppose  Sun- 
day-schools and  secret  societies  ;  practise  feet- 
washing  as  a  religious  ordinance  ;  interpreting 
literally  the  words  of  the  apostle  in  1  Cor.  xvi. 
20,  they  "  greet  one  another  with  a  holy  kiss." 
They  bore  consistent  testimony  against  slav- 
ery, and  are  now  active  advocates  of  total  ab- 
stinence. They  were  for  a  time  inclined  to 
regard  higher  education  as  a  conforming  to 
the  world,  but  they  now  have  several  colleges 
and  high  schools,  iu  which  co-education  is 
practised.  They  still  oppose  the  establish- 
ment of  theological  schools  or  seminaries. 
They  publish  no  statistics,  having  conscien- 
tious scruples  against  so  doing,  but  they  are 
believed  on  good  grounds  to  have  about  630 
churches,  2485  preachers,  and  95,000  members. 
A  division  of  the  Tunkers  has  joined  the  Ger- 
man Seventh-Day  Baptists — if,  indeed,  they 
are  not,  as  some  authorities  maintain,  the 
originators  of  that  body. 

The  Wi iieb re nnevi am,  or  "  Church  of  God," 
owe  their  origin  to  the  labors  of  the  Rev.  John 
Winebrenner,  who  iu  the  year  1820  was  settled 
as  pastor  of  the  German  Reformed  Church  at 
Harrisburg,  Pa.  A  great  revival  of  religion 
began  among  his  people,  and  the  work  aroused 
much  opposition  in  the  church,  which  looked 
unfavorably  on  such  manifestations  of  abnor- 
mal excitement  (as  they  viewed  revivals). 
After  five  years  of  contiict  Mr.  Winebrenner 
and  his  people  separated  from  the  German 
Reformed  Church  and  formed  an  independent 
congregation.  About  this  time  similar  revi- 
vals occurred  in  the  surrounding  towns,  and 
resulted  in  the  organization  of  new  churches. 
Iu  the  meantime,  Mr.  Winebrenner  had  been 
studying  the  Scriptures,  and  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  neither  in  doctrine  nor  in  discii)- 
line  did  the  German  Reformed  Church  cor- 
respond to  the  apostolic  model,  which  he  now 
conceived  to  be  independent  churches,  com- 
posed only  of  believers,  and  without  any  liu- 
raan  creed  or  laws,  the  Scriptures  alone  being 
accepted  as  the  rule  of  faith  and  practice.  In 
October,  1S30,  a  meeting  was  held  nt  Harris- 
burg, at  which  a  regular  system  of  co-opiration 
was"  adopted  by  the  churches  .sympathizing 
with  these  views,  and  Mr.  Winebrenner  was 
elected  speaker  of  the  conference.  This  body 
now  meets  annually,  and  14  other  conferences 
or  annual  elderships  have  since  been  organ- 
ized, besides  a  general  eldership  that  nieets 
triennially.     The  Church  of  God  has  an  itincr-  ' 


ant  ministry,  the  appointments  being  made  by 
the  respective  elderships  ;  they  practise  feet- 
washing  as  a  religious  ordinance  ;  recognize 
only  immersion  of  believers  as  baptism",  and 
hold  that  the  Lord's  Supper  siiould  be  "ad- 
ministered to  (Christians  onlv,  in  a  sitting  pos- 
ture, and  always  in  the  evening. "  The  church 
has  a  publishing  house  at  Harrisburg,  an 
academy  at  Bosheyville,  Pa.,  and  a  college  at 
Findlay,  ().  Their  numbers  were  last  re- 
turned at  475  churches,  450  ministers,  and 
29,683  members. 

Baptists  in  Britisu  America.— There 
were  Baptists  in  Nova  Scotia  from  1760,  but 
the  first  Baptist  church  in  the  British  provinces 
was  organized  in  Sackville,  X.  B.,  in  1763, 
and  was  an  offshoot  of  the  Second  Churcli  in 
Swansea,  Mass.  An  association  of  the  churches 
was  formed  in  1800.  Up  to  this  time  most  of 
tiie  churches  had  practised  open  comnuinion, 
but  they  gradually  came  to  regard  this  as  in- 
consistent with  their  principles.  In  1821  this 
association  had  so  grown  that  for  convenience 
it  was  divided  int.)  tlie  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick  associations  ;  the  former  was  in 
1850  divided  into  the  Eastern,  Central,  and 
Western  associations,  and  the  latter  in  1847 
divided  into  the  Eastern  and  Western,  while 
from  it  was  organized  iu  1850  a  Southern  as- 
sociation, and  in  1868  the  Prince  Edward's 
Island  Association.  These  churches  have  been 
active  in  missionary  work,  a  society  having 
b^en  formed  in  1815  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  in 
1820  in  New  Brunswick,  wiiicli  have  vigor- 
ously prosecuted  work  both  at  hom>'  and 
abroad.  In  educational  work  the  maritime 
provinces  have  also  been  honorably  prominent. 
When  they  had  but  29  churches  and  1773 
members,  tlicy  established  an  academy  at  Hor- 
tou,  N.  S.,  and  another  not  long  afterward  at 
Fredericton,  N.  B.  Acadia  College,  founded 
about  1820,  is  their  chief  institution,  and  has 
an  endowment  of  $100,000.  It  has  an  cfticient 
faculty  and  a  large  corps  of  students.  The  7 
maritime  provinces  now  report  374  churches 
and  43,937  members. 

Churches  were  organized  almost  simultane- 
ously in  Quebec  and  Ontario— in  tlie  former 
province  in  1794,  and  in  the  latter  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Jlost  of  the  early  churches 
were  planted  by  missionaries  from' the  Uniti-d 
States,  but  some  of  the  earliest  were  composed 
of  Scotch  settlers.  The  first  Baptist  church 
of  Montreal  was  not  organized  until  183((.  and 
the  French  Catiiolic  i)opulation  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec  has  been  an  unfavorable  soil 
for  the  growth  of  Baptists,  thougli  tlie  fiour- 
ishing  Grand  Ligne  Mission  has  done  a  good 
wort  among'them  and  has  In-en  the  means  of 
bringing  some  5000  people  to  the  hnowk-dge 
of  the  truth.  Ontario  has  afTordcd  better  con- 
ditions of  increa-se,  and  the  Bapti.st(liu relics 
are  there  numerous  and  growing.  Controver- 
sies over  the  communion  question  have  been 
no  small  hindrance  to  Baptist  progress  in 
Canada,  these  controversies  cruising  tlie  divi- 
sion of  churches  and  the  dis.eolution  of  mis- 
sionarv  oriranizations.  The  Can.'ida  Baptist 
Union",  formed  in  1^43.  after  the  model  of  the 
English  organization,  has  had  a  more?  stable 
existence  than  its  predecessors.  The  Home 
Mission  Society,  formed  in  1854.  has  been  a 


BAPTISTS 


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BAPTISTS 


helpful  and  aggressive  organization,  planting 
new  clmrclies  and  sustaining  weak  interests  ; 
and  the  Foreign  Mission  Societj',  for  many 
years  auxiliary  to  the  Missionary  Union,  has 
since  187B  maintained  independent  enterprises 
and  has  a  flourishing  mission  among  the  Tel- 
ugus.  A  Baptist  college  was  founded  about 
1860  at  Woodstock,  but  has  within  the  past 
year  been  transformed  into  an  academic  insti- 
tution. Previously  the  theological  depart- 
ment had  been  transferred  to  the  Toronto  Bap- 
tist College,  a  theological  school  established  in 
1880  through  the  liberality  and  foresight  of 
William  McMaster.  Within  the  past  two 
years,  also  through  his  aid,  Canada  Baptists 
have  established  the  Toronto  Baptist  Univer- 
sity, with  whicli  both  the  theological  school 
and  the  Woodstock  Academy  are  affiliated, 
aad  in  connection  with  which  the  Moulton 
College  for  women  has  been  founded  by  the 
generosity  of  Mrs.  McMaster.  Though  the 
new  university  is  but  just  launched,  it  gives 
every  promise  of  being  second  to  no  denomi- 
national school  in  breadth,  thoroughness,  and 
efficiency.  The  Eastern  and  Western  Con- 
ventions of  Canada  now  report  391  churches 
and  31,853  members,  besides  20  churches  and 
830  members  in  Manitoba  and  1100  Baptists 
unassociated. 

Baptists  in  Europe. — The  history  of  mod- 
ern Baptists  in  Germany  begins  with  the  con- 
version of  Johann  Gerhardt  Oncken,  about 
1830,  and  his  baptism  in  1834  by  Professor 
Barnas  Sears,  of  the  Newton  Theological  In- 
stitution, who  was  in  Germany  pursuing  his 
studies.  A  Baptist  church  was  organized  at 
Hamburg,  with  Mr.  Oncken  as  pastor,  but  for 
some  years  the  dissenters  from  the  established 
Lutheran  Church  suffered  severely  from  per- 
secution. For  a  time  the  American  Baptists 
sustained  a  mission  in  Germany,  through  their 
Missionary  Union,  but  for  many  years  it  has 
been  self-supporting,  and  now  maintains  mis- 
sions of  its  own  in  China  and  South  Africa, 
besides  doing  home  mission  work  in  Turkey 
and  Russia.  In  the  latter  country  the  Baptist 
churches  are  barely  tolerated,  their  ministers 
being  often  imprisoned,  but  more  liberty  has 
been  given  them  of  late  years,  and  they  are 
now  establishing  themselves  in  a  church  home 
in  St.  Petersburg.  The  German  Baptists,  in- 
cluding their  home  and  foreign  missions,  and 
the  associated  churches  of  Austria-Hungary, 
Bulgaria,  Denmark,  Finland,  Poland,  Hol- 
land, and  Switzerland,  now  report  212 
churches  and  41,270  members.  They  sustain 
an  excellent  theological  school  and  a  publish- 
ing house  at  Hamburg.  Tlie  Baptist  churches 
of  Sweden  owe  their  origin  to  the  conversion 
in  New  York  of  a  Swedish  sailor,  Gustavus 
W.  Schroeder.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Sweden 
he  met  a  Methodist  missionary.  Rev.  Freder- 
ick O.  Nelson,  who  was  by  him  instructed  in 
Baptist  principles,  embraced  them,  and  "w^as 
baptized  by  Mr.  Oncken  in  1847.  He  was 
prospered  in  his  labors  in  Sweden,  in  spite  of 
imprisonment  and  banishment,  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Andreas  Wiberg,  was  even  more  fruit- 
ful in  labors.  In  Norway  also  the  Baptist 
churches  have  spread,  until  in  the  two  king- 
doms there  are  now  495  churches  and  33,238 
members.     They  sustain  at  Stockholm  a  the- 


ological school  that  has  educated  over  250 
ministers.  Tliey  are  yet  subject  to  occasional 
persecution,  but  the  chief  rigors  of  the  law 
are  no  longer  felt  by  them.  The  Missionary 
Union  formerly  maintained  missions  in 
France,  Spain,  and  Greece,  but  for  some  years 
no  appropriations  have  been  made  to  these 
countries.  In  none  of  them  have  the  Bap- 
tist churches  planted  grown  with  much  rapid- 
ity or  made  any  appreciable  impression  on  the 
population.  They  still  live,  however,  and 
grow,  though  slowly.  From  France  are  re- 
ported 17  churches,  with  1190  members,  and 
a  theological  school  is  sustained  by  them  in 
Paris  ;  in  Spain  there  are  2  churches,  with 
105  members,  and  in  Greece  a  single  church, 
with  7  members. 

Baptists  in  Australasia.— Rev.  John 
Saunders,  a  Baptist  minister  who  had  estab- 
lished two  churches  in  London,  became  very 
desirous^of  preaching  to  the  convicts  and  plant- 
ing a  Christian  church  at  Botany  Bay.  He 
reached  Sidney,  N.  S.  W.,  in  1834,  and  soon 
formed  the  Bathurst  street  church.  His  ardu- 
ous labors  finally  broke  his  health,  but  a  wor- 
thy successor  was  found  in  Rev.  James  Toi- 
ler, by  whose  efforts  an  association  was  formed 
that  now  numbers  24  churches  and  1420  mem- 
bers. The  Baptist  Church  in  Melbourne,  Vic- 
toria, was  organized  in  1845  by  Rev.  William 
Ham,  and  the  cause  there  has  prospered  con- 
tinuously. There  are  now  40  churches  and 
4558  members.  In  South  Australia  the  first 
Baptist  church  to  be  established  was  the  Hin- 
ders street  chapel  of  Adelaide,  wliich  dates 
from  1861.  Progress  here  has  been  hindered 
by  an  excess  of  the  spirit  of  independency 
and  too  little  co-operation,  but  there  arc  52 
churches  and  3G65  members.  The  Wharf 
street  chapel  in  Moreton  Bay,  Queensland, 
was  built  in  1856,  after  Rev.  B.  G.  Wilson  had 
preached  there  for  several  years,  and  from 
this  the  Baptists  of  the  colony  have  increased 
to  27  churches  and  2230  members.  In  New 
Zealand  there  are  26  churches  and  2768  mem- 
bers, and  besides  the  work  among  the  white 
people  a  mission  is  maintained  among  the 
Maoris,  of  whom  there  are  still  about  50,000. 
Work  was  begun  by  Baptists  in  Tasmania  in 
1834,  but  there  have  been  meagre  results  here, 
iu  spite  of  many  years  of  hard  labor,  there 
being  at  present  but  9  churches  and  497  mem- 
bers. 

Literature. — The  best  and  most  compre- 
hensive work  is  Armitage's  History  of  the 
Baptists  (N(!W  York,  1887).  Cramp's  Baptist 
History  (Philadelphia,  no  date)  was  in  its  day 
a  useful,  popular  work,  and  is  still  the  best 
known,  but  is  untrustworthy.  Other  his- 
tories, such  as  Orchard's,  arc  worse  than  use- 
less, being  unscholarly  and  misleading.  On 
the  English  Baptists  especially,  see  :  Crosby's 
History  of  the  English  Baptists  (London,  1738- 
40,  4  vols.),  invaluable  for  its  collection  of 
documents  relating  to  the  17tli-century  Bap- 
tists ;  Ivimey's  History  of  the  English  Baptists 
(London,  1811-30,  4  vols.),  the  first  two  vol- 
umes little  more  than  a  compilation  from 
Crosby,  but  the  last  two  containing  much  valu- 
able material  ;  Evans'  Early  English  Baptists 
(London,  1862,  2  vols.),  excellent,  especially  for 
its  documentary  history  of  Smyth  and  the 


BAPTISTS 


(85) 


BARCLAY 


General  Baptists  ;  Dexter's  True  Story  of  John 
Smyth,  the  Se-Baptist  (Boston,  1881),  invalu- 
able for  its  bibliography  of  the  baptismal  con- 
troversy in  England  ;  Publications  of  the  Hun- 
serd  Krwllys  Society  (London,  1846-54,  10 
vols.),  an  indispensable  collection  of  carefully 
edited  reprints  of  QArXy  English  Baptist  books 
and  tracts  ;  Cutting's  Historicul  VinilicdtionH 
(Boston,  1859),  polemic  but  scholarly,  and 
containing  numerous  documents  ;  Barclay's 
Inner  Life  of  the  Religious  Societies  of  the  Com- 
monwertlth  (London,  1876)  shows  relations  of 
Baptists  to  Friends  ;  Dexter's  Gongregatioiuil- 
isnins  Seenin  its  Literature  (New  York,  1880) 
gives  the  completest  bibliography  of  the  Puri- 
tan period  ;  Masson's  Life  of  Milton  (Lon- 
don, 1859-80,  6  vols.)  contains  an  unequalled 
study  of  the  struggle  for  toleration  in  Eng- 
land and  the  Baptist  share  in  it  ;  Vodder's 
Baptists  and  Liberty  of  Conscience  (Cincinnati, 
1884)  is  a  brief  monograph  founded  on  orig- 
inal sources  ;  Brown's  ,/oA/i  Bunyan,  his  Life, 
Times  and  Work  (London,  1885),  is  the  best 
biography  of  Bunyan  yet  written  ;  collected 
works  of  John  Bun^'an,  Robert  Hall,  and  An- 
drew Fuller  (many  editions),  give  the  best  view, 
after  their  confessions,  of  the  theology  of  the 
English  Baptists.  On  American  Baptists,  see  : 
Backus'  History  of  the  Baptists  of  New  Eng- 
land (3  vols,  reprinted  by  the  Backus  Histor 
leal  Society,  Newton,  Mass.,  1871),  the  best 
single  authority  on  the  ante-Revolution  peri- 
od ;  Publication.^  of  the  Xarragansett  Club  (out 
of  print,  but  to  be  had  at  libraries),  a  c;)llection 
of  reprints,  mainly  of  the  works  of  Roger 
Williams,  that  should  not  be  neglected  ;  Bene- 
dict's General  History  of  the  Baptist  Denomi- 
nation in  America  (New  York.  1848),  copious 
materials  for  a  history,  rather  than  a  history, 
but  founded  on  wide  study  of  original  sources  ; 
Edwards'  History  of  Baptists  in  Pennsylrania 
and  NeiD  Jersey  (1772-92,  2  vols.),  very  scarce, 
but  of  great  value  as  resting  largely  on  per- 
sonal knowledge  and  contemporaneous  tradi- 
tion ;  Guild's  Cliaplain  Smith  and  the  Baptists 
(Philadelphia,  1885)  throws  mueii  light  on 
Baptists  of  tlie  Revolutionary  period  ;  liuptisti 
and  the  Xational  Centotary  (Philadelphia, 
1876),  a  collection  of  historical  essays,  some 
of  them  exceediuglv  valuable  ;  Cathcart's 
Baptist  Encycliipirdid  (P\n\M\ii\[)\\\ii,  1880;,  de- 
fective in  some  respects,  b\it  the  best  general 
reference  book  in  print,  and  especially  useful 
in  its  biograpliical  articles  ;  Judson's  Life  of 
Adoniram  Jadnon  (New  York,  188;J),  the  best 
biography  of  the  founder  of  Baptist  missions  ; 
Smith's  Missionary  Sketches  and  Rambles  in 
Mission  FickU  (Boston,  1880  and  1884),  excel- 
lent brief  histories  of  Baptist  foreign  missions  ; 
American  Baptist  Tcar-Book  (Philad(;ii)iiia), 
a  yearly  compend  of  denominational  informa- 
tion, of  unusual  comprehensiveness  and  accu 
racy  ;  Handbooktfthe  Southern  Jli/'tist  ('onr.n- 
tion  (.Vugusta,  Ga.).  a  similar  compciid  issued 
by  the  Southern  Baptists,  and  containing  de- 
tailed information  regar.ling  their  work  ;  the 
Baptist  Year  Book  of  tlie  Canadian  Conven- 
tions (Toronto)  ;  Wavlan  I's  Principles  and 
Practices  of  the  B<ipf'ixt.'<  (Xew  York,  1857), 
.still  the  best  popular  exposition  of  the  distinc- 
tive features  of  Baptist  faith  and  polity  ; 
Strong's  Systematic  Theology  (New  Y'ork,  2d 


ed..  1889),  Ilovey's  Manual  of  SystenuUic 
Theology  and  Christian  Ethics  (Philadelphia, 
no  date),  and  Boy(-e's  Abstract  (f  Sy.'<temoti'c 
Theology  (IMtimon',  1887),  very  vahiabh;  trea- 
tises by  the  leading  theologians  of  the  denom- 
ination. On  other  than  the  regular  Baptists, 
see  :  Goadby's  By-Paths  in  Baptist  lliMory 
(London,  1871),  whicli  contains  much  (rurious 
information  about  the  English  bodies  ;  iMil- 
Lt's  JJoctrims  of  the  Brethren  Difended  (In- 
dianapolis, 1876),  a  vindication  of  the  doctrine 
and  practice  of  the  Tunkers  ;  Lewis'  Critical 
History  ef  the  Sabbath  and  the  Sunday  (Alfred 
Centre,  1886),  the  most  scholarly  exposition 
of  the  Seventh-Day  Baptist  views,  and  a  valu- 
able historical  monograph.  Stewart's  History 
of  the  Freewill  Baptists  (Dover,  1862)  is  the 
best  work  of  its  kind,  and  Butler's  Christian 
Theology  (Dover,  1831)  is  the  standard  treatise 
of  the  Freewill  wing.  The  Freewill  Baptist 
Register  is  published  annually,  and  gives  the 
statistics,  minutes,  etc.,  of  the  body. 

The  Baptists  have  no  olticial  organs,  but  no 
denomination  has  a  larger  and  abler  number 
of  periodical  publications,  or  sustains  them 
more  generously.  The  English  Baptists  Jiave 
two  weekly  newspapers,  Tiie  Freeman  and  Thi. 
I>aptist,  as  well  as  the  Baptist  Magazine  and 
the  Sword  and  Trowel,  the  latter  conilucted  by 
-Mr.  Spurgeon.  The  chief  weekly  papers  of 
the  American  Baptists  are  the  Watchman. 
(Boston),  Examiner  (New  York),  National 
Baptist  (Philadelphia),  Religious  Herald  ( Rich- 
mond), and  Statuliird  (Chicago).  ^lonthly 
periodicals  have  been  several  times  attempted, 
but  excepting  the  Baptist  Teacher  (Philadel- 
phia) they  have  proved  failures.  Quarterly 
publications  have  had  a  checkered  career  also, 
but  the  Baptist  Quarterly  Review,  established 
in  Cincinnati  in  1879,  and  transferred  to  New 
York  in  1885,  still  prospers.  I)er  Send'wte 
(weekly,  Cleveland)  is  the  chief  paper  of  the 
German  Baptists  ;  the  Outb>'>k  (monthly,  Al- 
fred Centre)  is  the  Seventh-Day  Baptist  organ  ; 
and  the  Morning  Star  (weekly,  Boston)  repre- 
sents the  Freewill  Baptists. 

IIkxuy  C.  Vkddek. 

Barbara  (the stranger),  St., a  legendary  saint ; 
b.  in  Nicomedia  ;  persecuted  for  her  Christian 
faith  by  Martianus,  235,  and  linally  beheaded 
by  her"heatlien  father,  who  was  immediately 
thereafter  struck  by  lightning  ;  hence  she  is 
regarded  as  the  protectress  against  tlnuider, 
lightning,  and  tire  arms.  Her  day  is  Dee.  4. 
The  powder  magazine  on  French  men-of-war 
used  to  be  called  Saintc  Barbe. 

Barclay,  Alexander,  b.  in  Scotland  1475  (?) ; 
d.  at  Crovdon,  London,  and  wiis  buried  there, 
June  10,  "1552.  He  studied  at  Oxford  ;  trav- 
elled on  tli(!  continent  ;  became  a  priest  in  tho 

I  Colleixe  of   Otterv   St.   .Marv,  in  Devonshire. 
and  there  in   1508  translated  Brant's  >///>  </ 

I  /•'»»/.•<(, Ml.  Jamieson,  Ediniturgh,  1H74.  2  vols.). 

I  which  luLs  given  liim  much  repute,  and  later 
produced  manv  other  work-  ;  became  a  Prot- 

I  eslant  uniler  Edward  VI.,  and  d.  a.s  rector  of 
All  Hallows.  London. 

Barclay,  Robert,  Frien.l  :  b.  at  Cordons- 
town,  Moravshire.  Scotland.  Dec.  23.  KM8  ; 
d    at  Ury,   Oct.  3,   1690.     He  studied  for  a 


BARCLAY 


(86) 


BARNES 


while  at  the  Scotch  college  in  Paris,  but  join- 
ed the  Friends,  1667,  and  soon  became  re- 
nowned as  their  learned  and  sliilful  champion, 
and  in  consequence  was  persecuted  for  a  time. 
His  great  book  is  An  Apolof/y  for  the  IVue 
Christian  Divinity,  as  the  same  is  Held  Forth 
and  Preaeh-ed  by  the  People  Called  in  Scorn 
Quakers  (in  Latin,  Amsterdam,  1676  ;  in  Eng- 
lish [Aberdeen  ?],  1678),  a  standard  worli  ; 
many  later  editions. 

Barclay,  Robert,  English  Friend  ;  b.  at 
Cro3^don,  London,  Aug.  4,  1883  ;  received  a 
good  school  education  ;  went  into  business  ; 
preached  among  the  Friends  ;  d;  at  Reigate, 
Nov.  11,  1876.  He  wrote  The  Inner  Life 
[i.e. ,  the  internal  constitution]  of  the  Religious 
Societies  of  the  Commonwealth  (London,  1877  ; 
3d  ed.,  1878),  a  standard  book  of  immense  re- 
search. (See  his  Memoir  prefixed  to  his 
Sermons,  London,  1878.) 

Bar-Oochba.     See  Bar-Kochba. 

Bar-de-sa'-nes  (properly  Bar-Deisan,  son  of 
the  [river]  Deisan),  a  Syriac  Gnostic  who  lived 
at  the  court  of  Edessa  and  d.  about  224.  He 
Avas  the  author  of  hymns  in  which  he  propa- 
gated his  views,  which  in  general  were  more 
nearly  orthodox  than  those  of  other  Gnostics. 
(Cf.  the  elaborate  art.  Bnrdaisan,  by  Hort,  in 
Smith  and  Wace,  Diet.  Chr.  Biog.) 

Barefooted  Monks  and  Nuns  {Discalceati, 
ie.,  "shoeless")  are  those  who  either  go  ac- 
tually barefoot  or  wear  only  sandals  or  a  piece 
of  leather  fastened  by  a  strap  to  their  sole. 
St.  Therese.  enjoined  the  practice  upon  her 
Carmelites,  and  it  is  practised  by  Augustin- 
iaus  and  ascetics  of  otlier  orders.  Tliis  au- 
sterity was  first  introduced  among  the  Francis- 
cans bv  St.  Francis,  in  1209,  in  accordance 
with  Matt.  X.  10  ;  Mark  vi.  9  ;  Luke  x.  4. 

Bar-Kochba  (koke-bah,  son  of  a  star ;  cf. 
Num.  xxiv.  17),  properly  Simon,  a  Jewish 
fanatic  who  appeared  as  the  Messiah  in  133, 
when  Hadrian  forbade  circumcision,  and  at- 
tempted to  build  Aelia  Capitoliua  on  the  ruins 
of  Jerusalem.  His  leadership  awakened  great 
enthusiasm.  Rabbi  Akiba  (q.v.)  joined  him, 
and  the  movement  required  great  exertions  to 
crush,  but  in  135  Bethar,  their  stronghold, 
was  taken,  Bar-Kochba  slain,  and  the  "  sou  of 
a  star"  became  in  later  times  "  son  of  a  lie" 
— Bar-Koziba.  (Cf.  art.  in  Smith  and  Wace, 
Diet.  Chr.  Biog.,  and  J.  H.  Schwarz,  Der 
Bar-Cochbaische  Aufstand,  Briinn,  1885.) 

Barlaatn  and  Josaphat,  saints  in  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches.  Their  cult  began  some- 
what previous  to  the  13th  century.  Josaphat 
was  an  Indian  prince  of  the  earliest  period, 
wiiose  story  presents  the  most  striking  points 
of  similarity  to  that  of  Buddha,  as  told  in  the 
"  Lalita  Vistara,"  the  legendary  life  of  Bud- 
dha. He  was  reared  in  ignorance  of  suffer- 
ing and  death  and  of  the  religion  of  Christ. 
But  finally  he  saw  a  leper  and  a  blind  man, 
and  then  a  dying  man,  and  thus  his  thouglits 
were  turned  to  the  destiny  of  man.  Barlaam 
appearing  from  the  desert  to  instruct  him  in 
the  Christian  religion,  he  reigned  a  while  suc- 
cessfully, and  then  became  a  hermit.  This 
famous  story  is  attributed  to  John  of  Damas- 


cus (q.v.),  and  appears  in  his  works,  Migne, 
Pat.  Or.  XCVL,  col.  860-1240;  German  trans, 
of  Greek  original  by  Liebrecht,  Miinster,  1847. 
It  is  found  in  the  ''  Golden  Legend."  In  the 
form  of  a  poem  it  is  spread  all  over  Europe. 
It  appeared  in  an  English  condensed  transla- 
tion, London,  1711.  F. 

Barletta  (Barlete,  de  Barolo,  Barolus),  Ga- 
briel de,  famous  Dominican  popular  preach- 
er ;  b.  at  Barletta,  near  Naples  ;  d.  about 
1480.  His  sermons  (Brixen,  1497-98,  2  vols.  ; 
numerous  later  ed.  ;  best,  Venice,  1577,  3 
vols.)  are  now  only  in  Latin  translation. 

Bar'-na-bas,  a  Levite  of  Cyprus,  who  was 
one  of  the  first  converts,  and  received  this 
name  (=  son  of  exhortation)  from  his  ability 
to  administer  counsel  and  cheer.  He  sold  an 
estate  and  laid  the  proceeds  at  the  apostles' 
feet  (Acts  iv.  37).  He  was  the  means  of  bring- 
ing the  church  at  Jerusalem  to  receive  Saul, 
the  reality  of  whose  conversion  they  at  first 
distrusted.  Afterward  he  labored  with  the 
apostle  at  Antioch  and  on  his  first  missionary 
journey,  but  not  on  his  second.  They  differed 
about  taking  with  them  Mark,  the  nephew  of 
Barnabas,  and  after  "a  sharp  contention" 
(Acts  XV.  39)  they  parted,  and  Barnabas  re- 
turned to  Cyprus.  He  is  not  further  men- 
tioned in  the  Acts,  but  it  appears  from  Gala- 
tians  (ii.  13)  that  he  sided  with  the  Judaizers 
at  Antioch.  We  learn  from  1  Cor.  ix.  6  that 
he  was  still  engaged  in  missionary  labors  in 
the  year  57. 

There  is  extant  an  epistle  (Eng.  trans.  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers,  Am.  rep.,  New  York,  vol.  1. 
137-149),  written  between  70  and  130  a.d., 
which  was  for  a  long  time  supposed  to  have 
been  written  by  Paul's  companion,  but  now  is 
attributed  to  some  Gentile  Christian  of  the 
same  name.  Cunningham,  Diss,  on  Ep.  of 
Bar.,  London,  1877.  C. 

Beirnabas,  Epistle  of.     See  above. 

Barnabites,  founded  by  Zaccaria,  1530. 
properly  "  Regular  Clerks  of  the  Congregation 
of  St.  Paul,"  derive  their  name  from  the 
Church  of  St.  Barnabas  in  Milan,  which  be- 
longed to  them.  They  took  the  usual  vows 
and  a  fourth,  "Never  to  seek  any  otfice  or 
ecclesiastical  dignity,  and  to  accept  no  post 
outside  of  their  order  without  i)ermission  of 
the  pope."  They  bind  themselves  to  care  for 
the  souls  of  men,  the  instruction  of  youth, 
and  the  proselyting  of  non-Catholics.  In  1880 
they  were  banished  from  France.  Their  chief 
house  is  in  Rome. 


Albert,  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Rome, 
N.  Y..  Dec.  1,  1798  ;  d.  in  Philadelphia,  Dec. 
24,  1870.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College, 
Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1820,  and  at  Princeton  The- 
ological Seminary,  1823,  became  Presbyterian 
pastor  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  1825,  and  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Philadelphia. 
1830  ;  emeritus,  1867.  His  trial  for  alleged 
heresy  on  the  subject  of  the  Atonement,  which 
he  taught  was  unlimited,  was  the  occasion  of 
the  disruption  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  into 
the  Old  and  New  School,  1837  ;  but  he  lived  to 
see  and  to  rejoice  in  the  imion  of  the  two,  1870. 
He  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  total  ab- 


BARONroS 


(87) 


BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAT 


stinence.  anti-slavery,  and  Sunday-school 
movements.  It  is,  however,  as  the  author  of 
urates  Explanatory  and  Practical  (Philadel- 
phia, 1832-68,  19  vols.),  covering  all  the  New 
Testament,  and  Job,  the  Psalms,  Isaiah,  and 
Daniel  in  the  Old,  that  his  has  become  a  house- 
hold name.  These  Notes  give  concisely,  in 
simple  language  and  in  edifying  fashion,  tlie 
results  of  wide  reading  and  critical  study. 
Upward  of  one  million  copies  of  them  have 
been  sold. 

Ba-ro'-ni-us  (Barono  or  Baronio),  Caesar, 
Koman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Sora,  district  of  Na- 
ples, Italy,  Oct.  30,  1538  ;  d.  in  Rome,  June 
30,  1607.  He  was  educated  at  Veroli  and 
Naples,  his  favorite  studies  being  theology 
and  jurisprudence.  In  1557  he  went  to  Home, 
entered  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri  ;  be- 
came its  superior,  1593  ;  apostolical  pronotary, 
1595  ;  a  cardinal,  1596  ;  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can, 1597  ;  and  might  have  been  chosen  pope 
liad  he  desired  it,  1605.  His  great  work  is 
the  Ecclesiastical  Annals  from  the  Birth  of 
Christ  till  1198  (Annales  ecclesiastici),  Rome, 
1588-1607,  12  vols.  ;  best  ed.  by  Mansi,  which 
gives  Pagi's  corrections  at  the  foot  of  each 
page,  1738-59,  38  vols.  ;  n.e.  by  A.  Theiner, 
wiUi  Raynald's,  de  Laderchi's  and  Theiuer's 
continuations,  which  bring  it  down  to  1585, 
Paris,  1864  sqq.  Notwithstanding  numerous 
errors,  the  work  remains  one  of  tlie  greatest 
works  in  its  department,  and  in  many  respects 
the  most  important  historical  work  produced 
by  the  Roman  Church.  It  is  Rome's  reply  to 
tlie  Protestant  Magdeb  u  rcj  Ce  n  t  ii  ries.  See  Cen- 
TUUiATous.  (Cf.  life  by  Hicronymus  Barna- 
beus,  Rome,  1651,  partial  German  trans., 
Augsburg,  1845.) 

Barrow,  Isaac,  D.D.  (by  roval  mandate, 
1670);  b.  in  London,  Oct.,  1630;  d.  there. 
May  4, 1677.  He  was  educated  at  C^ambridge  ; 
became  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  1649  ;  pro- 
fessor of  Greek,  1660  ;  Gresham  professor  of 
geometry,  1661  ;  Lucasian  professor  of  mathe- 
matics, 1663  ;  resigned  this  chair  to  Isaac 
Newton,  1669  ;  became  master  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, 1672.  Famous  as  a  mathematician,  he 
is  also  one  of  the  greatest  English  preachers, 
although  his  fame  was  mostly  posthumous. 
See  his  theological  works,  ed.  by  A.  Napier, 
Cambridge,  1859,  9  vols.  ;  his  mathematical,  bv 
Wheweli,  1860  ;  chief  are  A  Treatise  of  the 
Pope's  Supremacy  (post,  1680)  and  his  ser- 
mons. (See  liis  biography  by  Dr.  AVhewell  in 
vol.  9  of  Napier's  ed.) 

Bar-thor-o-mew  (son  of  Talmai),  one  of  the 
twelve  apostles  (Matt.  x.  3).  He  is  named  in 
connection  with  Philip,  and  seems  to  have 
been  the  same  person  whom  John  calls  Na- 
thanael  (i.  45-51)  and  mentions  among  the 
other  apostles  (xxi.  2). 

Bartholomew's  Day,  The  Massacre  of  St., 
Sunday,  Aug.  24,   1572.     On  .Monday,  Aug. 
18,   1572,  the  wedding  of    Henry,   King  of 
Navarre,  and    Margaret  of   Valols,  .si.ster  of  ' 
diaries  IX..   King  Of  France  (I).   1550;  .'suc- 
ceeded. 1560  ;  d.  1574),  Wivs  celebrated  in  Paris,  i 
The  Huguenot  leaders  were  pre.s<'nt  in  strong 
force.     Thus  the  Roman  Catliolic  court,  big-  j 
oted  and  licentious,  was  confronted  with  the 


austerity,  piety,  and  purity  of  the  Protestants. 
The  queen-mother.  Catharine  de'  Medici,  was 
particularly  jealous  of  Admiral  Coligny.  and 
per(;eiving  that  he  influenced  Charles  IX. 
very  greatly,  determined,  in  conjunction  with 
her  sou,  Henry  of  Anjou,  to  kill  him.  Ac- 
cordingly he  was  fired  on  on  Aug.  22d.  It  is 
credibly  "stated  that  if  he  "  liad  dietl  at  once, 
no  others  would  have  been  slain.  But  inas- 
much as  he  survived,  and  they  apprehended 
that  some  great  calamity  might  happen  should 
he  draw  closer  to  the  king,  they  [the  queen- 
mother,  the  Dukes  of  Anjou  and  Gui.se,  and 
the  Duche.'^s  of  Nemours]  resolved  to  throw 
aside  shame  and  to  have  him  killed  together 
with  the  rest"  (Salviati,  quoted  by  Baird,  Rise 
of  the  Iliir/uenots,  ii.,  435,  436).  This  was 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  king.  The 
shooting  of  Coligny  alarmed  the  Huguenots, 
l)ut  they  were  pacified  by  the  assurances  of 
Charles.  It  was  then  Catharine  and  her 
party's  turn  to  be  alarmed,  for  the  Huguenots 
were  demanding  the  punishment  of  the  would- 
be  assassin.  They  won  Charles  to  their  side 
by  working  upon  his  fears  of  a  Huguenot  ris- 
ing, and  on  Saturday  night,  Aug.  23,  he  gave 
the  order  for  the  massacre  the  next  morning, 
and  at  daybreak  the  carnage  began.  Tlie 
houses  in  which  the  Protestants  lodged  had 
been  previously  marked.  The  a.ssassins  were 
led  by  the  Guises,  the  Bastard  of  Angoul^me, 
and  Marshal  Tavannes.  Coligny  was  killed 
first.  His  head  was  embalmed' and  .sent  to 
Pop(!  Gregory  XIII.  His  body  was  dragged 
for  3  days  through  the  streets.  Next  came 
the  -slaying  of  the  Huguenot  nobles  in  the 
Louvre.  But  this  was  but  the  beginning. 
The  bell  of  the  "Palais  de  Justice"  pealed 
forth  the  agreed-upon  tocsin,  and  the  indis- 
criminate slaughter  of  the  Protestants  in  Pari.s 
began  and  lasted  for  4  days,  and  extended 
to  as  many  as  4000  persons  of  all  ages  and 
conditions.'  Only  the  King  of  Navarre  and 
his  cousin,  tin;  Prince  of  Cond6,  were  spared 
of  the  nobles.  Charles  incited  mas,sacres  of 
the  Huguenots  throughout  his  kingdom  by 
direct  command,  and  some  20.0(K»  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  killed.  When  Pope  Greg- 
ory XIII.  heard  of  this  butchery  he  and  liis 
court  went  in  solemn  proce.'^sion  to  thediurcli 
of  San  Luiiri  de'  Francesi,  and  publicly  re- 
turned thanks,  Sept.  6,  1572.  A  medal  wa.s 
struck  which  bore  on  its  reverse  '*  L'gonol to- 
rum  .strages"  (massacre  of  the  Huguenots), 
1572.  Va.sari  painted  on  papal  order  3  pic- 
tures representing  different  .scenes  in  the  Pa- 
risian massacre  ;  lliev  are  now  in  tlu^  ante- 
room of  the  Sistine  ("'haix'l.  But  there  waa 
general  execration  in  Europe.  Charles,  the 
king,  "with  tlie  ma.s.sacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Dav  had  lost  all  the  elasticity  of  youth" 
—he  was  only  23.  "  Remorse  for  complicity 
in  the  crime  then  perpetrated  cooperated 
witli  the  iM-r.suasion  of  the  xi.M-lessne.vs  and 
complete  failure  of  the  attempt  to  exterminate 
the  Huguenots,  and  the  consciousness  of  hav- 
ing incurred  the  imlelible  mark  of  hatred  and 
detestation  of  an  impartial  posterity.  Even 
in  his  sleeping  liours  the  curse  of  the  inunlerwl 
victims  pursued  him  and  disturb<d  liis  rest." 
Baird.  I.e..  ii..  605.  He  died  of  a  bloo<lv 
sweat,  Sundav,   May  30,  1574.     (See  Baird, 


BARTHOLOMITES 


(88) 


BASIL 


Rise  of  the  HuguenoU  of  France,   ii.,   chap, 
xviii.-xx.) 

Bartholomites.  1.  Order  foiinded  by  fugi- 
tive Armenians  in  Genoa,  1808,  where  tliej 
built  a  church  to  St.  Bartholomew.  They 
joined  the  Roman  Church  later,  and  the  order 
was  dissolved  in  1650.  2.  A  congregation  of 
secular  jjriests  founded  by  Bartholomaus  Holz- 
hauser  (1G13-58),  canon  of  Salzburg,  1640  ; 
designed  to  provide  'good  preachers  and  pas- 
tors. It  spread  rapidly  at  first,  but  fell  to 
pieces  in  the  18th  century. 

Barton,  Blizabeth,  the  "  Nun"  or  "  Maid 
of  Kent  ;"  b.  1J306  ;  became  a  domestic  ser- 
vant at  Aldington,  Kent,  1535  ;  had  trances 
and  made  "  revelations  ;"  and  finding  that 
she  gained  repute  thereby,  willingly  lent  her- 
self to  the  scheme  of  Edward  Hocking,  a  priest 
and  monk,  and  pretended  to  be  in  direct  com- 
munication with  the  Virgin  Mary.  Her  fame 
as  a  prophetess  spread  all  over  England.  She 
passionately  opposed  Henry  VIII. 's  divorce 
from  Queen  Catherine,  and  because  he  mar- 
ried Anne  Boleyn  declared  that  he  was  no 
longer  king  in  "the  sight  of  God.  Cranmer 
ingeniously  contrived  to  expose  her  preten- 
sions, and  on  the  charge  of  treason  she  and 
her  principal  confederates  were  executed  at 
Tyburn  in  London,  April  20,  1534.  (See 
Stephen,  i)ic^.  NaVl  Biocj.,  s.v.) 

Baruch.  See  Pseudepigrapha  and  Apoc- 
rypha. 

Baruli.     See  C.^thari. 

Basel,  Confession  of.  Two  in  number  : 
1.  By  Oswald  Myconius,  upon  the  basis  of  a 
confession  by  Qicolampadius,  published  Jan. 
21,  1534,  adopted  at  Miihlliausen,  1537,  and  is 
the  public  confession  of  the  present  Church 
of  Basel.  (Cf.  Schaff,  Cz-eerfi*,  i.,  387.)  2.  The 
First  Helvetic  Confession  is  often  styled  the 
Second  Confession  of  Basel,  because  written 
there  ;  do  pp.  388  sqq. 

Basel  Missionary  Society.     See  Missions. 

Basel,  Council  of  (Aug.  27,  1431-May  7, 
1449),  assembled  at  the  call  of  the  pope  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance. The  papacy  was  naturally  opposed 
to  the  calling  of  the  council,  but  was  obliged 
by  the  pressure  of  circumstances  to  yield  to 
the  general  demand.  Political  complications, 
and  particularly  the  successes  of  the  Bohemian 
heretics,  re-enforced  the  common  requirement. 
At  first  the  prospects  of  a  successful  meeting- 
did  not  seem  to  be  great,  but  before  long  the 
council  enjoyed  the  general  favor  of  the  church 
at  large,  and  the  brightest  anticipations  were 
cherished.  But  the  pope,  Eugene  IV.,  was 
in  constant  conflict  with  the  council  from  the 
beginning.  This  led,  no  doubt,  to  the  first 
general  effort  of  the  council,  which  was  to 
define  its  relations  with  the  papal  see.  After 
its  legitimacy  had  been  acknowledged  by 
Eugene,  he  was  invited  to  be  present  at  ifs 
sessions  ;  but  afraid  of  the  fate  of  John 
XXIII.,  he  declined  to  come,  and  scarcely  es- 
caped immediate  removal.  The  beginning  of 
the  year  1433  saw  the  efforts  to  bring  the 
Bohemian  schism  to  an  end.     Procopius  ap- 


peared with  followers  in  Basel,  and  the  coun- 
cil finally  made  a  compact  with  him  by  which 
the  cup  was  allowed  to  the  laity,  and  other 
concessions,  more  apparent  than  real,  were 
granted.  In  1435  the  council  began  its  at- 
tempts to  reform  the  church,  but  in  general  it 
sought  to  do  this  only  by  diminishing  the 
power  of  the  Roman  court,  in  which  it  seemed 
to  aim  rather  at  weakening  a  rival  than  at 
benefiting  the  church  at  large.  The  annats 
were  forbidden,  but  less  was  said  about  the 
concubinage  of  the  clergy.  A  division  in  the 
council  itself  was  thus  produced,  for  some, 
who  desired  the  reform  of  the  church,  did  not 
wish  to  break  with  the  established  ecclesiasti- 
cal government ;  and  finally  discussions  upon 
a  proposed  meeting  with  ambassadors  of  the 
Greek  Church,  with  a  view  to  a  reunion,  caused 
so  violent  outbreaks  that  Cesarini,  the  cardi- 
nal who  had  been  up  to  this  time  the  leader 
of  the  council,  withdrew  with  nearly  all  the 
other  cardinals,  and  left  a  feeble  minority  un- 
der the  presidency  of  the  only  remaining  car- 
dinal, the  Bishop  of  Aries.  The  remaining 
acts  of  the  council  were  of  little  importance. 
Eugene  was  deposed  (1439)  and  Amadeus  of 
Savoy  chosen  pope,  who  took  the  name  of 
Felix  V.  France  declared  against  and  then 
for  Eugene.  All  at  last  depended  upon  the 
decision  of  Germany,  and  Eugene  had  the 
satisfaction  of  receiving  her  submission  upon 
his  death-bed  in  1447.  In  1448  the  council 
was  transferred  to  Lausanne  ;  and  at  last, 
having  saved  its  credit  by  electing  as  pope 
Nicolaus  v.,  who  was  already  pope  by  the 
election  of  the  regular  cardinals,  it  was  dis- 
solved in  1449.  Thus  perished  all  hope  of  re- 
form of  the  Roman  Church  w  ithin  itself  by 
means  of  its  regular  organs.  F. 

Bash'-an  {rich,  soil),  a  hilly  district  east  of 
the  Jordan  between  Mt.  Hermon  on  the  north 
and  Gilead  on  the  south.  It  covered  the  re- 
gion afterward  divided  into  4  provinces : 
Gaulanitis  (JriM^a/i),  Auranitis  (//r/^z/vfy^),  Tra- 
chonitis  {el  Ley  ah),  and  Batan;ea  {Edtltanyeh). 
It  was  famed  for  its  rich  pastures  (Micah  vii. 
14,  Jer.  1.  19)  ;  for  its  stately  oaks  (Isa.  ii.  13, 
Ezek.  xxvii.  6)  ;  and  for  its  fine  cattle  (Deut. 
xxxii.  14,  Ps.  xxii.  12).  It  is  still  an  attrac- 
tive region,  well  watered  and  luxuriant,  and 
healthful.  It  is  thickly  strewn  with  ruins 
of  towns  and  villages,  all  built  of  stone  and 
well  preserved,  norwithstanding  their  great 
age.  Some  of  these  are  of  very  great  size  and 
others  are  exquisite  in  taste.  After  the  con- 
quest of  Og,  Bashan  was  assigned  to  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh  (Josh.  xiii.  29,  30),  and  it  is 
mentioned  in  Solomon's  time  (1  Kings  iv.  13) 
as  having  threescore  great  cities  with  walls 
and  brazen  bars.  It  w-as  devastated  by  Ha- 
zael,  but  recovered  by  Jeroboam  II.  (2  Kings 
x.  33,  xiv.  25),  and' finally  depopulated  by 
Tiglath  Pileser  (do.  xv.  29).  Afterward  it 
was  occupied  by  various  Syrian  and  Arabian 
tribes,  and  in  the  year  637  passed  under  the 
control  of  the  Moslems.  It  is  now  traversed  by 
Bedaween,  who  are  at  constant  variance  with 
each  other.  For  centuries  the  Hauran  moun- 
tains have  been  colonized  by  the  Druses.     C. 

Basil  the  Great,  bishop  of  CiEsarea  in  Cap- 
padocia  ;  b.  iu  Ca?sarea  about  330  ;  d.  there. 


BASILIANS 


(89) 


BAUR 


Jan.  1,  879.  He  was  rllstinguished  as  a  leader 
in  the  Arian  controversy,  and  as  a  liturgical 
and  monastic  reformer.  His  earl}'  life  was 
spent  under  Christian  influences,  for  he  was 
born  in  a  Christian  family  of  great  zeal  and 
devotion.  But  his  early  studieshad  no  special 
reference  to  the  church,  and  he  jjursued  them 
at  home,  at  Constantinople,  and  at  Athens. 
In  the  latter  place  he  made  the  ac(iuaintance 
with  one  who  was  afterward  his  tirm  friend, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus.  Returned  from  there 
(about  357),  and  filled  with  the  ascetic  ideal 
of  life,  Basil  abandoned  the  life  of  a  rheto- 
rician, for  which  he  had  fitted  himself  and 
which  he  had  begun,  distributed  his  wealth 
among  the  poor,  and  with  some  friends  gave 
himself  up  to  the  monastic  life.  His  interest 
was  at  this  time  exclusivc'ly  engaged  in  the 
practical  side  of  Christianity,  but  when  Dia- 
nius.  Bishop  of  Ca-sarea,  siuncd  the  fornuila  of 
Constantius,  which  was  designed  to  unite  all 
parties  in  the  Trinitarian  controversy,  but 
leaned  too  strongly  toward  Arianism  to  please 
Basil,  his  interest  began  to  incline  to  the  doc- 
trinal questions  of  the  day.  Made  presbyter 
in  Cie^area  (about  364),  he  was  brought  out 
of  his  monastic  seclusion  into  the  active  man- 
agement of  the  church,  and  by  his  conduct  of 
the  discipline,  his  devotion  to  the  ascetic  side 
of  the  church  life,  and  his  elquence  as  a 
preacher,  was  soon  the  real  manager  of  the 
church,  and  succeeded  the  bishop  in  370.  He 
soon  became  known  as  a  defender  of  the 
Nicene  orthodoxy,  and  even  refused  to  yield 
to  the  personal  solicitations  of  the  Emperor 
Valens  to  favor  Arianism.  The  question  as 
to  the  personality  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  in- 
volved in  the  contest,  and  though  Basil  fully 
taught  his  deity,  he  did  not  apply  to  him  the 
predicate  "  homociusios."  This  excited  sus- 
picions of  his  orthodoxy,  which  were  increased 
by  his  disposition  to  hold  on  to  Eustathius  of 
Sebaste,  who  inclined  again  to  the  Arian  side. 
Thus  the  waves  of  controversy  rose  high,  and 
Basil  was  not  i)ermitte(l  to  see  the  final  result, 
though  tlie  death  of  Valens  .seemed  to  promise 
relief  from  persecution  before  Basil  was  him- 
.self  called  from  the  earth.  His  works  (found 
in  Migne,  P.it.  Gr.,  XIX.-XXXH.)  are  of  a 
theological  or  an  ascetic  and  ethical  character, 
and  embrace  also  sermons  and  commentaries. 
The  great  charitable  institution  which  he 
founded  outside  of  the  walls  of  Ctesarea  was  an 
enduring  monument  of  significant  character. 
(See  life  by  R.  T.  Smith,  London,  1879.)    F. 

Basilians,  monks  named  after  Basil  the 
Great.  Tliey  spread  rapidly  in  the  East  and 
"West,  and  the  rule  of  Basil  \vas,  until  tlie  time 
of  Benedict  of  Nursia  (540),  the  basis  of  all 
monastic  institutions.  Since  that  time  they 
have  been  chiefly  confined  to  the  Eastern 
Church,  where  no'  other  nde  is  known.  Still, 
in  the  Western  Church  they  have  a  few  con- 
srreirations,  numbering  about  50  houses  and 
1000  members.  F. 

Basilica.    See  Architecture,  Ecclesias- 

TUAI,. 

Basilides  (flourislied  about  130),  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  the  early  Gno.stics,  believed  to  | 
have  been  born  in  Egypt  and  to  have  studied 
at  Alexandria.     Little"  is  known  of  his  personal 


life.     For  an  accoimt  of  his  doctrines  .see  the 
article  Gnosticism.  '      p 

Basnage  de  Beauval  (bd-nazh  deh  bo-val) 
Jacques,  b.  at  Rouen,  Aug.  8.  1(553  ;  d.  at  Tlie 
Hague,  Dec.  22,  1723.  He  was  a  preacher  in 
Rouen  until  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  (KWa)  drove  him  into  exile  and  he 
went  to  Rotterdam,  then  to  The  Hague,  170S>. 
He  was  appointed  historiographer  of'thc'states 
General,  and  employed  in  several  delicate  dip- 
lomatic- affairs.  His  principal  works  are  a 
church  history  down  to  his  dav,  written  in 
reply  to  Bossuet  {Hixttnrc.  dr  l'ef/li.'<r  <lr/,>iis 
Je.siis  Christ  ju!i(iirn  jiresnit,  Kotti'rdam.  KI'.MJ, 
2  vols.),  and  a  history  of  the  Jews  (Jf/sfoirr  d<» 
Jnifs  .  .  .  jiisqu'd  pfesnit.llOitJ)  \o\h.;  Eiig. 
trans. ,  London,  1708).  (See  his  life  by  .Mailbert. 
Paris,  1881.) 

Bath.  Washing  was  reqtiired  by  the  Mcsaic 
law  in  case  of  Levitical  uncleanncss  (Lev.  xiv. 
8,  XV.  6,  xvi.  28,  Num.  xix.  19,  Deut.  xxiii. 
11),  and  of  the  high-priest  before  each  act  of 
expiation  on  the  day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi. 
4,  24),  and  at  his  consecration  (viii.  6).  Jt 
was  also  a  part  of  the  toilette  (Ruth  iii.  3,  2 
Sam.  xii.  20.  Ezek.  xxiii.  40).  The  laver  at 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle  was  for  the  priests 
to  wash  in  before  entering  (H\.  xxx.  19-21). 
The  Hebrews  used  running  water  (licv.  xv. 
13)  and  also  open  basins  in  courtyards  (2  Sam. 
xi.  2).  In  the  New  Testament  "th(  re  is  men- 
tion of  the  baths  Bethesda  and  Siloam  (.John 
v.  2,  ix.  7). 

Among  the  later  Jews  bathing  was  univer- 
sal, every  considerable  town  having  a  jiublic 
bath.  The  Talmud  praises  the  habit  earnestly, 
and  jirescribes  the  construction  and  use  of  the 
bathing-rooms.  Great  rabbins,  rather  than 
not  bathe,  would  frequent  heathen  baths. 

Among  Christians  voices  were  raised  agaiiist 
the  use  of  the  public  baths,  where  often  both 
sexes  bathed  together  ;  still  they  were  not  for- 
mally forbidden.  From  Constantine's  time 
it  was  usual  to  build  baths  near  the  basilicas 
for  ecclesiastical  i>iirposes.  C. 

Bath-Kol  {ddiighier  of  the  toice,  i.e.,  echo), 
a  Talniiidic  term  for  a  supposed  divine  reve- 
lation, as  the  echo  of  a  voice  from  heaven. 
This  was  thought  to  remain  when,  upon  the 
death  of  Haggai,  Zechariah  and  ^lalachi,  the 
Holy  Ghost  had  cea.sed  to  sjx-ak  through 
prophets.  C". 

Baumgarten-Crusius  flmwm-gar-ten  kroo- 
ze-us),  Ludwig  Friedrich  Otto,  1).  at  Mer.sc- 
i)urg,5()m.  s.s.f.  of  Magileliurg. Germany,.!  Illy 
31,  1788  ;  d.  at  Jena,  May  31.  1843.  He.vtudied 
at  Leipzig  ;  became  university  iireacher  llure. 
1810;  professor  extraordinary  of  theology  at 
Jena,  1812  ;  profes.sor  ordinary,  1S17.  He  was 
a  cham|)ioii  of  supernaturalism  against  current 
rationalism.  His  best-known  wriling.s  are  his 
text-books  on  ethics  {Lthrbiirh  d(  r  rhriftlirfitn 
Sitt,nl,hn\  JA'ipzig.  1S27)  and  the  history  of 
doctrine  (I)»r/,iu'H!/<Krhirhtr.  Jena.  18;il-32.  3 
vols.),  his  h'ompeiufiinii  (\H-i()-4CK  2  vols.;  re- 
vi.sed  and  linished  by  Hiise).  and  exjwisitions  of 
Jolin's  writinirs,  tlnol^xjixrhc  .\>ixU>iin,fj  der 
JohaunciKchen  Schriften,  .leiia.  ls43-45.  2  vols. 
Baur  (1)6 wr),  Ferdinand  Christian,  Protec- 
tant theologian,  founder  of  the  school  of  New 


BAUR 


(90) 


BAXTER 


Testament  and  historical  criticism  whicli  bears 
his  name  ;  b.  at  Schmiden,  near  Stuttgart, 
Wurteniberg,  Germany,  June  31,  1792  •  d. 
at  Tubingen,  Dec.  2,  1860.  He  studied  theol- 
ogy in  the  Blaubeuren  Theological  Seminary, 
1805-09,  and  in  the  University  of  Tiibiugen, 
1809-17  ;  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
former,  1817,  and  in  the  latter,  1826.  After 
issuing  his  Symbolism  and  Mythology,  or  the 
Nature-Religion  of  Antiquity  (Stuttgart,  1824- 
25,  2  vols.),  he  entered  on  that  famous  criticism 
of  the  history  of  doctrine,  ecclesiastical  symbol- 
ics, and  biblical  criticism,  which  compelled 
the  advocates  of  the  old  faith  to  make  a  thor- 
ough study  of  the  foundations  of  their  belief. 
He  began  as  a  disciple  of  Schleiermacher,  but 
went  over  to  the  Hegelians,  and  applied  their 
principles  to  the  study  of  church  history,  as  is 
manifest  in  his  books  on  Manicheism  (Tubin- 
gen, 1831),  and  the  historical  development  of 
the  philosophy  of  religion.  Die  christliche  Gno- 
sis, 1835.  In  the  tield  of  historical  theology  he 
produced  works  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Atone- 
ment (1838),  and  of  the  Trinity  and  Incar- 
nation (1841-43,  3  vols.)  ;  a  text-book  of  the 
history  of  doctrine  (Stuttgart,  1847  ;  3d  ed., 
1867)  ;  and  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  same 
(Leipzig,  1865-67,  3  vols.).  In  symbolics  he 
wrote  a  defence  of  evangelical  doctrine  against 
Mohler's  Symbolics  {Der  Oegensatz  des  Kathol- 
izismus  u.  Protestantism  us,  Tiibingen,  1st  and 
2d  ed.,  1836).  But  his  most  cliaracteristic 
work  was  done  in  the  criticism  of  primitive 
Christianity.  Where  before  had  been  seen 
only  peace  and  unity  Baur  discovered  discord 
and  enmity.  According  to  him  the  early  church 
was  rent  by  a  strife  between  the  Jewish  or 
Petrine  party,  which  held  that  circumcision 
and  the  Mosaic  law  generally  was  obligatory 
on  the  Gentiles,  and  the  Pauline  party,  \vhicli 
insisted  that  the  Old  Testament  ritual  and  re- 
ligious rights  and  privileges  of  Judaism  had 
been  abolished,  and  that  Gentile  and  Jew  alike 
must  be  saved  solely  by  faith.  The  Catholic 
Church  was  the  resultant  of  these  opposing 
forces  ;  in  her  peace  was  made.  But  the 
monuments  of  this  unifying  process  are  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  wliich,  for  the 
most  part,  were  written  in  the  2(1  century,  and 
in  order  either  to  advance  the  ideas  of  one  of 
these  parties  or  to  make  a  compromise  be- 
tween them.  Before  a.d.  70  the  only  genuine 
writings  are  the  4  chief  epistles  of  Paul 
(Romans,  1  and  2  Corinthians,  and  Gala- 
tians)  and  the  Revelation,  the  latter  repre- 
senting Jewish  Christianity.  His  followers, 
Zeller,  Schwegler,  Kostlin,  Hilgenfeld,  and 
others  who  constitute  the  Baur,  or  2d  Tubin- 
gen school,  pursued  his  line  of  investigation, 
but  the  theory  is  now  generally  abandoned. 
It  was  a  good  working  hypothesis,  and  fruit- 
ful in  results  the  opposite  its  advocates  desired. 
It  was  a  revival  of  Ebionism  and  Marcion 
Gnosticism.  (See  Baur's  Church  IIistor>/  of 
the  First  Tliree  Centuries,  Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1878-79,  2  vols.  [German  orig.  carries  it 
down  to  1848  ;  Tiibingen,  1853-62,  5  vols.  ; 
3d  ed.,  vol.  1  and  2,  1863;  2d  ed  vol  3 
1869;  vol.  5,  2d  ed..  1877],  and  Paul,  Eng.' 
trans.,  1873-75,  2  vols.  [German  orig.  Stutt- 
gart, 1845  ;  2d  ed..  Leipzig,  1866-67,  2  vols.]. 
Cf.  Schaff,  Hist.  Chr.  Ch.\  rev.  ed,,  i.,  210.) 


Bautain  (bo-tan),  IjOui,g  Eugene  Marie, 
Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Paris.  Feb.  17,  1795  ;  d. 
at  Viroflay,  near  Versailles,  Oct.  15,  1867.  He 
was  professor  of  philosophy  at  Strassburg, 
1819,  but  removed,  1823,  on  account  of  his 
advocacy  of  Fichte's  views.  He  then  studied 
theology  and  became  a  priest  ;  resumed  lectur- 
ing, but  for  his  assertion  that  reason  could 
not  prove  the  being  of  God  or  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  he  was  suspended  by  his  bishop 
and  condemned  by  Rome,  1834,  and  it  was 
not  until  1841  that  he  submitted.  In  1848  he 
became  honorary  general  vicar  of  the  diocese 
of  Paris,  and  in  1853  professor  of  moral  theol- 
ogy in  Paris.  Very  popular  has  been  his  Art 
of  Extempore  Speaking,  orig.  Paris,  1856  ;  2d 
ed.,  1863  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1858  ;  5th  ed., 
1872. 

Baxter,  Richard,  b.  at  Eaton-Constantine, 
near  Shrewsbury,  England,  Sunday,  Nov.  12, 
1615  ;  d.  in  London,  Tuesday,  Dec.  8,  1691. 
He  was  educated  at  Wro-xeter  until  he  was  18, 
when,  instead  of  going  to  Oxford,  he  studied 
under  a  private  tutor,  who  neglected  him,  and 
advised  his  becoming  a  courtier.  To  White- 
hall he  accordingly  went,  but  quickly  returned 
home  in  disgust,  and  his  mother  shortly  after 
dying,  he  determined  to  be  a  minister.  He 
studied  theology  under  the  parish  clergyman, 
was  ordained,  and  became  head-master  of  a 
school  at  Dudley,  1638  ;  in  1640  assistant  min- 
ister at  Bridgenorth,  Shropshire,  and  in  1641 
he  began  his  ministry  at  Kidderminster,  coun- 
ty of  Worcester,  where  he  effected  a  wonder- 
ful moral  transformation.  His  name  is  in- 
separably linked  with  that  of  the  town,  where 
he  lived  for  the  greater  part  of  19  years.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  war  he  tried  to  hold  a  middle 
position,  but  was  often  compelled  to  leave 
Kidderminster.  Thus,  in  1647,  he  lived  with 
Lady  Rouse  of  Rouse-Lench,  and  there  wrote 
part  of  his  immortal  Saint's  Everlasting  Best. 
In  1660  he  linally  left  Kidderminster  for  Lon- 
don. King  Charles  II.  made  him  one  of  his 
chaplains,  and  CMarendon  offered  to  make  him 
bishop  of  Hereford  ;  but  he  desired  rather  to 
go  back  to  Kidderminster.  This  could  not 
be.  When  the  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed 
(1662)  he  quietly  withdrew  from  the  Church 
of  England,  and  by  so  doing  gave  emphatic 
expression  to  views  long  cherished  and  derived 
from  the  most  painstaking  study.  He  con- 
tinued, however,  to  preach  as  opportunity 
served.  In  1685  he  was  tried  before  Jeffreys 
on  the  charge  of  libelling  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land in  his  Paraphrase  of  the  Aew  Testament, 
and  after  patiently  enduring,  as  was  his  wont, 
the  gro.ss  insults  of  Jeffreys,  was  fined  500 
marks  and  sentenced  to  remain  in  prison  until 
they  were  paid.  The  fine  was  remitted,  and 
he  was  discharged  from  prison  after  18  months. 
He  resumed  preaching  in  London,  lived  to 
see  William  and  Mary  brought  in  and  to  com- 
ply with  their  Tolera"tion  Act.  His  last  days 
were  full  of  peace  and  honor.  He  is  one  of 
the  noblest  figures  in  ecclesiastical  biography. 
By  diligence  he  acquired  rare  learning,  even 
in  that  time  ;  but  he  cultivated  his  soul  no  less 
than  his  mind,  and  that  is  the  reason  why  his 
irenics  shine  so  conspicuously  forth  amid  the 
fiercely  quarrelsome  controversies  of  the  time. 
His  greatest  works  are  household   classics, 


BAYLE 


(91) 


BEATIFICATION 


especially  The  Saint's  Everlasting  liest,  Lou- 
don, 1650  ;  Oildas  Salmanus ;  or  The  Re- 
formed Pastor,  1C56  ;  and  A  Call  to  the  Un- 
conix'vtcd.  One  of  the  best,  More  Jieasons  for 
the  Christian  Religion  and  no  Reason,  against 
It,  1673,  deserves  to  be  better  known.  In  all 
he  wrote  168  separate  works.  As  a  preacher 
he  was  renowned  and  beloved.  Ilis  position 
was  the  painful  one  of  mediation,  while  men 
were  sharply  divided.  He  produced  a  Re- 
formed Liturgy  for  the  Savoy  Conference 
(1660),  but  it  was  not  considered.  It  was  with 
sadness,  though  without  hesitation,  that  he  re- 
mained outside  of  the  National  Church,  for  he 
loved  peace,  and  was  personally  on  excellent 
terms  with  the  state  clergy.  A  statue  was 
erected  to  his  memory  at  Kidderminster,  July 
28,  1875,  which  bears  this  striking  inscription  : 
'•  Between  the  years  1641  and  1660  this  tow^n 
was  the  scene  of  the  labors  of  Richard  Baxter, 
renowned  equally  for  his  Christian  learning 
and  his  pastoral"  fidelity.  In  a  stormy  and 
divided  age  he  advocated  unity  and  compre- 
hension, pointing  the  way  to  everlasting  rest. 
Churchmen  and  Nonconformists  united  to 
raise  this  memorial,  a.d.  1875.""  It  is  he  who 
has  given  currency  to  the  golden  saying  of 
Meldenius  :  "  In  necessary  tlnngs,  unity  ;  in 
unnecessary  things,  liberty  ;  in  both  things, 
charity."  (See  his  autobiography  [in  English], 
Reliqtiice  Baxteriana',  London,  1696  ;  the  life 
hy  Orme  prefixed  to  this  edition  of  his  Prac- 
tical Works,  London,  1830,  33  vols.  ;  and  the 
sketch  by  Boyle,  London  and  New  York, 
1883.) 

Bayle  (bal),  Pierre,  rationalist  ;  b.  at  Carlat, 
Southern  France  (department  Ariege),  Nov. 
18,  1647  ;  d.  at  Kotterdam,  Dec.  28,  1706. 
His  father  was  a  Calvinistic  minister,  but  he 
was  educated  at  a  Jesuit  college  at  Toulou.se  ; 
abjured  Protestantism  (March  19,  1669),  but 
again  professed  it  (Aug.  21,  1670)  ;  studied 
theology  at  Geneva,  and  afterward  was  a  pri- 
vate tutor  there.  From  1675  until  1681,  when 
it  was  suppressed,  he  was  professor  of  phil- 
o.sophy  at  the  Protestant  university  at  Sedan  ; 
then  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  history 
at  Rotterdam  until  his  dismissal,  in  1693,  for 
writing  a  pamphlet  {Adcice  to  Refugees)  which 
apparently  reflected  on  the  Dutch.  His  mas- 
terpiece is  his  Dictionari/,  Wstorieal  and  Criti- 
cal, orig.  French,  Rotterdam,  1697,  2  vols.  ;  2d 
ed.,  1702,  4  vols.  ;  11th  ed.,  witli  additions, 
Paris,  1820-24.  16 vols.;  trans.,  London.  1710, 
4  vols. ;  3d  ed. .  1734-38,  5  vols.  His  scepticism 
comes  out  in  this  book,  but  it  is  tliat  of  "  the 
literary  man  of  the  world,  who  in  his  reading 
has  encountered  so  many  oi)posing  and  well- 
supported  arguments  on  ail  subjects  that  he 
feels  inclined  to  hold  that  no  certainty  caii 
ever  be  attained"  {Enrgc.  Brit.).  His  JS'ou- 
rellcs  de  la  Ripublique  dts  J^ttres  (Amsterdam, 
1684-89)  was  a  primitive  and  successful  at- 
tempt to  popidari/.e  literature.  Worthy  of 
note  are  also  his  dissuasive  against  the  absurd 
notions  then  prevalent  as  to  com(;ts,  and  his 
trenchant  criticism  (1683)  of  Maimbourg's  his- 
tory of  Cahinism.  His  biography,  by  Des 
Maizeaux,  is  in  the  last  ed.  of  trans,  of  his  dic- 
tionary quoted. 

Bayly,  Lewis  (D.D.,  Oxford,   1613)  ;  b.  at 


Carmarthen,  Wales ;  educated  at  Oxford  ; 
became  vicar  of  Evesham  ;  then  rector  in 
London  ;  and  finally  bi.shop  of  Bangor,  1016  ; 
d.  there,  Oct.  26,  1631.  He  wrote  IVie  Prac- 
tice of  Pietie,  London,  1612(?),  an  extraordi- 
narily popular  P\iritan  favorite  ;  35th  ed., 
1635  ;  lasted.,  1842. 

BdeU'-ium,  a  production  of  Havilah  (Gen. 
ii.  12),  and  referred  to  in  the  description  of 
manna  (Num.  xi.  7).  Some  make  it  a  pre- 
cious stone  (Ge.senius  pearls),  but  most  writers 
now  consider  it  an  odoriferous  wax-like  resin 
which  exudes  from  a  sort  of  palm  native  in 
many  parts  of  the  East.  C. 

Beadle  (one  who  bids),  in  England  "a 
parish  ollicer  having  various  subordinate  du- 
ties, .such  as  keeping  order  in  church,  ]nniish- 
ing  petty  offenders,  waiting  on  the  clergyman, 
attending  meetings  of  vestry  or  session,  etc." 
Century  Dictionary,  s.v. 

Beads.     See  Rosauy. 

Beard,  with  Asiatics  a  badge  of  manly  dig- 
nity. It  was  a  gross  in.sult  to  cut  olT  or  mu- 
tilate another's  beard  (2  Sam.  x.  4),  but  in 
times  of  deep  sorrow  it  was  plucked  out  (Ez. 
ix.  3)  or  allowed  to  be  untrimmed  (2  Sam. 
xix.  24).  The  Jews  were  forbidden  to  mar 
the  corners  of  the  beard  (Lev.  xix.  27),  dovdit- 
le.ss  to  cut  them  off  from  a  heathen  or  idola- 
trous usage.  In  Christian  times  the  clergy 
usually  conformed  to  what  was  tlie  general 
custom  of  their  age,  but  in  the  Roman  Church 
they  always  shave  the  beard  and  receive  the 
tonsure  on  the  crown  of  the  head.  C. 

Beard,  Richard,  D.D.,  Cumberland  Pres- 
bj'terian  ;  b.  in  Sunnier  Count v,  Tenn.,  Nov. 
27,  1799  ;  d.  at  Lebanon,  Tenn!,  Nov.  6.  1880. 
He  began  preaching  in  1820  ;  graduated  at 
Cumberland  College,  Princeton,  Ky.,  1832; 
became  professor  of  languages  there,  1832, 
and  the  same  at  Sharon  (iliss.)  College,  1838  ; 
president  of  the  former.  1843  ;  but  in  1854  re- 
moved to  Cund)erlaud  University,  Lebanon, 
Tenn.,  as  professor  of  systematic  theologj-. 
He  was  the  leading  theologian  of  the  denomi- 
nation, and  publislied  Lectures  on  I'heoUigy, 
Nashville,  1870.  3  vols.  ;  Biographical  Sketches, 
2  vols.  ;  and  Why  am  la  Cumberland  l^csby- 
tcrian?  1874. 

Beatific  Vision,  "  the  direct  vision  of  God. 
supposed  to  constitute  the  e.s,sential  bliss  of 
saints  and  angels  in  heaven."  (Cf.  1  Cor. 
xiii.  12  ;  1  John  iii.  2  ;  Rev.  xxii.  3,  4.) 

Beatification,  the  act  of  declaring  a  pious 
deceased  jx  rson  to  Ix!  among  the  ble.ssed.  and 
tlierct'ore  wortliv  of  religious  honor.  It  is  sol- 
emnly made  bv  the  pope,  on  the  reconunen- 
dafion  of  .several  bishops,  and  generally  pre- 
cedes the  canonization  of  t  he  same.  1 1  cannot 
take  place  for  50  vears  after  the  jxrson's  <1<-. 
cea.se.  save  in  the  ca.se  of  martyrs.  The  cost  and 
the  ceremonies  are  much  less  than  for  canoni- 
zation. The  standard  authority  on  the  subject 
is  bv  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  (Lamb.rtini).  Be 
S^-rrorum  Dei  beatip'catiour,  etc.,  nov  (d.. 
Venice.  1766,  7  vols.  ;  Eng.  \raus  .  JI>r'>io 
Virtue:  a  Portion  of  the  Treatise  of  Benrdtct 
Y/r  on  the  Beatification  and  Canonizatton 
If  the  Servants  of  Ood,  London,  1850.  3  vols. 


BEAUSOBRE 


(93) 


BECEET 


Beausobre  (bo-sobr),  Isaac  de,  French  Prot- 
estant ;  b.  at  Niort,  March  8.  1659  ;  became 
preacher  at  Chatillon  sur_  Indre,  1688  ;  exiled 
by  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  iSTantes,  1685  ; 
he  preached  in  Dessau,  1686-93,  and  from 
1695  till  his  death,  June  5,  1738,  he  was  French 
pastor  in  Berlin.  He  was  noted  for  learning 
and  eloquence.  His  enduring  fame  was  made 
by  a  critical  history  of  Mani  and  Manicheism, 
French  orig.,  Amsterdam,  1734-39,  2  vols. 
With  Lenfant  he  made  a  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  from  the  Greek  with  a  com- 
mentary (Amsterdam,  1718,  2  vols.  ;  Eng. 
Irans.,  London,  1726).  His  History  of  the 
Reformation,  1517-30  (Berlin,  1785-86,  4  vols.  ; 
Eng.  trans.,  vol.  i.,  London,  1801),  was  posthu- 
mous, edited  by  L.  E.  Pajon  de  Moncets. 

Beck,  Johann  Tobias,  D.D.  (Basel,  1843), 
German  theologian  ;  b.  at  Balingen,  Wiir- 
temberg,  Feb.  22.  1804  ;  d.  at  Tubingen,  Dec. 
28,  1878.  He  was  educated  at  Tubingen, 
1822-26  ;  after  serving  as  a  pastor,  became 
professor  extraordinary  of  theology  at  Basel, 
1836  ;  ordinary  professor  at  Tiibingen,  1843. 
I  a  direct  opposition  to  his  speculative  colleague, 
Baur,  he  gave  to  theology  a  strong  biblical 
basis,  and  thus  provided  the  best  antidote  to 
fallacious  reasonings.  Of  his  works,  which 
include  posthumous  commentaries  on  Romans, 
Timothy,  and  Revelation,  the  best  known  are 
Outlines  of  Biblical  Psycliology  (orig.  Stuttgart, 
1843,  3d  ed.,  1871  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh, 
1877) ;  and  Pastoral  Theology  of  the  JVew  Testa- 
ment (orig.  Giitersloh,  1880  ;  Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1885).  (See  his  life  by  B.  Riggen- 
bach,  Basel,  1888.) 

Becker.     See  Bekker. 

Backet,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  the  12th  century  ;  b.  at  London,  Dec.  21, 
1118  ;  d.  at  Canterbury,  Dec.  29,  1170.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  merchant  who  was  at  one 
time  Sherilf  of  London,  and  who  took  the 
pains  to  have  him  well  educated  in  the 
branches  of  polite  learning,  and  in  the  arts 
and  customs  of  polite  society.  He  finished 
his  education  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where 
he  studied  theology.  Called  home  by  family 
necessities,  he  was  for  a  time  a  clerk  in  a  Lon- 
don lawyer's  office.  But  he  soon  attracted  at- 
tention, and  was  taken  up  by  Theobald,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  who  made  him  arch- 
deacon. In  1155  he  was  elevated  to  the  posi- 
tion of  Chancellor  of  England.  It  was  char- 
acteristic of  him  to  give  himself  to  any  office 
he  had  to  fill  with  the  full  surrender  of  all  his 
powers,  and  he  was  found  in  this  new  place 
as  faithful  to  the  king  as  he  had  eminently 
been  before  to  the  archbishop.  He  mingled 
in  the  war  of  Toulouse  in  per.son.  He  took 
the  king's  side  earnestly  in  his  efforts  to  con- 
trol the  English  benefices  without  the  inter- 
ference of  the  pope,  and  in  exacting  taxes 
from  the  clergy  in  return  for  their  exemption 
from  military  service.  It  seemed  to  the  king 
that  he  had  in  Becket  a  servant  who  could  be 
depended  upon  to  support  the  royal  preroga- 
tive under  all  circumstances,  and  who  was 
therefore  just  the  man  to  fill  the  position  of 
archbishop  to  the  advantage  of  the  state  in 
those  numerous  relations  with  it  in  which  the 
pope  and  the  church  were  ever  inclined  to 


seek  their  own  selfish  interest.  Accordingly, 
when  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  became 
vacant,  Becket  was  advanced  to  that  place 
(1162). 

But  the  expectations  of  the  king  were  dis- 
appointed. A  great  change  took  place  in 
Becket's  bearing  toward  political  questions. 
The  gay  courtier  was  at  once  transformed  into 
the  austere  monk.  He  even  seemed  to  regard 
it  a  crime  to  receive  the  ofiice  of  bishop  from 
the  king,  for  he  surrendered  the  pallium  he 
had  received  to  the  pope.  But  Alexander 
III.,  perceiving  the  character  of  the  man,  re- 
turned it  to  him,  and  he  was  thus  constituted 
archbishop  in  a  purely  ecclesiastical  manner. 
He  also  resigned  the  office  of  chancellor,  which 
the  king  had  intended  he  should  retain,  and 
soon  entered  upon  an  active  course  of  opposi- 
tion to  the  royal  wishes. 

This  sudden  transformation  has  been  the 
riddle  of  English  history.  But  the  most  re- 
cent studies  seem  to  make  it  evident  that  the 
true  Becket  was  the  ecclesiastic.  It  was  his 
zeal  as  archdeacon  which  caused  his  promo- 
tion to  the  chancellorship.  He  probably  had 
the  archbishopric  in  mind  from  the  first,  and 
sought  to  win  the  thorough  confidence  of  the 
king  as  the  best  guarantee  of  success  in  his 
ambition.  His  worldly  gayety  was  a  mask  : 
his  true  character  was  that  of  the  ascetic. 

Once  firmly  seated  in  his  place  as  archbishop, 
Becket  began  to  labor  for  the  accomplishment 
of  two  chief  ends.  The  clergy  should  be  en- 
tirely exempted  from  all  responsibility  to  secu- 
lar tribunals,  and  remanded  to  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal courts,  of  which  the  ultimate  head  was  the 
archbishop  ;  and  the  church  should  be  enabled 
to  acquire  an  independent  revenue.  Henry 
saw  in  these  efforts  the  complete  annihilation 
of  the  secular  system  as  he  had  planned  it,  and 
he  became  the  bitter  foe  of  his  former  friend. 
He  called  a  meeting  of  the  clergy  in  1163  at 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  demanded  of  them 
the  voluntary  renunciation  of  the  right  of  ex- 
emption from  secular  jurisdiction,  which 
Becket  refused  to  concede  except  the  clause 
should  be  added:  "Without  diminution  of 
the  rights  of  tlie  church. "  This  effort,  there- 
fore, failed,  but  the  king  the  next  year,  think- 
ing that  he  had  in  the  mean  time  succeeded  in 
isolating  the  primate,  called  the  famous  meet- 
ing of  Clarendon,  and  submitted  16  "  Consti- 
tutions," which  contained  the  same  demands. 
Becket  at  first  promised  to  sign  these,  but  after 
considering  them  more  carefully,  he  withdrew 
his  promise.  From  this  time  on  there  was  the 
bitterest  struggle  between  king  and  bishop. 
Henry  summoned  him  before  a  secular  coun- 
cil in  1164  to  answer  to  charges  of  misappro- 
priation of  money  while  chancellor,  and  pro- 
ceeded against  him  for  his  failure  to  appear. 
Becket  fied  the  country.  In  1170,  at  an  inter- 
view with  Becket,  Henry  promised  to  restore 
him  to  his  see,  to  pay  his  debts,  and  defray 
the  expenses  of  his  journey.  But  he  broke 
his  promises  in  every  particular.  In  retalia- 
tion Becket  excommunicated  the  bishops  who 
had  officiated  at  the  coronation  of  the  king's 
son.  In  a  hasty  moment  Henry  exclaimed, 
upon  liearing  of  this,  "  Of  the  cowards  who  eat 
my  bread,  is  there  not  one  who  will  free  me 
from  this  turbulent  priest  V"  and  four  knights 


BEDE 


(93) 


BEECHER 


took  him  at  his  word,  slaying  Becket  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Canterbury.  Two  years  later  he 
was  canonized  as  a  saint  in  tlie  Roman  Church. 
Best  life  bv  Canon  J.  C.  Robertson,  London, 
1859  ;  of.  Materials  for  the  History  of  Thomas 
Becket,  ed.  J.  C.  Robertson,  London,  1875 
sqq.,  8  vols.  ;  Chronicles  and  Memorials  of 
Thomas  Becket,  ed.  J.  C.  Robertson,  1880  ; 
other  lives  are  bv  John  Morris.  London,  1860, 
2d  ed.,  1885  ;  Robert  Anchor  Thompson,  Lon- 
don, 1888.  F. 

Bede,  Venerable,  the  first  English  church 
historian  ;  b.  at  Wearmouth  in  674  ;  d.  at 
Jarrow  in  735.  lie  was  educated  at  Wear- 
mouth  and  at  Jarrow,  and  passed  his  life  in 
the  latter  convent  as  a  monk,  engaged  in  the 
labors  of  instruction  and  study.  Although 
his  pupils  became  the  tirst  men  of  their  age, 
he  refused  for  himself  even  the  position  of 
abbot,  and  remained  true  to  his  vocation  as  a 
scholar.  His  life  passed  on  without  marked 
events.  In  his  last  days  he  was  engaged  in 
the  translation  of  the  'gospel  of  John,  and 
breathed  out  his  life  as  he  finished  the  last 
verse.  His  works  were  very  numerous,  and 
embrace  almost  all  departments  of  learning. 
The  principal  are,  however,  of  exegetical  and 
historical  character.  They  include  commen- 
taries upon  several  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. A  universal  history,  of  no  original 
value,  is  the  first  written  in  England.  His 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Nation  of  the  Brit- 
ons is  his  chief  work.  It  embraces  an  intro- 
ductory part  derived  from  other  writers,  bring- 
ing the  account  down  to  the  conversion  of  the 
Saxons,  which  is  followed  by  an  original  his- 
tory extending  to  the  year  731.  Bede's  .sources 
were  abundant,  and  he  employed  them  in  the 
most  faithful  and  painstaking  manner.  A 
number  of  writings  are  attributed  to  him 
wluch  are  not  genuine.  Best  edition  of  the 
works  by  F.  A.  Giles,  London,  1843-44,  12 
vols,  (with  translation)  ;  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  (in  Latin,  G.  H.  Moberly,  Oxford, 
1869  ;  in  Eng.  trans.,  F.  A.  Giles,  in  Bohn's 
Library  ;  better,  L.  Gidley,  1870).  Besides 
biographical  sketches  in  editions  referred  to, 
see^life  by  G.  F.  Browne,  London  (1879). 

F. 

Bee  and  Honey.  There  are  and  always 
have  been  lumierous  bees  in  Palestine,  hiving 
in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  or  in  old  trees, 
and  their  habits  furnish  the  sacred  writers 
fre(|uent  points  of  comparison.  Honey  is 
mentioned  over  and  over  as  a  token  of  the 
rieiuiess  of  the  land,  but  it  was  not  used  in 
the  vegetable  offerings  (Lev.  ii.  11).  In  its 
wild  state  it  was  the  food  of  John  the  Baptist 
(Matt.  iii.  4).  C. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  Congregationalist  ; 
b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn..  June  24,  1813;  d. 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  March  8,  1887.  He 
graduated  at  Amherst  (Mass.)  Collece,  1834, 
andat  Lane  Tlieological  Seminary,  Cincinnati, 
O.  (under  his  father's  tcacliing  and  yjresi- 
dency),  1837  ;  became  pastor  of  the  Presby- 
terian church  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  1837  ; 
at  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1839  ;  and  of  Plymouth 
(Congregational)  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
1847.  He  was  for  many  years  the  most  popu- 
lar American  preacher,  'and  all  tlie  more  so 


from  his  unconventionalities.  He  \ised  his 
pulpit  for  the  advocacy  of  "  reforms"  in  vari- 
ous directions,  social  and  political,  as  well  as 
religious  ;  and  decidedly  lost  ground  in  later 
years,  owing  to  his  changed  positions  in  these 
respects.  His  wit  and  humor  were  remark- 
able, and  came  out  in  his  .sermons,  which  never- 
theless were  earnest  and  edifying.  Personally 
he  was  a  most  estimable  and  attractive  man  ; 
of  generous  instincts,  of  rare  humanity  and 
sympathy.  His  influence  was  ever  on  the 
side  of  freedom,  be  it  of  body  or  of  mind. 
The  American  people  owe  him  a  debt  of  grati- 
tude for  his  splendid  courage  in  defending  the 
cause  of  miion  in  England  in  1 863.  I  le  shared 
in  the  foimding  of  llu;  Independent  (weekly 
new,spaper)  in  1848,  and  edited  it  from  1861- 
63.  From  1870  to  1880  he  (nominally)  edited 
the  Christian  Union  (religious  weekly).  He 
issued  many  collections  of  sermons,  addresses, 
lectures,  and  articles  under  different  titles  ; 
also  a  novel  {Norirood,  1867).  His  one  book 
of  serious  study  was  a  Life  of  Jesus  the  Christ, 
vol.  i..  New  York,  1871  (a  far  more  scholarly 
book  than  was  expected)  ;  vol.  ii.  (announced). 
His  public  ]>rayers  (a  selectioi'  of  which  was 
published,  l«6s)  were  revelations  of  a  great 
nature  which  lived  in  the  divine  ])re.sence. 
They  were  of  endless  variety  and  ofttimes 
melting  tenderness,  and  satisfactorily  refuted 
the  charge  of  immorality  brought  against 
him  ;  no  foul-hearted  man  could  pray  as  he 
did.  His  biography  was  written  liy  Lyman 
Abbott  (New'^York,  1883,  n.  e.  1887)  and  by 
W.  C.  Beecher  and  S.  Scoville  (1888). 

Beecher,  Lyman,  D.D.  (Middlebury  Col- 
lege, Vt.,  1818),  Presbyterian;  father  of  (he 
preceding  ;  b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  12, 
1775  ;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  10.  1863. 
He  began  life  on  a  farm,  but  his  uncle,  per- 
ceiving the  makings  of  a  great  man  in  him, 
sent  him  to  Yale  College,  where  he  graduated 
in  1797.  He  studied  theology  under  Pres. 
Dwight  (q.v.),  and  in  1799  became  Presby- 
terian pastor  at  East  Hampton,  Long  Island, 
N.  Y.  The  place  was  obscure  enough,  but 
he  did  not  long  remain  in  obscurity.  He 
worked  with  great  energy,  and  .'Joon  impressed 
his  powerful  personality  on  all  the  country 
round.  In  1804  the  duel  between  Alexander 
Hamilton  and  Aaron  Burr  wa^  fought.  Mr. 
Beecher  inijiroved  the  occasion  to  preach  be- 
fore presbytery  a  sermon  on  duelling,  wiiich 
was  printed,  and  was  the  occasion  of  awaken- 
ing the  national  conscience  on  the  matter.  In 
1808  he  preached  before  synod  a  remarkable 
sermon  on  "The  Government  of  Goii  Desir- 
able," which  increa.sed  his  reputation.  In 
1810  he  entered  \ipon  a  wider  sjilure.  He 
became  Congregational  pastor  at  Lilelifield, 
Coim.  There  he  remained  till  1826,  and  as  at 
East  Hampton,  he  so  preached  that  continuous 
revivals  characterized  his  ministry.  In  1814 
he  issued  his  famous  Si.r  Srmons  on  Intan- 
ncrance.  The  subject  at  th<-  time  was  us  deli- 
cate as  that  of  dueiling  had  been,  but  he  knew 
he  had  taken  the  right  position  on  it.  and  wan 
determined  to  make  men  see  tiiat  uilemiM  r- 
ance  must  be  suppressed.  These  sermons  have 
been,  translated  into  many  languages,  and  cir- 
culated the  world  around.     To  his  efforts  the 


BEELZEBUB 


(94) 


BELGIO 


cause  of  foreign  missions  is  largely  indebted. 
In  fact,  there  was  no  reform  really  worthy  of 
the  name  which  could  not  claim  his  powerful 
aid.  In  1826  he  went  to  Boston  to  be  pastor 
of  the  Hanover  Street  Congigational  church. 
He  had  a  wider  field  of  action,  but  more  ad- 
versaries. But  he  only  worked  the  harder, 
and  so,  although  he  was  the  butt  of  ridicule, 
he  was  a  tower  of  strength  in  a  time  of  great 
excitement.  In  1832  a  great  change  took 
place  in  his  life.  He  was  called  to  Lane  The- 
ological Seminary,  Cincinnati,  to  be  president 
and  professor  of  theology.  He  accepted  the 
call  as  the  voice  of  God,  and  until  1851  he 
taught,  preached  as  pastor  of  the  Second  Pres- 
byterian church  there,  and  presided  over  the 
seminary  in  its  stormy  formative  period,  and 
did  each  so  well  that  if  it  had  been  his  sole 
occupation  it  would  have  been  honoring  to 
him.  In  1835  he  was  tried  for  alleged  heresj^ 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement,  on  which 
he  took  the  new  school  view.  He  was  ac- 
quitted, but  the  trial  was  the  occasion  of  sun- 
dering the  Church.  At  length,  wearied  with 
his  arduous  labors,  he  left  Cincinnati,  and  re- 
tired to  Boston,  carried  his  TFor^.s  tlirough  the 
press  there,  1852,  3  vols.,  and  later  went  to 
live  in  Brooklyn,  where  he  sat  under  the 
preaching  of  his  distinguished  son,  Henry 
Ward  Beecher.  His  intellect  was  clouded 
during  his  last  days.  Lyman  Beecher  was 
imquestionably  one  of  the' greatest  men  in  the 
American  pulpit.  His  originality,  courage, 
eloquence  and  zeal  rendered  him  a  pervasive 
spiritual  f.irce.  (See  his  biography  by  his  son 
Charles,  New -York,  1864-65,  2  vols.) 

Be-ei'-ze-bub  {lord  of  the  Jwuse).  known 
among  the  Jews  as  "  the  prince  of  the  de- 
mons" (Matt.  ix.  34,  xii.  24).  In  the  true  text 
of  the  New  Testament  the  word  is  Beelzebul, 
by  some  supposed  to  be  a  euphonic  change, 
by  others  a  derisive  alteration  ( =  lord  of  dung). 
The  original  was  an  idol  who  had  a  temple 
and  an  oracle  at  Ekron  (2  Kings  i.  3).  Our 
Lord  seems  to  use  the  term  as  another  name 
for  Satan.  C. 

Be-er  {well),  Be-er-oth  (pi.  wells),  Hebrew 
words  naturally  found  in  numerous  combina- 
tions. 

Be'-er-she'-ba  {xoell  of  seven  or  of  the  oath) 
was  a  city  at  the  extreme  southern  limit  of 
Judah,  where  the  patriarchs  often  dwelled. 
Often  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  never 
in  the  New.  Its  ruins  are  known  to  day  as 
Bir-el-sebah,  where  there  are  two  deep  stone 
wells.  C. 

Beet,  Joseph  Agar,  Wesleyan  Methodist  ; 
b.  at  Shetlield,  Eng.,  Sept.  27,  1840;  since 
1885  professor  of  systematic  theology  in  the 
Wesleyan  Theological  College  at  Richmond 
on  the  Thames,  10  m.  w.s.w.  of  St.  Paul's, 
London,  where  he  was  educated.  He  is  author 
of  commentaries  on  Romans  (London,  1877  ; 
5th  ed.,  1885),  Corinthians (1882 ;  3ded.,  1885), 
Galatians  (1885)  ;  Holiness  as  Understood  by  \ 
the  Writers  of  the  Bible,  1880  ;  3d  ed.,  1883  ; 
I'he  Credentials  of  the  Gospels,  1888. 

Begg,  James,  D.D.  (Lafayette  College,  Eas- 
ton.  Pa.,  1847),  Free  Churcli  of  Scotland  ;  b. 
at   New   Monkland,    Lanarkshire,    Oct.  '31, 


1808  ;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  29,  1883.  He 
was  educated  at  Glasgow  ;  pastor  at  Max- 
welltown,  Dumfries,  1830  ;  (colleague)  Edin- 
burgh, 1830  ;  pastor  at  Paisley,  1831;  at  Liber- 
ton,  near  Edinburgh,  1835  ;  at  Newington, 
suburb  of  Edinburgh,  1843.  He  successfully 
opposed  the  union  of  the  Free  and  United 
Presbyterian  churches,  and  threw  the  whole 
weight  of  his  influence,  which,  in  virtue  of  his 
leadership  of  the  Highland  portion  of  the  Free 
Church,  was  considerable,  against  the  use  of 
hymns  and  instrumental  music  in  public  wor- 
ship, and  in  general  against  religious  progress. 
Although  always  in  the  minority,  he  gloried 
in  his  constant  adherence  to  the  religious  idea.s 
of  his  youth.  (See  his  life  by  Thomas  Smith, 
London,  1885-88,  2  vols.) 

Begheirds,  Beguines,  were  societies  of  pious 
women  in  the  Netherlands,  at  the  end  of  the 
12th  century,  who  lived  under  a  common  rule, 
not  monastic.  They  may  have  had  their  origin 
in  the  necessities  of  the  crusading  period, 
when  so  many  were  left  without  their  natural 
protectors.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  uncer- 
tain, some  deriving  it  from  a  priest,  Lambert- 
le-begue,  who  is  said  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
societies,  some  from  "  beggen"  (Ger.  beten), 
to  pray.  The  societies  were  at  first  founda- 
tions of  charity,  the  inmates  of  which  had  to 
do  something  for  their  support  by  spinning, 
etc.  Later,  communities  for  men  of  the  same 
kind  were  established.  The  various  houses 
came  under  the  guidance  of  the  Franciscans 
and  Dominicans.  This  led  many  of  them  into 
mendicancy.  They  also  came  in  contact  with 
various  sects,  among  which  were  the  Brethren 
of  the  Free  Spirit,  and  some  of  them  became 
heretical.  These  were  therefore  persecuted. 
A  few  houses  still  survive.  F. 

Behtnen.     See  Boehme. 

Beirut.     See  Beyrout. 

Bekker,  Balthasar,  enlightened  theologian 
of  tlie  Reformed  Church  of  Holland  ;  b.  in 
West  Friesland,  March  30,  1634  ;  was  preacher 
at  Franeker,  and  subsequently  in  Amsterdam, 
1679  ;  d.  there  June  11,  1698.  In  1676  he 
drew  upon  himself  the  charge  of  Socinianism 
because  he  defended  the  Cartesian  philosophy  ; 
and  in  1692  he  was  deposed  and  excommuni- 
cated because  in  his  famous  book,  I'he  World 
Bettcitched  (orig.  Dutch,  Leeuwarden,  1691-93, 
4  vols.  ;  French  trans.,  Rotterdam,  1694,  4 
vols.  ;  Ger.  trans.,  Amsterdam,  1693;  n.  trans., 
Leipzig,  1781,  3  vols.  ;  Eng.  trans,  of  vol.  i., 
London,  1695),  he  attacked  the  prevalent  be- 
lief in  evil  spirits,  witches,  and  sorcerers. 

Bel.     See  Assyriology,  p.  53,  col.  ii. 

Bel  and  the  Dragon.  See  Pseudepigra- 
PHA  AND  Apocrypha. 

Belgic  Confession,  The,  was  originally 
drawn  up  in  French  chiefly  by  Guido  de  BrSs 
and  sent  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain  with  a  view 
to  induce  him  to  tolerate  the  Reformed  faith, 
and  printed  in  Dutch  and  German  translations 
in  1562.  It  was  formally  adopted  by  several 
synods,  and  finally  by  the  Synod  of  Dort, 
April  29.  1619,  and  has  since  ranked  with  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism  as  a  symbolical  book  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  Holland,  Belgium, 


BELL 


(95) 


BENEDICITE 


and  America.  (Cf.  Schaff's  Creeds,  i.,  504 
sqq.) 

Bell,  Book  and  Candle.  In  the  Roman 
Church  formerly  excommunication  was  per- 
formed by  a  solemn  ceremony  in  which  a  can- 
dle, wu.sexringui.shed,  a  bell  was  rung,  and  the 
sentence  was  reail  out  of  a  book.  F. 

Bellamy,  Joseph  {hon.  D.D.,  Aberdeen, 
1768),  pastor  of  the  church  (Congregational) 
in  Bethlehem,  Conn.,  1740-90;  b.  in  New 
Cheshire,  Conn.,  Feb.  20,  1719  ;  d.  in  Bethle- 
hem, March  6,  1790.  Graduating  from  Yale 
College  in  1735,  he  was  licensed  to  preach  at 
the  age  of  18.  He  speedily  acquired  a  reputa- 
tion for  eloquence,  and  in  1742  engaged  in  the 
itinerant  revival  labors  of  the  time.  This 
work  not  yielding  the  fruits  lie  desired,  he  as- 
sociated himself  with  Jonathan  Edwards  in 
theological  study,  and  printed  his  first  book 
in  1750,  True  Rdigloii  Diiincdted,  a  theoreti- 
cal and  practical  work  against  Anlinomianism. 
He  joined  Edwards  in  his  efforts  against  the 
"half-way  covenant,"  and  engaged  in  con- 
troversy with  the  Sandemanians,  etc.  In  1758 
he  published  a  sermon  upon  the  divinity  of 
Christ.  His  writings  dealt  with  the  most  fun- 
damental questions  of  theology,  and  he  thus 
contributed  largely  to  laying  the  foundations 
of  the  "  New  England  theology."  (See  the 
art.)  lie  also  became  famous  as  a  teacher  in 
theology,  and  instructed  many  pupils  in  an  in- 
dependent and  original  manner.  His  Works 
have  been  twice  published  ;  best  ed.  Boston, 
1853,  8vo,  2  vols.  F. 

Bel-lar-mi'-n[o],  Roberto  Francesco  Ro- 
molo,  Jesuit,  famous  apologist  ;  b.  at  ]\Ionte- 
pulciano,  province  of  Siena,  Italy,  Oct.  4, 
1542  ;  d.  at  Rome,  Sept.  17,  1621.  He  entered 
the  Jesuit  order  at  Rome  in  1560  ;  studied 
theology  at  Padua  ;  became  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Louvaiu,  1570,  and  at  Rome,  1576, 
where  he  delivered,  from  1576  to  1589,  in  the 
Collegium  Romanuni,  his  famous  Lectures 
upon  the  Contrupersics  of  the  Christian  Faith 
against  the  Heretics  of  the  7V»w(orig.  Latin  ed., 
Ingolstadt,  1581-92,  3  vols.  ;  Ger.  trans.,  Augs- 
burg, 1842-53,  14  vols.)  ;  this  was  his  chief 
book,  and  long  the  chief  apology  for  Roman 
Catholicism,  yet  the  first  volume  of  it  was  put 
on  the  Inde.x  by  Sixtus  V.— taken  off,  how- 
ever, in  1596.  In  1599  he  was  made  a  cardi- 
nal. In  the  controversy  between  Jesuits  and 
Dominicans  concerning  Molinos  (q.v.),  he  de- 
fended his  order  so  vigorously  that  he  was  re- 
moved from  Rome  by  Clement  YIII.  anil 
made  .tVrchbishop  of  Capua,  1602.  and  there 
remained  until  Clement's  death  in  1605.  He 
might  have  been  then  elected  pope,  as  also 
when  the  new  pope  died,  but  he  declined  the 
honor  lie  was  a  man  of  noble  and  jjure  life, 
and  in  his  polemical  works  did  not  condescend 
to  abuse.  He  .secured  the  abolition  of  many 
evils  in  the  papal  government,  and  did  not 
hesitate  to  blame  the  popes  to  (heir  face.  He 
maintained  a  simple,  ascetic  life  in  spite  of  his 
cardinalship.  Besides  the  work  mentioned 
above  he  wrote  a  catechism,  Christian  Doc- 
trine Kriilnined.  which  lias  been  widely  circu- 
lated in  different  tongues.  The  Jesui'ls  have 
long  tried  to  have  him  canoni/.ed,  but  his  au- 
tobiography, which  they  publi^hed  to  this  end. 


stood  in  the  way,  so  they  suppressed  it  so  ef- 
fectually that  it  became  one  of  the  rarest  of 
books,  until  in  1887  Dol linger  and  Reu.sch 
brought  out  at  Bonn  a  new  edition  {Die  Silbst- 
biof/raphie  des  Cardinals  Bellarmins).  \\i^ 
complete  works  (except  the  autobiography) 
have  been  several  times  reprinted  ;  best  ed. 
Cologne,  1619,  7  vols. 

Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  D.D.  (Harvard. 
1854),  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  Walpole,  N.  II.,  June 
10, 1814  ;  d.  in  New  York  (Mty,  Monday,  Jan. 
30,  1882.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College, 
1832,  and  at  the  divinity  school,  18:37  ;  and 
was  from  1838  till  his  death  pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  (Unitarian)  Society  (All  Souls) 
in  New  York.  His  labors  as  pastor,  preacher, 
and,  above  all,  as  philanthropist,  especially  in 
organizing  and  presiding  over  the  United 
States  Sanitary  Commission  (1861-66),  and 
subsequently  promoting  international  sanitary 
commissions  (1867),  cause  him  to  be  gratefully 
remembered.  He  wrote  Restatement  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine,  Boston.  1859,  n.c.,  ISfO  ;  Old 
World  in  its  JS'ew  Face  :  Impressions  of  Eu- 
rope in  1867-68,  New  York.  1868  ;  Twenty- 
four  Sermons  in  All  Souls'  Church,  1865-81  ; 
New  York,  1886. 

Belshazzar.  See  Assyriology,  p.  59,  col. 
ii. 

Bema,  "  in  the  Greek  Church  the  sanctuary 
or  chancel,  the  enclosed  space  surrounding  the 
altar.  It  is  the  part  of  an  Oriental  church 
farthest  from  the  front  or  main  entrance, 
originally  and  usually  raised  above  the  level 
of  the  nave.  The  holy  table  (the  altar)  stands 
in  its  centre,  and  behind  this,  near  or  skirling 
the  rear  wall  of  the  apse,  is  the  sesit  for  the 
bishop  and  clergy.  An  architectural  screen 
with  a  curtain  at  its  doors,  or,  as  was  the  case 
especially  in  eaily  times,  a  curtain  only,  sepa- 
rates the  bema  from  the  body  of  the  church." 
Century  Dictionary,  s.v. 

Bem'-bo,  Pietro,  Roman  Catholic  cardinal  ; 
b.  in  Venice,  May  20,  1470  ;  d.  in  Rome,  Jan. 
18,  1547.  Educated  at  Padua  and  Firrara,  a 
tine  classical  scholar  ;  loose  in  moraN  but  ele- 
gant in  speech,  he  enjoyed  the  friend-hii)  of 
popes  Julius  II..  Leo  X.  (who  made  liini  hi* 
secretary).  Clement  VII.  and  Paul  111.  (who 
made  Inm  cardinal.  1539).  He  wa.^  a  i)agaii 
in  the  robes  of  a  Christian  eccle.sia.Mic.  He 
was  historiographer  of  Venice,  15L'9-39,  and 
produced  a  history  of  that  city  from  14HG  ti> 
1513.  (See  Opere,  Venice.  1808-10.  12  vols., 
with  biography  ;  and  biography  by  Ca.sa, 
1718.) 

Ben-ai'-ah  {Jniilt  by  Jthornh),  the  name  of 
several  Israelites,  the  chief  of  whom  wa.s  a  .son 
of  Jehoiada,  the  chief  priest,  and  co.uinandfr 
of  David's  bodv-guard  (2  Sam.  viii.  18).  Ho 
slew  Joab,  andbecjime  his  successor  a.s  general 
of  the  army.  (See  his  exploits  in  2  Sam.  x.xiii. 
20-23.)  <-'• 

Benedicite  (ben-C-tlis'-i-tC).  the  ranticle  or 
hymn  bciiiuning  in  Latin,  "  Bene<Iicite  omnia 
opera  Domini."  and  in  English.  "O  all  ye 
works  of  the  Lord,  bless  ve  the  Lord."  w 
verses  35  to  middle  of  66.  of  "  Tho  S<.mr  of  llio 
Three  Holy  Children."  which  is  part  of  tho 
Apocrypha  in  the  English  Bible.     It  is  essen- 


BENEDICT 


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BENEDICT 


tially  an  expansion  of  Psalm  cxlviii.,  and  has 
been  used  from  a  very  early  period  iu  the 
Christian  Church.  It  also  occurs  in  the  pri 
vate  thanksgiving  of  the  priest  after  mass. 
In  the  Prayer-Book  service  it  is  used  as  an 
alternate  to  the  Te  Dcum.  (See  G.  C.  C. 
Chaplin,  Benedicite,  or  the  Song  of  the  Three 
C^A^■M/•e/l,  London,  1866,  12th  ed.,1886;  Song 
of  the  Three  Children,  ill.,  1886  ;  Alicia  Bayne, 
Studies  in  the  Benedicite,  London,  1886.) 

Benedict,  popes  of  that  name.  1.  Pope, 
June  3,  574-July  30,  578.  Nothing  of  im- 
portance known  of  him.  2.  Pope,  June  26, 
684-May  7,  685.  3.  Pope,  Sept.  29,  855- 
April  7,  858.  During  this  reign  King  Alfred 
was  in  Rome,  as  a  youth.  The  significance 
of  the  reign  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  contests 
of  Nicholas,  who  followed,  were  already  be- 
ginning. Benedict  favored  Hincmar  of 
Rheims,  but  excited  also  his  opposition  by 
not  granting  the  primacy  of  Neustria  that  he 
asked.  Photius  of  Con.stantinople  also  as- 
cended the  metropolitan  throne  in  this  period. 

4.  Pope,  July,  900-August,  903.  5.  Pope, 
May,  964,  as  rival  to  Leo  VIII.  Rome  had 
driven  out  Leo,  and  elevated  Benedict  against 
the  imperial  wish.  When  Otto  I.,  June  23, 
964,  besieged  the  city,  Benedict  was  given  up. 
He  was  degraded  to  the  rank  of  deacon  and 
sent  to  Hamburg  as  prisoner  till  his  death, 
July  5,  966.     6.  Pope,  Jan.  19,  973-July,  974. 

7.  Pope,  Oct.,  974-Oct.,  983,  of  the  family 
of  the  Counts  of  Tusculum.  He  sought  to 
maintain  good  relations  with  the  empire.  He 
was  a  favoref  of  the  monks,  and  particularly 
partial  to  Clugny  and  its  plans  for  a  reform  of 
the  church.  He  gave  the  monastery  of  Lerinum 
to  the  Clugny  abbot.  Driven  from  Rome,  he 
called  upon  "the  emperor  for  help,  which  was 
the  cause  of  Otto  II. 's  expedition  to  Rome. 
He  sought,  as  universal  bishop,  to  enter  into 
coanecttons    with    Carthage   and   Damascus. 

8.  Pope,  May,  101 2- April  7,  1024.  Theophy- 
lact  of  Tusculum,  as  pope,  maintained  friendly 
relations  with  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  Under 
his  leadership  was  held  a  great  synod  at  Pavia 
(1022),  which  sought  to  introduce  into  Lom- 
bardy,  where  nearly  all  the  priests  were  law- 
fully married,  the  strict  celibacy  demanded  by 
the  reforms  of  Clugny.  9.  Pope,  Jan.,  1033- 
July  16,  1048.  A  son  of  Count  Alberic  of 
Tu.sculum  ;  nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  of 
the  same  name.  He  was  infamous  for  his 
vices.  He  purchased  the  favor  of  Conrad  II. 
by  anathematizing  his  enemies,  and  of  Henry 
III.  by  similar  measures.  In  1044  the  city 
rose  against  him  and  drove  him  out.  But  he 
soon  overcame  his  rival,  Sylvester  III.,  and 
then  bethought  himself  of  the  plan  of  selling 
the  papacy,  which  he  did  to  Gratian,  who 
named  himself  Gregory  YI.  Henry  III.  now 
came  to  Rome,  held  at  Sutri  a  synod  (1046), 
deposed  all  three  of  the  popes,  and  elevated 
Clement  II.  to  the  papal  see,  by  whom  he  had 
himself  crowned.  Benedict  got  the  papal 
power  once  more,  but  was  finally  driven  out 
in  1048.     He  soon  after  died.     10.  Pope,  April 

5,  1058-April,  1059.  Family  name,  John 
Mincius.  11.  Pope,  Oct.  22,  1303-July  7, 
1304.  Nicolaus  Bocasini,  the  successor  of 
Bonafacius  VIII.,  inherited  all  the  quarrels 
of  his  stormy  reign.     But  he  treated  the  ene- 


mies of  Boniface  with  great  moderation,  and 
restored  peace  to  the  church.  The  Colonnas 
were  reinstated.  Peace  was  also  made  with 
France,  and  all  the  French  assailants  of  Boni- 
face pardoned  except  Nogaret.  (Cf.  Grand- 
jean,  Les  reqistres  de  Benoit  XL,  Paris,  1884 
sqq.)  12.  Pope,  Dec.  20,  1334-April  25, 
1342.  Jacques  Fournier,  elevated  to  the  papal 
see  by  accident,  proved  to  be  a  good  pope, 
unstained  by  nepotism.  The  Romans  urged 
him  to  return  to  their  city,  and  he  proposed 
instead  going  to  Bologna,  but  this  plan  failed 
because  of  the  opposition  of  that  city.  He 
then  gave  the  plan  up,  and  began  to  beautify 
Avignon.  His  conflict  with  Lewis  of  Bavaria 
led  to  the  denial  of  the  papal  right  of  confir- 
mation of  an  imperial  election.  13  a.  Schis- 
matic pope,  Sept.  28,  1394-Nov.  17,  1417. 
Peter  de  Luna,  when  the  University  of  Paris 
had  proposed  several  possible  ways  of  healing 
the  papal  schism,  finally  declared  in  favor  of 
the  "way  of  cession."  For  this  he  was 
elected  pope,  with  the  distinct  understanding 
that  as  pope  he  would  abdicate  the  papacy. 
Once  in  the  papal  chair,  he  declared  the  "  ces- 
sion" to  be  a  mortal  sin.  He  proposed  a  meet- 
ing with  his  rival  pope  to  devise  a  way  of 
remedy.  But  both  popes  took  care  that  they 
should  never  actually  meet.  Deposed  by 
the  Council  of  Pisa  (1409),  Benedict  contrived 
to  keep  ihe  allegiance  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Scotland.  Even  the  Council  of  Constance 
(1417)  could  not  move  him.  Retired  (1415)  to 
his  family  residence,  Peniscola,  and  forsaken 
of  all,  he  declared  that  he  was  the  sole  repre- 
sentative of  the  true  church.  He  died  in  1424. 
(Cf.  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  Lon- 
don, 1882  vol.  i.,  pp.  129  sqq.)  13  h.  Pope, 
May  29,  1724-Feb.  21,  1730.  Peter  Francis 
Orsini,  of  Gravina,  b.  1649,  cardinal,  1672,  be- 
gan his  pontificate  with  the  attempt  to  dimin- 
ish the  luxury  of  the  cardinals,  but  in  vain. 
In  political  matters  he  showed  himself  ready 
to  make  concessions  for  the  sake  of  peace. 
He  canonized  a  large  number  of  saints,  in- 
cluding Gregory  VII.  and  John  of  Nepomuck 
(Bohemia).  14.  Pope,  Aug.  17,  1740-May  3, 
1758.  Prosper  Laurentius  Lambertini,  made 
pope  after  a  six  months'  struggle,  set  before 
him  as  his  chief  purpose  in  life  to  secure  the 
spiritual  interests  of  the  church,  and  hence 
labored  for  the  promotion  of  discipline.  His 
bearing  toward  the  Protestants  was  more 
favorable  than  any  pope  before  him.  He  was 
the  first  pope  to  acknowledge  the  "  Elector  of 
Brandenburg"  as  King  of  Prussia.  When  it 
was  proposed  to  refuse  the  sacrament  in 
France  to  all  who  would  not  accept  the  Bull 
"  Unigenitus,"  he  restricted  this  measure  to 
those  who  had  openly  declared  against  it,  and 
forbade  inquisition  into  the  sentiments  of  any 
to  be  made.  He  sought  also  to  put  an  end  to 
the  heathenizing  of  the  Roman  ritual  to  suit 
the  demands  of  converts  in  India  and  C!hina 
by  the  Jesuits,  but  in  vain.  In  1750  he  held 
a  jubilee.  He  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  sci- 
ence and  literature.  (Cf.  F.  X.  Kraus,  Lettere 
di  Benedetto  XIV.  scritte  al  canonico  Pier  Fran- 
cesco Peggi  a  Bologna  [1729-58]  col  diario  del 
conclave  de  1740,  Freiburg,  i.,  Br.,  1884.)  His 
standard  work  on  beatification  is  referred  to 
under  Beatification.  F. 


BENEDICT 


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BENEDICT 


Benedict  of  Aniane,  named  originally  Wit- 
iza ;  1).  in  Languedoc  (ancient  province  of 
France),  750  ;  d.  in  the  monastery  of  Cornelv 
Miiiister,  near  Aachen.  Feb.  12,  831.  Early 
brougiit  to  the  Frankish  court,  he  had  every 
prosi>ect  of  a  brilliant  future.  But  never  fond 
of  pomp  and  magnificence,  he  was  led  by  dan- 
ger and  a  vow  to  enter  the  monastery  of  St. 
Sequanus  in  Langres.  Here  he  went  to  the 
extreme  of  asceticism,  but  reaped  only  con- 
tempt for  himself.  He  perceived  that  monas- 
ticism  needed  a  reform  if  it  was  to  correspond 
with  his  ideals.  In  779  he  left  his  monastery 
and  founded  a  model  one  in  Languedoc  on  the 
river  Anianus  (Aniane).  Here  he  obtained 
great  fame,  and  was  called  to  the  court  again. 
He  took  part  in  the  theological  contests  of  his 
time,  but  directed  his  chief  efforts  to  reintro- 
ducing the  pure  rule  of  Benedict  into  France. 
Under  Lewis  he  became  superintendent  of  all 
Frankish  monasteries.  After  his  death  his 
rivals  soon  gained  control  again,  and  all  his 
work  was  destroyed.  (See  liis  life  by  Nicolai, 
Cologne,  1865.)  F. 

Benedict  of  Nursia,  and  the  Benedictines. 

Benedict,  b.  at  Nursia  (now  Norcia,  18  m.  e.  of 
Spoleto,  iu  Umbria,  Central  Italy,  480  ;  d.  at 
Monte  Cassino,  50  m.  n.w.  of  Naples,  March 
21,  543  ;  fled  in  494  from  the  vices  of  his 
companions  in  the  city  of  Rome,  whither 
he  liad  been  sent  for  education,  to  a  solitary 
place  near  Subiaco,  and  there  gave  himself 
up  to  the  eremitic  life.  He  passed  three 
years  in  perfect  solitude,  engaged  in  contem- 
plation, but  under  heavy  temptations  of  Sa- 
tan. But  at  last  he  was  discovered  by  some 
shepherds,  who  were  at  first  frightened  at  his 
wild  appearance,  but  finally  worshipped  him 
as  a  saint.  His  fame  spread,  the  people  came 
about  liim,  and  he  wa.s  compelled  to  become 
the  leader  of  other  ancliorites.  In  510  the 
monks  of  a  monastery  iu  the  vicinity  elected 
him  their  abbot,  and  after  long  resistance  he 
consented  to  accept.  But  the  strict  obedience 
which  he  demanded,  and  the  order  and  regu- 
larity of  worship  and  work  introduced  by  him, 
displeased  them,  and  he  was  soon  obliged  to 
leave.  It  does  not  appear  that  he  insisted 
now,  or  at  a  ]at(;r  time,  upon  immoderate  as- 
ceticism. Returned  to  his  cave,  others  a.ssem- 
bled  about  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to  provide 
for  them,  which  he  did  by  organizing  them 
into  societies  of  13,  each  presided  over  by  an 
abbot.  The  future  conflicts  between  the 
monks  and  regular  clergy  were  foreshadow^ed 
at  tills  time  by  the  attacks  made  upon  him  by 
a  neighboring  priest,  Florenlius.  Benedict 
thought  it  best  at  last  to  seek  a  new  location, 
and  established  himself  upon  tlie  site  which 
ha.s  since  been  famous  as  that  of  the  first  true 
Benedictine  abbey,  Monte  Ca-^sino.  It  wjis  a  \ 
spot  sacred  to  heathen  worship,  but  Benedict 
destroj'ed  the  grove  and  altar  of  Apollo  which 
he  found,  and  erected  a  chapil.  As  cjirly  as 
529  tlie  new  monastery  was  organized  tmder 
a  formal  and  special  rule,  known  as  the  Bene- 
dictine. The  particular  features  of  this  will 
be  given  under  the  article  "  Mona.sticism. " 
En(niL''h  here  to  say  tliat  it  required  labor,  and 
enforced  .strict  obedience.  It  introduced  into 
the  monastic  system  the  vow  of  stability,  or 


permanence  of  residence.  The  vow  of  chastity 
beloui^ed,  of  course,  to  the  essence  of  all  mo- 
nasticism. 

Tlie  organization  of  Benedict  .soon  became 
the  model  U{)on  which  all  the  monasteries  of 
Europe  were  formed.  Other  rules  already  ex- 
isted, but  the  free  communication  which  took 
ulace  between  the  different  monjisteries  led  by 
gradual  development  to  the  supremacy  of  tii'e 
Benedictine,  on  account  of  its  great  superi- 
ority. The  tendency  to  unity  and  uniformity 
in  the  whole  Latin  Church  assisted  in  tliis  de- 
velopment. Gregory  the  Great  helpeil  also  by 
his  own  admiration  and  recommendation  of 
the  rule.  Under  Pope  Gregory  II.  anrl  Boni- 
face, the  Apostle  of  Germany*  it  became  the 
characteristic  form  of  Roman  monasticism. 
But  meantime  it  had  undergone  great  modifi- 
cations. The  monasteries  had  become  very 
wealthy,  and  were  chiefly  or  entirely  filled 
with  tlie  scions  of  noble  families.  Thus  the 
seats  of  privileged  orders,  the  monasteries  had 
become  pattern  establishments  of  religion  and 
culture.  The  labor  now  exacted  of  the  monks 
was  often  mere  literary  labor,  and  the  con- 
vents became  schools  for  the  education  of  the 
.secular  clergy  and  the  laity.  With  the  cathe- 
drals were  associated  cathedral  canons  and 
schools.  Thus,  since  the  order  went  on  to 
settle  itself  in  every  favorable  situation,  till  in 
England  and  France  an  abbey  was  ultimately 
found  iu  every  fine  valley  and  by  every  flow- 
ing river,  it  contributed  powerfully  to  the  de- 
velopment of  civilization  as  well  as  of  Christ i- 
anit}'. 

At  various  times  tlie  Benedictine  system  was 
found  to  be  in  need  of  reform.  In  the  10th 
century  the  union  of  .several  monasteries  into 
a  "congregation"  for  mutual  government 
was  suggested,  and  this  was  the  method  tii(;re- 
after  adopted.  The  most  famous  of  these  con- 
gregations were  tlio.se  of  Clugny,  Ilirschau, 
Pulsauo,  etc.  They  were  established  under 
the  special  government  of  one  central,  model 
convent.  About  the  close  of  the  10th  century, 
the  newly  awakened  religious  spirit  of  tiic 
times  led  to  the  formation  of  other  orders, 
with  rules  differing  more  or  less  from  that  of 
Benedict,  .so  that  the  ancient  order  now  Ix-- 
came  one  among  many  orders,  rather  tlian  the 
one  all-inclusive  sy.stem.  The  VMi  centurv 
saw  the  rise  of  the  mendicant  orders,  which 
threw  all  the  rest  into  the  shade.  In  the  17th 
century  efforts  were  made  to  revive  the  Ii«-nc- 
dictines,  and  to  direct  their  energies  into  new 
and  useful  channels.  Certain  new  congrega- 
tions were  formed,  which  resulted  in  a  new 
■scholarlv  epoch  in  the  hi.story  of  the  lienedic- 
tines.  Congregations  in  the  Metlierlands,  and 
particularly' that  of  St.  Vanncs  in  Verdun, 
and  that  of  St.  Maur,  iM-camc  famous.  Tlie 
last  performed  great  ,servic(!s  to  the  science  of 
historv.  These  later  Benedictines,  among 
whoni  were  such  scholars  as  D'Achery,  Mn- 
l»illon.  Martene,  .Monlfam;on,  Rivet  and  Pitra 
produc.'d  standard  editions  of  the  Fathers  ami 
other  valuable  works  ;  and  thus  have  shared 
with  the  Jesuits  the  credit  of  maintaining 
Roman  Catholic  scholarsJiip,  and  by  their 
greater  freedom  from  prejudice  and  their 
faithfulness  to  the  f.-uts.  surpas.scd  their  nval«. 
But  at  present  no  order  of   monks  seems  to 


BENEDICT 


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BENNO 


have  the  scieutific  interests  of  the  Catholic 
Churcli  in  its  special  keeping.  (See  Rule  of 
our  7nost  Holy  Father,  Snivt  Benedict,  London, 
1886  ;  F.  C'  Doyle,  The  Teaching  of  St.  Ben- 
edict, 1887.)  F. 

Benedict,  David,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Norwalk, 
Conn.,  Oct.  10,  1779  ;  d.  at  Pawtucket,  R.  I., 
Dec.  5,  1874.  After  graduation  at  Brown 
University,  1806,  he  became  pastor  at  Paw- 
tucket, and  so  remained  for  25  years.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  historical  studies  and  pro- 
duced, among  other  works,  A  General  History 
of  the  Baptist  Denomination  in  America  and 
other  Parts  of  the  World,  Boston,  1813,  2 
vols.  ;  n.e..  New  York,  1848  ;  Fifty  Years 
Among  the  Baptists,  New  York,  1860. 

Benediction  {blessing),  a  term  especially 
applied  to  the  invocation  of  the  divine  blessing 
on  things  or  persons,  accompanied  or  not  by 
prayers,  sprinkling  with  holy  water,  incense, 
and  other  ceremonies.  Benediction  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  is  a  comparatively  modern  rite,  but 
has  now  become  quite  common.  The  priest 
takes  the  host  from  the  tabernacle,  places  it  in 
the  monstrance,  and  then  displays  the  mon- 
strance on  the  throne  above  the  tabernacle. 
While  the  choir  is  singing,  the  host  is  incensed, 
and  finally  the  priest  makes  the  sign  of  the 
cross  with  the  monstrance  over  the  beads  of 
the  people,  but  without  uttering  any  words. 
The  Apostolical  Benediction,  repetition  of  2 
Cor.  xiii.  14. 

Benefice  means  now  simply  an  ecclesiastical 
living  conferred  with  due  authority  on  a  proper 
person  for  life,  and  comprises  within  the  same 
term  both  the  duties  and  the  revenues  of  the 
office.  It  originated  from  a  special  use  of  the 
Latin  ieneficiiim  common  in  the  dark  ages.  Es- 
tates were  then  divided,  according  to  the  con- 
ditions of  tenure,  into  allodial  and  feudal.  The 
former  denoted  absolute,  hereditary  property, 
the  litter  was  only  a  life-grant  given  by  the 
king  or  the  owner  generally  as  reward  for  ser- 
vices done  or  to  be  done.  Such  feudal  grants 
or  fiefs  were  called  beneficia,  and  as  the  church 
held  and  gave  out  a  great  number  of  fiefs, 
while  it  recognized  no  ecclesiastical  property 
as  allodial  in  the  secu'ar  sense  of  the  word, 
the  now  general  acceptation  of  the  word  bene- 
fice naturally  grew  up.  According  to  canon 
law,  a  benefice  should  be  established  bj^  episco- 
pal authority,  have  some  spiritual  work  con- 
nected with  it,  be  conferred  by  an  ecclesiastical 
person  on  a  clerk  who  has  "at  least  received 
the  tonsure,  and  for  life,  etc.  According  as 
these  and  other  conditions  are  fully  complied 
with  or  not,  benefices  are  called  simple,  when 
involving  no  other  duty  than  service  in  the 
public  offices  of  the  church,  or  double,  when 
having  the  care  of  souls  connected  with  them  ; 
m'ljor,  when  giving  a  certain  rank,  or  minor, 
when  conferring  no  rank  ;  regular,  when  held 
by  a  person  duly  qualified  to  perform  its  du- 
ties, or  secular,  when  given  to  a  layman,  that 
he  may  enjoy  the  revenue,  etc.  The  manner 
of  appointment  was  and  is  also  very  different. 
Sometimes  it  takes  place  by  an  election  by  the 
chapter,  followed  by  a  confirmation  by  the 
pope  or  the  proper  authority  ;  sometimes  it 
involves    a    noraiuation,    presentation,    etc.,  ' 


which  terms  are  explained  in  their  due 
places. 

Beneficence,  Benevolence.  The  former 
is  the  practice  of  doing  good  to  men  ;  the  latter 
is  the  desire  of  so  doing^  The  objects  of  both 
are  all  who  are  within  the  sphere  of  our  action 
or  influence.  The  means  of  beneficence  are 
temporal  .supplies  (Gal.  vi.  6) ;  prayer  {Jas.  v. 
16)  ;  sympathy  (Rom.  xii.  15)  ;  teaching  and 
admonition  (Col.  iii.  16).  The  obligations  to 
it  arise  from  our  common  origin  and  mutual 
relations  ;  the  precept  of  Scripture  ;  the  ex- 
ample of  Christ  ;  the  resemblance  to  God  thus 
attained  ;  and  the  pleasure  it  affords.  (See 
Buck,  Thcol.  Diet.)  C. 

Benefit  of  Clergy.     See  Clergy. 

Beng'-el,  Johann  Albrecht,  D.D.  (Tiibin- 
gen,  1751),  Protestant  theologian  ;  b.  at  VVin- 
nenden,  Wiirtemberg,  June  24,  1687  ;  d.  at 
Stuttgart,  Nov.  2,  1752.  He  studied  at  Tiibin- 
gcn  ;  became  tutor  there,  1708  ;  professor  in 
the  well-attended  theological  seminary  at  Den- 
kendorf,  1713  ;  propst  at  Herbrechtingeu, 
1741  ;  in  1749  prulat  and  eonsistm-ialrath  of 
Alpirsbach,  with  residence  at  Stuttgart.  His. 
Apparatus  Criticns,  1734,  to  determine  the 
true  text  of  the  New  Testament,  was  a  work 
of  great  labor  in  collation,  and  is  the  starting- 
point  of  modern  New  Testament  textual  criti- 
cism. He  was  the  author  of  the  famous 
canon,  "The  more  difficult  reading  is  to  be 
preferred."  His  best-known  work  was  his 
Gnomon  (Tiibingen,  1742  ;  Eng.  trans.,  by  M. 
R.  Vincent  and  C.  T.  Lewi.s,  Philadelphia, 
1862).  He  was  the  father  of  modern  Premil- 
lenarianism,  and  reckoned  that  in  1836  the 
Lord  would  come  again.  (Cf.  his  ErkUirte 
Offcnbaritng  St.  Johannis.  1740;  last  ed., 
1876;  Ordo  iemporum,  1741.)  He  also  wrote 
some  familiar  German  hymns.  (See  life  by 
J.  C.  F.  Burk  ;  orig.  Stuttgart,  1831  ;  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1837  ;  best  by  O.  Waehter, 
Stuttgart,  1865.) 

Ben-ha'-dad(,w7?= worshipper,  of  Hudad= 
the  sun),  the  name  of  three  Syrian  kings.  The 
first  was  hired  by  Asa  to  make  war  upon 
Baa.sha,  King  of  Israel  (1  Kings  xv.  18).  The 
second  was  his  son,  who  made  war  on  Ahab, 
besieged  Jehoram  in  Samaria,  when  sick  con- 
.sulted  Elijah  as  to  the  issue,  and  was  assassi- 
nated by  Hazael  (2  Kings  vi.-viii.).  The  third 
was  the  son  of  Hazael,  who  lost  all  his  fatiier 
had  gained.  His  overthrow  was  predicted  by 
Amos  (2  Kings  xii.,  Amos  i.  4).  C. 

Bei\jamin.     See  Tribes. 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi 
of  the  12th  century,  author  of  an  itinerary  de- 
scribing a  large  part  of  Asia,  to  the  frontiers  of 
China.  It  lias  been  translated  into  English  by 
Asher,  and  published  in  London,  1840.       F. 

Benno,  bishop  of  Meissen  ;  b.  near  Goslar, 
27  m.  s.e.  of  Hildesheim,  Hanover,  1010  ;  d. 
at  Meissen,  15  m.  n.w.  of  Dresden,  Saxony, 
June  16,  1106.  Made  bishop  in  1066  or  1067  ; 
though  personally  friendly  to  Henr}'-  IV.,  ho 
got  entangled  in  the  Saxon  insurrection,  and 
after  the  death  of  Gregory  VII.  was  deposed. 
He  was  subsequently  reinstated  (1088),  and 
busied  himself  in  the  conversion  of  the  hea- 
then of  his  diocese,  F. 


BENSON 


(99) 


BERN 


Benson,  Rt.  Hon.  aud  Most  Rev.  Edward 
White,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1867),  D.C.L.  (Ox- 
ford, 1884),  Lord  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
and  primate  of  all  England,  and  jMetropol- 
itan  ;  b.  near  Birmingham,  July  14,  1829  ; 
graduated  B.A.  at  Cambridge  (senior  optime 
and  tirstclass  cla.ssical  tripos).  1852  ;  became 
a.«sistant  master  at  Rugby,  1853  ;  first  head 
master  of  Wellington  College,  1859  ;  chancel- 
lor and  canon  of  Lincoln,  1872  ;  bishop  of 
Truro,  1877  ;  translated  to  Cantcirbury,  1882. 
He  has  issued  several  volumes  of  sermons. 

Bentley,  Richard,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1696), 
Bible  critic  and  classical  scholar  ;  b.  at  Oul- 
ton,  Yorkshire,  Eng.,  Jan.  27,  1062;  d.  at 
Cambridge.  July  14,  1742.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  1676-80  ;  from  1682-95  was 
in  Bishop  Stillingfleet's  family  as  tutor  and 
as  chaplain  ;  became  roval  librarian  and 
F.R.S.,  1694;  master  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  1700  ;  and  regius  professor  of 
divinity,  1717.  His  extraordinary  classical 
attainments  and  his  critical  acumen  came  out 
in  his  Letter  to  Mill  (1691)  and  Dissertation 
upon  the  Epistles  of  Philaris  (1697),  and  his  edi- 
tion of  various  authors,  and  his  theological  and 
philosophical  in  his  Boyle  lectures,  entitled  A 
Confitation.  of  Atheism  (1693),  particularly 
noticeable  for  their  use  of  Newton's  discov- 
eries, then  almost  unknown,  in  the  defence  of 
Cliristianity.  In  1720  lie  issued  a  proposal  for 
an  edition  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Testament, 
and  submitted  the  last  chapter  of  Revelation 
in  Greek  and  Latin  as  a  specimen.  His  idea 
was  to  construct  a  text  out  of  the  most  ancient 
Greek  and  Latin  texts  compared  with  the 
principal  ancient  versions  and  the  quotations 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  first  5  centuries.  Al- 
though the  scheme  was  never  carried  out,  to 
him  is  due  the  credit  of  discovering  the  true 
principle.  (See  A.  A.  Ellfe.  Bentieii  critim 
sacra,  Cambridge,  1862,  and  his  biography  by 
R.  C.  Jebb.  London,  1882.) 

Ba-ren-ga'-ri-us  of  Tours,  b.  at  Tours  early 
in  the  11th  century  ;  d.  on  the  neighboring 
island  of  St.  Cosme,  1088  ;  was  a  brilliant 
scholar  and  head  of  the  cathedral  school  at 
Tours.  His  methods  of  study  had  always 
been  independent,  and  he  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  doctrine  of  Paschasius  Rad- 
bertus.  that  the  bread  and  wine  of  tlie  sacra- 
ment are  changed  as  to  their  sul)stance  into 
the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord,  while  retain- 
ing the  accidents  of  bread  and  wine,  was  with 
out  sufficient  authority.  He  taught  that  the 
undivided  Christ  is  spiritually  present  and  is 
received  by  faith.  Gradually  his  heresy  be- 
came known,  and  he  was  made  to  pa.ss  through 
one  ecclesiastical  trial  after  anotlier.  Hilde- 
brand,  before  and  after  his  elevation  to  the 
papacy,  tried  to  shield  him,  and  was  probably 
of  the  same  opinion  ;  but  ultimately  preferred, 
for  the  sake  of  carrying  through  liis  own 
schemes,  to  let  Berengarius  fall,  and  he  was 
finally  condemned  at  a  synod  in  Rome,  1079. 
(See  his  book  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  I)e  sacra 
cveiui,  cd.  Visehcr,  Berlin,  1834.)  F. 

Berington,  Joseph,  ?]nglisli  Roman  Catlio- 
lic  ;  b.  in  Shrop.sliire.  1746  ;  d.  at  Buckland. 
Berkshire.  Dec.  1,  1827.  He  received  liis  ec- 
clesiastical education  at  St.    Omer   College, 


France,  and  exercised  priestly  functions  in 
that  country  for  a  few  years.  On  his  return 
he  was  appointed  to  various  chars^es,  but  his 
liberality,  his  freedom  in  speech,  his  criticisms 
of  Roman  Catholic  doitrlne,  and  his  friend- 
.ships  with  Protestants  stood  in  the  way  of  his 
advancement  and  laid  him  open  to  suspicion. 
He  was  indeed  twice  suspended  and  called 
upon  to  retract  his  "  errors,"  wliicli  lie  did, 
and  then  rea.ssertcd  tlicm.  He  wrote  many 
works,  of  whicli  tlic  i)riiHii)al  are  The  History 
of  the  Lives  of  AheiUard  and  Ileloisa,  .  .  .  with 
their  Genuine  Letters  (trans.),  Birmingham, 
1787  ;  2d  ed..  17«8  ;  Sfemoirs  of  Gregorio  Pan- 
m//i  (trans.),  Lomhm,  1798  ;  2d  ed.,  1813  ;  The 
Faith  of  C'ftholies  (with  John  Kirk),  1813  ;  3d 
ed.,  1846,  3  vols.  ;  A  Literary  History  of  ttie 
Middle  Afjes,  1814  ;  3d  ed.,  1883. 

Berkeley,  George,  D.D.  (Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  1721),  (hurdi  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Drysert  Castle,  county  Kilkenny,  Ireland, 
March  12,  1684-85;  d.^it  Oxford,  England, 
Jan.  14,  1753.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin  ;  became  a  fellow,  1707  ;  di- 
vinity and  senior  Greek  lecturer,  1721  ;  also 
Hebrew  lecturer,  1722  ;  dean  of  Derry,  1722. 
In  the  latter  year  he  began  his  active  canvass 
to  secure  funds  to  start  a  college  in  the  Ber- 
mudas for  the  education  of  missionaries  to 
America  ;  but  failing,  he  set  sail  himself  for 
America,  and  landed  at  Newport,  R.  I..  Jan., 
1729.  There  he  remained  till  1731.  In  1734 
he  became  bishop  of  Cloyne,  Ireland,  and 
lived  there  18  years.  He  advocated  two  ex- 
traordinary theories:  first,  that  tar-water  is  a 
specific  for  chronic  disorders  of  all  kinds  ;  and, 
second,  that  "  the  immediate  objects  of  the 
mind  in  thinking  do  not  rei)resent  something 
outside  of  the  mind,  but  constitute  the  whole 
world  of  reality,  which  tiuis  exists  in  minds 
alone."  Hence  there  is  no  external  world. 
The  philosopliical  sy.stem  wliici)  he  founded  is 
known  asUniver.sarinunaterialism(  Idealism  or 
Phenomenalism).  He  taught  that  "  ideas  are 
whatever  is  perceived,  and  these  are  the  only 
realities  ;  that  these  realities  exist  only  so  far 
as  they  are  perccfived— that  our  higher  knowl- 
edge of  these  idfji-s  or  realities  only  resiKicts 
their  relations  to  one  another  or  what  they  sig- 
nify. The  possibility  of  any  permanent  rela- 
tions or  signilicatiniiin  these  ideas  is  provided 
t)V  supposing  that  God  is  the  permanent  up- 
holder of  these  idea.s.  Wiiat  .seems,  or  is  taken 
to  be,  the  material  tmiver.se  is  simply  the 
manifested  ideas  of  God."  Ueln-rweg.  Hist. 
Phil.,  ii.,  384.  (See  his  complete  works  [of 
which  the  chief  are  AHphnai,  or  The  Minute 
Philosopher  ;  Theory  of  Vision  ;  The  Princi- 
ples of  Human  Knowleilf/e],  ed.  by  A.  C'.  Fraser, 
Oxford,  1871.  4  vols.  [vol.  iv.  is  the  bioe- 
raphv].  See  al.so  Fnuser's  monograpli.  Eilin- 
luinr'h  and  Philadelphia.  ISHl.  and  di.Hc;ourse 
by  Noah  Porter,  New  York,  1885.) 

Berleburg  Bible,  The,  a  translation  made 
bv  an  anonymous  coniiJany  of  pietists,  wliich 
appeared  at"  ii.rii-liurLr.  (Icrniany.  1726-42.  in 
S  vols.,  di.stinuniishcd  by  its  chjliasticand  Iheo- 
soi)hical  remarks,  and  ks  quotations  from  the 
works  of  earlier  mystic.<«. 

Bern,  Disputation  of,  between  Zwingli  and 
other  Swiss  Rcformi-rs  and  the  Roman  Catho- 


BERNARD 


(100) 


BERNARD 


lies,  liisted  from  Jan.  7  to  26,  1528,  and  was  I 
based  upon  the  Ten  Theses  which  Zwingli  had  [ 
published,   in  which   was  presented   the  Re-  j 
formed  faith  upon  such  points  as  tlie  doctrine 
of  Christ  as  the  only  head  of  the  church,  the 
Atonement,  the  Eucharist,  etc.     The  Protes- 
tants had  so  decidedly  the  better  of  the  argu- 
ment, that  the  result'  of  the  disputation  M'as 
the  alliance  of  Bern   Zurich  and  Basel  on  the 
basis  of  the   Reformed  faith.      (Cf.   Schaff, 
Creeds,  i.,  364  sqq.) 

Bernard,  St.     See  Olivetans. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  a  great  abbot  and 
ecftlesiastical  leader  ;  b.  at  Fontaine,  20  m.  n.e. 
of  Dijon,  Cote-d'Or,  France,  in  1091  ;  d.  at 
Clairvaux.  department  of  Aube,  130  m.  s.e. 
of  Paris.  Aug.  20,  1153.  A  member  of  a  no- 
ble family,  he  would  naturally  have  turned 
toward  the  pursuit  of  arms,  but  from  his 
youth  he  was  marked  by  a  solitary  dispo- 
sition, and  by  a  preference  for  religious  con- 
templation. At  school  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  ready  mastery  of  the  subjects 
taught,  and  his  brothers  sought  to  hold  him 
to  the  life  of  a  scholar.  But  he  inclined  more 
and  more  to  the  monastic  life,  and  at  last,  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  knowledge  that  his 
mother  had  early  consecrated  him  to  it,  he 
vowed  to  enter  upon  it,  which  he  did  at  the  age 
of  22.  He  was  attracted  by  the  reputation  of 
Citeaux  for  rigid  discipline,  and  entered  there 
with  30  companions  in  1113.  He  gave  him- 
self to  every  form  of  service  with  the  greatest 
conscientiousness,  and  soon  became  famous 
both  in  the  monastery  and  out  of  it,  so  that 
new  members  were  attracted  thither.  Citeaux 
became  too  straight  for  the  multitude,  and  tlie 
plan  was  formed  to  found  a  monastic  colony, 
over  which  Bernard  was  set  as  abbot.  With 
his  companions  he  wandered  out  in  search  of 
some  wild  and  desolate  spot,  which  they  found 
at  Clairvaux,  in  northwestern  Burgundy, 
where  they  established  tliemselves  (1115). 
The  hardships  of  the  early  days  were  great, 
but  the  example  of  Bernard  sustained  them 
in  all  their  sufferings,  since  in  self-denial  and 
self-inflicted  mortifications  he  surpassed  them 
all.  Sleep  seemed  waste  of  time,  food  indul- 
gence ;  day  and  night  he  stood  absorbed  in 
prayer,  till  his  limbs  swelled  beneath  him. 
His  health  gave  way. 

But  amid  all  these  austerities  Bernard  had 
also  pursued  truly  spiritual  exercises.  His 
Bible  was  his  constant  companion,  and  he  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  it  which  appears  upon 
every  page  of  his  writings.  His  system  of 
thought,  created  under  these  circumstances 
and  animated  by  his  intense  longing  for  spir- 
itual communion  with  God,  was  mystical,  but 
moderated  by  the  sound  practical  sense  for 
which,  with  all  his  other  traits,  Bernard  was 
distinguished. 

Sucli  a  man  could  not  remain  limited  to  the 
narrow  sphere  of  a  single  monastery,  and  soon 
he  was  drawn  into  a  genend  activity  which 
lasted  as  long  as  his  life.  In  1128  he  drew  up 
the  rule  for  the  new  order  of  Knights  Tem- 
plars. His  services  as  a  preacher  were  in  de- 
mand for  many  purposes,  and  he  developed 
that  fiery  eloquence  with  which  at  a  later  date 
he  roused  France  and  Germany  to  the  second 


crusade  (1146).  Tlie  flrst  great  public  work 
performed  by  him  was  his  advocacy  of  the 
cause  of  Innocent  II.,  when  there  had  been 
set  up  against  him  an  anti-pope,  Anacletus  II. 
Bernard  gained  the  adherence  of  the  French 
clergy  at  Estampes,  won  Henry  I.  of  England 
by  a  personal  visit,  brought  over  Lothaire  of 
Germany,  induced  even  some  of  the  Italian 
followers  of  Anacletus  to  forsake  liim,  and 
finally  saw  Innocent  established  in  Rome  in 
1138.  He  next  turned  his  attention  to  the 
preservation  of  the  faith  of  the  church.  The 
teachings  of  Abelard  (see  the  art.),  which  were 
as  rationalistic  and  critical  as  Bernard's  were 
orthodox  and  mystical,  seemed  to  demand  re- 
sistance. Bernard  met  him,  though  with  re- 
luctance, at  a  synod  at  Sens  (1140),  but  Abelard 
appealed  without  discussion  to  Rome.  Arnold 
of  Brescia  was  another  whom  he  felt  called 
upon  to  oppose  strenuously.  He  went  to 
Toulouse  in  1147  to  put  an  end  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Cathari  (see  the  art.),  but  in  vain. 
A  council  was  held  at  Rheims  in  1148  against 
these  and  other  heretical  movements  at  which 
he  was  present.  But  excessive  labors  had 
already  undermined  his  constitution,  and  he 
was  grievously  sick.  He  summoned  strength 
in  1153  to  journey  to  the  Mosel,  where  he  rec- 
onciled two  quarrelling  counts  ;  but  this  done, 
he  was  exhausted  and  was  glad  to  die.  He 
was  canonized  in  1173.  (See  lives  by  Neander 
[Berlin,  1813  ;  3d  ed.,  1865  :  Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1843]  ;  Morison  [London,  1863  ;  2d  ed., 
1877]  ;  Hutfer  [Miinster,  vol.  i.,  1886]  ;  Ber- 
nard's works  in  orig.  Lat.,  best  ed.,  Mabillon, 
in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CLXXXII.-CLXXXV.  ; 
Eng.  trans,  by  S.  J.  Eales,  Life  and  Works  of 
St.  Bernard,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  London, 
1889,  sq.)  F. 

Bernard  of  Clugny  (or  de  Morlaix),  the 

author  of  the  poem  on  Contempt  for  the 
World;  b.  in  England,  or  more  probably  in 
Morlac  (Val  Morienne),  France  ;  became  prior 
at  Clugny  and  d.  in  that  monastery,  about 
1140,  at  an  advanced  age.  His  Carmen  de 
contemptu  mundi,  dedicated  to  his  abbot,  Pe- 
trus  Mauritius  (1122-57),  and  often  published 
(Basel,  1557  ;  Bremen,  1597  ;  Rostock,  1610  ; 
Rinteln,  1626  ;  Liineburg,  1640),  is  written  in 
leonine  verses,  so  difficult  to  compose  con- 
secutively that  the  author  claimed  to  liave 
been  enabled  to  do  it  by  special  inspiration. 
Parts  of  it  are  very  familiar  through  trans- 
lations by  ,1.  M.  Neale,  llie  Rhythm  of  B.  de 
M ...  on  the  Celestial  Country,  London,  1859  ; 
7th  ed.,  1866  ;  and  S.  W.  Duffield,  The  Ileav- 
enly  Land,  New  York,  1867.  (Cf.  S.  W. 
Duffield.  Latin  Hymn  Writers  [ed.  R.  E. 
Thompson],  New  York,  1891.) 

Bernard  of  Mentone  (or  Menthon),  founder 
of  the  famous  hospices  ;  b.  in  his  father's 
castle  at  Mentone,  14  m.  e.n.e.  of  Nice,  France, 
923  ;  d,  at  Novara,  30  m.  w.  of  Milan,  Italy, 
June  13, 1007.  Monk  and  archdeacon  at  Aosta, 
49  m.  n.n.w.  of  Turin,  Italy,  he  found  the 
pass  now  bearing  his  name  infested  by  rob- 
bers. To  defend  the  traveller  from  these  and 
provide  for  his  safety  in  the  storms  of  winter, 
he  erected  and  sustained  two  hospices  in  neigh- 
boring mountain  passes.  (Life  by  L.  Burgener, 
Luzern,  1856.)  F, 


BERNARD 


(101) 


BERYL 


Bernard  of  Toledo,  made  archbishop  and 
primate  of  Spain  in  1087,  performed  ,ii;real  ser- 
vice in  making  the  system  of  Grei^ory  VII. 
and  the  Roman  ecclesiastical  customs  supreme 
in  Spain.  F. 

Bernard,  Claude,  Roman  Catholic,  called 
the  "  Poor  Priest  ;"  b.  at  Dijon,  Dec.  26, 
1588  ;  in  early  life  was  dissipated,  but  on  con- 
version became  an  ascetic  priest  in  Paris  and 
devoted  himself  with  extraordinary  diligence 
to  the  religious  care  of  tlic  poor,  living  himself 
iu  voluntary  poverty  until  his  death,  Marcii 
28,  1641.  (See  his  life  by  Lempereur,  Paris, 
1708.) 

Bemardin  of  Siena,  St.,  Roman  Catliolic  ; 
b.  at  Massa  Maritima,  33  m.  s.w.  of  Siena, 
Italy,  Sept.  8,  1380  ;  entered  the  Franciscan 
order,  1403  ;  became  its  vicar-general,  1437  ; 
carried  through  many  reforms  ;  d.  at  Aquila, 
68  m.  u.e.  of  Ronie,  May  20,  1444.  He 
preachetl  all  over  Italy  to  great  crowds  and 
with  wonderful  success.  He  was  canonized, 
1450  ;  his  day  is  May  20.  (See  his  writings, 
Venice,  1745,  4  vols,  [uncritical  ed.],  and  his 
biography  by  J.  P.  Toussaint,  Regensburg, 
1873.) 

Bernardines.     See  Cistercians. 

Ber-ni'-ce  {bringing  victory),  eldest  daughter 
of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Acts  xxv.  13,  23  ;  xxvi. 
30).  She  was  first  married  to  her  uncle  Ilerod, 
King  of  Chalcis,  and  after  his  death  married 
Polemon,  King  of  Cilicia.  This  union  ilid 
not  last  long,  and  she  went  to  live  with  her 
brother,  Agrippa  II.,  and  afterward  became 
the  mistress  of  Vespasian  and  then  of  Titus. 
She  was  beautiful,  accomplished,  and  am- 
bitious, but  without  even  the  semblance  of 
virtue.  C. 

Berno.    See  Clugny. 

Berqviin(ber-kan),  liOuis  de,  nobleman,  one 
of  the  first  martyrs  of  the  Reformation  in 
France  ;  b.  at  Passy,  a  suburb  of  Paris,  1490  ; 
for  writing  and  translating  books  in  behalf  of 
religious  reformed  persecuted  by  Parliament 
in  1523  ;  he  escaped  by  intervention  of  the 
king,  but  persisting  in  his  course,  he  was  exe- 
cuted in  Paris.  April  17,  1529.  (Cf.  Baird, 
Rise  of  the,  Huguenots,  i.,  128  sqcj.) 

Berretta.     See  Biretta. 

Berruyer  (ba-rU-e-a),  Joseph  Isaac,  French 
Jesuit  ;  b.  at  Rouen,  Nov.  7,  lOSl  ;  d.  in 
Paris,  Feb.  18,  1758.  He  conceived  tiie  ex- 
traordinary idea  of  popularizing  Bible  history 
by  rewriting  it  in  French  as  a  romance  in  tiie 
taste  of  the  time  {Ilistoirc  dii  Peiiple  de  Dieii). 
But  in  carrying  out  this  idea  he  introduced  so 
much  matter  which  was  heretical,  inaccurate, 
misleading,  blasphemous,  and  even  obscene, 
that  his  book  was  ecclesitistically  condemned. 
It  was,  perhaps  in  consequence,  very  popular  ; 
many  editions  were  demanded  in  Frencli,  and 
translations  were  made  into  Italian,  Spanish, 
Polish,  and  German.  It  is  even  now  reprinted. 
But  the  more  scandalous  passages  have  been 
removed.  It  remains,  liowcver,  in  style  and 
spirit  the  same.  Tiiis  is  its  bibliograpliical 
history  :  Ilistoire  dn  Peiiple  de  Dicv,  first  part. 
on  the  Old  Testament,  Paris,  1728,  7  vols,  (put 


on  the  Index,  1734) ;  second  part,  on  the  Ooa- 
pels.  The  Hague  (Paris),  1753,  4  vols,  (put  on 
the  Index,  1755)  ;  third  part,  on  tlu;  Epistles. 
The  Hague  (Lj'-oiis),  1757,  2  vols,  ((iondcinned 
by  the  poix;,  1758)  ;  n.e.  of  1st  and  2d  parts, 
Besan^on  (1839),  10  vols. 

Bersier  (ber-se-a),  Eugene  Arthur  Fran- 
9ois,  Reformed  Church  of  France  ;  b.  at 
Morges,  near  Geneva,  Feb.  5,  1831  ;  studied 
theology  in  Geneva,  Gottingen,  and  Halle; 
l)ast()rm  Paris,  1«55  ,  d.  tlKsre,  Nov.  19,  18H9. 
His  sermons  have  been  translated  into  Engli.sh, 
German,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Russian.  His 
historical  writin!i;s  embrace  J/ixtnirc  du  Siiimde 
de  1872,  Paris,  1872,  2  vols.  ;  doUgun  <ini„t  Irs 
guerres  de  Religion,  1884  ;  3d  ed.,  1885  ;  Eng. 
trans.,  (hligny,  London,  1885;  La  Remca- 
tioa,  1886. 

Berthold,    founder    of    the    Carmelites 

(q.v.). 

Berthold  (ber'-tolt,  properly  Pirstinger),  of 
Chiem  See  ;  b.  at  Salzburg,  1405  ;  d.  at  Saal- 
felden,  28  m.  s.s.w.  of  Salzburg,  July  19, 
1543.  He  became  bishoj)  of  Chiem  See,  the 
name  of  a  lake  42  m.  s.e.  of  Munich,  1508  ; 
resigned  his  see,  1525,  soon  after  the  appear- 
ance of  his  anonymously  issued  Onus  ecclesim 
(Landshut,  1524),  in  which  he  demanded  a  re- 
form of  the  church  by  the  church  itself,  and 
set  forth  unsparingly  the  corruptions  which 
should  be  removed.  But  in  his  TeirtKi-hr  The- 
(ilogcg  (Munich,  1528)  he  defended  the  Roman 
Church  against  the  Reformers,  and  retracted 
some  of  his  charges.  (For  life,  see  ed.  of  the 
Tetrtsrhe  Tlievlogey,  by  W.  Reithmeier,  Mu- 
nich, 1852.) 

Berthold,  apostle  of  Livonia,  after  serving 
as  al)bot  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Lok- 
kum,  in  Hannover,  North  Germany,  was  or- 
dained about  1196  as  successor  of  .Nieiuhard, 
bishop  of  Livonia.  At  lirst  he  Wius  kindly  re- 
ceived by  that  wild  people,  but  their  mood 
changed,  and  he  had  to  liee  for  his  life.  In 
1198  he  returned  at  the  head  of  an  armed  host 
and  attemj)ted  to  compel  them  to  embrace 
Christianity.  They  \ngorously  resisted,  and 
in  a  battle  at  Riga  he  was  killed,  July  24. 
1198. 

Berthold  of  Ratisbon  (Regensburg),  fa- 
mous preacher;  b.  at  Ratisbon  about  1220; 
d.  there,  Dec.  13,  1272.  He  entered  the  Frau- 
ci.scan  order  about  1240  ;  labored  in  R.ilisl»on 
until  1250,  when  he  began  those  wonderful 
preaching  journeys,  like  those  of  a  modern 
evangelist,  through  parts  of  (icrmany,  Switzer- 
land, and  .Vuslria.  Thousands  everywhere 
flocked  to  hear  him,  and  the  inipression  left  by 
his  earnest  words  must  liave  been  great.  The 
sermons  which  have  come  down  to  us  are 
among  the  best  extant.  Best  ed.  PfeiiTer  and 
SirobI,  Wiin,  lS(i2-S0.  2  vols.  (See  hLs  life  by 
Karl  Unk«l,  ("ologne.  1HH2.) 

Bertram.     See  Ratramnus. 

Beryl,  the  name  of  a  precious  sfono,  the 
first  in  the  fourth  row  in  lln;  high-priest 'h 
l)reastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  2<>),  and  the  <  ightli 
foundation  of  the  holv  Jeru.salem  (Rev.  xxl. 
20),  commonly  supjxjsed  to  Ix;  the  mnilern 
yellow  topaz.  ^'- 


(102) 


BETHUNE 


Bes-sa-ri-on,  Joannes  (properly  Basilius), 
Romau  Catholic ;  b.  at  Tnbizond,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  lo9o  ;  d.  at  Ravenna,  Italy,  Nov.  18, 
1472.  He  was  brought  up  in  the  Greek 
Church  ;  educated  in  Constantinople  ;  entered 
the  Basilian  order,  1423,  when  he  took  the  mo- 
nastic name  Bessarion.  He  became  archbishop 
of  Nic«a,  1437  ;  was  a  member  of  the  Ferrara- 
Florence  council,  1438  ;  and  labored  success- 
fully in  behalf  of  the  (short-lived)  union  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  For 
the  latter  service  the  pope  made  him  a  cardi- 
nal, 1439,  and  he  henceforth  lived  in  Italy. 
He  did  much  to  promote  the  study  of  Greek  ; 
made  Latin  translations  of  Greek  authors,  and 
collected  Greek  mss.  He  also  was  energetic 
in  trying  to  rouse  the  Chri.stians  of  Germany, 
Italy,  and  France  to  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks.  (See  his  life  by  Henri  Vast,  Paris, 
1878,  aiid  his  works  "in  Migne,  Pat.  Or. 
CLXL,  1-746.) 

Beth-ab'-a-rah  (house  of  the  ford),  the  place 
on  the  Jordan  where  our  Lord  was  baptized 
(John  i.  28)  ;  but  Revised  Version  reads 
"  Bethany,"  an  obscure  village  in  Pernea,  not 
to  be  confounded  with  that  mentioned  be- 
low. C. 

Beth'-a-ny  (/ioi/se  of  misery),  a  village  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  Mt.  Olivet,  15  furlongs  (li  to 
2  m.)  from  Jerusalem  (John  xi.  18),  named  11 
times  in  the  gospels,  the  home  of  Mary  and 
Martha,  now  a  little  Arab  hamlet  called  el- 
Aziriyeh.  "  place  of  Lazarus."  C. 

Beth'-el  {house  of  Ood),  a  town  12  m.  n.  of 
Jerusalem,  visited  by  Abraham  (Gen.  xii.  8) 
and  by  Jacob,  who  there  had  the  vision  of  the 
ladder  (xxviii.  11-19),  and  by  Samuel  (1  Sam. 
vii.  16)  ;  the  chief  seat  of  "the  calf  worship 
(1  Kings  xii.  29-32),  a  home  of  the  prophets 
(2  Kings  ii.  3),  mentioned  often  in  the  Old 
Testament,  not  at  all  in  the  New.  C. 

Beth-es'-da  (house  of  mercy),  a  pool  in  Jeru- 
salem near  the  sheep-gate  (John  v.  2),  by  tradi- 
tion identified  with  the  modern  Birket-Israil, 
360  ft.  long,  120  ft.  wide,  and  80  ft.  deep  ;  but 
Robinson  regards  it  as  the  same  with  the  in- 
termittent Pool  of  the  Virgin,  outside  of  the 
city,  above  the  Pool  of  Siloam.  C. 

Beth-Ho'-ron  (house  of  the  holloic),  the  name 
of  two  places,  the  "  Upper"  and  the  "  Lower" 
(Josh.  xvi.  3.  5),  lying  on  the  opposite  sides 
of  a  rough  and  rocky  pass,  12  m.  from  Jeru- 
salem, on  the  way  to  the  sea-coast.  Down 
this  pass  Joshua  drove  the  Amorites  (x.  1-11), 
and  through  it  Paul  went  by  night  on  his  way 
to  Antipatris  (Acts  xxiii.  31).  C. 

Beth'-le-hem  (house  oj  bread),  an  old  and 
famous  city,  6  m.  s.  of  Jerusalem,  on  a  ridge 
running  east  and  west,  in  a  fertile  region,  and 
hence  called  Ephrath,  fruitful  (Gen.  xxxv. 
16),  2500  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  was  the  burial- 
place  of  Rachel  ;  the  home  of  Naomi,  Boaz, 
and  Ruth  (Ruth  i.  19)  ;  the  birthplace  of 
David  (1  Sam.  xvii.  12)  ;  taken  by  Philistines, 
and  had  a  noted  well  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  14,  15)  : 
fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  6) ;  foretold 
as  Christ's  birthplace  (Micah  v.  2)  ;  prophecy 
fulfilled  (Matt.  ii.  1)  ;  visited  by  the  shepherds 
(Luke  ii.  15,  17).     It  is  now  a  small  village  of 


about  3000  inhabitants,  who  are  all  Christians, 
and  is  known  as  Beitlalim,  "  house  of  flesh." 
Tradition  early  pointed  to  a  cave  or  grotto  in 
which  Christ  was  born.  Over  this  the  Em- 
press Helena  erected  the  Church  of  the  Na- 
tivity, the  oldest  in  Christendom.  Here  Je- 
rome lived  for  30  years  and  made  his  Latin 
version  of  the  Bible,  known  as  the  Vulgate  ; 
and  here  Baldwin  was  crowned  king  in  1101. 
In  an  irregular  shaped  chapel  beneath  the 
church  are  two  recesses,  in  one  of  which  is  a 
marble  slab  on  which  is  a  silver  star  said  to 
mark  the  exact  spot  of  the  nativity.  A  mile 
away  from  the  town  is  the  so-called  "  plain 
of  the  shepherds."  The  Latins,  Greeks,  and 
Armenians  have  separate  convents  hard  by,  and 
claim  a  joint  property  in  the  church.        C. 

Bethlehemites.  1 .  Designation  of  the  Hus- 
sites, from  the  name  of  the  chapel  in  Prague 
in  which  Hus  preached.  2.  A  Roman  Catho- 
lic order  founded  in  1659  by  Peter  of  Beth  en - 
court,  a  Franciscan  in  Guatemala,  for  hospital 
and  educational  service.  A  female  similar 
order  Avas  founded  in  1668. 

Beth'-pha'-ge  (house  of  figs),  a  place  near 
Bethany  on  the  ]\Iount  of  Olives,  and  possibly 
west  of  it.  Here  the  colt  was  found  for 
Christ's  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem  (Matt. 
xxi.  1).  C. 

Beth-sa'-i-da  (house  of  fshing),  a  city  of 
Galilee,  north  of  Capernaum  (John  xii.  2J, 
Matt.  xi.  21).  Many  hold  that  there  were  two 
towns  of  this  name,  one  on  the  west  side  of 
the  lake,  the  other  in  Gaulanitis,  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Jordan  (Luke  ix.  10  compared 
with  Mark  vi.  45)  ;  but  others  think  there  was 
but  one,  and  that  it  was  built  on  both  sides  of 
the  Jordan,  near  its  entrance  into  the  lake. 
Schaff ,  Through  Bible  Lands  ;  Thomson,  Tlie 
Land  and  the  Book,  I.e.  C. 

Beth-she'-an  (house  of  quiet),  a  city  4  m, 
w.  of  the  Jordan,  at  the  entrance  of  the  val- 
ley of  Jezreel.  To  its  walls  the  dead  body  of 
Saul  was  fastened  by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam. 
xxxi.  10).  After  the  captivity  it  was  called  Sey- 
thopolis,  and  is  now  known  as  Beisan.      C. 

Beth-she'-mesh  (house  of  the  sim),  a  priests' 
city  about  14  m.  w.  of  Jerusalem  (Josh, 
xxi.  16),  noted  as  the  place  to  which  the  ark 
was  returned  by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  vi. 
12-18),  and  for  the  battle  in  which  Jehoash, 
King  of  Israel,  defeated  and  captured  Ama- 
ziah,  King  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xiv.  12).      C. 

Beth-u'-li-a  (virgin  of  Jehovah),  the  centre 
of  the  events  narrated  in  the  apocryphal  book 
of  Judith,  but  not  elsewhere  mentioned.  It 
has  never  been  identified  with  any  existing 
site.  C. 

Bethune,  George  Washington,  D.D,  (Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  1838),  Reformed 
Dutch  ;  b.  in  New  York  City,  March  18. 
1805  ;  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  1823  ; 
studied  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
1823-25  ;  in  the  ministry  of  tlie  Dutch  Church 
from  1827,  and  served  in  various  places 
(Church  on  the  Heights,  Brooklyn,  L.  I., 
1851-59;  New  York  City,  1859-61);  d.  in 
Florence,  Italy,  April  27, 1862.  He  was  famed 
as  a  platform  and  pulpit  orator  and  as  a  wit ; 


BETHZUR 


(103) 


BEZA 


also  as  an  angler.  He  edited  Walton's  Complete 
Angler,  New  York,  1846.  (See  his  life  by  A. 
R.  Van  Nest,  New  York,  18G7.) 

Beth'-zur  {home  of  rod,-),  a  city  some  miles 
north  of  Hebron,  fortitiecl  by  Rehoboum  (2 
Chron.  xi.  7),  and  of  service  in  rebuilding 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii.  16).  It  was  famous  in 
the  wars  of  the  Maccabees,  and  called  by 
Josephus  "  the  strongest  place  in  all  Judea. " 
It  is  now  the  ruined  village  Beitsur.        C. 

Betroth.     See  Marriage. 

Beveridge,  William,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
1679),  English  ))relate  ;  baptized  at  Barrow, 
Feb.  21,  163()-37  ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ; 
became  vicar  of  Yealing,  Middlesex,  1660-61  ; 
rector  of  St.  Peter's,  Cornhill,  London,  1672  ; 
archdeacon  of  Colchester,  1681  ;  declined  ap- 
pointment to  bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells, 
1691  ;  accepted  that  of  St.  Asaph,  1704  ;  d.  in 
London,  March  5,  1707-08.  Much  that  he 
wrote  enjoyed  great  popularity,  but  he  is  now 
remembered  chiefly  by  his  Private  Tkoiif/hts 
upon  Rdigioii,  London,  1709  ;  later  edd. — 
e.g.,  London,  1871.  His  works  have  been  re- 
printed, ed.  T.  H.  Ilorne,  with  life,  London, 
1824,  9  vols.,  and  Oxford,  1842-48. 

Beyrout,  Beirut  (Arabic,  pronounced  bffi- 
rool),  Bairut  (Turkish,  pronounced  bl-root), 
the  chief  seaport  town  of  Syria,  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Berytus,  settled  by  Phoenicians, 
known  to  Greeks  and  Latins,  57  m.  w.n.w. 
of  Damascus.  Its  name  is  said  to  come  from 
the  Phumician  Baal  Beerith  {lord  of  wells). 
Its  authentic  history  goes  back  to  the  2d 
pre-Christian  century.  In  41  a.d.  it  was 
made  a  Roman  colony.  Its  school  of  juris- 
prudence, established  in  the  3d  century,  was  fa- 
mous for  several  centuries.  The  earthquake 
of  551  well-nigh  destroyed  the  city,  but  dur- 
ing the  Crusades  it  came  again  into  promi- 
nence. In  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  the 
Druses  made  it  their  centre.  In  1838  its  popu- 
lation was  only  15,000,  but  in  1886  it  was  esti- 
mated to  be  90,000.  Its  commerce  is  compar- 
atively large,  and  the  town  is  thriving.  It  is 
the  centre  of  missionary  operations  in  Syria. 
The  American  Board  began  there  in  1823,  and 
set  up  its  press  in  1834.  There  the  entire 
Bible  was  translated  by  Eli  Smith  and  Corne- 
lius Van  Alen  Van  Dyck  into  Arabic,  com- 
pleted 1865.  In  1865  a  liighgrade  girls' 
school  was  opened,  and  in  1866  a  college, 
which  is  a  great  power.  There  are  also  a  the- 
ological seminary,  cstabli-shed  1874,  and  a  med- 
ical school  in  connection  witli  the  college,  and 
a  hospital.  The  mission  passed  over  to  the 
Presbyterian  Board  in  1870.  The  Prussian 
deaconesses  from  Kuiserswerth  have  a  hos- 
pital, orphanage,  ami  girls'  school.  The  Brit- 
u'l  Sgrian  ScJwols,  founded  by  Mrs.  J.  Bowen 
Thompson,  were  started  there  in  1860.  Th<'y 
now  number  30  day  schools.  The  Roman 
Catholics  have  also  established  tiiemscUes 
there,  and  have  tlourishing  schools  and  a 
printing- press,  and  carry  on  a  vigorous  propa- 
ganda. 

Be  •2a(deBe7,c), Theodore.  Swiss  Reformer; 
b.  of  nobl.'  family  at  the  castle  of  Vozciay,  in 
Nivernais,  central  France,  June  24, 1519  ;  d.  at 


Geneva,  Oct.  13,  1605.    He  imbibed  Protestant- 
ism from  Wolmar  at  Orleans   and   Bourges, 
1528-35;    studied   law   at   Orleans,   1585-39; 
lived  a  somewhat  free  life  in  Paris,  enjoying 
the  income  of  two  benelices  ;  mingled  in  high 
society,  and  by  his  rather  loose  poems,  ,l,ivc- 
nilia  (Paris,  1548),  won  fame  as  the  best  Latin 
poet  of  his  time.     But  in  1548  he  was  convert- 
ed ;  left  for  Geneva  and  opeulv  professed  Prot- 
estantism.     From    1549   to   1558    he    taught 
Greek   at   Lausanne.     Meanwhile   he   liclpccl 
(!alvin  by  writing  ably  on  Predestination  and 
the  Eucharist  ;  defended  his  action  in  the  ca.se 
of  Servetus  ;  and  also  i)erformed  a  great  ser- 
vi(;e   to   the   church   in   coniplctirig   Clement 
Marot's   metrical   translation   of   the   Psalms 
(1560).     He  won  the  confidence  of  the  Re- 
formed Swiss  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  so 
that  he  was  sent  in  1557  and  1558  on  embjussies 
to  the    Prot(;stant  German    princes   to  solicit 
their  help  in  freeing  imprisoned  Huguenots 
and  persecuted  Waldensians.     In   1558  he  re- 
moved to  Geneva,   became  president   of   the 
college   opened   in   1559,   was  ordained,   and 
as.sisted   Calvin   in   preaching   and   teaching. 
His  personal  rank,  his  acquaintance  with  high 
life,  his  learning,  wit,  and  elo(|U(nce.  his  ele- 
gant manners  and  commanding  iircsence — all 
tilted  him  to  be  the  leader  of  the  Reformed,  and 
their  representative  in  intercourse  with  foreign 
princes.    He  presented  to  Antoine,  King  of  Na- 
varre, the  cause  of  the  Reformation  at  N^rac, 
1560;  returned  to  Geneva  after  a  few  months  ; 
attended  the  famous  Colloquy  of  Poissy,  near 
Paris,  1561,   and  favorably   inqiressed  Cath- 
erine   de  Medici    and  Cardinal   Loriaine  by 
his  defence  of  Protestantism.     He  frequently 
preached   near   Pans.     When   the   civil   war 
broke  out  he  took  the  field  as  a  i)reacher  with 
the  prince  of  Cond6.     Peace  being  established, 
he  return(!d  to  Geneva,  1563,  and  on  Calvin's 
death  in  the  next  year  succeeded  him  in  his 
offices.     In  1571  and  1572  he  took   part  in  tlie 
National  Synods  of  the  French  Keformed  in 
La  Rochellc  and  Ninies.     In  1586,  at  tiie  (Col- 
loquy of  Mciinpelganl,  he  debated  with  Jacob 
Andrea,  on  tiie  Lutheran  idea  of  the  Ubitiuity 
of  Christ's  Body.     In  1588  his  wife,  Claude 
Desnoz,  whom  he   had   married,   1548,  died, 
and   within   a  year   he   married   the    widow 
Katharina  del  Piano.     In  1598  he  resigned  his 
professorship  ;     in     1600    his     preaihership. 
Francis   de   Sales    vainly   attempted    shoilly 
after  to  win  him  back  to  the  Roman  Ciuirch. 
In  1597  the  Jesuits  spread  the  report  thai  ho 
was  dead  and  had  recanted  on  liis  deathbed. 
This  stirred  liim  to  write  a  satirical  poem. 
One  of  his  servi(;es  was  his  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  i>atin,  with  notes,  Geneva, 
1565.     But  he  was  a  prolilic  writer  (cf.  list  ia 
Hcppe's /.V.-<t  [Elbcrfel.l.   IMCl],  pp.    309-80). 
He  wrote  the  biography  of  Calvin  (in  Eng. 
trans,   of    Calnn'n    Tnictii,   Etiinburgh,    1844, 
in  the  series  of  tlu?  Calvin  'Translaliou  Society, 
vol.  i.,  pp.  xix.  c.  ;  in  original  Latin,  ed.  N<ati- 
der  in  Vit(r  reform.,  IVrWn,   1841).     The  Uii>- 
toire  KccUniitatiq'ie   d,»  £:/lii<,n  IVefonuifs  da 
roynume  de   h-anr^  (from  1521   to  156:^),  ed. 
Ve-sson.   Toulouse,  1882.  2  vols.,  is  pniliably 
wrongly  atlrii)Uted  to  him,  although  he  may 
have  inspired  it.     His  ./'/r«/(«7iVi,  referred  to 
above,  was  reprinted,  Paris,  1879. 


i 


BEZPOPOFTSCHINS 


(104) 


BIBLE! 


Bezpopoftschins.    See  Russian  Sects. 
Bezslovestni.     See  Russian  Sects. 

Bible  {the  Book,  by  pre-eminence).  It  is  the 
best  of  all  books,  being  the  Word  of  God  and 
the  standard  of  human  duty.  It  contains  the 
work  of  about  40  authors  taken  from  all 
classes  of  society,  and  extending  through  a 
^  period  of  1600  years.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  Old  Testament  (or  Covenant)  and 
the  New.  The  former  is  written  in  Hebrew 
(save  a  few  portions  that  are  in  Chaldee),  a 
Semitic  tongue,  differing  widely  from  the 
Japhetic  or  Aryan  languages,  not  only  in  vo- 
cabulary, but  in  its  genius  and  structure.  Its 
lack  of  precision  unfits  it  for  philosophy,  but 
its  figurative  character  well  tits  it  for  devo- 
tional purposes.  The  Old  Testament  is  the 
only  work  extant  in  pure  Hebrew.  The  New 
Testament  is  written  in  Greek,  a  languasre 
admirably  adapted  by  its  vigor,  fulness,  and 
precision,  to  express  every  variety  of  thought. 
Biblical  Greek  is  not  pure  and  classical,  as 
was  once  contended,  but  is  "  the  common  dia- 
lect "  which  came  in  with  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  that  filled  with  Hebraisms  arising 
from  the  fact  that  the  writers  were  Jews.  It 
has  shown  itself  abundantly  adequate  as  a 
channel  of  divine  revelation. 

The  text  of  both  Testaments  is  wonderfully 
pure  and  correct.  That  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
has  been  carefully  preserved  by  the  labors  of 
men  who  regarded  it  with  an  almost  divine 
reverence  The  Masoretic  text  of  to-day  is 
the  work  of  a  body  of  .scholars  living  at  Ti- 
berias and  at  Sora  in  the  Eui)hrates  valley, 
from  the  6th  to  the  12th  century,  who  added 
the  vowel  points  and  committed  to  writing 
the  traditional  notes  called  the  Masora,  i.e., 
tradition.  They  brought  the  text  into  the 
form  which  it  now  has,  and  there  is  little  or 
no  reason  to  doubt  their  conscientious  fidelity 
and  accuracy.  The  oldest  extant  manuscripts 
date  from  the  10th  century.  The  entire  He- 
brew Bible  was  first  printed  in  1488,  and  a 
second  edition  in  1494.  All  subsequent  edi- 
tions have  been  little  more  than  reproductions 
of  these.  The  case  is  different  with  the  Greek 
text.  Copies  of  the  gospels  and  epistles  were 
multiplied  in  great  numbers,  and  there  was  no 
organized  body  of  learned  men  with  authority 
to  determine  and  preserve  the  original  text. 
Hence  a  great  variety  of  various  readings 
owing  to  inadvertencies  and  unintentional 
faults.  It  has  been  the  task  of  modern  schol- 
arship, especially  during  the  last  century,  to 
collect  and  compare  the  various  manuscripts 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  thus  to  arrive  at 
the  true  text.  These  manuscripts  are  of  two 
Classens,  unciaU,  written  in  capitals  and  with 
no  division  of  words  or  sentences  and  very 
few  marks  of  punctuation,  and  cursioes,  writ- 
ten in  running  hand.  The  former  are  the 
older,  dating  from  the  4th  to  the  10th  cen- 
tury. The  material  used,  the  style  of  writing, 
and  other  peculiarities,  enable  experts  to  tell 
very  nearly  to  what  century  any  given  manu- 
script belongs.  The  first  printed  text  that 
was  published  was  that  of  Erasmus  in  lolG. 
What  is  called  the  Received  Text  is  that  of 
the  Second  Elzevir  Edition,  16;};},  which,  how- 
ever, got  the  name  more  from  its  beauty  and 


convenience  than  from  its  critical  merit,  and 
has  no  real  authority  nor  any  claim  to  special 
respect.  The  toils  of  a  long  succession  of 
scholars  have  suflSced  to  furnish  a  text  that 
satisfactorily  represents  the  original.  Chief 
among  these  scholars  were  Beza,  Mill,  Bengel, 
and  Bentley  in  the  centuries  that  followed  the 
Reformation.  In  1775  Griesbach  improved 
the  classification  of  manuscripts;  in  1830 
Scholz  collected  new  material  ;  in  1840  Lach- 
man  settled  principles.  Witliin  the  last  gen- 
eration Tischendorf  (who  discovered  the  Sina- 
itic  Codex),  Tregelles,  Westcott  and  Hort, 
and  Scrivener  have  perfected  the  science  of 
biblical  criticism  and  done  more  than  all  their 
predecessors  toward  ascertaining  the  exact 
words  of  inspiration. 

Great  aid  in  settling  both  the  text  and  the 
meaning  of  the  Scriptures  has  been  derived 
from  the  various  versions  that  have  been  made 
in  other  languages.  The  most  ancient  of  these 
is  what  has  been  called  the  Chaldee  Para- 
phrase, viz.,  the  Targums  (=  explanations), 
which  were  made  after  the  Jews'  return  from 
captivity  (Neh.  viii.  8),  when  the  Hebrew 
ceased  to  be  their  vernacular.  These  were  not 
committed  to  writing  until  a  late  period,  but 
they  certainly  represent  an  early  tradition. 
They  bear  different  names,  such  as  the  Tar- 
gurn  of  Onkelos,  etc.,  and  are  upon  different 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament,  there  being  no 
one  that  covers  the  whole.  The  most  useful 
version  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  is  the  Septuagint 
(=  LXX)  so  called  because  this  was  said  to 
have  been  the  number  of  the  translators.  It 
was  made  in  Alexandria  under  the  patronage 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  begun  about 
B.C.  285.  The  Pentateuch  was  rendered  first  ; 
then  followed  the  Prophets,  and  finally  the 
Hagiographa,  a  circumstance  which  helps  to 
explain  the  inequality  of  the  version  as  to 
accuracy.  It  was  generally  accepted  in  our 
Lord's  day  by  the  Jews,  and  is  continually 
quoted  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament. 
It  is  of  exceeding  value  as  an  interpretation 
of  the  Hebrew  text,  and  as  a  specimen  of  the 
modified  or  Hellenistic  Greek  employed  by 
the  penmen  of  the  later  revelation.  There 
were  several  other  Greek  versions  (Aquila, 
Theodotion,  Symmachus),  but  of  these  only 
fragments  remain.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
3d  century  the  whole  Bible  was  rendered  into 
Syriac,  and  this  version  obtained  the  name 
Peshitto  {simple)  because  of  its  fidelity.  It  is 
still  of  great  use  to  the  bibhcal  critic.  At 
an  early  period  there  were  translatioi:s  into 
Latin  from  the  Septuagint.  These  versions, 
known  technically  as  the  Itala,  uow^  exist  only 
in  fragments.  This  is  because  at  the  end  of 
the  4th  century,  the  learned  Christian  father, 
Jerome,  made  a  new  version  directly  from 
the  Hebrew,  which  soon  displaced  all  others. 
It  is  called  the  Vulgate,  and  was  declared  by 
the  Council  of  Trent  (1546)  to  be  the  authentic 
rule  of  faith,  which  no  one  should  dare  to  re- 
ject under  any  pretext  whatever.  It  obtained 
a  wide  circulation,  and  from  it  were  made  the 
Italian,  Dutch,  German,  French,  and  Bohe- 
mian versions  that  were  printed  prior  to  the 
Reformation.  Fourteen  editions  of  these  were 
in  the  German  language. 

After  the  Reformation  nearly  all  versions 


BIBLE 


(105) 


were  made  from  the  original  tongues.  In 
Germany  this  was  done  by  Luther  in  a  book 
(completed  in  1534)  which  it  is  said  tixed 
the  Grcrniau  language  and  established  Protes- 
tantism. In  French  Lefevre's  version  was 
printed  at  Antwerp  in  153G.  It  was  super- 
seded by  those  of  Olivetan  and  Martin.  In 
1880  a  new  and  excellent  version  was  issued 
by  Dr.  Louis  Segond.  In  Holland  what  is 
called  the  States'  Bible,  made  by  persons  ap- 
pointed by  the  Synod  of  Dort  under  the  civil 
authority'  and  issued  in  1637,  is  one  of  the  best 
of  modern  versions.  In  1868  there  appeared 
the  first  instalment  of  a  revised  edition  of  this 
Bible,  made  by  eminent  scholars  by  order  of 
the  General  Synod  of  the  Netherlandish 
Church.  It  is  very  valuable,  but  for  some 
reason  the  enterpiise  stopped  with  the  issue 
of  the  New  Testament.  In  Italy  the  chief 
version  was  one  issued  by  Diodati  at  Geneva 
in  1607,  and  it  is  in  use  to-day.  In  Spain  the 
Bible  of  Reyna,  afterward  revised  by  Valera, 
made  from  the  Vulgate,  is  most  used  now, 
and  in  Portugal  that  of  Almeida,  1712-19  and 
that  of  Figueiredo,  1784,  are  both  circulated. 
A  new  version  of  the  Bible  in  both  these  lan- 
guages is  considered  very  desirable,  and  ell'orts 
are  now  making  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean  to 
secure  this  result.  In  Scandinavia  the  Danish 
Bible  (also  used  in  Norway  up  to  1814)  a[)- 
peared  in  1550,  the  Swedish  in  1541,  and  the 
Icelandic  in  1584. 

In  English,  Wiclif 's  version  (1380)  was  made 
from  the  Vulgate,  but  did  a  good  work  in  its 
day.  Tyndale  (1484-1530)  began  a  version 
from  the  originals  of  the  New  Testament  and 
a  part  of  the  Old,  which  in  a  large  degree  still 
e.vists  in  the  common  English  Bible,  it  being  a 
foundation  upon  which  all  his  successors  in 
the  work  built.  In  1535  Cover^^ile  revised 
and  completed  Tyndale,  and  in  1537  the  Mat- 
thew Bil)le  carried  the  work  still  further,  using 
Tyudalc's  manuscript  notes.  Two  years  later 
appeared  Cranmer's  Bible,  prepared  by  Cover- 
dale,  in  a  large  folio,  and  hence  sometimes 
called  the  Great  Bible,  which  was  .set  up  in  the 
churches  and  held  the  ]>re-eminence  till  Eliza- 
beth's time.  In  15(50  appeared  the  Genevan 
version  made  by  English  e.xiles  on  the  Conti- 
nent. It  was  printed  in  Roman  type,  distin- 
guished the  verses  as  well  as  the  chapters,  and 
had  very  good  marginal  notes,  for  which  rea- 
sons it  "became  a  popular  favorite.  In  1568 
came  the  Bishops'  Bible,  so  called  becau.se  pre- 
pared by  a  number  of  prelates  under  the  lead  of 
Archbishop  Parker,  but  it  did  not  supplant  the 
Genevan.  The  ne.\l  to  appear  was  a  Koman- 
ist  version,  the  New  Testament  at  Klieims  in 
1582.  the  Old  at  Douay  in  1609,  both  made 
from  the  Vulgate.  What  is  known  as  the  Au- 
thorized Version  resulted  from  a  request  made 
by  the  Hampton  Court  Conference  (1604)  to 
James  I.,  who  acceded  to  it,  and  appointed  54 
revisers  (of  whom  47  served),  and  gav(!  them 
rules  for  their  guidance,  but  contributed  noth- 
ing to  the  e.Kpen.se  of  the  work.  The  enter- 
prise was  begini  in  1(107,  and  the  book  was 
published  in  1611.  There  is  no  evidence  to 
show  that  it  was  ever  .sanctioned  by  any  au- 
tljority,  but  its  intrinsic  excellence  .sec\ired  it 
general  acceptance.  It  was  the  growth  of  u 
hundred  years,  and  its  language  is  as  line  a 


model  of  simple,  vigorous,  and  elegant  Eng- 
lish as  can  anywhere  be  seen.  "It  lives  on 
the  ear  like  a  music  that  can  never  be  forgot- 
ten, like  the  sound  of  church  bells  which  the 
convert  hardly  knows  how  he  can  forego." 
(Faber.)  Yet  after  more  than  two  centuries 
and  a  half  had  elaps(!d  it  became  apparent  that 
a  revision  was  required,  because  manv  words 
liAd  become  obsolete  or  had  altered  their  mean- 
ing ;  great  advances  had  been  made  in  all 
sacred  studies,  such  as  the  geography  and 
arcluvology  of  Palestine,  the  grammar  and  the 
vocabulary  of  the  sacred  tongues  ;  and  the 
original  text,  especially  of  the  New  Testament, 
could  now  be  ascertained  or  at  least  approxi- 
mated in  a  degree  utterly  im]K)ssible  to  the 
authors  of  the  Authori/,id  \'cisioii.  Hence, 
by  appointment  of  the  Convdcation  of  Canter- 
bnry  a  lumiber  of  learned  men  of  various  de- 
nominations in  the  I'niled  Kingdom  took  up 
the  work,  and  afterward  associated  with  them- 
.selves  a  similar  body  of  Am(;rican  scholars. 
These  prosecuted  the  work  of  revision  with 
great  diligence  from  the  time  of  beginning  in 
1870,  and  is.^ued  the  New  Testament  in  1881 
and  the  Old  in  1885.  It  has  been  subjected 
to  some  severe  criticism,  but  the  general  and 
growing  opinion  is  that  it  furnishes  a  more 
faithful  and  accurate  expression  of  the  mean- 
ing of  the  inspired  originals  than  is  to  be 
found  in  any  other  modern  version.  It  took 
King  James'  Bible  half  a  century  to  displace 
the  Genevan  in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and 
it  will  doubtless  require  as  long  a  period  to 
induce  English-speaking  Christians  to  surren- 
der the  one  "sacred  thing  which  doubt  has 
never  dinuued  and  controversy  never  soiled  " 
(Faber)  for  another  which,  however  superior, 
has  no  such  potent  memories  and  traditions 
around  it.  Meanwhile  the  Revised  Version  is 
serving  an  excellent  purpose  as  a  brief  and 
convenient  commentary,  furnishing  to  ordina- 
ry readers  the  mature  judgment  of  a  ntimbcr 
of  the  best  scholars  upon  the  true  rendering 
of  the  inspired  Word. 

The  question  what  books  constitute  the 
Scriptures  is  answered  by  the  term  Canon 
(a  siraif/fit  aUiff,  then  a  nie((Kiirinf/  rod),  which 
as  early  as  the  4th  century  came  to  denotes 
the  rule  defining  the  genuine  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  the  New.  The  test  of  the 
canonicity  of  any  particular  writing  was  its 
reception  as  divinely  inspired  by  tin-  church. 
Fortunately  the  evidence  on  this  point  is  clear 
and  satisfactory.  The  books  of  the  ( >ld  Testa- 
ment were  arranged  by  the  Jews  into  tlirec 
classes (Lnkexxiv.  44) :  the  Law,  the  Prophets, 
and  the  (Holv)  Writings.  The  first  embraced 
the  five  books  of  Moses  ;  the  second  was  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  one  l\n:f<>nii>  r  prophets, 
viz.,  the  historical  books  of  Josliuu,  Judges, 
Sanuiel,  and  Kings,  tlie  other,  tlie  l>it,r.  i.f.. 
the  i)roph(ts  proper  (excepting  tlie  Book  of 
Daniel),  which  again  were  distribnted  into  llie 
greater  (Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  E/.ekiel)  and 
the  less  (tile  12  minor  prophets);  tin-  third, 
called  Haffiocrapha.  embraced  all  the  n-mniri- 
inii  books,  viz.,  P.salms,  Proverbs,  Job.  Can- 
ticles. Rnlh.  Lamentations,  Eccle.'<i;».s»es,  Es- 
ther, Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah.  Clironicles. 
The  con.stant  tradition  of  the  Jews  was  that 
the  canon  was  thus  made  by  Ezra  and  the 


BIBLE 


(106) 


BIBLB 


men  of  the  Great  Synagogue.  It  is  certain 
that  it  existed  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  for  the 
testimony  of  Joseplius  and  Philo  is  clear  upon 
this  point.  To  tlic  Scriptures  as  lield  by  the 
Jews  repeated  reference  was  made  by  C'lirist 
and  his  apostles  (Matt.  xxii.  29,  John  v.  39,  x. 
35,  Rom.  iii.  2,  iv.  3,  2  Tim.  iii.  16, 1  Peter  ii.  6, 
James  ii.  8,  v.  10)  in  full  acknowledgment  of 
their  divine  origin  and  authority.  There 
were  various  apocryphal  writings  more  or  less 
current  among  theJews  after  the  return  from 
exile.  These  are  1  and  2  E.sdras,  Tobit,  Ju- 
dith, additions  to  Esther  and  Daniel,  Wisdom 
of  Solomon,  Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  Song  of 
the  Three  Children,  Susannah,  Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  and  1  and  2 
Maccabees.  But  these  books  were  not  ac- 
cepted by  the  authorities  of  the  Jewish 
Church,  nor  are  they  quoted  or  recognized  in 
the  New  Testament.  They  were,  however, 
recognized  by  some  of  the  early  fathers  and 
found  their  way  into  the  Septuagint  and  the 
Vulgate,  and  the  Council  of  Trent  pronounced 
all  but  Esdras  and  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh  a 
constituent  portion  of  the  Bible.  In  the  first 
complete  edition  of  Luther's  Bible  (1534)  they 
were  inserted  in  an  appendix  as  "  books  which 
altiiough  not  esteemed  equal  to  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  are  yet  useful  and  good  to  read."' 
So  in  the  6th  article  of  the  Church  of  England 
it  is  .said  of  them,  "  The  church  doth  read  for 
example  of  life  and  instruction  of  manners, 
but  yet  doth  not  apply  them  to  establish  any 
doctrine."  All  Protestant  churches  agree  in 
denying  the  divine  authority  of  the  Apocry- 
pha. It  may  then  be  claimed  that  the  Hebrew 
Canon  has  full  confirmation  both  in  what  it 
receives  and  in  what  it  rejects. 

Tlie  Canon  of  the  New  Testament  was  of 
gradual  formation,  just  as  its  contents  were 
set  forth  by  divers  portions  and  in  divers  man- 
ners. We  look  in  vain  along  the  whole  line 
of  early  and  mediaeval  church  history  for  any 
conciliar  action  defining  their  number  and 
confirming  their  authority.  At  the  time  of 
the  Reformation  the  Bible  was  well-nigh  uni- 
versally received  on  the  authority  of  the 
church.  The  Reformers,  unwilling  to  ac- 
knowledge this  as  an  adequate  basis,  fell  back 
on  the  self -evidencing  power  of  the  Scripture 
when  seen  with  the  eye  of  faith.  This  fdes 
dimiia,  they  said,  was  a  guarantee  of  the  Bible 
far  better  than  any  decree  of  pope  or  council. 
But  in  later  years  it  was  seen  that  this  left  no 
Bible  for  the  impenitent.  Hence  men  began 
to  examine  the  facts  in  the  case  and  ascertain 
if  there  were  not  objective  evidence  attainable 
that  would  vindicate  the  constant  faith  of 
Christians  in  the  divine  authority  of  the  writ- 
ten Word.  The  result  has  been  such  as  to 
dissipate  all  doubt,  and  satisfy  believers  that 
they  were  not  following  cunningly  devised 
fables  in  accepting  the  gospels  and  epistles. 
For  it  may  be  said  that  from  the  Apostolic 
Fathers  and  the  Apologists  of  the  2d  centurv, 
from  frenams  in  Gaul,  Clement  in  Alexan- 
dria, and  TertuUian  in  North  Africa,  from 
the  early  Syriac  version  and  the  old  Itala, 
from  the  lists  contained  in  the  Muratorian 
Fragment  and  tJie  writings  of  Eusebius,  we 
liave  sufiieient  evidence  that  the  present  con- 
tents of  the  New  Testament  were  accepted  by 


the  early  churches  as  inspired  and  divine. 
The  appeal  is  made  to  the  churches  not  as 
autJuiHtiefi,  to  tell  us  what  we  should  do  or 
should  not  do,  but  as  witnesses  to  what  was 
accepted  in  their  day  and  country  as  having 
come  from  men  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Things  were  not  done  carelessly  or  "without 
inquiry,  for  at  first  some  books  were  acknowl- 
edged and  others  disputed,  and  it  was  only  by 
degrees  that  the  whole  of  the  present  canon 
came  to  be  generally  recognized.  At  last  all 
dissent  was  hushed,  and  Christendom  was  of 
one  mind  on  the  subject.  At  the  Reformation 
the  question  was  agitated  again,  and  certain 
portions  (Hebrews,  James,  Jude,  and  Revela- 
tion) were  severely  handled  for  a  time.  But 
before  long  there  ceased  to  be  any  strife,  and 
now  all  branches  of  the  Christian  Church  are 
at  one  in  accepting  the  common  Bible,  save 
that  the  Roman  Catholics  add  to  it  the  Apoc- 
rypha (named  above),  certain  portions  of  which 
are  in  the  Table  of  Lessons  of  the  Church  of 
England.  C. 

Literature. — On  the  entire  subject  see 
Home's  Introduction,  14th  ed.,  by  Ayre  and 
Tregelles,  London,  1877,  4  vols.  ;  for  Old 
Testament  Text  and  Revised  Version,  T.  W. 
Chambers,  A  Companion  to  the  Rerised  Old 
Testament,  New  York,  1885  ;  for  the  New 
Testament  Text  and  Revised  Version,  Schaff, 
Companion  to  the  Oreek  I'estament  and  Eng- 
lish Version,  New  York,  1883  ;  3d  ed.,  1888; 
for  the  English  Versions  see  Mombert,  Hand- 
book of  the  English  Versions  of  the  Bible,  New 
York,  1883 ;  for  the  Canon  see  Westcott, 
History  of  the  Canon,  London,  1855  ;  6th 
ed.,  1889  ;  The  Bible  in  the  Church,  1864  ;  9th 
ed.,  1885.  See  Hermenexjtics  ;  Introduc- 
tion. 

Bible  Christians.     See  Methodists. 

Bible  of  the   Poor.     See  Biblia  Paupe- 

RUM. 

Bible  Prohibition.  The  reading  of  ver- 
nacular translations  made  by  non-Catholics  is 
prohibited  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
the  interest  of  the  hierarch}^  who  would  like 
to  keep  the  people  in  absolute  dependence 
upon  the  priesthood  for  religious  knowledge. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  Catholic  translations, 
such  as  the  Douay  version  in  English,  Allioli's 
in  German,  Archbishop  Martini's,  of  Florence, 
in  Italian,  and  the  Jesuit  Wujeko's  in  Polish, 
which  are  officially  approved  and  widely 
read,  but  there  are  no  Roman  Catholic  Bible 
societies. 

Bible  Societies.  There  were  in  the  last  cen- 
tury .several  institutions  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  whose  objects  included  the  circula- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  to  a  limited  extent,  or 
among  certain  classes,  but  the  first  organiza- 
tion to  make  this  its  sole  aim,  and  without  any 
limitation,  was  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  founded  in  1804.  Its  one  object  was 
to  supply  Great  Britain  and  the  world  with 
Bibles  without  note  or  comment.  Christians 
of  all  names  and  denominations  joined  heartily 
in  the  work,  and  it  has  been  carried  on  with 
ever-increasing  success.  During  the  first  84 
years  of  its  existence  it  has  printed  or  assisted 
in  printing  the  Scriptures  in  more  than  240 
languages  or  dialects,  in  many  of  which  they 


BIBLE 


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BIBLICAL 


had  never  before  been  printed,  and  has  issued 
more  than  116  millions  of  copies  of  the  sacred 
writings  in  whole  or  in  part.  Its  energy  nat- 
urally'led  to  efforts  of  the  same  kind'  else- 
where. In  Germany  the  Canstein  Bible  In- 
stitute at  Halle  had  already  been  actis'e  since 
1712,  but  several  other  organizations,  at  Nu- 
remberg, Wiirtemberg,  Regensburg,  Berlin, 
etc.,  were  started  or  greatly  aided  by  the  Lon- 
don Society.  At  present  the  Prussian  Bible 
Society  has  many  branches  and  is  doing  noble 
work.  In  Switzerland  great  enthusiasm  was 
awakened  by  deputies  from  England.  In 
Holland  the  "United  Netherlands  Bible  Society 
was  founded  in  1815.  Its  issues  to  1884  were 
over  a  million  and  a  lialf  of  copies.  In  France 
the  work  began  as  early  as  1792,  but  was  in- 
terrupted by  the  Revolution.  In  1818  the 
Protestant  Bible  Society  of  Paris  was  formed, 
and  for  a  time  received  British  aid,  which, 
however,  was  withdrawn  because  of  difference 
of  views  as  to  the  Apocrypha.  Tliere  were 
also  internal  differences  as  to  the  translation 
that  should  be  used,  there  being  none  which 
may  justly  be  considered  a  national  version. 
In  1814  the  Danish  Bible  Society  was  formed, 
and  in  1815  that  of  Iceland,  whose  issues  to 
the  present  time  reach  almost  400,000  copies. 
In  Norway  the  work  began  in  181(3,  and  in 
Sweden  two  years  earlier  ;  their  issues  have 
reached  a  million.  In  Russia  a  Bible  society 
was  established  in   1818,   but  suppressed  in 

1826.  Another  was  privately  formed  in  1869, 
which  has  the  sanction  of  the  Greek  Church, 
and  by  free  use  of  colportage  sends  the  Scrip- 
lures  to  the  remotest  village  of  the  empire. 
There  are  Bible  societies  in  Malta  and  Corfu, 
and  also  in  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay. 
All  the  foregoing  have  been  more  or  le.ss  aided 
by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
which,  however,  had  several  times  .serious  dilti- 
culties  to  contend  with  at  home.  One  of  these 
had  respect  to  the  Apocrypha,  and  resulted  in 
a  rule  (1827)  to  grant  no  aid  to  any  person  or 
institution  that  circulated  these  spurious  writ- 
ings. In  1831  the  refusal  to  exclude  Socinians 
and  to  withdraw  Bibles  translated  from  the 
Vulgate  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Trinitarian 
Bible  Society,  whi(;h,  however,  is  of  limited 
operation.  The  Edinburgh  Bible  Society, 
which   had   been   an   au.xiliary,  withdrew   in 

1827.  and  worked  independently  until  1861, 
when  all  the  Scotch  organizations  united  to 
form  the  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland. 

The  American  Bible  Society,  formed  in 
1816  in  New  York,  stands  next  to  the  British 
and  Foreign  in  the  magnitude  and  importance 
of  its  operations.  It  has  2000  auxiliaries  in 
all  parts  of  the  Union.  Its  annual  receipts 
from  all  sources  are  about  half  a  million  of 
dollars,  and  its  annual  issues  of  the  Bible  in 
whole  or  in  part  are  a  million  and  a  half. 
The  aggregate  issues  up  to  1889  were  over 
fifty-one  millions.  It  has  stereotyped  tin; 
whole  Bible  in  the  Boston  raised  letter  for  the 
use  of  the  blind.  This  is  in  8  or  10  volumes, 
any  of  which  can  be  obtained  separately. 
About  12.000  volumes  have  been  circulated. 
Its  lield  extends  all  over  our  own  hemisphere, 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  old  world.  It  pub-  i 
lishcs  the  Scriptures  at  the  Bible  House  in  10  I 
foreign  languages  and  the  New   Testament 


alone  in  as  many  more.  And  editions  have 
l)een  prepared  for  the  Society  in  Paris,  Brem- 
en, Stockholm.  St.  Petersburg,  Conslanli- 
nople,  Beirut,  Lucknow,  Lodiana,  Madras, 
Bangkok.  Foochoo,  Peking.  Shanirliai,  Yoko- 
hama, and  iloiioluiu.  In  18;$;}  an  application 
for  aid  in  publishing  a  Burmese  translation, 
which  rendered  hajdize,  etc.,  inimerw,  etc., 
instead  of  transliterating  the  words,  led  to  a 
rule  to  favor  only  such  versions  as  conform 
to  the  common  English  Bible  in  this  respect. 
This  rule  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  is;^(i,  which 
was  active  for  many  years,  but  in  18S;^  turned 
over  its  plates  to  the  American  Baptist  Pui)- 
licatiou  Society.  The  same  course  was  pur- 
sued at  the  same  lime  by  the  American  Bible 
Union,  which  was  formed  in  1850  for  the  pur- 
pose of  .securing  "  the  most  faithful  versions 
of  the  Scriptures  in  all  languages,"  and 
which  did  procure  a  revision  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  English  Bil)le  and  also  several 
versions  in  foreign  languages.  The  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society  excited  great  opposition 
by  its  effort  in  1851-53  to  form  a  standard 
te.xt  of  the  common  version  by  removing 
inconsistencies  in  .spelling  and  changing  the 
chapter-headings  so  as  (in  Canticles)  to  do 
away  with  tht-  appearance  of  conunent.  It  was 
found  that  there  was  no  authority  to  make 
such  change',  fnd  they  were  accordingly 
abandoned.  T'  Is  is  matter  of  regret,  since 
the  changes  pr  f  osed  were  all  improvements, 
but  the  domi  lating  motive  which  animated 
the  oppo.silion  was  irresistible,  viz.,  that  if  the 
door  was  once  open  to  a  departure  from  the 
work  of  the  authorized  translators  no  man 
could  foresee  to  what  extent  the  liberty 
thus  allowed  might  be  extended,  and  there- 
fore the  only  safe  and  prudent  nde  was  to  ad- 
here to  the  common  version  just  a.s  it  was 
when  the  Bible  Society  was  formed.  C. 

Bible  Text  and  Versions.     See  Biblk. 

Biblia  Pauperum  (/;//'/<.■(  of  the  P)»>r),  the 
name  for  collections  of  biblical  historical  pic- 
tures from  the  New  Testament,  surroimded 
with  Old  Testament  prototypes,  and  accom- 
panied with  Latin  or  German  explanations  for 
the  uidearned.  As  far  back  as  the  13lh  cen- 
tury, but  particularly  since  the  invention  of 
wood-cutting,  until  the  complete  piinted  Bible 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  this  sp«(ies  of 
popular  literature  enjoyed  great  favor  and 
was  very  widely  spread. 

Bibliander  (Greikicized  form  of  Jhieh- 
mail II).  Theodorus,  b.  at,  Jiischofszell,  11  m. 
s.s.e.  of  Constance.  Switzerland.  1504  :  d.  of 
tiie  plague,  at  Ziitich,  Nov.  2(J,  1564.  lie  btv 
came  professor  of  the  Old  TeMainmt  at  Zurich, 
1531  ;  opposed  with  unexiH'cled  sliarpnetw 
Peter  ]\Iartvr  Vermigli'sexpo.-ilion  of  Calvin's 
doctrine  of  i)red(stination,  wliereby  he  lost 
his  position  in  1560.  He  issued  a  Hebrew 
grammar  in  Latin,  Ziirich,  15:^5.  (See  his 
life  by  J.  J.  Chri.stinger.  Frauenfeld,  1867.) 

Biblical  Theology.  This  term  has  some- 
times b.en  und.rMo.xl  as  if  it  stood  in  npi>o. 
sition  to  sp((ulalivr  theology,  that  system 
which,  not  content  with  Scripture,  goe.sJM'yond 
it  in  constructing  its  formulas,  whereas  the 


BIBLIOMANCT 


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BINGHAM 


true  contrast  is  with  what  is  known  as  didactic 
or  systematic  theology.  Both  are,  or  profess 
to  be,  and  always  should  be,  scriptural.  The 
difference  is  that  the  latter  undertakes  to  give 
a  scientific  and  connected  view  of  all  revealed 
truth  in  relation  both  to  doctrine  and  ethics. 
The  aim  of  the  former  is  to  set  forth  (he  doc- 
trinal and  ethical  contents  of  the  Bible  in 
their  historical  development.  Hence  we  have 
the  biblical  theology  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
again  that  of  the  New,  each  considered  on  its 
own  lines.  Or  there  may  be  the  same  treat- 
ment of  a  smaller  portion  of  either,  as  of  the 
Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  the  Wisdom  books, 
the  Prophets,  or  of  the  Gospels,  the  Pauline 
Epistles,  those  of  Peter,  the  Epistle  of  James, 
or  the  Johannean  writings.  Such  studies  are 
alike  interesting  and  useful,  but  they  are  no 
substitute  for  the  system  which  exhibits  the 
logical  order  and  harmony  of  the  entire  com- 
pass of  Revelation.  Indeed,  their  chief  value 
lies  in  the  preparation  they  furnish  for  such 
a  comprehensive  view.  On  this  point  cf. 
Shedd,  Dog.  Theol.  Representative  works  on 
Biblical  Theology  are,  in  English  translation, 
Oehler  on  the  O.  T.,  ed.  Day,  New  York, 
1883  ;  and  of  Weiss  on  the  N.  t.,  Edinburgh, 
1883-83,  2  vols.  C. 

Bibliomancy,  or  sortes  biblicm,  means  a  su- 
perstitious use  of  the  Bible  by  opening  it  at 
haphazard  and  considering  the  first  verse  the 
eye  rests  upon,  or  entering  a  church  and  view- 
ing the  first  words  of  Scripture  read,  as  a  di- 
vine indication  of  duty.  Some  eminent  Chris- 
tians, Bunyan,  Wesley,  and  Cowper,  as  well 
as  St.  Francis  d'Assisi  and  Augustine,  have 
fallen  victims  to  this  delusion.  But  it  was 
simply  a  pagan  folly  imported  into  thp  church 
without  reason  or  excuse.  C. 

Bickersteth,  Edward,  a  leader  of  the  Evan- 
gelical party  in  the  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Kirkby-Lonsdale,  Westmoreland,  March  19, 
1786  ;  d.  at  Watton,  21  m.  w.s.w.  of  Norwich, 
Feb.  28,  1850.  He  practised  law  from 
1806  to  1815  ;  but  then  entered  the  service  of 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  and  was  its 
secretary  from  1816  to"l830,  when  he  became 
rector  of  Watton,  Hertfordshire.  He  was 
prominent  in  organizing  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance (1845).  His  religious  works  enjoyed  ex- 
traordinary popularity.  A  collected  edition 
of  the  more  important  of  them  appeared  in 
London,  1853,  16  vols.  (See  his  biography  by 
T.  R.  Birks,  London,  1855,  2  vols.) 

Bickersteth,  Edward  Henry,  son  of  pre- 
ceding. Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Islington, 
London,  Jan.  25, 1825  ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ; 
became  vicar  of  Christ  Church,  Hampstead, 
London,  1855  ;  bishop  of  Exeter,  1885.  He  is 
the  author  of  the  poem  Yesterday,  To-day,  and 
Forecer,  London,  1866,  18th  ed.,  1886,  and 
other  volumes. 

Bidding  (of)  Prayer,  so  called  because  the 
preacher  bids  or  exhorts  the  people  to  pray  for 
certain  specified  objects,  is  in  use  in  the  Church 
of  England  immediately  before  the  sermon, 
when  not  preceded  by  a  service  or  prayer,  and 
consists  of  exhortations  to  prayer  for  the  royal 
family,  ministers,  etc. 

Biddle,  John,  English  Unitarian  martyr, 


baptized  at  Wotton-under-Edge,  17i  m.  s.s.w. 
of  Gloucester,  Jan.  14,  1615  ;  d.  in  prison,  Lon- 
don, Sept.  22,  1662.  He  graduated  at  Oxford, 
B.A.,  1638,  M.A.,  1641  ;  became  ma.ster  of 
free  St.  Mary  le  Crypt  school,  Gloucester, 
1641  ;  endured  much  persecution  during  the 
Commonwealth  for  his  pronouncedly  anti- 
trinitarian  opinions,  being  several  times 
thrown  into  prison.  At  last,  in  1655,  he  was 
banished  for  life  to  the  Scilly  Islands  as  a  close 
prisoner  in  the  Castle  of  St.  "Mary's.  Released 
in  1658  he  reassembled  his  followers  in  Lon- 
don, but  in  1662  was  again  seized,  and  remained 
in  prison  till  his  death. 

Biel  (beel),  Gabriel,  erroneously  styled 
"  the  last  schoolman  ;"  b.  at  Speyer  about 
1425  ;  d.  at  Tubingen,  1495.  He  studied  at 
Heidelberg  and  Erfurt ;  became  cathedral 
preacher  at  Mayence  ;  professor  of  theology 
in  Tubingen,  1484.  He  made  no  advance, 
but  his  doctrine  of  nominalism  had  consider- 
able influence  upon  Luther  and  Melanchthon. 
His  chief  work  is  Epitome  ct  collectorium  ex 
Occamo  super  IV.  libros  Sententiarum,  Tubin- 
gen. 1495.  (Cf.  Ueberweg,  Hist.  Phil.,  i.  465, 
467.) 

Billican  (bil-le-can),  Theobald  (properly 
Diepold  Gerlaclur)  ;  b.  at  Billigheim  (whence 
his  surname),  in  the  Palatinate,  about  1490  ; 
d.  at  Marburg,  Aug.  8,  1554.  He  studied  at 
Heidelberg  ;  became  lecturer  on  dialectics  and 
physics  there,  1512  ;  and  a  follower  of  Luther, 
15i8  ;  being  driven  from  Heidelberg  1522,  he 
went  to  Weil  and  same  year  to  Nordlingen, 
and  there  preached  till  1535.  His  health  fail- 
ing he  became  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
Heidelberg,  and  at  Marburg,  1544.  His  chief 
work  is  Benovatio  ecclesiiB  Nordlingiacenis, 
Nordlingen  (?),  1525. 

Bilson,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1580-81), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Winchester,  1546- 
47  ;  d.  in  London,  June  18,  1616.  Educated 
at  Oxford,  he  became  bishop  of  Winchester, 
1597.  He  wrote,  at  Elizabeth's  command, 
True  Difference  Between  Christian  Subjection 
and  Unchristian  Rebellion,  Oxford,  1585, 
"which  contributed,"  says  Dr.  Grosart, 
"  more  than  any  other  [work]  to  the  humilia- 
tion, ruin,  and  death  of  Charles  I.  The  weai> 
ons  forged  to  beat  back  the  Kin^  of  Spain 
were  used  against  the  Stuart."  He  was  the 
final  reviser  of  the  Authorized  Version  and 
made  the  chapter  headings. 

Bilney,  Thomas,  English  Protestant  mar- 
tyr ;  b.  at  East  Bilney  (?),  1495  (?)  ;  burned  at 
the  stake,  Norwich,  Aug.  19,  1531 ;  educated  at 
Cambridge  ;  entered  holy  orders  ;  by  reading 
Erasmus'  version  of  the  New  Testament  (1516) 
led  to  study  the  Bible  he  came  to  believe  in  the 
valuelessness  of  saint-worship  and  pilgrimages, 
and  preached  against  them.  On  most  points, 
however,  he  remained  faithful  to  the  old 
church,  yet  was  compelled  to  recant,  and  be- 
cause he  resumed  preaching  the  objectionable 
"  errors"  he  was  executed. 

Bingham,  Joseph,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Wakefield,  9  m.  s.  of  Leeds,  Sept.,  1668  ; 
d.  at  Head  bourn- Worthy,  near  Winchester, 
Aug.  17,  1723.  He  studied  at  Oxford  ;  be- 
came fellow  of  University  College,  1681  ;  un- 


BINNE7 


(109) 


BITHYNIA 


justl}'  accused  of  heresy  because  he  had  (cor- 
rectly) iu  a  sermon  presented  the  early  fathers' 
views  upon  the  terms  "person"  and  "sub- 
stance," he  rcsisined  his  fellowship  and  be- 
came vicar  of  Hcadbourn- Worthy,  1095  ;  was 
collated  to  Havant,  near  Portsmouth,  1712. 
His  immortal  fame  comes  from  his  Origines 
Erclcniasticrt',  or  Antiquities  of  the  C/iristion 
Church,  London,  1708-22,  10  vols.,  an  exhaus- 
tive work,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  English,  and 
probablj^  the  last  ;  best  cd.  of  all  liis  works, 
Oxford.  1855,  10  vols. 

Binney,  Thomas,  D.D.  (American  Univer- 
sit3),  LL.D.  (Aberdeen,  1852),  Nonconform- 
ist ;  b.  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyue,  April,  1798  ; 
d.  at  Clapton,  London,  Feb.  24,  1874.  He 
was  educated  in  the  theological  seminary  at 
Wymondley,  Hertfordshire  ;  became  pastor 
of  St.  James'  Street  Congregational  Chapel, 
Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  1824  ;  of  King's 
Weigh-House  Cliapel,  London,  1829  ;  retired 
1869.  He  exerted  great  influence,  especially 
as  a  preacher  to  young  men.  (See  his  Me- 
morial, ed.  Stoughton,  London,  1874.  His 
hymn,  "Eternal  light!  Eternal  light!"  is 
familiar.) 

Bin'-ter-im,  Anton  Joseph,  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  at  Dusseldorf,  Sept.  19,  1779  ;  d.  pa.s- 
tor  of  Bilk,  in  the  suburbs  of  same,  May  17, 
1855.  He  became  a  Franciscan,  1796  ;  pastor 
at  Dilk.  1805.  Besides  polemical  treatises  he 
wrote  Denkwurdigkeiten  der  christkatholiscJien 
Kirche,  Mainz,  1825-41,  7  vols. 

Biretta,  a  square  cap  with  stiff  sides  and 
three,  or  in  the  case  of  professors  of  theology, 
four  curved  ridges,  surmounted  by  a  tassel, 
made  ordinarily  of  cloth,  black  for  a  priest, 
violet  for  a  bishop,  and  scarlet  for  a  cardinal. 

Birgitta,  Birgittines,  a  Swedish  saint,  and 
an  order  of  nuns  founded  by  her.  B.  at  Fin- 
stad,  8  m.  from  Upsala,  1302  ;  d.  in  Rome, 
July  23, 1373.  She  was,  as  a  child,  of  a  dreamy 
and  poetic  nature,  but,  married  at  16,  she  de- 
veloped as  wife  and  mother  surprising  practi- 
cal tiilents.  Her  husband  finally  retired  into 
a  monastery  and  soon  died  (1344).  From  this 
time  Birgitta  herself  lived  mostly  in  a  convent, 
though  not  taking  the  vows.  She  soon  be- 
came" regarded  as  a  prophetess,  and  by  many 
as  a  sorceress.  It  was  her  earnest  desire  to 
found  an  order  which  should  accomplish  the 
spiritual  reformation  of  the  church.  The  rule 
of  such  an  order  was  revealed  to  her,  as  she 
believed,  by  the  Lord  himself.  Hence  the  rule 
was  called  that  of  the  Holy  Saviour.  To  ac- 
complish her  purpose  she  journeyed  to  Rome 
with  her  daughter  (1349).  Here  she  took  up 
her  residence,  and  was  soon  revered  as  a 
prophetess  by  high  and  low.  She  sent  her  mes- 
sages of  admonition  to  kings  and  princes  far 
and  near.  She  even  summoned  the  popes  to 
return  to  Rome  from  Avignon.  Finally,  in 
1370,  her  rule  was  approved  by  the  pope',  Ur- 
ban v.,  and  little  by  little  a  great  convent 
arose  at  Vadstena,  on  the  ea.st  shore  of  Lake 
Wetter,  Sweden,  where  her  daughter,  Katha- 
rine, had  been  abbess  of  a  small  community 
since  1357.  After  a  pilgrimage  to  Jeru.^alem 
(1372)  Birgitta  returned  to  Rome,  soon  to  die. 
The  monastic    establishments  of  this  order 


were  to  contain  both  monks  and  nuns  in  differ- 
ent buildings.  Prominence  was  given  to  the 
study  of  the  Bible.  In  its  greatest  extension 
the  order  was  found  even  in  Spain  and  num- 
bered 74  convents.  Birgitta  was  canonized 
in  1391.  Her  famous  Ucr.lntiouH  was  trans- 
lated into  English,  London,  1«73.  (See  her 
life  by  P.  F.  A.  Hammerich,  Ger,  trans.. 
Gotha,  1872.)  F. 

Bishop  (orcr/teer),  one  who  has  the  charge 
and  direction  of  anything.  In  the  IS'ew  Testa- 
ment the  word  is  equivalent  to  elder,  the  latter 
being  derived  from  Jewish  usage  and  signify- 
ing the  dignity  of  the  office,  while  the  former 
is  of  Greek  origin  and  signifies  its  function, 
Acts  XX.  17,  28.  The  presbyters  or  bishops 
of  the  Apostolic  period  were  the  regular  pas- 
tors and  teachers  of  the  congregations,  and 
the  qualifications  required  for  them  are  de- 
scribed iu  1  Tim.  iii.  1-7  and  Titus  i.  6-9.  A 
difference  of  function  seems  to  be  indicated  in 
1  Tim.  V.  17.  This  biblical  idea  of  the  word 
is  reproduced  in  Clement  of  Rome's  First 
Epistle,  in  which  (chap.  42)  he  uses  the  terms 
bishop  and  eldet-  indiscriminately.  But  at  an 
early  period — how  early  it  is  not  easy  to  say — a 
distmction  was  made  between  the  two  terms. 
The  superiority  of  the  bishop  is  distinctly  rec- 
ognized by  Ign;itius,  and  soon  after  his  day 
came  to  he  universally  observed,  although 
Irenaeus  {Adv.  Heur.  iii.  2,  3)  and  Jerome 
{Epixt.  c.  I.,  eid  crangelnm)  clearly  state  the 
original  identity  of  the  two  offices. '  It  should 
be  said  that  there  are  those  who  consider  the 
bishops  tiie  successors  of  the  apostles,  and  as 
such  to  have  a  Scripture  warrant  for  their 
offlce  as  diocesans.  In  the  Roman  Church  the 
bishops  are  appointed  by  the  pope  imd  arc 
bound  to  report  personally  in  Rome  at  stated 
intervals.  They  take  the  oath  of  alltgianee 
(essentially  Ilildebrand's)  to  the  pope,  and 
have  certain  prerogatives  of  order  and  juris- 
dittion.  In  the  Church  of  England  there  are 
34  bishops,  24  of  whom  are  peers  of  tlu^  realm, 
and  as  such  sit  and  vote  in  the  House  of  Lord.s. 
To  all  belongs  the  right  to  confirm,  to  admit 
to  orders,  and  to  exercise  general  supervision 
in  their  respective  dioceses.  In  G.rmany  the 
TvUthcran  Church  calls  its  general  superintend- 
ents bishops,  yet  is  governed  not  by  them 
but  by  consistories.  In  Sweden  and  Denmark 
the  office  is  retained,  jj'et  without  the  jure 
dirino  theory.  The  episcopate  in  the  ^lora- 
vian  Church' and  in  the  Methodist  Epi.^^copal 
Communion  does  not  denote  a  difference  of 
order,  but  is  merely  a  matter  of  convenience, 
and  has  a  missionary  character.  In  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Cliurch  in  the  United  States 
the  bishops  have  similar  functions  with  the 
English  prelates,  are  chosen  by  the  dioee.se  in 
which  thevare  to  preside,  and  are  con.«<'cratcd 
bv  the  Hou.se  of  Bishops.  They  now  numlx  r 
about  72.  C. 

Bishopric,  the  district  over  which  the  juris- 
diction of  a  l)i^^hop  extends. 

Bishops'  Bible.     Se>e  Bible. 

Bi-thyn  -i-a,  the  northwest  province  of  A.'sia 
Minor.  When  Paid  attemj)ted  to  enter  it  the 
Spirit  (Acts  xvi.  7)  suffered  him  not.  but  1 
Peter  i.  1  testifies  to  the  presence  of  Christians 


BISHOPS 


(110) 


BLOOD 


there,  and  Plinj,  the  governor,  was  (about 
A.D.  106)  embarrassed  by  their  number.  Its 
metropolis,  Nicaea,  was  the  seat  of  the  famous 
council,  A.D.  325.  C. 

Bishops'  Book,  or  Tfie  Institution  of  a  Chris- 
tian Midi,  an  exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
the  Seven  Sacraments,  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Ave  Maria,  and 
of  justification  and  purgatory.  It  was  pre- 
pared by  bishops,  under  Cranmer's  direction, 
and  issued  in  1537. 

Blaikie  (blay-key),  William  Garden,  D.D. 

(Edinburgh,  1864),  LL.D.  (Aberdeen,  1872), 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Aberdeen,  Feb. 
5,  1820  ;  graduated  M.A.  at  Aberdeen,  1837  ; 
entered  the  ministry,  1842  ;  became  professor 
of  apologetics  and  pastoral  theology  in  New 
College,  Edinburgh,  1868.  Among  his  numer- 
ous books  may  be  mentioned  Better  Days  for 
Working  People,  London,  1863  ;  76,000th,  1881  ; 
Heads  and  Hands  in  the  World  of  Labor,  1865  ; 
5000th,  1868  ;  Counsel  and  Cheer  for  the  Bat- 
tle of  Life,  1867  ;  6000th,  1868  ;  For  the  Work 
of  the  Ministry,  1873  ;  4th  ed.,  1885  ;  Personal 
Life  of  David  Livingstone,  1880  ;  4th  ed.,  1884  ; 
Leaders  in  Modern  Philanthropy,  1885  , 
Preachers  of  Scotland  from  the  Sixth  to  the 
Nineteenth  ^Century,  1888. 

Blair,  Hugh,  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  in 
Edinburgh,  April  7,  1718  ;  d.  there,  Dec.  27, 
1800.  He  was  educated  at  that  university  and 
passed  his  life  in  that  city,  first  as  preacher, 
1743,  then  from  1760  to  1783  as  professor  of 
rhetoric.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  Rhetoric, 
London,  1783,  2  vols.,  and  his  sermons,  Edin- 
burgh and  London,  1777-1801,  5  vols.  (See 
his  life  by  Finlayson,  in  edition  of  sermons.) 

Blaise,  St.     See  Blasius. 

Blan-di-na,  a  slave  girl  of  Lyons,  whose 
martyrdom  is  described  by  Eusebius  (v.  i.), 
ed.  Bohn,  pp.  159  sq. 

Blan-dra'-ta  {^ro^Qx\y  Biandrata),  Giorgio, 
founder  of  the  Unitarian  Church  in  Poland 
and  Transylvania  ;  b.  of  noble  family  at  Sa- 
luzzo.  Piedmont,  Italy,  about  1515  ;  d.  in 
Transylvania,  strangled  by  his  nephew,  about 
1590  ;  practised  medicine  with  great  success, 
but  was  compelled  to  leave  Italy  on  account 
of  his  strictures  on  the  Roman  Church,  1556  ; 
went  to  Geneva,  where  he  had  controversy 
with  Calvin  ;  thence  to  Poland,  and  thence  to 
Transylvania,  where  he  became  body  phy- 
sician to  Prince  John  Sigismund  ;  after  the 
latter's  death  in  the  Unitarian  faith  he  held 
the  same  position  toward  King  Stephen  Ba- 
thori  of  Poland.  V.  Malacarne  edited  his 
works  in  Italian,  Padua,  1814. 

Blarer.     See  Blaurer. 

Bla'-si-us  {Blaise),  St.,  Bishop  of  Sebaste, 
in  Armenia,  beheaded  for  faith's  .sake,  after 
being  scored  with  iron  combs,  316.  He  is  the 
patron  saint  of  the  city  of  Ragusa,  of  the 
guild  of  wool-combers,  and  because  he  saved 
tlie  life  of  a  boy  who  had  a  fish-bone  .stuck  in 
his  throat,  protects  against  sore  throat.  His 
day  is  Feb.  3. 

Blasphemy,  speaking  evil  of  God  or  of  his 
attributes.     It  was  punished  with  death  by 


the  Mosaic  law  (Lev.  xxiv.  16),  and  on  this 
charge  both  our  Lord  (Matt.  xxvi.  65)  and 
Stephen  (Acts  vi.  11,  13)  were  condemned. 
Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  (Matt.  xii. 
31)  is  declared  to  be  an  unpardonable  sin.  It 
was  committed  by  the  Pharisees  when  they 
wilfully  and  maliciously  ascribed  the  miracles 
of  the  Son  of  God  and  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  the  evil  one.  Such  despite  to  the 
Spirit  of  grace  rendered  them  incapable  of  re- 
pentance, and,  consequently,  of  pardon.    C. 

Blaxorer  (blow-rer)  (Blarer,  Blaarer),  Am- 
brosius,  b.  of  noble  parents  at  Constance, 
April  4,  1492  ;  d.  of  the  plague  at  Winterthur, 
12  m.  n.e.  of  Zurich,  Dec.  6,  1564.  He  en- 
tered the  Benedictine  convent  of  Alpirsbach, 
1510,  and  eventually  became  its  prior  ;  com- 
pelled to  flee  from  tlie  convent,  1522,  because 
of  his  advocacy  of  the  Reformation,  he  went 
to  Constance  and  was  largely  instrumental  in 
introducing  the  (Zwinglian)  Reformation  into 
that  city  and  tlie  entire  surrounding  country 
{e.g.,  Ulm,  Lindau,  Stuttgart,  Tiibingen). 
Driven  out  of  Constance  by  the  Interim,  he 
labored  in  various  places.  (See  biographies  by 
Keim,  Stuttgart,  1860,  and  by  Pre.ssel,  1861.) 

Blayney,  Benjamin,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1787), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  in  1728  ;  d.  as  canon 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated, and  regius  professor  of  Hebrew  (1787), 
and  rector  of  Poulshot,  Wiltshire,  Sept.  20, 
1801.  He  published  a  dissertation  on  Daniel's 
Seventy  Weeks,  1775  ;  2d  ed.,  1797  ;  an  edition 
of  the  Hebrew  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  1790, 
and  other  works.  He  revised  for  the  Claren- 
don Press  (1769)  the  text  of  the  Authorized 
Version  of  the  Bible  so  as  to  insure  typo- 
graphical accuracy,  and  his  revision  is  the 
standard  for  the  Oxford  University  Press, 

Bleek  (blake),  Friedrich,  German  theo- 
logian ;  b.  at  Ahrensbok,  10  m.  n.e.  of  Lu- 
beck,  July  4,  1793;  d.  at  Bonn,  Feb.  27, 
1859.  He  studied  at  Kiel  and  Berlin  ;  be- 
came repetent  at  Berlin,  1818  ;  privaidozent, 
1821  ;  professor  extraordinary,  1823  ;  ordinary 
at  Bonn,  1829.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Hebrews,  1828  40.  3  vols.  ;  An  Introduction 
to  the  Old  Testament  (Eng.  trans.,  from  2d 
ed.,  London,  1869,  2  vols.  ;  n.e.  [Bohn],  1875  ; 
orig.  Berlin,  1860-65,  2  vols.  ;  vol.  1,  5th  ed.  by 
Wellhausen,  1886  ;  vol.  2,  4th  ed.  by  Mangold, 
1886)  ;  and  Lectures  on  the  Apocalypse,  1862  ; 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1875.  He  was  conser- 
vative and  strictly  impartial.  But  Wellhausen 
and  Mangold,  unhappily,  have  incorporated  so 
much  of  their  own  matter  into  his  text  that 
the  latest  editions  really  misrepresent  him. 

Blon'-del,  David,  a  very  learned  French 
Protestant  ;  b.  at  Chalons-sur-Marne,  106  m. 
e.  of  Paris,  1591  ;  d.  at  Amsterdam,  April  6. 
1655.  He  became  pastor  at  Houdan,  near 
Paris,  1614  ;  professor  of  history  at  Amster- 
dam, 1650.  He  devoted  himself  "in  numerous 
writings  to  the  defence  of  the  Evangelical 
Church.  Perhaps  his  best-known  writing  is 
his  book  on  Pope  Joan,  written  originally  in 
French  (Amsterdam,  1647;  2d  ed..  1649; 
Dutch  trans.,  1650;  Latin  trans.,  1657),  in 
which  he  declares  the  story  to  be  mythical. 

Blood.    The  life  of  all  animals  was  consid- 


BLOOD  AVENGER 


(111) 


BOEHME 


ered  as  especially  in  the  blood  (Gen.  ix.  4, 
Deut.  xii.  23),  aud  hence  it  was  the  essential 
part  of  the  sacrilices  olfered  to  God  (Ileb.  ix. 
22).  This  made  the  atonement  (Lev.  xvii.  11) 
when  sprinkled  upon  the  altar,  and  lience  the 
references  in  the  New  Testament  (Mark  xiv. 
24,  Eph.  i.  7,  Heb.  xiii.  20,  1  John  i.  7). 
The  J(!ws  were  strictly  prohibited  from  "  eat- 
ing blood"  (Lev.  xvii.  10,  12).  C. 

Blood-Avenger.  A  wilful  murderer  for- 
feited Ills  own  life,  and  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
next  of  kin  to  inflict  the  penalty,  since  the 
crime  was  committed  against  God  as  well  as 
society,  and  no  ransom  could  be  allowed 
(Num.  XXXV.  31-33).  But  cities  of  refuge 
were  provided  for  the  accidental  homicide, 
who  could  flee  hither  and  have  his  case  de- 
termined by  the  congregation  (Num.  xxxv. 
12,  24),  when  if  guilty  he  was  surrendered, 
but  if  not,  was  required  to  remain  there  till 
the  death  of  the  existing  high-priest.  C. 

Blood-baptism,  that  received  by  a  cate- 
chumen who  was  martyred.  Such  a  death 
was  supposed  to  be  equivalent  to  the  baptism 
the  subject  desired  but  had  not  received. 

Bloody  Marriage,  that  of  Henry,  King  of 
Navarre,  and  jNIargaret  of  Valois,  sister  of 
Charles  IX.,  King  of  France,  celebrated  in 
Paris,  Monday,  Aug.  18,  1572,  and  so  called 
because  followed  on  Sunday,  Aug.  24,  St.  J3ar- 
tholomew's  Day,  by  the  massacre  of  the 
Huguenots. 

Bloody  Sweat  is  mentioned  by  Luke  (xxii. 
44)  as  having  occurred  to  Christ  in  Gethsem- 
ane.  The  actual  occurrence  of  such  an  ab- 
normal physical  state  is  a  well -authenticated 
phenomenon.  Charles  IX.  of  France  died  of  a 
l)loodv  sweat.  (See  Stroud,  Physical  Cause  of 
Clu-ists  Death,  London,  1847,  pp.  85-88.)    C. 

Blount  (blunt),  Charles,  English  deist,  lay- 
man ;  b.  at  Upper  HoUoway,  April  27,  1654  ; 
committed  suicide  because  he  was  by  law, 
.still  in  force  in  England,  forbidden  to  murry 
his  deceased  wife's  sister,  whom  he  greatly 
loved,  Aug.,  1693.  His  Miscellanfous  Works 
appeared  in  1695.  Thej'^  are  mostly  unac- 
knowledged plunderings  from  different  writ- 
ers, but  contain  original  attacks  on  orthodox 
opinions.  He  translated  the  first  two  books 
of  Philostratus'  Life  of  Apollo nius  of  Tyana, 
with  a  great  show  of  learning  in  the  shape  of 
notes,  London,  1680. 

Blumhardt  (bloom-hart).  Christian  Gott- 
lieb, German  theoloffian  ;  b.  at  Stuttgart, 
April  29,  1779  ;  d.  at  Basel,  Dec.  19.  1838. 
He  studied  at  Tubingen  ;  took  part  in  found- 
ing the  Basel  Bible  Society,  1804;  was  first 
inspt'cfor  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Institute 
from  1816  till  his  death.  He  wrote'a  meritori- 
oiis  missionary  history  down  to  tiie  Hcforina- 
tion  (  Wrsuch  einer  nllqrineiiu  n  Missiiuis- 
g,'schic.hte  dcr  Kirche  Chr'isti,  Basel,  1828-37. 
5  vols.  ;  French  trans..  Valence,  1838,  4  vols.). 

Blunt,  John  Henry,  D.D.  (Durham,  1882), 
Churcli  of  England  ;  b.  at  Chevne  Walk, 
Chelsea,  London,  Aug.  25.  1823  ;  educated  at 
Durham  ;  d.  in  London  as  rector  of  Bevers- 
ton,  Gloucestershire.  April  11,  1884.  He 
■wrote  many  useful  biblical  and   theological 


compends,  particularly  Annotated  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  London,  1866  ;  7th  ed.,  1883  ; 
Dictionary  of  Doctviiud  and  Historical  Theol- 
ogy, London,  1870;  Dictionary  of  Sects,  Her- 
esies, etc.,  1874  ;  and  a  valuable  h'istory  of  the 
Reformation  of  the  Church  of  Knylaml,  1868- 
82.  2  vols.  (vc)l.  i.,  6th  ed.,  1886).  He  was  a 
pronounced  Higli  Churchman. 


Blunt,  John  James,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Newcastle-under-Lyme,  15  m.  n.n.w.  of 
Stafford,  1794;  d.  at  Cambridge,  June  18, 
1855.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  elected  fel- 
low, 1816  ;  he  became  Lady  Margaret  profes- 
sor of  divinity,  1839  ;  declined  the  see  of 
Salisbury,  1854.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
Undesiy'ned  Coinciih  i,i;s  in  the  Writinys  hothof 
the  Old  and  New  7)  s/m/n  n/s,  an  Aryvi/u  ntfor 
their  Veracity,  London,  1847,  6th 'ed.,  1859, 
but  wrote  nuieh  besides.  (Cf.  his  Memoir, 
London,  1856.) 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  American  Bap- 
tist missionary  ;  b.  at  Livermore,  20  m.  n.  of 
Lewi.ston,  iMe.,  Feb.  8,  1801  ;  graduated  at 
Waterville  College,  Me.,  1822  ;  studied  as 
resident  licentiate  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1824  ;  went  to  Burmah,  1825  ;  la- 
bored successfully  as  the  "apostle  to  the 
Karens;"  d.  near  Tavoy,  Burmah,  Feb.  11. 
1831.  His  widow  was  the  2d  wife  of  Adoni- 
ram  Judson. 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  D.D.  (Brown 
University,  1866)  ;  Baptist,  son  of  preceding  ; 
b.  at  Tavoy,  Burmah.  Aug.  18,  1828  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Brown  University,  Providence,  H.  1., 
1852  ;  and  at  Newton  (Mass.)  Theological  In- 
stitution, 1855  ;  has  been  since  1864  j>asior  of 
the  First  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  has 
published  several  volumes  of  discourses. 

Bochart  (l)o-shar),  Samuel,  learned  French 
Protestant  theologian  ;  b.  at  Rouen,  May  10, 
1599  ;  d.  at  Caen,  May  16,  1667.  Educated 
at  Saumur,  he  became  pastor  at  Caen,  1626. 
He  is  celebrated  for  his  now  useless  sacred 
geography  {Geographia  sacra,  Caen,  1646  ; 
several  later  edd.,  e.y.,  Leyden.  1707),  and 
especially  for  his  still  useful  Hierozoicon  or 
book  on  Scripture  animals  (London,  1663,  2 
vols.,  several  later  edd.,  e.g.,  by  RosenmUller, 
Leipzig,  1793-96,  3  parts).  (See  his  Opera 
omnia,  Levden,  1675,  2  vols.  ;  3d  ed..  1712. 
3  vols.,  and  sketdi  of  his  life  by  \V.  li.  Whit- 
tingham  in  his  Essays,  London,  1829.) 

Bockhold,  Johann.  See  AN.\u.\rTiSTB, 
p.  28. 

Bodenstein.     See  Kaiu.stadt. 

Boehme  (lio  nich,  English  form  commonly 
n,hn„n).  Jakob,  Die  greatest  theo^opliist  in 
the  Lutheran  Church  ;  b.  at  All  Scidtiiberg, 
Upper  Lusatia.  Nov.,  1575  ;  wius  master  shoe 
maker  at  Gtirlitz  ;  d.  there  as  manufacturer 
of  woollen  gloves,  Nov.  17,  1624.  He  was  37 
when  he  publi.shed  Ins  lirst  book.  A'lmra. 
Being  silenced,  it  was  not  till  1624  tiuil  \\\a 
Way  to  Christ  appeared.  But  after  lus  death 
his  admirers  brought  out  numt  runs  treatises 
written  bv  liim  Ix-twecn  the  above  dates.  He 
claimed  to  see  God,  and  to  speak  about  him 
from  direct  inward  illumination.  (Sec  coin- 
plete  edition  of  his  works  by  Schiebler.  Lcip- 


BOEHRINGER 


(112) 


BOHEMIAN 


zig,  1831-47,  7  vols.  ;  Eng.  trans,  bj'  Ellistone, 
Sparrow,  Hotliam,  and  Blunden,  London, 
1644-63.  Rev.  William  Law  was  one  of  bis 
followers.  (Cf.  Bishop  Martensen's  Boehme, 
London,  1885.)     See  Mysticism. 

Boehringer  (bii-ring-er),  Georg  Friedrich, 
Swiss  Protestant  ;  b.  at  Maulbronn  Wiirtem- 
berg,  Dec.  28,  1812  ;  d.  at  Basel,  Sept.  16, 
1879.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  ;  lied  to  Svi^it- 
zerland  in  consequence  of  his  part  in  the  insur- 
rection of  1833  ;  became  pastor  at  Grlattfelden, 
near  Zurich,  1842  ;  resigned  to  devote  himself 
e.Kclusively  to  ecclesiastico-historical  studies, 
1853.  He  wrote  in  dependence  more  or  less  on 
Neander,  yet  in  a  scholarly  manner,  a  church 
history  down  to  the  Reformation  under  the 
form  of  biographies  Die  Kirche  Ghvuti  unci 
ihre  Zeugen,  Zurich,  1842-58,  8  parts  ;  2d  ed., 
which  is  less  laudatory  and  more  critical, 
1860-79,  24  vols. 

Bo-e'-ti'-us,  Anicius  Manlius  Torquatus 
Severinus,  a  Roman  statesman  and  philoso- 
pher ;  b.  in  Rome  about  475  a.d.  ;  beheaded 
at  Pa  via,  525.  Of  high  rank  in  the  Roman 
6tate.  learned  and  able,  Boetius  was  rapidly 
advanced  ;  became  consul  in  510,  and  his  two 
sons,  together,  in  522.  He  was  a  favorite  with 
the  king,  Theodoric.  But  from  this  high 
position  he  was  brought  down,  by  his  own 
account,  because  of  the  enmities  excited  by 
his  maintenance  of  justice.  Accused  of  trea- 
son he  denied  the  charge,  but  was  convicted, 
imprisoned  in  Pavia,  and  finally  executed. 
He  was  early  revered  as  a  Christian  martyr 
and  a  saint.'  Theological  writings  have  been 
attributed  to  him,  but  they  are  without  doubt 
not  his.  He  translated  Aristotle,  and  wrote 
upon  logic  and  mathematics,  and  even  music. 
His  works  were  valued  text-books  during  all 
the  middle  ages.  But  his  most  important 
work  washisi)e  Consolatione  Philosophim  {The 
Consolation  of  Philosophy),  Eng.  trans,  in 
Bohn's  Library.  In  this  work,  written  in 
prison,  he  complains  of  his  sorrows  and  old 
age,  and  is  consoled  by  a  woman  personifying 
philosophy.  It  is  a  treatise  upon  the  exist- 
ence, nature,  and  providence  of  God.  It  is 
written  in  a  noble  style  and  has  been  a  favor- 
ite in  all  ages.  Christ  is  never  named  in  the 
work,  and  the  writer  never  draws  con.solation 
from  any  specifically  Christian  thought.  His 
fate  was'  an  unjust  one,  but  he  does  not  seem 
to  have  deserved  his  fame  as  a  Christian 
martyr.  Works  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  LXIIL, 
LXIV.  F. 

Bogatzky  (bo-gats'-kee),  Karl  Heinrich 
von,  Grcrman  pietist  ;  b.  at  Jankowe,  Silesia, 
Sept.  7,  1690  ;  d.  at  Halle,  June  15,  1774, 
wnere  he  had  lived  in  literary  retirement,  by 
Francke's  invitation,  in  the  Halle  orphanage, 
since  1746.  He  wrote  A  Golden  Treasury  for 
the  Children  of  God,  orig.  Breslau,  1718  ;  58th 
ed.,  Halle,  1885.  Eng.  trans,  from  19th  ed., 
orig.  London,  1745  ;  numerous  edd.  ;  e.g., 
London,  1888.  (See  his  autobiography.  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1856  and  life  by  Kelly,  Lon- 
don, 1889.) 

Bogomiles,  a  sect  of  the  11th  and  12th  cen- 
turies in  Thrace,  whose  leader,  Basil,  was 
burned  for  heresy  about  1100.     Their  doctrine 


was  a  form  of  that  of  the  Cathari  (which  see), 
but  they  taught  that  there  was  but  one  eternal 
principle  in  the  universe,  the  good.  Satanael, 
the  elder  Son  of  God  fell,  and  created  man  for 
evil  purposes  ;  but  was  constrained  to  ask 
God  to  put  a  soul  in  him.  When  man  did  not 
overcome  the  evil  of  the  world  which  was 
under  the  rule  of  Satanael,  God  sent  his  second 
Son,  Jesus,  to  redeem  him.  F. 

Bogue  (bog),  David,  D.D.  (Yale  College, 
1815),  English  Independent  ;  b.  at  Hallydown, 
Berwickshire,  Feb.  18,  1750  ;  d.  at  Brighton, 
Oct.  25,  1825.  Educated  at  Edinburgh,  he 
became  Independent  pastor  at  Gosport  ;  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  and  active  on  its  behalf.  He  wrote 
with  James  Beunet  the  standard  History  of 
Dissenters  from  the  Revolution  in  1689  to  tJie 
Year  1808,  Loudon,  1808-12,  4  vols.  ;  2d  ed., 
1833,  2  vols. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  the  name  given  to 
the  sect  origiuiilly  formed  by  Gregor  and  by 
Peter  Chelcizicky  about  1457  out  of  the  rem- 
nant of  the  Taborites  (q.v.),  and  which  real- 
ized for  many  years,  to  a  great  degree,  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  early  Christian  disciples  in  faith 
and  life.  The  constitutional  convention  was 
held  at  Lhota,  near  Reichenau,  in  1467.  Mora- 
vians and  Waldensians  were  present.  In  all 
there  were  about  60.  Three  were  chosen 
priests  and  ordained  by  Michael,  an  ex  Roman 
priest,  and  two  Waldensian  priests.  The  duty 
of  the  rich  to  share  with  the  poor  was  establish- 
ed, and  oath- making,  war,  worldly  positions  of 
all  kinds,  which  set  one  above  another,  and 
the  right  to  puni.sh  were  rejected.  Gregor 
died  1474.  For  20  years  thereafter  the  primi- 
tive condition  was  preserved,  but  in  1494  Luke 
of  Prague,  a  learned  man,  and  their  most 
prolific  author,  the  second  founder  of  the  sect, 
carried  through  a  modification  of  the  strict 
scheme  of  life  and  the  sect  entered  on  a  more 
prosperous  career.  In  1500  it  had  in  Bohemia 
3000  to  4000  congregations,  and  in  Moravia 
70,000  to  100,000  members.  In  it  a  near  ap- 
proach to  apostolic  simplicity  was  made. 
With  the  Waldensians  they  stood  in  close  re- 
lations, and  later  with  the  Calvinists.  From 
1503  at  Prague,  and  from  1508  in  all  Bohemia 
until  1516,  great  persecution  overtook  the  sect. 
Effurts  to  secure  the  intercession  of  Erasmu.s 
for  the  release  of  Luke  of  Prague,  arrested 
1515,  failed  through  his  indifference.  The 
sect  came  into  contact  with  Luther  in  1519, 
but  failing  to  agree  on  the  doctrines  of  the 
Eucharist  and  justification  by  faith  alone  a 
union  was  impossible.  After  a  career  of  great 
purity  they  made  peace  with  the  Utraquists 
(q.v.),  Lutherans,  and  Calvinists  in  Bohemia, 
at  the  Diet  of  Prague,  1575,  and  drew  up  the 
Bohemian  Confession.  This  act  seemed  to 
seal  their  downfall.  The  nobles  among  them 
mixed  them  up  in  politics  ;  during  the  Smal- 
kald  war  (1548)  many  of  them  emigrated  to 
Poland  and  Prussia  ;"  persecution  decimated 
their  ranks,  discipline  declined,  and  their  last 
bishop  was  Johann  Amos  Comenius  (d.  1670 
q.v.).  The  virtue  of  these  primitive  Protes- 
tants passed  over  into  the  Moravian  Brethren 

(q-v.). 

The  literary  development  of  the  Bohemian 


BOLINGBROEB 


(113) 


BONIFAOB 


Brt'threa  was  verj'  important.  A  great  num- 
ber of  the  works  formerly  held  to  have  been 
produced  by  the  VValdensians  are  now  known 
to  be  translations  from  the  Bohemian.  TJieir 
catechism  was  known  to  Luther.  Many  of 
their  writers,  besides  Luke  of  Prague,  were 
prolific.  Of  these  Jan  Blahoslav  (1523-74) 
deserves  mention  as  the  Luther  of  his  people 
in  that  he  translated  from  the  original  the  en- 
tire New  Testament  and  half  the  Old,  and 
wrote  many  of  their  liymns.  The  earlier  ver- 
sion was  from  the  Vulgate. 

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  John,  Viscount, 

Enijlish  nobleman  ;  b.  at  Battersea,  Loudon, 
Oei.  1,  1678;  d.  there,  Dec.  12,  1701.  Edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  he  entered  politics  and  had 
a  checkered  career.  His  deistical  attacks  on 
Christianity  gave  transitory  interest  to  his 
writings.  "(See  his  life  by  Macknight,  Lon- 
don, 1863.) 

Bollandists.     See  Acta  Maktyrcm. 

B5l-sec,  Jerome  Hermes,  Roman  Catholic  ; 
b.  at  Paris  ;  d.  at  Annecy,  France,  on  Lake 
Annecy,  22  m.  s.  of  Geneva,  about  1584.  He 
was  in  youth  a  Carmelite  monk  and  preached 
in  Paris,  but  becoming  a  Protestant  in  1545 
or  1546  he  was  compelled  to  liee  and  went  to 
Ferrara.  Having  already  studied  medicine, 
he  prepared  himself  still  further  and  was  a 
physician  and  surgeon  the  rest  of  his  days. 
He  settled  near  Geneva  in  1550,  but  being  ex- 
iled the  next  year  for  his  criticisms  on  Calvin's 
doctrine  of  predestination,  he  went  to  Paris. 
In  1562  he  returned  to  the  Roman  Church. 
He  is  remembered  as  the  author  of  scurrilous 
lives  in  French  of  Calvin  (Lyons  and  Paris, 
1577;  n.e,,  Lyons,  1875),  and  Beza  (Paris, 
1582).  (Cf.  the  exhaustive  art.  by  Bordier  in 
La  France  Protestante,  2d  cd.,  2d' vol.  s.v.) 

Bon-ar,  Horatius,  D.D.  (Aberdeen,  1853), 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  in  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  19,  1808,  where  he  studied  ;  became  pastor 
of  the  Grange  Free  Church  1866,  and  d.  July 
31,  1889.  He  is  best  known  by  his  Jlynms  of 
Faith  and  Hope,  London,  1857-71,  3  vols. 

Bo-na'-ven-tu-ra',  a  famous  scholastic  and 
Franciscan  monk,  whose  secular  name  was 
Giovanni  Fidenza ;  b.  at  Bagnorea,  in  the 
province  of  Rome,  1221  ;  d.  at  Lyons,  July 
15,  1274.  Early  connected  with  tile  Francis- 
can order,  he  entered  it  as  monk  in  his  22d 
year,  and  while  con.scienlious  in  the  fullihnent 
of  all  his  duties,  he  also  piu-sued  his  studies, 
going  to  Paris  for  that  i)urpose  in  1243,  where 
he  was  under  the  instruction  of  Alexander  of 
Hales.  In  1256  he  became  general  of  his  or- 
der, and  proved  a  mild  but  efficient  adminis- 
trator. He  entered  into  controversy  in  favor 
of  its  principle  of  poverty,  maintaining  that 
voluntary  mendicancy  w  as  a  sign  of  holy  per- 
fection. In  1273  he  was  made  cardinal  and 
bishop  of  Alba.  The  Franciscans  regarded 
him  as  a  .saint,  and  discovered  miracles  worked 
at  his  grave,  but  his  oliieial  canonization  did 
not  take  place  till  1482. 

As  a  scholar  he  is  inferior  to  Thomas 
Aquinas  in  power  of  philosophical  thought, 
but  is  distinguislied  for  the  comprehensiveness 
of  his  mii)(i.  He  arranges  all  knnwh dge  in 
subordination  to  theology,  but  his  theology  is 


free  from  extreme  positions.  He  teaches  the 
fact,  but  not  the  absolute  necessity  of  the  In- 
carnation, the  necessity  of  prevcnient  grace, 
not  the  absolute  nulliiication  of  the  will.  The 
system  culminates  in  the  treatment  of  *'  con- 
templation," of  which  there  arc  .six  stages, 
crowned  by  the  still,  mysterious  waik  with 
(iod  above  all  knowledge  and  explanation. 
(See  his  complete  works  in  Latin,  several  idi- 
tions,  e.g.,  Paris,  1864-71,  15  vols.  In  Eng. 
trans..  Life  of  Ht.  Francis  of  Andsi  [by  Miss 
Lockhart],  London,  1868;  The  Month  of  Jems 
Chriat,  1882  ;  sup])osititioua  works,  TheMirroi' 
of  the  BlesHcd  Virgin  Man/,  Dublin,  1849  ; 
Pw Iter  of  the  Bleniied  Virgin,  London.  1852; 
The  Life  of  Ghrif^t,  1881 .  See  life  by  Vicenza  ; 
Gcr.  trans.,  Paderborn,  1874.)  F. 

Boniface  (bon'-i-fass).  the  name  of  a  num- 
ber of  popes,  but  one  of  whom  was  of  much 
importance  in  the  historv  of  the  papacy. 
1.  Pope  Dec.  28,  418-Sepr.  4.  422.  2.  Pope 
Sept.  22,  530-Oct.  16,  532.  3.  Pope  Feb.  19 
till  Nov.  12,  607.  4.  Pope  Sept.  15,  608-Mav 
25,  615.  5.  Pope  Dec.  23.  6]9-()ct.  25,  625  ; 
did  much  for  theChristianizationof  Enirland. 
6.  Pope  in  896.  7.  Pope  in  974  and  from  984 
to  985.  He  had  his  predecessor  strangled, 
but  was  shortly  compelled  to  tlei^  to  Constan-  ' 

tinople.  But  liaving  returned  and  nnudered 
the  pope  John  XIV.,  he  .succeeded  in  main- 
taining himself  a  year.  8.  This  pope,  Dec. 
24,  1294-Oct.  11,  1303,  whose  family  name  was 
Benedict  Gaetani,  illustrates  in  his  own  person 
and  in  his  history  at  once  the  arrogance  and 
the  nothingness,  the  power  and  the  inherent 
weakness  of  the  claims  of  the  papacy  to  uni- 
versal supremacy  in  their  most  extreme  form. 
Origiuiilly  destined  for  the  law,  he  studied 
this  science,  but  was  diverted  to  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal Ciireer,  and  in  1281  was  created  cardinal. 
In  this  position  he  was  intrusted  with  respon- 
sible tasks,  and  easily'  made  himself  one  of  the 
most  important  members  of  the  college.  It  is 
probable  that  he  sought  the  papacy  i.i  the 
year  1294,  but  in  vain.  He  acquired  great 
influence  upon  the  mind  of  the  iwjie,  CeK  stinc 
v.,  and  as  he  inclined  to  abdication,  Gaetani 
favored  the  plan.  He  then  secured  his  own 
elevation,  probably  by  making  promises  to 
Charles  II.  of  Naples.  Con.**ecrated  in  1295. 
he  soon  began  to  mix  in  the  affairs  of  the 
princes  and  nations  of  Europe.  He  was  thus 
involved  with  Germany,  Denmark,  Sicily, 
Hungary,  Poland,  England,  and  France,  in 
Germany  alone  wjis  he  successful.  His  contest 
with  France  is  the  most  famous  and  the  most 
important  for  the  liistory  of  the  papacy  and 
the  temporal  power.  It  broke  out  in  conse- 
quence of  certain  taxes  imposed  upon  the 
clergy  by  both  England  and  Franccr  in  order 
to  carry  on  the  war  in  which  they  w(  re  in 
volved  (1296).  Brmiface  forbade  them,  and 
Philip  answered  with  forbidding  the  exporta- 
tion of  silver  coin  or  liullion  from  Frnnce. 
which  cut  off  at  one  blow  a  large  part  of  the 
income  of  the  papal  court.  This  quarrel  was 
apparentiv  composed  by  concessions  of  the 
pope,  but"  it  Inirst  out  "again  in  consei/urncc 
of  the  hau<:hfv  hearing  of  the  legate  sent  in 
1301  in  relation  to  the  crusade.  The  papacy 
was  at  a  high  point  of  self-conscious  impor- 


BONIFACE 


(114) 


BOOS 


tance  in  consequence  of  the  success  of  the  papal 
jubilee  the  previous  year.  In  the  course  of 
the  altercation  which  followed,  Booiface  is- 
sued the  bull  "  Tliuim  Sanctam,"  which  main- 
tained the  doctrine  that  the  subjection  of  the 
temporal  to  the  spiritual  power  was  an  article 
of  faith  necessary  to  salvation.  Accusations 
against  the  pope  of  the  gravest  crimes  and 
deepest  heresies  were  made  by  Philip,  and  the 
quarrel  proceeded  to  tlie  point  of  the  prepa- 
ration by  the  pope  of  a  bull  of  excommunica- 
tion (1803),  when  emissaries  of  the  French 
king  and  of  the  Colonnas  broke  into  Anagni, 
and  got  the  pope  into  their  power,  from  which 
he  escaped  only  to  die  (1308).  Boniface  ex- 
pressed in  his  "famous  bull  the  full  claims  of 
the  papacy,  but  in  his  attempts  to  carry  them 
out,  he  exhibited  the  fact  tiiat  he  was  really 
powerless,  in  face  of  the  sense  of  right  which 
his  measures  must  awaken  in  the  minds  of 
a  nation  like  the  French.  The  charges  of 
his  enemies  against  his  character  are  too  evi- 
dently exaggerated  to  receive  any  special  cre- 
dence. 9.^Pope  Nov.  2,  1390-Oct.  1,  1404. 
Family  name,  Peter  Tomacelli.  F. 

Boniface,  or  Winfrid,  the  apostle  of  the 
Germans  ;  b.  at  Kirtou,  near  Exeter,  Eng., 
680  ;  d.  near  Dokkum,  Netherlands,  June  5, 
755.  An  Anglo-Saxon,  he  began  missionary 
work  in  Frisia  in  716.  He  was  shortly  com- 
pelled to  return  to  England,  but  in  718  he 
went  to  Rome  in  preparation  for  further  mis- 
sionary efforts.  In  719  he  began  work  in 
Thuringia,  where  he  sought  to  bring  the 
church,  already  formed  under  British  rites, 
into  subjection  to  Rome.  He  failed,  but  in 
722  he  was  at  the  work  again  ;  in  723  was 
lioman  bishop  of  the  region,  and  from  this 
titne  devoted  all  his  energies  to  establishing 
the  power  of  Rome  in  Germany  and  France. 
In  732  he  was  made  archbishop.  In  Bavaria 
he  deposed  the  native  bishops  who  resisted  his 
attempts.  Synod  after  synod  was  held  here 
and  in  lower  Germany  and  France,  in  promo- 
tion of  his  plans.  His  chief  opponents,  Alde- 
bert  and  Clement,  were  condemned  for  heresy. 
In  the  end  he  triumphed  in  the  main.  In  754 
he  left  his  bishopric  in  charge  of  Lullus, 
whom  he  consecrated  bishoj)  of  Mayence,  and 
went  to  the  Frisians  to  extend  the  Roman 
system  there.  But  he  was  slain  by  them  as 
he  was  about  to  administer  the  rite  of  confir- 
mation to  certain  converts.  His  entire  rule  of 
proceeding  may  be  summed  up  in  the  sentence 
that  he  made  the  validity  and  the  orthodoxy 
of  the  church  to  depend  upon  luiity  with 
Rome.  He  was  vastly  more  of  an  ecclesiastic 
than  a  missionary.  (See  his  works,  ed.  J.  A. 
Giles,  London,  1844,  2  vols.  ;  lives  by  G.  "VV. 
Coxe,  London,  1853  ;  A.  Werner,  Leipzig, 
1875  ;  Ebrard,  Giitersloh,  1882.)  F. 

Bonivard  (bo-ne  var),  Francois  de,  Swiss 
politician  ;  b.  at  Seyssel-on  the-Hhone,  21  m. 
s.w.  of  Geneva,  about  1493  ;  d.  in  Geneva, 
1570.  He  became  prior  of  St.  Victor,  Geneva, 
1510  ;  was  deprived  of  his  possessions  by  the 
duke  of  Savoy  ;  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of 
Chillon  (1530-36)  ;  on  his  release  finding  his 
prior}'  demolished  he  was  pensioned  by  the 
Genevans.  He  wrote  much  ;  particularly  in- 
teresting is  his  Chronicle  of  the  City  of  Geneva 


{La    Chronique  de    Geneve,    Geneva,    1831,  4 
parts),  only  partially  published. 

Boni  homines  (French  BansTiommes,  "  good 
people"),  in  the  French  chancery  and  vulgar 
speech  free  or  noble  persons  ;  in  church  his- 
tory the  by-name  of  several  orders  of  monks  : 
(1)  of  the  English  Brothers  of  the  Sack  ;  (2)  of 
St.  Stephen  Grandmont  ;  (3)  of  the  French 
Minims  ;  (4)  of  the  Portuguese  Canons  ;  (5) 
also  of  tlie  Albigenses,  and  (6)  Waldenses. 

Bonner  (or  Boner),  Edmund,  English  prel- 
ate ;  b.  at  Hanley,  1500  (?)  ;  d.  in  Marshalsca 
prison,  London,  Sept.  5,  1569.  He  studied 
at  Oxford  ;  became  chaplain  to  Cardinal  Wol- 
sey,  1529  ;  and  later  much  employed  by  Henry 
VIII.  on  foreign  embassies,  until  in  1540  he 
became  bishop  of  London  ;  under  Edward 
VI.  he  was  cast  into  the  Marshalsea  prison, 
London  (1549),  and  deprived  of  all  his  dig- 
nities because  he  refused  to  enforce  the  use  of 
the  new  prayer-book,  or  to  take  the  oath  of 
supremacy.  His  dignities  were  restored  un- 
der Mary,  1553,  and  under  special  command  of 
his  sovereign  he  instituted  severe  persecutions 
of  the  "  heretics,"  although  it  would  seem  he 
w.as  not  naturally  cruel.  His  course  made 
him  the  most  hated  man  in  London.  He  re- 
fused to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  under 
Elizabeth  (1559)  and  was  cast  into  prison. 

Bonnet  (bona),  Charles,  Reformed  Church  : 
b.  at  Geneva,  March  18,  1720  ;  d.  there.  May 
20,  1793.  His  fame  rests  on  his  Reiterches 
Philosophiques  sur  les  Preuves  du  Christinn- 
isme  (Geneva,  1760),  which  ranks  as  one  of 
the  ablest  apologies  in  the  French  language. 

Book  in  Scripture  means  primarily  any 
writing,  whether  a  hill,  or  accusation,  or 
register,  or  volume. 

Various  materials  were  used  for  making 
record.  The  decalogue  was  engraved  on  tab- 
lets of  stone.  Sometimes  the  cuttings  on  stone 
were  filled  with  lead  (Job  xix.  24).  Inscrip- 
tions were  also  made  on  tiles  and  bricks, 
which  were  afterward  hardened  by  fire.  An 
immense  number  of  these  have  been  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  whicli 
pour  a  flood  of  light  upon  their  history  and 
character.  Tablets  of  boxwood  and  ivory 
were  common  among  the  ancients.  Wood 
was  coated  with  wax,  on  which  writing  was 
done  with  an  iron  pen  (Jer.  xvii.  1,  Luke  i. 
63).  Afterward  palm-leaves,  and  the  inner 
bark  of  trees,  and  linen  were  employed. 
From  a  very  early  period  papprus,  a  reed  once 
common  in  Egypt,  was  used.  From  this 
comes  our  word  paper.  Later,  parchment 
from  skins  was  invented  in  Pergamos,  and 
used  for  rolls  or  volum-es  (2  Tim.  iv.  13).  The 
pen  used  for  these  materials  was  a  small  brush 
or  a  reed  split  at  the  end,  and  to  this  day 
scribes  in  the  East  carry  an  inkhorn  with  such 
pens  attached  to  their  girdles  (Ezek.  ix.  2). 
The  making  of  paper  from  linen  in  its  modern 
form  was  first  known  in  Europe  about  a.d. 
1800.  The  art  of  printing  came  in  about  150 
years  later.  C. 

Boos  (bos),  Martin,  Roman  Catholic  ;  h.  at 
Huttenried,  Bavaria,  Dec  25,  1762  ;  d.  at 
Sayn,  6  m.  n.  of  Coblenz,  Aug.  29,  1825. 
Studied  at  Dilingeu  under  Sailer  (q.v.)  ;  en- 


BOOTH 


(iir.) 


BOSTON 


tered  the  prieslbood  and  instituted  a  religious 
movement  similar  to  Pietism.  He  was  in  con- 
sequence persecuted  by  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities, driven  away  from  his  charge,  and 
at  last  became  religious  teachor  in  (he  g3'm- 
nasium  at  Dlisseldorf .  (See  his  autobiograpliy, 
with  additions,  ed.  by  J.  E.  Gossner,  Leipzig, 
1831  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1836.) 

Booth,  William,  General  of  the  Salvation 
Army  ;  b.  at  Nottingham,  Eng.,  April  10, 
1829";  became  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
New  Connection,  1850  ;  resigned  in  order  to 
give  himself  entirely  to  evangelistic  work, 
1865  ;  started  "  the  Christian  Mission"  in  the 
East  End  of  London,  July,  1865  ;  organized 
out  of  it  "  the  Salvation  Army,"  on  a  military 
plan  and  with  many  eccentricities  designed  to 
attract  attention.     iSee  art.  Salvation  Akmy. 

Bora,  Katharina  von,  Luther's  wife  ;  b.  at 
Bitterfekl.  18  m.  n.e.  of  llalle,  Saxony,  Jan. 
29,  1499  ;  d.  at  Torgau,  80  m.  s.s.w.  of  Berlin, 
Dec.  20,  1553.  She  became  nun  at  Nimplsch, 
near  Grimma  ;  there  read  Luther's  writings, 
in  consequence  left  the  convent,  April  4,  1523  ; 
went  to  Wittenberg  ;  fell  in  love  with  a  stu- 
dent ;  refused  the  hand  of  Dr.  Glatz,  of  Or- 
lamiinde  ;  intimated  that  she  would  marry 
Amsdorf  or  Luther  ;  married  Luther,  June  13, 
1525  ;  bore  him  six  children  ;  after  his  death 
(Feb.  18,  1546)  lived  at  Wittenberg,  and  in 
poverty,  until  in  1552  the  plague  drove  her  to 
Torgavi,  where  she  died.  (See  her  life  by 
Armiu  Stein,  Halle,  3d  ed.,  1886.) 

Bordelumians,  a  fanatical  sect  founded  by 
Borsenius  and  David  Bar  at  Bordelum,  Schles- 
wig,  1737  ;  suppressed  for  its  immorality, 
1739.  It  was  a  fruit  of  Antoinette  Bourig 
non's  (q.v.)  activity,  as  she  had  a  printing- 
press  on  the  island  of  Nordstraud  near  by. 
and  distributed  her  tracts  through  all  that 
country. 

Bo-rel,  Adam,  Dutch  Reformed  preacher  ; 
later  sectary  ;  b.  in  Zealand,  1603  ;  d.  in 
Amsterdam,  1667,  where  since  1645  he  had 
lieaded  a  sect,  the  BoreUtcs,  which  considered 
the  existing  church  degenerate,  its  ministry 
unfit,  and  the  Bible,  without  note  or  comment, 
tlie  divine  means  of  awakening  faith.  They 
lived  blameless  lives. 

Bor-ro-me'-o,  Count  Carlo,  St.,  b.  of  noble 
parents  in  the  castle  of  Arona,  on  Lago  Mag- 
giore,  Oct.  2,  1538  ;  d.  in  Milan,  Nov.  3,  1584. 
He  studied  at  Pavia  and  became  doctor  of  the 
laws,  1559  ;  his  uncle  being  elected  pope 
(Pius  IV.)  that  year  advanced  him  in  10  days 
from  apostolic  prothonotary  to  cardinal- 
deacon  and  archbishop  of  Milan  (1560).  He 
was  a  model  bishop,  and  his  life  is  full  of  ex- 
amples to  all  Christians.  Especially  did  he 
show  his  courage  and  his  trust  in  God  by 
staying  in  Lilian  during  the  fearful  plague  of 
1576.  In  the  accomplishment  of  his  designs 
he  made  u.se  of  the  Jesuits,  and  instituted 
thorough  reforms  in  all  the  orders  ;  by  so 
doing  he  roused  much  hatred,  which  showed 
itself  in  a  would-be  murderous  attack  on  him 
led  by  the  Humiliati  ((j.v.)  in  1569.  He 
founded  the  "  Collegium  Helvetium"  for  the 
education  of  ])riests  to  laljor  in  Switzerland 
and  prevent  the  introduction  of  Protestantism 


from  that  (juaner,  and  suppressed  by  the  In- 
quisition whatever  he  could  find.  He  was 
canonized  1610.  (See  his  complete  works 
Milan,  1747  ;  and  lives  by  G.  P.  Giussani,  in 
Italian,  Pome,  1610  ;  p^ng.  trans.,  London,  2 
vols.  ;  C.  A.  Jones,  London,  1H77  ;  and 
Charles  Sylvain,  Milan,  1884,  3  vols.) 

Borromeo  Union,  founded  in  Coblenz, 
1844,  for  the  circulation  of  Roman  Catholic 
books  and  papers  ;  up  to  1887  nimibered 
43,249  members  and  had  distributed  $2,500,000 
worth  of  books. 

Borrow,  George,  English  layman  ;  b.  at 
East  Dereham,  15  m.  w.u.w.  of  Norwich, 
Feb.,  1S03  :  d.  at  Oulton,  July  30,  1881.  He 
was  a  remarkable  linguist,  particularly  famed 
for  his  acquaintance  with  the  gypsy  language 
(Romany).  In  early  life  he  was  an  adventur- 
ous traveller  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  He 
wrote  many  books,  of  which  the  most  famous 
is  his  Bible  in  Spain  (a  record  of  his  experi- 
ences as  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  in  that  country),  London,  1843, 
3  vols,  (numerous  later  edd.,  e.g.,  London, 
1889). 

Bossuet  (bo-sii-a),  Jacques  Benigne,  D.D. 
(Paris,  1652),  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Dijon, 
France,  Sept.  27,  1627  ;  d.  in  Paris,  April  12, 
1704.  Educated  by  the  Jesuits,  he  early  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  converting  Protestants. 
He  became  bishop  of  C^oudom,  1669  ;  tutor 
of  the  Dauphin,  1670  ;  bishop  of  Alcaux, 
1681.  He  defended  Louis  XIV.'s  ab.solu- 
tism  ;  wrote  the  Four  Articles  of  the  Galilean 
Liberties  (1682)  ;  opposed  the  Jansenists, 
Quietists,  and  Protestants,  and  was  prime 
mover  in  .securing  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes.  His  numerous  Avritings  have 
given  him  the  epithet  of  "  last  of  the  Fnnch 
Church  Fathers. ' '  His  pulpit  oratory  reached 
its  height  in  his  six  Funeral  Oi-ationH  (orig. 
3d  ed.,  Paris,  1680  ;  many  later  edd.  ;  Eng. 
trans.,  8il  ed.,  London,  1801);  his  i'nirerml 
llistniy  from  the  Bcf/iniiing  of  the  World  to 
the  Empire  of  Charlemfif//ie\lQHl  ;  n.e.,  1873  ; 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1686;  n.e.,  1810),  was 
thefirst  attempt  to  treat  history  philosophi- 
cally from  the  Roman  Catholic  standpoint ;  his 
Ejcposition  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Cntholic 
Chvrchon  Matters  of  Co  ntrorcrxy  (\Grt\  ;  n.e., 
1869  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1672  ;  n.e.,  1841, 
New  York  [Calh.  Pub.  Soc.]);  and  Uixtory 
of  the  Variations  of  the  Protectant  Chiirch<» 
("1688,  2  vols.  ;  n.e.."l740,  4  vols.  ;  Eng.  trans., 
Antwerp,  1724,  2  vols.  ;  n.e.,  Dublin,  1836; 
rep.  New  York)  were  intended  to  win  Protes- 
tants to  the  Roman  Church.  (See  Jiis  biog- 
raphy by  II.  L.  Farrcr  [Lear],  Bmuet  and  hit 
Contemporaries,  London,  1874;  n.e.,  1877.) 

Boston,  Thomas,  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b. 
at  Diui^c.  13  m.  w.  of  Bt  rwick  on-Twtcd. 
March  17,  l.;77  ;  «1.  at  Kttrick,  May  20.  1732. 
He  was  graduated  ^LA.  at  Edinburgli  Ini- 
versitv,  1694  ;  studied  theology  and  taught  in 
privafe  families  until  in  1699  he  became  i>a.-I(ir 
at  Siniprin.  Berwicksiiire  ;  whence  he  w(  iit 
to  Ettrick  in  1707.  He  is  rememlKTcd  for  liis 
Human  Mature  in  Its  Fourfold  Kstate,  Edin- 
burirh,  1720  (commonly  spoken  of  as  Boston 
oil  the  Fourfold  Stat^,  "often  reprinted)  ;  The 


BOUDINOT 


(116) 


BRADY 


Sovereignty  and  Wisdom  of  Ood  Displayed  in 
the  Afflictions  of  Men,  etc.  (or,  as  now  called, 
The  Crook  in  the  Lot),  1737  (often  reprinted  ; 
ed.  Glasgow,  1868  ;  has  Memoir).  (See  his 
Memoirs,  Edinburgh,  1776  ;  2d  ed.,  1813.) 

Boudinot  (boo'-de-not).  Elias,  LL.D.,  Pres- 
byterian layman  ;  b.  in  FhiiadL-lphia,  May  2, 
1740  ;  d.  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Oct.  24,  1821. 
He  became  an  eminent  lawyer  in  New  Jersey  ; 
prominent  in  American  politics  (member  of 
Continental  Congress  from  New  Jersey,  1778- 
79,  1781-84  ;  president,  1782,  in  which  capac- 
ity he  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Eng- 
land ;  again  member  of  United  States  Con- 
gress, 1789-95)  ;  director  of  the  Mint  at  Phila- 
delDhia,  1795-1805  ;  took  leading  part  in 
American  religious  affairs  ;  was  one  of  the  26 
corporate  members  of  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  (1818), 
and  first  president  of  the'American  Bible  So- 
ciety (1816-21).  He  WMS  wealthy  and  liberal. 
He  wrote  in  The  Evangelical  Intelligencer  (1806) 
the  anonymous  memoirs  of  William  Tennent 
now  published  ;  also  The  Star  of  the  West ; 
or,  an  Attempt  to  Discover  the  Lost  Tribes  of 
Israel. 

Bourdaloue  (boor-da-loo),  Louis,  Roman 
Catholic  pulpit  orator  ;  b.  at  Bourges,  Aug. 
20,  1632  ;  d.  at  Paris,  May  13,  1704.  He  be- 
came a  Jesuit,  1648  ;  a  favorite  preacher  of 
Louis  XIV.,  1670,  and  wa^  sent  by  him,  in 
1686,  on  a  mission  into  Languedoc  to  convert 
Protestants.  His  sermons  arc  noted  for  clear- 
ness and  dialectical  skill  ;  but  toward  the 
close  of  his  life  he  withdrew  from  the  pulpit 
and  devoted  himself  to  visiting  hospitals, 
prisoners,  and  other  classes  of  sufferers.  His 
sermons  have  been  frequently  published,  and 
translated  either  in  whole  or  in  part  into  Eng- 
lish, London,  1805,  1806;  3d  ed.„  Dublin, 
1855  ;  Sermons,  London,  1884.  (See  his  com- 
plete works,  n.c,  Bar-le-Duc,  1864,  6  vols., 
and  his  life  by  A.  Feug^re,  Paris,  2d  ed., 
1875;  5th  ed.,  1889.) 

Bourges,    Pragmatic    Sanction    of.       See 

Gallicanism. 

Bourignon  (boo-ren-yon),  Antoinette,  re- 
ligious enthusiast,  of  Roman  Catholic  origin  ; 
b.  at  Lille,  Flanders,  Jan.  13,  1616  ;  d.  at 
Franeker,  Oct.  30,  1680.  Almost  a  physical 
monstrosity,  she  yet  had  to  run  away  twice  to 
escape  marriage,  being  bent  on  remaining 
single.  By  her  parents'  death  made  an  heir- 
ess, she  built  a  hospital  at  Lille,  1653.  Her 
long  course  of  mystical  reading  showed  itself 
later  when  she  gathered  a  sect  (hence  called 
Bourignonists)  ai)Oul  her  in  Amsterdam  (1667), 
to  whom  she  told  her  "revelations,"  and 
whom  she  kept  about  her  when  driven  from 
place  to  place.  Her  chief  follower  was  Pierre 
Poiret,  who  edited  her  works,  Amsterdam, 
1079-84,  19  vols.  ;  2d  ed.,  1717,  and  wrote 
her  life,  1679,  2  vols.  Her  ideas  found  most 
acceptance  in  Scotland,  and  "  Bourigianism" 
is  one  of  the  heresies  Presbyterian  candidates 
are  still  called  upon  to  renounce.  Her  books 
in  English  translations  are  :  Light  of  the  World, 
London,  1696,  3  parts  ;  n.e.,  1868  ;  The  Light 
liisen  in  Darkness,  1703  ;  The  Academy  of 
Learned  Divines,  170S  4  parts;  The  Renovation 


of  the  Gospel  Spirit,  1787,  3  parts  ;  especially  An 
Apology  for  A.  B.,  London,  1669,  the  principal 
source  of  her  life.  She  considered  religion  as 
a  mere  internal  ecstasy  independent  both  of 
the  church  and  Bible  ;  looked  upon  existing 
charches  as  corrupt,  and  upon  herself  as  called 
to  restore  the  true  Christianity.  Her  wiitings 
are  attractive  in  point  of  style.  (See  M.  E.  S., 
^tude  sur  Antoinette  Bonrignon,  Paris,  1876.) 

Bower,  Archibald,  b.  at  Dundee,  Jan.  17, 
1685-86  ;  d.  in  London,  Sept.  3,  1760.  He 
was  educated  in  the  Scotch  college  at  Douay  ; 
became  a  Jesuit,  1700  ;  rose  to  eminence  in 
the  order  ;  was  counsellor  in  the  Court  of  the 
Inquisition  at  Macerata,  but  avowedly  horri- 
tied  at  the  cruel  proceedings  abruptly  left 
the  city,  went  to  England  and  renounced 
Catholicism,  1726  ;  was  readmitted  into  the 
order  of  Jesus,  1745  ;  but  again  professed  to 
have  left  the  Church  of  Rome,  1747.  His 
fame  rests  on  his  History  (f  the  Popes,  London, 
1748-66,  7  vols.  ;  reprinted  with  continuation 
by  Dr.  S.  H.  Cox,  Philadelphia,  1844-45,  3 
vols.  His  character  for  truth  and  virtue  is 
doubtful. 

Boy -bishop,  a  piece  of  buffoonery  practised 
in  the  mediieval  Church  of  Rome,  in  which 
on  Dec.  6  (St.  Nicholas'  Day)  one  of  the  choir 
boys  in  the  cathedrals  was  elected  "bishop" 
and  held  othce  until  Dec.  28  (Holy  Innocents' 
Day),  during  which  time  he  performed  nearly 
full  episcopal  functions,  even  saying  mass  and 
filling  vacancies.  (Cf.  art.  s.v.  in  Benham's 
Dictionary  of  Religion.) 

Boyle,  Hon.  Robert,  English  natural  phi- 
losopher and  chemist,  the  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Cork  ;  b.  at  Lismore  Castle,  Munster,  111  m. 
s.s.w.  of  Dublin,  Ireland,  Jan.  25,  1627  ;  d. 
in  London,  unmarried,  Dec.  30,  1691.  He 
devoted  himself  to  natural  science  and  theo- 
logical study  ;  did  much  to  promote  the  former 
and  established  the  Boyle  Lectures  for  the 
defence  of  Christianity  against  unbelievers  by 
an  endowment  of  £50  a  year.  Bentley  preach- 
ed the  first  course,  1692,  and  courses  have  been 
preached  annually  since,  many  of  which  liave 
been  very  valuable.  (Sec  his  life  by  Thomas 
Birch,  1744  [in  Boyle's  collected  works].) 

Bradvo-ardine,  Thomas,  "  the  profound  doc- 
tor" {doctor  profundus)  ;  b.  in  Chichester, 
1290  (?)  ;  d.  of  the  plague  in  London,  Aug. 
26,  1349.  He  studied  at  Oxford  ;  acquired 
great  repute  for  learning  and  piety  ;  became 
chaplain  and  confessor  to  Edward  III.,  1337  ; 
consecrated  at  Avignon,  July  19,  1349,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  His  great  book  is  De 
causa  Dei  contra  Pelagium,  ed.  Savile,  Lon- 
don, 1618  ;  long  a  standard  authority  among 
theologians  of  the  Augustinian  and  Calvinistic 
schools  (analyzed  by  Milner  in  his  Church 
History,  iv.,  79-100). 

Brady,  Nicholas,  D.D.  (Dublin,  1699), 
Church  of  Eni,dand  ;  b.  at  Bandon,  20  m. 
s.w.  of  Cork,  Ireland,  Oct.  28,  1659  ;  d.  at 
Richmond,  near  London,  May  20,  1726.  Edu- 
cated at  Oxford  and  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ; 
after  holding  livings  in  Ireland  he  became  rec- 
tor of  St.  Catherine  Cree,  London,  1691  ;  of 
Richmond,  Surrey.  1696  ;  held  together  with 
that  of  Clapham  (1705-06)  until  his  death.    His 


BRAHMANISM 


(IIT) 


BRECEINRIDGI! 


fame  rests  on  his  metrical  version  of  the 
Psalms,  which  he  made  in  connection  with 
Nahum  Tute,  169J),  and  which  has  replaced 
in  tlie  Church  of  Enghmd  the  former  one  of 
Sternhold  and  Hopkins. 

Brahmanism,  historic  and  dominant  religion 
of  India  (138,000,000,  or  9.G  percent  of  the 
race),  developed  out  of  the  Vedic  by  the  Brah- 
mans,  the  first  of  the  three  Aryan  castes,  as 
the}^  acquired  dominance  over  the  Kshatri3-as 
(warriors)  and  Vai^yas  (conmions,  from  viq, 
people).  Brahman, 'originally  only  a  singer 
of  the  sacred  songs,  then  a  member  of  the  most 
artificial,  exclusive,  and  powerful  hierarchy  of 
the  world.  There  are  three  stages  in  Brahman- 
ism—tiie  i)rebuddhistic,  that  of  the  struggle 
with  Buddhism,  tliat  after  the  conquest.  In 
the  conflict  took  up  many  non-Aryan,  aborigi- 
nal elements.  The  result  present  Hinduism. 
See  India,  Religions  of.        W.  It.  M.\ktin. 

Brahmo-Somaj  (lit.  a  worshipping  assem- 
bly), a  monotlicistic  religion  originated  by 
Rajah  Ram  .Alohun  Roy  (1772-1833).  and 
given  greatest  prominence  to  by  his  second 
successor,  Keshub  Chunder  Sen  (d.  1884).  It 
is  based  on  the  idea  of  the  universal  presence 
of  the  divine  Spirit,  so  that  inspiration  is  a 
universal  fact.  It  differs  from  Christianity 
in  that  it  provides  no  remedy  for  sin.  Chri-st 
was,  however,  apparently  considered  by  Sen 
as  divine.  It  is  a  missionary  religion,  and  com- 
mends practical  reforms,  such  as  the  abolition 
of  polygamy,  caste,  idolatry,  child  marriages, 
and  intemperance.  (See  T.  E.  Slater,  K.  C. 
Sen,  and  the  Bvahmo-Soiufij,  London,  1884.) 

Braiuerd,  David,  missionarj^  to  tlie  Indian?  ; 
b.  at  Haddam,  Conn..  April  20,  1718  ;  d.  at 
Northampton,  ]Ma.ss.,  Oct.  9,  1747.  In  Yale 
College,  1739-42  ;  expelled  for  making,  dur- 
ing the  '"Great  Awakening,"  an  indiscreet 
remark  about  a  tutor's  p'iety  ;  licensed  to 
preach  that  year,  and  from  1743  till  his  death 
a  missionary  among  the  Indians  in  3Iassa- 
chusetts,  Pennsylvania,  and  Delaware.  Ilis 
success  was  great,  but  his  piety  it  was  which 
especially  commended  him  to  his  contempo- 
raries and  to  posterity  ;  and  the  story  of  his 
life  has  induced  many  more  than  Henry  Mar- 
tyn  to  become  missionaries,  (See  his  life  by 
Jonathan  Edwards,  ed.  Sherwood,  New  York, 
1884.) 

Brant,  Sebastian,  LL.D.  (Basel,  1489),  Ger- 
man juri>t  and  .satirical  poet  ;  b.  at  Strass- 
burg.  14.-)8;  d.  there.  May  10,  1521.  Ik- 
studied  law  at  Basel  ;  became  doctor  and 
teacher  of  the  same  there,  1489  ;  a  syndic  of 
Stnissburg,  1501,  He  was  a  i)roli(ic  writer, 
but  his  fame  rests  on  his  illustrated  poem, 
The  Ship  of  Fools  {Dan  ynrntincltiff,  Ba.'^el, 
1494  ;  best  ed.  of  orig.  text,  Zarncke,  with 
only  4  woodcuLs,  Leipzig,  1854,  while  K. 
Simrock  translates  into  modern  German  and 
gives  all  the  cuts,  Berlin,  1872  ;  Latin  trans., 
Stultiftra  nantt,  bv  J.  Locher,  Basel,  1497  ; 
the  basis  of  Alexancler  Barclay's  Ship  of  Fools, 
London.  1509;  best  ed.,  T.  H.  Jamie.son. 
1874  ;  other  translations  and  editions),  in  ^yhich 
he  hold!',  u])  lo  ridicule  the  vices  and  follies  of 
his  time  in  eoar.se  but  elTcelive  language.  The 
rude  woodcuts  aided  the  book  not  a  little.     It 


was  wonderfully  popular.  No  direct  religious 
intent  can  be  claimed  for  it,  yet  it  did  prepare 
the  way  for  the  Reformation. 

Bray,  Thomas,  D.l).  ((Jxford,  1G96),  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  at  .Marston,  Shropshire,  ]«5r)  ; 
d.  in  Loudon,  Feb.  15,  1730.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford;  entered  the  church,  l(i78  ; 
held  various  benefices  ;  was  selected  by  Bishop 
Compton,  of  London,  to  act  as  eonimissarv 
in  Maryland.  1G95,  but  could  not  start  until 
Dec.  20,  1699  ;  returned  in  1701  and  securcl 
the  re-enactment  of  the  law  for  the  church's 
establishment,  repealed  through  (Quaker  and 
Roman  Catholic  inl'uence.  From  1 70()  (ill  his 
death  he  was  rector  of  St.  Botolph  Wilhout. 
Aldgate,  London.  "He  projected  a  scheme 
for  establishing  parochial  libraries  in  every 
deanery-  throughout  England  and  Wales,  anJl 
so  far  succeeded  that  before  his  death  he  saw 
upward  of  80  established.  No  less  than  39 
libraries  were  established  in  North  America, 
besides  many  in  other  foreign  lands,"  through 
his  efforts.  *This  library  scheme  was  the  genu 
out  of  which  grew  the'  English  "  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge"  (1G98). 
His  active  interest  in  the  spiead  of  the  <hurch 
through  the  English  colonies  led  to  bis  secur- 
ing a  charter  for  the  "  Society  for  the  Piopa- 
gation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts"  (1701). 
In  1723,  when  warned  by  illness  that  liis  life 
would  not  be  much  longer  spared,  "  he  nonn- 
nated  certain  persons  to  carry  out  his  work 
with  him  and  after  him.  These  were  called 
'  Dr.  Bray's  as.sociates  for  founding  clerical 
libraries  and  supporting  negro  schools.'  " 
The  association  still  exists  and  publishes  yearly 
reports,  each  of  which  contains  his  memoir. 
In  his  parish  work  he  was  most  assiduous. 
He  "  is  a  striking  instance  of  what  a  man  may 
effect  without  any  extraordinary  genius,  and 
without  special  inlluence.  It  would  be  didi- 
cult  to  point  to  any  one  who  lias  done  more 
real  and  enduring  service  to  the  church." 
(See  list  of  his  now  unread  books  in  Canon 
Overton's  art.  on  him  in  Stephen's  iJi'f.  ynt. 
Bioff.,  whence  the  above  quotations  are  taken.) 

Bread  among  the  Jews  was  u.sually  made 
of  wheat,  but  .sometimes  (Judg.  vii.  13)  (^f  bar- 
ley. The  loaves  were  shaped  Hke  a  plale.  and 
when  leavened  were  of  the  thickness  of  one's 
little  linger,  but  unleasened  were  nuicli  thin- 
ner, and  broken,  not  cut.  The  Wf)rd  is  often 
used  in  the  i;ible  for  food  in  general.         C. 

Breastplate.     See  IlKiii-PiUKST. 

Breckinridge,  John,  D.I).  (Union  College, 
1835),  Presl)vlerian  ;  b.  at  CalK'U's  Dale,  near 
Lexinirtou,  Ky.,  July  4,  1797  ;  d.  there,  Aug. 
4,  1841.  He  irraduated  at  the  College  i>(  New 
Jersey  (Princeton),  1818  ;  studied  at  the 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1M9-21  ; 
was  chaplain  of  Congress,  1822-23  ;  p.astor  of 
the  Second  Church.  Lexington.  Ky..  ls2;i-26  ; 
of  the  Second  Church,  Baltimore.  ,Md.,  1820- 
31  ;  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Huard  of 
Education  (Philadelphia).  1S31-3G  ;  pr(if<  s.«or 
of  pastoral  theology.  Princeton  Seminary. 
18.S6-38  ;  secretary  and  g«neral  agent  of  the 
Board  of  Foreign  "Missions.  1h:5H_4().  He  was 
a  leader  of  the  Old  school  piirty  in  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  a  vigorous  debater,  an  ardent 


BRECEINRIDGE 


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BRETSCHNEIDER 


controversialist  (especially  against  Rome,  e.g., 
with  Archbishop  Hughes  Philadelphia,  1836), 
a  famous  pulpit  orator,  and,  withal,  a  winning 
man. 

Breckinridge,     Robert     Jefferson,     D.D. 

( ,    18-),  LL.D.  (Jefferson  College,  1847), 

Presbyterian,  brother  of  preceding  ;  b.  at  Ca- 
bell's'Dale.  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  March  8, 
1800  ;  d.  at  Danville,  Ky.,  Dec.  27,  1871.  He 
was  graduated  at  Union  College,  1819  ;  prac- 
tised law,  and  was  in  the  legislature  of  Ken- 
tucky ;  studied  for  a  while  (1831-32)  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  ;  became  pastor  of 
the  Second  Church,  Baltimore,  Md.,  1832; 
president  of  Jefferson  College,  1845  ;  pastor 
of  the  First  Church,  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  su- 
perintendent of  public  instruction  of  the  State 
of  Kentucky,  1847  ;  professor  of  systematic 
and  polemical  theology,  Danville  (Ky.)  The- 
ological Seminary,  1853  ;  resigned,  1869.  He 
was  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  in 
1841.  He  was,  like  his  brother,  a  strong  Old- 
school  man  (he  opposed  the  union  in  1869), 
an  intense  hater  of  Romanism,  a  ready  and 
able  speaker  and  preacher.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  wa,s  pronouncedly  loyal  He  presided 
at  the  National  Republican  Convention  at 
Baltimore  in  1864,  which  renominated  Abra- 
ham Lincoln.  His  publications  include  the 
two  elii  borate  volumes.  The  Knowledge  of  Ood 
Objectiveli/  [and]  Subjectively  Considered,  New 
York,  1857  and  1859. 

Breckling,  Friedrich,  mystic  ;  b.  at  Hande- 
witt,  Schleswig,  1629  ;  d.  at  The  Hague,  Hol- 
land, 1711.  .  He  studied  at  various  German 
universities,  1646-56  ;  became  pastor  at  Hande- 
witt,  1659,  but  the  next  year,  by  reason  of  his 
book  {Speculum  seu  lapis  Lydius  pastorum, 
1660)  on  the  bad  lives  of  the  clergy,  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  ;  went  to  Zwolle,  in  Holhmd, 
where  he  became  pastor,  but  in  1665  was  re- 
moved by  the  Amsterdam  Consistory  because 
he  there  attacked  the  clergy.  From  early  life 
a  student  of  the  mystics,  he  became  himself  a 
leader  among  tiiera,  and  numbered  among  his 
pupils  such  eminent  persons  as  Bourignon 
and  Gichtel,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
Spsner.     But  his  books  are  not  read  now. 

Brenz  (brents),  Johann,  Swabian  reformer  ; 
b.  at  Weil,  Swabia,  June  24,  1499  ;  d.  at  Stutt- 
gart, Sept.  11,  1570.  He  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  Heidelberg,  1512  ;  became  priest,  1520  ; 
preached  at  Swabian  Hall,  1522  ;  introduced 
the  Reformation  there,  1524,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  during  the  Smalcald  war,  1546, 
and  the  Interim,  1547.  In  1552  he  became 
provost  at  Stuttgart.  In  1553  he  presented 
the  Wiirtemberg  Confession  to  the  Council  of 
Trent.  He  was  the  most  prominent  German 
divine  after  Melanchthon,  and  author  of  the 
theory  of  tlie  absolute  ubiquity  of  Christ.  He 
wrote  the  first  Protestant  catechism  (1528)  a 
year  before  Luther's.  He  was  at  the  Marburg 
Conference  (1529)  and  the  Diet  of  Augsburg 
(1530).  An  unfinished  edition  of  his  works 
appeared  at  Tubingen,  1576-90,  8  vols.  (See 
life  by  Hartmijnu,  Elberfeld,  1862.) 

Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  were 
brotherhoods  of  pious  clergymen  for  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  the  Scriptures  and  cultivat- 
ing the  practical  Christian  life.     They  took 


voluntarily  upon  themselves  the  three  monas- 
tic vows  of  obedience,  poverty,  and  chastity, 
without  the  vow  of  perpetuity.  Pious  laymen 
were  not  excluded,  and  soon  convents  for 
sisters  were  added  to  those  for  the  brethren. 
The  founder  of  the  institution  was  Gerhard 
Groot,  of  Deveuter  in  the  Netherlands,  who 
was  a  pupil  of  tlie  mystic  John  of  Ruysbroek. 
He  died  two  years  after  founding  the  society, 
in  consequence  of  his  labors  in  attending  suf- 
ferers from  the  plague  (1384),  and  was  suc- 
ceeded bv  his  pupil  and  associate,  Florentius 
Radewins  (f  1400).  The  brotherhood  laid 
great  weight  upon  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue 
in  the  reading  of  the  Bible  and  in  public 
preaching  and  prayer.  The  order  soon  spread, 
and  there  was  added  a  more  regularly  consti- 
tuted monastery  at  Windesheim,  to  which  was 
afterward  added,  among  others,  that  at  Mt. 
St.  Agnes,  near  ZwoUe,  where  Thomas  a 
Kempis  lived.  The  brethren  gained  their 
liveliliood  by  labor,  chiefly  copying  manu- 
scripts and  teaching.  Begging  was  forbidden. 
They  were  hated  by  the  mendicant  friars,  and 
once  accused  by  them  before  the  Bishop  of 
Utrecht,  but  in  1418  their  order  was  confirmed 
by  the  pope.  They  were  loyal  to  the  Roman 
Church,  but  their  biblical  tendencies  worked 
against  it,  and  did  something  to  prepare  for 
the  Reformation.  F. 

Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  were  a  sect 
in  the  13th  and  14tii  centuries  in  various  places 
in  Italy,  German}^,  France,  and  the  Neth>.r- 
lands.  '  They  taught  that  God  is  all  that  is  ; 
man  is  God,  and  though  separated  from  him 
by  sin,  needs  notliing  but  a  knowledge  of  his 
identity  with  him  to  become  perfect.  Then 
sin  is  no  longer  possible,  and  whatever  a  man 
does,  he  does  without  sin.  Every  perfect  man 
is  Christ,  and  may  even  surpass  his  merits. 
The  perfect  is  free  from  the  moral  law,  and 
has  only  to  follow  the  spirit.  The  sect  was 
much  persecuted  by  popes  and  inquisitors, 
and  many  of  its  adherents  were  burned,  yet 
without  extirpating  it.  Gie.seler  conjectures 
that  it  had  its  origin  in  the  teachings  of  Amal- 
rich  of  Bena  (q.v.).  (See  Gieseler's  Church 
History,  Harper's  ed.  ii.,  590.)  F. 

Brethren,  Plymouth.  See  Plymouth 
Brethren. 

Brethren,  United.    See  Moravians. 
Brethren,  United,  in  Christ.     See  United 
Brethren  in  Christ. 

Bretschneider  (bret-shnider),  Karl  Gott- 
lieb, Protestant  theologian  ;  b.  at  Gersdorf, 
Feb.  11,  1776  ;  d.  at  Gotha,  Jan.  22,  1848. 
He  studied  at  Leipzig  ;  became  general  super- 
intendent and  upper  consistorial  councillor  at 
Gotha,  1816.  He  was  a  rationalistic  super- 
naturalist  (ef.  Handbuch  der  Dogmatik,  etc., 
Leipzig.  1814  ;  4th  ed.,  1838,  3  vols.,  and 
Lelirbuch  der  Religion,  Gotha,  1824 ;  Eng. 
trans.  Manual  of  Religion,  London,  1857),  and 
played  a  prominent  part  in  religious  affairs. 
He  contested  the  genuineness  of  John's  Gospel 
from  internal  grounds  (1820).  His  greatest 
service  was  the  establishment  of  the  Corpus 
Reformatorum,  Halle,  1834,  sqq.,  in  which 
have  appeared  the  works  of  Melanchthon  (28 


BREVIART 


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BROADUS 


vols.)  and  a  great  part  of  Calvin's.     (See  Lis 
autobiography,  Gotha,  1851.) 

Breviary,  a  prayer-book  of  the  Roman 
Church,  embracing  all  the  prayers  of  praise, 
thanksgiving,  and  petition,  which  the  clergy, 
from  the  subdeacous  upward,  are  expected 
daily  to  repeat,  with  the  psalms,  Scripture 
readings,  homilies,  sermons,  and  hj'mns  be- 
longing with  them.  It  has  been  a  gradual 
growth  in  the  history  of  the  chunh.  It  is  an 
attempt  to  fulfil  the  precept,  "  Pray  without 
ceasing. "  It  has  its  connections  also  with  the 
synagogical  system  of  morning  and  evening 
prayers^  the  two  seasons  of  which  were  soon 
extended  to  three  (9  o'clock,  12,  and  3),  to 
■which  the  midnight  hour  was  added,  till  finally 
seven  regidar  hours  of  prayer  were  generally 
recognized  in  the  church,  6  o'clock,  9,  12,  ij, 
6,  the  completovium  (just  before  retiring),  and 
the  matutina,  at  3  o'clock  a.m.  The  breviary 
comprises  the  proper  exercises  for  these  vari 
ous  hours  for  every  day  of  the  year,  and  the 
principal  parts,  as  well  as  the  minor,  are  in- 
tended to  have  a  special  appropriateness  to  the 
particular  day  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  upon 
■which  they  fall.  It  also  includes  offices  for 
the  festivals  of  the  saints,  and  in  appendices 
the  office  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  of  the  dead, 
the  penitential  psalms,  etc.  The  Marquess  of 
Bute  has  translated  the  Roman  breviary,  Lon- 
don, 1879,  2  vols.  F. 

Brewster,  William,  elder  and  chief  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers  ;  b.  at  Scrooby  (?),  Notting- 
hamshire, England,  1560  ;  d.  at  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  April  10,  1644.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge University  for  a  time  ;  ■uas  in  the  ser- 
vice of  William  Davison,  Elizabeth's  secretary 
of  state,  1584-86  ;  postmaster  at  Scrooby, 
1594-1607,  and  rallied  in  his  house  the  "  Sep- 
aratists ;"  tied  to  Amsterdam,  1608  ;  went  next 
year  to  Leyden,  where  he  carried  on  a  print- 
ing business,  and  gave  lessons  in  English. 
He  headed  the  first  pilgrims  to  Plymouth, 
1620  ;  was  their  leader  in  spiritual  affairs  as 
■well,  and  preached  regularlv  every  Sundav 
until  1629,  when  William  Ralph,  the  first 
settled  minister,  came,  but  not  having  been 
ordained  he  did  not  administer  the  sacraments. 

BriQonnet  (bre-so-na),  Guillaume,  Roman 
Catholic  ;  b.  in  Paris,  1470  ;  d.  in  the  Castle 
of  Estmant,  near  Montereau,  France,  Jan.  24, 
1533.  He  became  bishop  of  Meaux,  1516  ; 
reformed  his  clergy  ;  permitted  Faber  Stapu- 
lensis,  Farel,  and  other  Protestants  to  preach. 
1521,  in  consequence  was  (falsely)  accused  of 
being  a  Protestant ;  but  he  condemned  Luther's 
doctrines  in  a  synod  at  Meaux,  1523,  and  with- 
drew his  protection  from  the  Protestants. 

Bridge  Brethren  (Freres  pontifes),  a  re- 
ligious brotherhood  of  Southern  France,  .so 
called  because  they  took  upon  themselves  the 
building  of  bridges  and  the  general  attention 
to  ferries,  streets,  and  hospices,  in  short,  the 
protection  and  care  of  travellers  nn<l  jiilirrims  ; 
confirmed  by  Clement  III.,  lls'.t  ;  waxed  rich 
and  degenerated,  and  so  was  abolished  by  Pius 
II.  about  1460.  Their  alleged  founder  was 
St.  Benezel,  who,  in  1178,  announced  at  Avig- 
non that  he  was  sent  from  heaven  to  build  a 
bridge  across  the  Rhone.     They  are  last  men- 


tioned in  1672,  when  Louis  XIV.  bestowed 
their  property  upon  the  order  of  Lazarus. 

Bridget  (Brigit),  St.,  of  Kildare  ;  b.  at 
Fochart,  now  Faugher,  47  m.  n.w.  of  Dublin, 
Ireland,  453  ;  d.  in  the  convent  of  Kildare' 
Feb.  1,  523.  At  the  age  of  14  she  entered  the 
convent  at  Meath.  She  founded  the  convent 
at  Kildare,  and  then  several  others,  and  was 
extremely  active  till  her  death.  Her  history 
is  filled  with  multitudes  of  miracles  of  ail 
sorts.  She  was  in  early  times  often  identified 
with  the  Virgin  Mary.  (Cf.  art.  "  Brigit"  in 
Diet.  Xat'l  lUorj.)  F. 

Briefs,  Bulls,  BuUarium.  Briefs  and  bulls 
are  both  ■written  acts  of  the  papal  see,  with 
differences  which  arise  from  custom,  not  from 
essential  distinctions.  The  bulls  are  more 
formal  and  important.  They  are  written  uiKin 
parchment,  and  were  originally  furnished  with 
a  leaden  seal  {bulla),  ■which  was  suspended  by  a 
ribbon.  The  briefs  are  shorter  and  upon  com- 
mon paper.  The  language  of  l)()th  is  Latin. 
Bulls  are  usually  named  from  the  first  two 
words  employed  in  them,  as  "  Pastor  a'ter- 
nus."  A  bxdlarium  is  a  collection  of  bulls, 
briefs,  etc.  The  most  comprehensive  is  that 
of  Coquelines,  published  at  Rome,  1733-44, 
14  vols.  fol.  ;  n.e.,  1857-76,  22  vols.,  continued 
by  the  BuUarium  Benedicti  XIV.,  Rome, 
1754  ff.,  4  vols,  fol.,  and  the  Bullarii  Bomani 
Continuatio  of  Barberi,  Rome,  1835-57.  19 
vols.  F. 

Brieger  (brce -ger),  Theodor,  D.D.  (Gfit- 
tingen,  1877)  ;  b.  at  Greifswald,  Pumerania, 
Prussia,  June  4,  1842  ;  studied  there  and  at 
Erlangen  and  Tubingen  ;  became  ordinary 
professor  at  IMarburg,  187(3  ;  at  Leipzig,  1886. 
He  founded  and  still  edits  the  Zdixclinft  fur 
Kirchengcsrhicltte,  1877.  He  wrote  Aleander 
u.  Luther,  Gotha,  1884,  etc. 

Brigitta,  Brigittines.     See  BiiUiiTT.v,  Biu- 

GITTTNES. 

Briggs,  Charles  Augustus,  D.D.  (Eilin- 
burgh,  1884),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  in  Now  York 
City,  Jan.  15,  1841  ;  studied  in  the  University 
of  Virginia,  1857-60  ;  in  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York,  1861-63  ;  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin  under  Dorner  and  Rikliger, 
1866-69;  became  pastor  at  Roselle,  N.  J.. 
1870  ;  professor  of  Hebrew  and  the  cognates 
in  Union  Theological  Senunary,  1874.  He  is 
the  author  of  Bi/dicol  :Stu(h/,  New  York, 
1883;  3d  ed.,  1888;  Aiiwricaii.  Pni<hyttrinn- 
ifim  :  Bs  Orir/in  and  Onnrt/i.  1885  ;  Mestiauic 
PropJucij,  1SH6  ;  W/iif/ierF  1889.  He  was  co- 
editor  of  the  PrcHhytcrian  Bectew,  1880-89 
(when  it  ceased  to  appear). 

Broadus,  John  Albert,  D.D.  (William  and 
Marv,  is:)9,  Richmond  College,  I8r»!»).  LL  D. 
(Wake  Forest  College.  N.  (;.,  1871).  Baptist  ; 
b.  in  Culpeper  County.  Va.,  Jan.  24.  1M27  ; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia,  Cliar- 
iottesville,  Va.,  1850  ;  became  a.s.sislant  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  and  Gre(  k  there,  1851  ;  and 
pastor  in  the  Baptist  church,  ls51  ;  profe.^.sor 
of  New  Testament  interpretation  and  homi- 
lefic-s  in  the  Southern  Bapti.st  Throlngicnl 
Seminarv,  1859  (first  at  Greenville,  S.  C.  re- 
moved to  Louisville,  Ky.,  1877).  He  is  the 
author  of  T/i^  Preparation  and  Dditcry  of 


BROMLEY 


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BRUCE 


Sermons,  Philadelpliia,  1870  (many  editions  ; 
partial  Chinese  trans.)  ;  Lectures  on,  the  His- 
tory of  Preaching,  New  York,  1876  ;  Commen- 
tary on  Matthew,  PJiiladelpbia,  1887. 

Bromley,  Thomas,  English  mystic  ;  b.  in 
Worcester,  1639  ;  d.  in  London,  1691.  Ho 
was  educated  at  Oxford  ;  became  fellow  ; 
ejected  for  non-conformity,  1660  ;  joined  in 
founding  the  Philadelphian  Society,  and  was 
active  in  propagating  Boehme's  views.  One 
of  his  books  is  llie  Way  to  the  Sabbath  of 
Rest,  London,  1693  ;  6th  ed.,  1803.  His  com- 
plete works,  Frankfort  and  Leipzig,  1719-33, 
2  vols. 

Brooks,  Phillips,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1877  ; 
Oxford.  1885  ;  Columbia,  1887),  Episcopalian  ; 
b.  in  Boston,  Dec.  13,  1835  ;  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1855  ;  at  P.  E.  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Virginia,  1859  ;  became  rector  of  Church 
of  the  Advent,  Philadelphia,  1859  ;  of  the 
Holy  Trinity  there,  1863  ;  of  Trinity  Church, 
Boston,  1869.  He  is  the  author  of  Lectures 
on  Preaching,  New  York,  1877  ;  Influence  of 
Jesus  (Bohlen  lectures),  1879,  etc. 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew.     See  p.  987. 

Broughton,  Hugh,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Owlbury,  Shropshire,  1519  ;  d.  at  Totten- 
ham, London,  Aug.  4,  1613.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  ;  became  fellow  there  ;  went  to 
Germany  in  1589,  and  thence  on  till  Nov., 
1611,  he  was  most  of  the  time  on  the  Con- 
tinent. He  was  one  of  the  best  Hebraists  of 
the  day,  but  his  ill-temper  prevented  his  nom- 
ination as  a  Bible  translator  under  James  L, 
and  he  is  now  perhaps  best  known  by  his 
.spiteful,  though  in  part  well-founded  a"ttack 
on  the  so-called  Authorized  Version,  on  which 
cf.  Mombert,  Handbook  of  the  English  Ver- 
sions, p.  411.  Lightfoot  edited  his  Works, 
London,  1663,  and  wrote  the  life  prefixed. 

Brown,  James  Baldwin,  English  Congre- 
gationalist  ;  b.  in  London,  August  19,  1820  ; 
educated  in  London  University  and  Highbury 
Theological  College  ;  became  pastor  at  Lou- 
don Road,  Derby,  1843  ;  and  in  1846  of  Clay- 
lands  Chapel,  Claphara  Road,  London,  and 
remained  with  this  people  till  his  death,  Mon- 
day, June  33,  1884.  In  1878  he  was  chairman 
of  the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and 
Wales.  He  was  distinguished  for  the  breadth 
of  his  theological  views,  his  culture,  versatil- 
ity, and  catholicity.  His  books  found  many 
readers.  (See  In  Memoriam  by  his  wife, 
London,  1884.) 

Brown,  John,  Scotch  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Carpow,  Perthshire,  1733  ;  studied  theology 
and  philosophy  in  connection  with  the  Asso- 
ciate Burgher  Synod,  and  from  1751  till  his 
death,  June  19,  1787,  was  pastor  at  Hadding- 
ton. Ilis  best- known  works  are  his  Short 
Catechism  (1764)  ;  and  his  Self -interpreting 
Bible,  Edinburgh,  1778,  2  vols.  (See  his  Select 
Remains,  Edinburgh,  1856.) 

Brown,  John,  D.D.  (Jefferson  College,  Pa., 
1830),  United  Presbyterian  ;  grandson  of  the 
preceding  ;  b.  at  Whitburn,  21  m.  w.s.w.  of 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  July  13,  1784  ;  d.  in 
Edinburgh,  Oct.  13,  1858.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh  ;  became  pastor  of  the  Burgher 
congregation  at  Biggar,  Lanarkshire,  1806  ; 


of  the  Rose  street  church,  Edinburgh,  1822  ; 
of  the  Broughton  place  church,  1829  ;  since 
1834  professor  of  exegetical  theology.  He 
v/as  a  voluminous  author,  and  his  expositions 
of  First  Peter  (Edinburgh,  1848),  Galatians 
(1853),  Romans  (1857),  and  Hebrews  (1862), 
were  once  popular.  (See  Memoir  by  John 
Cairns,  Edinburgh,  1860.) 

Brown,  John  New^ton,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  New 
London,  Conn.,  June  29,  1803  ;  d.  at  German- 
town  (Philadelphia),  Pa.,  May  15,  1868. 
Graduated  at  Madison  University,  Hamilton, 
N.  Y.,  1823  ;  preached  in  different  places  ; 
was  professor  of  theology  and  ecclesiastical 
history  in  the  New  Hampton  (N.  H.)  Theo- 
logical Institution,  1838-45  ;  pastor  in  Lexing- 
ton, Ky.,  1845-49  ;  thence  till  death  editorial 
secretary  of  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society,  Philadelphia.  He  edited  Tlie  Encyelo- 
pmdia  of  Religious  Knoicledgc,  Bratlleboro, 
Vt.,  1835,  revised  by  Rev.  George  P.  Tyler, 
Phda.,  1858. 

Browne,  Robert,  reputed  founder  of  Con- 
gregationalism ;  b.  at  Tolethorpe,  Rutland, 
Eng.,  1550  (?)  ;  d.  in  Northampton  jail  in  con- 
sequence of  his  striking  a  constable,  1633  (?). 
He  graduated  B.A.  at  Cambridge,  1572  ; 
taught  in  London  ;  under  the  influence  of 
Rev.  Richard  Greenham  began  preaching, 
1578  ;  developed  independent  views  on  eccle- 
siastical government  ;  acted  in  defiance  of  au- 
thority ;  gathered  some  persons  of  like  views, 
hence  called  Brownists  ;  with  them  to  escape 
persecution  emigrated  to  Middleburg,  Hol- 
land, 1581  ;  had  a  falling  out  with  them  and 
returned  almost  alone  to  Scotland,  1583  ;  im- 
prisoned for  opinion's  sake  ;  at  last,  in  1586, 
gave  up  his  opposition,  became  master  of 
Stamford  grammar  school,  and  in  1591  rector 
of  Achurch,  Northamptonshire.  (See  Dexter, 
Congregationalism,  New  York,  1880.) 

Brow^nson,  Orestes  Augustus,  Roman  Cath- 
olic layman  ;  b.  at  Stockbridge,  Vt.,  Sept.  16, 
1803;  d.  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  April  17,  1876. 
He  was  brought  up  by  strict  Puritans  ;  joined 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  1822  ;  became  suc- 
cessively a  Universalist  minister,  1825  ;  a  Uni- 
tarian minister,  1832  ;  a  socialistic  preacher 
in  Boston,  1836  ;  infidel,  1843  ;  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic layman,  1844.  He  remained  faithful  to  his 
latest  phase  of  religious  thought,  and  took  ex- 
tremely conservative  grounds.  In  1838  he  es- 
tablished the  Boston  Quarterly  Review,  known 
as  Broicnson's  Quarterly  Review,  and  wrote 
nearly  the  whole  of  it  from  1844,  until  its  final 
discontinuance,  1873.  He  was  noted  for  learn- 
ing and  literary  ability,  also  for  making  the 
worse  appear  tlie  better  reason.  (See  his  col- 
lected Works  ed.  by  his  son.  New  York,  1883- 
85,  19  vols.) 

Bruce,  Alexander  Balmain,  D.D.  (Glas- 
gow, 1876),  Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  in 
the  parish  of  Aberdalgie,  near  Perth,  Jan.  30, 
1831  ;  educated  at  Edinburgh  ;  entered  the 
ministry,  1859  ;  and  since  1875  has  been  pro- 
fessor of  apologetics  and  New  Testament  ex- 
egesis in  the  Free  Church  CoUege,  Glasgow. 
He  is  the  author  of  The  Training  of  the 
Twelve,  Edinburgh,  1871  ;  3d  ed.,  1883  ;  The 
mimiliation  of  Christ,  1876;  2d  ed.,  1881  : 
The  Chief  End  of  Revelation,  London,  1881  ; 


BRUEGGIiERS 


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BUCHANAN 


The  Parabolic  Teaching  of  Chrint,  1882  ;  3d 
ed.,  1887;  The  Galilean.  Gospel,  Ediuburgli, 
1882  ;  The  Miraculous  Element  in  the  Gospeh, 
Kew  York,  1887  ;  Tlie  Kingdom  of  God,  lb89. 

Bruegglers,  a  blasphemous  aud  licentious 
sect  fouuded  at  Bruegglon,  Canton  Bern,  Swit- 
zerland, in  1740,  by  Christian  and  Hicronynms 
Kohler,  who  were  in  conseciuence  banished  in 
1750,  aud  returning  were  imprisoned  and  the 
younger  executed,  Jan.  IG,  1753.  The  sect 
disappeared. 

Bruis.    See  Bruys. 

Brully  (brooley),  Pierre,  Protestant  mar- 
tyr ;  b.  at  Mercy-le-Haut,  near  Metz,  Ger- 
many, 1518  (?)  ;  became  a  Protestant,  1540,  and 
Calvin's  successor  at  Strasburg,  1541  ;  burned 
at  the  stake  at  Tournay,  Flanders,  while  on  a 
missionary  tour,  Feb.  19,  1545.  He  is  one  of 
the  most  attractive  of  the  minor  Reformation 
heroes.  (See  his  life  by  Rod.  Reuss,  Stras- 
burg, 1879.) 

Bruno,  St.,  the  second  apostle  of  the  Prus- 
sians ;  b.  at  Querfurt,  Prussian  Saxony,  about 
970  ;  slain  with  18  companions  by  the  Prus- 
sians, Feb.  14,  1009.  He  v/as  a  canon  in  Mag- 
deburg when  he  entered  the  Benedictine  order, 
and  tired  by  missionary  zeal  labored  among 
the  heathen  Slavs  and  Prussians.  (See  life 
by  Heine,  Querfurt,  1877.) 

Bru-no  of  Cologne,  St.,  founder  of  the  Car- 
thusian order  ;  b.  of  noble  parents  at  Cologne 
about  1030  ;  d.  at  La  Torre,  in  Calabria, 
Southern  Italy,  Oct.  6,  1101.  He  studied  at 
Rheims  ;  became  canon  of  St.  Kunibert's  in 
Cologne  ;  later  rector  of  the  cathedral  school 
at  Rheims,  1057  ;  unable  to  stand  the  conduct 
of  his  bishop,  he  and  G  companions  retired  to 
the  desert  of  the  Chartreuse,  in  the  French 
Alps,  near  Grenoble,  and  there  founded  the 
Carthusian  order,  1084.  In  1090  he  was  sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  Urban  II.,  and  never  re- 
turned, but  in  1094  founded  the  monastery  in 
which  he  died.  He  was  canonized,  1028. 
(See  his  life  by  Tappert,  Luxemburg,  1872.) 
See  C.\iiTiiusi.\NS. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  Italian  philosopher  ;  b. 
at  Xola,  14  m.  e.n.e.  of  Naples,  1548  ;  burned 
at  the  stake  in  Rome,  Feb.  17,  1600.  His 
baptismal  name  was  Filippo,  which  he  ex- 
changed for  Giordano  when  he  entered  the 
Dominican  convent  at  Naples,  in  his  15th 
year,  but  again  resumed  it  when,  in  1570,  he 
left  the  order,  and  henceforth  passed  tirst  un- 
der one  name,  then  under  the  other.  He  joined 
tlie  Doiiiiiiicans  because  lie  thought  them  to 
be  tlie  friends  of  learning,  and  left  them  (1576) 
because  he  knew  them  to  be  the  foes  to  prog- 
ress. This  was  at  Rome,  whither  lie  had  tied 
to  escape  imprisonment.  He  went  tlience  to 
Genoa  and  other  cities  of  Northern  Italy,  to 
Geneva,  1579  ;  to  Lyons  and  Toulouse,  to 
Paris.  1581  ;  and  to  "England.  1583  (Italian 
was  then  commonly  spoken  by  the  upper 
classes).  In  1585  he  left  England  for  Paris, 
thence  to  .Mainz.  Marburg,  and  Wittenberg  ; 
remained  in  the  la.st  place  two  years  (1586- 
88)  ;  thence  to  Prnicue,  Helmstedtl  and  Frank- 
fort. Then  he  went  (1591)  to  Venice  by  way 
of  Zlirich  and  Padua.  He  arrived  in  ]\Iarcli, 
1592  ;  was  arrested  by  the  Inquisition,  May 


24  ;  was  officially  delivered  over  to  the  In- 
quisition at  Rome,  Jan.  7,  1593,  and  from 
Jan.  27  till  his  death  he  was  a  prisomr.  The 
charge  against  him  was  the  vairue  one  of 
heresy.  He  expressed  his  willingness  to  re- 
cant and  declared  that  he  had  not  cast  any  re- 
flections on  the  church.  Neverliieless  he  wns 
after  long  and  harrowing  delay  condemned 
to  death.  His  writings  amply  "justifv  his  ex- 
ecution from  a  Roman  Catholic  stainlpoint. 
He  was  a  pantheist,  a  fearless  advocate  of  the 
Copernican  system,  and  in  general  of  notions 
against  which  Rome  had  uttered  lier  infallible 
voice.  The  Italian  friends  of  liberty  unveiled 
a  statue  to  Bruno  on  the  Campo  de  Fiori— the 
scene  of  his  execution— in  Rome,  Sunday, 
June  9,  1889.  See  his  Italian  works,  ed.  P. 
de  Lagarde,  GiHtingen,  1888,  2  vols.  ;  his 
Latin,  ed.  Gforer,  'Stuttgart,  1834  (unfin- 
ished) ;  his  life  by  I.  Fritli,  London.  1887. 
There  is  a  German  trans,  of  his  Rrformation 
des  Ilimmcls,  Leipzig,  1889. 

Bruys  (brii-e,  Bruis,  Brusius,  Bruzius), 
Pierre  de,  burned  at  St.  Gilles,  1125  ;  founded, 
1105,  the  Petrobrusians,  a  sect  in  Southern 
France  which  (1)  rejected  infant  baptism  (2) 
and  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  ;  (3)  the 
adoration  of  the  cross  ;  (4)  all  prayers  for  the 
dead  ;  (5)  denied  sanctity  to  churches,  forbade 
their  erection,  and  desired  those  existing  to  be 
pulled  down.  Their  practices  led  to  much 
disorder.  After  his  death  the  sect  was  merged 
into  the  Henricians  (q.v.).  The  only  informa- 
tion respecting  him  comers  from  Peter  tlie 
Venerable,  who  refuted  him  (c-f.  Jfax.  Bihl. 
Pair.  Lngduncns.  xxii.,  1033  sqq.). 

Bryanites.     See  ^Methodists. 

Bryennios,  Philotheos,  D.D.  (Athens, 
1880  ;  Edinburgh,  1884)  ;  b.  at  Constantino- 
ple, March  26  (old  style).  1833  ;  educated  at 
Chalce  and  Leipzig,  Berlin  and  Munich  ;  be- 
came professor  of  theology  at  Chalce,  1861  ; 
metropolitan  of  Serrae  in  Macedonia,  1875  ; 
metropolitan  of  Nicomedia,  1877.  He  dis- 
covered the  Second  Epistle  of  Ckment  to  the 
Corinthians  and  the  fh'darhe  {or  The  Tinching 
(f  the  Tirelir  Ajx'xll'x)  in  the  Jerusalem  mon- 
astery at  Cnnstantinnple  in  1873,  and  brought 
out  the  latter  in  tlie  original  and  yet  well-nigh 
exhaustive edilion.  Constantinople,  1883.  (See 
Dr.  Schalf's  ed.  ;  3d  ed..  New  York.  1888.) 

Bucer.     See  P.itzku. 

Buchanan,  Claudius,  D.D.  (Gla.sgow.  18—  ; 
Cambridge,  18-),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Cambuslaiig,  near  Glasgow,  ^March  12,  176C  ; 
d.  at  Bro.x'bourne,  Herts.  Enghuid.  Feb.  9, 
1815.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  H.A.. 
1795  ;  became  chaplain  in  Bengal.  1797  ;  presi- 
dency chaplain  and  vice-provost  of  the  college 
of  Fort  William,  1799  ;  the  latter  position  al)ol- 
ished.  1807  ;  travelled  extensively  in  India. 
1807  and  1808,  with  missionary  intiiit  ;  re- 
turned to  Encland.  1808  ;  jilayed  a  prominent 
part  in  the  establishment  of  tlie  Indian  rpis- 
copacy.  His  Christian  Rrnearrh/M  in  Ana, 
with  'Kotireit  of  the  Translation  of  the  Srnp- 
tares  into  the  Oriental  Languages,  Cambridge, 
1811  ;  n.e..  London.  1840.  is  n  valunbl.-  book. 
(See  his  memoir  by  H.  N.  Pearson,  London, 
1819,  3  vols.  ;  OtUcd.,  1»46.) 


BUCHANITES 


(122) 


BUNSEN 


Buchanites,  followers  of  Mrs.  Elspeth 
(Simpson)  Buclum  (b.  1738  ;  d.  1791),  of  Scot- 
land, who  pretended  to  be  inspired  and  to  be 
able  to  give  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  sect  arose 
in  1783  ;  numbered  at  one  time  40,  hut  de- 
clined after  Mrs.  Buchan's  death,  and  has 
long  been  extinct.  Charges  of  immorality  lie 
against  them. 

Buck,  Chjirles,  English  Congregationalist  ; 
b.  in  1771  ;  became  pastor  at  Sheeruess,  after- 
ward at  London,  where  he  died.  Aug.  11, 
1815.  He  edited  the  well-known  Theological 
Dictionary,  London,  1802,  2  vols.  ;  ed.  Hen- 
derson, 1847  ;  numerous  editions  ;  rep.  U.  S.  A. 

Buckley,  James  Monroe,  D.D.  (Wesleyan 
University,' 187G),  LL.D.  (Emory  and  Henry, 
Va.,  1882),  Methodist;  b.  at  Rahway,  N.  J., 
Dec.  16,  1836  ;  studied  at  Wesleyan  University, 
but  health  prevented  completion  of  course  ;  en- 
tered Methodist  ministry,  1858  ;  became  editor 
of  Ths  Christian  Advocate,  1880.  He  is  the 
autlior  of  Appeal  to  Men  of  Sense  and  Retpec- 
tion  to  Begin  a  Christian  Life,  New  York, 
1869  ;  5th  ed.,  1875  ;  The  Land  of  the  Cza.r 
and  tliG  Nihilist,  Boston,  1886 ;  and  other 
volumes. 

Bud-de  (Latin  form,  Buddeus),  Johann 
Pranz,  Lutheran  theologian  ;  b.  at  Anklam, 
Pomerania,  47  m.  n.w.  of  Stettin,  June  25, 
1667  ;  d.  at  Gotha,  Nov.  19,  1729.  He  studied 
at  Wittenberg  ;  became  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Halle,  1693  ;  of  theology  at 
Jena^  1705.  He  was  one  of  the  most  univer- 
sally learned  theologians  of  the  day,  and  im- 
parted some  piety  to  theology.  He  wrote 
among  much  else  Institutiones  theologim  dog- 
matica;,  Leipzig,  1723  ;  later  edd. 

Baddhism,  outgrowth  of  and  reaction 
against  Brahmanism,  religion  of  503,000,000, 
or  35  per  cent  of  the  race  ;  Southern  in  Cey- 
lon, Burmah,  Siam,  Pegu  ;  Northern  in 
Thibet,  China,  Japan,  Annam,  Cambodia, 
Java,  and  Sumatra.  Founder  Siddharta, 
known  as  the  Buddha  (the  enlightened), 
^akyamuni  (sage  of  the  Cakyas),  etc.  Lived 
probably  in  second  half  of  5th  century  b.c. 
Scarcely  anything  about  him  not  still  disputed. 
See  India,  Religions  of.     W.  It.  Martin. 

Bu'-gen-ha'-gen,  Johann  (common  contem- 
porary name,  Doctor  Pomeranus,  or  Dr.  Pom- 
mer),  the  able  coadjutor  of  Lather  and  Me- 
lauchthon  (since  1521)  ;  b.  at  Wolliu,  29  ra.  n. 
of  Stettin,  June  24,  1485  ;  d.  blind  of  one  eye 
at  Wittenberg,  April  19,  1558.  He  studied  at 
Greifswald  ;  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  High  German  and 
afterward  (1533)  into  Plattdeutsch.  He  largely 
promoted  the  Reformation  by  voice  and  pen. 
(See  his  Brief wechsel,  ed.  Vogt,  1888,  and  life 
by  Hering,  Doctor  Pomeranus,  Halle,  1888.) 

Bull,  George,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1686),  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  at  Wells,  March  25,  1634  ;  d. 
at  Brecknock,  South  Wales,  Feb.  17,  1709-10. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  but  took  no  de- 
gree ;  became  vicar  near  Bristol,  1655  ;  rector  of 
SuddingtonSt.  Mary's,  near  Cirencester  (1658), 
with  Suddington  St.  Peter's  (1662)  ;  of  Aven- 
ing,  1685  :  archdeacon  of  Llatidaflf,  1686  ; 
bishop  of  St.  David's,  1705.     His  fame  rests 


on  his  Defenuo  fidei  Nicaznm  (in  Latin),  Lon- 
don, 1680  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Oxford,  1851-55,  3 
vols.  (See  his  complete  works,  Oxford,  1827, 
7  vols.,  with  life  by  Nelson.) 

Bull-inger  (bool'-ling-er),  Heinrich,  Swiss 
Reformer  ;  b.  at  Bremgarten,  near  Zurich, 
July  18,  1504  ;  d.  at  Zurich,  Sept.  17,  1575. 
He  studied  at  Cologne  ;  there  embraced  the 
Reformation,  1522  ;  came  into  intimate  rela- 
tions with  Zwingli  while  teaching  at  Cappel  ; 
became  pastor  at  Bremgarten,  1529  ;  and 
Zwingli's  successor  at  Zurich,  1531.  He 
guided  the  affairs  of  the  distracted  churcli 
with  singular  wisdom  and  exerted  a  great  and 
lasting  influence  upon  the  English  Churcli 
through  the  Marian  refugees  (1553-58),  whom 
he  received  and  counselled  on  their  return, 
many  to  places  of  honor.  See  Zurich  Letters, 
Cambridge,  1846.  In  English  are  50  of  his  ser- 
mons, known  as  Decades  (their  reading  was 
enjoined  by  Convocation,  in  1586,  on  the  "  in- 
ferior ministers  "),  Loudon,  1577  ;  n.e.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1849-52,  4  vols  ;  Sermons  on  the  Sacra- 
ments (selected  from  above;  n.e.,  Cambridge, 
1840)  ;  The  Old  Faith  (trans,  by  Coverdale  ; 
n.e.,  Cambridge,  1844),  and  other  fjieces.  He 
was  one  of  the  principal  authors  of  the  First 
Helvetic  Confession  (1536),  and  sole  author  of 
the  second  (1566).  (See  his  Reformationsge- 
schichte,  ed.  J.  J.  Hottinger  u.  H.  H.  Vogeli, 
Frauenfeld,  1838-40,  6  vols.,  and  life  by  Pes- 
talozzi  [Elberfeld,  1858],  and  by  Christoffel 
[1875].) 

Bulls,  Papal.     See  Brief. 

Bulrush,  or  papyrus,  a  reed  formerly  grow- 
ing on  the  Nile  and  now  around  the  Upper 
Jordan.  It  grows  in  marshy  ground  and 
reaches  the  height  of  10  to  12  feet  (Job  viii. 
11,  Isa.  XXXV.  7).  Its  stalks  are  pliable  and 
capable  of  being  interwoven  closely  to  form 
an  ark  or  basket  (Ex.  ii.  3,  5)  and  vessels  of 
larger  dimensions  (Isa.  xviii.  2).  Boats  of  this 
material  were  common  in  Egypt  and  still  in 
use  among  modern  Abyssinians.  From  this 
plant  paper  was  first  made.     See  Book.    C. 

Bungener,  Laurence  Louis  Felix,  Re- 
formed Church  of  France  ;  b.  at  Marseilles, 
1814  ;  studied  theology  at  Geneva,  and  there 
d.  June  14,  1874.  His  works,  although  several 
are  novels  in  form,  are  scholarly  and  valuable 
defences  of  Protestantism  and  presentations  of 
its  history.  In  Eng.  trans,  are  History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  Edinburgh,  1852  ;  2d  ed., 
1853  ;  ed.  J.  McClintock,  New  York,  1855  ; 
The  Preacher  and  King ;  or,  Bourdaloue  in 
the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.,  London,  1853;  The 
Priest  and  Huguenot ;  or.  Persecution  in  the 
Age  of  Louis  XIV.,  London,  1853,  2  vols.  ; 
Voltaire  and  his  Times,  Edinburgh,  1854 ; 
France  Before  the  Revolution,  1854;  Julie n  ; 
or,  the  Close  of  an  Era,  London,  1854  ;  Calvin : 
His  Life,  his  Labors,  and  his  Writings,  Edin- 
burgh, 1863  ;  Borne  and  the  Council  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century,  1870. 

Bunsen  (boon-sen).  Christian  Karl  Josias, 
Baron  von,  Ph.D.  (Jena,  1812)  ;  b.  at  Kor- 
bach,  in  Waldeck.  28  m.  s.w.  of  Cassel,  Aug. 
25,  1791  ;  d.  at  Bonn.  Nov.  28,  1860.  He 
studied  philology  and  theology  at  Marburg 
and  Gottingen  ;  became  secretary  to  the  Prus- 


BUNTING 


(123) 


BUNTAN 


sian  embassy  at  the  papal  court,  1818  ;  resi- 
dent minister  there,  1837  ;  compelled  to  leave 
by  the  controversy  Oier  mixed  marriages, 
1838  ;  representative  in  Bern,  1839  ;  in  Lon- 
don, 1841-54  ;  raised  to  the  nobility  by  the 
king  of  Prussia,  1857,  and  retired  from  politi- 
cal life.  "  Success  and  a  host  of  fond  ad- 
mirers seem  from  the  tirst  never  to  have  been 
wanting.  Nor  did  humility  of  demeanor,  ex- 
(juisite  sympathy  with  all  men,  and  an  almost 
imexamplcd  power  of  work  ever  fail  him." 
lie  was  (1810)  private  tutor  and  travelling 
companion  (1813)  to  William  B.  Astor,  of  New 
York.  lie  founded  in  Bome  the  ArclKcologi- 
cal  Institute,  the  German  Hospital  (also  that 
in  London),  and  the  Protectant  chapel,  and 
brought  about  the  joint  Prussian  and  English 
support  of  a  Protestant  bishop  in  Jerusalem. 
He  was  a  keen  political  observer  and  liberal 
C;ii^i>tian.  In  his  Siqns  of  the  Times  (orig.  ed. , 
Leipzig,  1855,  2  vols.  ; '3d  ed.,  1856;  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1850)  he  represented  the  dan- 
gers to  religious  liberty  from  those  "who 
were  utilizing  in  the  interests  of  despotism 
and  obscurantism,  the  horror  of  revolutionary 
outbreaks  then  felt  by  the  quiet  middle  classes 
of  Germany."  His  books,  Ec/j/pVn  Place  in 
Universal  History  (lldLiwhrni^,  1845-57,  5  vols.  ; 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1848-07,  5  vols.)  ;  Ig- 
/(r/^iMs  (Hamburg,  1847)  ;  IIip})olytus  (Ln-pvA^^, 
1852-53,  2  vols.  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1852, 
4  vols.)  ;  Outlines  of  PhilosopJiy  of  Unitersal 
History  (Eng.  trans.,  1854,  2  vols.)  ;  Lyra  Oer- 
manica  (Eng.  trans.,  1855-58,  2  series)  ;  God 
in.  History  (Leipzig,  1857-58,  3  parts  ;  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1808-70,  3  vols.)  ;  Bibelwerk 
far  die  Gcmeinde  (Leipzig,  1858-70,  9  vols.), 
attest  his  wide  learning,  interest  in  religion, 
and  true  pietv.  (See  his  Memoir  by  his  wid- 
ow, London,  "1808.) 

Bunting,  Jabez,  D.D.  (Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, Aliddletown,  Conn.,  1835),  Wesle3^an  ; 
b. 'at  iManchester.  Eng.,  May  13,  1779;  en- 
tered ministry,  1799  ;  since  1833  lived  in  Lon- 
don ;  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  denomination  ; 
d.  there,  June  16,  1858.  He  has  been  called 
"  the  second  founder  of  Methodism,"  and  did 
mucli  to  bring  out  the  laj*  element.  He  was 
president  of  the  Theological  Institute,  Lon- 
don, from  1835.  (See  his  life  by  Bunting  and 
Bo  we,  London,  1887.) 

Bunyan,  John,  the  author  of  what,  next  to 
the  Bible,  is  the  most  extensively-reail  book 
in  the  Engli.sh  hmguage  ;  b.  at  Elstow,  near 
Bedford,  Nov.,  1628  ;  d.  in  London,  Aug.  31, 
1688.  He  was  brought  up  to  his  father's  trade 
of  tinker,  and  spent  most  of  his  life  in  the 
practice  of  that  humble  craft.  In  his  early 
years  he  was  not  a  profligate,  but  careless  of 
spiritual  things  and  grossly  profane,  and  in 
his  Grace  Aboundiny  he  speaks  of  himself  as 
"  a  very  ringleader  in  all  manner  of  vice  and 
ungodliness."  Tlie  explanation  of  this,  and 
other  self-accusations  even  more  serious,  is  to 
be  found  not  in  the  notion  that  they  are  mor- 
bid exaggerations,  but  rather  in  his  intense 
convictions  of  the  evil  of  sin,  as  seen  in  the 
light  of  the  Sacrifice  on  Calvary,  such  as  the 
Apostle  Paul  felt  when  he  called  himself  "  the 
chief  of  sinners."  To  one  tluis  spiritually  en- 
lightened no  language  is  too  strong  to  express 


the  heinousness  even  of  those  offences  which 
some  call  venial.  He  married  early,  and  the 
iniluence  of  his  pious  wife  and  some  religious 
books  which  she  inherited  from  her  father 
awakeneil  his  religious  instincts,  and  a  reproof 
for  his  jirofane  swearing  administered  by  a 
woman,  who  was  herself  "  a  very  loose  and 
ungodly  wretch,"  started  him  on  anew  course. 
He  was  satistied  with  an  outward  reformation, 
but  once  overhearing  some  godly  women  talk- 
ing of  the  things  of  God,  he  fonlid  tlial  he  had 
neither  their  holiness  nor  their  hai)])ines8. 
Then  commenced  a  long  struggle,  which  lasted 
for  years,  but  at  the  end  of  it  lie  found  peace, 
and* joined  him.seJf  to  a  Baptist  churcli  niicler 
"the  godly  Mr.  Gilford."  In  1655  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  Bedford,  and  became  a 
deacon  of  the  churcli.  Here  he  was  gradually 
led  into  the  exercise  of  his  gifts  of  utterance, 
and  though  he  still  continued  his  craft  as 
tinker,  preached  often  and  in  various  places 
with  great  success.  He  used  his  i)en  also  and 
publislied  several  books  which  answered  a 
temporary  purpose.  His  evangelistic  labors 
were  arrested  in  1660,  when,  in  consecjutnce 
of  the  restoration  of  the  monarcliy.  the  old 
Acts  of  Elizabeth  against  conventicles  were 
put  in  force.  Bunyan  could  have  escaped  if 
he  had  been  willing  to  give  up  his  preaching. 
But  this  he  would  not  do  and  he  was  sent  to 
the  common  jail  at  Bedford,  where  he  re- 
mained for  12  years,  excepting  a  short  jieriod 
in  1660,  when  he  was  .set  at  liberty  through 
the  intercession  of  some  persons  now  un- 
known. During  his  imprisonment  he  sup- 
ported his  family  by  making  tagged  laces. 
At  times,  imder  different  jailers,  he  enjoyed  a 
certain  degree  of  liberty,  and  in  1672  the* Dec- 
laration of  Indulgence,  which  suspended  all 
jienal  laws  against  Nonconformists,  opened 
the  long-closed  doors,  and  Bunyan  walked 
forth  a  free  man.  Lie  at  once  ri'sumed  liis 
work,  and  while  still  retaining  Jiis  liandicraft 
gave  liimself  mainly  to  ministerial  service  and 
preached  to  large  congregiitions,  often  in  Lon- 
don. But  again  his  labors  were  interrupted. 
The  Declaration  was  withdrawn  after  a  twelve- 
month, and  in  1075  a  new  proclamation  re- 
called all  licenses  previously  granted  to  Non- 
conformists. Bunyiin  was  accordingly  re- 
turned to  his  old  prison,  but  was  relea.sed  after 
.six  months,  owing  to  the  good  ofhces  of  Dr. 
Owen  with  Bishop  Barlow.  It  was  during 
this  last  imprisonment  that  he  began,  if  he  did 
not  complete,  the  tirst  part  of  T/w  Pilyriin'a 
Pror/rcss,  which  was  tirst  issmd  in  1678. 
Though  never  again  seriously  troubled,  his 
preaching  journeys  were  not  alw.ays  without 
risk.  Still  he  w"iis  active,  and  wiun  James 
II.  courted  the  Nonconformists  U>t  sinislcr 
imrpo.ses,  he  steadfastly  resisted  the  insidious 
proposal.  In  1688  a  .serious  exposure,  during 
a  journey  to  Reading  as  a  peac<'maker,  brought 
on  a  disease  which  proved  fatal  in  10  days. 

He  was  the  author  of  a  numl«r  «f  works, 
several  of  which  were  posthumous.  The 
principal  ones  are  77/*'  J^'lyrim'n  ProffreM ; 
The  Holy  War;  'Ih-  Life  and  Death  of  Mr. 
Badman;  The  Jenimilem  Sinmr  Sand,  and 
Grace  jVx^vnding,  the  last  one  Ininp  a  vivid 
account  of  his  own  religious  exp«ri<ncc.  All, 
however,  show  him  to  have  been  the  master 


BURCEHARDT 


(124) 


BTTRNST 


of  an  incomparable  English  style,  one  that 
commanded  the  warm  approval  of  such  critics 
as  Coleridge,  Hallam,  Lord  Macaulay,  and 
the  historian  J.  K.  Green.  It  was  formed 
upon  tiie  great  classic  of  the  language,  the 
Authorized  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  As  Mr. 
Green  says  :  "  He  had  lived  in  the  Bible  till 
its  words  became  his  own."  Always  intelli- 
gible, always  forcible,  he  goes  straight  to  the 
point  in  the  fewest  and  simplest  words.  Every- 
where is  found  the  greatest  naturalness.  He 
writes  as  one  who  had  something  to  say  that 
was  worth  saying,  and  he  must  say  it  with  the 
utmost  plainness  of  speech,  not  daring  to  seek 
any  literary  ornament.  "  God  did  not  play 
with  him  in  convincing  him  ;  nor  could  he 
play  in  relating  the  story."  Besides  his  style 
he  had  a  vivid  descriptive  faculty.  Whatever 
he  had  seen  he  could  reproduce  in  very  sharply- 
detined  outlines.  Persons  and  places  stand 
out  on  his  pages  with  even  more  than  the 
fidelity  of  a  photograph,  for  they  are  made 
luminous  by  the  magic  touch  of  genius.  This 
appears  most  clearly  in  The  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
the  most  perfect  allegory  ever  written,  a  book 
equally  attractive  to  all  ages  and  to  every 
variety  of  mental  culture,  one  that  has  been 
translated  into  more  languages  and  circu- 
lated in  more  countries  than  any  other  hu- 
man composition,  and  one  eciually  acceptable 
to  all  classes  of  believers.  A  statue  of  Bunyan 
was  unveiled  at  Bedford  in  1875,  but  never 
was  one  more  deserved  or  less  needed.  His 
immortal  Pilgrim  will  perpetuate  his  name  to 
the  latest  ages,  and  will  accompany  every 
Christian  missionary  to  whatever  land  of 
heathen  darkness  he  may  go.  The  best  biog- 
raphy is  by  John  Brown,  London,  1885  ;  3d 
ed.,  1887  ;  cf.  E.  Venables,  1888.  C. 

Burckhardt  (bOork-hart),  Johann  Ludwig 

(John  Lewis),  Eastern  traveller  ;  b.  at  Lau- 
sanne, Switzerland,  Nov.  24,  1784 ;  d.  at 
Cairo.  Egypt,  Oct.  15,  1817.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Leipzig  and  Gottingen  ;  came  to  Eng- 
land, 1806  ;  became  an  explorer  under  the  pay 
of  the  "  Association  for  Promoting  the  Dis- 
covery of  the  Interior  Parts  of  Africa,"  and 
travelled  in  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  Arabia 
(Mekka  and  Medina),  but  was  prevented  by 
his  early  death  from  carrying  out  his  long- 
cherished  intention  of  discovering  the  Niger 
sources.  He  wrote  Travels  in  Ntibia,  Lon- 
don, 1819  ;  2d  ed.,  1822  ;  Travels  in  Si/ria 
and  the  Holy  Land,  1822  ;  Travels  in  Arabia, 

1829  ;  2d  ed.,  1829,  2  vols.  ;  Notes  on  the  Be- 
douins and   Wahabys,  1830  ;  Arabic  Proverbs, 

1830  ;  2d  ed  ,  1875.  (See  his  life  in  first-named 
book.) 

Burder,  George,  English  Congregational- 
ist  ;  b.  in  London,  May  "25  (o.  s.  ;  new  style, 
June  5),  1752  ;  d.  there.  May  29,  1832.  He 
became  preacher,  1776  ;  suggested  and  helped 
to  found  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  1799  ; 
edited  the  Evangelical  Magazine,  1793-1813  ; 
secretary  of  London  Missionary  Society,  1803- 
27  ;  pastor  of  Fetter  Lane  Congregational 
church,  London,  1803,  till  his  death"  His  Vil- 
lage  Sermons,  1797,  was  extremely  popular. 
(See  his  life  by  H.  F.  Burder,  London,  1833, 
and  sketch  in  Morison's  Missionary  Fatliers 
[ed.  1844,  pp.  268-92].) 


Burgher,  a  member  of  the  early  Secession 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Scotland,  which  di- 
vided into  the  Associate  Synod,  or  Burghers, 
and  the  General  Associate  Synod,  or  Anti- 
burghers,  on  the  question  of  accepting  a  cer- 
tain oath  then  required  of  burgesses  in  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  and  Perth  ;  the  Burghers 
holding  that  such  an  oath  was  lawful,  and  the 
Antiburghers  that  it  was  not. 

Burial.  The  custom  of  the  Jews  was  to 
bury  the  dead.  Burning  took  place  only  in 
case  of  notorious  sinners,  as  Achan  (Josh.  vii. 
24),  or  when  safety  required  it,  as  (1  Sam.  xxxi. 
12),  or  when  pestilence  reigned  (Amos  vi.  10). 
It  was  a  great  dishonor  to  be  deprived  of 
burial  (Eccles.  vi.  3),  and  it  was  denied  to 
none,  not  even  to  enemies  (1  Kings  xi.  15). 
Burial-places  were  outside  the  towns  and  were 
usually  natural  or  artificial  caves  in  groves  .or 
gardens  (Gen.  xxiii.  17).  The  bier  was  fol- 
lowed by  kindred  and  friends,  and  sometimes 
professional  mourners  or  wallers  were  em- 
ployed (Jer.  ix.  17,  Amos  v.  19,  Matt.  ix.  23). 
The  early  Christians  followed  the  Hebrew  ex- 
ample and  buried  their  dead,  although  the 
Romans  used  burning.  The  catacombs  testify 
to  their  custom  while  oppressed.  Afterward 
they  sought  to  be  interred  near  the  martyrs,  or 
at  least  in  the  precincts  of  a  church.  Unlike 
the  pagans,  who  bore  the  funereal  cypress  and 
walked  in  silence  to  the  grave,  they  carried 
palms  and  olive  branches  and  sang  joyful 
strains,  and  there  were  appropriate  addresses. 
The  conviction  that  the  bodies  of  those  who 
died  in  the  Lord  were  still  united  to  Christ, 
undoubtedly  prompted  believers  to  great  care 
in  handling  the  dead  and  securing  for  their 
mortal  remains  an  appropriate  resting-place. 

C. 

Burkitt,  William,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Hitcham,  Sutfolk,  July  25,  1650  ;  educated 
at  Cambritlge  ;  became  vicar  at  Dedham,  Es- 
sex, 1692  ;  d.  there,  Sunday,  Oct.  24,  1703. 
He  compiled  the  well-known  Expository  Notes 
on  the  New  Testa7nent,  London,  1724  ;  many 
editions. 

Burmah.     See  Missions. 

Burnet,  Gilbert,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  in 
Edinburgh,  Sept.  18,  1643  ;  d.  in  London, 
March  7,  1715.  His  education  was  received 
at  first  from  his  father,  then  at  the  Marischal 
College  of  Aberdeen,  later  at  Oxford,  and 
further  from  foreign  travel.  He  was  rector 
at  Saltoun,  1665-69,  and  exerted  himself  to 
win  over  the  Presbyterians  to  Episcopacy  ; 
professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow,  1669-73  ; 
thence  on  to  his  death  much  in  attendance  on 
the  king  and  mixed  up  in  politics,  civil  and 
ecclesiastical.  He  was  one  of  William  and 
Mary's  chief  advisers,  and  sailed  with  them  to 
England,  1688,  and  from  them  received  the 
bishopric  of  Salisbury,  1689.  "  From  his  en- 
trance upon  public  life,  as  a  mere  boy,  he  was 
the  consistent  representative  of  Broad-Church 
views,  both  in  politics  and  doctrine.  .  .  He 
was  a  man  perfectly  healthy  and  robust  in 
body  and  mind  ;  a' meddler  and  yet  no  in- 
triguer ;  a  lover  of  secrets  which  he  was  in- 
capable of  keeping  ;  a  vigorous  polemist,  but 
without  either  spite  or  guile. "  His  chief  work 
is  his  History  of  Ilis  Own,  Time,  London,  1723- 


BURNS 


(125) 


BUTLER 


34.  2  vols,  (with  biog.  by  his  sou) ;  best  ed. . 
Routh.  1833  and  1833.  (Cf.  Stephen,  Diet. 
Nat.  Bing.,  s.v.) 

Bums,  Jabez,  D.D.  (Wesleyan  University, 
Middk'town.  Conn.,  1846),  LL.D.  (Bates  Col- 
lege, Lew'iston,  Me.,  1872),  Geucnil  Baptist  ; 
b.'at  Oldliara,  Lancashire,  Dec.  18.  180o  ;  at 
first  a  Wesleyan  preacher,  he  joined  the  Gen- 
eral Baptists  in  1829  :  from  1835  on  M'as  pas- 
tor in  London,  where  he  died,  Jan.  31,  1876. 
He  was  a  very  voluminous  autlior. 

Burns,  William  Chalmers,  Scotch  mis- 
sionary in  China  ;  b.  at  Dun,  near  Brechin, 
Scotland,  April  1, 1815  ;  d.  at  the  Port  of  Nieu- 
Chwan^,  China,  April  4,  1868.  After  study- 
ing at  Aberdeen  and  Glasgow  and  preaching 
as  a  revivalist,  with  great  success,  in  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  and  Canada,  he  went  out  as  (he  first 
missionary  to  China  of  the  English  Presby- 
terian Missionary  Society,  June  9,  1847,  and 
although  owing 'to  his  frequent  migrations,  a 
consequence,  perhaps,  of  his  bachelorhood,  he 
did  not  make  so  deep  an  impression  in  any 
one  place  as  other  missionaries  have  done,  he 
still  was  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the  class. 
(See  his  life  by  his  brother,  Islay  Burns,  Lou- 
don and  New  York,  1870  ;  6th  ed.,  1871.) 

Burnt-Oflferings.     See  Sacuifices. 

Burr,  Enoch  Fitch,  D.D.  (Amherst,  1868), 
Congregationalist,  b.  at  Green's  Farms,  West- 
port";^  Conn.,  Oct.  21,  1818;  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  1839  ;  since  1850  has  been  pastor 
in  Lyme,  Conn.  He  is  the  author  of  nunifrous 
very  popular  volumes,  of  which  may  be  men- 
tioned, Ecce  Caelum,  Boston,  1867 ;  Pater 
Mundi,  1869;  Ad  Fidem,  1871  ;  Ecm  Terra, 
Phila.,  1884  ;  Celestial  Empires,  N.  Y.,  1885  ; 
Supreme  ThingK,  1889. 

Busenbaum(boo-zenbaum),  Hermann,  Ro- 
man Catliolic,  Jesuit  ;  b.  at  Nottein,  We.st- 
plialia,  1600  ;  d.  at  AlUnster,  Jan.  31,  1668. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  1619  ;  taught 
moral  philosophy  at  Cologne,  and  became  rec- 
tor of  the  Jesuit  college  at  Hildesheim  and 
]\IUnster,  successively.  He  wrote  Medulla 
thcologice  moralis  (MUnster,  1645,  200  edd., 
e.g.,  Paris,  1874,  4  vols.),  which,  as  inciting 
to  murder  and  outbreak  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  specified  ends,  was  condemned  and 
burned  by  the  parliaments  of  Toulouse,  1757, 
and  of  Paris,  1761. 

Bush,  George,  Swedenborgian  ;  b.  at  Nor- 
wich, Yt.,  June  12,  1796  ;  d.  at  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  19,  1859.  He  graduated  at  Dart- 
mouth College,  1818  ;  studied  at  Princeton 
Tiieological  Seminary,  1820-22  ;  was  ])astor 
(Presbyterian)  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1824-29; 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  literature. 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1831- 
47  ;  pastor  of  tlie  New  Church  (Swedenbor- 
gian) Society,  New  York  City,  1848-52  :  stated 
supply  to  that  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1854-59. 
He  translated  and  edited  the  diary  of  Sweden- 
borg,  1845  ;  and  edited  the  New  Church  lie- 
pository.  He  was  learned,  but  erratic  to  the 
verge  of  insanitv.  His  books  are  now  unread. 
(See  the  Memoir  of  him  by  W.  M.  Fernald, 
Boston,  1860  ) 

Bushnell,  Horace,  D.D.  (Weslevan  Univer- 
sity, Middletowu,  Conn.,  1841 ;  Harvard,  1852), 


LL.D.  (Yale.  1871),  Congregationalist:  b.  at 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  April  14,  1802  ;  d.  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  Feb.  17,  1876.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  1827  ;  tutor  there  from  1H29  to 
1831  ;  settled  over  the  North  Churcii  at  Hart- 
ford from  1833  to  1S59,  wlicn  the  failure  of 
his  health  (•oni[)clied  liim  to  resign  liis  ])()siti<in. 
although  he  was  still  able  to  preach  occasion- 
aUy^  and  to  perform  literary  Mork.  He  was 
distinguisheci  for  the  boldness  and  originality 
of  his  thinking  and  for  the  brilliancy  and 
vigor  of  his  style.  Tlie  first  product io'n  that 
e.xcited  general  attention  was  his  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  oration  in  1837  on  "  The  Principles  of 
National  Greatness."  This  was  followed  in 
1847  by  a  volume  entitled  Christian  Ntirtnre, 
wliich'provoked  considerable  criticism.  Two 
years  later  he  issued  the  book  Ood  in  Christ, 
which  led  to  a  heated  controversv,  as  it  seemed 
to  call  in  question  the  accepted  views  of  tlie 
historic  church  as  to  the  Trinity.  Several 
subsecjuent  works,  such  as  Sernions  for  the 
Xeir  Life  and  Nature  and  the  Snjurnatural, 
maintained  his  higli  reimtation  as  an  original 
thinker  and  an  eloquent  writer,  but  in  1865 
he  published  a  volume  on  the  Vicarious  Sacri- 
fice, which  gave  great  ollence  to  many  by  its 
utter  rejection  of  the  juridical  or  satisfaction 
theory  of  the  Atonement,  and  its  declaration 
that  the  .salvation  which  Christ  has  accom- 
plished is  wholly  subjective,  and  was  wrouglit 
by  his  identifying  liim.self  willnis  in  our  fallen 
estate  and  biirdening  himself  in  feeling  with 
our  evils.  This  '  moral-power  view  of  the 
Atonement,"  as  the  author  himself  acknowl- 
edged, had  no  etficiency  unless  clothed  in  the 
altar-terms  which  belong  to  the  opposite  8y.s- 
tem.  Other  volumes  from  Dr.  Bushnell's  pen 
were.  Work  aiid  Play  ;  Christ  and  his  Saliva- 
tion; Wo7nan's  Suffrage,  the  Reform  Against 
Nature.  Although  his  orthodoxy  was  seri- 
ously impeached,  yet  ultimately  the  fellowship 
of  Congregational  churches  was  found  broad 
enough  to  include  him,  and  he  retained  his 
standing  till  his  death.  His  contributions  to 
theological  literature  have  given  interest  and 
importance  to  some  forgotten  or  neglected 
truths,  and  thus  liave  done  signal  service  to 
tlie  cause  of  Christ.  A  new  ed.  of  his  select 
works  appeared  New  York,  1876-77,  8  vols.; 
and  his  life,  1880.  C". 

Butler,  Alban,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Aj)- 
pletree,  Northamjitonshire.  Eng.,  1711  ;  d.  at 
St.  Omer,  France.  22  m.  s.e.  of  Calais,  Mav 
15,  1773.  He  wjvs  e<iucate(l  in  tiie  English 
college  at  Douay,  where  he  taught  philosophy 
and  divinity  ;  wa-s  ordained  priest,  1735  ;  .'<ent 
to  the  English  mission,  1746  ;  became  jtresi- 
dent  of  the  English  college  at  St.  Omer.  For 
thirty  vears  lie  labored  on  liis  nioiinmentnl 
hires  of  the  Stiints,  London,  1756-59,  4  vols.  ; 
numerous  editions.  (See  his  life  by  his 
nephew.  Charles  [1750-1832],  an  eminent  jur- 
ist, Edinburgh,  1800.) 

Butler,  Joseph,  D.(  .L.  (Oxford.  17*}). 
Church  of  England,  author  «)f  The  Analogy  ; 
b.  at  Wantage,  21  m.  w.n.w.  of  R*.adiDg.  May 
18.  1692  ;  d.  at  Bath.  Tuesday,  June  16.  1752. 
Intended  for  the  Presbyterian  minislrv.  he  was 
sent  to  tlie  dissenting  academy  of  Samuel 
Jones  at  Gloucester,   out  of  his  own  accord 


BUTLER 


(126) 


BUXTORP 


became  a  churchman  ;  entered  Oxford,  1715  ; 
took  holy  orders  and  was  appointed  preacher 
at  the  Rolls  Chapel,  London,  1719  ;  resigned, 
1726,  as  he  had  become  rector  of  Stanhope,  in 
Weardale,  1725.  He  held  this  rectory  in  con- 
nection with  other  preferments,  including  the 
bishopric  of  Bristol  (1738).  till  1740,  when  he 
became  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  London.  In  1750 
he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Durham.  His 
fame  rests  on  The  Analogy  of  Religion,  Nat- 
•ural  and  Revealed,  to  the  Constitution  and 
Course  of  Nature,  London,  1786,  4to  (many 
later  edd.).  It  was  the  product  of  his  profound 
meditation  on  the  great  Deistic  controversy 
of  his  age.  It  is  designed  to  show  that  the 
same  difficulties  exist  in  the  operation  of  na- 
ture as  we  find  in  the  Scriptures,  and  there- 
fore we  should  not  only  reject  all  arguments 
against  the  Bible  which  are  derived  from  these 
difficulties,  but  believe  that  both  nature  and 
the  Scriptures  have  a  common  Author.  Edi- 
tions of  The  Analogy  and  of  his  Sermons  are 
numerous.  Complete  works,  best  ed.  Oxford, 
1844,  2  vols.;  life,  by  Pynchon,  N.  Y.,  1890. 

Butler,  William  Archer,  Church  of  Ire- 
land ;  b.  at  Annerville,  near  Clonmel,  25  m. 
n.w.  of  Waterford,  Ireland,  1814  (?)  ;  d.  in 
Dublin,  July  5,  1848.  Brought  up  a  Roman 
Catholic  he  became  a  Protestant  ;  entered 
Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  greatly  distinguished 
liimself  ;  became  professor  of  moral  philoso- 
phy, 1837  ;  at  same  time  was  rector  first  at 
Clondehorka,  and  then  at  Raymoghy,  both  in 
County  Donegal.  His  fame  rests  upon  his 
Sermons,  Dublin  and  Cambridge,  1849-56,  2 
vols.  ;  New  York.  1879,  2  vols.,  and  Lectures 
on  the  History  of  Ancient  Philosophy ,  Cam- 
bridge, 1856,  2  vols.  ;  2d  ed.,  London,  1874. 
(See  Memoir  in  1st  vol.  of  Sermons.) 

Buttlar,  Eva  von,  German  sectary  ;  b.  at 
Eschwege,  26  m.  e.s.e.  of  Cassel,  1670  ;  d.  at 
Altona.'near  Hamburg,  about  1717.  She  was 
court  lady  at  Eisenach  ;  married  a  dancing- 
master,  De  Vesias  ;  founded  after  her  divorce  a 
Philadelphian  society  at  AUendorf  in  Hesse, 
1702,  which  on  account  of  its  alleged  immoral- 
ity was  driven  out.  She  entered  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  but  regathered  her  followers 
and  for  a  time  lived  as  before,  until  finally 
she  abandoned  her  bad  practices.  (See  her 
life  by  Ludwig  Christiany,  Stuttgart,  1870.) 

Butter.  By  this  word,  as  found  in  the 
Scriptures,  it  is  doubtful  whether  anything 
more  is  meant  than  coagulated  milk,  the  arti- 
cle now  known  throughout  the  East  as  leben. 
It  is  often  difficult  to  discriminate  between  the 
terms  employed  for  butter  and  those  applied 
to  different  varieties  of  cheese.  Still,  as  the 
modern  inhabitants  of  Palestine  know  how  to 
make  in  a  rude  way  the  butter  known  to  us, 
one  cannot  be  certain  that  the  process  was 
unknown  in  ancient  times.  C. 

Butzer(boot'-ser,  i.e.,  cleanser,  often  spelled 
Bucer),  Martin,  b.  at  Schlettstadt,  Lower  Al- 
sace, 26  m.  s.w.  of  Strassburg,  1491  ;  d.  at 
Cambridge,  Eng.,  Feb.  28,  1551.  A  Domini- 
can, in  his  15th  year  he  studied  at  Heidelberg  ; 
won  to  the  Reformation,  1518,  he  left  the  or- 
der, 1521,  and  became  preacher  in  Strassburg, 
1523  ;  pastor,  1524.     He  devoted  himself  for 


the  rest  of  his  life,  with  small  success,  to 
bringing  about  a  union  between  the  Lutherans 
and  the  Reformed  by  concealing,  not  reconcil- 
ing, their  points  of  difference.  He  himself 
was  at  first  a  Zwinglian,  as  at  the  disputation 
at  Bern,  1528,  and  Marburg,  1529  ;  indeed,  he 
drew  up  the  Confessio  tetrapolitana  (1530)  in 
reply  to  the  Augustana ;  but  at  Schweinfurt, 
1532,  Cassel,  1535,  and  in  the  Wittenberg  Ar- 
ticles of  Concord,  1536,  he  showed  Lutheran 
leanings.  He  also  tried  to  unite  the  Protes- 
tants and  Catholics,  in  thorough  sympathy 
with  the  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse  (whose 
bigamy  he  defended),  as  at  the  Religious  Col- 
loquy at  Hagenau  and  Regensburg,  1540  and 
1546,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Regensburg,  1541. 
Compelled  to  leave  Strassburg  by  the  Interim, 
he  went  to  England,  where  he  was  warmly 
received  and  made  regius  professor  of  divinity 
at  Cambridge,  1549,  and  so  died.  His  body 
was  exhumed  and  publicly  burned  as  that  of 
a  heretic  by  order  of  Queen  Mary,  1557  ;  but 
in  1560  all  honors  were  formally  restored  to 
him.  There  is  no  collected  edition  of  his  nu- 
merous works  ;  see  list  in  Baum's  Capita  und 
Butzer  (Elberfeld,  1860),  pp.  586  sqq.  Those 
published  in  England  and  some  others  were 
collected  as  the  first  volume  of  a  projected 
complete  edition,  Tomvs  Angliranus.  Basel, 
1577.  From  his  Be  Regno  Christi  (1550),  dedi- 
cated to  Edward  VI.,  John  Milton  translated 
the  portion  relating  to  divorce  which  now  ap- 
pears in  his  prose  works.  (For  biography  see 
Baum,  supra.) 

Buxton,   Sir  Thomas  Fowell,  Church  of 

England  layman  ;  b.  at  Earl's  Colne,  Essex, 
April  1,  1786  ;  d.  at  Bath,  Feb.  19,  1845.  He 
had  a  brilliant  career  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin ;  joined  an  eminent  firm  of  brewers  at 
Spitalfields,  1808  ;  sat  in  parliament,  1818-37  ; 
succeeded  Wilberforce  as  leader  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party  in  the  House  of  Commons,  1824, 
and  witnessed  its  triumph  ;  also  was  promi- 
nent in  prison  reform  ;  made  baronet,  1840. 
(See  Memoir  by  his  son,  Charles  Buxton,  Lon- 
don, 1848  ;  n.e.,  1872) 

Buxtorf  (books  torf,  orig.  Bokstrop),  famous 
family  of  Hebraists.  1.  Johann,  b.  at  Camen, 
Westphalia,  Dec.  25,  1564  ;  d.  at  Basel,  of  the 
plague,  Sept.  13,  1629.  He  became  professor 
of  Hebrew  at  Basel,  1591  ;  endeavored  to  prove 
that  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament  has 
come  down  to  us  unaltered.  Wrote  Synagoga 
Judaica,  Basel,  1603  ;  in  German  and  in  Latin, 
1604.  (See  his  life  by  Kautsch.  Basel.  1879.) 
2.  His  son,  Johann,  b.  at  Basel,  Aug.  13, 
1599  ;  succeeded  his  father,  1630  ;  d.  at  Basel, 
Aug.  17,  1664.  In  opposition  to  Capellus,  he 
hekl  that  the  Hebrew  text  was  inspired  and 
unaltered  not  only  in  regard  to  its  consonants, 
but  in  its  vowels  and  vowel-points  ;  a  theory 
adopted  in  the  Helvetic  Consensus  Formula, 
1675.  He  completed  his  father's  Concordantim 
bibliorum  llebraiea',  Basel,  1682  ;  and  Lexicon 
C/ialdaicum  et  Syriannn.  Basel,  164.0.  3.  His 
grandson,  Johann  Jacob,  b.  at  Basel,  Sept. 
4,  1645  ;  succeeded  his  father,  1669,  and  d. 
there,  April  1,  1704.  4.  Johann,  his  great- 
grand-nephew  ;  b.  at  Basel,  Jan.  8,  1663  ;  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle,  1704,  and  d.  there,  June  19 
1732. 


BTZANTINISM 


(127) 


02:sar£:a 


Byzantinism  is  the  name  given  to  the  the- 
ory that  the  head  of  the  state  should  be  the 
judge  of  all  church  matters,  even  of  matters 
of  faith.  It  comes  from  the  fact  that  the 
Byzantine  emperors  claimed  this  right  for 
themselves  in  regard  to  church  affairs. 


C. 

Cab,  a  Hebrew  measure,  equal  to  3^^  liquid 
or  2|  dry  pints.     See  Measuues. 

Cab'-a-la  (from  Hebrew  kibbel,  to  receive), 
the  received  doctrine,  the  oral  interpretation 
of  the  law,  received  by  Moses  on  the  mount, 
taught  by  him  to  Joshua,  and  hence  trans- 
nulted  through  the  prophets,  and  from  them 
through  Ezra  and  the  Great  Synagogue  to  the 
teachers  of  later  times.  It  is  a  system  of  re- 
ligious philosophy  or,  rather,  theosophy,  which 
has  played  an  important  i)art  in  the  develop- 
ment of  later  Judaism.  Its  origin  and  prog- 
ress are  still  matters  of  conjecture.  The  earli- 
est written  memorial  of  the  Cabala  is  the  Book 
of  Creation  [ScpJier  Tchxifnlt),  which  is  ascribed 
to  the  renowned  Rabbi  Akiba,  a.d.  120,  but 
cannot  be  older  than  the  10th  centur^^  or  pos- 
sibly the  8th.  First  printed  in  IG.'jO,  it  has 
often  been  reprinted.  Next  to  this  is  the  Book 
of  Light  (Zo/iar),  first  printed  in  1560,  which 
Avas  attributed  to  a  contemporary  of  Akiba, 
but  probably  after  appearing  piecemeal  in  the 
East  was  completed  in  its  present  form  about 
the  8th  century.  These  writings  professed  to 
teach  the  secret  or  mystical  sense  of  Holy 
Writ  and  the  principles  upon  which  it  is 
grounded.  They  were  at  first  confined  to 
such  high  themes  as  God  and  creation,  but 
afterward  included  exegesis,  psychology, 
ethics,  anil  philosophy  in  general.  The  ('abala 
resembles  in  several  features  the  Neo-Platon- 
ism  of  the  3d  century.  And  it  had  its  infiu- 
eiice  upon  Christians  through  the  conversion 
of  learned  Jews.  John  Pico  de  Mirandola,  a 
liighly  gifted  and  enthusiastic  syncretist,  and 
John  lleuchlin,  the  celebrated  'Hebraist  and 
faithful  discii)le  of  the  classics,  both  pub- 
lished cabalistic  works,  but  the  Reformation 
arrested  further  development  of  the  system. 
(See  the  book  of  Ginsburg,  T/ie  Knhhala/i, 
London,  I860  ;  and  Knbhala  deinKhiia  [Eng. 
trans,  of  3  books:  1.  Of  Concealed  Mystery 
(Siphra  Detzniutha).  2.  The  Greater  Holy 
Assembly  (Idra  Rahba).  3.  The  Lesser  Holy 
Assembly  (Idra  Suta),]  Xew  York,  18H7  ) 
T.  W.  C. 

Oa-bas'-i-las.  1.  Nicholas,  archbishop  of 
Thessalonica  iii  1354.  2.  Nilus,  uncle  of  the 
l)reci(ling,  archbishop  of  Thessalonica  in  the 
( arly  part  of  the  14th  century.  Both  were 
important  defenders  of  the  Greek  Church 
against  Roman  aggression.  F.  II.  F. 

Cae-cil-i-a,  patron  saint  of  the  organ  and 
of  church  music,  one  of  the  four  principal  vir- 
gins and  martyrs  of  the  Western  Church, 
martvred  at  Rome  probably  under  Septimiiis 
Sevefus  (202-11),  and  since  the  15ih  century 
depicted  with  musical  instruments,  as  in 
Raphael's  famous  painting  (1513).  Her  day 
is  Nov.  22,  and  on  it  in  England  a  musical 


festival  is  held,  for  which  Hftndel  composed 
his  "Messiah."  Dryden's  "Ode  to  St.  Ce- 
cilia" is  one  of  his  most  celebrated  poems. 

Caecilianus.     See  Donatists. 

Oaed'-mon  (ked'-mon),  an  Anglo-Saxon 
poet  of  the  7th  century,  the  first  Germanic 
poet  of  the  Christian  era.  His  story  is  told 
by  Bede  i^Kccl.  Ilixt.,  iv.,  24),  a  younger  cou- 
temporary.  He  was  a  Nortluimbrian  peasant 
of  no  cultivation,  who  was  accustomed  to  at- 
tend the  festivities  where  heathen  songs  were 
sung.  On  one  occasion,  having  retired  to  hiii 
stall,  he  hail  a  dresun,  in  which  he  was  com- 
manded to  sing,  and  doing  so,  he  was  able 
upon  awaking  to  remember  the  song,  and  to 
make  additions  to  it.  The  abbess  Hilda,  of 
the  monastery  Streaneshalch,  i.e.,  Whitby,  on 
the  York  coast,  to  whom  he  was  brought,  re- 
garded the  gift  as  an  inspiration,  and  received 
him  into  the  monastery,  whei-e  he  lived  and 
died  as  a  monk  (abt.  683).  His  songs  treated 
of  biblical  subjects,  and  those  upon  Genesis, 
Exodus,  and  a  part  of  Daniel  have  been  more 
or  less  perfectly  preserved  tons.  Other  por- 
tions, treating  of  New  Testament  subjects,  are 
lost.  (See  edition  of  B.  Thorpe.  London, 
1832.)  F.  II.  F. 

Caelestius.     See  CEi-ESTirs. 

Cae-ru-la -ri-us,  Michael,  I'atriiirch  of 
Constantinople,  1043-59.  Under  liini  occurred 
the  final  separation  of  the  Greek  and  Lsilin 
churches  (1054).  The  old  contest  waged  un- 
der Photius  ((i.v.)  was  unnecessarily  taken  up 
by  him  in  a  letter  to  the  bishop  of  Trani,  in 
which  among  other  things,  the  Roman  custom 
of  using  unleavened  bread  in  the  euchari.st 
was  severely'  condemned.  It  wjis  ' '  dry  mud. " 
The  pope,  Leo  IX.,  was  at  first  cont-iliatory, 
and  sent  an  embassage  to  Constantinople  at 
the  request  of  the  emperor.  But  this  embas- 
sage was  haughty,  treated  the  Greek  Church 
as  an  inferior,  and  finally  formally  excom- 
municated it  in  a  document  filled  with  harsh 
terms,  laid  upon  the  altar  of  St.  Sophia. 
Ca^rularius,  however,  lost  no  prestige,  hut 
was  honored  by  the  Greeks  as  the  drfender 
of  their  orthodoxy.  For  details  see  Gfrorer, 
Allg.  KirchcngeHchirhtc,  iii.,  1,  p.  311. 

Caes-a-re'-a  1.  On  the  sea-coast,  iK-tween 
Joppa  and  Tvrc,  a  small  place  called  Slrato's 
Tower,  rebuilt  and  fortified  by  Herod  the 
Great,  who  named  it  in  iionor  of  Augustus  and 
made  it  his  capital.  It  was  the  ofiicial  resi- 
dence of  the  lioman  governors.  Here  lived 
Philip  the  evangeli.«t  (.Vets  viii.  40,  xxi.  8), 
and  Cornelius,  the  first-fruits  from  the  (Jen- 
til(s(x.  ;  xi.  11),  and  here  Herod  Agri|>p:i  wa* 
smitten  of  God  (xii.  23).  Paul  visited  it  sev- 
eral times  (ix.  3(t.  xviii.  22,  xxi.  8),  and  liero 
appeared  before  Felix  and  Festus  and  Agrip- 
pa,  and  was  imprisoned  for  two  years,  and 
finally  sailed  lience  for  Ronu'  (xxiii.-xxvii.  1). 
By  Vespasian  it  wju*  made  a  I{omnn  colony. 
It  was  the  home  of  Eusebius.  the  scene  of 
Origen's  labors,  and  the  birthplace  of  Proco- 
piu.s.  It  is  now  a  desolate  ruin  calii  d  A'fi*- 
criych. 

2.  Caesarea  Philippi,  near  the  eastern  sourer 
of  the  Jordan,  tin;  ancient  Paneas,  the  modem 


CJESARIUS 


(128) 


CALAMT 


Banias,  on  an  elev^ated  plateau  surrounded  by 
water-courses.  Here  Herod  erected  a  marble 
temple  to  Augustus.  His  son  Philip  en- 
larged it,  and  called  it  Caisarea  in  honor  of 
Tiberius  Cyesar,  and  added  Philippi  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  other  Ca?sarea  on  the  Medi- 
terranean. Our  Lord  visited  it  shortly  before 
his  transtigu ration  (Mark  viii.  27-ix.  2).  It 
was  once  the  seat  of  a  Greek  and  a  Latin 
bishopric  in  succession,  but  is  now  a  paltry 
village  amid  extensive  ruins,  among  which 
is  a  vast  castle  {Shubeibeh),  the  most  striking 
in  Palestine.  T.  W.  C. 

Cae-sa'-ri-us  of  Aries,  b.  at  Chalons  sur 
Saone,  36  m.  n.  of  Macon,  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury ;  d.  at  Aries,  45  m.  n.w.  of  Marseilles, 
as  archbishop,  Aug.  27,  543.  He  was  a  re- 
former of  the  monastic  system,  and  in  the 
Synod  of  Arausio,  present  Orange  (529),  de- 
fended Augustinianism  against  Pelagianism. 
F.  H.  F. 

Oaesaro-papism,  originally  the  system  of 
subjecting  the  episcopate  to  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment ;  in  the  Protestant  Church  the  ex- 
treme extension  of  the  government  of  the 
church  through  the  several  civil  governments. 

Cai'-a-phas  {depression),  high-priest  of  the 
Jews,  A.D.  25  to  36.  At  his  house  the  plot 
was  made  for  Christ's  death,  which  C.  coun- 
selled, unconsciously  uttering  an  inspired  pre- 
diction of  the  world's  sal^^ation  (John  xi.  47- 
53).  He  presided  at  Christ's  trial  (Matt.  xxvi. 
57),  and  afterward  violently  persecuted  his 
followers  (Acts  iv.  6,  v.  17).  He  was  deposed 
from  office  by  the  proconsul  Vitellius  a.d.  36. 
T.  W.  C. 

Cain  {acquired),  the  first-born  of  the  race  and 
the  first  murderer  (Gen.  iv.).  Presenting  to 
God  an  offering  of  fruits  of  the  earth  which 
involved  no  confession  of  sin,  no  reliance  upon 
expiation,  he  was  rejected,  while  Abel  was 
accepted.  Hence  through  envy  he  slew  him 
(1  John  iii.  12),  and  was  banished  from  God's 
presence  and  made  a  fugitive  and  a  wanderer, 
but  received  from  God  a  sign  to  protect  him 
from  the  avenger  of  blood.  He  withdrew 
into  the  land  of  Nod,  east  of  Eden,  and  built 
a  city  which  he  called  Enoch  after  one  of  his 
sons  (Heb.  xi.  4,  Jude  11).  T.  VV.  C. 

Cain'-ites,  an  obscure  sect  of  Gnostics  about 
130  A.D.  They  held  that  while  the  Demiurge 
had  created  the  world,  yet  tSophin  (wisdom) 
had  always  preserved  a  race  which,  like  her- 
self, opposed  the  tyranny  of  the  Demiurge. 
Of  this  race  Cain  was  the  chief.  He  and 
others  like  him  (Korah,  tlie  Sodomites,  etc.) 
were  honored,  because  by  breaking  the  laws 
of  the  Demiurge  they  helped  to  destroy  his 
kingdom.  Even  Judas  was  thought  to  have 
acted  from  the  best  motives,  since  he  deemed 
Christ's  death  the  surest  way  to  overthrow 
the  Demiurge.  Hippolytus  mentions  the  Cain- 
ites  in  his  Philosopkoumena,  viii.,  13.  (See 
Neandcr,  Ch.  Hist.,  i.,  448,  476  ;  n.  1,  646.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Caius  (ka'-yus),  or  G-aius,  pope  from  Dec. 
17,  283,  to  April  22,  296  ;  probably  was  not 
martyred. 

Caius  flourished  between  180  and  235  in 
Rome  ;    wrote   against    Proclus,  a  leader  of 


the  Montanists  ;  often  confounded  with  Hip- 
polytus. It  is  not  certain  that  he  was  a  pres- 
byter. 

Oajetan  (ka'-ye-tan),  Thomas  (properly 
Jacopo  de  Vio),  Roman  Catholic,  cardinal  ; 
b.  at  Gaeta,  40  m.  n.w.  of  Naples,  Feb.  20, 
1469  ;  d.  in  Rome,  Aug.  9,  1534.  He  entered 
the  Dominican  order  in  Naples,  1484  ;  became 
its  general,  1508  ;  cardinal  and  legate,  1517  ; 
sent  by  the  pope  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg, 
where  he  had  three  fruitless  interviews  with 
Luther  (Oct.  12,  13,  14,  1518),  whose  deep-set 
eyes  and  daring  speculations,  as  he  said,  ex- 
cited his  admiration  and  dismay.  The  pope 
made  him  bishop  of  Gaeta  in  1519.  He  was 
a  diligent  Bible  student  and  strong  advocate 
of  such  studies.  Although  ignorant  of  He- 
brew, he  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  entire 
Bible,  in  a  Latin  translation,  except  Canti- 
cles, the  Prophets,  and  Revelation  (collected 
ed.,  Lyons,  1539,  5  vols.),  which  was  more 
critical  than  would  have  been  expected— he 
does  not  take  the  Vulgate  as  his  basis — and 
therefore  was  criticised  ;  indeed  the  part  on 
the  Gospels  was  condemned  by  the  University 
of  Paris,  1535.  His  commentary  on  Thomas 
Aquinas'  Summa  (Rome,  1507-22,  3  vols.  ;  fre- 
quently reprinted)  is  classical.  (See  his  life  by 
Schillbach,  1881.) 

C^etanus  (ka-ye-ta'-nus),  St.  (Gaetano  da 
Thiene),  b.  at  Vicenza,  40  m.  w.  of  Venice, 
1480  ;  studied  theology  and  law  ;  became 
member  of  the  "  Oratory  of  the  Heavenly 
Love"  at  Rome,  and  prothonotary  to  Pope 
Julius  II.  ;  founded  there  the  Theatines 
(q.v.)  ;  d.  at  Naples,  1547  ;  canonized,  1671. 
(See  his  life  by  Liiben,  Regensburg,  1883.) 

Ca'-lah.     See  Assyriology,  p.  52. 

Calamy,  Benjamin  (son  of  succeeding), 
D.D.  (Cambridge,  1680),  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  in  London,  June  8,  1642  ;  d.  there  ;  buried 
Jan.  7,  1686.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge 
(Catharine  Hall),  B.A.,  1664;  M.A..  1668; 
elected  fellow  ;  became  perpetual  curate  of  St. 
Mary  Aldermaubury,  London,  1677  ;  vicar  of 
St.  Lawrence  Jewry,  with  St.  Mary  Magdalene, 
Milk  street,  annexed,  1683  ;  prebendary  of 
St.  Paul's,  1685.  He  was  a  High  Church- 
man ;  famous  for  his  Discourse  about  a  Doubt- 
ing [in  2ded.  "  scrupulous"]  Conscience,  1683. 
(See  his  Sermons,  London,  1687  ;  7th  ed.,  with 
Sherlock's  funeral  sermon,  1738.) 

Calamy,  Edmund,  the  elder.  Nonconform- 
ist ;  b.  at  Walbrook,  Loudon,  Feb.,  1600  ;  d. 
in  London,  Oct.  29,  1666.  He  graduated  at 
Cambridge  (Pembroke  Hall),  B.A.,  1619; 
B.D.,  1632  ;  became  vicar  of  St.  Mary,  Swaff- 
ham  Prior,  Cambridgeshire  ;  and  same  year 
lecturer  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Suffolk,  1636  ; 
compelled  to  retire  because  he  refused  to  read 
7  he  Book  of  Sports,  he  became  lecturer  at 
Rochford,  1636  ;  perpetual  curate  of  St.  Mary 
Aldermaubury,  London,  1639  ;  sat  in  the 
Westminster  Assembly  ;  promoted  the  resto- 
ration of  Charles  II.,  1660,  and  went  to  meet 
him  at  Breda  in  Holland  ;  became  his  chap- 
lain ;  declined  nomination  to  bishopric  of 
Coventry  and  Lichfield  ;  took  part  in  the 
Savoy  Conference,  1661  ;  was  ejected  for  non- 
'  conformity,  1662,  and  was  imprisoned  for  a 


OALAMY 


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CALENDAR 


while  for  preaching.  He  was  a  very  popular 
preacher  and  a  leader  of  the  Presbyterian 
party.  He  was  one  of  those  who,  in  1641,  un- 
der the  name  "  Sraectymnus,"  i.e.,  S[tephen] 
Mrarsiiall],  E[dmundl  C[alamy],  T[hom:isJ 
Y[ounir],  M[atthew]  N[ewcomen]  and  VV[ill- 
iam]  Stpurstowe],  composed  the  famous  An- 
swer to  (I  booke  entitxled  An  humble  ronoit- 
stranre,  which  became  the  platform  of  the 
Presbyterians. 

Calamy,  Edmund,  the  younger,  grandson 
of  the  preceding.  Nonconformist  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, April  5,  1671  ;  d.  there,  June  3,  1732. 
He  was  educated  in  various  schools,  and  stu- 
dent for  a  while  at  Oxford  ;  became  assistant 
in  Blackfriars  church,  1693  ;  at  Hand  Alley, 
Bishopsgate,  1695  ;  minister  at  Tothill,  West- 
minster (all  London),  1708  ;  and  remained 
there  till  death.  His  fame  rests  on  his  his- 
torical works  on  English  Nonconformity,  be- 
ginning with  the  abridgment  of  Ba.xter's  Nnr- 
rati'pe,  with  continuation  to  his  death  (which 
includes  a  chapter  headed  An  Account,  etc., 
nearly  half  the  book,  upon  those  who  were 
silenced  for  non-conformity),  London,  1703  ; 
2d  ed.  carrying  the  history  down  from  1691 
to  1711,  London,  1713,  3  vols.  ;  a  continuation 
of  the  Account  appeared  1737,  3  vols.  His 
works  are  authentic.  (See  his  account  of  his 
own  life,  London,  1839,  3  vols.  ;  2d  ed., 
1830) 

Calas  (ka-las),  Jean,  Reformed  Church  of 
France  ;  b.  at  La  Cabarede,  near  3Iazamet, 
Central  France,  March  19,  1698  ;  broken  ou 
the  wheel  at  Toulouse,  by  order  of  its  parlia- 
ment, on  the  trumped-up  charge  of  murdering 
his  sou,  because  the  latter  had  turned  Roman 
Catholic,  March  10,  1763.  Voltaire  exerted 
himself  in  behalf  of  the  family  ;  wrote  to  this 
end  his  Treatise  on  Religious  Toleration  (1763  ; 
En^.  trans.,  London,  1764)  ;  succeeded  in 
having  the  verdict  reviewed  by  the  parliament 
of  Paris,  which  declared  Calas  altogether  in- 
nocent, March  9,  1765.  Louis  XV.  ordered 
that  the  family's  confiscated  property  should 
be  restored,  and  presented  them  witli  30,000 
francs.  (See  life  of  Calas  by  A.  Coquerel, 
Paris,  1858;  2d  cd.,  1869.) 

Ca-la-tra  -va,  name  of  a  Spanish  ecclesiasti- 
cal military  order,  founded  in  1158,  in  the  wars 
against  the  Moors  ;  approved  by  the  pope, 
Alexander  IH.,  1164;  but  now  a  mere  order 
of  merit. 

Calderwood,  David,  Scotch  Prcsbvtcrian  ; 
b.  at  Dalkeith,  6.V  m.  s.e.  of  Edinburgh,  1575  ; 
d.  at  Jedburgh,  40  m.  s.e.  of  E-linburgli,  Oct. 
29,  1650.  lie  studied  at  Edinburgh  ;  became 
minister  at  Crailing,  Roxburghshire,  1604  ; 
exiled  for  his  opinions  he  went  to  Holland, 
1619  ;  returned,  1625  ;  became  minister  at 
Peneaitland,  East  Lothian,  1640.  He  wrote 
The  Altar  of  Damascus,  the  great  .storehouse 
of  Presl)\-terian  arguments,  Levdrn,  1621  ; 
Latin  trails.,  fuller  and  better.  1633  ;  2d  ed., 
1708  ;  but  chiefly  a  Wsfon/  of  the  Kirk  of  Scot- 
land, extant  in  3  forms,  the  2d  of  which  was 
published  hy  the  Wodrow  Societv,  1S42-49, 
8  vols.  :  the  3d  had  appeared  in  1678  ;  tlu;  l.st 
is  less  than  half  in  n)aiuis(ript  in  the  Jiritish 
Museum.     (See  his  life  in  the  Wodrow  ed.) 


Calderwood,  Henry,  LL.I).  (Glasgow, 
1865),  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Seot- 
land  ;  b.  at  Peebles,  21  m.  s.  of  Edinburgh. 
.May  10,  1830  ;  .studied  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  ;  in  which  since  1868  he  has  been 
professor  of  mental  philosophy.  He  is  the 
author  of  The  Philo.tophy  of  the"  Infi/iite,  Lon- 
don, 1854;  3ded.,  1874\  lfondh„oh  of  Moral 
Philosophy,  1872  ;  14th ed,,  1888  ;  On  f, aching, 
its  Means  and  Ends,  1874  ;  3d  ed.,  1881  ;  The 
IMations  of  Mind  and  Brain,  1879  ;  2d  ed., 
1884  ;  The  Parables  of  our  lA)rd,  1880  ;  Tlie 
Uelations  of  Science  and  lleligion,  1881. 

Ca'-leb  (the  bold),  the  son  of  Jephunnch,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  one  of  the  13  sent  to  spy 
out  Canaan.  He  and  Joshua  alone  were  true 
and  faithful,  and  they  only  of  Israel's  men  of 
war  entered  the  promised  land  (Num.  xiii., 
xiv.).  Hebron  was  given  him  as  the  reward 
of  his  fidelity  (Josh.  xiv.).  T.  "W.  C. 

Calendar.  The  ecclesiastical  calendar  com- 
bines with  the  civil  a  list  of  all  the  fasts  and 
feasts  observed  in  the  Christian  year.  Such 
calendars  began  to  be  prepared  at  an  early 
period.  We  find  in  a  calendar  of  the  year  354 
traces  of  Christian  revision  in  the  removal  of 
the  lists  of  heathen  festivals  common  in  the 
Roman  calendars,  and  the  introduction  of  the 
week,  whicii  was  not  an  element  of  the  Roman 
chronological  reckoning,  but  of  the  Jewi.sh 
and  Christian.  A  Gothic  calendar  of  the 
same  century  mentions  5  feasts  celebrating 
events  in  Christ's  life,  and  6  memorial  days 
of  martyrs.  From  this  time  such  calendars 
became  increasingly  fre(|uent  and  elaborate. 
The  introduction  of  the  clmrch  feasts  into  the 
calendar  caused  considerable  dilMculty  for  tw(i 
principal  reasons.  On  the  one  hand,  Chris- 
tians found  it  difficult  to  agree  upon  wliat 
they  would  celebrate  at  Easter,  whether  wilh 
the  Jews,  the  14th  of  the  first  month  of  the 
Jewish  year,  without  regard  to  the  day  of  the 
week  (Qiiartodecimans),  or  the  next  following 
Sunday.  The  Council  of  Nice  put  an  end  to 
the  confusion  by  ordaining  that  Easter  should 
be  upon  the  Sunday  which  immediately  fol- 
lows the  full  moon  that  happens  upon  or  next 
after  the  day  of  the  vernal  equinox.  Tins  in- 
troduced tlie  second  difiiculty,  which  is  to 
combine  in  one  ride  3  jieriods— week,  lunar 
month,  and  .solar  year— wiiich  have  no  com- 
mon measure.  Complex  mathematical  com- 
putations are  thus  rendered  necessary,  and  the 
result  is  only  an  approximation  to  a  solution. 
Ea.stcr  determined,  the  other  feasts  of  the 
church  year  are  reckoned  from  it  according 
to  the  fallowing  table  : 

A  TABLE  TO  .SHOW  WIIKN  HOLY  DAYS  COMK. 


(    9  WtTkM 

I  40  days 


:vj  <l«yK 


Sfptiiascpima  Stmdny  ) 

I'lrsl  Smuliiy  in  Leut  r 

Abli  Wtdnesday  ) 

Bcfon>  Kaetcr. 

Rogat'on  Sunday 
Ascension  Day  i)r  Holy  Thursday 
I'l-nlecost  or  Whil-Siiuday 
Trinity  Siindny 

After  Easter 


The  ecclesiastical  calendars  were  at  first,  of 
course,  adapted  to  the  Julian  reckuning.  which 
was  founded  upon   the  supposition  tliut  the 


CALENDAR 


(130) 


OALIXTtTS 


year  was  11  minutes  14  seconds  longer  than  it 
is  ;  but  this  was  early  found  to  be  erroneous. 
About  780  the  venerable  Bede  discovered  the 
anticipation  of  the  equinoxes,  and  found  that 
Ihey  then  took  place  about  three  days  earlier 
than  at  the  Council  of  Nice.  The  subject  re- 
ceived attention  from  time  to  time,  but  noth- 
ing was  done  about  it  till  in  1582,  Pope  Greg- 
ory XJII.,  having  found  that  he  could  obtain 
the  co-operation  of  the  principal  Catholic  gov- 
ernments, issued  a  brief  in  which  he  abolished 
the  ancient  calendar,  and  substituted  that 
Avhich  has  since  been  called  the  Gregorian 
calendar,  or  the  new  style.  The  equinoxes 
had  now  retrograded  from  the  21st  to  the  11th 
of  March.  Gregory  directed  10  days  to  be 
suppressed  in  the  calendar,  and  the  5th  of 
Oct.  to  be  reckoned  as  the  15th.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  old  and  new  styles  con- 
tinued to  be  10  days  during  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries,  but  since  1700  was  a  leap  year  in 
the  Julian,  but  not  in  the  Gregorian  reckon- 
ing, for  the  18th  century  the  difference  was  11 
days,  and  for  a  similar  reason  the  difference 
in  "the  present  century  is  12  days,  and  in  the 
next  will  be  13  days. 

The  new  calendar  was  not  readily  received 
in  the  Protestant  states,  partly  because  the 
pope  had  used  the  word  "  mandamus"  in  his 
l)rief.  Protestant  Germany  employed  the 
Julian  reckoning  till  1700,  and  not  until  1774 
did  she  fully  adopt  the  Roman  method  of  de- 
termining Easter.  In  England  the  new  style 
was  not  adopted  till  1751.  The  difference 
between  the  two  styles  was  provided  for  by 
ordering  that  Sept.  8  of  the  year  1752  should 
be  reckoned  as  the  14th.  At  the  same  time 
the  commencement  of  the  legal  j'ear  was 
changed  from  March  25  to  Jan.  1.  In  Scot- 
land the  new  stylo  was  adopted  from  the  be- 
ginning of  1600  ;  and  in  America  it  followed 
the  English  precedent.  The  English  year  had 
had  various  beginnings  :  till  1066  with  Christ- 
mas day  ;  from  1067  to  1155  with  Jan.  1  ; 
from  1156  to  1751  with  March  25  ;  since  with 
Jan.  1.  The  reduction  of  old  style  to  new, 
which  is  necessary  to  maintain  the  correspond- 
ence of  ancient  dates  to  present  standards, 
presents  two  points  of  difficulty,  one  as  to  the 
dav  of  the  month,  the  other  as  to  the  year. 
Thus,  Jan.  24,  1636,  O.  S.,  is  Feb.  3.  1637,  N. 
S.  ;  Feb.  24,  1636,  O.  S.,  is  March  5,  1637, 
N.  S.,  since  1636  O.  S.  would  have  been  reck- 
oned a  leap  year.  But  all  dates  after  March 
25  retain  in  the  N.  S.  the  same  year  as  in  the 
O.  S.  We  subjoin  two  convenient  rules  for 
reducing  English  and  American  old  style 
dates  to  new  style  : 

1.  To  get  the  year  N.  S.,  add  to  all  O.  S. 
dates  before  1700  which  fall  between  Dec.  22 
and  March  24  inclusive,  and  for  all  from  1700 
to  1752  falling  between  Dec.  21  and  March  24 
inclusive,  the  number  one. 

2.  To  get  the  day  of  the  month  in  N.  S. , 
add  to  all  O.  S.  dates  before  1700  10  days, 
from  1700  to  1800  11  days,  and  from  1800  to 
1900  12  days,  and  from  1900  to  2000  13  days, 
counting  the  leap  years  according  to  the  rules 
of  the  6.  S.  F.  H.  F. 

Calendar  Brethren,  a  society  of  both  .sexes 
in  North  Germany,  also  in  France,  Switzer- 


land, and  Hungary,  composed  of  both  ecclesi- 
astical and  lay  persons,  for  the  cultis'alion  of 
good  fellowship  and  for  mutual  help,  in  a 
general  way  under  the  control  of  the  diocesan. 
It  sprang  up  in  the  13th  century  ;  became 
very  corrupt,  and  was  suppressed  during  the 
Reformation.  Its  name  came  from  the  primi- 
tive meetings  being  on  the  "  calends"  or  first 
day  of  the  month.  But  the  society  in  some 
places,  when  further  developed,  met  only  2  or 
4  times  a  year. 

Calendar,  Hebrew^.     See  Year. 

Calf,  the  young  of  the  cow,  much  used  in 
sacrifice  ;  hence  the  expression  in  Hosea,  R.  V. 
(xiv.  2),  "  So  will  we  render  as  bullocks  the 
offering  of  our  lips"  (cf.  Heb.  xiii.  15).  A 
stall-fed  calf  was  considered  choice  food  (1 
Sam.  xxviii.  24,  Luke  xv.  23).  A  covenant 
was  sometimes  ratified  by  the  parties  thereto 
passing  between  the  parts  of  a  calf  slain  and 
divided  (Jer.  xxxiv.  18,  Gen.  xv.  9-17). 

The  golden  calf,  cast  by  Aaron  at  Sinai  dur- 
ing the  absence  of  Moses  (Ex.  xxxii.  4),  was 
probably  of  wood,  overlaid  with  gold,  and 
designed  to  meet  the  wishes  of  a  people  long- 
ing for  some  visible  image  of  the  deity  (Ps. 
cvi.  20,  Acts  vii.  40,  41). 

The  golden  calves  of  Jeroboam  (1  Kings  xii. 
28)  were  set  up  one  at  each  end  of  his  king- 
dom to  hinder  Israel  from  resorting  to  Jeru- 
salem for  worship  and  so  cut  them  off  from 
the  house  of  David.  Hence  Jeroboam  is  so 
often  mentioned  with  the  brand  "  who  made 
Israel  to  sin."  Calf-worship  was  frequently 
rebuked  by  Hosea  (viii.  5,  6,  x.  5,  xiii.  2). 
T.  W.  C. 

Calhoun,  Simeon  Howard,  D.D.  (Will- 
iams, 1864),  Presbyterian,  foreign  missionary  ; 
b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Aug.  15,  1804  ;  d.  at 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  14,  1876.  He  graduated 
at  Williams  College,  1829  ;  went  to  the  Levant 
as  agent  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  1837  ; 
became  missionary  of  the  American  Board  in 
Syria  (principally  at  Abeih,  on  the  slopes  of 
Lebanon),  1844  (transferred  to  Presbyterian 
Board,  1871)  ;  returned  home  in  1874.  His 
epithet,  "The  Cedar  of  Lebanon,"  reveals 
what  a  sturdy  character  his  was. 

Calixtines,  the  party  among  the  Hussites 
which  contended  for  the  restoration  of  the 
calix,  or  cup,  to  the  laity.     See  Hussites. 

Ca-lix'-tus,  the  name  of  three  popes,  1. 
(Kallistos)  bishop  of  Rome,  219-223.  The 
discovery  of  Hippolytus'  (q.v.)  work  upon 
heresies  has  greatly  increased  our  knowledge 
of  the  life  of  Calixtus.  The  slave  of  a  certain 
Karpophorus,  he  was  intrusted  with  a  bank- 
ing business  in  which  he  failed  and  fied. 
Caught  and  brought  back,  he  xv  as  imprisoned, 
and  then,  set  free,  he  fell  into  trouble  with 
the  Jews,  for  which  he  was  sentenced  to  the 
mines  of  Sardinia.  But  he  returned  to  Rome, 
and  under  Zephyrinus  became  keeper  of  the 
cemetery  (catacombs).  He  was  also  ordaintd, 
and  had  at  this  period  a  contest  with  Hippol- 
ytus about  the  Trinity,  and  was  charged  by 
him  Avith  Patripassianism.  As  bishop  he 
again  opposed  Hippolytus,  who  taught  with 
the  Novatians  that  a  Christian  guilty  of  a 
mortal  sin  could  never  be  restored  to  the  com- 


OALIXTUS 


(131) 


OALVIN 


munioa  of  the  church.  It  is  not  probable  that 
lie  became  a  martyr,  and  the  Murti/rdom.  whicli 
we  have  is  unhislorical.  2.  (Guido  of  Vienne) 
pope  Feb.  2,  1119-Dec.  13,  1124.  His  prin- 
cipal service  was  tlie  termination  of  the  con- 
test about  investiture  which  had  come  down 
from  Grregory  VII.  (q.v.).  At  tirst  Calixtus' 
relations  with  Henry  V.  of  Germaiiy  were  not 
cordial,  and  he  excommunicated  liim  in  1119. 
But  after  military  victories  in  Italy  in  1121, 
under  the  mediation  of  the  German  princes, 
better  relations  were  established,  and  in  1122 
at  Worms  the  following  conditions  were  settled 
upon  :  Tiie  election  of  bishops  and  abbots 
siiould  be  made  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor, 
without  force  or  simony  ;  in  contested  cases 
the  emperor  was  to  give  the  decision  with  the 
consent  of  tiie  metropolitans  and  provincial 
bishops.  Tiie  elected  bishop  received  tiie 
temporal  power  from  the  emperor  by  touch 
of  sceptre,  and  the  spiritual  power  upon  con- 
secration by  investiture  with  ring  and  staff  by 
the  pope*.  Tliis  M'as  a  substantial  victory  for 
the  papacy,  since  it  destroyed  the  imperial 
power  of  veto  upon  the  consecration  of  an 
elected  bishop.  Once  consecrated,  the  bishop 
soan  got  temporal  power.  3.  (Alonso  de 
Borja,  Italian  Borgia)  pope  April  8,  1455-Aug. 
6,  14r)8.  Already  77  j'ears  of  age  when  elected 
pope,  Calixtus  III.  (lid  little  for  the  church 
except  stir  up  a  war  against  the  Turks,  which 
effected,  however,  but  little.  His  nepotism 
led  to  the  elevation  of  his  nephew  Roderigo 
(v.  Alexander  VI.)  to  the  cardinalate  before 
the  canonical  age.  F.  H.  F. 

Calixtus  (properly  Kallisou),  Georg,  one 
of  the  greatest  Lutheran  theologians  of  the 
17lli  century  ;  b.  at  Medelbye,  Schleswig, 
Dec.  14.  1586  ;  d.  at  Helmstedt,  21  m.  e.  of 
Br.inswiek,  March  19,  1656.  He  studied  at 
Helmstedt,  then  travelled  for  4  years  through 
Germany,  England,  and  France  ;  returned  to 
become  professor  of  theology  at  Helmstedt 
and  held  the  position  till  his  death.  In  oppo- 
sition to  the  Lutheran  orthodoxy  he  advocated 
a  mild  construction  of  the  confessional  points 
of  difference  between  the  Lutherans  and  the 
Romanists  and  Reformed  ;  found  in  the  con- 
sensus of  the  Catholic  faith  during  the  first 
5  centuries  a  basis  for  a  common  creed  of 
Christendom  ;  deduced  a  sound  biblical  the- 
ology, and  also  tirst  treated  ethics  apart  from 
dogmatics  (1634).  The  Romainsts  regarded 
him  as  their  sharpest  opponent,  while  the 
strict  Lutherans  considered  him  secretly  a  Ro- 
manist. Other  charges  his  liberality  brought 
on  him  were  crypto-Calvinism  and  syncretism. 
His  great  opponent  was  Calovius.  (See  his 
Eintonw  thfubHjm  ["  Epitome  of  Theoloirv  "], 
Goslar.  1619;  life  by  Henke,  Halle,  18.5:3-60, 
2  vols.,  and  by  Dowding,  London,  1863.) 

Call  is  God's  invitation  to  man  to  share  in 
the  blessings  of  salvation,  usu.TJly  divi.led  into 
the  outward  or  (-ommon  call,  either  of  nature 
(Acts  xiv.  17,  John  i.  9)  or  of  the  gospel  (Matt, 
xxii.  14),  which  has  no  saving  intluence.  and 
the  inward  or  effectual  call  wliich  renews  the 
soul,  of  which  Paul  speaks  in  Gal.  i.  15,  and 
which  he  describes  as  lugh  (Phil.  iii.  14).  and 
holv  (2  Tim.  i.  9),  and  without  repentance 
(Rom.  xi.  29).  T.  W.  C. 


Calmet  (kal-ma),  Augustin,  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  at  Mesnil  la  Horgne,  Lothringen,  Feb. 
26,  1672  ;  d.  at  Seuones,  Lothringen,  Oct.  25, 
1757.  He  became  Benedictine,  1688  ;  teacher 
at  Moyenmoutier,  1698  ;  superior  at  Manster, 
in  Elsass,  1704  ;  abbot  at  Nancy,  1718  ;  of 
Senones,  in  Lothringen,  1728.  His  great  fame 
rests  on  his  Bictioimni  of  th.e.  Bihle.  French 
orig.,  Paris,  1722-28,  4  vols.  ;  4th  ed.,  1845- 
46  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1732  ;  6th  ed.,  1837, 
5  vols. 

Calogeri  or  Oaloyers,  each  meaning  "  good 
old  men,"  the  name  for  monks  in  the  Greek 
Church. 

Calovius  (properly  Kalan),  Abraham,  Ger- 
man Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Mohrungen,  East  Pru.s- 
sia,  April  16,  1612  ;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  Feb. 
25,  1686.  Hi'  studietl  at  fviiiiigsberg  ;  became 
professor  extniorditiaiy  there,  1637  ;  rector 
of  the  c/i/tn/Hi.'<ii/iii  at  Danzig,  1643  ;  professor 
of  theology  at  Wittenberg,  1650.  He  was 
married  6  times  and  lost  13  children.  He  was 
the  bitterest  opponent  of  Calixtus  and  denom- 
inated his  unionistic  efforts  "syncretism." 
His  chief  work  was  a  s)'stem  of  theology, 
Wittenberg,  1655-77,  12  vols. 

Caloyers,  the  name  given  to  monks  in  the 
Greek  Church.     See  Cai.ogeri. 

Calvarians,  name  of  association  for  prop- 
agation of  Roman  ('atholicism  in  Beam, 
founded  in  Paris,  in  1633,  by  Hubert  Charpen- 
tier. 

Cal'-va-ry  represents  the  Latin  version  of 
the  Greek  krunion  and  the  Hebrew  Golgotha 
=  place  of  a  skull,  the  name  of  the  gentle  ele- 
vation (not  a  mount)  where  our  Lord  Wius  cru- 
cified. Tradition  puts  this  in  the  place  oc- 
cupied b}^  the  present  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  anii 
many  scholars,  among  whom  are  members  of 
the  British  Palestine  Survey,  agree  to  the 
view.  But  others.  Dr.  Edward  Robinson, 
S.  J.  Andrews,  etc.,  maintain  the  contrary, 
some  (.Mr.  Schick  and  Bishop  Gobat)  placing'it 
near  the  Grotto  of  Jeremiah,  n.w.  of  the  Da- 
mascus Gate,  and  others  (Fi.sluT,  Howe,  and 
Conder)  on  that  Grotto.  It  is  not  an  uncom- 
mon opinion  that  the  place  was  designedly  left 
in  obscurity,  like  the  burial-place  of  .Moso,  so 
that  it  couKi  not  become  an  occ^ision  of  iiiola 
trous  worship.  T.  W.  C. 

Calvary,  Nuns  of  the  Order  of  Our  Lady 
of  (Religieusesor  Benedictines  de  Notre  Danie 
du  (;.).  a  congregation  of  nuns  fcmnded  in 
1617  in  Poitiers,  by  Antoinette  of  Orleans, 
upon  the  combined  rules  of  SS.  Benedict  and 
Francis. 

Cal'-vin  (Latinized  form  of  Cauvin  or  Caul- 
vin),  John,  b.  at  Novon.  Picardy,  France.  67 
m.  n.n.e.  of  Paris,  jiilv  10.  1509  ;  d.  .at  (Jcne- 
va.  Mav  27.  1564.  His  fatiier.  who  hi  Id  lli;' 
office  of  procurator-li.sciil  in  the  county  of 
Noyon,  anil  was  also  secretary  of  the  dioccs*-. 
posses.sed  influence  enoiigii,  though  willioul 
means,  to  procure  his  son's  rapid  advanc«  incnt 
in  the  world.  His  early  education  wa-  at 
Paris,  and  the  means  were  provided  for  llu> 
continuance  of  his  studies  by  a  benefice,  wliuli 
was  conferred  upon  him  without  ordination 


CALVIN 


(132) 


CALVIN 


at  the  age  of  13.  But  the  service  of  the  church 
was  soon  exchanged  for  the  law,  which  he 
studied  at  Orleans  and  Bourges.  In  Bourges 
he  also  enjoyed  the  instruction  of  Melchior 
Wolmar  in  Greek,  which  was  subsequeutlj  of 
great  value  to  him  in  his  theological  studies. 
From  tJie  tirst  Calvin  was  famous  as  a  hard 
and  successful  student.  His  mind  matured 
rapidly,  and  his  habits  of  reflection  and  review, 
with  a  powerful  memory,  made  him  master 
of  all  that  he  learned. 

In  extreane  youth  he  was  characterized  by  a 
religious  disposition  which  made  him  llie 
monitor  of  his  playmates,  and  later  manifested 
itself  in  all  the  forms  of  Catholic  religiousness. 
In  Paris  Jiis  attention  was  directed  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  question  of  personal  religion, 
and  he  sought  peace  in  the  rites  of  the  church, 
but  in  vain.  His  experiences  were  iu  many 
respects  like  those  of  Luther,  but  we  know 
little  of  the  circumstances  of  his  tinal  conver- 
sion. Gradually  in  connection  with  his  legal 
studies  he  became  engaged  in  preaching,  and 
upon  his  return  to  Paris  and  the  deatli  of  his 
father,  he  gave  himself  more  and  more  to  the- 
ological studies  and  religious  labors.  In  1533 
he  prepared  the  inauguial  address  of  the  rec- 
tor of  the  university.  Cop,  in  which  he  devel- 
oped the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  the 
result  of  which  was  to  endanger  his  life  and 
to  compel  him  to  leave  the  country.  In  1534 
lie  arrived  at  Basel.  His  stay  here  was  short, 
but  was  signalized  b}'  the  composition  of  his 
Institutes,  which  appeared  in  Latin  in  1536, 
and  which  presented,  as  the  best  apology  for 
the  persecuted  Protestants  of  France,  a  sys- 
tematic view  of  their  opinions  (see  Calvin- 
ism). Next  for  a  brief  period  in  Ferrara,  and 
then  in  Noyon,  he  came  to  Geneva  in  1536  on 
his  way,  as  he  thought,  to  Basel.  But  Farel 
detained  him  here,  though  much  against  his 
will,  and  he  ultimately  became  the  leader,  not 
only  of  Genevan,  but  of  all  Reformed  Protes- 
tantism. He  was  the  man  needed  at  the  time 
for  the  work  of  Geneva,  but  at  the  moment, 
circumstances  were  unpropitious.  Geneva 
had  succeeded  in  detaching  herself  from  her 
bishop  and  from  the  House  of  Savoy,  and  had 
become  nominally  Protestant.  But  political 
independence  and  public  license  were  closely 
connected.  The  new  laws  against  games,  etc. , 
and  the  plain  preaching  of  the  new  preachers 
had  become  unpopular.  The  strenuous  con- 
duct of  Calvin,  and  his  refusal  to  administer 
the  sacrament  at  Easter,  1538,  on  account  of 
the  prevalent  immorality,  led  even  the  Council 
to  proceed  against  him,  and  a  decree  of  banish- 
ment was  issued  against  him,  April  23,  1538. 
He  left  the  city  with  Farel  and  went  to  Strass- 
burg.  Of  his  life  here  little  need  be  said  ex- 
cept that  he  gave  himself  to  literary  work  and 
to  the  pastoral  care  of  the  church  of  the 
French  refugees.  He  discussed  the  doctrine 
of  tlie  sacrament,  revised  his  I?istitutes,  and 
engaged  somewhat  in  German  affairs,  going 
as  far  as  Regensburg  on  one  occasion.  Nor 
did  he  forget  Geneva,  but  corresponded  with 
various  individuals  and  wrote  against  Cardinal 
Sadolet,  who  had  attempted  to  induce  the  city 
to  return  to  the  Catiiolic  Church.  Many 
changes  which  soon  occurred  in  the  city 
caused  the  return  of  Calvin  to  be  earnestly  de- 


sired. At  first  he  refused,  but  overcome  by 
his  sense  of  duty  lie  complied  with  the  urgent 
invitation  of  the  authorities,  and  arrived  in 
Geneva,  Sept.  13,  1541. 

The  life-work  of  Calvin  was  now  begun. 
The  emphasis  he  gave  to  pure  doctrine  had 
already  been  made  evident  in  his  Institutes. 
But  he  laid,  if  possible,  even  greater  emphasis 
upon  the  practical  mission  of  the  church, 
which  he  conceived  as  possessing  a  greater 
authority  than  any  other  reformer.  The 
church  is  our  mother.  She  possesses  author- 
ity over  us  to  teach  and  to  command  obedi- 
ence. Hence  she  sliould  be  so  organized  as  to 
exercise  control  over  morals  and  manners,  and 
to  secure  the  exemplification  of  her  doctrines 
in  practical  life.  Calvin  accordingly  caused  a 
"  consistory"  to  be  formed,  which  was  com- 
posed of  the  city  clergy  (6  in  number)  and  of 
12  elders,  and  which  proceeded  to  enforce 
Christian  disciphne  in  the  city  with  an  exces- 
sive rigor  which  has  never  been  equalled  else- 
where. Impartial  severity  was  exercised,  til], 
in  spite  of  opposition  and  conflicts  which  it  at 
first  produced,  the  Genevan  system  made 
Geneva  what  Calvin  conceived  her  called  to 
be,  a  pattern  Christian  city  for  the  world  If 
some  punishments  inflicted  were  awful  (as 
when  a  child  was  beheaded  for  striking  its 
father  and  mother),  if  some  were  ridiculous, 
the  result  does  something  toward  apologizing 
for  the  means.  The  affair  of  Servetus  (q.v.) 
was  complicated  with  the  general  opposition 
to  Calvin.  The  period  of  contest  confirmed 
till  the  year  1555.  With  these  efforts  at  re- 
pressing vice  were  intimately  connected  active 
efforts  at  promoting  piety.  Calvin  and  his 
associates  were  indefatigable  in  their  labors  as 
preachers  and  teachers.  Alternate  weeks  he 
preached  daily.  Every  Friday  there  was  a 
so-called  "congregation,"  in  which  the  peo- 
ple were  allowed  to  present  questions  and  en- 
gage in  discussion.  The  catechism  was  regu- 
larly taught.  Care  was  taken  to  provide  for 
instruction  in  theology,  and  Calvin  lectured 
three  times  a  week  upon  the  Scriptures.  In 
1559  the  number  of  students  gathered  from 
abroad  had  become  so  large  that  au  academy 
was  formed,  over  which  Beza  was  placed  as 
rector.  Geneva  had  also  become  a  general 
refuge  for  persecuted  Protestants  in  all  lands, 
and  Calvin's  influence  was  thus  extended  over 
all  the  Protestant  world.  He  corresponded 
with  princes  and  directed  the  course  of  relig- 
ious movements  in  distant  countries  as  well  as 
in  his  own  France.  Switzerland  particularly 
was  brought  by  his  influence  into  closer  rela- 
tions with  Germany  and  other  Protestant 
countries. 

In  the  mid.st  of  these  labors  Calvin  con. 
tinned  to  live  with  the  utmost  simplicity.  He 
once  refused  to  have  his  salary  increased. 
His  house  was  modest  in  the  extreme.  In 
Strassburg  he  married  Idelette  de  Bures,  to 
whom  he  was  greatly  attached,  and  by  whom 
he  had  one  son,  who  died  at  an  early  age. 
After  9  years  of  married  life  she  was  takeu 
from  him.  Calvin  attracted  many  to  himself 
and  attached  them  closely;  but  to  many  he 
was  not  congenial.  His  chief  and  acknowl- 
edged fault  was  the  severity  of  his  temper.  He 
struggled  against  it,  but'  not  with  complete 


CALVINISM 


(133) 


CAMALDULIANS 


success.  His  many  labors  and  close  confine- 
ment drew  upon  him  many  diseases,  under 
the  accumulation  of  which'  he  at  last  sank, 
expiring  amid  the  tears  of  all  his  associates  in 
the  government  and  in  the  ministry.  No 
stone  was  set  to  mark  his  grave.  Best  cd.  of 
Calvin's  works  in  orig.  Latin  and  Frencli,  b}' 
Baum,  Cunitz,  and  Eduard  Keuss,  Bruns- 
wick, 1863,  sqq.  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh, 
1843-53,  51  vols.  There  is  no  satisfactory  life 
of  Calvin  in  English,  best  is  trans,  of  Bun- 
gener,  Edinburgh,  1863  ;  best  extant  is  in  Ger- 
man, by  Stahelin,  Elberfeld,  1863.    F.  H.  F. 

Calvinism,  a  system  of  doctrine  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  eminent  reformer, 
John  Calvin  (1509-64),  noted  for  his  logical 
acuteness,  though  its  friends  claim  that  it  ex- 
isted long  before  him.  Its  substantial  ele- 
ments are  found  in  all  tiie  Confessions  of 
the  Reformed  churches— the  Helvetic,  Gallic, 
Belgic,  Westminster,  etc.,  but  its  most  catho- 
lic statement  is  given  in  the  Canons  of  Dort 
(1618-19),  inasmuch  as  the  synod  which  set 
these  forth  w;xs  a  representative  body.  As 
the  system  emphasizes  the  sinfulness  and  de- 
pendence of  man  and  the  sovereign  mere}'  of 
God,  it  has  sometimes  been  known  as  "  The 
Doctrines  of  Grace."  Its  fundamental  prin- 
ciple is  that  God  being  the  sum  of  all  perfec- 
tion, he  can  have  no  higher  end  than  the 
manifestation  of  his  own  glory.  As  sin  exists, 
and  he  could  not  be  its  author,  it  follows  that 
he  decreed  to  permit  it  and  overrule  it  to  the 
displa\'  of  his  infinite  perfections.  The  sali- 
ent features  of  the  system,  those  by  which  it 
is  distinguished  from  others,  are  usually  rep- 
resented as  the  Five  Points,  which  are  here 
summarized  from  the  Canons  of  Dort.  1. 
The  whole  race  having  become  sinful  through 
the  apostasy  of  the  first  man,  God  might  have 
left  all  under  the  curse,  but  he  was  plea.sed 
to  choose  some  to  holiness  and  eternal  life, 
and  pass  by  others,  thus  manifesting  him.self 
such  as  he  is,  that  is  to  say,  both  merciful 
and  just.  This  choice  is  not  founded  ui)on 
the  foreseen  faith  and  obedience  of  the  elect, 
as  if  this  were  something  independent  of  the 
divine  purpose,  but  is  due  to  the  wise  and 
holy  counsels  of  God's  own  will.  The  in- 
finite mind  never  acts  witiiout  a  reason,  but 
that  reason  is  not  always  made  known  to 
man. 

2.  In  carrying  out  his  purpose  of  salv^atiou 
God  was  pleased  to  provide  a  .sali.sfactiou  for 
sin.  This  was  done  by  the  gift  of  his  own 
Son,  who,  in  the  fulness  of  time,  became  in- 
CJirnate  and  died  on  the  cross,  offering  a  sacri- 
fice which  is  abundantly  sulHcient  to  expiate 
the  sins  of  the  whole  world,  and  on  the  ground 
of  which  salvation  is  freely  offered  to  every 
man.  Yet  the  atonement  thus  made  avails 
only  to  tiiose  who  were  chosen  of  the  Father, 
and,  in  consequence,  received  the  gift  of  faith. 
These  alone  are  etficaciously  redeemed. 

3.  The  need  of  such  a  provision  is  .shown 
by  the  universal  and  total  corruption  of  the 
race,  all  men  being  by  nature  aliens  from  God 
and  children  of  wrath.  However  refined, 
amiable,  correct,  and  moral  they  may  be  ac- 
cording to  human  standanls,  they  come  short 
of  the  divine  commands,  do  nothing  that  is 


acceptable  to  God,  and  are  whollv  unable  t<i 
deliver  themselves  from  this  condition. 

4.  This  hopeless  position  of  men  left  to 
themselves  is  overcome  by  divine  giaee, 
through  which  men  are  enlightened,  renewed', 
and  saved,  so  that  the  regeneration  of  any  is 
due  not  to  anything  in  them,  but  sinijily  to 
him  who  worketh  in  tliem  "  botii  to  will  and 
to  work  for  his  good  pleasure  ;"  and  yet  this 
grace  does  not  do  violence  to  man  as  a  .sense- 
less block,  but  spiritually  quickens  him  and 
so  sweetly  inclines  his  will  to  accept  the  truth. 

5.  Those  who  are  thus  renewed  are  finally 
saved,  although  they  have  many  infirmities 
and  sometimes  fall  into  deplorable  ways,  for 
God  is  faithful,  and  in  due  time  recovers  them 
and  preserves  them  unto  salvation  ;  a  result 
by  no  means  due  to  believers'  own  merits  or 
strength,  but  only  to  the  gratuitous  and  merci- 
ful puri)ose  of  God. 

The  foregoing  presents  the  characteristic 
features  of  Calvinism  as  the  system  has  been 
and  is  now  regarded  by  the  great  body  of  il.s 
confessors.  It  is,  as  will  be  seen,  Infntlap- 
mrutn,  i.e.,  it  holds  that  the  decree  of  God 
supposes  the  creation  and  fall  of  man  ;  but 
there  is  another  view  called  Saprtilu/Minan, 
Avhich  holds  that  the  decree  to  eternal  bliss  or 
woe  precedes  in  the  order  of  nature  all  the  de- 
velopments of  time,  and  that  therefore  man 
before  the  fall  was  predestined  to  salvation  or 
damnation  ;  and  there  are  not  a  few  who  con- 
sider this  the  only  logical  construction  of  the 
doctrine.  It  is  disputed  whether  Calvin  him- 
self held  this  view,  but  it  is  certain  that  it  wa.s 
not  adopted  In'  the  Synod  of  Dort.  The  sys- 
tem was  modified  by  the  federal  Iheology  or 
the  doctrine  of  the  covenants,  which,  though 
held  at  an  earlier  date  b}'  Amesius  and  others, 
was  first  brought  into  general  currency  by 
Cocceius  (1603-69),  who  grouped  the  CalvinLs- 
tic  doctrines  under  the  scheme  of  the  cove- 
nants, viz..  the  covenant  of  redemption  be- 
tween the  persons  of  the  Trinity,  the  covenant 
of  works  Avith  Adam,  and  the  covenant  of 
grace.  VVitsius  (1636-1708)  was  one  of  the 
most  able  and  learned  expounders  of  these 
jural  relations. 

This  type  of  Calvinism  i)revailed  largely  in 
Ilollandand  is  expressed  in  the  Westminster 
stand.irds.  Further  modifications  of  the  sy.s- 
te]n  liave  been  made,  e.[/..  by  the  school  of 
Saumiir,  in  France,  by  Andrew  Fulkr,  by 
Pres.  Edwards  and  his  followers  in  New  Eng- 
land ;  but  the  .system  itself  is  best  .seen  in  tlie 
Canons  of  Dort".  and  its  leailing  fi-ature,  pre- 
destination and  ehction,  in  the  well-known 
17th  of  the  XXXIX.  Articles  of  the  Church 
of  England.  T.  W.  C. 

Cam-al-du'-li-ans,  an  order  of  monks  found- 
ed 1)V  Homuald,  an  Italian,  b.  ahoul  950  ;  d. 
.June  18,  1027.  From  early  manhood  lie  wiw 
especiallv  devoted  to  the  eremitic  life.  Hav- 
ing acijuired  a  great  reputation  for  sanctity, 
he  was  commissioned  by  Otlin  III.  to  alt.  nipt 
to  reform  the  monastery  of  Classr.  but  found 
tlie  resistance  of  the  monks  too  great,  and  re- 
linquished the  task.  But,  with  olh.r  mona.-« 
tic  foundations,  he  estaiilislwd  at  lasi,  in  lOlH. 
that  of  Camaldoli  (("amims  Malioli)  near 
Arezzo,  which  became  the  mother  of  the  later 


CAMBRIDGE! 


(134) 


CAMPBELL 


order.  Peter  Damiani  gave  the  order  its 
great  impulse.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Rorauald 
(1040)  and  himself  practised  the  austerities  he 
recommended  (d.  1072).  The  order  differed 
from  the  Benedictines  in  assigning  a  separate 
hut  to  every  monk,  where  he  lived  and  ate. 
The  most  weighty  proscription  was  that  of 
silence.  Subsequently  convents  of  nuns  were 
formed  under  the  same  rule.  The  order  was 
induced  to  transfer  itself  to  V^enice  in  1212. 
After  this  it  passed  through  the  usual  history 
of  monastic  decline.  F.  H.  F. 

Cambridge  Platform,  that  adopted  by  the 
synod  of  New  England  churches  at  Cam- 
bridge, June,  1648,  under  the  leadership  of 
Richard  Mather.  It  was  substantially  the 
Westminster  Confession,  with  moditications 
of  the  chapters  relating  to  church  government 
and  discipline.  (See  Schaflf,  Creeds,  vol.  i., 
836.) 

Cambridge  Platonists,  the  epithet  given  to 
Italph  Cudworth,  Henry  More,  John  Smith, 
and  Benjamin  Whichcote  (see  those  arts.),  and 
their  followers,  who  applied  Platonic  ideas  to 
theology.  They  mostly  belonged  to  Emanuel 
College,  the  famous  Puritan  college  of  the 
university.  They  had  to  endure  much  ob- 
loquy in  consequence  of  their  break  from  the 
prevalent  Aristotelianism.  (See  Tulloch's  Ea- 
tioiud  Theology,  vol.  ii.) 

Camel,  a  ruminant  animal,  the  chief  beast 
of  burden  in  the  East.  Its  peculiar  stomach 
and  its  fatty  hump  enable  it  to  go  without 
food  or  water  for  days.  Its  broad-cushioned 
elastic  foot  prevents  its  sinking  in  the  sand, 
and  it  is  content  with  such  coarse  prickly 
shrubs  as  the  desert  yields.  Its  ordinary  rate 
of  travel  is  2^  m.  per  hour,  but  the  drome- 
dary (which  is  a  camel  trained  for  speed) 
can  make  9  m.  Its  strength  and  endurance 
make  it  "  the  carrier  of  the  desert."  It  was 
used  from  the  earliest  period  (Gen.  xii.  16). 
The  number  one  had  was  a  token  of  his 
■wealth.  Job  had  3000,  and  the  Midianites' 
camels  were  like  the  sand  of  the  sea(Judg.  vii. 
12).  The  queen  of  Sheba  brought  them  to 
Solomon  (1  Kings  x.  2) ;  and  Hazael  to  Elisha 
(2  Kings  viii.  9)  ;  the  Cushites  had  them  in 
abundance  (2  Chrou.  xiv.  15)  ;  and  they  were 
even  used  in  war  (1  Sam.  xxx.  17).  The 
camel  was  an  unclean  animal  to  the  Hebrews 
(Lev.  xi.  4),  but  the  Arabs  use  its  milk  and  its 
flesh  for  food.  The  hair  is  woven  into  a  coarse 
cloth,  such  as  John  the  Baptist  wore  (Matt. 
iii.  4),  which  is  used  for  sacks  and  tents.  The 
skin,  which  is  very  thick  and  tough,  is  made 
into  sandals  and  thongs.  The  expression 
(Matt.  xix.  24),  "  It  is  easier  for  a  camel  to  go 
through  a  needle's  eye,"  etc.,  is  a  proverb  to 
describe  an  impossibility.  A  similar  expres- 
sion (xxiii.  24)  illustrates  the  hypocrisy  of  the 
Pharisees  by  their  custom  of  straining  out 
(not  at)  a  gnat  from  the  wine  they  drank,  and 
yet  swallowing  an  animal  as  large  as  a  camel. 
T.  W.  C. 

Oamerarius  (properly  Liebhard),  Joachim, 
humanist  and  reformer  ;  b.  at  Bamberg,  33 
m.  n.  of  Nuremberg,  April  12,  1500  ;  d.  at 
Leipzig,  April  17,  1574.  He  studied  at  Leip- 
zig and  Erfurt  ;  then  under  Melanchthon  at 


Wittenberg  ;  became  professor  of  Greek  and 
Latin  at  Nuremberg,  1526 ;  at  Tiibingen, 
1535  ;  and  at  Leipzig,  1541.  He  played  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Reformation.  His  life 
of  Melanchthon  is  a  very  valuable  history  of 
the  whole  movement,  Leipzic,  1566  ;  best  ed., 
Strobel,  Halle,  1777. 

Oamerlengo  (di  S.  Romana  Chiesa),  the 
officer  (generally  a  cardinal)  at  the  papal  court 
who  is  charged  with  the  care  of  the  treasures 
and  also  the  ijovernment  durinc;  an  interreg- 


Cameron,  John,  Scottish  theologian  ;  b.  in 
Glasgow  about  1579  ;  d.  at  Montauban, 
France,  1625.  He  studied  there  and  on  the 
continent  ;  was  professor  of  divinity  at  Sau- 
mur,  1618-20  ;  principal  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  1622  ;  professor  of  divinity  at  Mon- 
tauban, 1624.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
moderate  Calvinistic  school  of  Saumur. 

Cameron,  Richard,  Scotch  preacher  ;  b.  at 
Falkland,  Fife,  22  m.  n  n.w.  of  Edinburgh  ; 
d.  at  Aysmoss,  July  22,  1680.  He  was  tutor, 
then  popular  field  preacher  ;  went  to  Hol- 
land, 1678  ;  returned  in  1680,  and  with  Don- 
ald Cargill  and  Thomas  Douglas  drew  up  the 
Sanquhar  (the  village  in  which  they  met)  Dec- 
laration, which  di.sowned  the  authority  of 
Charles  II.  because  of  his  tyranny  and  de- 
clared war  against  him.  Accompanied  by  an 
armed  band  he  preached  against  those  who 
accepted  the  king,  until  in  the  battle  of  Ays- 
moss,  xlyrshire,  he  was  killed. 

Cameronians.     See  Presbyterians,  p. 

Camisards  (from  camisade,  a  night  attack, 
from  ciDiilsn,  the  peasant's  wdiite  jacket  or 
blouse  worn  on  such  occasions),  those  Protes- 
tants of  Languedoc  who  offered  organized  op- 
position to  the  cruel  measures  of  oppression 
introduced  by  Chaila,  archpricst  of  Cevenne.s 
(1702-11).  They  called  themselves  "  the  chil- 
dren of  God,"  "the  people  of  God,"  "the 
flock  of  Jehovah,"  etc.  Their  leaders,  chief 
of  whom  was  Cavalier  (q.v.),  were  called 
"prophets,"  and  the  movement  was  the- 
ocratic. They  retaliated  the  cruel  treatment 
they  had  received,  but  they  were  morally 
pure.  The  war  was  carried  on  with  varying 
success,  but  terminated  in  their  submission 
(1702-04).  (See  history  by  Ant.  Court  [French], 
Yillefranche,  1760,  3  vols.) 

Camp.     See  War. 

Campanile  (Italian),  the  detached  bell-tower 
of  a  church  ;  the  most  famous  are  Florence, 
Pisa  (the  "  leaning  tower"),  and  Bologna. 

Campbell,  Alexander,  founder  of  the  Dis- 
ciples (q.v).,  commonly  called  the  Campbell- 
ites  or  Campbellite  Baptists  ;  b.  near  Bally- 
mena.  County  Antrim,  33  m.  n.n.w.  of  Bel- 
fast, Ireland,  Sept.  12,  1788  ;  d.  at  Bethany, 
W.  Va.,  March  4,  1866.  He  studied  for  a 
year  at  Glasgow  University  (1808-09)  ;  broke 
with  the  Seceders  from  conscientious  scruples 
respecting  their  position  (1809)  ;  joined  his 
father,  Thomas,  at  Washington,  Pa.,  where, 
although  sent  thither  by  the  Associate  Synod 
of  North  America  as  a  Seceder  minister,  he 
had    gathered    a    congregation    styled    the 


CAMPBELL 


(136) 


CANAAN 


"  Christian  Association,"  which  issued  a  plea 
for  Cliristian  union  on  the  simple  basis  of  the 
Scriptures.  Out  of  it  was  organized  (1811) 
the  Brusli  Run  (Pa.)  cluirch,  with  Thomas 
Campbell  as  elder  and  Alexander  as  licensed 
preaciier.  When  Alexander's  first  child  was 
born  (1812),  he  was  led  to  study  the  question 
of  baptism,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
immersion  was  the  correct  form.  He  argued 
this  view,  and  he  and  the  majority  of  the 
church  were  immersed.  In  1817  he  removed 
to  Virginia.  There  at  Buffalo  (now  Bethany, 
W.  Va.),  he  conducted,  in  his  own  house, 
from  1818  to  1823,  the  Buffalo  Seminary,  a 
high  school  in  which  he  hoped  some  lads 
might  be  turned  toward  the  ministry.  In 
1832  lie  started  The  Christian  Ba^'iat,  a  peri- 
odical, succeeded,  in  1830,  by  the  monthly 
Millennial  ILirbinger,  which  lasted  till  1870. 
In  1836  he  compiled  from  various  versions  an 
English  translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
anci  by  insisting  therein  that  the  words  "  bap- 
tist" and  "  baptism"  are  not  to  be  found  in 
the  New  Testament,  he  caused  a  rupture  be- 
tween the  Brush  Run  church  and  the  Baptists, 
with  wliom  tliev  had  previously  affiliated. 
Tliis  led  him  to^ound  a  separate  denomina- 
tion, "  The  Disciples  of  Christ."  In  1841  he 
founded  Bethany  College,  W.  Va.  He  was 
famous  as  a  public  debater  ;  indeed,  in  this 
way  first  attracted  general  notice.  (See  his 
woriis  [including  The  Ohristlan  System;  De- 
bates icith  Owen  aiul  Purcell ;  Lectures  on  the 
Pentateuch  ;  Christian  Baptism  ;  Memoirs  of 
TiMinas  Campbell],  Cincinnati,  18—,  6  vols.  ; 
Popular  Lectures  and  Addresses,  Philadelphia, 
1861  ;  3d  ed.,  1863  ;  cf.  his  life  by  Robert 
Richardson,  Philadelphia,  1868-70,  3  vols.  ; 
2d  ed.,  (Mucinnati,  1872.) 

Campbell,  George,  D.D.  (Marischal  Col- 
lege, 1704),  Scotch  divine  ;  b.  at  Aberdeen, 
Dec.  25,  1719  ;  d.  there,  April  6,  1796.  He 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen  ; 
entered  the  ministry,  1748  ;  became  principal 
of  Marischal  College,  1759  :  and  professor  of 
divinity,  1771  ;  resigned  the  two.  1795.  His 
fame  rests  on  his  Dissertations  on  Miracles  (a 
reply  to  Hume),  Edinburgh,  1762  (the  most 
original  part  of  wliicli  is  the  argument  that 
the  highest  anterior  improbabdity  of  an  alleged 
event  is  counterbalanced  by  slight  direct  evi- 
dence). 

Campbell,  John,  English  Independent  min- 
ister ;  1).  at  E  linburgh,  1766  ;  d.  in  London, 
April  4,  1840.  He  was  for  many  years  in 
business ;  was  a  founder  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society  of  Scotland,  1793  ;  of  Sunday- 
schools  ;  of  the  Magdalene  Societies  of  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow  ;  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society,  1804  ;  became  minister  of 
an  Independent  chapel  in  r^ondon,  1803  ;  in- 
spected missions  of  the  London  iVIissionary 
Society  in  Africa,  1812-14,  and  l.Sl!»-21,  and 
published  accounts,  1814  and  1H22,  wliicii 
turned  David  Livinsrstone's  thoughts  toward 
Africa.  (See  his  life  by  Philip,  London, 
1841.) 

Campbell,  John  McLeod,  D.D.  (Glasgow, 
186S),  Scottish  divine  ;  b.  at  Ivilninver.  Argvll- 
shire.  May  4,  1800  ;  d.  at  R.j.seneath,  Feb.  27, 
1872.     He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  and 


began  his  ministry  at  Row,  1825  ;  deprived 
for  teaching  heretical  doctrines  conceining 
"  assurance  of  fuJMi"  and  univir.sal  atonement 
and  pardon,  1831  ;  had  an  independent  congre- 
gation at  Glasgow,  1833-59.  Avhich  he  served 
gratuitously.  He  wrote  The  Nature  of  the 
Atonement  (in  which  he  maintained  that  it 
was  the  spiritual  essence  and  nature  of  Christ's 
sufferings,  and  not  their  penal  character  wiiich 
gave  them  value  in  atonement),  Cambridge 
1856  ;  4lhed.,  1S73. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  father  of  Alexander, 
found(;r  of  the  "Disciples;"  b.  in  Ireland, 
Feb.  1,  1763:  d.  at  Bethany,  Va.,  Jan.  4, 
1854.  He  entered  the  ministry  (Seceding 
Presbyterians),  1798  ;  went  to  America,  1807, 
and  joined  the  Associate  Synod  of  North 
America  ;  labored  in  its  ministry  in  Western 
Pennsylvania  until  1809,  when  Alexander 
joined  him  and  began  an  independent  move- 
ment ;  went  to  V^irginia  a  little  later.  (See 
his  life  by  Alexander  Campbell,  Cincinnati. 
1861.)  See  Alex.vndek  C.\MPnEi,L  and  Dis- 
ciples. 

Campion,  Sdmund,  English  Jesuit  and 
martyr  ;  b.  in  London,  Jan.  25,  1539-40  ; 
hanged  there,  Dec.  1,  1581.  MWx  a  brilliant 
career  in  school  and  university  (Oxford),  he 
went  to  the  English  college  at  Douay  ;  there 
openly  recanted  Protestantism,  to  which  he 
had  been  secretly  oppo.sed,  1571  ;  entered  the 
Jesuit  order,  1573  ;  was  .sent  on  the  English 
mission,  1580  ;  was  proscribed  bv  the  govern- 
ment, hunted,  captured,  tortured,  and  finally 
executed  on  the  charge  of  conspiring  against 
the  throne,  lie  was'an  extraordinary  man- 
learned,  elo(iuent,  winning.  (See  his  life  by 
R.  Simpson,   London,  1867.) 

Camp-meetings,  religious  out-of-doors  meet- 
ings, espcci.illy  held  nowadays  by  Methodists, 
but  long  before  by  the  C^ovenanters  in  Scot- 
land.    They  cften'last  several  days. 

Campo  Santo,  the  Italian  name  for  the  en- 
closure wherein  disliiiguislied  jMTsons  ure 
buried.     That  at  Pisa  is  world-renowned. 

Ca'-na,  a  town  in  Galilee,  the  birthplace  ol 
Nathanael.  where  our  Lord  wrought  his  first 
miracle  (John  ii.  11),  and  afterward  healed 
the  nobleman's  .son  at  Capernaum  l)y  a  word 
spoken  at  a  distance  (iv.  46).  Its  traditional 
site  \sKefrK<n/M  2  m.  from  Na/areth,  but 
Robin.son  propo.ses  Kanu-eljelil  H  or  »  ni. 
north.  T.  W.  C. 

Ca'-naan  (low),  the  4th  son  of  Ham  (Gen.  x. 
6).  His  posteritv  inhal)ited  the  country  west 
of  the  Jordan,  "the  Jews  iK-lieve  tliat  he  first 
saw  his  grandfather's  shame,  and  instead  of 
concealing  it  told  his  father  ;  and  hence  the 
curse  upon  his  de.sct-ndants.  The  region  p«'0- 
pled  bv  them  was  ealleil  the  lami  of  prontii>c 
(lleb.  xi.  9).  the  hn,d  nf  (hv  Ifehnirs  (G«n.  xl. 
15)  the  h'lhihind  (Zed),  ii.  12).  and  PaUstiu*' 
(K.x.  XV.  14.  Pliilislia.  R.  V.).  fn>n>  tlw  IhIm-s 
on  the  southwest  coast  of  tiie  MiMlilerranean. 
Its  extreme  length  is  al)Out  ISO  m.  and  its 
average  width  about  60.  I'nder  J«vslma  it 
was  divided  among  the  12  tribes,  under  IMio- 
boam  into  the  2  kingdoms  of  Juilaii  ami  Is- 
rael, and  afterward  was  ruled  over  iu  turn  by 


OANAANITES 


(136) 


CANON 


Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 
In  Christ's  time  there  were  5  Roman  prov- 
inces— Galilee,  Samaria,  Judsea,  Pertea,  and 
Idumea.  It  is  now  under  the  control  of  Tur- 
key. 

It  has  a  very  diversified  surface,  well  watered 
and  extremely  fertile,  though  now  being 
stripped  of  its  forests  the  productiveness  is 
small.  The  deepest  known  gorge  on  the  earth's 
surface  is  the  valley  through  which  the  Jordan 
flows,  descending  2000  feet  from  its  source  to 
the  Dead  Sea.  The  various  elevations  of  the 
region  yield  similar  diversities  of  climate,  and 
hence  an  unequalled  variety  of  products.  The 
hills,  now  bare  and  barren,  were  terraced  to  the 
summit,  and  the  early  and  the  latter  rains 
carefully  stored  secured  all  the  moisture 
needed.  T.  W.  C. 

Oa'-naanites.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Jor- 
dan valley  were  the  Hiiites  in  the  north  (Josh. 
xi.  3)  ;  the  Jcbusites,  in  the  hill  country  around 
Jerusalem,  the  old  name  of  which  was  Jebus 
(Josh.  XV.  8)  ;  the  Girgashites,  probably  east 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Gen.  x.  16)  ;  the  Ca- 
naanites,  in  a  restricted  sense,  north  of  the 
Jebusites  (Josh.  xi.  3)  ;  the  Amoritts,  south 
of  Jerusalem  (Gen.  xiv.  7)  ;  the  Ilittites  or 
children  of  Heth,  west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Gen. 
xxiii.  3,  Num.  xiii.  39),  and  the  Perizzites, 
scattered  through  the  land  as  villagers  (Gen. 
xiii.  7).  All  these,  together  with  some  smaller 
tribes  (Arkites,  Anakim,  etc.),  made  the  popu- 
lation which  was  extirpated  by  the  children 
of  Israel  under  Joshua.  The  scriptural  rea- 
son assigned  for  this  dreadful  overthrow  was 
the  exceeding  wickedness  of  these  nations. 
God  had  borne  long  with  them  (Gen.  xv.  16), 
but  there  was  a  limit  even  to  his  forbearance. 
When  their  iniquity  was  full,  the  Israelites 
were  sent  forth  to  capture  and  destroy,  not  to 
sate  their  own  anger  or  avarice  or  lust,  but  to 
execute  God's  righteous  judgment.  And 
hence  they  were  often  assisted  by  miracle,  as 
in  crossing  the  Jordan,  the  overthrow  of  Jer- 
icho, the  great  victory  at  Gibeon.  In  view  of 
the  grossly  corrupt  religion  of  the  Canaanites 
and  their  bestial  immorality,  their  total  de- 
struction was  not  too  high  a  price  to  pay  for 
the  establishment  and  preservation  of  true  re- 
ligion on  the  earth.  T.  W.  C. 

Can'-da-ce,  an  Ethiopian  queen,  whose 
treasurer  was  met  on  the  desert  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Gaza  by  Philip  the  evangelist 
and  converted  to  Christianity.  Her  dominion 
was  the  region  of  Upper  Nubia,  called  by  the 
Greeks  Meroe.  T.  W.  C. 

Can'-dle-mas,  a  church  festival  celebrated 
Feb.  2,  commemorating  the  purification  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  It  is  celebrated  by  the  lighting 
of  candles  to  indicate  the  prophecy  of  Simeon 
that  the  child  Jesus  should  become  "  a  light 
to  lighten  the  Gentiles."  It  was  first  observed 
probabljr  in  542,  and  seems  to  have  grown  out 
of  the  heathen  festivals  of  purification  held  in 
this  month.  F.  H.  F. 

Candles  are  used  in  the  service  of  the  Ro- 
man Church  as  a  symbol  of  Christ,  the  true 
Light.  Tliey  are  used  in  the  mass,  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments,  in  benedic- 
tions and  processions,  before  statues,  etc.,  and 
in  praying  for  the  dead,  F.  H.  F. 


Candlestick,  The  Golden.  See  Taber- 
nacle. 

Candiish,  Robert  Smith,  D.D.  (College  of 
New  Jersey,  1841  ;  Edinburgh,  1865),  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  in  Eainburgh,  March 
23,  1806  ;  d.  there,  Oct.  19,  1872.  He  was 
educated  at  Glasgow  ;  became  minister  of  St. 
George's,  Edinburgh,  1834,  and  remained  till 
death  ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  1843  ;  and  after  Chal- 
mers' death  (1847)  the  leading  spirit  therein. 
In  1862  he  received  the  honorary  position  of 
principal  of  the  New  College.  He  tried  to 
clTect  a  union  between  the  Free,  United,  and 
Reformed  Presbyterians  of  Scotland  and  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  England.  He  wrote 
several  books.  (See  his  Memoir  of  W.  Wilson, 
Edinburgh,  1880.) 

Cange,  Du.     See  Du  Cange. 

Canisius  (ka-nee'-se-us,  properly  Hondt), 
Peter,  Jesuit  ;  b.  at  Nimwegen,  Netherlands, 
May  8,  1521  ;  d.  at  Freiburg,  Switzerland, 
Dec.  21,  1597.  He  was  the  first  German  to 
enter  the  Society  of  Jesus,  1543  ;  and  became 
first  provincial  for  Germany,  1556.  He  was 
extraordinarily  active  and  successful  in  spread- 
ing the  society  and  in  suppressing  the  Refor- 
mation in  Cologne,  Bavaria,  and  Austria. 
He  was  beatified,  Nov.  20,  1864.  His  two 
catechisms,  the  larger,  Summa  docArinw  Chris- 
tiana', Cologne,  1554,  and  the  smaller,  Iiistitu- 
tione.s  ckristiana.  pietatis,  1566  (both  repeated- 
ly reprinted,  and  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages), were  intended  to  counteract  and 
supplant  Luther's  catechisms.  (See  his  life 
by  Riess  [German],  Freiburg,  1865.) 

Canon,  Biblical.     See  Bible,  p.  105. 

Can-on,  Ecclesiastical,  a  person  who  pos- 
sesses a  prebend  or  revenue  allotted  for  the 
performance  of  divine  service  in  a  cathedral 
or  collegiate  church.  The  institution  is  first 
heard  of  in  the  6th  century.  Originally  sim- 
ple priests,  living  in  a  community  to  assist  the 
bishop,  and  dependent  entirely  upon  him, 
canons  formed  subsequently  in  many  places 
separate  associations,  sometimes  having  the 
election  of  bishops,  sometimes  subject  only  to 
their  dean,  sometimes  existing  in  cities  where 
there  were  no  bishops. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  England 
and  elsewhere  canons  were  formerly  distin- 
guished as  regulars,  those  who  liveel"  in  mon- 
asteries, secular,  who  did  not,  but  kept  the 
canonical  hours,  and  lionorary,  who  were  not 
obliged  to  keep  the  hours.  In  English  cathe- 
drals of  the  present  day  the  canons  are  obliged 
to  be  in  residence  for  '3  months  of  the  year. 
There  are  also  minor  canons  who  take  part  in 
the  daily  choral  service.  F.  11.  F. 

Canon  of  the  Mass,  that  part  of  the  mass 
which  begins  after  the  "  Sanctus"  with  the 
prayer  "  Te  igitur,"  and  ends,  according  to 
some,  just  before  the  "  Pater  noster,"  accord- 
ing to  others,  with  the  consumption  of  the  ele- 
ments ;  so  called  because  it  contains  the  fixed 
rule  for  celebrating  the  eucharist  in  the  Ro- 
man Church. 

Canon  Law  is,  properly,  the  law  embodied 
in  the  Corpus  Juris  (\,noniei  of  the  Roman 
Church.     There  are  later  sources  of  law  in 


CANON 


(137) 


CANON 


that  church,  as  for  example,  the  decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Trent,  the  bulls  of  recent  popes, 
the  Vatican  Council,  etc.  ;  and  there  are  in 
different  Protestant  countries  of  Europe,  dif- 
ferent bodies  of  evangelical  ecclesiastical  law 
which  have  an  historical  connection  with  the 
Corpus  Juris  Gaiionict.  In  America,  owing 
to  the  separation  of  church  and  state,  canon 
law  may  be  deliued  as  the  sum  of  the  consti- 
tutional and  legislative  regulations  established 
by  any  ecclesiastical  communion  for  its  own 
government  ;  and  as  such  it  plays  no  part  in 
public  affairs,  except  as  the  courts  may  be 
called  upon,  now  and  then,  to  protect  the 
rights  of  a  portion  of  an  ecclesiastical  com- 
munion under  its  own  laws. 

HisTOKY.. — The  regulations  which  were  es- 
tablished governing  the  relations  of  the  church 
to  the  state  and  the  administration  of  her  in- 
ternal affairs  were  called  caiums  in  distinction 
from  the  dogmas  of  the  church,  and  the  laws 
of  the  state.  In  the  earliest  times,  there  was 
uo  need  of  gathering  these  into  collections, 
but  with  the  increasing  extension  of  the 
church  and  the  greater  complexity  of  its  re- 
lations, collections  became  a  necessity.  Tlie 
tirst  mention  of  a  code  of  canons  is  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451).  It 
seems  probable  that  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  (325)  and  those  of  Ancyra  (314), 
Neo-Cajsarea  (314),  and  Gangra  (365)  had  al- 
ready been  gathered  into  a  convenient  volume. 
The  lirst  collection  which  has  come  down  to 
us  is  the  "  Apostolical  Constitutions,"  dating 
from  the  end  of  the  3d  to  the  middle  of  the 
4th  century,  which  embrace  dogmatical,  litur- 
gical, ethical,  and  disciplinary  regulations. 
Connected  with  these,  as  a  kind  of  appendix, 
are  the  "  Apostolical  Canons,"  and  there  is  a 
similar  collection  known  as  the  "  Apostolical 
Church  Order,"  dating  from  the  beginning 
of  the  3d  century.  In  the  reign  of  Justinian 
various  scattered  compilations  were  reduced 
to  a  systematic  form  in  50  books.  Later  came 
the  "  Noraocanon,"  which  contained  tlie  last- 
mentioned  collection  in  connection  with  the 
civil  la>TS  relating  to  ecclesiastical  matters. 
In  the  year  693  the  TruUan  Council  made  a 
comprehensive  collection,  which  formed  the 
.standard  Greek  law  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
9th  century.  Translations  of  the  decisions  of 
the  Eastern  Church  introduced  them  into  the 
West,  the  best  known  being  the  "  Isidorian" 
of  Spain  (5th  century).  The  decisions  of 
Western  councils  and  the  letters  of  the  popes, 
called  decretals,  were  united  by  Dionysius 
Exiguus,  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury, ill  a  collection  called  after  him,  which, 
though  never  formally  adopted,  became,  in 
fact,  the  standard  collection.  A  Spanish  col- 
lection of  the  6th  centurv,  called  the  Jlispana, 
obtained  great  currency  in  Spain  and  in 
France,  wliere  it  was  associated  with  the  col- 
lection of  Dionysius  in  its  original,  and  in  a 
modiiied  form  \  Dionyso- lladriana).  The.se 
collections  of  genuine  decretals  were  increased 
between  the  years  Hi!)  and  S57  by  a  collection 
called  at  the  present  tiint;  the  pseudo- Isidorian 
decretals.  This  collection,  which  i)rctended 
to  have  been  prepared  by  Isidorus  Mcrcator, 
wlio  was  popularly  supposed  to  be  St.  Isidor 
of  Spain,  was  divided  into   three  parts,   of 


which  the  first,  after  some  introductory  mat- 
ter, contained  the  50  apostolical  canons,  59 
spurious  letters  of  popes  from  (^lenient  to 
Melchiades,  and  the  spurious  "donation  of 
Constantine  ;"  the  second  opens  with  an  ex- 
tract from  the  preface  of  the  genuine  Spanish 
collection,  and  contains  the  Greek,  African, 
Gallic,  and  Spanish  councils  in  substantial 
agreement  with  the  Spanish  collection  ;  and 
the  third  contained  papal  letters  from  Sylves- 
ter to  Gregory  II.,  of  which  35  were  spuriou.s. 
The  dale  of  the  forgery  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  the  collection  makes  use  of  materials 
drawn  from  the  Council  at  Paris  in  829,  and 
is  itself  quoted  at  Chiersy  in  857.  Bui  in  857 
it  was  unknown  at  Roiiie,  as  is  seen  by  the 
answer  of  the  pope  to  an  inquiry  addressed  to 
him  in  reference  to  a  spurious  decretal.  In 
863  it  was  still  unknown  there  ;  but  in  8()4  the 
principles  of  the  false  decretals  biggin  to  play 
a  great  part  in  the  letters  of  Nicholas  1.  to 
Hincmar  of  Hheims  in  the  affair  of  Kotliad  of 
Soissons.  That  the  spurious  letters  are  a  late 
forgery  is  evident  from  their  style,  which  is 
that  of  the  monkish  Latin  of  the'fllh  century  : 
from  their  monkish  ignorance,  as  when  Cephas 
is  derived  from  caput;  and  from  their  many 
anachronisms,  as  when  Damasus  (366-84) 
quotes  from  Leo  I.  (440-61),  or  when  letters 
arc  dated  in  the  consulships  of  consuls  long 
since  out  of  office.  The  contents  of  many  of 
them  are  so  exactly  adapted  to  later  circum- 
stances as  to  require  a  prophetic  inspiration  on 
the  p.artof  the  suppo.sed  writers  to  account  for 
the  correspondence.  Their  general  object 
seems  to  be  to  favor  the  bishoi)s  in  their  con- 
tests with  the  archbishops,  and  to  encourage 
appeals  to  the  "  primates,"  whom  the  writer 
wislied  to  see  apiK)intefl  in  every  country.  la 
the  absence  of  this  olficer,  who  never  got  gen- 
erally appointed,  the  elfecl  of  the  whole  was 
to  elevate  the  jiope  at  the  expense  of  the  arch- 
bishops, and  was  thus  welcome  to  Nicholas. 
The  writer  may  have  been  Autgar  of  Mayence, 
who  wished  to  become  primate  of  (Jermany. 
The  gemiineness  of  the  collection  was  not  dis- 
puted in  its  day.  and  was  only  disproved  by 
tlie  Protestant  scholarship  of  the  period  of  the 
lieformation.  The  effect  of  the  coikction 
seems  to  have  been  to  promote  teiideneies  al- 
ready in  existence,  rather  than  to  call  in  any 
very  new  force.  In  fact,  their  i)erfect  accord 
with  the  ideas  of  the  times  was  the  great  rea- 
son why  their  authority  was  accepted  without 
sutlicient  inquiry. 

The  manuals  of  canon  law  which  had 
sprung  iq)  thus  irregularly  and  in  widely 
separated  districts,  contained  contradictory 
and  obsolete  elements.  The  whole  needed 
<li;j:estion  and  reduction  to  a  system,  and  this 
service  was  i)erformed  by  Gratian.  n  monk  of 
Bologna,  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  cen- 
turv. The  resulting  Derrttuin  G rutin iii,iiH 
it  was  called,  consists  of  three  parts.  The 
first  treats  of  the  sources  of  canon  law,  and 
of  ecclesiastical  pers'ons  and  olVices.  The  .•■ec- 
ond  consists  of  'Mi  cuhmf,  or  cases  propounded 
for  discussion  and  solution,  and  the  i)rincii)IeH 
of  law  illustrated  under  each  are  gaIli<T<-<l  iti 
di.stinct  canons.  The  lliird  \v.\n  conlanis  llic 
law  bearing  upon  the  rilual  and  sacrameula 
of  the  church. 


CANONICAL 


(138) 


CAPERNAUM 


The  Decretum  included  pnpal  decretals 
down  to  the  year  1139.  The  subsequent  mat- 
ter was  soon  subject  to  publication,  and  sev- 
eral collections  arose,  which  in  tlieir  turn 
needed  codification.  Accordingly,  a  second 
part  of  the  Corpus  followed  the  "  Decretum." 
This  was  divided  into  four  parts,  the  Decretals 
of  Gregory  IX.,  the  Liber  Sextvs,  published 
by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  in  1298,  the  Glemen- 
thw,  published  by  order  of  Pope  Clement  V., 
and  the  Extramgantes,  containing  matter  sub- 
sequent to  the  year  1317,  in  various  collec- 
tions. 

Thus  the  Corpus  itself  is  a  growth,  and  suf- 
fers from  the  defects  of  repetition  and  contra- 
diction wliich  it  was  designed  to  remove.  A 
distinction  is  made  between  its  earlier  and  its 
later  parts,  and  in  case  of  conflict,  the  prefer- 
ence is  given  to  the  latter. 

The  development  of  the  ecclesiastical  law  in 
the  middle  ages  was  due  to  a  variety  of  causes, 
of  which  the  principal  was  the  greater  security 
iiiid  justice  to  be  obtained  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts.  The  church  educated  in  its  universi- 
ties the  great  lawyers  of  the  time,  who  were 
also  priests.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  chva-ch 
was  extended  so  as  to  embrace  not  only  causes 
in  matters  which  might  be  in  some  sense  called 
moral,  liiie  marriage  causes,  but  also  directly 
criminal  causes,  such  as  adultery  and  perjury. 
Tlie  ecclesiastical  code  was  greatly  superior  to 
the  Gothic  and  Teutonic  codes  of  the  ruling 
nations.  Out  of  this  church  influence  sprung 
also  the  new  science  of  international  law. 
The  Roman  state  had  regarded  all  foreigners 
as  enemies,  but  Christianity  taught  that  all 
were  brothers.  The  emphasis  placed  upon 
the  duties  of  sovereigns  to  their  subjects 
was  the  seed  of  those  constitutions  by  wiiich 
absolute  were  converted  into  limited  mon- 
archies. Thus  the  canon  law,  which  was  a 
selection  of  the  best  of  all  ancient  law,  blessed 
Europe  in  its  time,  and  has  sent  down  into 
modern  law  most  of  those  elements  of  the  Ro- 
man law  which  are  to  be  found  there.  The 
decline  of  canon  law  liept  pace  with  the  de- 
cline of  the  church  which  administered  it,  till 
in  the  Reformation  it  was  broken  up  and  set 
aside  in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  (See 
Richter,  Lehrbnch  des  katholuchen  und  ctan- 
qelischen  KirchenrecJits,  Leipzig  ;  8th  ed.,  by 
Dove,  1884.)  F.  H.  F. 

Canonical  Hours  are  periods  of  worship 
designed  to  symbolize  and  perform  the  duty 
of  the  church  to  "pray  without  ceasing." 
Tliey  were  first  observed  in  the  Clu'istian 
clnirch  as  a  part  of  the  forms  of  worship  in- 
herited from  Judaism  (see  Acts  ii.  15,  iii.  1, 
X.  9).  These  were  the  3  hours  of  9  o'clock, 
12,  and  3.  To  these  was  added  the  hour  of 
midnight,  when  Paul  and  Silas  prayed  in  the 
prison.  Prayers  at  daybreak  and  nightfall 
were  added  later,  and  by  the  lime  of  Jerome 
these  6  hours  were  regularly  observed  in  the 
monasteries.  When  8  such  hours  are  counted 
the  reniaining  2  are  that  at  3  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  at  retiring.  F.  H.  F. 

Canonization,  the  declaration  with  special 
ceremonies  that  a  certain  deceased  member  of 
the  Catholic  Church  is  a  saint  whose  worship 
is  incumbent  upon  the  whole  church.     The 


worship  of  a  saint  did  not  at  first  require 
papal  authority,  but  alter  the  year  1181  this 
was  declared  necessary'.  The  bishops  contin- 
uing the  former  custom,  they  were  formally 
forbidden  to  canonize  any  cne  by  a  decree  of 
the  3'ears  1625  and  1634.  The  process  of  de- 
termining whether  a  given  person  who  has 
died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity  is  a  proper  candi- 
date for  canonization  is  a  long  one.  If  it  is 
regularly  proved  that  he  has  lived  a  pious  life 
and  wrought  miracles  he  is  pronounced  blessed 
(beahts).  This  musf  ordinarily  be  deferred 
till  50  years  at  least  after  his  decease.  If  it  is 
shown  that  he  still  exercises  the  miraculous 
power,  as  by  miracles  wrought  at  his  tomb, 
he  is  finally  pronounced  sanctified  {sanctus). 
F.  H.  F. 

Canstein,  Baron  Karl  Hildebrand,  founder 
of  the  well-known  Canstein  Bible  Institute  at 
Halle  ;  b.  at  Lindenberg,  Brandenburg,  Aug. 
15,  1667  ;  the  friend  of  Spener  and  Francke  ; 
d.  in  Berlin,  Aug.  19,  1719.  In  order  to  dis- 
tribute the  Bible  at  the  lowest  rates  he  estab- 
lished, in  1710,  his  Institute,  and  endowed  it 
by  his  will.  (See  his  life  by  Plath,  Halle, 
1861.) 

Canterbury,  English  town,  population 
(1881),  21,000  ;  53  m.  e.s.e.  of  London,  gives 
the  name  to  a  diocese,  province,  and  cathe- 
dral. 1.  Diocese,  population  (1881),  658,269  ; 
comprises  the  county  of  Kent,  excepting  a 
small  portion,  and  a  district  in  Surrey  (south 
bank  of  the  Thames).  In  it  are  the  arch- 
bishop's country  residence  at  Addington  and 
his  London  residence,  Lambeth  Palace.  2. 
Province  comprehends  24  dioceses  of  South- 
ern England  and  Wales,  over  which  the  arch- 
bishop has  metropolitical  jurisdiction.  3. 
Catliedral,  the  original  building  was  prior  to 
Augustine,  the  first  archbishop  (600)  ;  but  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  1067  ;  the  present  building 
was  erected  between  1070  and  1495.  In  its 
choir  Thomas  Becket  was  murdered  (1170). 
History. — The  Sec  of  Canterbury  was  found- 
ed by  Augustine  (597),  who  was  consecrated 
its  first  bishop  by  Vergilius,  Arcl  bishop  of 
Aries.  It  was  Pope  Gregory  the  Great's  plan 
to  have  24  bislioprics  in  England,  12  each  be- 
longing to  the  archbishops  of  London  and 
York.  But  Canterbury  and  not  London  re- 
mained the  seat  after  Augustine's  death.  In- 
cluding him  and  the  living  one,  92  archbishops 
have  sat  upon  its  throne,  the  most  famous  of 
whom  are  Augustine,  Anselm,  Becket,  Brad 
wardine,  Cranmer,  Pole,  and  Laud.  The 
archbishop  is  the  Primate  of  all  England  and 
Metropolitan  ;  ex  ojjicio  the  first  subject  of  the 
crown  after  the  princes  of  the  blood  royal. 
He  crowns  the  sovereign.  He  can  confer  de- 
grees in  divinity,  law,  and  medicine.  The 
endowment  of  the  office  is  now  fixed  at  £15,- 
000  per  annum.  For  hi.'^tory  see  Stanley, 
Memorials  of  Canterbury,  London,  10th  ed., 
1883. 

Canticles.    See  Song  op  Songs. 

Cantor.    See  Precentor. 

Ca-per'-na-um  {village  of  Knhvrn),  a  city  of 
Galilee  in  the  time  of  Christ  not  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament.  It  was  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  in  a  rich  and 


OAPHTOR 


(139) 


OARAOOIOLI 


populous  region.  It  was  called  Christ's  "own 
city"  (Matt.  ix.  1),  the  scene  of  most  of  his 
mighty  works  and  liis  wonderful  instructions 
(Matt.  xi.  20).  It  was  in  the  country  which 
Isaiah  (ix.  1)  predicted  should  he  the  lirst  to 
see  the  gospel  light  (Matt.  iv.  12-16).  Al- 
though so  often  mentioned  in  the  gospels  and 
so  interesting  in  its  history,  its  name  and  its 
site  have  fallen  into  deep  obscurity,  and  the 
latter  is  still  a  vexed  question  in  biblical  geog- 
raphy. Two  sites  have  been  assigned  for  our 
Lord's  own  city.  One  is  Kluni  Miiiych,  on 
the  northern  border  of  the  fine  plain  of  (ien- 
nesaret,  near  the  lake,  in  favor  of  which  are 
Dr.  Robinson,  Kiepert,  Sepp,  and  members 
of  the  Palestine  exploration  societies.  The 
other  is  TeU-IIdm,  from  2  to  8  m.  north  of 
Khan  Minyeh,  where  there  are  found  exten- 
sive ruins,  among  which  are  conspicuous  those 
of  a  large  synagogue,  with  portions  of  col- 
umns, pedestals,  and  Corinthian  capitals.  The 
number  and  character  of  these  ruins,  together 
with  some  minor  considerations,  have  led  tlie 
Wilsons,  W.  M.  Thomson,  Dixon,  Ritter,  and 
others  to  consider  this  the  site  ;  and  the  weight 
of  the  argument  appears  to  be  with  them. 
Further  excavations  may  in  time  furnish  such 
indications  as  will  be  decisive.        T.  W.  C. 

Oaph'-tor,  the  original  seat  of  the  Caphto- 
rim  or  Philistines  (Deut.  ii.  23,  Amos  ix.  7). 
It  has  been  identified  with  Cappadocia,  Cy- 
prus, and  Crete,  but  is  more  likely  Capht-ur, 
the  northern  delta  of  Egypt,  from  whicli  the 
Phoenicians  emigrated  into  Asia.    T.  W.  C. 

Oap-i-to  (properly  Kopfel),  Wolfgang  Fab- 
ricius,  D.l).  (Freiburg,  1566),  Protestant  re- 
former ;  b.  at  Hagenau,  Elsass,  1478  ;  d.  of 
the  plague,  at  Strassburg,  Nov.  2,  1541.  He 
studied  at  Freiburg  in  Breisgau  ;  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Basel,  1515  ;  chaplain  of 
Albert  of  Mayence,  1520  ;  provost  at  Strass- 
burg. 1523  ;  went  over  to  the  Reformation, 
and  married,  Aug.  1,  1524  ;  a  second  time, 
1532  (with  the  widow  of  (Ecolampadiu.s)  ; 
labored  zealously.  He  introduced  the  Refor- 
mation into  Hagenau  and  was  Rutz-er's  coad- 
jutor at  Strassburg  ;  with  him  wrote  the  Tet- 
rapolitan  Confession  ;  and  alone  the  Witten- 
berg Concordat  (see  those  arts.).  (See  his  life 
by  J.  W.  Bauin,  Elberfeld,  1860.) 

Capitularies,  a  name  given  to  the  general 
laws  binding  upon  all  the  various  peoples  of 
the  Carolingian  Frankish  kingdom,  proceed- 
iug  from  the  royal  authority,  and  embraced 
in  chapters  (cdpiUi).  Each  little  nation  had 
its  o$\'n  private  code  by  whicli  its  members 
were  governed.  The  "capitularies  embrace 
also  Merovingian  laws,  more  properly  called 
decretii.  Since  the  kings  had  authority  in 
the  religious  sphere  as  well  as  the  civil,  many 
of  these  capitularies  relate  to  ecclesiastical 
matters.  F.  H.  F. 

Cappado'-cia,  the  largest  and  most  eastern 
province  of  Asia  Minor.  Jews  resident  in  it 
were  among  Peter's  hearers  on  tiie  day  of 
Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9),  and  Christians  in  it 
were  among  those  addressed  by  liim  in  his 
First  Epistle  (i.  1).  T.  VV.  C. 

Oappel,  Louis,  Reformed  Church  of  France  ; 
b.  at  Saint-Elier,  near  Sedan,  Oct.  15,  1585  ; 


d.  at  Saumur,  June  18,  1658.  After  finishing 
his  studies  at  Saumur  lie  continued  them  dur- 
ing 4  years  at  different  universities  ,  1»,  ranu; 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Saumur,  1614  ;  of  tlic- 
ology  at  same,  1633.  He  was  a  scholar  of  the 
first  rank,  and  a  man  of  independent  judg- 
ment. He  distinguished  himself  in  all  branches 
of  theology,  but  at  the  present  day  is  best 
known  as  the  opponent  of  the  Bwxtorf  theonr 
of  the  inspiration  of  tiie  Hebrew  vowel  |)oinffl, 
accents,  and  punctuation  marks,  holding  that 
they  were  no  ])art  of  the  inspired  text,  but  ad- 
ditions of  the  6th  century  A. D.  His  greatest 
work  was  his  Criticn  S<(crii,  Paris,  1650.  (See 
G.  Schnedermann,  Die  CDiitiinrrne  dex  Ludo- 
ricuH  VapelluH  tnit  den  JJuutorfcu,  Leipzig, 
1879.) 

Captain.     See  Akmy,  p.  46. 

Captives,  Captivity.     See  War. 

Captivity  in  Babylon.  This  was  the  long- 
est and  most  infiuential  of  the  many  captivities 
of  the  Jews,  lasting  over  two  generations  and 
caring  the  people  entirely  of  their  inveterate 
propensity  to  idol-worship.  The  70  years  of 
its  duration  is  now  considered  a  round  num- 
ber, and  therefore  need  not  be  accurately  de- 
fined. While  thus  in  exile  the  Jews  observed 
circumcision,  kept  genealogical  tables,  main- 
tained the  usual  distinctions  of  rank,  and  thus 
preserved  their  nationality  intact.  In  636  they 
began  their  return,  under  Cyrus's  permission, 
and  continued  it  afterward  under  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii.  2),  under  Ezra  (Ezra  vii.  7),  and  un- 
der Xehemiah  (Neh.  vii.  66).  Tho.se  who  did 
not  return  were  known  as  The  JJinsporu  or 
dispersion  (John  vii.  35,  James  i.  1,  1  Peter  i. 
1,  R.  v.).  As  for  the  deportation  of  Israel  by 
Assyria  there  is  no  evidence,  and  no  rea.son  to 
sup'pose  tliat  tl:e  10  tribes,  as  a  body  ever  re- 
turned to  Palestine.  Nor  did  they  maintain  a 
distinct  existence  anywhere,  but  were  inter- 
mingled and  confown'ded  with  the  great  body 
of  their  countrymen  scattered  over  the  Roman 
Empire.  T.  W.  C. 

Capuchins  (kap-Q-chin),  a  monastic  order, 
so  called  from  the  long-pointed  otjiuclw  or 
cowl  they  wear,  founded  in  1526  by  Matteo 
di  Bassi,'of  Urbino,  an  Observanline  Francis- 
can at  Monte  Falco,  in  Urbino,  Central  Italy, 
with  the  avowed  object  of  restoring  the  primi- 
tive Franc'isean  dress  and  rule.  They  were 
at  first  persecuted  by  the  Franciscans.  They 
are  governed  by  a  vicar-general  ;  live  by  In-g- 
ging,  and  have  only  the  coarsest  fare  and 
meanest  surroundings.  They  have  ever  had  a 
strong  hold  upon  the  conunon  [xopl".  Their 
third  viear-geiKTiiJ.  Birnardino  Oehino,  be- 
came a  Protestant  (1542). 

Capuciati,  or  Caputiati  (from  cupuclu),  a 
Buri.'undian  .sict  founded  in  11S2  by  !i  carpen- 
ter, Duraud,  who  claimed  inspiration  from  the 
Virgin  Marv.  for  the  restoration  of  peace  in 
church  and'state.  It  was  suppressed  by  Bi.-h- 
op  Hugo  of  Auxerre  (1182-1206). 

Caracciolifka  rat'-cho-lee),  Oaleazzo,  Mar- 
quis of  Vice,  b.  in  Naples,  1517  :  <1.  in  (Ge- 
neva .May7.  15H6.  He  was  converted  to  Prot- 
estantism". 1541  :  fied  to  (Jeneva.  1551  :  there 
released  from  his  wife,  Vittoria  de  >ocera, 


CARATTES 


(140) 


CARMEL 


grand-niece  of  Pope  Paul  IV.,  by  the  Geneva 
courts  (1559),  he  married  Anna  Framery,  1560. 
He  stood  in  high  favor  -with  the  Protestants, 
and  was  the  glory  and  sti'cngth  of  the  Italian 
congregation  there.  (See  his  life,  in  Italian, 
by  Niccolo  Balbani,  Geneva,  1587  ;  n.e.  by 
E.  Comba,  Florence,  1875  ;  £ng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1608.) 

Caraites.     See  Karaites. 

Car'-che-mish  {fort  of  Chemmli),  a  chief 
city  on  the  Euphrates,  taken  by  Pharaoh  Neco 
after  the  battle  of  Megiddo,  in  which  King 
Josiah  was  slain  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29),  afterward 
retaken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer.  xlvi.  2).  Its 
precise  site  is  not  determined.         T.  "W .  C. 

Cardinal,  the  name  of  the  principal  mem- 
bers of  the  papal  court.  The  pope  occupies 
the  threefold  position  of  bishop  of  Rome,  arch- 
bishop of  a  province  of  8  bishoprics,  and  pri- 
mate of  the  Occident,  and  so  head  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  In  all  these  capacities  he  needs 
the  same  assistance  in  the  performance  of  his 
duties  as  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  other  bish- 
ops, and  the  cardinals  are  the  officers  who 
render  the  required  assistance.  The  same 
board  of  officers  originally  assisted  him  in  all 
his  functions,  so  that  it  was  the  college  of 
presbyters  of  the  citj^  of  Rome  who  became 
the  original  and  model  of  the  subsequent  col- 
lege of  cardinals.  The  city  was  early  divided 
into  various  districts,  in  each  of  which  there 
was  one  principal  church  where  baptisms  and 
other  principal  forms  of  service  were  per- 
formed. It  was  the  presbyter  of  such  a  chief 
(or  cardinal)  .church  who  had  a  seat  in  the 
council  of  the  Roman  bishop.  With  these 
presbyters  were  next  associated  deacons  for 
the  distribution  of  charity.  Under  Stephen 
IV.  (d.  771)  there  were  added  the  suburbica- 
rian  bishops.  After  much  vacillation,  the 
number  of  cardinals  was  fixed  by  Sixtus  V. 
in  1590  at  70.  Of  these  6  are  cardinal-bishops 
(these  suburbicarian  bishops),  50  are  cardinal- 
priests,  who  derive  their  titles  from  churches 
in  the  city  cif  Rome,  but  who  may  be  bishops 
or  archbishops  of  other  dioceses,  and  14  cardi- 
nal-deacons. The  requirements  for  the  cardi- 
nalate  are  the  same  as  for  a  bishopric.  In  all 
ages  of  the  church  abuses  have  been  connected 
with  the  system,  as  when  Giovanni  de  Medici 
was  made  cardinal  at  10  (afterward  Leo  X.). 
The  ceremonies  at  the  installation  of  a  cardi- 
nal are  very  elaborate.  The  insignia  are 
chiefly  the  red  hat,  and  to  receive  the  hat  has 
the  same  meaning  as  to  become  a  cardinal. 
The  vestments  are  also  scarlet.  The  title  of 
a  cardinal  is  "your  eminence."  In  the  des- 
patch of  the  business  of  tjie  Roman  court,  a 
variety  of  offices  and  boards  have  been  from 
time  to  time  established,  the  duties  and  privi- 
leges of  which  coincide  with  each  other  at 
many  points.  Hence  custom,  more  than  the 
original  constitution  of  the  different  bureaus, 
decides  where  a  given  cause  is  to  be  decided. 
Since  the  Reformation  a  number  of  "  congre- 
gations" have  been  created,  which  are  com- 
mittees of  cardinals,  with  a  president,  secre- 
tary, and  various  assistants,  such  as  theo- 
logians. Of  these  the  Congregation  of  the  In- 
quisition, and  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith 
are  the  most  famous.     The  latter  attends  to 


the  aifairs  of  all  countries,  as  America,  in 
which  the  operations  of  the  church  are  con- 
sidered mLsfeionary.  The  whole  college  of 
regularly  instituted  cardinals  elect  the  pope, 
though  not  necessarily  from  their  own  num- 
ber.    See  Conclave,  Curia.  F.  H.  F. 

Cardinal  Virtues,  The,  are  prudence,  jus- 
tice, temperance,  and  fortitude. 

Carey,  William,  D.D.  ( ,  18—)  Baptist 

missionary  ;  b.  at  Paulerspury,  near  North- 
ampton, England,  Aug.  17,  1761  ;  d.  at  Ser- 
ampore,  13  ni.  n.  of  Calcutta,  India,  June  9, 
1834.  He  became  minister  at  Moulton,  1786  ; 
at  Leicester,  1789  ;  joined  in  founding  the 
Baptist  Missionary  Society  (1792),  and  was  its 
first  missionary  to  India,  where  he  arrived  in 
1794.  Unable  at  once  to  begin  missionary 
labor  he  became  superintendent  of  an  indigo 
factory  near  Maldah,  Bengal,  and  the  next 
year  started  a  church  ;  removed  to  Serampore, 
1799,  and  began  missionary  operations  with 
school  and  piinting-press,  from  which  pro- 
ceeded 26  versions  of  the  Bible.  In  1801  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit,  Bengali, 
and  Mahratta  iu  the  newly-founded  college 
of  Fort  William,  Calcutta,  and  he  held  this 
office  until  it  was  abolished.  He  also  success- 
fully propagated  the  gospel.  His  Inquiry 
into  the  Obliyatians  of  Christians  to  use  Means 
for  the  Contersicn  of  the  Heathens  was  one  of 
the  earliest  missionary  tracts  in  the  language. 
He  made  a  version  of  the  Scriptures  into  Ben- 
gali and  other  languages  of  India.  He  also 
prepared  various  gram'mars  and  dictionaries. 
He  was  thrice  married.  (See  his  life  by  Eus- 
tace Carey,  London,  1836  ;  [with  Marshman 
and  Ward]  by  IMarshman,  London,  1859,  3 
vols.  ;  by  George  Smith,  1885  ;  2d  ed.,  1887.) 

Cargill,  Donald  (or  Daniel),  Scotch  Cove- 
nanter ;  b.  at  Rattray,  Perthshire,  about  1619  ; 
executed  in  Edinburgh,  July  27,  1681.  He 
studied  at  Aberdeen  and  St.  Andrews  ;  be- 
came minister  in  Glasgow,  1655  ;  publicly 
pronounced  the  Restoration  a  calamity  on  ac- 
count of  Charles'  character  ;  deprived  of  his 
beneiice  and  banished  beyond  the  Tay,  1662, 
he  led  a  wandering  preacher's  life  until  1680, 
when  he  joined  Richard  Cameron  (q.v.)  in 
open  rebellion.  The  next  year  (July  11)  he 
was  taken  prisoner  and  shortly  after  executed. 

Carlstadt.    See  Karlstadt. 

Car'-mel  (fruitfitl).  1.  A  city  of  Judah, 
9  m.  s.e.  of  Hebron,  where  Saul  erected  a 
trophy  (1  Sam.  xv.  12),  where  Abigail  dwelt 
(xxv.  2),  and  where  Uzziah  had  vineyards  (2 
Chron.  xxvi.  10).  2.  The  only  bold  headland 
in  Palestine.  It  separates  Sharon  on  the  s. 
from  Jezreel  on  the  n.  The  range  runs  13 
m.  in  a  s.e.  direction  and  is  covered  with 
copse,  oaks,  and  evergreens.  Its  verdure  and 
grace  of  outline  and  its  rich  pastures  are  often 
referred  to  in  the  Old  Testament  (Song  of  Sol. 
vii.  5,  Isa.  xxxiii.  9,  xxxv.  2,  Amos  i.  2).  It 
was  the  scene  of  notable  events  in  the  history 
of  Elijah  and  Elisha  (2  Kings  i.  9-15,  ii.  25, 
iv.  25).  The  place  of  the  destruction  of  the 
priests  of  Baal  (1  Kings  xviii.)  is  marked  by 
the  Arab  name,  Ev-Maharraknh,  "the  burn- 
ing," still  given  to  it.  On  the  summit  is  a 
huge  Carmelite  monastery.  T.  W.  C. 


CARMELITES 


(141) 


CARPZOV 


Carmelites,  an  order  of  monks,  originally 
eremitic,  founded  by  a  certain  Berthold,  in 
the  12th  century,  upon  Mt.  Carmcl.  This 
was  the  period  of  the  crusades,  and  the  Patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem  gave  the  order  a  rule  in 
1209,  which  was  contirmed  by  the  pope  in 
1224.  Bat  soon  the  crusades  came  to  an  end, 
and  the  Carmelites  withdrew  from  Palestine, 
and  were  soon  found  in  Cyprus,  Sicily,  and 
even  England.  In  1245  their  first  general 
cha])ter  was  held,  and  in  1247  their  original 
rule — which  required  separate  cells,  labor,  and 
at  timi  s  hi lence — was  made  more  mild.  I'heir 
costume,  which  had  been  of  white  and  black 
striped  material,  was  changed  to  a  white 
mantle  over  a  black  robe.  In  12!S7  the  scapu- 
lar was  invented  by  them — a  piece  of  clothing 
consisting  of  two  bands  of  gray  woollen  cloth 
worn,  the  one  over  the  back,  and  tlu;  other 
over  the  breast,  and  fastened  together  at  the 
shoulders,  which  it  was  pretended  had  been 
brought  down  from  heaven  by  the  Virgin, 
who  would  pass  through  purgatory  every 
Saturday  and  release  all  who  should  be  found 
there  wearing  it.  This  greatly  increased  the 
following  of  the  order.  It  soon  claimed  to 
stand  in  special  relations  to  the  Virgin.  In 
1452  convents  for  females  were  established. 
But  the  demoralization  of  the  pre-Reforma- 
tion  period  affected  the  Carmelites  as  well  as 
other  orders.  Numerous  reformations  and 
the  formation  of  new  congregations  followed. 
In  the  16th  century  the  barefooted  Carmelites 
of  Spain  were  formed,  which  set  themselves 
against  the  times  by  emphasizing  asceticism 
and  fanaticism.  The  order  had  now  in  all 
four  generals,  those  of  the  modified  rule,  of 
the  Congregation  of  Mantua,  of  the  barefooted 
Carmelites  of  Spain,  and  of  the  barefooted 
monks  of  Italy.  Its  pretensions  increased,  till 
it  claimed  to  iiave  been  in  existence  from  the 
days  of  Elijah  himself  !  The  order  still  exists. 
F.  H.  F. 

Carnesechi  (kar-ne'-sek-ee),  Pietro,  Italian 
Protestant  martyr  ;  b.  at  Florence  about  1509  ; 
d.  in  Rome.  Oct.  8,  1567.  He  rose  to  be  papal 
secretary  and  prothonotary  under  Clement 
VII.  (1528-84),  and  so  influential  that  it  was 
said  that  he  ruled  the  church  more  than  the 
pope  did  ;  fell  under  Protestant  influences  and 
consequent  susj)icion  (altiiough  he  never  left 
the  church)  after  C'leincnt's  death  and  held  no 
further  church  position  ;  condemned  by  the 
Inquisition  at  Rome  and  executed.  (See  life 
by  L.  Witte,  Halle,  1883,  [pp.  56].) 

Carnival,  a  word  of  uncertain  origin,  sig- 
nifyin<^  the  period  from  the  beginning  of  the 
year  till  Lent,  or  more  restrictedly  the  few 
days  immediately  preceding  Lent,  celebrated 
in  Rome  from  early  times  with  great  public 
license.  The  origin  of  the  custom  is  un- 
doubtedly to  be  sought  in  the  Bacchanalian 
festivities  of  heathenism,  which  the  church 
found  it  easier  to  modify  than  to  suppress. 
Races  and  masked  promenades  constitute  the 
distinguishing  features  of  the  celebration. 
OtlKT  cities,  as  Milan  and  Venice,  had  tlicir 
carnivals  also.  F.  H.  F. 

Caroline  Books,  The,  arose  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Charlemagne  upon  occjksion  of  tlie  sec- 
ond Synod  of  Kice  in  787,  wiiich  commanded 


the  worship  of  images.  They  are  four  in 
number  and  comprise  120  chapters.  Alcuin 
may  have  had  a  hand  in  their  preparation. 
Their  genuineness,  though  often  disputed,  is 
undoubted.  They  take  a  middle  position  be- 
tween the  iconoclasts  and  the  favorers  of  im- 
age worship.  Pictures  may  be  placed  in  the 
churches,  but  they  are  neither  to  be  wor- 
.shipped,  nor  the  s'aints  through  them.  The 
authority  of  the  fathers  and  of  I  he  Bible  is  in- 
voked in  behalf  of  this  position.  The  books 
have  a  wider  interest  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  a  mirror  of  the  whole  theology  of  Ih'e 
Prankish  Church.  They  occupy  theologically 
the  position  of  Gregory  the  Great,  and  even 
present  as  their  creed  "the  Confession  of  Pe- 
lagius  !  F.  II.  F. 

Carpenter,  Lant,  LL.D.  (Glasgow,  1S06), 
English  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  Kidderminster,  Sept. 
2,  1780  ;  studied  at  Glasgow  ;  taught  .school  ; 
became  minister  at  Bri.stol,  1817,  luul  exertecl 
great  influence  in  the  town  and  denomination  ; 
drowned  in  the  Mediterranean  near  Leghorn, 
April  5,  1840.  (See  his  biography  by  his  son, 
London,  1842.) 

Carpenter,  Mary,  daughter  of  above,  Uni- 
tarian ;  b.  at  Exeter,  April  8,  1807  ;  d.  at 
Bristol,  June  14,  1877.  Her  life  was  dedi- 
cated to  the  improvement  of  the  pauper  and 
criminal  classes.  Slie  established  at  Bristol 
ragged  and  reformatory  schools,  and  l)ecame 
an  authority  in  such  kind  of  reform.  She 
was  interested  likewise  in  the  education  of 
Hindoo  women,  and  in  1866,  1868,  1869,  and 
1875  visited  India  for  that  and  other  philan- 
thropic purposes.  She  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  many  of  her  ideas  embodied  in  legisla- 
tion hoth  at  home  and  abroad.  (See  life  by 
J.  E.  Carpenter,  London,  1879.) 

Car-poc'-ra-tes,  a  Gnostic  teacher  from 
Alexandria,  who  flourished  in  the  first  decades 
of  the  2d  century.  His  followers,  the  Car- 
pocratians,  were  notorious  for  their  immoral 
life.  They  first  honored  with  public  cere- 
monies the  busts  of  their  heroes— llie  begin- 
ning of  image  worship.  F.  H.  F. 

Carpzov  (karp  tsof),  German  Protestant 
theologians  (originally  from  Spain,  name  Car- 
pezana).  1.  Johann  Benedict,  b.  al  Hochlilz, 
16  m.  n.n.w.  of  Chemnit/,  June  22,  1607  ;  be- 
came professor  of  theoloirv  at  Leijizig,  1648  ; 
d.  there,  Oct.  22,  1657.  He  founded  the  dis- 
cipline of  symbolics  through  iiin  posihumoud 
work  Isngof/c,  etc.  (introduction  lii  the  symboli- 
cal Li:theran  books).  Leipzig,  1665.  2.  Johann 
Benedict,  son  of  preceding  ;  b.  at  Leipzig, 
Ai)ril  24,  1689;  became  professor  there  of  (»ri- 
ental  languages.  1668  ;  of  theology.  16H.J  ;  d. 
tiiere,  Marcli  28,  1699.  lie  wtis  the  o|)ponent 
of  the  I'ictists  and  supfiressed  th«  ir  ColUgia 
philobil)Iica.  8.  Samuel  Benedict,  anotlur 
son;  b.  at  Leipzig,  Jan.  17.  1647;  be(  ame 
succes.'^or  of  Spener.  ascliicf  court  pnaelur,  at 
Dresden.  1692;  d.  there.  Auir.  8L  1707.  4. 
Johann  Qottlob,  son  of  preceding  ;  b.  ul  Drca- 
den.  Sept.  26.  1679  ;  In-came  prnfr  ssor  of  Ori- 
ental lancmagesnt  Leipzig.  1719  ;  su|>erinlrnd- 
ent  at  Lubeck.  1730;  d.  there.  April  7.  1767. 
He  wa-s  the  most  learned  fheoingian  of  tlie 
name,  and  wrote  against  Kidiard  Simon  and 


CARROLL 


(142) 


GARY 


Clericus  an  introduction  to  the  Old  Testament, 
Leipzig,  1714-21.  5.  Johann  Benedict,  gnuid- 
son  of  tlie  first  named  ;  b.  at  Leipzig,  May  20, 
1720  ;  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Helm- 
stedt,  1748  ;  also  of  theology,  1749  ;  also  ab- 
bot of  Konigsliitter.  1759  ;  d.  at  Helmstedt, 
April  28,  1803. 

Carroll,  John,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Up- 
per Marlborough,  Md.,  Jan.  8,  1735  ;  ap 
pointed  vicar-general,  1786  ;  bishop  of  Balti- 
more—the  first  R.  C.  bishop  in  U.  S.  A. — 
1789  ;  archbishop,  1815  ;  d.  at  Baltimore,  Md., 
Dec.  3,  1815. 

Carson,  Alexander,  LL.D.  (Bacon  College, 
Ky.,  18 — ),  Irish  Baptist;  b.  near  Stewarts- 
town,  County  Tyrone,  1776  ;  d.  at  Belfast, 
Aug.  24,  1844.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  ; 
became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  at 
Tobbermore,  near  Coleraine,  1798  ;  being  con- 
vinced of  the  scripturalness  of  the  Congrega- 
tional form  of  church  government  he  left  the 
Presbyterians,  and  in  the  same  place  started 
an  independent  church  in  1804.  For  10  years 
he  had  to  preach  in  barns  and  in  the  open  air, 
before  a  chapel  could  be  built  him.  In  1880 
lie  became  a  Baptist,  while  attempting  to  re- 
fute Haldane's  new  view  of  baptism,  and  his 
book.  Baptism:  Its  Mode  and  Subjects  (Edin- 
burgh, 1831),  is  a  Baptist  classic.  He  was 
very  able  and  learned  and  justly  honored. 
(See  his  life  by  G.  C.  Moore,  London,  1851, 
and  Douglas,  London,  1884.  His  works  were 
published  in  6  vols.,  Dublin,  1847-64.) 

Carstares,  William,  D.D.  (p]dinburgh, 
1709),  Scotch  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Ctithcart, 
near  Glasgow,  Feb.  11, 1649  ;  d.  in  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  28,  1715.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
1663-67  ;  fled  to  Holland  to  escape  persecution 
as  a  stout  Presbyteripn,  and  there  entered  the 
service  of  William  of  Orange,  whose  fortunes 
lie  advanced  in  a  signal  manner,  and  whose 
entire  confidence  he  enjoyed.  Under  Anne 
his  direct  political  influence  ceased,  but  he  be- 
came principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
1703,  and  in  this  new  sphere  also  distinguished 
himself.  His  coreligionists'  esteem  was  shown 
by  his  four-times  election  to  the  moderator- 
ship,  1705,  1708,  1711,  1714.  As  a  man  of 
wonderful  shrewdness,  wisdom,  honesty,  bold- 
ness, and  tact  he  played  a  great  part  in  the 
civil  and  political  history  of  his  country.  (See 
his  life  by  R.  H.  Story,  London,  1874'.) 

Cartesian  Philosophy.    Sec  Des  Cartes. 

Carthage,  an  ancient  Punic  city,  destroyed 
by  the  Romans  in  146  B.C.,  re-established  by 
Augustus  in  29  B.C.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  "  Africa,"  was  the  home  of  Ter- 
tuUian,  the  first  theological  writer  of  the  Latin 
Church,  of  Cyprian,  the  bishop  of  the  city, 
who  was  martyred  there  (258),  and  was  sev- 
eral times  the  residence  of  Augustine.  In  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century  it  became  the  Van- 
dal capital,  was  stormed  by  the  Greek  Belisa- 
lius  in  533,  and  entirely  destroyed  by  the 
Mohammedans  in  706.  '  P.  H.  F. 

Car-thu'-si-ans,  a  monastic  order  founded 
by  Bruno  in  1084,  deriving  its  name  from  its 
first  seat.  Chartreuse.  The  characteristic  of 
the  order  may  be  found  in  the  idea  of  seclu- 


sion. Bruno  built  for  himself  and  his  com- 
panions separate  cells,  occupied  at  first  by 
two,  and  later  by  one  brotlier.  Here  the 
minor  hours  were  said,  the  food  of  each  pre- 
pared, and  the  religious  life  chiefly  lived. 
The  seclusion  of  the  monks  from  the  world 
and  its  cares  and  temptations,  of  the  profes- 
sors from  the  lay  brethren,  of  the  order  from 
other  orders,  of  the  individual  monk  from 
others,  were  the  measures  taken  to  carry  out 
the  idea  of  the  order  and  maintain  its  exist- 
ence. And  they  have  met  with  great  success. 
It  has  remained  more  incorrupt  and  unmodi- 
fied than  any  of  its  associate  orders.  The  or- 
der began  early  to  spread.  In  1151  there  were 
14  houses.  In  1170  the  order  was  taken  under 
the  special  protection  of  the  pope.  About  1700 
there  were  170  establishments.  It  still  exists. 
F.  H.  F. 

Cartaphilus.     See  Jew,  the  Wandering. 

Caurt'wright,  Thomas,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  in  Hertfordshire,  1535  ;  d.  at  Warwick, 
Dec.  27,  1603.  He  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  fellow  successively  of  St.  John's 
(1560)  and  Trinity  (1562)  colleges,  and  dis- 
tinguished for  learning,  eloquence,  and  piety. 
From  1565  to  1567  he  was  chaplain  to  the 
archbishop  of  Armagh.  In  1569  he  became 
Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Cam- 
bridge, but  next  year  was  deprived  in  con- 
sequence of  alleged  "  impious  and  unscriptu- 
ral"  inveighing  against  the  Anglican  ecclesias- 
tical polity,  and  in  1571  he  was  deprived  of  liis 
fellowship.  He  went  to  the  Continent,  returned 
after  a  year,  but  finding  that  his  outspoken 
sympathy  with  the  Puritan  movement  only 
brought  "him  into  trouble,  he  quilted  England 
in  1573  and  did  not  return  until  1585.  From 
that  year  till  his  death  he  was  master  of  the 
Leicester  Hospital  at  Warwick  (an  asylum 
for  12  poor  brothers  established  by  the  Earl 
of  Leicester,  in  1571).  "  He  frequently 
preached  in  the  town  and  neighborhood,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  among  the  clergy 
of  the  Church  of  England  to  introduce  extem- 
porary prayer  into  the  services.  .  .  .  [His] 
position  in  relation  to  the  religious  parties  was 
in  some  measure  that  of  an  eclectic.  .  .  .  [He 
argued]  that  admitted  abuses  in  the  church 
did  not  justify  separation  from  its  commun- 
ion. .  .  .  His  ideal  in  relation  to  church  dis- 
cipline and  organization  was  essentialh'  Pres- 
byterian, and  this  in  direct  conjunction  with 
the  civil  power.  .  .  .  His  temperament  was 
impulsive,  and  in  argument  he  was  often  car- 
ried away  by  his  impetuosity."  One  of  his 
writings,  A  Ileplye,  etc.,  1572,  was  the  proxi- 
mate cause  of  Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity. 
(Cf.  sketch  by  J.  Bass  Mullinger  in  Stephen, 
Nat.  Biog.,  s.v.) 

Cary,  Henry  Francis,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Gibraltar,  Dec.  6,  1772  ;  d.  in  London, 
Aug.  14,  1844.  He  was  educated  at  Chri.^t 
Chiirch,  Oxford  ;  became  vicar  of  Abbot's 
Bromley,  Staffordshire,  1796  ;  in  addition,  of 
Kingsbury,  Warwickshire,  1800 ;  assistant 
keeper  of  printed  books  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, 1826  ;  resigned,  1837.  His  fame  rests 
entirely  on  his  translation  of  Dante's  Ditine 
Comedy  {Inferno,  1805,  completed  1814), 
which  remains  the  standard. 


OARYL 


(143) 


CASUISTRY 


Caryl,  Joseph,  Nonconformist  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, 1603  ;  educated  at  Oxford  :  was  member 
of  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines  ;  minis- 
ter in  London  from  1645'till  death,  Marcli  10, 
1672-73,  although  ejected,  1662.  He  is  fa- 
mous for  his  Kvpomtion  of  the  Book  of  Job, 
London,  1648-66,  13  vols.,  small  quarto  ;  2d 
ed.,  1676-77,  3  vols.,  folio;  abridged  ed.  by 
Bcrrie,  Edinburgh.  1836.) 

Casas.     See  L.\s  Casas. 

Cassander,  Georg,  lioman  Catholic  ;  b.  at 
Pit  them,  near  Bruges.  Flanders.  Aug.  24, 
1;313  ;  d.  at  Cologne,  Feb.  3,  1566.  He  was 
educated  at  Louvain  ;  became  professor  of 
belles-lettres  at  Bruges,  1541  ;  on  account  of 
his  Reformation  sympathies  compelled  to  re- 
sign, he  travelled  about  until  1549,  when  lie 
took,  up  permanent  residence  at  Cologne.  He 
made  it  the  business  of  his  life  to  bring  about 
a  union  between  Roman  Catholics  and  Prot- 
e.stants.  He  wrote  much  upon  the  subject. 
His  principal  writing  is  De  articuUs  .  .  .  con- 
sultatio,  etc.  ("A  Consideration  of  the  Articles 
in  Dispute  between  Catholics  and  Protest- 
ants"), Cologne,  1564.  His  collected  works, 
Opera  omnia,  Paris,  1616,  folio,  were  promptly 
put  on  the  Index.  Yet  the  only  concessions  he 
would  make  were  to  grant  the  cup  to  the  laity, 
and  the  validity  of  Protestant  ordinations. 
(See  life  [in  Latin]  by  A.  C.  Friederich,  Got- 
tingen,  1855.) 

Cassian.     See  Docet^. 

Cas-si-a -nus,  John,  contemporary  of  Au- 
gustine, was  trained  in  the  mouasticism  of 
Syria  and  Egypt.  He  wrote  largely  upon 
monasticism  and  founded  two  monasteries 
near  ^larseilles.  Entangled  iu  the  Pelagian 
controversy,  he  advanced  the  views  which 
were  subsequently  called  semi-Pelagianism. 
He  also  wrote  against  Xestorianism.  His 
dates  are  uncertain,  but  he  was  b.  about  360  ; 
d.  about  448.  F.  H.  F. 

Cas-si-o-do'-rus,  Magnus  Aurelius,  a  Ro- 
man statesman  and  a  monk  ;  b.  at  Scyllacium, 
in  Bruttium,  about  477  ;  d.  between  560  and 
570.  He  was  iu  the  service  of  the  East  Gothic 
kings  till  540,  when  he  withdrew  to  a  monas- 
tery which  he  had  founded  in  Bruttium. 
Here  he  wrote  works  of  the  greatest  value  to 
pi>sterity.  The  most  important  are,  Epintola- 
rum  Libri  XIT.,  which  contains  the  decrees  of 
the  East  Gothic  kings,  and  a  church  history 
compiled  from  Socrates,  Sozomenus,  and  The- 
odoret.  (See  his  collected  works  in  Migne, 
Pat.  Lat.  LXIX.-LXX.  ;  conden.sed  Eng. 
trans,  of  his  Letters,  Oxford,  1886.  Life  by 
A.  Franz,  Breslau,  1873.)  F.  H.  F. 

Cassock,  a  clerical  coat  reaching  to  the  feet. 
It  has  an  upright  collar.  In  the  Church  of 
Rome  that  worn  by  the  priests  is  black,  by 
the  bishops  purple, 'by  the  cardinals  .scarlet, 
and  by  tlie  popes  white.  In  the  Church  of 
England  the  color  for  all  three  orders  of  clergy 
is  black,  but  bishops  on  state  occasions  often 
wear  purple.  It  is  confined  at  the  waist  by  a 
broad  siush  called  a  circlinc.  The  bishop's 
apron  in  the  Anglican  Church  is  really  a  short 
cassock. 

Caste.     Sec  India. 


Castell,  Edmund,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1601). 
b.  at  Tadlow,  Cambri(l<:esiiire,  1606  ;  d.  at 
Higham  Gobion,  Bedfordshire,  1685.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge;  "  a.ssisted' Walton 
on  his  Poliffjlot  (1657),  contributing  the  editions 
of  the  Samaritan,  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Ethiopic 
versions,  and  other  (unacknowledged)  portions, 
and  spending  much  money  on  it  ;  brought 
out  in  1669,  2  vols.,  folio — at  the  expense  in 
time  of  at  least  18  years  of  gratuitous  labor, 
and  in  money  of  £13,000,  besides  incurring  a 
debt  of  £1800— his  famous  Lexicon  lleptaf/lot- 
ton,  Ilebrainiin,  Vlialilaicuni,  Si/riarum,  Seima- 
ritaniim,  yFAhinpinun,  Aniltiemn,  eonjuuctim, 
et  Pertticnin  S( puratim.  Ruined  in  fortune, 
in  health,  and  almost  blind,  the  poor  man  had 
some  consolation  in  the  enthusiastic  reception 
of  his  work  by  foreign  scholars.  His  lexicon 
was  specially  prepared  for  "NValton's  Polfn/lot, 
and  is  usujilly  sold  with  it.  In  1666  lie  be- 
came chaplain- in-ordinary  to  the  king  ;  in  1667 
prebendary  of  Canterbury  and  profesvor  of 
Arabic  at  Cambridge  ;  F.R.S.,  1674  ;  was 
succes-sively  vicar  of  Hatfield  Be  vend,  of 
Wodeham  Walter,  and  of  Higham  Gobion. 

Castellio  (Castalion,  Castalio  originally 
Chateillon),  Sebastian,  Protestant  ;  brat  St. 
Martin-du-Frcsne,  near  Geneva,  1515  ;  d.  at 
Basel,  Dec.  29,  1563.  He  was  proficient  in 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  on  Calvin's  recom- 
mendation became  rector  of  the  Genevan 
.school,  1541  ;  went  to  Basel  in  con.sequt  nee  of 
his  dissent  from  Calvin's  views  on  predestina- 
tion, 1544  ;  became  professor  of  Greek  there, 
1552.  His  famous  Latin  version  of  the  Bible 
was  publi-shed  at  Basel,  1551,  and  his  French 
version,  1555.  (See  life  by  iMithly,  Ba.sel,  1862, 
and  by  Broussoux.  1867.  Cf.  Schafl",  Creeds, 
i.,  475  sqq.) 

Oas'-tor  and  Pol'-lux,  the  twin  sons  of 
Jupiter,  who  presided  over  the  destinies  of 
sailors.  Hence  they  were  often  figured  on 
ships'  prows  in  classic  days,  and  al.so  were  the 
name  of  ships,  as  in  Paul's  case,  Acts  xxviii. 
11. 

Casuistry  is  that  department  of  ethics  which 
treats  of  cases  of  conscience,  especially  the 
perplexing  (juestions  which  arise  from  appar- 
ently contlicting  duties.  Some  have  denied 
the  u.se  or  propriety  of  any  such  science. 
They  sav  that  in  true  Christian  ethics  jirinci- 
ples  of  "life  are  .set  forth,  not  rules  for  indi- 
vidual cases,  and  that  there  is  nothinir  like 
casuistry  in  the  moral  teaching  of  Clirist  and 
his  apos"tles.  If  a  man's  ultimate  aim  be  to 
do  the  will  of  God,  this  aim  will  liy  the  aid  of 
the  llolv  Spirit  clear  \\\i  all  special  perplexities 
us  thev  arise.  This  opinion  is  a  natural  revul- 
sion from  I  lie  form  wliich  the  sy.sfem  a><sumed 
in  tlu!  lioman  Church,  where  the  mullitude  of 
distinctions  that  were  rai.sed,  and  the  endless 
efTorts  made  in  all  nvses  to  determine  what 
was  mortal  and  whnt  was  venial  sin.  led  .M. 
Le  Fiore,  the  preceptor  of  Louis  XIII..  to  call 
it  "the  art  of  (piibhling  with  (Jod."  This 
.system  of  laviiitr  down  rules  for  every  indi- 
vidual action,  and  settling  every  question  by 
authoritv,  whs  carried  to  the  furllic-t  extreme 
by  the  .Jesuit  fathers,  who.st^-  endeavor  to  ju.v 
tify  immoral  actions  by  subtle  quirks  called 
forth  the  immortal  satire  of  Pascal. 


CASUS 


(144) 


CATACOMBS 


Still,  it  must  be  admitted  that  while  believers 
are  under  a  law  of  liberty,  yet  in  every  man's 
life  there  will  at  times  be  cases  in  which  the 
path  of  duty  is  not  entirely  clear,  and  some 
guidance  from  the  better  informed  is  anxiously 
looked  for.  Hence  among  the  Reformed  there 
have  been  voluminous  writings  on  the  sub- 
ject, such  as  those  of  Perkins  (1602),  Amesius 
(1630),  and  Osiander  (1680),  on  the  Continent, 
and  Bishops  Hall  and  Sanderson,  and  Jeremy 
Taylor  and  Richard  Baxter,  in  England.  The 
only  work  on  the  subject  which  has  had  a 
wide  circulation  in  America  is  a  sensible  and 
scriptural  volume  entitled  Cases  of  Conscience 
Answered,  by  two  Dissenting  ministers,  Sam- 
uel Pike  and  Samuel  Hayward,  first  issued  in 
Britain  a  centurv  ao:o,  and  last  reprinted  in 
Philadelphia  (1859),  with  a  preface  by  Dr.  H. 
A.  Boardman.  T.  W.  C. 

Casu.s  Reservati.     See  Reskrved  Cases. 

Catabaptists (from  "  against,"  "  baptize"), 
those  who  oppose  baptism,  especially  that  of 
infants. 

Catacombs,  subterranean  burial-places, 
found  in  many  places,  the  most  important 
being  subjacent  to  portions  of  the  city  and 
environs  of  Rome.  The  Roman  catacombs, 
to  which  this  article  will  be  confined,  are  com- 
posed of  many  long,  narrow  galleries,  exca- 
vated in  the  granular  tufa  composing  a  dis- 
tinct portion  of  the  soil,  intersecting  each 
other  at  various  angles,  and  extended  in  all 
directions  without  any  ascertainable  plan  till 
they  form  a  vast  series  of  labyrinths.  These 
galleries  are  often  arranged  in  several  stories, 
once  as  many  as  seven,  one  above  another, 
connected  by  stairways.  Numerous  small 
apartments  open  out  of  them,  and  they  fre- 
quently come  to  an  abrupt  end.  They  are 
generally  exceedingly  dark,  light  being  ad- 
mitted only  scantily  by  air-shafts,  or  light 
apertures  above.  Suites  of  rooms  apparently 
designed  as  chapels  are  also  common.  All 
these  features  reappear  in  other  catacombs,  as 
those  at  Naples,  where  the  main  difference  is 
the  greater  roominess  of  the  corridors,  and 
those  at  Syracuse,  which  have,  however,  a 
more  regular  plan,  and  peculiar  circular 
chambers,  not  found  at  Rome.  In  the  cata- 
combs of  Alexandria,  Egypt,  the  recesses  for 
the  reception  of  the  dead  are  perpendicular  to 
the  direction  of  the  galleries. 

HisTOUY. — It  is  evident,  from  the  fact  that 
the  catacombs  are  excavated  in  a  peculiar  por- 
tion of  the  soil,  used  neither  for  building 
stone,  nor  as  a  source  of  sand,  that  they  were 
excavated  for  the  express  purpose  for  which 
they  were  used.  It  was  not  necessary,  as  has 
been  tliought,  that  they  should  be  prepared 
or  used  in  secret,  since  the  Christians  were 
protected  by  law  in  the  right  of  burying  thtir 
dead,  and  had  also  all  the  rights  in  their  burial 
societies  which  were  granted  to  Roman  soci- 
eties of  the  same  kind.  The  catacombs  were 
openly  prepared,  ornamented  with  some  de- 
gree of  richness,  and  their  entrances  were 
probably  well  known  to  the  authorities  at  least. 
Later  they  were  used  in  times  of  persecution 
as  places  of  refuge,  and  from  these  times  dates 
the  preparation  of  secret  passages  into  the 
sand-pits,  from  which  the  persecuted  might 


escape  into  the  world  beyond.  The  cata- 
combs were  begun  in  the '2d  century;  their 
disuse  followed  upon  the  recognition  of  Chris- 
tianity by  the  Edict  of  Milan  in  312.  After 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  they  were  no 
longer  employed  as  places  of  burial.  In  the 
3d  century  there  were  already  25  large  under- 
ground cemeteries  at  Rome.  Most  of  the 
bishops  were  buried  here  while  the  cemeteries 
were  in  use,  Melchiades  being  the  last.  Fa- 
bian (288)  began  the  construction  of  small 
oratories  for  public  worship.  In  257  Valerian 
forbade  the  use  of  the  cemeteries,  and  though 
Gallienus  restored  them  to  their  ov/ncrs,  still, 
fear  of  loss  led  the  Christians  to  begin  the 
process  of  concealing  them  by  closing  passages 
and  particularly  entrances.  After  the  Edict 
of  Milan  places  of  burial  in  connection  with 
the  churches  above  ground  were  preferred, 
but  the  old  cemeteries  received  an  accession 
of  regard  from  the  increasing  tendency  to 
worship  the  martyrs.  Damasus  (366-84)  re- 
stored and  beautified  them.  They  then  be- 
came popular  as  places  of  worship,  especially 
upon  the  anniversaries  of  the  deaths  of  the 
martyrs.  For  a  time  the  rich  sought  to  obtain 
places  of  burial  near  the  tombs  of  martyrs, 
and  fossores  excavated  such  places,  which 
they  sold  at  good  prices.  After  426  this  class 
of  men  disappears.  During  the  barbarian 
invasions  the  catacombs  were  desecrated  by 
violence.  After  this  period  some  attention 
was  paid  to  their  preservation,  but  regard  for 
them  steadily  decreased  till  after  the  removal 
of  the  principal  relics  of  martyrs  (which  Leo 
IV.  had  carried  away  in  wagon  loads),  when 
the  existence  of  most  of  them  was  forgotten, 
and  remained  unknown  till  accidentally  dis- 
covered in  1578  by  workmen  searching  for 
sand.  From  that  time  to  the  present  they 
have  been  an  object  of  interest  to  all  students 
of  the  early  church,  and  numerous  treatises 
have  been  written  upon  them. 

MiNOii  Particulars. — The  galleries  were 
much  alike,  generally  narrow,  3  or  4  feet  in 
width,  and  thickly  covered  with  places  of  inter- 
ment arranged  upon  their  walls  like  the  berths 
of  a  ship.  Five,  six,  or  even  twelve  ranges 
of  loculi,  as  the  burial  niches  are  called, 
are  above  one  another.  The  loculi  are  parallel 
with  the  length  of  the  gallery,  and  of  the  size 
necessarjr  for  the  reception  of  one  body,  though 
a  few  are  found  to  accomihodate  two  or  more. 
The  bodies  were  wrapped  in  linen  cloths,  and 
sometimes  embalmed.  The  locvlus  was  closed 
with  great  care,  a  slab  of  marble  or  three  tiles 
being  employed  for  the  purpose,  and  the  inter- 
stices were  made  fast  with  cement.  Epitaphs 
were  engraved  or  painted  upon  these  slabs. 
Emblems  like  the  dove,  the  anchor,  the  olive 
branch,  or  the  monogram  of  Christ,  are  com- 
mon. The  "  table-tomb"  was  formed  by  dig- 
ging a  place  larger  than  an  ordinary  locvlus, 
and  then  hollowing  out  a  coifin-like  recess  in 
its  floor,  to  be  covered  by  a  slab  or  table.  If 
the  recess  above  the  cover  was  arched,  the 
tomb  1hus  made  was  called  an  arcosolivm. 
Doors  led  from  the  galleries  into  family  vaidts, 
or  cvbictdn.  They  were  small  apartments, 
seldom  more  than  12  feet  square,  generally 
with  arched  ceilings,  furnished  with  an  arched 
or  table-tomb  upon  each  side.      They  were 


OATAPHRYGIANS 


(145) 


CATEOHBTIOAL 


generally  richly  ornameuted.  The  natural 
desire  to  be  buried  with  kindred,  or  near  the 
grave  of  some  martyr,  caused  these  tombs  to 
be  invaded  by  loculi  oi  a  later  oriiiin,  which 
were  sometimes  made  in  the  walls  already  or- 
uamenfced  with  frescoes.  In  such  family  vaults 
services  wero  held  upon  the  anniversaries  of 
tlie  <leath  of  friends,  and  the  eucharist  was 
celebrated  upon  the  altar  furnished  by  the 
table-tombs.  Baptisms  were  performed  here, 
as  is  proved  by  the  baptisteries,  which  are  still 
found.  But  though  small  chapels  of  several 
ai)artments  connected  so  as  to  form  a  possible 
])l;ice  of  worship  are  found,  it  is  evident  from 
tliiir  size  that  no  considerable  body  of  people 
could  ever  have  worshipped  in  the  catacombs. 
Indeed,  it  is  not  possible  to  arrive  at  complete 
CLTtainty  whether  the  places  so  designated 
were  ever  truly  chapels. 

CriHisTiAN  Art.— The  catacombs  are  full 
of  the  remains  of  Christian  art,  and  though 
many  of  the  frescoes  are  so  aliected  by  later 
restoration  as  to  present  great  difficulties  to 
the  student  of  their  ancient  condition,  still, 
valuable  iiints  as  to  early  Christian  concep- 
tions are  yet  to  be  had.  Frescoed  ceilings 
show  a  centre-piece,  such  as  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, or  a  view  of  some  group,  or  Orpheus 
and  his  lyre,  surrounded  by  landscapes  and 
Scripture  scenes,  such  as  David  with  his  sling, 
Moses  bringing  water  out  of  the  rock,  Koah 
and  the  dove,  the  three  children  in  the  fur- 
nace, Abraham's  sacrifice,  etc.  Of  N.  T. 
scenes  the  most  common  are  the  raising  of 
Lazarus,  the  miracle  of  the  loaves  and  lishes, 
the  paralytic  carrying  his  bed,  etc.  Scenes 
from  the  crucilixion  are  never  found.  The 
drawing  of  the  pictures  is  rude  in  the  extreme. 
Since  the  frescoes  have  all  been  more  or  less 
affected  by  restoration,  more  interest  attaches 
to  the  symbols.  The  monogram  of  Christ 
Ol.v.)  is  "found  from  323  to  451.  The  fish  is 
common,  denoting  the  incarnate  Word,  since 
lish  was  the  principal  meat-food  of  the  ancient 
world.  The  fish  is  combined  with  other  sym- 
bols, and  a  fish  with  a  basket  of  bread  or  wine 
upou  its  back  denoted  the  sacrament.  The 
dove  with  the  olive  branch  is  a  .symbol  of  the 
enjoyment  of  eternal  felicit}-.  Lamps,  scales, 
houses,  ships,  and  other  symbols  in  great  num- 
ber are  to  be  found.  The  best  works  in  Eng- 
lish on  the  catacombs  are  by  J.  H.  Parker,  Tite 
Airhieulogy  of  Ilnae,  London,  1H74-77,  9  vols.  ; 
and  by  Northcote  and  Brownlow,  R<mm  Sotter- 
m/ua,  London,  1869;  2d  ed.,  1879,  2  vols.; 
cf.,  for  popular  work,  W.  H.  Withrow,  T/te 
Cataojnibsof  Rome,  London,  1888.    F.  II.  F. 

Cataphrygians.     See  ]\roNTAXisTS. 

Catechetical  Schools,  Catechetics,  Cate- 
chisms, and  Catechumens.  The  necessity  of 
catechetical  instruction  arises  from  the  nature 
of  the  Christian  religion.  The  apostles  were 
commanded  to  disciple  all  nations,  and  then 
to  baptize  them,  and  this  discipling,  since  a 
disciple  is  a  believer,  and  a  believer  must  know 
what  and  upon  whom  he  believes,  is  essen- 
tially a  process  of  teaching.  Accordingly  we 
find'that  the  earliest  Christian  document  out- 
side the  N.  T.,  the  so-called  Teachinfj  of  the 
Ticelve  Ajxisilcs,  is  a  system  of  duties  which 
are  to  be  taught  to  caudidatea  before  baptism, 


i.e.,  substantially  a  catechism.  As  the  Chris- 
tian Church  emerges  into  the  light  of  history 
after  the  apostolic  period,  we  find  at  once  a 
regular  and  somewhat  formal  system  of  cate- 
chetical instruction.  By  the  time  of  Tertullian 
the  name  "  catechumens"  appears  as  the  desig- 
nation of  a  distinct  class  in  the  Christian  ('(.m 
munity.  In  Origen's  day  there  were  diilereut 
classes  of  catechumens,  the  more  advanced  of 
which  were  admitted  to  hear  the  sermon  in 
the  regular  church  services.  When,  finally, 
by  the  recognition  of  the  church  by  the  em- 
pire, the  sermon  was  thrown  open  to  all 
comers,  the  calechumenale  was  developed  into 
a  long  course  of  instruction  with  dilferent 
grades.  It  began  with  a  ceremony  of  mark- 
ing with  the  cross  and  the  laying  on  of  hands, 
and  the  permission  to  tlu;  catechumen  to  call 
himself  a  Christian.  At  the  same  time  an  ad- 
dress was  made  setting  forth  the  general  prog- 
ress of  tiie  kingdom  of  God  through  the  ages, 
and  introducing  the  further  study  of  the  Chris- 
tian system.  In  a  short  time  the  catechumen 
was  admitted  to  the  second  step.  He  was 
now  specially  and  technically  called  a  "  cate- 
chumen," and  had  the  right  and  duty  of  at- 
tending the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  whence 
his  designation  as  a  "hearer."  lie  also  re- 
mained to  the  prayer  which  was  offered  for  the 
catechumens,  and  hence  received  a  third  name 
"  geuuflectens."  In  this  stage  of  progress 
various  forms  of  instruction  were  given,  but 
the  general  purpose  was  to  introduce  the  cate- 
chumen as  fully  as  p3ssil)le  to  the  common 
life  of  the  church.  A  third  stage  intensified 
all  these  efforts  and  added  systematic  in.struc- 
tion  in  Christian  doctrines  and  duties.  The 
catechumen  was  then  ready  for  baptism. 
This  generally  took  place  at  Easter,  and  was 
preceded  by  a  period  of  fasting  and  prayer. 
The  catechumen  nuist  himself  freely  apply  for 
baptism,  his  name  was  then  incorporated  in 
the  lists  of  the  church,  and  he  must  himself 
renounce  the  devil  and  all  his  works  as  well 
as  give  in  his  free  adherence  to  the  obligations 
of  "the  gospel  at  his  baptism.  The  period  of 
the  catechumenate  was  then  closed. 

When  the  instruction  of  the  catoclnimens 
was  all  completed,  it  had  embraced  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  connected  topics,  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  and  the  "  mysteries, "  or  the  sacraments, 
and  those  topics  which  were  not  oix*nly  treated 
in  sermons  (.see  art.  Aucani  Disciplina). 
The  Christian  theory  of  morals,  based  upon 
the  double  law  of  the  gospels.  w;i.s  aNo  taught. 
This  general  form  continued  till  the  9th  cen- 
tury. But  new  and  foreign  inlluences  had 
already  begun  to  replace  tiie  old  instruction. 
The  great  missionary  advance  of  the  church 
had  nearly  cea.sed,  and  infant  baptism  had  al- 
most entirely  supplanted  adult.  The  confrs- 
sional  had  also  conu;  in.  and  hence  the  element 
of  law  was  added  to  former  inslruction,  and 
it  was  now  biused  upon  the  decalogue.  In 
this  form  it  came  down  to  the  Beformation, 
and  when  the  era  of  modern  "catechisms" 
began  with  that  of  Luther  (ir>2y).  he  nalurallv 
treated  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  C  reed, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Sacraments,  as  the 
topics  proper  'to  such  a  work.  There  had 
been  catechisms  in  the  period  immediately 
preceding  the  lieformation,  as  that  of  the  Bo- 


CASTOR 


(146) 


OATHARI 


hemian  Brethren  ;  but  beginning  with  Luther's 
a  great  number  was  put  fortli  by  all  parties. 
The  Geneva  Catechism  of  Calvin  appeared  in 
1536,  the  Heidelberg  in  1563.  The  begin- 
nings of  the  English  catechism  date  from  1549. 
Tile  catechism  of  Mogilas  in  the  Greek  Church 
was  prepared  in  1543,  that  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  in  1566  (Eng.  trans,  by  Donovan, 
Dublin,  1829).  The  Socinians  published  one 
in  1574.  The  Zurich  belongs  to  the  year 
1639  ;  and  the  greatest  of  the  catechisms,  the 
Larger  and  Shorter  of  the  Westminster  As- 
sembly, were  prepared  in  1647.  The  Shorter 
Catechism,  after  a  review  of  the  entire  field 
of  theology,  takes  up-  successively  the  Ten 
Commandments,  the  Sacraments,  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  thus  substantially  maintaining 
the  ancient  selection  of  topics. 

Catechetics  is  the  science  of  the  instruction 
of  candidates  for  membership  in  the  Christian 
Church.  The  Catechetical  Schools  were 
schools,  like  that  at  Alexandria,  whicli  were 
founded  for  the  instruction  of  catechumens, 
but  which  sometimes  developed  into  theologi- 
cal institutions.  F.  H.  F. 

Ca-te'-na,  a  commentary  upon  a  book  of 
Scripture  composed  of  selections  from  various 
authors.  The  work  of  biblical  interpretation 
which  began  in  the  Eastern  Church  with 
Origen  was  carried  on  by  his  successors,  till  in 
the  5th  century  it  attained  its  summit,  the 
Western  Church  having  meantime  had  her 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Jerome,  who  had 
added  no  insignificant  contribution  to  the  rich 
materials  collected.  This  material  had  now 
to  be  brought  together,  abridged,  and  ar- 
ranged, and  this  was  done  under  the  titles  of 
epitomes,  or  glosses,  and  later  cateiuB.  Cassi- 
odorus  is  named  as  the  first  compiler  of  a 
catena,  but  was  not  strictly  so,  since  he  did 
not  give  his  sources,  and  revised  his  materials. 
Usually  in  the  true  catenw,  the  quotations  are 
made  without  change,  and  are  arranged  one 
after  another  in  order,  the  text  being  printed 
in  the  margin,  and  the  name  of  each  author 
given  in  its  place.  The  making  of  catenm  con- 
tinued till  on  into  the  16th  century,  and  since 
that  time  similar  collections  have  often  been 
made.  The  significance  of  these  early  catenw 
lies  in  the  fact  that  they  have  preserved  to  us 
many  extracts  from  authors  which  have  other- 
wise been  entirely  lost.  With  all  the  various 
inaccuracies  which  exist,  miscitation  of  names, 
defective  condition  of  the  texts,  etc.,  the 
catena}  nre  most  valuable  as  throwing  light 
upon  the  earliest  periods  of  the  history  of  the 
church.  They  are  still  but  partially  exploited 
and  will  repay"  further  study.  The  literature  is 
well  given  in  Herzog's  liealencyclopddie,  vol. 
iv.,  p.  451  f.  F.  H.  F. 

Oath'-a-ri,  a  sect  of  many  branches,  widely 
extended  in  Southern  Europe  during  the  mid- 
dle ages.  It  had  its  origin  among  the  Slavs, 
and  a  bishopric  is  mentioned  as  existing  in 
Macedonia  in  the  12th  century.  The  Bogo- 
miles  (q.v.)  were  a  sect  of  the  Cathari.  Among 
their  earliest  seats  was  Dalmatia,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  12th  century  these  regions, 
including  Bulgaria,  were  dotted  over  with 
Cathari.  Their  doctrine  was  early  trans- 
planted by  travelling  merchants  into  Italy, 


where  the  ancient  traditions  of  Manichasism 
may  have  helped  it  to  gain  a  footing.  It  was 
discovered  by  the  Catholic  Church  in  Turin 
about  the  year  1035,  and  several  of  its  adher- 
ents were  burned.  In  the  following  century 
there  were  many  churches  of  Cathari,  which 
were  governed  by  bishops,  and  which  were  so 
favored  by  political  complications  that  they 
were  long  able  to  bid  defiance  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical authorities.  They  continued  to  main- 
tain themselves  till  the  14th  century,  after 
which  they  disappear. 

The  most  numerous  body  of  Cathari  was 
found  in  Southern  France,  where  they  were 
called  Albigenses  from  the  town  of  Albiga,  or 
popularly  Bojis  Hammes  (good  men).  They 
were  also  found  in  other  parts  of  France,  and 
in  the  neighboring  countries,  but  in  the  region 
about  Toulouse  they  were  most  numerous. 
They  seem  to  have  come  from  Italy  about  the 
beginning  of  the  11th  century.  Their  large 
following,  which  substantially  embraced  the 
entire  population,  was  no  doubt  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  church,  having  forgotten  its  teach- 
ing ofiice,  had  left  the  people  spiritually  desti- 
tute. Many  efforts  were  made  to  subdue 
them.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  travelled  through 
their  country,  attempting  to  convert  them,  in 
1147.  In  1165  a  dispute  was  publicly  held 
between  the  Catholic  clergy  and  the  Cathari 
near  Albiga,  but  though  their  doctrine  was 
condemned,  the  Albigenses  themselves  were 
permitted  to  depart  in  peace.  Then,  more 
elaborate  efforts  for  their  conversion  were 
made.  In  1178  a  papal  legate  was  sent  to 
preach  to  them,  but  in  vain.  In  1180  the 
Cistercians  were  called  into  the  work,  and  for 
a  long  time  were  engaged  in  their  fruitless 
attempts.  Among  their  assistants  was  Dom- 
inic (q.v.),  whose  well-meant  efforts  were  as 
fruitless  as  the  rest.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  (jentury  the  princes  as  M'ell  as  the  com- 
mon people  of  South  France  were  almost  to  a 
man  in  the  Cathari  Church.  Then  came  In- 
nocent III.  to  the  papal  throne  (1198).  Vigor- 
ous measures  were  at  once  set  in  operation. 
Raymond  of  Toulouse,  who  took  the  part  of 
his  subjects,  was  excommunicated  in  1207. 
In  1208,  in  consequence  of  the  assassination 
of  his  legate,  the  pope  proclaimed  a  crusade 
against  the  heretics.  A  pitiless  war  of  exter- 
mination followed.  The  Inquisition  (q.v.) 
was  brought  in  to  help.  In  1244  the  greatest 
part  of  the  survivors  had  taken  refuge  in  the 
castle  of  Montsegur.  After  a  bold  defence 
this  was  taken  by  storm,  and  more  than  200 
of  the  "  perfect"  were  burned  alive.  But  in 
the  first  half  of  the  14th  century  there  were 
still  traces  of  the  sect  in  France.  In  Germany 
they  had  perished  about  a  century  earlier. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Cathari  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  Gnosticism  (q.v.)  and  are 
founded  upon  speculations  as  to  the  origin  cf 
physical  and  moral  evil.  There  is  an  evil  as 
well  as  a  good  principle  in  the  universe,  which 
in  the  most  strenuous  form  of  the  doctrine  is 
represented  as  being  as  absolute  as  the  good 
principle.  The  world  and  the  human  body 
are  the  work  of  this  evil  principle,  which  is 
identified  with  the  God  of  the  Jews.  The  bad 
God  having  seduced  souls  in  heaven  to  sin  and 
having  shut  them  up  in  material  bodies,  the 


CATHERINE 


(147) 


CATTLE 


good  God  has  finally  determined  to  come  to 
their  relief.  To  this  end  he  1ms  sent  his  Son 
Jesus.  The  body  of  Jesus  was  a  mere  appear- 
ance, and  so  were  his  miracles  and  all  that  he 
seemed  to  do  upon  the  earth.  Mary  herself 
had  only  an  apparent  body.  Jesus  reveals  to 
men  their  true  condition,  and  salvation  is  by 
this  knowledge.  Since  many  have  died  witll- 
out  the  necessary  knowledge,  their  souls  are 
caused  (o  pass  through  a  series  of  bodies  till 
they  attain  it.  Another  form  of  the  doctrine 
taught  that  there  was  but  one  God,  and  that 
lie  was  the  Creator  of  matter.  But  an  evil 
spirit,  originally  good,  the  God  of  the  Jews, 
formed  things  as  they  are.  This  form  of  the 
doctrine  substituted  traducianism  for  the 
transmigration  of  soids. 

In  the  ethical  portions  of  their  system,  and 
in  their  customs,  all  parties  of  the  Cathari 
agreed.  Sin  was  pleasure  in  the  created,  the 
work  of  the  evil  spirit.  Hence  mortal  sins 
are  :  The  possession  of  earthly  wealth,  associ- 
ation with  our  fellow-men,  falsehood,  war,  the 
killing  of  animals,  the  use  of  animal  food,  ex- 
cepting fish.  Upon  renunciation  of  the  world, 
the  believer  was  received  into  the  church,  com- 
posed of  the  "perfect,"  and  was  baptized 
with  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  life  of  the  perfect 
was  so  exacting  in  its  requirements  that  but 
few  embraced  it.  The  numerous  "  believers" 
were  content  to  remain  upon  a  lower  plane, 
and  to  seek  admittance  to  the  full  privileges 
of  the  church  in  time  of  sickness  or  danger. 
Their  forms  of  worship  were  simple,  their 
officers  only  bishops  and  deacons.  They  held 
frequent  synods.  (See  Maitland,  History  of 
the  Albigenses,  etc.,  London,  1832.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Catherine,  St.,  in  Greek  ' AeiKadapivd  ("  the 
ever-pure"),  a  famous  saint  of  Alexandria, 
revered  in  both  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches. 
She  converted  a  number  of  heathen  philoso- 
phers, and  though  condemned  to  immediate 
death,  they  met  it  joyfully.  She  converted 
also  the  empress  (wife  of  Maximin),  with  her 
guard  of  200  soldiers.  She  was  finally  be- 
headed herself  alter  many  miraculous  deliver- 
ances, the  most  famous  of  which  gave  rise  to 
the  name  of  St.  Catherine's  wheel  ;  for  it  is 
related  that  when  about  to  be  torn  to  pieces  by 
four  wheels  carrying  sharp  spikes,  an  angel 
broke  the  cords  which  bound  the  wheels  to- 
gether and  also  those  which  bound  her.  Her 
(iaj-  is,  generally  speaking,  Nov.  25,  but  March 
5  is  in  some  places  observed  in  her  honor. 
F.  H.  F. 

Catherine  of  Siena,  b.  at  Siena.  1347  ;  d. 
in  Koine,  April  29,  1380.  The  daughter  of  a 
dyer,  Jacomo  lienincasa,  she  refused  to  betroth 
herself  according  to  her  parents'  desires,  and 
sought  at  the  age  of  lo  admittance  to  the  peni- 
tents of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic.  Her  fame 
for  austerities  became  very  great.  Later  she 
engaged  in  works  of  mercy  abroad,  especially 
in^time  of  a  great  plague  (1374).  She  had 
also  remarkable  vi.sions,  and  received  the  stig- 
mata of  the  Saviour's  wounds,  though  in- 
visibly. In  her  last  years  sh(!  appeared  a.s  a 
peacemaker  between  contending  princes.  (Sec 
her  life  by  J.  E.  Butler,  London,  1879  ;  3d 
cd.,  1881.)  F.  H.  F. 


Cathedra,  Cathedral,  the  official  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  the  church  where  that  seat  is  lo- 
cated. The  bishop  usually  establishe<l  his  scatr 
in  the  principal  city,  where  the  temporal  au- 
tiiority  of  like  rank  was  to  be  found,  but  the 
cathedra  might  migrate  with  the  necessities  of 
the  situation.  In  its  original  idea  the  cathe- 
dral Juul  a  missionary  pur])ose.  The  church 
which  was  the  centre  of  missionary  activity 
for  a  large  tract  of  country  became  its  catho 
dral.  VVorccster  and  Canterbury  in  Enirland 
are  examples  of  this  development.    F.  II.  F. 

Catholic  ( universal),  the  word  is  used  in 
this  sense  in  the  phrase  in  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
"  The  holy  Catholic  Church." 

Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  a  religious  de- 
nomination foundeil  in  London  in  1835,  as  (he 
result  of  alleged  revelations  of  God  liirough 
inspired  prophets.  In  1830  a  phenomenon 
similar  to  the  "  tongues"  of  the  Primitive 
Church  occurred  in  different  i)arts  of  Scotland 
and  in  London,  among  devout  Presbyterians 
and  Church  of  England  members.  Edward 
Irving  (1792-1834,  see  art.)  believed  it  to  be 
supernatural,  and  he  and  his  followers  .sepa- 
rated from  their  respective  denominations 
(1833).  Out  of  this  body  the  Catholic  Apos- 
tolic Church  was  formed.  It  has  prophets, 
angels  (pastors  or  bishops),  priests,  and  dea- 
cons, and  originally  12  apostles,  but  they 
are  all  dead  and  have  no  successors.  Its  lit- 
urgy is  the  most  elaborate  of  the  kind  known, 
and  is  composed  of  portions  of  the  Greek  and 
Anglican.  The  cucharist  is  the  centre  of  their 
worship.  The  doctrine  of  the  second  cnmiug 
of  Christ  is  strongly  emiihasi/.cd.  They  are 
Protestants  and  ciiaracteri/.cd  by  iiitiiligence 
and  piety.  The  movement  began  with  en- 
thusiasm ;  many  of  its  upholders  were  weal- 
thy ;  a  beautiful  and  co.stly  church  wa.s  built 
in'London  ;  converts  were  gathered  through- 
out England  and  Scotland,  Northern  Ger- 
many, Switzerland,  and  America  ;  but  now  it 
is  in'a  state  of  collapse.  (See  Schaff,  Crcedx, 
i.,  905-15.) 

Catholic  (or  United)  Copts,  those  Copts 
who  acknowledge  the  i)aiial  siqircmacy.  See 
Copts. 

Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  passed  by  the 
Britisii  Parliament,  Apiil  13,  1829.  rLinovlng 
the  political  disabilities  of  Koman  Catholics. 

Catholic  (///(i'rc/w//)  Epistles,  a  name  given 
to  5  of  the  last  7  epistles  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, becau.se  they  are  addre.s.sed  to  Christians 
in  general  and  not  to  any  particular  church. 
Thev  are  characteristic  of  their  authors  and 
fullof  instruction.  James  is  strongly  ethical, 
1  and  2  Peter  are  hopeful  and  comforting. 
John  is  full  of  love,  and  Jude  earnest  and 
monitory.  T.  W.  C. 

Catholicos,  the  title  (1)  of  a  .-secular  olTicer 
who  had  charge  of  certain  moneys  :  (2)  of  an 
eccle.sia-sfical  officer  who  was  subordinate  to 
the  patriarch,  but  had  metropolitans  under 
him. 

Cattle,  as  used  in  Scripture,  denotes  not 
only  neat  calllc,  as  buffaloes  and  oxen,  and 
small  c.-ittle.  as  sheep  and  goats,  but  all  llic 
tame  quadrupeds  employed  by  mankind  for 


CAVAIilER 


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CELIBACY 


domestic  purposes,  such  as  horses,  camels, 
and  asses  (Geu.  xiii.  2,  Num.  xx.  19,  Jonah  iv. 
11).  The  holy  land  was  distinguished  for  its 
rich  pastures  and  abundance  of  cattle,  and 
many  of  its  eminent  men  were  occupied  as 
shepherds  or  herdsmen.  Moses  tended  a  flock 
in  Midian  (Ex.  iii.  1),  Saul  appears  first  in 
history  as  seeking  his  father's  asses  (1  Sam. 
ix.  3).  David  was  taken  "  from  the  sheepfolds" 
(Ps.  Ixxxviii.  70),  and  Amos  was  "among 
the  herdmen  of  Tekua"  (Amos  i.  1). 

T.  W.  C. 

Cavalier  or  Cavallier  (ka-va-le-a),  Jean, 
the  brilliant  leader  of  the  Camisards  ;  b.  at 
Pdbaute,  Languedoc,  France,  Nov.  28,  1081  ; 
d.  at  Chelsea,  London,  England,  May  17, 
1740.  Secretly  educated  as  a  Protestant,  he 
espoused  that  cause  at  the  outbreak  of  their 
insurrection  in  the  Cevennes,  1702,  and  was 
wonderfully  successful,  until  near  Nages, 
April  16,  1704,  he  was  crushingly  defeated. 
He  was  in  the  military  service  of  the  Duke  of 
Savoy,  1704-09  ;  lived  in  the  French  colony  at 
Portarlington,  Ireland,  1709-27  ;  came  to  Eng- 
land, and  was  made  brigadier-general,  1735  : 
lieutenant-governor  of  Jersey,  1738  ;  major- 
general,  1739. 

Cave,  William,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1672; 
Oxford,  1681),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Pickwell,  Leicestershire,  Dec.  30,  1637  ;  d.  at 
Windsor,  Aug.  4,  1713.  Educated  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  became  vicar  of  Islington,  1662  ;  of 
Isleworth.  1690  ;  canon  of  Windsor,  1684. 
His  fame  rests  on  his  historical  works,  more 
comprehensive  than  critical,  especially  his 
Primitive  Christianity,  London,  1672,  and 
Hiiitoria  literaria,  1688-98,  2  parts  ;  best  ed. 
Waterland,  Oxford,  1740-43,  2  vols. 

Ceadda.     See  Chad. 

Cecil,  Richard,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  in 
London,  Nov.  8,  1748  ;  d.  at  Belle  Vue, 
Hampstead,  Aug.  15,  1810.  He  was  his  par- 
eats'  youngest  child,  and  his  mother  was 
over  50  years  old  when  she  bore  him.  After 
a  godless  and  profligate  youth  he  was  con- 
verted, 1772  ;  entered  Oxford,  1773,  and  in 
1776  was  ordained  a  deacon.  From  1780  to 
his  death  he  was  rector  of  St.  John's  Chapel, 
Bedford  Row,  Loudon.  He  was  the  leading 
evangelical  divine  of  his  day  and  exerted  ex- 
traordinary influence.  He  had  an  original 
mind,  dignified  cariiage,  and  impressive  de- 
livery. His  collected  works  were  published 
with  his  life,  London,  1811,  4  vols.,  and  have 
been  repeatedly  reprinted,  e.g.,  New  York, 
1845.  3  vols. 

Cecilia.    See  Cecilia. 

Cedar,  a  cone-bearing,  evergreen-tree, 
greatly  celebrated  in  Scripture  (Ps.  xcii.  12, 
civ.  16,  Cant.  iv.  11).  It  is  tall  and  beautiful  ; 
the  gum  that  exudes  from  the  trunk  and  cones 
is  balsamic  ;  tlie  wood  is  very  durable,  and 
being  hard  takes  a  high  polish' and  is  suitable 
for  carving.  It  once  covered  the  slopes  of 
Lebanon,  but  now  there  remain  only  11 
groves,  containing  in  all  several  thousand 
trees.  T.  W.  C. 

Ceillier  (sa-ye-a),  Dom  Remy,  Roman 
Catholic  ;  b.  at  Bar-le-Duc,  near  Paris,  1688  ; 


entered  the  Benedictine  order,  1705  ;  became 
titular  prior  of  Flavigny,  near  Nancy  :  d. 
there,  Nov.  17,  1761.  His  great  work  is  his 
general  history  of  ecclesiastical  literature 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  {Ilis- 
toire  generate  des  auteurs  meres  et  ecelesias- 
tiqiie),  Paris,  1729-63,  23  vols.  ;  n.  e.,  Paris, 
1858-65,  14  vols. 

Celano.    See  Thomas  of  Celano. 

Cel'-es-tine,  name  of  several  popes.  1. 
Pope  Sept.  422  till  July  26,  432.  A  Roman 
by  birth,  he  concerned  himself  in  extending  the 
power  of  the  Roman  primacy.  A  contest  iu 
the  African  Church  gave  him  welcome  op- 
portunity to  favor  the  transfer  of  all  greater 
causes  to  Rome  as  an  appellate  court  ;  but  the 
resistance  of  tlie  African  bishops  rendered 
the  effort  unsuccessful.  He  was  more  fortu- 
nate iu  the  Nestorian  controversy.  Cyril, 
who  wished  his  influence,  had  flattered  him 
into  an  approval  of  the  Alexandrian  doctrine, 
which  was  successful  at  the  final  decision. 
He  had  even  deposed  Nestorius  at  a  synod  in 
430.  2.  (Guide  di  Castello)  pope  Sept.  26, 
1143,  till  March  8,  1144.  3.  (Jacinto  Bobo) 
pope  March  30, 1191,  till  Jan.  8, 1198.  The  first 
of  the  Orsini  to  be  made  pope.  He  crowned 
Henry  VI.  of  Germany  emperor  after  long  de- 
lay, but  subsequently  excommunicated  him 
for  keeping  Richard  of  England  a  captive. 
In  1192  he  confirmed  the  order  of  Teutonic 
Knights.  4.  (Godfrey  Castiglioni  of  Milan) 
pope  Oct.  26  till  Nov.  17,  1241.  5.  After  the 
death  of  Nicholas  IV.  there  was  a  vacancy  in 
the  papacy  of  2  years  and  3  months.  Finally, 
upon  July  5,  1294,  the  cardinals  succeeded  iu 
electing  an  aged  and  famous  monk,  Pietro  di 
Murrone,  b.  1215,  who  had  a  great  reputation 
for  sanctity,  and  was  the  founder  of  a  religious 
order  (see  Celestines).  He  was  meagrely 
educated  and  wholly  unfit  for  the  office,  but 
he  resisted  the  call  in  vain.  After  bearing 
the  burdens  of  the  papacy  for  5  months,  he 
abdicated  (Dec.  13,  1294),  and  retired  to  his 
cell  ;  but  he  was  pulled  out  of  it  by  Boniface 
VIII.,  his  successor,  who  thought  it  safer  to 
have  him  imder  his  power,  and  died  in  prison. 
May  19,  1296.  F.  H.  F. 

Celestines,  an  order  of  monks,  witli  the 
Benedictine  rule  modified  by  the  addition  of 
certain  austerities,  founded  by  Pietro  di  Mur- 
rone in  1254,  and  named  after  he  had  ascended 
the  papal  throne  as  Celestine  V.  by  his  name. 
In  Celestine's  own  life  there  were  36  monas- 
teries of  this  order,  and  after  his  death,  being 
favored  by  the  popes,  it  spread  rapidly  through 
Italy,  German}-,  Flanders,  and  France  ;  but 
at  present  there  survives  only  a  small  number 
in  Italy.  F.  H.  F. 

Celestius.     See  Coelestitts. 

Celibacy,  the  state  of  virginity,  came  at  an 
early  jicriod  to  be  regarded  in  "the  church  as 
highly  honorable.  With  the  increase  of  ten- 
dencies toward  asceticism,  not  always  uncon- 
taminated  with  latent  dualism,  the  marriage 
of  ecclesiastics  began  to  be  looked  upon  with 
disfavor.  Still,  in  the  early  church  there  was 
no  requirement  of  celibacy.  Novatus,  a  pres- 
byter, and  Cyprian,  a  bishop,  both  of  the  3d 
century,  were  married.     Chrysostom  (4th  cen- 


CELL 


(149) 


CELTIC 


tury)  opposes  enforced  celibacy.  Yet  the  sec- 
ond nicirriage  of  clergymen  began  to  be  looked 
upon  with  disapproval  in  the  2d  and  8d  cen- 
turies. The  Moutanists  forbade  remarriage, 
and  Tertullian  tooii  their  side  with  character- 
istic vehemence.  Efforts  were  made  at  the 
Council  of  Nice  (325;  to  procure  a  decree  com- 
manding celibacy,  but  it  was  opposed  success- 
fully by  Paphnutius,  himself  unmarried,  and 
it  was  pi-ovided  that  only  those  who  were  un- 
married at  ordination  should  abstain  from 
marriage.  In  the  Greeii  Church,  the  require- 
ment of  celibacy  has  gone  but  little  further  to 
this  day.  The  Trullan  Council  (692)  enjoined 
celibacy  on  bishops,  but  permitted  marriage  to 
presbyters  and  deacons.  In  Russia  marriage  is 
required  of  a  priest  before  ordination,  but  a 
bishop  must  be  a  celibate,  and  he  is  hence 
generally  taken  from  tlie  monks,  who  are 
celibates.  Ev^en  in  tiiat  portion  of  the  Greek 
Church  now  imitcd  with  Rome,  the  priests 
are  permitted  to  continue  in  marriage. 

In  the  Church  of  Rome  the  drift  began  to 
set  earl}'  toward  an  enforced  celibacy,  and  it 
has  been  allowed  to  gain  entire  control  of  the 
church.  Pope  Siricius  (385)  styled  marriage 
an  "  obscmna  cupiditas."  For  centuries  the 
contest  for  and  against  celibacy  continued. 
The  priests  married  in  large  numbers.  Where 
this  was  prevented,  great  crimes  were  com- 
mon. Leo  IX.  suspended  married  priests 
from  ail  spiritual  functions,  and  ethers  after 
him.  Tlie  great  promoter  of  sacerdotal  celi- 
bacy was  the  monk  Hildebrand  (1073-85),  who 
set  it  before  him  as  his  great  task  to  put  down 
the  twin  evils  of  simony  and  marriage  among 
priests.  In  Milan  and  in  Germany  marriage 
was  the  rule  among  the  priests.  The  struggle 
was  intense,  but  having  got  the  civil  authori- 
ties upon  his  side,  he  was  able  to  carry  out  his 
plans.  In  a  council  held  at  Rome  in  1074  he 
decreed  that  no  ecclesiastic  could  be  a  married 
man,  and  that  every  layman  who  received  the 
sacrament  at  the  hands  of  a  married  priest 
should  be  excommunicated,  and  every  such 
priest  deposed.  Hildebrand  had  a  high  am- 
bition for  the  church,  and  he  perceived  that 
the  best  means  to  attach  the  priests  with  un- 
wavering loyalty  to  the  church  as  an  institu- 
tion, was  to' deprive  them  of  those  family  ties 
which  strengthen  the  attachment  to  home  and 
country,  as  was  afterward  argued  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent.  Tnis  council,  before  which  the 
question  was  brought  by  the  Protestant  rejec- 
tion of  celibacy,  but  no  less  by  the  petitions 
of  loyal  Catholics,  refused  to  yield  anything, 
and  erected  what  liad  before  been  universally  j 
acknowledged  a  rule  of  discipline,  into  an 
article  of  faith.  The  agitation  has  not  yet 
ceased  even  among  Roman  Catholic-,  while 
the  stringent  regulations  made  from  lime  to 
time  to  prevent  concubinage  and  unchaslity 
among  priests  .show  that  the  evils  of  which 
Protestants  have  complained,  liave  not  cea.sed. 
In  all  the  Protestant  churches,  enforced  celi- 
bacy is  rejected  as  contrary  lo  the  Word  of  God 
and  immoral.  (See  Lea,  S<ie<nb>tal  ('(Ubm-y, 
Philadelphia,  1867 ;  2d  cd.,  1884.)     F.  II.  F. 

Cell,  (1)  in  clivssical  usage  a  cave  where 
provision   of  some   sort  is   kept  ;    (2)  then  a  , 
email  dwelling  apartment ;  (3)  in   Christian 


usage  a  chapel  erected  over  a  tomb  ;  (4)  a 
room  in  a  monastery  ;  and  tinally,  (5)  a  monas- 
tic dwelling  either  of  a  single  monk  or  of  a 
community,  subordinate  to  an  abbey,  coin- 
pelled  to  pay  tithes  to  it,  and  to  present  them- 
selves there  at  stated  times. 

Cellerariua  or  Cellarius,  the  monastic  ofll- 
cer  who  had  cliarge  of  the  secular  all'airs. 

Cellites  or  Anchorites,  (1)  a  class  of  monks 
between  hermits  and  ca>uobiles,  who  lived  in 
cells  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  monastery 
and  were  under  its  control,  while  the  hermits 
were  independent,  and  the  co'nobites  lived  in 
the  monastery.  (2)  Members  of  the  Alexian 
order  ((j.v.). 

Celo-Syria.     See  Ccelo-Syria. 

Celsus,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  the  oldest 
literary  opponent  of  Christianity.  Unfortu- 
nately his  book,  The  True  IMKCoari<e{\.D.  177), 
is  lost,  but  from  the  copious  extracts  given  by 
Origen,  who  replied  to  it,  it  has  been  skilfully 
restored  by  Keim,  1873,  and  Aube  (Ilistoh-e 
des  persccut/'ons,  Paris,  1878). 

Celtic  Church.  The  beginnings  of  the 
church  in  Britain  are  lost  in  the  obscurity  of 
the  most  remote  past.  Bede  luvs  an  account 
of  a  letter  from  Lucius,  king  of  Britain,  to 
Eleutherius,  bishop  of  Rome  (177-93),  asking 
for  Christian  instruction.  But  this  is  a  Ro- 
man tradition  of  the  6th  century,  having  no 
solid  foundation.  Christianity  came  to  Britain 
as  it  spread  to  all  other  lands,  through  the 
active  interest  of  Christians  in  their  fellow- 
men,  and  was  promoted  by  the  intereouise  of 
commerce.  By  the  time  of  the  persecutions 
under  Diocletian  certain  tokens  of  the  exist- 
ence of  churches  in  Britain  are  to  be  found. 
The  tradition  of  the  martyrdom  of  Alban  in 
Verulam  and  of  two  others  is  trustworthy. 
No  light  is  shed  upon  the  condition  of  the 
Biitisii  Church  by  these  events.  It  is  not  till 
the  beginning  of  the  4th  century  that  we  liud 
much  reliable  information  as  to  its  condition. 
But  then  it  was  scattered  along  the  great  mili- 
tary roads,  and  had  its  bishops,  who  met  iu 
council  with  others  of  the  West  at  Ailes(314), 
at  Sardica  (343),  and  at  Ariminum  (359). 

The  inner  life  of  the  church  in  this  period 
remains  unknown  lo  us.  The  Arian  heresy 
is  .«aid  to  have  made  irruptions  into  it,  but  the 
rhetoric  of  the  accounts  and  the  express  testi- 
mony of  Hilary  and  Athanasius  to  the  con- 
trary render  the  .story  ini]>robable.  The  lirst 
half  of  the  4th  century  seems  to  have  In-en  the 
most  llourishing  period  of  the  church.  Later, 
Pelagianism  is  said  to  have  come  in,  and  the 
Britons  in  distress  are  said  to  have  «pi)lied  to 
Gaul  for  help,  which  res]»()n<hd  ])y  srnding 
Germainis  and  Lupus,  who  heltl  disputations 
and  conciucred  the  heresy.  But,  if  tiiere  is  u 
germ  of  truth  in  this  .statonent.  the  dtlails 
are  wliollv  covcr.d  up  by  the  nia.>ss  of  tra.li- 
tion  which  has  tilled  the  accounts  with  all 
sorts  of  miracles.  Fiom  this  time  on.  nothing 
is  known  of  the  church  till  the  l)c-giniiing  of 
the  (till  centurv. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Ireland 
is  a.scrii>ed  bv  some  to  Celestiue  (423-32),  wJio 
is  said  to  have  .sent  Palladius  to  Inland.  But 
the  more  reliable  tradition  refers  the  convcr- 


CELTIC 


(150) 


CELTIC 


sion  of  that  land  to  Patrick  (q.v.).  In  this 
early  time  Christianity  is  found  also  in  south- 
ern Scotland. 

The  victory  of  Arthur  over  the  Saxons  at 
Bath  (516)  gave  the  British  Church  the  oppor- 
tunity of  renewing  its  activity.  The  stimu- 
lating cause  may  have  been  some  influence  ex- 
erted by  the  Church  of  Gaul,  and  tradition 
suggests  as  much.  The  seat  of  the  church 
was  now  Wales,  -whither  the  Britons  had  been 
driven  back  by  the  invaders.  Four  bishoprics 
are  found  here— Bangor,  Llandaff,  St.  Asaph, 
and  St.  David.  The  same  system  of  church 
government  prevailed  here  as  elsewhere  in 
Christendom — the  territorial  episcopacy.  The 
conventual  system  was  highly  developed.  A 
famous  monastery  was  Glastonbury  in  Somer- 
set. Another  was  Bangor,  near  the  modern 
Chester,  which  in  the  year  603  numbered  2100 
monks.  In  an  engagement  with  the  Saxons 
later,  1200  monks  were  slain.  Anchorites 
were  also  held  in  great  honor.  The  great 
event  of  this  period  was  the  conference  with 
the  Roman  missionary,  Augustine,  in  the  year 
603.  It  took  place  upon  the  western  borders 
of  the  Saxon  kingdoms.  Seven  British  bishops 
met  Augustine.  The  three  points  in  dispute 
were  the  celebration  of  Easter,  baptism,  and 
common  missionary  elforts  among  the  heathen. 
The  conference  might  have  resulted  in  a  prac- 
tical union  between  the  churches,  had  it  not 
been  for  the  haughtiness  of  the  Roman.  With 
the  subsequent  progress  of  the  Saxon  arms  the 
British  were  driven  farther  and  farther  back, 
till  finally,  in  777,  the  last  station  in  South 
Wales  had  conformed  to  Rome. 

Meantime  the  Scottish  Church  in  Ireland 
and  Scotland  had  had  a  brilliant  history. 
This  was  more  of  a  missionary  church  than 
the  others.  Tradition  seems  to  indicate  that 
the  Irish  Church  after  the  death  of  Patrick 
had  fallen  into  decay,  and  that  it  was  revived 
by  efforts  having  their  origin  in  Wales.  Fin- 
nian  is  said  to  have  performed  this  work,  and 
to  have  founded  a  monastery  in  Meath  Avhich 
had  3000  monks.  This  was  the  centre  from 
which  numbers  of  missionaries  went  out  into 
all  Ireland,  founding  many  monasteries,  of 
Avhich  the  most  famous  was  that  at  Bennchar 
(Bangor),  founded  in  558.  This  monastery 
became  the  source  of  missionary  laborers  for 
the  Scottish,  and  later  the  Continental  mis- 
sions. The  great  work  of  these  institutions 
was.  however,  done  in  Ireland  itself,  which 
they  converted  to  Christianity',  and  to  which 
they  gave  the  choice  fruits  of  a  higher  culture. 
Efforts  were  made  by  Rome  to  win  the  church 
over  to  the  Roman  usages,  and  though  in  re- 
spect to  the  celebration  of  Easter  they  yielded 
about  703,  they  kept  their  custom  of  baptizing 
without  the  use  of  oil,  their  ordination  by  a 
single  bishop,  and  their  clerical  marriage.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  9th  century,  the  invasions 
of  the  Danes  drove  many  of  the  Irish  to  the 
Continent. 

In  563  Columba  with  12  companions  came 
from  the  Irish  Bangor  to  Scotland  for  mis- 
sionary purposes,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
Island  of  Hi,  or  lona,  where  he  established  a 
monastery  which  was  to  be  the  governing 
monastery  for  all  the  missions  that  might  be 
established  among  the  Picts.     This  form  of 


ecclesiastical  organization  was  maintained, 
and  the  church  remained  a  monastic  church 
for  150  years,  the  monks  going  out  and  estab- 
lishing such  centres  of  work  all  over  the  land. 
The  most  important  service  rendered  by  these 
monks  was  in  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  Northumbria.  The  heir  to  the  throne, 
Oswald,  had  escaped  to  Hi  at  a  time  of  per- 
sonal danger,  and  had  there  learned  what 
Christianity  was,  and  had  accepted  it.  When 
he  ascended  the  throne  in  634,  he  determined 
to  Introduce  Christianity  among  his  people. 
There  had  been  some  work  already  done  in 
the  realm,  and  the  bishopric  of  York  had  been 
established  under  Eadwin  in  627.  But  sub- 
sequent events  had  compelled  the  bishop  to 
flee,  and  the  work  had  to  be  begun  again. 
Oswald  sent  to  Hi,  and  after  one  missionary 
had  met  with  failure,  Aidan  was  sent  out  in 
634,  who  became  the  successful  missionary  of 
the  country,  and  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
figures  in  all  missionary  history.  He  humbly 
put  his  episcopal  residence  at  distant  Lindis- 
farne,  from  which  he  travelled  all  through  the 
land,  and  gained  the  hearts  of  all  the  people 
by  his  unselfish  devotion  to  them.  Under  his 
successors  the  church  continued  to  flourish, 
till  in  664  a  disputation  was  held,  and  the  Cel- 
tic ChiTrcii  was  persuaded  to  accept  the  cus- 
toms of  Rome  upon  tlie  points  in  contest  be- 
tween the  two  parties.  From  this  time  the 
separate  history  of  the  Celtic  Church  in  this 
region  ceases.  Troubles  over  the  same  ques- 
tions arose  even  in  the  mother  monastery  at 
Hi.  The  king  of  the  Picts  went  over  to  the 
Roman  side  in  710.  This  made  an  end  to  the 
primacy  of  Hi  in  the  Pict  country.  With  the 
coming  of  the  Danes  in  794  Hi  was  exposed 
to  their  attacks,  and  in  802  the  monastery  was 
burned.  Though  afterward  restored,  the  seat 
of  ecclesiastical  government  was  finally  re- 
moved to  Dunkeld. 

The  period  from  the  9th  to  the  12th  century 
is  the  period  of  the  decline  of  the  Celtic 
Church.  Asser,  bishop  of  St.  David,  put 
himself  under  the  protection  of  Alfred  the 
Great,  but  this  only  served  to  open  wide  the 
door  to  the  influence  of  Rome.  In  1172  the 
Welsh  Church  was  reformed  upon  the  model 
of  Rome.  It  was  in  this  period  that  the  Cul- 
dees  appeared,  who  have  been  the  objects  of 
much  discussion.  They  have  been  made  a 
Aveapon  of  Protestant  and  Presbyterian  po- 
lemics. They  have  been  .supposed  to  have 
preserved  in  one  corner  of  the  world  the  pu- 
rity of  primitive  Christianity  without  admix- 
ture of  the  traditions  of  Rome.  But  such 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  the  case.  The 
name  is  of  uncertain  origin,  but  must  mean 
simply  friends  or  worshippers  of  God.  It  was 
never  applied  to  the  old  Scottish  Church,  but 
first  to  certain  anchorites  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  monks  of  Hi  in  717.  They  lived  mostly 
in  monasteries  like  other  monks,  from  whom 
they  did  not  greatly  differ,  except  that  their 
rule  was  less  stringent  in  certain  particulars. 
Side  by  side  with  these  were  secular  clergy- 
men. They  had  peculiar  canons,  and  wera 
permitted  to  have  wives.  In  the  13th  century 
the  name  is  used  of  many  different  classes,  in 
botli  a  good  and  bad  sense. 

The  subjection  of  the  Celtic  Church  in  Ire* 


OELTIO 


(151) 


CHAD 


land  to  Rome  was  a  gradual  process,  but  was 
accomplished  flually  iu  consequence  of  the  de- 
cline of  the  church  and  the  evident  need  of  re- 
form. Lanfranc,  Gregory  VII..  and  An.selm 
all  took  part  in  the  work,  and  in  1152  tlie 
country  was  divided  into  4  bishoprics.  In 
Scothmd  (he  assimilation  to  Rome  came  under 
the  government  of  David,  1124-53.  The  bish- 
opric of  Glasgow  was  founded,  and  9  dioceses 
established.  By  1333  Rome  was  triumphant, 
and  the  Culdees  were  then  regarded  as  her- 
etics. 

The  great  peculiarity  of  the  Celtic  Church 
was  its  close  connection  with  the  national  or- 
ganization into  clans,  etc.  Thus  the  life  of 
the  church  penetrated  more  thoroughly  the 
entire  public  life.  It  has  been  a  much-mooted 
question  whether  this  church  had  the  3  grades 
of  the  clergy.  The  great  number  of  bishops 
said  to  have  been  ordained  by  Patrick  seems 
to  imply  that  they  were  scarcely  more  than 
presbyters.  Some  facts  as  to  Patrick's  ow^n 
course  seem  to  favor  this  view,  but  he  himself 
certainly  exercised  episcopal  functions.  Else- 
where the  traces  of  the  full  episcopal  system 
are  undeniable.  The  doctrine  of  the  Celtic 
Church  was  a  simple  Christianity,  derived 
from  and  nourished  upon  the  Bible,  which 
was  an  object  of  special  study  among  them. 
They  seem  to  have  possessed  no  translation  of 
the  Scriptures  into  a  Celtic  language.  (See 
Killea,  Haddan,  and  Stubbs,  Councils,  0.\- 
ford,  1869  ;  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland,  Edinburgh, 
1876-80,  3  vols.  ;  Bright,  Eurli/  Eiic/lish  CInirch 
Ilixtory,  O.vford,  1878  ;  Warren,  Litiirgti  (ind 
Ritual  of  the  Keltic  Church,  O.xford,  1881  ; 
Rhys,  Celtic  Britain,  London,  1882.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Celtic  Religion.     See  Druidism. 

Cemeteries.  See  Buri.\l,  CAT.\co>rBS, 
Sepulchre. 

Censer,  a  vessel  in  which  fire  and  incense 
were  carried  in  Hebrew  worship.  It  was 
usually  made  of  copper  (Num.  xvi.  39),  but 
that  used  on  the  day  of  Atonement  was  of 
pure  gold  (1  Kings  vii.  50,  Heb.  ix.  4).  Usu- 
ally the  priest  holding  the  censer  with  coals 
in  one  hand,  witli  the  other  sprinkled  pow- 
dered incense  upon  the  tire,  and  the  smoke 
filled  the  room.  The  "  bowls  full  of  incen.se" 
in  Rev.  v.  8  (R.  V.)  were  censers. 

T.  W.  C. 

Censor.     See  Index. 

Censures,  Church,  tlie  penalties  enjoined 
by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  for  certain 
otTences.  They  are  excommunication  ;  sus- 
pension ;  deposition  (of  a  minister)  ;  interdict 
(wlien  the  rites  of  the  church  are  forbidden, 
previously  the  most  frightful  penalty  in  the 
power  of  the  pope). 

Census.  Four  formal  numberings  of  the 
Jews  are  recorded  in  the  Bible;  :  one  at  Sinai 
(Ex.  xxxviii.  26),  showing  the  number  of  men 
over  20  years  of  age  to  be  603.5.50  ;  one  in  the 
2J  year  after  the  Exodus  (Num.  i.  2).  showing 
the  .same  figures  ;  one  jupt  before  the  entrance 
into  Canaan  (Num.  xxvi.).  and  one  iu  David's 
reiiin  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  9).  when  the  men  numbered 
1,300,000,  wJiich  seems  large  for  the  area  of 


the  country  ;  but  Palestine  was  fertile  and  tho 
surface  of  such  a  character  that  all  of  it  could 
be  u.sed  for  productive  purposes.  All  (;ollal- 
eral  sources  of  information  indicate  that  the 
population  was  very  dense. 

Reference  is  made  in  the  New  Testament 
(Luke  ii.  1)  to  "  a  decree  from  ('ajsar  Augus- 
tus that  all  the  world  should  be  taxed,"  or 
enrolled,  as  the  R.  V.  gives  it.  This,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  fact  that  the  registration  was 
made  by  tribes,  required  that  Joseph  and 
Mary  should  go  to  the  city  whence  they  orig- 
inated, to  be  enrolled,  and  consequently  led  to 
the  birth  of  our  Saviour  in  Bethlehem,  the 
place  marked  out  in  Micah's  prophecy  (v.  2). 
Luke  states  that  this  took  ])la((!  when  Cyrenius 
(the  Greek  form  of  the  Roniiui  Qnirin'ufi)  was 
governor  of  Syria,  but  J(»scplnis  .nays  that 
Quirinus  came  to  Syria  as  imperial  legate  and 
completed  a  census  in  6  or  7  .\.D.  The  dis- 
crepancy between  the  two  dates  was  early 
perceived,  and  for  a  long  time  was  made  an 
objection  to  the  evangelist's  accuracy.  But 
the  recent  investigations  of  Zumpt  render  it 
every  way  probable  that  (Juirinus  was  twice 
governor  of  Syria,  the  first  time  from  n.c.  4  to 
A.D.  1  and  the  second  from  a.d.  6  onward.  It 
was  during  his  first  occupancy  of  the  office  that 
the  enrolment  occurred,  and  thus  the  veracity 
of  Scripture  is  fully  vindicated.     T.  W.  C. 

Centuries  of  Magdeburg,  tlie  lu'story  of 
the  Chri.stiun  Church,  written  by  Matthias 
Flacius  lllyri('\is  and  associates,  all  of  whom 
lived  in  ]\l;igJ(l)urg.  wliere  tiie  work  was  pub- 
lished (15()()-74).  It  is  divided  into  centuries, 
each  tilling  a  volume,  ¥.o  the  13  vols,  cover 
the  tirst  13  centuries  of  the  church's  history. 
It  was  the  tirst  Protestant  work  of  the  kind, 
and  has  never  been  superseded.  It  was  in 
reply  that  Baronius  prepared  his  great  work. 

Centurion,  a  Roman  officer  commanding  a 
hundred  men.  Several  centurions  are  men- 
tioned ,  witii  honor  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  faith  of  one  astoni.'^hed  our  Lord  (Matt, 
viii.  10),  another  recognized  Christ's  claims 
even  in  death  (Mark  xv.  39).  another  was  the 
tirst-fruit  of  the  Gentiles  (Acts  x.  1),  and  a 
fourth  was  Paul's  active  friend  (Acts  xxvii. 
43).  T.  W.  C. 

Cerdo,  the  predecessor  of  Marcion  (ti.v.). 
As  he  left  no  writings  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine exactly  what  he  taught. 

Ce-rin'-thus,  the  first  known  link  connect- 
ing Judaism  and  Gnosticism,  a  conlemjuirary 
of  St.  John  the  Divine,  wlio  had  a  horror  of 
him,  according  to  tradition,  taught  that  Clirist 
woidd  reign  iooO  years  on  the  earth,  durinff 
which  there  would  "iu-  numerous  wnsual  pleas- 
ures for  the  elect  ;  that  the  material  luiivorso 
was  created  not  by  (Jod  but  l)y  anu:elic  iHJngs  ; 
and  that  it  wa.s'not  imtil  baptism  that  tiie 
human  Jesus  became  Christ. 

Cerularius.     See  C.t:uiLARu:s. 

Ceylon.     Sec  Missions. 

Chad  or  Ceadda,  jiatron  saint  of  Lielilield. 
Emrlaiiil.  where  hed.  March  2,  672.  liorn  m 
Northuml)ria,  he  was  monk  in  Ireland  anfi  at 
Lindisfarue,  9  m.  s.s.e.  of  Fi<'rwi<k-<.n-Twecd, 
u.e.  coast  of  England  ;  became  bishop  of  \  ork. 


CHAILA 


(152) 


CHAMIER 


664  ;  resigned  and  became  bishop  of  Mcrcia, 
669.  He  was  one  of  the  more  popuhir  Eng- 
lish saints,  and  his  name  is  now  on  the  Church 
of  England  calendar. 

Chaila.    See  Camisard. 

Chjgug  (or  Chiug),  Jehuda  ben  David, 
the  chief  Hebrew  grammarian,  in  Jewish  esti- 
mation, flourished  in  the  11th  century  ;  is  the 
discoverer  of  tlie  triliteral  character  of  Hebrew 
stems,  of  the  true  relation  of  the  quiescent 
letters,  and  their  changes  ;  and  first  arranged 
the  Hebrew  verbs  in  6  conjugations,  in  which 
he  has  been  followed  by  all  grammarians. 

Chal-ce'-don,  a  town  situated  upon  the 
Bosphorus,  opposite  Constantinople  and  south 
of  the  present  Scutari,  the  seat  of  the  4tli  ecu- 
menical council  in  451.  Here  in  opposition  to 
Eutychianism  (q.v.)  and  Nestorianism  (q.v.), 
the  doctrine  of  the  church  as  to  the  two  na- 
tures of  Christ  was  defined.  See  the  art. 
Christology.  F.  H.  F. 

Ohalced'-ony,  a  precious  stone  with  which 
the  foundation  of  the  wall  of  the  New  Jeru- 
salem (Rev.  xxi.  19)  was  adorned.  Named 
after  Chalcedon  in  Bythinia.  An  agate-like 
quartz  of  pearly  lustre  and  translucent. 

T.  W.  C. 

Ohaldae'-a,  the  country  of  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia. See  AssYRioLOGY  and  the  Bible, 
p.  51. 

Chal'-dee  Par'-aphrase.     See  Targums. 

Chaldees,  See  Assyriology  and  the 
Bible. 

Chalice  (Latin  calix,  "a  cup"),  the  cup 
used  for  the  wine  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  In  the  Roman  Church  it 
must  be  either  of  gold  or  silver  ;  consecrated 
by  the  bishop  with  chrism,  and  untouched 
save  by  persons  in  holy  orders. 

Ohal'-mers,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Glasgow,  1816), 
D.C.L.  (Oxford,  l«3r,),  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land ;  b.  at  Anstruther  Easter,  in  Fife,  Scot- 
land, March  17,  1780  ;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  in 
the  night  of  May  30,  1847.  He  was  idte  as  a 
child  and  during  the  first  two  years  of  his  uni- 
versity training  at  St.  Andrew's,  but  mathe- 
matics awakened  his  intellectual  powers  and 
he  pursued  it  and  natural  science  with  ardor. 
He  was  settled  at  Kilmany,  in  Fife,  May,  1803, 
and  quickly  made  a  reputation  as  an  original, 
earnest  preacher.  He  was,  however,  little 
spirituallj^-minded  until  sickness  and  trial, 
and  the  studies  necessary  to  produce  his  arti- 
cle on  Christianity  for  the  Edinhnrc/h  Kncydo- 
pwdia,  deepened  his  interest  in  religion  and 
led  him  to  accept  "  evangelical"  views  (1810), 
which  he  never  relinquished.  The  effect  of 
his  new  feelings  was  immediately  perceived 
in  his  preaching,  to  the  great  increase  of  its 
power.  In  1815  he  became  minister  of  the 
Tron  parish,  Glasgow,  and  in  1819  was  trans- 
ferred to  St.  John's  ;  but  he  was  ultimately 
glad  to  leave  the  pastorate  and  become  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  at  St.  Andrew's, 
1823.  In  1828  he  was  removed  to  the  chair 
of  theology  at  Edinburgh,  and  when  the  Free 
Church  .set  up  the  New  College  in  that  city 
he  became  principal  and  professor  of  divinity, 


1843,  and  held  these  positions  till  death.  In 
1834  he  was  elected  a  corresponding  member 
of  the  Institute  of  France. — Chalmers  is  indis- 
solubly  connected  with  two  great  movements 
—one  national  and  one  world-wide,  which  .set 
him  forth  as  a  statesman,  a  patriot,  and  a 
philanthropist  :  he  led  the  party  in  the  Es- 
tablished (.!hurch  which  resisted  the  civil  in- 
terference in  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  left  the 
church  rather  than  yield  to  it,  so  making  the 
Free  Church,  1843  (see  art.  Presbyterianism); 
he  also  inaugurated  at  Kilmany  that  system 
of  work  among  the  dependent  and  pauper 
classes  which  through  personal  contact  be- 
tween the  well-to-do  and  the  others  is  designed 
to  elevate  the  latter  to  self-respect.  Thus 
while  pastor  of  St.  John's,  the  largest  and  at 
the  same  time  the  poorest  parish  in  Glasgow, 
he  divided  the  parish  into  districts  and  sub- 
districts,  placed  office-bearers  of  his  own 
church  over  each,  established  day  schools  and 
Sunday-scliools  wherever  they  were  needed, 
and  strove  to  raise  the  people  to  a  sense  of 
their  moral  dignity,  especially  in  the  light  of 
the  gospel.  The  result  was  a  great  diminu- 
tion in  the  amount  needed  in  monetary  relief, 
for  whereas  formerly  £1400  had  been  ex- 
pended, 3^  years  under  the  new  system  cost 
only  £280  per  annum  ;  and  this  money  was 
raised  by  the  church-door  ccllection  for  the 
poor.  This  admirable  plan  is  the  basis  of  the 
work  known  in  Great  Britain  and  America  as 
"charity  organization."  Chalmers  was  a 
famous  pulpit  orator,  and  that  not  only  in 
Scotland.  His  works  come  down  to  us  mainly 
in  the  form  of  sermons  or  lectures.  He  was 
not  a  great  theologian,  yet  his  students  were 
stimulated  by  his  enthusiasm  and  guided  by 
his  life.  His  life  was  written  by  his  son-in- 
law,  W.  Hanna,  Edinburgh,  1849-52,  4  vols., 
who  also  edited  his  posthumous  works,  Edin- 
burgh. 1847-49,  9  vols.  His  works  form  25 
vols.,  Glasgow,  1836-42.  (Cf.  life  by  Donald 
Eraser,  London  and  New  York,  1881.) 

Chamber,  the  private  apartment  in  a  house 
(Gen.  xliii.  30,  Dan.  vi.  10).  Guest-chamber 
(Mark  xiv.  14)  was  a  spacious  unoccupied 
room,  usually  in  the  upper  part  of  the  house. 
Sometimes  it  was  simply  called  the  tipper 
chamber  (Acts  ix.  37)  and  was  built  over  the 
gate  or  outer  entrance  (cf.  1  Kings  xvii.  19, 
23  and  2  Kings  iv.  10).  Chambers  of  the  south 
(Job  ix.  9)  denotes  the  great  spaces  of  the 
southern  hemisphere  with  the  constellations 
which  they  contain.  Chambers  of  imagery 
(Ezek.  viii.  12)  were  rooms  with  all  sorts  of 
idolatrous  objects  portrayed  upon  the  walls. 
T.  W.  C. 

Chamberlain,  an  officer  who  had  charge  of 
the  king's  lodging  and  wardro^ie  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  11).  In  Eastern  courts  eunuchs  were 
commonly  used  for  this  service  (Esther  i.  10, 
12,  15).  In  Acts  xii.  20  the  term  denotes  an 
officer  high  in  the  king's  confidence,  but  in 
Rom.  xvi.  23,  probably  the  treasurer  of  the 
city.  T.  W.  C. 

Chamier  (sha'-me-a),  Daniel,  French  Re- 
formed ;  b.  atMontelimart,  Dauphin6,  France, 
1565  ;  became  professor  and  pastor  at  Mon- 
tauban,  1612  ;  killed  by  a  cannon-ball  during 
that  city's  siege,  Oct.  17,   1621.     He  was  a 


CHANCEL 


(153) 


CHAPLAIN 


douglitr  champion  of  Protestantism.  His 
chief  Avork  is  Ftiiistrtttm  catliolicit',  Geneva, 
1626,  4  vols.  (See  life  by  W.  Courthorpe, 
London,  1852.) 

Chancel,  the  enclosed  space  in  a  church 
surrounding  the  altar  and  railed  oil  from  the 
choir  ;  called  in  the  Greek  Church  the  boiut. 
The  word  comes  from  the  Latin  cancclli,  lat- 
tice-work, because  of  the  lattice- work  partition 
betwixt  the  choir  and  the  body  of  the  church. 

Chancellor,  a  high  officer  of  the  Roman 
court,  derived  from  the  civil  order,  and  imi- 
tated in  subordinate  bishoprics.  In  England 
the  chancellor  of  a  diocese  is  an  officer  who 
advises  the  bishop  upon  legal  matters,  or  even 
holds  his  courts  for  him.  F.  H.  F. 

Chandler,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow,  1748),  English  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Hungerford,  26  m.  w.s.w.  of  Reading,  1698  ; 
d.  in  London,  JMay  6,  1766.  He  was  educated 
at  Leyden  ;  became  Presbyterian  pastor  at 
Peckham,  1716  ;  assistant  at  Old  Jewry,  Lon- 
don, 1726  ;  pastor,  1728.  His  fame  rests  on 
his  Oritiral  Hifttory  of  the  Life  of  Ditvid,  Lon- 
don, 1766,  3  vols.  ;  n.e.,  Oxford,  1858. 

Channing,  William  EUery,  D.D.  (Har- 
vard, 1S20).  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  Newport,  II.  I., 
April  7,  1780  ;  d.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  2, 
1842.  He  was  prepared  for  college  under  the 
care  of  his  uucL%  Rev.  Henry  Channing,  of 
New  London,  Conn.  He  entered  Harvard 
College  at  the  age  of  15  and  was  graduated  in 
1798,  receiving  the  highest  honor  of  his  class. 
In  college  he  was  noted  for  his  excellence  in 
classical  study,  but  especially  for  his  chaste 
and  elegant  English  composition.  In  1798  he 
went  to  Richmond,  Va.,  as  tutor  for  a  year. 
Ascetic  habits  and  excessive  study  undermined 
his  constitution  and  left  him  an  invalid  for 
the  rest  of  his  life.  He  returned  to  Newport 
in  1800  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
divinity.  He  began  to  preach  in  1803.  Ac- 
cepting a  call  from  the  Federal  Street  Church, 
Boston,  he  was  ordained  in  June,  1803.  In 
1815  the  LTnitarian  controversy  broke  out  in 
31  :i~;sachusetts.  It  was  the  result  of  changes 
of  thought  and  feeling  which  had  been  quietly 
at  work  for  some  time.  Channing  was  reluc- 
tantly drawn  into  the  discussion,  but  soon  be- 
caniii  the  recognized  apostle  and  exponent  of 
Unitarianism.  His  sermon  at  the  ordination 
of  Dr.  Codman  in  1808  was  practically  ortho- 
dox in  th.)ught  and  phraseologv,  but  his  Balti- 
more sermon  on  "  Unitarian  Ciiristianity, "  in 
1819,  was  a  distinctive  public  statement  of  his 
break  with  the  orthodox  position.  This  dis- 
course had  a  wide  circulation  and  excited 
much  debate.  Other  notable  essays  which 
followed  were  :  "  The  Moral  Argument  against 
Calvinism  ;"  "  The  System  of  Exclusion  and 
Denunciation  in  Religion  ;"  "  Extracts  from 
a  Letter  on  Creeds."  From  these  essays  it 
app  -ars  that  Channing  rejected  the  scholastic 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  ;  that  he  held  that  Jesus 
Ciirist  was  in  a  special  sense  the  Son  of  God, 
but  always  subordinate  to  the  Father  ;  that 
he  believed  the  Scriptures  to  be  a  revelation 
of  God,  but  that  it  was  to  be  interpreted  l)v 
rea>^on  and  in  the  spirit  rather  than  tlie  letter. 
Ho  rejected  the  doctriue  that  forgiveness  of 


sins  is  purchased  by  the  death  of  Jesus,  and 
claimed  that  the  highest  object  of  Jcsus'  mis- 
sion was  the  recovery  of  n\an  to  virtue  and 
holiness.  While  believing  in  future  retribu- 
tion he  opposed  the  doctrine  of  everlasting 
l)unishment.  Channing  was  a  preacher  ratlier 
than  a  controversialist.  The  best  fruits  of  his 
moral  and  spiritual  life  are  seen  in  liis  ser- 
mons. He  took  a  prominent  rank  as  a  social 
reformer.  His  orations  on  "Self-culture," 
"Temperance,"  and  the  "Elevation  of  the 
Laboring  Classes,"  and  on  "Slavery  and 
War, ' '  illustrate  his  philanthropic  spirit.  His 
orations  and  essays  on  "  Napoleon  Bonaparte, " 
"  Fenelon,"  and  "John  Milton,"  attracted 
much  attention  as  specimens  of  literary  and 
moral  criticism.  He  married,  at  the  age  of 
84,  his  cousin,  Ruth  Gibbs,  and  had  several 
children.  His  life,  by  W.  H.  Channing,  in 
one  volume,  and  a  one-volume  edition  of  his 
works  are  published  by  the  American  Unita- 
rian Association,  Boston  (l)of  h,  1880).  The  vol- 
ume entitled  The  Prrfrrt  Life,  though  less  read 
than  others,  contains  his  most  mature  sermons. 
S.  J.  Bauuows. 

Chant  (Latin  for  song),  a  term  u.sed  in  the 
early  church  to  designate  the  music  of  the 
congregation.  It  now  designates  that  form 
of  church  music  in  which  prose  is  sung  to 
simple  melodies.  F.  H.  F. 

Chantry,  and  Chantry  Priests,  an  ecclesi- 
astical foundation  to  provide  for  the  chanting 
of  masses  for  tlie  dead.  Money  was  often  left 
for  tlie  building  of  chapels  for  this  purpose, 
and  they  and  the  priests  were  called  by  the 
same  name.  F.  II.  F. 

Chapel,  a  small  church,  or  a  side  room  in  a 
church,  separately  dedicatcil,  used  for  wor- 
ship and  lor  the  sepulture  of  the  dead.  Sim- 
ilar buildings  were  often  connected,  previous 
to  the  Reformation,  with  castles,  religious 
houses,  etc.,  but  without  the  right  of  sepul- 
ture or  sacramental  service.  F.  H.  F. 

Chapelle  ardente,  the  lights  around  a  collin  ; 
used  in  the  Itonian  C'atliolic  burial  rites. 

Chapin,  Edwin Hubbell,  S.T.D.  (Harvard, 
1856),  LL.D.  (Tufts,  1S78),  Univensilist  ;  b. 
at  Union  Village,  Wa.shington  t^ounly,  N.  Y.. 
Dec.  29,  1814  ;  d.  in  New  York  City,  Sunday, 
Dec.  36,  1880.  After  his  course  in  the  Ben- 
nington (Vt.)  seminary  he  studied  law  at 
Troy  (1836),  next  year  he  left  law  practice  for 
literature  and  at  the  same  time  became  a  con- 
vert to  Universalism  and  a.ssistant  editor  of 
The  Emnqdiriil  Marjazine  and  Gosjhl  Adro- 
cate,  a  Universalist  paper,  at  Ulica,  N.  Y.  , 
in  1888  h<;  bciran  pn-achin?,  and  after  holding 
charges  at  Richmond.  Va.  (18:J.S).  Cbarlcstown, 
Mass.  (1840),  in  the  School  Street  Church, 
Boston  (1846),  he  went  to  New  York  in  1848, 
and  until  his  death  was  the  leading  pnacher 
of  his  denomination  and  famous  as  a  ])latform 
speaker.  \h\  rarelv  toudiod  on  tlie  s|>ecial 
theme  of  his  denomination,  but  pre.-uhid  pure 
and  practical  religion.  He  published  several 
volumes  of  discourses.  (See  his  life  by  Sum- 
ner Ellis.  Boston.  1882.) 

Chaplain,  oritrinally  a  clerg>-mnn  who  per- 
formed divine  service  in  a  chapel  ;  now  com- 


CHAPLET 


(154) 


CHARITY 


monly  applied  to  ministers  attached  to  politi- 
cal, philanthropic,  or  military  bodies  for  the 
performance  of  such  services.  Bishops  also 
have  chaplains  who  assist  them  in  examin- 
ing candidates,  conducting  correspondence, 
etc.  The  Queen  of  England  has  86  chaplains- 
in-ordiuary  who  receive  from  the  crown  £30 
each  annually,  and  13  honorary  chaplains, 
who  serve  gratuitously.  These  preach  in  turn 
before  her  majesty. 

Chaplet.     See  Rosauy. 

Chapter  (Latin  capitidum,  a  little  head),  1. 
Of  a  cathedral,  the  body  of  clergy  belonging 
to  a  cathedral  church,  consisting  of  the  canons 
and  prebendaries,  of  which  the  dean  is  presi- 
dent. It  assists  the  bishop  in  managing  the 
diocese,  and  when  the  see  is  vacant  rules  it. 
2.  Of  a  convent,  the  assembly  of  the  monks 
for  reading  or  business. 

Chapter-house,  the  hall  or  apartment  in 
which  the  chapter  meets.  Some  of  those  at- 
tached to  English  cathedrals  are  singularly 
beautiful. 

Chapter  and  Verse.  This  division  of  the 
Bible  is  of  comparati  vely  modern  origin.  The 
Pentateuch  was  divided  b}^  the  early  Jews 
into  54  pamldotli,  and  these  again  into  669 
sidriin,  for  reading  in  the  synagogue.  Sim- 
ilar sections  of  the  prophets  were  called  Juip- 
taroth.  The  present  division  into  chapters  is 
usually  assigned  to  Cardinal  Hugo  about  a.d. 
1240,  iaut  was,  perhaps,  made  earlier.  It  was 
introduced  first  into  the  Latin  text,  afterward 
with  a  few  variations  into  the  Hebrew  and  the 
Greek.  The  division  into  verses,  in  the  Old 
Testament  is  found  in  the  earliest  Hebrew 
manuscripts,  but  in  the  New  was  made  by  the 
celebrated  Robert  Stephens  in  1551  while  on 
a  journey  (inter  equitandum)  from  Paris  to 
Lyons,  and  was  published  in  the  4th  edition 
of  his  Greek  Testament.  This  capitular  and 
versicular  division  of  the  sacred  volume  is  a 
very  great  convenience  for  reference,  but 
otherwise  is  a  serious  drawback.  Oftentimes 
a  close  connection  of  thought  is  broken  by  an 
unfortunate  separation  of  chapters,  as  in  Gen- 
esis, where  the  first  3  verses  of  the  2d  chapter 
should  have  been  attached  to  the  preceding 
chapter,  and  in  Revelation  where  the  first  5 
verses  of  the  last  chapter  should  undergo  a 
similar  transfer.  In  the  same  way  the  separa- 
tion of  clauses  and  sentences  into  verses  gives 
the  unwary  reader  a  wrong  view  of  the  con- 
nection, and  fosters  the  habit  of  viewing  the 
divine  utterances  apart  from  the  context.  The 
Bible  is  not  a  book  of  apothegms,  but  a  stream 
of  continuous  instruction  in  narrative,  proph- 
ecy, or  argument,  and  the  reader  is  required, 
if  he  will  get  its  full  sense,  often  to  disregard 
entirely  the  division  into  verses  and  chapters. 
In  the  Revised  Version  of  the  English  Bible 
the  text  is  printed  continuously  as  other  books, 
and  the  notation  of  chapter  and  verse  is  rele- 
gated to  the  margin.  T.  W.  C. 

Chapters,  Three,  a  condemnation  issued  in 
544  by  Justinian  against  (1)  the  person  and 
writings  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  (2)  the 
writings  of  Theodoret  against  Cyril  and  for 
Nestorius,  (3)  the  letter  which  Ibas  of  Edessa 
was  said  to  have  written  to  the  Persian  Maris. 


These  persons  or  writings  were  indifferently 
called  chapters.  They  were  originated  by 
Theodore  of  Ca;sarea  in  Cappadocia,  who 
hoped,  or  professed  to  hope,  to  gain  the  Mo- 
nophysites  for  the  church  again  by  condemn- 
ing the  principal  representatives  of  the  (An- 
tiochian)  theology  for  which  they  cherished  so 
much  opposition.  But  in  condemning  these, 
the  emperor  seemed  to  be  condemning  the 
Council  of  Chalcedou,  and  the  Three  Chapters 
stirred  up  a  great  controversy.  The  Greek 
Church  resisted,  though  but  for  a  time.  The 
Western  Church  was  less  pliant.  Vigilius  of 
Rome  vacillated  between  the  two  parties.  In 
548  at  Constantinople  he  condemned  the  Three 
Chapters  ;  in  553  he  was  for  them.  On  the 
whole,  he  yielded  to  the  imperial  wishes,  and 
favored  the  condemnation.  A  schism  in  Italy 
was  the  result,  and  Milan  and  Aquileia,  with 
other  cities  of  Upper  Italy,  separated  them- 
selves from  Rome  on  account  of  its  acceptance 
of  the  V.  Ecumenical  Council  of  553. 

F.  H.  F. 

Character  indelebilis  (Latin).  In  the  Ro- 
man Church  the  indelible  mark  stamped  upon 
the  soul  in  Baptism,  Confirmation,  and  Or- 
ders. T.  W.  C. 

Chariot.     See  War. 

Charismata  (car-is' -ma-ta).     See  Gifts. 

Charity,  a  term  now  used  to  express  either 
almsgiving,  or  else  toleration,  as  in  the  phrase, 
a  charitable  construction  ;  bat  in  the  Author- 
ized Version  of  the  Bible  denotes  what  we  un- 
derstand as  love,  the  queen  of  the  Christian 
graces,  that  into  which  aH  human  duty  is  sum- 
med up.  (See  Matt.  xxii.  37,  Rom.  xiii.  8, 
1  Cor.  xiii.  13.)  T.  W.  C. 

Charity,  Brothers  of,  a  lay  order  of  the 
Roman  Church  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
the  fallen.  In  1540  the  Portuguese  Juan  di  Dio 
(Juan  Ciudad),  "John  of  God"  (1495-1550), 
a  layman,  at  Granada,  Spain,  opened  a  house 
for  a  hospital ;  had  the  satisfaction  ere  he  died 
of  seeing  an  association  of  laymen  devote  them- 
selves to  the  care  of  the  sick  therein.  The 
idea  was  quickly  taken  up  elsewhere,  and  in 
1572  the  order  was  created  by  the  pope  and 
given  all  the  privileges  of  the  mendicant  or- 
ders. It  now  has  houses  which  are  essentially 
well-arranged  hospitals  in  different  parts  of 
Europe,  and  numbered,  in  1877,  1169  mem- 
bers. Their  readiness  to  serve  persons  irre- 
spective of  creed,  makes  them  popular.  See 
art.  John  of  God. 

Charity,  Sisters  of,  called  also  "  Gray  Sis- 
ters," "Daughters  of  Charity,"  "Sisters  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,"  a  female  order  of  the 
Roman  Church  for  the  care  of  the  sick, 
founded  by  Vincent  de  Paul  (see  art.)  at 
Paris,  in  1633,  in  co-operation  with  a  widow, 
Madame  Louise  (Marillac)  Legras.  It  was  the 
resultant  of  previous  experiments  in  the  same 
direction.  Its  rule  was  confirmed  by  Pope 
Clement  IX.  in  1668.  The  vows,  besides  the 
usual  ones  of  obedience,  poverty,  and  chastity, 
specially  oblige  the  care  of  the  sick,  ii-respec- 
tive  of  creed  or  the  character  of  the  disease. 
They  are,  however,  not  irrevocable,  but  re- 
newed yearl}'.  Postidants  wait  6  months  be- 
fore taking  the  habit,  and  the  probation  period 


CHARLBMAONE 


( 155  ) 


CHARNOCE 


is  5  years.  The  hood  is  white,  with  long 
streamurs.  Before  Vincent's  deatli  the  order 
had  spread  all  over  France,  but  did  not  extend 
further.  It  was  suppressed  at  tlie  Revohition 
(1790),  but  revived  by  Xapoleon  (1801).  Since 
181")  it  has  spread  in  other  lands,  until  now  it 
is  universally  known.  In  the  United  States 
the  sisters  carry  on  parochial  and  boarding- 
schools,  besides  nursing.  The  mother-house 
is  at  Emmittsburg,  Md.  "  Tlie  order  as  a  whole 
numbers  some  28,000  members.  For  a  Prot- 
estant analogue,  see  Deaconess. 

Charlemagne  (shar-le-man),  first  head  of  the 
Hoi}'  Roman  Empire  ;  b.  742  ;  king  of  the 
Franks,  708  ;  emperor,  800  ;  d.  at  Aachen,  814. 
He  shared  his  kingdom  at  first  with  his  bro- 
ther, Carloman,  who  soon  died  (771).  It 
stretched  from  the  Loire  to  east  of  tiie  Rhine, 
and  was  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  dependent 
peoples — Aquitaine,  Brittany,  Frisia,  Thu- 
ringia,  Bavaria,  etc.  These  were  gradually 
converted  into  component  parts  of  his  king- 
dom. In  772  he  began  the  work  of  subdu- 
ing the  Saxons,  which  lasted  for  30  years. 
After  innumerable  petty  wars,  Wittikind,  the 
mainspring  of  the  opposition  to  the  Franks, 
was  baptized  in  785.  This  was  the  nominal 
reduction  of  the  Saxons,  but  actual  trouble 
still  continued,  till  Charlemagne  deported 
large  numbers  of  Saxons  and  filled  their  places 
with  more  loyal  subjects.  But  by  804  resist- 
ance was  finally  overcome.  Meantime  Bavaria 
had  been  subdued,  and  even  Pannonia  added 
to  the  kingdom. 

Ever  since  the  death  of  Pipin  in  768  the 
Lombards  in  Italy  had  given  the  pope  trouble. 
The  refusal  of  Hadrian  to  recognize  the  sons 
of  Carloman,  who  had  fled  to  the  Lombards 
after  their  father's  death,  widened  the  breach, 
and  accordingly  the  pope  called  upon  Charle- 
magne to  protect  him.  Charlemagne  there- 
fore made  an  expedition  to  Italy,  conquered 
the  Lombard  king,  and  secured  to  the  pope 
the  territory  which  had  been  given  him  by 
Pipin  as  a  temporal  sovereignty.  Upon  a 
later  expedition,  he  was  suddenly  crowned  in 
Rome  by  Leo  III.  as  king  of  the  Romans. 
This  re-establisheil  upon  a  new  basis  the  old 
Roman  Empire.  It  was  a  theocratic  Christian 
institution,  in  which  the  church  and  state  by 
a  close  union  souglit  to  work  together  for  the 
common  end  of  the  elevation  and  Christianiza- 
tion  of  Europe.  It  had  its  origin  in  tlie  neces- 
sity of  the  state  to  the  church  and  of  the 
church  to  the  state.  The  relations  of  the  two 
powers  to  one  another  svere  not  defined,  and 
endless  strife  subsequently  arose  out  of  tiiis 
circumstance.  The  pope  .seems  to  have  acted 
without  Charlemagne's  knowledge,  but  upon 
consultation  with  the  chief  men  of  the  city  of 
Rome.  The  people  acclaimed  tlie  emperor, 
and  probably  thought  that  they  were  exercis- 
ing the  city's  ancient  right  of  election.  The 
popes  subsequently  claimed  that  Leo  had  acted 
as  the  supreme  authority  by  divine  commis- 
sion. Charlemagne  seemed  to  think  tlint  the 
act  of  the  pope  was  in  a  certain  sense  a  divine 
act,  as  initiating  the  empire,  but  he  viewed 
the  dignity  as  hereditary,  and  the  coronation 
as  performed  once  for  all.  The  pope  acknowl- 
edged the  supremacy  of  the  civil  power  by 


giving  Charlemagne  the  title  of  Patricius,  or 
representative  of  the  emperor,  and  then  that 
of  Ca?sar  Augustus.  In  fact,  Charlemagne 
acted  as  the  son  of  the  church  in  all  things 
purely  spiritual,  but  in  things  civil  as  her 
lord.  The  great  ecclesiastical  authorities  w(  re 
also  powers  of  the  realm,  met  in  the  secular 
assemblies,  where  ecclesiastical  topics  were 
discussed. 

Charlemagne's  general  administration  wa.s 
enlightened  and  wise.  Every  element  wliicli 
could  contribute  to  the  advancement  of  his 
peoples  in  culture  was  eagerly  seized  upon  by 
him  and  developed  to  the  extent  of  his  power. 
He  made  Alcuin  (q.v.)  his  prime  minister  in 
intellectual  things.  He  ordered  a  school  to 
be  established  at  every  monastery,  and  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  singing,  and  tlie 
Psalter  to  be  taught.  Thus  he  sought  to  ele- 
vate the  people  and  the  clergy  together.  In 
his  ecclesiastical  and  secular  legislation  lie  the 
germs  of  almost  all  modern  European 'civiliza- 
tion. (Cf.  life  by  J.  I.  Mombert,  New  York, 
1888.)  F.  H.  F. 

Charles  V.,  German  emperor  during  the 
period  of  the  Reformation  ;  b.  at  Ghent,  Feb. 
24,  1500  ;  d.  at  Yuste,  Spain,  Sept.  21,  1558. 
He  inherited  the  Netherlands  and  the  duchies 
of  Austria  from  his  father,  and  Spain  from 
his  grandfather  Ferdinand.  Elected  emperor 
in  i519,  he  had  the  supreme  control  in  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  old  world,  and  in 
the  recently  discovered  new.  England  and 
France  were  the  only  chief  powers  not  in 
greater  or  less  subjeclion  to  him.  He  held  his 
first  diet  in  Germany  in  1521,  at  which  Luther 
appeared  and  was  put  under  the  ban  of  the 
empire.  Immediately  after  this  Charles  de- 
parted to  the  Netherlands  and  thence  to  Spain, 
and,  busied  with  various  wars,  was  not  seen 
again  in  the  empire  till  the  diet  at  Augsburg 
in  1580.  By  this  time  the  Protestant  move- 
ment had  gained  such  headway  that  it  was 
impossible  to  put  a  stop  to  it.  The  war  with 
the  Turk  called  Charles  again  from  the  em- 
pire, and  struggles  with  Fra'nce  kept  him  busy 
till  his  victory  in  1544.  Then  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  Protestant  affair.  His  efforts 
at  an  accommodation  resulted  in  the  calling 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  which,  however, 
promised  little  good.  In  1546  he  took  the 
field  in  South  Germany.  In  1547,  assisted  by 
^laurice  of  Saxony,  he  reduced  the  Protestant 
leaders  to  submission,  and  yet,  on  the  eve  of 
triumph,  was  himself  attacked  by  Maurice  in 
1552.  Disgusted  with  the  outcome  of  all  his  ' 
labors,  he  lefi  his  brother,  Ferdinand,  to  make 
the  peace  of  Passau  (1552),  and  of  Augsburg 
(1555),  gave  up  his  various  positions,  and  re- 
tired in  1556  to  Yuste,  where  he  lived  in 
conventual  seclusion.  The  best-known  life 
of  Charles  V.  is  by  Robertson  ;  the  best  is 
in  German  by  Baumgarten,  Stuttgart,  1885 
sq(i.  F.  II.  F. 

Charles  IX.  See  BAUTnoLOMEw's  Day, 
p.  87. 

Charnock,  Stephen,  Puritan  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don. 162K  ;  (1.  there.  Julv27,  1680.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford.  M. A. ,1652:  preached  for  a 
time  in  Ireland  ;  had  no  regular  charge  for  15 
years  while  leading  a  studious  life  in  Loudon  ; 


ORASmiM 


(156) 


CHERITH 


became  pastor  there,  1675.  His  fame  rests  on 
his  work  On  the  Excellence  and  Attributes  of 
God,  London,  1681-82.  His  TForA;s  appeared, 
Edinburgh,  1864,  5  vols. 

Chasidim  (saints),  a  name  given  to  a  sect 
or  party  among  the  post-exile  Jews  (1  Mac.  ii. 
42,  vii.  13),  which  had  for  its  aim  to  resist 
Hellenistic  innovations  and  to  observe  rigidly 
all  the  ritual  of  purification  and  separation. 
They  carried  self-denial,  abstinence,  ablu- 
tions, withdrawal  from  the  world,  etc.,  to  the 
greatest  possible  extreme.  _  In  time  they  split 
into  parties,  one  of  which  became  widely 
known  as  the  Essenes.  In  the  last  century 
the  sect  was  reorganized,  or  rather  a  new  sect 
under  the  same  name,  in  Poland,  by  the  Rabbi 
Israel  of  Podolia,  called  Baal-Shem  {lord  of 
the  name),  because  he  professed  to  work  mir- 
acles by  invoking  the  great  cabalistic  name 
of  the  'Supreme  Being.  His  fame  attracted 
multitudes  of  followers  in  Eastern  Europe  and 
Palestine  who,  when  he  died  (1760),  numbered 
40,000.  Though  repudiated  by  the  orthodox 
Jews  they  stilllnaintain  their  position.  Their 
ethical  precepts  are  elevated,  but  the  starting- 
point  is  communion  with  God  through  the 
Zadik  or  spiritual  head  who,  as  God's  delegate 
on  earth,  can  do  wondrous  things  ;  and  they 
lay  great  stress  upon  absolute  faith,  with  which 
profane  knowledge  and  philosophy  greatly 
interfere.  Their  religion  is  said  to  be  utterly 
formal,  and  its  ceremonies  are  coarse  and 
noisy.  T.  W.  C. 

Chastity  should  not  be  confounded,  as  it 
often  is,  with  celibacy.  The  latter  means  de- 
votion to  a  single  life,  while  the  former  is  the 
denial  of  fleshly  lusts,  whether  in  the  married 
or  the  unmarried.  Among  the  ancients  there 
was  much  looseness  of  opinion,  and  still  more 
of  practice,  in  this  matter.  But  Christianity 
took  higher  ground,  reproving  all  fornication 
in  either  sex,  and  enforcing  it  by  the  consider- 
ation that  the  believer's  body  is  a  temple  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  therefore  should  not  be 
defiled  by  lewdness.  It  requires  also  the  sup- 
pression of  all  impure  desires,  and  the  avoid- 
ance of  whatever  tends  to  excite  them.  Chas- 
tity is  to  be  cultivated  in  thought  (Matt.  v.  27, 
28)  and  in  word  (Eph.  v.  3,  4),  as  well  as  in 
deed  (1  Cor.  vi.  9).  T.  W.  C. 

Chasuble,  an  outward  garment  worn  in  the 
Roman  Church  by  a  priest  otiiciating  at  mass. 
It  is  derived  from  the  psnula,  a  round  gar- 
ment with  a  hole  in  the  centre  for  the  admis- 
sion of  the  head,  by  cutting  at  the  sides  places 
for  the  arms,  thus  leaving  only  pieces  hang- 
ing down  before  and  behind.  These  are  em- 
broidered with  emblems  of  the  sufferings  of 
Christ  F.  H.>. 

Chateaubriand  (shat-o-bri-ang),  Fran9oi3 
Auguste,  Viscount  de,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b. 
at  St.  Malo,  on  the  English  Channel,  Sept.  4, 
1768  ;  d.  in  Paris,  July  4,  1848.  He  wrote 
The  Oeninsof  Christianity  (Paris,  1802  ;  Eng. 
trans.,  Paris,  1854),  and  Tlie  Martyrs  (Paris, 
1809  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1819,  2  vols.). 
He  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  French  writ- 
ers. 

Chauncy,  Charles,  Puritan  ;  baptized  at 
Yardley,   Nov.   5,    1592 ;    d.   at  Cambridge, 


Mass.,  Feb.  19,  1672.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge  ;  M.A.,  1617  ;  entered  the  ministry 
and  was  persecuted  by  Laud  ;  sailed  for  Plym- 
outh, 1637  ;  preached  at  Scituate,  1641-54  ; 
was  second  president  of  Harvard  College, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  1654,  till  his  death.  He 
was  an  admirable  preacher  and  a  learned 
man. 

Ched-or-Ia'-o-mer  (/tawf^/'wZ  of  sheaves),  king 
of  Elam,  who  for  13  years  made  the  5  cities 
of  the  plain  his  tributaries,  and  on  their  re- 
belling in  the  13lh  year  came  with  4  allied 
kings  and  overran  the  whole  country  south 
and  east  of  the  Jordan.  Lot  was  among  his 
captives,  but  was  rescued  by  his  uncle  Abra- 
ham with  his  own  dependents  and  neighbors 
(Gen.  xiv.).  His  name  is  found  on  Chaldean 
bricks  recently  discovered.  T.  W.  C. 

Cheever,  George  Barrell,  D.D.  (New  York 
University,  1844),Congregationalist;  b.  atHal- 
lowell,  Me.,  April  17, 1807  ;  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  College,  1825,  and  at  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  1830  ;  was  pastor  of  the  Church 
of  the  Puritans,  New  York  City,  1846-70,  and 
since  in  literary  retirement.  He  is  the  author 
of  Inquire  at  Amos  Giles'  Distillery,  Salem, 
1835  (a  famous  attack  on  the  drink  traflSc) ; 
A  Reel  in  a  Bottle,  Xew  York,  1850  (rev.  ed. 
under  title,  Lofj-book  of  a  Voyage  to  the  Celes- 
tial Country,  1885)  ;  Faith,  Doubt,  aiul  Evi- 
dence, 1881  ;  God's  Timepiece  for  Man's  Eter- 
nity, 1883,  and  other  volumes. 

Chemnitz  (kem-nits),  Martin,  Lutheran  ; 
b.  at  Treueubrietzen,  22  m.  s.s.w.  of  Potsdam, 
Nov.  9,  1522  ;  d.  at  Brunswick,  April  8,  1586. 
He  became  Librarian  at  Konigsberg,  1550  ; 
driven  away  by  the  Osiander  party,  and  went 
to  Wittenberg,  1553  ;  became  pastor  at  Braun- 
schweig (Bnmswick),  1554  ;  superintendent, 
1567.  He  was  the  most  important  Lutheran 
theologian  of  the  2d  half  of  the  16th  century, 
and  his  great  work  is  his  examination  of  the 
theology  propounded  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
Examen  concilii  Tridentini,  Greifswald,  1565- 
73,  4  vols.     (Bee  life  by  Lentz,  Gotha,  1866.) 

Che'-mosh  (subduer),  the  national  god  of 
the  Moabitcs  (Num.  xxi.  29,  Jer.  xlviii.  7), 
called  in  1  Kings  xi.  7  ''  the  abomination  of 
Moab,"  when  Solomon  introduced  his  wor- 
ship, which  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  13)  after- 
ward suppressed.  It  was  to  Chemosh  that 
Mesha  (2  Kings  iii.  27)  offered  his  son,  and  in 
the  inscription  on  the  Moabite  stone  the  same 
king  attributes  to  Chemosh  his  victories.  In 
Judges  (xi.  24)  Chemosh  is  spoken  of  as  the 
god  of  the  Ammonites.  T.  W.  C. 

Cheney,  Charles  Edward,  D.D.  (Iowa 
College,  1871),  Reformed  Episcopalian  ;  b.  at 
Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  12,  1836;  gradu- 
ated  at  Hobart  College,  N.  Y.,  1857  ;  and  the 
P.  E.  Theological  Seminary  of  Virginia,  1859  ; 
became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Chicago, 
1860  ;  suspended  for  omitting  the  word  "  re- 
generate" in  the  baptismal  service,  which  ac- 
tion was  one  of  the  occasions  for  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  in 
1873,  whereof  he  was  immediately  elected  a 
bishop. 

Che'-rith  {cutting),  a  brook  flowing  into  the 
Jordan  where  Elijah  (1  Kings  xvii.  3)  hid 


CHERUB 


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CHINA 


himself.  Robiusou  identifies  it  with  the  pres- 
ent ]V'adi/  Kelt,  a  swift  stream  which  enters 
the  Jordan  from  the  west  a  little  south  of 
Jericho.  T.  W.  C. 

Cher'-ub  (plural  Cher'-u-bim).  Of  uncer- 
tain (U'ri nation.  An  order  of  heavenl^^  beings, 
not  like  an.ii:els  sent  upon  messages,  but  alwa.ys 
in  God's  iniiiu'diate  presence.  They  are  vari- 
ously represented  as  living  creatures  (Gen.  iii. 
24,  Ezek.  i.,  Ilev.  iv.),  or  as  figures  wrought 
in  tapestry,  gold  or  wood  (Ex.  xxxvi.  85, 
xxxvii.  7,  Ezek.  xli.  25),  as  having  1  face 
(Ex.  XXV.  20),  or  2  (Ezek.  xli.  18),  or  4  (Ezek. 
X.  14),  as  having  2  wings  (1  Kings  vii.  27),  or 
4  (Ezek.  i.  6),  or  6  (Rev.  iv.  8).  The  fullest 
description  represents  the  cherub  as  winged, 
full  of  eyes,  and  with  a  fourfold  face — that  of 
a  man,  a  lion,  an  ox,  and  an  eagle — and  with 
wheels  turning  every  way  and  moving  with 
lightning  speed,  thus  combining  the  highest 
earthly  forms  in  harmonious  union.  The 
"  cherubim  of  glory"  (Ileb.  ix.  5)  were  the 
living  bearers  of  God  manifesting  himself  on 
the  earth  (Ps.  xviii.  10\  and  they  upheld  his 
throne  (Ezek.  x.  22).  The  frequency  of  their 
figures  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  tabernacle 
and  the  temple  was  a  sure  token  of  the  pres- 
ence of  God  in  the  midst  of  his  people.  Sim- 
ilar winged  figures  are  found  in  the  monu- 
mental remains  of  other  ancient  peoples,  but 
there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  tlie 
conception  was  original  with  the  Hebrews. 
There  is  no  record  Uiat  either  the  cherubim 
or  their  figurative  representations  were  ever 
worshipped  among  the  chosen  people. 

T.  W.  C. 

Cheyne  (chan),  Thomas  Kelly,  D.D.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1884),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don^ Sept.  18,  1841  ;  educated  at  Wercester 
College  ;  B.  A.,  1862  ;  fellow  of  Balliol  College, 
186S  ;  Oriel  professor  of  the  interpretation  of 
Holy  Scripture,  1SS5— all  Oxford.  He  is  the 
author  of  commentaries  on  Isaiah,  London, 
1880-81,  2  vols.  ;  3d  ed.,  1884  ;  Micah,  1882  ; 
Hosea,  1884  ;  Jeremiah,  1883-84,  and  a  new 
translation  of  the  Psalms,  1884. 

Chiliasm,  same  as  Pkkmillennialism,  q.v. 

Chillingworth,  William,  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  at  Oxford,  Oct.,  1002  ;  d.  at  Chiches- 
ter, Jan.  30.  1643-44.  He  became  a  fellow  of 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  1628  ;  a  convert  to 
Romanism,  1630,  and  went  to  Douay  ;  but  the 
consequence  of  his  effort  to  tell  the  world  the 
reason  why  he  had  become  a  Romanist  was 
that  he  left  Douay  in  an  imcertaiu  state  of 
mind,  1631,  and  renounced  his  new  faith  and 
returned  to  Protestantism,  1034.  In  1638  he 
entered  the  ministry  of  tlie  Church  of  Eng- 
land. His  fame  rests  uiwn  his  T/ic  lielif/ion 
of  ProtistuntH  a  Siife  Way  to  Sitlvdtion,  Ox- 
ford, 103.S  (many  etld.  since),  which  contains 
the  well-known  sentence,  "  The  Bible,  I  say, 
the  Bit)Ie  only  is  the  religion  of  Protestants'"' 
(See  ids  life  by  Des  Maizeaux,  London,  1725.) 

Chimere  (from  Old  French  "chimarre," 
"  a  gown  or  coat"),  a  sleeveless  vestment 
Avorn  by  bishops,  but  to  which  in  modern 
times  lawn  sleeves  ha\c  been  sewn. 

China,  Missions  to.     See  JMissions. 


China,  Religions  of.  Excluding  Islam,  with 
3,000,000  adherents  mostly  in  tlie  western  part, 
and  Christianity,  witli  (in  1881)  1,0'J4,000  Ro- 
man Catholics  (41  bisho])s)  and  23,000  evangeli- 
cal Christians,  the  religions  of  China  are  3  in 
number  :  Confucianism,  that  of  court  and 
educated.  Buddhism  and  Taoism,  the  popu- 
lar. Confucius  (q.v.)  claimed  to  reform  the 
old  religion,  of  which  much  is  doubtless  pre- 
served in  modern  popular  Taoism  and  has 
served  to  corrupt  the  exotic  Buddhism. 

This  old  religion  has  served  as  the  basis  of 
popular  belief  and  practice  amid  all  modifica- 
tions and  additions.  Our  information  coming 
through  Confucius  (see  China,  Sacred 
Books  of),  it  is  hard  to  saj^  whether  or  not, 
and  if  so,  how  far  he  has  edited  the  reports. 
The  fundamental  ideas  of  the  five  King  may, 
however,  be  taken  as  those  of  this  ancient  re- 
ligion. 

Heaven  (Thian),  the  supreme  emperor  (Shang- 
ti),  and  the  different  classes  of  spirits  (Shan) 
were  worshipped.  The  utterances  regarding 
Thian  and  Shang-ti  are  often  so  sublime 
and  spiritual  that  Legge,  Faber,  and  Happel 
regard  the  ancient  religion  as  monothei.stic  and 
the  reform  of  Confucius  as  retrograde.  Others 
view  it  as  only  a  degree  higher  than  the  Sha- 
manism of  the  tribes  of  Northern  Asia.  (See 
Shamanism.)  Hence  the  missionary  dispute 
about  the  right  to  translate  God  by  Shang-ti. 

No  distinction  is  possible  between  Thian, 
heaven  ;  Ti,  emperor  ;  and  Shang-ti,  supreme 
emperor.  In  many  descriptions  they  are  iden- 
tical with  the  material  heaven.  Destiny  (Ming) 
and  the  way  of  heaven  (Tao)  are  prominent 
ideas.  The  usual  course  of  nature  is  the  reve- 
lation of  heaven.  Disturbances  are  warnings 
to  restore  harmony  in  the  state.  There  arc's 
fundamental  existences— heaven,  earth,  and 
man — that  must  harmonize.  The  order  of  na- 
ture is  the  norm  of  all  moral  action.  The  in- 
stitutions of  the  state  are  regarded  as  natural 
laws.  The  will  of  heaven  is  also  revealed 
through  the  voice  of  the  people,  Vox  2)opuli 
vox  Dei. 

Worship  of  tlie  spirits  is  inextricably  con- 
nected with  that  of  Shang-ti,  though  they  are 
not  his  servants  or  mediators.  They  are  every- 
where present,  invisible,  inscrutable,  but  very 
real.  They  are  distinguished  as  lieavenly, 
earthly,  and  human  (ancestors).  The  human 
(Kwei),  and  of  these  the  spirits  of  ancestors 
(Tsu),  are  most  worshipped.  Belief  in  im- 
mortality is  the  outgrowth  of  ancestral  wor- 
ship, for  there  is  no  established  doctrine  in  the 
ancient  books  about  the  state  of  the  soul  after 
death.  Ancestors  are  worshipped  with  a  view 
to  their  influence  upon  their  living  posterity. 
Everything  in  empire  and  in  liouse  is  done  in 
their  presence :  hence  ancestral  halls  and 
tablets.  Ancestral  worship  is  the  fundamental 
form  of  the  Chinese  religion. 

Aside  from  the  absence  of  a  mythologj'  and 
formulated  theology,  the  most  ])ceuliar  feature 
is  the  non-existenceof  priests,  liciigious  cere- 
monies are  a  part  of  civil  life  and  apportioned 
in  gradation  among  the  state  ofiicials.  Ances- 
tral sacrifices  are  general  and  permitted  to 
the  people. 

Divination  is  widespread.  Nothing  is  un- 
dertaken without  it.    (SeeFEifo-BUUi.)  Es-ery- 


CHINA 


(158) 


CHOIR 


thing  is  interpreted,  but  noticeable  js  divina- 
tion by  the  plant  Shi,  the  tortoise  (Pu.  lients 
in  shell  when  burned  indicative)  and  the  Yi- 
king.     (See  China,  Sacred  Books  of.) 

The  basis  of  Chinese  life  and  religion  is  rev- 
erence for  the  order  of  nature,  the  state,  and 
the  family.  This  filial  piety,  in  the  Chinese 
Bense,  is  the  sublimest  and  profouudest  con- 
ception of  the  Chinese. 

In  his  teaching  Confucius  (551-478  B.C.) 
represented  himself  as  an  adherent  of  the  old 
religion  and  emphasized  the  importance  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  ordinances  of  heaven.  The 
thought  of  heaven  comforted  him  in  affliction. 
He  was  a  zealous  participant  in  public  wor- 
ship and  followed  the  300  ceremonial  usages 
and  the  3000  rules  of  decorum.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  seldom  named  Shang-ti  except  in 
quoting  the  King,  and  in  several  utterances 
designates  employment  with  theological  prob- 
lems as  useless.  "  So  long  as  one  does  not 
know  men,  how  is  one  to  know  spirits  ?  So 
long  as  one  does  not  know  life,  how  is  one  to 
solve  the  enigma  of  death?"  He  said  once 
that  he  had  not  prayed  for  a  long  time.  About 
spirits  and  the  dead  he  gave  evasive  answers. 
Filled  with  a  sense  of  social  duty  and  moral 
obligation,  he  tended  toward  an  agnostic  atti- 
tude toward  the  life  above  and  beyond.  Con- 
fucianism is  ethical  naturalism.  A  Confucian, 
while  participating  in  the  state  and  ancestral 
sacrifices  and  divination  is  agnostic  in  belief 
and  humanitarian  in  practice. 

The  inborn  reachings  of  the  soul  after  the 
supernatural  and  the  spiritual  have  made 
Budd'  ism  (the  religion  of  Fo)  and  Taoism, 
the  popular  religions.  The  former  introduced 
85  A.D.  from  India  in  consequence  of  isola- 
tion and  ignorance  of  its  sources  has  become 
grossly  corrupted,  and  is  greatly  influenced  by 
the  popular  ideas  and  religious  practices,  espe- 
cially such  as  are  seen  in  Taoism.  This  pur- 
ports to  be  the  system  of  Lao-tse  and  his  Tao- 
te-king.  (See  Lao-tse.)  Resemblance  is  now 
only  nominal.  The  transformation  from  the 
original  is  extraordinary.  Taoists  are  a  com- 
munity with  hereditary  "heavenly  Master." 
The  succession  extends  into  the  first  century. 
They  worship  in  temples  spirits  of  heaven, 
phenomena  of  nature,  god  of  riches,  etc.,  etc. 
They  have  manifold  superstitions  ;  seek  im- 
mortality by  magical  means,  elixirs,  plants  ; 
speak  of  the  state  in  which  the  corpse  becomes 
invisible,  the  dead  immortal,  and  a  sword  re- 
places the  corpse  in  the  coffin.  They  have 
several  popular  ethical  books,  the  teaching  of 
which  is  relatively  pure  and  good  ;  the  chief 
is  the  Book  of  Rewards  and  Punishments,  212 
aphorisms  enforced  by  400  anecdotes.  The 
princii^al  thought  is  that  the  spirits  of  heaven 
and  earth  reward  and  punish  good  and  evil. 
Another  principal  book  is  the  Book  of  Hidden 
Blessings.  Much  taken  from  Buddhists,  as 
command  against  shedding  the  blood  even  of 
animals.  But  the  morality  of  the  books  is 
entirely  offset  by  the  superstitions  of  people 
and  frauds  (immortality  elixirs)  of  priests. 

Important  to  remember  that  Confucianism, 
Buddhism,  and  Taoism  do  not  exist  as  dis- 
tinctly separated,  aggressively  antagonistic 
systems.  All  are  recognized  alike  by  the 
state.     The  Chinese  is  free  to  choose,  and  his 


belief  and  practice  are  eclectic.  The  ancestral 
and  spirit  worship  of  the  old  religion  main- 
tains itself  by  and  in  each  and  all  the  three. 
(See  J.  Edkins,  Religion  in  China,  London, 
1859;  3d  ed.,  1884;  J.  Legge,  Religions  of 
China,  Loudon,  1880.)         W.  R.  Martin. 

China,  Sacred  Books  of.     These  are  the 

five  King—  aud  four  Shu— 

Li-king,  Lun-yu, 

Shu-king,  Tehung-jung, 

Shi-king,  Ta-hlo', 

Li  ki,  Dialogues  of 

Tehiin-thsieu,  Meug-tse  (Menciue), 

Hiao-king. 

and  consist  of  ancient  writings  collected  and 
finally  edited  by  Confucius  or  proceeding 
from  him  or  his  school. 

Li-king,  Book  of  Changes,  is  the  oldest  and 
most  venerated,  and  is  used  in  divination. 
The  dragon  horse  rose  from  Hoang-ho  with 
dark  and  light  circles  on  its  back.  Fohi 
made  from  these  8  trigrams.  From  these 
proceed  64  hexagrams.  Li-king  is  notes  and 
excursus  on  these  ;  but  the  sense  is  still  un- 
explained. McClatchie  resorts  to  comparative 
mythology,  La  Couperie  to  Akkadian,  others 
find  a  philosophical  cosmogony.  The  changes 
are  identified  with  changes  in  nature  and 
human  destiny.  Its  use  in  divinati(m  gave 
the  book  its  great  importance,  but  the  prin- 
ciple of  divination  is  unknown. 

Shu-king  is  a  great  history  embracing  17 
centuries  imtil  7th  B.C. 

Shi-king,  Book  of  Songs,  is  300  songs  chosen 
by  Confucius  from  a  tenfold  larger  collection. 

Li-ki  is  46  chapters  containing  rules  of  con- 
duct sanctioned  by  usage  and  tradition. 

Tshiin-thsieu,  spring  and  autumn,  alone 
written  by  Confucius.  Annals  of  his  native 
principality  Lu  from  723  to  494  b.c. 

The 'Hiao-king,  Book  about  Piety,  does  not 
belong  to  the  5  King,  but  is  almost  of  equal 
esteem.  It  contains  the  instruction  of  Con- 
fucius to  a  disciple. 

The  4  Shu  are  of  second  rank. 

The  Lun-yu  contains  short  dialogues  and 
words  of  Confucius  and  his  first  disciples,  and 
is  a  principal  source  of  information  regarding 
Confucius. 

Tshung-jung,  Doctrine  of  the  Mean  or  Bal- 
ance or  Harmony,  is  ascribed  to  a  grandson 
of  Confucius. 

Ta-hio,  the  Great  Doctrine.  This  with  the 
Tshung-jung  is  the  classical  expression  of 
Confucianism. 

Meng-tse  (Mencius),  371-288  b.c,  was  the 
greatest  teacher  of  the  school  of  Confucius. 
(See  Mencius.) 

For  translations  and  discussions  of  these 
writings  see  J.  Legge's  The  Chinese  Classics 
and  the  series  of  Sacred  Books  of  the  East, 
III.,  XVI.,  XXVII. ,  XXVIII. 

W.  R.  Martin. 

Chirothecse,  the  embroidered  gloves  worn 
by  Roman  Catholic  bishops,  and  formerly  by 
those  of  the  Church  of  England. 

Choir  (from  Latin  chorvs),  used  (1)  of  the 
singers  of  the  church  ;  (2)  of  the  part  of  the 
church,  where  they  sit,  which  probably  was 
evolved  out  of  the  tribuna  of  the  old  basilica, 
corresponded  to  the  holy  of  holies  of  the  Jew- 
ish temple  ;  usually  was  in  the  eastern  part  of 


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CHRISTIAN 


the  building  and  raised.     The  high  altar  is  in 
it. 

Oho-ra'-zin,  a  town  in  Galilee,  upbraided 
by  our  Lord  (Matt  xi.  31)  along  with  Beth- 
saida  for  its  impenitence.  Its  exact  site  is  dis- 
puted. Robinson  puts  it  at  Tell-Hum,  but 
Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson  at  Kherazeh,  2  m.  n.w. 
of  Tell-Hum,  where  there  are  extensive  ruins. 
T.  W.  C. 

Chorepiscopi,  "country  bishops,"  presby- 
ters regularly  consecrated  and  empowered 
with  most  of  the  powers  of  a  bishop,  yet  oc- 
cupying a  position  of  subordination  to  the  par- 
ticular bishop  in  whose  diocese  they  worked, 
just  as  the  suffragan  bishop  does  now.  The 
ofBce  came  in  as  early  as  the  4th  century  and 
ceased  in  the  Western  Church  in  the  9th. 

Chrestus,  Chrestians,  instead  of  ;fp«Tr6f, 
*'  anointed,"  xpv^tuq,  "  gracious"  or  "  good," 
was  sometimes  taken  by  the  people  as  the 
name  of  Christ.  So  it  is  given  by  Suetonius 
(Claud,  c.  25).  But  it  would  seem  from  the 
allusions  to  this  intentional  or  unintentional 
punning  on  the  name  in  this  fashion,  found 
in  Justin  Martyr  {First  Apology,  chap.  iv. 
[Christian  Literature  Company's  ed.,  vol.  1., 
164]),  Theophilus  of  Antioch  {To  Autolycus, 
chaps,  i ,  xii.  [vol.  ii.,  89,  92]),  Tertullian 
{Apolofjj/,  chap.  iii.  [vol.  iii.  20]),  and  Lactan- 
tius  {T/ifi  Divine  Institutes,  iv.,  chap.  vii.  [vol. 
vii.,  106]),  that  the  mistake  was  quite  com- 
mon. 

Ohrism,  consecrated  oil  used  in  the  Roman 
and  Oriental  churches  in  the  ceremonies  of 
baptism,  contirmation,  ordination,  and  ex- 
treme unction.  F.  H.  F. 

Chrisome,  originally  the  white  cloth  laid 
over  the  head  of  the  newly  baptized  to  keep 
the  chrism  on  the  head  ;  then  the  name  given 
to  the  dress  in  which  the  child  at  baptism  was 
formally  invested,  and  which  was  returned 
when  tile  mother  came  to  be  churched.  If  the 
infant  died  its  mother  could  be  churched  ;  the 
chrisome  was  its  shroud,  and  the  child  spoken 
of  as  a  "  chrisome  child." 

Christ.    See  Jesus  Christ. 

Christ,  Images  or  Pictures  of,  were  first 
known  among  the  Gnostics  in  the  2d  century. 
A  spurious  letter  of  Lentulus,  a  professed  eon- 
temporary  of  Jesus,  originating  probably  in 
the  15th  century,  describing  Christ  as  a  man 
of  noble  appearance,  with  curled  hair  parted 
in  front,  with  a  smooth,  high  forehead  and 
a  reddish  beard,  presents  the  idea  formed  of 
him,  after  a  long  course  of  development,  in 
the  Greek  Church.  He  appears  also  as  the 
good  shepherd,  in  the  form  of  a  youth  of  not 
more  than  twenty,  in  the  catacombs.  The 
highest  type  of  pictorial  representation  is  reach- 
ed in  the  famous  painting  of  the  last  supper 
by  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  There  are  certain 
im^iirf's  and  pictures  of  Christ  which  claim  a 
miraculous  origin,  of  which  the  most  famous 
is  the  Veronica,  on  a  linen  cloth  upon  which 
Christ  is  said  to  have  wiped  his  face  upos  the 
way  to  Calvary.  F.  H.  F. 

Christ,  Knights  of  the  Order  of^  Portuguese 
established  in  1317,  originally  religious  and 


sanctioned  by  the  pope,   but  secularized  in 

1789. 

Christ,  Monogram  of,  is  the  combination  of 
X  and  P  found  in  the  catacombs,  afterwards 
used  by  Constantine  on  military  standards, 
coins,  etc. 

Christ,  Person  of.     See  Christologt. 

Christ,  Sinlessness  of.     See  Jesus  Christ. 

Christ,  Three  Offices  of,  are  those  of  proph- 
et, priest,  and  king.  Calvin  introduced  the 
idea  of  treating  tlie  work  of  Christ  under 
these  three  aspects,  and  it  passed  into  the 
Heidelberg  and  Westminster  catechisms,  and 
into  Lutheran  theology  through  Gerhard. 

Christadelphians,  a  small  sect  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  America  founded  by  John  Thomas, 
M.D.,  about  1860,  and  so  called  because  they 
believe  that  all  who  are  in  Christ  are  his 
brethren.  They  call  their  congregations  "  ec- 
clesias. "  They  reject  the  Trinity,  believe 
that  the  eternal  spirit  of  God  was  manifest  in 
Jesus  Christ,  consider  immersion  essential  to 
salvation,  and  that  none  will  be  saved  but 
those  who  believe  Christadelphian  teaching  ; 
the  rest  Avill  be  annihilated.  (See  A  Declara- 
tion of  the  First  Principles  of  the  Oracles  of 
the  Deity,  Washington,  D.  C.) 

Christening,  an  alternative  for  baptism 
(q.v.). 

Christian,  a  name  first  given  to  the  dis- 
ciples at  Antioch,  A.D.  42  (Acts  xi.  26),  and 
given  not  in  reproach  or  contempt,  but  simply 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  Jews,  with  whom 
they  had  previously  been  confounded.  It  oc- 
curs in  only  2  other  places  of  Scripture  (Acts 
xxvi.  28,  1  Peter  iv.  16).  A  real  Christian 
accepts  (Christ  as  his  teacher,  example,  and  re- 
deemer, his  Lord  and  his  God  ;  but  the  term  is 
often  used  to  distinguish  believers  from  Pa- 
gans, Jews,  and  Mohammedans,  and  some- 
times to  denote  only  those  who  have  confessed 
Christ  publicly.  T.  W.  C. 

Christian  Commission,  an  organization 
which  cared  for  the  souls  of  the  Union  sol- 
diers in  the  civil  war,  as  the  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion did  for  their  bodies.  It  was  synchronous 
with  the  entire  war.  It  distributed  Bibles, 
hymnals,  tracts,  religious  newspapers,  and 
books.  Upward  of  6  million  dollars  were 
used  by  it  in  various  waj's.  (See  art.  in  the 
j  Schaff-IIerzog  Encyclopcedia.) 

Christian  Connection,  or  Christians,  a  de- 

!  nomination  started  in  1810.  congregational  in 
]  polity,  anti-Trinitarian  and  Arian  in  tiieoiogy, 
1  practising    immersion,    accepting    no    creed. 
!  Their   original   platform   stated:  "That   the 
I  name  of  Christian  is  the  only  name  of  distinc- 
tion which  we  take,  and  by  wliich  we,  as  a 
denomination,   desire  to  be  known,  and  the 
Bible  is  our  only  rule  of  faith  and  practice." 
Tliey  are  .said   to  have  had,    in  isso,   1755 
churches,  1344  ministers,  and  142,000  mem- 

Christian  Endeavor  Society.     See  p.  98J>. 

I      Christian  Union.     The  churches  organized 

under  the  above  name,  although  existing  upon 

the  very  same  basis  for  years,  became  orgatt- 


CHRISTIANS 


(160) 


OHRISTOLOGT 


ically  one  in  the  year  1864,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Rev.  J.  F.  Given,  a  graduate  of  Mari- 
etta College.  The  peculiar  aim  of  these 
churches  is  to  unite  all  believers  on  the  Son  of 
God  into  one  body,  in  each  community,  under 
the  name  of  Christ,  with  the  Holy  Bible  as  the 
only  and  all  sutlicient  rule  for  belief  and  con- 
duct. The  following  are  their  principles  :  1st. 
The  oneness  of  the  Church  of  Christ  ;  2d. 
Christ,  the  only  Head  ;  3d.  The  Bible  our 
only  rule  of  faith  and  practice  ;  4th.  "  Good 
fruits"  the  only  condition  of  fellowship  ;  5th, 
Christian  union  without  controversy  ;  6th. 
Each  local  church  governs  itself  ;  7th.  Politi- 
cal preaching  discountenanced.  They  have 
increased  rapidly  in  numbers,  having  2  an- 
nua) councils  in  Ohio,  where  they  are  most 
numerous,  2  in  Missouri,  and  others  in  Ind- 
iana, Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Colorado,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  Texas,  California.  The 
organization  numbered,  in  1889,  nearly  150,- 
000  members.  They  have  a  church  paper.  The 
Christian  Witness,  edited  by  Rev.  H.  J.  Duck- 
worth and  published  at  Dayton,  O.,  also  a 
paper  published  at  Excelsior  Springs,  Mo. 

Their  church  government  is  congregational, 
each  local  church  governing  itself,  and  they 
are  evangelical  in  religious  doctrine  and  belief. 
They  are  taking  steps  for  the  establishment 
of  several  institutions  of  learning,  and  are 
earnest  in  home  missionary  work.  Many 
of  their  ministers  are  educated  and  popular 
gospel  preachers.  Their  councils  are  advisory 
over  the  churches  and  legislate  only  for  the 
governing  of  their  own  members.  The  highest 
authority  known  among  them,  under  God,  is 
tlie  local  independent  church.  Their  General 
Council  convenes  every  .4  years,  and  is  com- 
posed of  nearly  200  delegates.  The  body'  is 
most  numerous  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Mis- 
souri. H.  J.  Duckworth. 

Christians,  Bible.    See  Methodists. 

Christians  of  St.  John.     See  Mend/eans. 

Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  a  certain  Chris- 
tian sect  on  the  Malabar  coast.  Southwestern 
India,  which  claims  the  Apostle  Thomas  as  its 
founder,  but  which  is  really  of  Nestorian  or- 
igin, and  in  the  8th  century  received  a  metro- 
politan from  the  Nestorian  patriarch.  It  may 
have  originated  in  the  contact  of  the  early 
Christian  missionaries  with  the  Parthian-Ind- 
ian border.  It  has  been  much  oppressed  by 
the  neighboring  governments,  but  is  now  un- 
der British  protection  and  numbers  some  60,- 
000  souls.  (See  W.  Germann,  Die  Kirche  der 
Thomaschristen,  Giitersloh,  1877.) 

Christlieb,  Theodor,  Ph.D.  (Tubingen, 
1857),  D.D.  (Berlin,  1870),  German  Evangel- 
ical theologian  ;  b.  at  Birkenfeld,  Wiirtem- 
berg,  25  m.  e.s.e.  of  Treves,  March  7,  1833  ; 
d.  at  Bonn,  Aug.  15,  1889.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen  ;  was  pastor  of  the  Islington  Ger- 
man church,  London,  1858-65  ;  professor  of 
practical  theology  and  university  preacher  at 
Bonn,  since  1868.  He  was  the  author  of  Mod- 
ern Donht  and  christian  Belief,  orig.  St.  Gall, 
1868  ;  2d  ed..  Bonn,  1870  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh and  New  York,  1874  ;  4th  ed.,  1879  ; 
Protestant  Fm-eiqn  Missions,  their  Present 
State,  orig.   Gutersloh,  1879  ;  4th  ed.,  1880  ; 


Eng.  trans.,  London,  Boston,  and  New  York 

1880  (several  edd.). 

Christmas,  the  celebration  of  the  birth  of 
our  Lord,  observed  throughout  Christendom 
on  Dec.  25.  It  has  its  origin  in  the  necessity, 
among  other  festivals  introduced  into  the 
church,  of  liaving  one  which  should  mark  the 
coming  of  so  great  a  blessing  as  the  presence 
and  mission  of  Christ.  It  was  not  a  custom 
either  among  the  Jews  or  the  earliest  Chris- 
tians to  celebrate  birthdays.  The  first  Chris- 
tian festivals  gathered  about  the  great  facts  of 
the  work  of  redemption — the  death  and  the 
resurrection.  Had  there  been  a  disposition  to 
celebrate  the  date  of  Christ's  birth,  there  were 
no  traditions  as  to  the  time  of  its  occurrence. 
But  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany  prepared  the 
way  for  Christmas.  This  was  first  celebrated 
by  the  Gnostics,  upon  Jan.  6,  and  commemo- 
rated the  baptism.  When  the  Catholics  tqok 
up  the  idea,  they  combined  the  celebration  of 
the  birtli  and  the  baptism,  as  two  kinds  of 
epiphanies  or  appearances.  But  the  com- 
bination was  not  successful,  and  a  separate 
festival  for  the  birthday  was  introduced,  first 
in  Rome,  probably  in  the  papacy  of  Julius  I., 
337-52.  By  376  it  was  introduced  in  Antioch, 
and  was  welcomed  so  heartily  that  in  386 
Chrysostom  could  speak  of  it  as  already  upon 
a  par  with  other  Christian  feasts.  All  ten- 
dency to  celebrate  the  birth  of  Christ  in  con- 
nection with  the  baptism  upon  Epiphany  does 
not  disappear  in  the  East  till  the  middle  of 
the  5th  century.  But  from  about  this  time 
the  practice  of  all  Christians  was  the  same. 
The  choice  of  the  date,  in  the  utter  lack  of 
all  tradition,  has  been  referred  to  different 
thoughts,  but  the  most  probable  is  the  natural 
analogy  between  the  birth  of  Christ,  the  Sun 
of  Righteousness,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
return,  or  the  rebirth,  of  the  natural  sun  upon 
Dec.  25.  In  the  Roman  Church  Christmas  is 
celebrated  with  special  public  services,  and  in 
all  branches  of  the  Protestant,  except,  for  a 
time,  the  extreme  Puritan  churches,  it  has 
been  observed  as  a  family  day,  and  with  more 
or  less  elaborate  religious  services.  (See 
Chambers,  Book  of  Days,  Edinburgh,  1864.) 
F.  H.  F. 

,  Christol'-ogy  is  the  doctrine  of  the  person 
of  Christ.  The  grand  peculiarity  of  this  is 
that  Christ  is  God  and  man  united,  the  two 
natures  constituting  one  unique  personality. 
He  is  neither  divine  alone,  nor  human  alone, 
but  divine-human.  This  is  the  central  truth 
of  the  Cliristian  system,  and,  bafljing  as  it  is 
to  our,  comprehension,  the  source  of  all  its 
vitality  and  power.  It  Avas  foreshadowed  in 
the  prophetic  descriptions  of  the  Messiah.  He 
was  to  be  born  in  a  certain  small  village 
(Micah  V.  2),  yet  this  was  not  to  be  the  begin- 
ning of  his  existence,  for  "his  goings  forth 
are  from  of  old,  from  everlasting"  (from  the 
days  of  eternity).  He  was  to  be  a  king  and 
conqueror,  perfect  in  wisdom  and  grace,  and 
achieving  a  universal  and  perpetual  empire 
(Ps.  ii.  6,  xlv.  2-7,  Ixxii..  Isa.  ix.  6,  7)  ;  and 
yet  despised  and  rejected,  a  man  of  sorrows, 
and  finally  cut  oif  out  of  the  land  of  the  living 
(Isa.  liii.).  He  was  to  open  the  eyes  of  the 
blind  and  the  ears  of  the  deaf,  and  make  the 


CHRISTOLOGY 


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CHRISTOLOGY 


lame  man  leap  as  an  hart  (Isa.  xxxv.  5,  6),  and 
yet  himself  to  be  betrayed,  sold,  pierced,  slain, 
and  his  grave  appointed  with  the  wicked. 
Yet  his  vicarious  sufferings  should  make  many 
righteous,  and  introduce  an  administration 
which  should  change  the  moi-al  condition  of 
the  whole  earth  (Isa.  xi.  1-9,  Ix.  1-11).  He 
was  to  do  the  work  of  a  prophet  (Isa.  xlii. 
1-7).  that  of  a  priest  (Ps.  ex.  4,  Zech.  vi.  13), 
and  that  of  a  king  (Dan.  vii.  14)— in  each  case 
combining  and  exalting  to  the  highest  point 
the  excellences  of  all  who  had  previously  held 
such  offices.  These  predictions  and  many 
others  of  like  nature  were  all  fulfilled  in  the 
son  of  Mary. 

He  was  unquestionably  a  man,  being  so 
called  by  himself  and  others.  He  had  a  body, 
for  he  ate,  and  drank,  and  became  weary,  and 
slept,  and  increased  in  stature  ;  he  lived  for 
30  years  as  a  man  ;  he  died  on  the  cross,  was 
buried,  rose  again,  and  proved  his  identity  by 
physical  signs.  He  had,  too,  a  rational  soul, 
for  he  increased  in  wisdom.  He  had  the  com- 
mon feelings  of  our  nature— wondering,  re- 
joicing, sorrowing,  weeping,  loving,  and  on 
occasion  becoming  indignant.  Tet  he  was 
just  as  certainly  also  divine.  He  received 
divine  titles.  Divine  perfections  were  ascribed 
to  him.  Divine  works  were  performed  by 
him.  Divine  worship  was  paid  to  him.  The 
evidence  runs  through  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament. 

The  eternal  Word  was  manifested  in  the 
flesh— that  is,  the  Son  of  God  as  a  divine  per- 
son took  upon  him  the  nature  of  sinless  hu- 
manity. And  these  two  natures  continue  for- 
ever in  Christ's  complex  person.  They  are 
not  mixed  nor  confused,  but  united  so  as  to 
form  a  God-man.  A  common  illustration  is 
taken  from  our  humanity.  Each  individual 
of  the  human  race  is  composed  of  body  and 
soul,  a  material  and  an  immaterial  nature,  and 
the  personality  results  from  the  union  of  the 
two.  Neither  one  alone  is  the  man,  nor  does 
either  impart  any  of  its  properties  to  the  other, 
but  the  two  together,  each  in  its  full  integrity, 
are  requisite  to  a  complete  individuality.  In 
like  manner  the  divine  nature  and  ihe  human 
coexist  in  the  one  Saviour.  It  is  a  profound 
mystery  how  this  is,  how  there  is  such  a  com- 
plete union  without  confusion  of  a  divine  con- 
sciousness, mind,  feeling,  and  will,  with  a  hu- 
man consciousness,  mind,  heart,  and  will. 
But  the  fact  is  certain  ;  and  hence,  while  the 
properties  of  one  nature  cannot  be  attributed 
to  the  other,  i.e.,  the  divine  never  becomes 
human  nor  the  human  divine,  yet  the  proper- 
ties of  both  natures  are  often  attributed  to  the 
person  resulting  from  their  union,  and  he  may 
be  indifferently  designated  by  divine  or  by 
human  titles.  He  is  still  God  when  he  dies, 
and  still  man  when  he  raises  his  people  from 
their  graves. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  exaggerate  the  im- 
portance of  this  point  in  theology.  What 
Christ  was  is  far  more  essential  to  Cliristianity 
than  what  he  tauglit,  for  he  is  not  simply  the 
autiior  of  our  religion,  but  its  centre  and  its 
substance.  The  kernel  of  the  whole  .system 
lies  in  the  fellowship  with  God  which  it  intro- 
duces through  the  composite  person  of  the 
Lord  Jesus.  T.  W.  C. 


History.— The  elements  of  the  subsequent 
doctrine  of  the  church  are  to  be  found  in  the 
earliest  writers  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
Apostolic  Fathers  and  the  Apologists  looked 
upon  Christ  as  their  God,  though  they  did  not 
answer  the  question  how  he  could  be  God, 
and  yet  God,  the  Father  and  the  Son,  be  one 
The  progress  of  reflection  upon  the  great 
truths  revealed  in  the  Word  of  God  led  soon 
to  the  asking  of  this  question,  which  was  an- 
swered in  the  Arian  controversy,  closing  about 
the  year  381.  But  when  the  fact  was  clearly 
established  that  the  Son  was  of  the  same  es- 
sence as  the  Father,  there  remained  the  further 
question,  How  was  this  Son  inade  man  ?  or 
What  was  the  relation  of  the  God  and  the 
man  in  the  single  personality,  Jesus  Christ  ? 

The  answer  to  this  question  was  a  gradual 
one.  The  early  struggle,  with  Gnosticism, 
which  denied  generally  that  the  human  body 
of  Christ  was  anything  more  than  a  mere  ap- 
pearance, had  brought  out  fully  that  Christ 
had  a  real  body,  and  this  was  embodied  in  the 
rule  of  faith  now  known  as  the  "  Apostles' 
Creed."  It  was  not  so  clearly  perceived  that 
he  had  a  human  soul,  though  this  had  not 
been  denied.  Platonic  phitosophy  entered 
into  the  problem  to  confuse  it.  But  Origen 
(d.  254)  di.stinguished  clearly  between  the  di- 
vine Word  and  the  human  soul,  and  taught 
that  the  soul  was  as  essential  to  Christ  as  the 
divine  Word,  that  nothing  of  humanity  should 
be  believed  to  be  wanting  in  him.  This 
point  once  made  was  never  forgotten,  althougli 
connected  in  Origen  with  his  speculations  as 
to  the  origin  of  evil  and  the  pre-existence  of 
souls.  One  more  thing  Origen  said  that  ought 
not  to  be  omitted,  viz.,  that  the  union  of  the 
divine  with  the  human  in  Christ  was  brought 
about  by  means  of  a  human  soul  perfectly 
submitted  to  God.  Thus  the  union  was  at 
bottom  an  ethical  one. 

The  failure  of  Apollinaris  (q.v.)  to  advance 
the  doctrine  did  not  prevent  the  further  con- 
sideration of  it  by  the  school  of  Alexandria. 
Athanasius  brought  out  the  difference  between 
the  indwelling  of  God  in  all  good  men  and  the 
indwelling  of  the  Logos  in  Christ.  In  him 
the  divinity  had  made  human  flesh  its  own. 
There  is  therefore  but  one  Son  of  man.  The 
Word  bears  the  weaknesses  of  the  flesh  as  its 
own.  Hence  the  incarnate  one  is  to  be  adored, 
and  J\Iafy  is  the  iMother  of  God.  He;  adds 
that  the  incarnation  is  the  restoration  of  hu- 
manity to  its  original  design.  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen  teaches  the  same  doctrine,  but  also  lays 
emphasi.s  upon  the  humiliation  and  limitation 
of  the  Logos  in  the  incarnation.  Gregory  of 
Nyssa  attempts  to  advan(;e  the  study  by  ex- 
plaining the  possibility  of  the  incarnation, 
which  he  does  by  the  idea  that  the  soul  is  by 
nature  "  capacious  of  the  divine."  There  is 
nothing  in  human  nature  which  in  itself  is 
unworthy  of  God.  As  Athanasius  had  said, 
the  soul'was  meant  for  the  Logos,  and  thus 
when  tlie  Logos  a.ssumes  it.  he  is  coming  to 
his  own.  (Jyril  closed  the  .series  of  thinkers 
who  followed  out  tliese  thoughts.  He  taught 
that  tlie  Logos  is  the  principle  which  consti- 
tutes the  personality  of  the  God-man.  The 
union  of  God  and  man  is  indeed  my.sterious, 
but  that  which  is  assumed  becomes  one  with 


OHRISTOLOGY 


(162) 


OHRISTOLOGY 


the  Lo,i!;os.  Logically  there  is  still  a  distinc- 
tion ;  God  does  not  cense  to  be  God,  nor  hu- 
manity to  be  humanity  ;  but  in  reality,  there 
are  no  longer  two  natures,  but  one  nature- 
one  being,  one  person,  "  one  nature  after  the 
incarnation."  Hence  that  which  was  born  of 
the  Virgin  was  God,  and  she  is  the  Mother  of 
God.  The  profound  soteriological  thought 
underlying  all  this  was  that  salvation  was  not 
possible  except  God  should  participate  in  our 
weakness  and  suffering. 

But  side  by  side  with  this  tendency  in  Alex- 
andria there  had  been  developing  one  alto- 
gether different  at  Antioch.  Two  fundamen- 
tal thoughts  governed  the  Christology  of  this 
school.  One  was  that  the  highest  moral  per- 
fection was  only  to  be  gained  by  free  personal 
development,  and  the  other  that  the  great 
work  of  the  Redeemer  was  to  present  a  per- 
fect example  of  holiness  for  our  imitation. 
Hence  the  emphasis  was  laid  in  this  school 
upon  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  and  the  in- 
dwelling of  deity  in  Christ  is  conceived  after 
the  analogy  of  his  indwelling  in  all  good  men. 
Hence  also  the  incarnation  is  ever  perfecting 
itself  during  the  life  of  Jesus.  The  two  na- 
tures of  Christ  are  "conjoined,"  they  say, 
■work  rather  in  perfect  harmony,  than  in  a 
union  such  as  Alexandria  taught.  And  hence 
Mary  is  the  Mother  of  Christ,  not  of  God. 

The  questions  between  the  two  schools  of 
thought  controlling  the  Christian  world  were 
brought  to  a  decision  b}"  the  Nestorian  con- 
troversy. Nestoriiis  (q.v.)  took  for  his  start- 
ing-point the  Anliochian  "  conjunction,"  and 
defined  Christ  as  the  man  with  whom  God  is 
united.  The  two  natures  are  to  be  carefully 
separated  in  thought,  though  they  subsist  in 
unity.  That  which  was  born  of  Mary  was 
the  "man,  and  hence  she  is  the  Mother  of 
Christ.  The  phrase  "Mother  of  God"  was 
strongly  opposed  by  Nestorius.  He  thus 
taught  in  reality  that  Ciirist  was  man  and 
God,  a  twofold  person,  with  two  central 
points,  each  to  be  conceived  as  independent 
of  the  other.  The  union  is  subjective  in  us, 
rather  than  objective.  The  participation  of 
the  deity  in  the  sufferings  of  the  humanity 
Nestorius  also  rejected.  Cyril  replied  to  Nes- 
torius by  saying  that  he  taught  two  Christs 
rather  than  one,  and  the  controversy  waxed 
liot.  Nestorius  accused  Cyril  of  confounding 
the  two  natures,  which  would  be  the  same  as 
destroying  both  ;  of  an  Apollinarian  limita- 
tion of  the  human  nature  ;  and  of  degrading 
the  intinite  God  to  a  human  being.  By  these 
charges  and  countercharges  the  true  question 
between  the  parties  was  brought  out,  Whether 
Cyril's  Christology  did  not  demand  a  transfor- 
mation of  the  two  natures,  and  whether  Nes- 
torius' did  not  involve  a  division  of  the  one 
Christ.  Cyril  viewed  the  question  thus  seri- 
ously, and  argued  vigorously  against  Nes- 
torius. He  said  Nestorius  not  only  divided 
the  Christ,  but  destroyed  his  redemptive  ac- 
tivity. This  is  the  work  of  the  one  incarnate 
Logos,  and  it  loses  its  significance  so  soon  as 
it  is  referred  to  the  man  Jesus  as  its  agent. 
Nestorius  also  destroyed  tlie  humiliation  of 
Christ,  for  it  can  be  no  humiliation  for  him  to 
unite  himself  with  a  man  in  Nestorius'  sense. 
At  the  same'  time  the  exaltation  is  destroyed. 


If  the  man,  and  not  the  Son  of  God,  lias  suf- 
fered for  us.  there  is  no  redemption,  for  a  man 
cannot  redeem  us  ;  and  all  the  mediatorial 
acts,  priestly  and  intercessory,  lose  their  sig- 
nificance. In  a  word,  Nestorius'  view  attacks 
the  facts  of  our  Christian  experience.  Such 
was  Cyril's  reply,  and  it  had  force  because  he 
was  maintaining  that  perfect  unity  in  the  ])er- 
son  of  Christ  which  is  necessary  to  account 
for  the  undivided  consciousness  of  the  Christ 
pictured  to  us  in  the  gospels.  He  sought  to 
add  a  positive  element  lo  the  discussion  "of  the 
doctrine  by  the  theory  of  the  communication 
of  properties,  whereby  the  Logos  imparts  him- 
self entirely  to  the  flesh  which  he  assumes  and 
thus  lifts  it  up  into  the  deity.  And  here, 
though  he  did  not  fall  into  the  mistake  him- 
self, he  prepared  the  way  for  the  subsequent 
entire  absorption  of  the  humanity  taught  by 
Eutyches  (q.v.). 

The  Council  of  Epiiesus  (431)  decided 
against  Nestorius,  and  his  personal  relations 
to  the  contest  ceased.  The  Latin  fathers  now 
began  to  concern  themselves  with  the  ques- 
tion, as  e.g.,  Ambrose.  It  was  reserved  for 
Leo  I.  in  his  letter  to  Flavian  to  give  that 
calm  and  balanced  view  of  the  subject  M'hicb 
could  be,  and  was  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the 
final  definitions  at  Chalcedon  (451).  Both  the 
letter  and  the  creed  fall  somewhat  short  of 
providing  a  basis  for  the  true  unity  of  the 
person  of  Christ,  though  they  assert  this 
strongly.  The  school  of  Alexandria  carries 
off  the  victory  on  the  whole.  The  rational 
soul,  the  consubstantiality  with  God  accord- 
ing to  the  divinity,  and  with  man  according 
to  the  humanity,  the  two  natures  to  be  ac- 
knowledged "  "inconfusedly,  unchangeably, 
indi visibly,  inseparably,"  and  the  title  of 
Mary  as  Mother  of  God.  are  all  Alexandrian. 
Still,  the  general  balancing  of  elements 
throughout  the  whole  suggests  the  Antiochian 
"  conjunction." 

The  Council  did  not  settle  the  doctrine. 
The  Monophysites,  the  heirs  of  Eutyches.  to 
whom  "  nature"  and  "  person"  were  equiva- 
lent concepts,  so  that  two  natures  were  the 
same  as  two  persons,  and  the  Monothelites, 
who  denied  the  human  will  because  not  seeing 
how  there  could  be  two  wills  if  they  were  in 
perfect  harmony,  and  because  tw^o  inharmoni- 
ous wills  would  divide  the  person  of  Christ, 
continued  the  discussion.  I3ut  the  mind  of 
the  church  in  general  turned  back  from  all 
these  extremes  to  the  creed  of  Chalcedon, 
which  was  thus  left  as  the  maturest  presenta- 
tion of  the  theme  to  which  the  early  church 
could  arrive. 

The  period  of  the  Reformation  saw  this  doc- 
trine again  under  discussion.  The  doctrine 
of  the  means  of  grace,  which  Luther  was  led 
by  his  controversy  with  Zwingli  to  emphasize, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  ubiquity  of  the  Lord's 
body,  which  the  exigencies  of  his  theory  of  the 
sacrament  called  for,  led  him  to  the  investi- 
gation of  the  question  how  the  Lord's  body 
could  be  ubiquitous.  lie  found  the  answer 
to  this  question  in  the  ancient  theory  of  the 
communication  of  properties.  The  hufnau 
nature  of  Christ  received  the  divine  attribute 
of  omnipresence.  But  a  deeper  question  than 
how  to  get  a  basis  for  the  theory  of  the  Lord's 


CHRISTOPHER 


(163) 


OHRYSOSTOM 


Supper  vfas  in  liis  mind.  That  theory  de- 
pended upon  his  conception  of  the  undivided 
nature  of  the  one  Christ,  who,  thus  undivided, 
wrought  all  liis  w^orks,  includino;  the  imparta- 
tion  of  grace  in  the  Supper.  The  two  natures 
of  Christ  were  perfectly  united,  though  orig- 
inaliv^  diverse,  because  brought  into  perfect 
similarity  by  the  mutual  inipartation  of  prop- 
erties. The  Lutheran  Church  has  historically 
retained  so  much  of  this  theory  as  is  necessary 
to  afford  a  basis  for  the  ideas  that  the  divine 
really  took  part  in  our  weakness,  and  that  the 
human  body  is  really  present  "  in,  with,  and 
under"  the  elements  of  the  Supper.  The 
"  Reformed"  churches  made  no  effort  to  pass 
beyond  the  detinitions  of  Chalcedon.  In  our 
own  day  still  more  thought  has  been  expended 
upon  this  theme,  which  has,  however,  scarcely 
become  as  yet  a  matter  of  history.  The 
classical  work  is  Dorner's  Ylktory  of  the  .  .  . 
Doctrine  of  .  .  .  CJirUt,  Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1861-63,  5  vols.  (See  arts.  Kknosis 
and  DoRNER.)  F.  H.  F. 

Christopher,  St.,  celebrated  by  the  Greek 
Church  upon  May  9,  by  the  Latin  upon  July 
25,  is  known  only  by  legends  which  have 
scarcely  a  trace  of  historical  worth.  He  is 
said  to  have  lived  at  Samos  in  Lycia,  a  place 
not  otherwise  known,  to  have  converted  mul- 
titudes by  miracles,  and  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom.  The  German  legend,  that  he 
sought  to  serve  the  strongest,  and  having 
found  the  devil  afraid  of  Christ  turned  to 
him,  and  carried  pilgrims  across  a  river  till  at 
last  Christ  himself  came,  is  not  without  beauty 
and  instruction.  F.  H.  F. 

Christophorus,  pope  Nov. ,  903-June,  904, 
imprisoned  his  predecessor,  Leo  V'.,  and  him- 
self met  the  same  fate.  F.  H.  F. 

Chrodegang,  St.,  of  noble  Frankish  birth, 
early  in  the  8th  ceutur}^  ;  became  chancellor 
of  King  Karl  Martel,  to  which  office  was 
joined  that  of  bishop  of  Metz,  742  ;  d.  March 
2,  764.  He  was  a  great  statesman  and  ecclesi- 
astic, and  endeavored  with  partial  success  to 
correct  clerical  laxity  by  the  "  rule"  that  the 
clergy  should  live  together  under  the  eye  of 
their  bishop,  and  thus  be  under  stricter  con- 
trol. 

Chronicles,  the  name  of  the  13th  and  14th 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which,  among 
the  ancient  Jews,  formed  only  one  book. 
They  are  of  unknown  authorship,  but  were 
probably  written  by  Ezra.  The  1st  book  re- 
capitulates .sacred  histor\'  by  genealogies  from 
the  beginning  to  the  time  of  David,  of  whose 
life  and  reign  it  treats  more  fully.  The  2d 
book  recounts  the  hi.story  of  Judah,  without 
that  of  Israel,  from  Solomon  to  the  return 
from  exile.  They  differ  from  King.s  in  that 
they  dwell  more  on  ecclesiastical  matters,  en- 
large upon  public  worship  and  the  temple  ser- 
vice, are  fuller  in  respect  to  the  religious  char- 
acter of  the  kings,  and  by  I  heir  genealogical 
records  aided  in  the  re-establishment  of  the 
Hebrew  state  and  church.  Samuel,  Kings, 
and  Chronicles  are  mutally  supplementary, 
and  need  to  be  read  together,  as  forming  with 
some  unessential  discrepancies  one  contiiuious 
and  most  instructive  hi^story.     The  most  use- 


ful  commentaries  are  those  of  Bertheau  (2d 
ed.,  1873)  and  Keil  (1870).  T.  W.  (I 

Chronicon  paschale,  a  Christian  chronicle 
of  unknown  authorship,  extending  from  the 
creation  to  a.d.  1042,  so  called  from  its  exact 
Paschal  computations. 

Chrys'-olite  .((/oM  stone),  the  garniture  o\ 
the  7th  foundation  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
fKev.  xxi.  20),  usually  identified  with  the  yel- 
low topaz  of  the  Old  Testament.     T.  W.  C. 

Chry-sor-o-gus  ("of  golden  speech"),  a 
name  given  to  Peter,  bishop  of  Ravenna,  since 
433  (b.  at  Imola,  22  m.  e.s.e.  of  Bologna,  406  ; 
d.  there,  450)  for  his  eloquence.  He  was  a 
contemporary  of  Valentinian  III.,  and  as 
court  preacher  exercised  a  wide  iutiuence. 
Of  his  sermons,  176,  of  which  only  100  are 
genuine,  have  come  down  to  us.  They  em- 
phasize morals  and  good  works,  and  occa- 
sionally enter  the  realm  of  polemic  theology. 
He  opposes  Arianism  and  Eutychiani.sm. 
Works  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  vol.  lii.  ;  partial 
German  trans.,  and  life  by  Held,  Kempteu, 
1874.  F.  H.  F. 

Chrys-opra'-sus  (r/old  leek),  an  agate  of  the 
color  of  the  leek's  juice,  the  10th  precious 
stone  in  the  foundation  of  the  New  Jerusa- 
lem. T.  W.  C. 

Chrysostom  (Chry-sos'-tum,  ciolden-mouth- 
ed),  bishop  of  Constantinople  ;  b.  at  Antioch, 
347  ;  d.  at  Comana,  Asia  Minor,  407.  His 
family  belonged  to  high  circles,  since  his 
father,  Sccundus,  held  an  important  military 
position,  and  he  would  naturally  have  devoted 
himself  to  some  secular  pursuit.  But  the 
deeply  religious  education  which  liis  mother, 
to  whom  his  entire  training  fell  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  gave  him,  led  him  to  turn  aside 
from  the  profession  of  the  law,  which  he  had 
already  taken  up,  and  begin  the  study  of  the- 
ology. He  was  the  pupil  of  the  bishop  of 
Antioch,  Meletius,  for  3  years,  and  then  be- 
came Reader.  But  upon  the  death  of  his 
mother,  he  turned  to  that  form  of  religious 
life  which  he  would  already  have  embraced 
except  for  her  opposition,  the  monastic,  and 
spent  the  6  following  years  in  absolute  retire- 
ment in  a  neighboring'  monastery.  His  earli- 
est writings  deal  with  the  monastic  life  and 
exhibit  the  greatest  devotion  to  it,  a  feeling 
which  he  preserved  to  the  end  of  his  days. 

But  considerations  of  health  called  him  back 
to  Antioch  in  the  year  380,  and  thus  began 
the  second  period  of  his  life,  and  his  principal 
service  to  Ids  own  times  and  to  the  world. 
At  first  a  deacon,  he  engaged  in  the  care  of 
the  sick,  upon  which  department  of  ministe- 
rial activity  he  wrote  several  treatises.  In  380 
he  was  ordained  presbyter,  and  was  intrusted 
with  the  office  of  principal  preacher  in  An- 
tioch. His  pulpit  activity  embraced  all  the 
l)ul)lic  and  churchly  interests  of  his  day.  He 
quieted  the  people  when  excited  by  "fear  of 
the  imperial  displeasure  at  the  destruction  of 
the  statues  of  the  imperial  family  ;  he  sought 
to  heal  the  Meletian  schism  in  Antioch  ;  he 
entered  the  field  against  the  Anomceans,  and 
airainst  Gnostic  and  Jewish  errors.  He  ex- 
plained whole  books  of  the  Bible  in  series  of 
sermons,  or  dwelt  upon  the  peculiar  events 


CHUBB 


(164) 


CHURCH 


of  the  day,  or  took  up  special  topics,  such  as 
the  history  of  Hannah.  The  remnants  of 
heathen  ways  of  life,  of  ancient  superstitions, 
and  the  evils  of  the  worldliness  of  his  own 
times,  all  occupied  his  attention  in  turn. 
Thus  he  passed  12  years  of  growing  useful- 
ness and  increasing  fame. 

But  now  he  was  to  be  put  in  a  place  at  once 
more  conspicuous  and  dangerous.  The  arch- 
bishopric of  Constantinople  was  vacant,  and 
Chrysostom  was  selected  for  the  position. 
Brought  thither  by  a  wily  device,  to  overcome 
his  reluctance  and  the  unwillingness  of  the 
people  of  Antioch,  he  was  consecrated  in  398. 
Constantinople  was  religiously  and  morally 
corrupt,  since  the  intluence  of  a  despotic  gov- 
ernment and  of  the  worldliness  of  the  capital 
city  conspired  with  the  fanaticism  of  the  East 
to  promote  the  outward  profession  of  the  truth 
with  the  neglect  of  its  substance.  Chrysostom 
was  an  earnest,  strict,  simple-minded  man, 
little  fitted  to  cope  with  the  forces  about  him, 
and  little  disposed  to  yield  to  them.  He  be- 
gan by  opposing  the  Arians,  who  still  had 
considerable  influence  with  the  people.  Blood 
was  shed  in  some  of  the  conflicts  which  re- 
sulted. His  episcopal  activity  extended  itself 
to  other  churches,  as  to  that  of  Ephesus, 
whither  he  journeyed  in  401,  installed  a  new 
bishop,  and  also  deposed  6  nei,^hboring  bishops 
who  had  been  guilty  of  simony.  But  he 
thereby  created  enemies  for  himself.  He  also 
came  into  conflict  with  Theophilus  of  Alex- 
andria over  his  persecution  of  certain  monks 
whom  he  had  driven  out  of  Alexandria.  His 
freedom  of  utterance  upon  many  topics  had 
also  set  the  Empress  Eudoxia  against  him, 
and  Theophilus  found  it  easy  to  arouse  her  to 
active  enmity,  and  to  have  a  synod  held  at  a 
place  {Ad  Quercum)  near  Chalcedon  in  which 
46  complaints  were  brought  against  Chrysos- 
tom, and  it  was  recommended  that  he  be  ban- 
ished. He  delivered  himself  to  his  pursuers 
and  was  carried  out  of  the  city  ;  but  the  ex- 
citement of  the  people  called  him  back,  and 
he  resumed  his  office.  But  the  empress  was 
still  against  him,  and  a  hasty  word  of  his  own 
completed  his  ruin.  Another  synod  was  held 
at  Constantinople,  and  he  was  again  deposed, 
and  on  June  20,  404,  was  carried  into  banish- 
ment. The  place  of  banishment  was  Kukusus 
in  Armenia  Minor.  Here  Chrysostom  did 
not  give  up  his  spiritual  labors,  but  maintained 
a  constant  correspondence  with  Constantino- 
ple, with  missions  which  had  been  founded 
by  him,  and  with  other  churches.  Innocent 
I.'  of  Rome  sought  to  induce  the  emperor  to 
mitigate  his  sentence,  but  the  only  effect  was 
that  he  was  banished  to  Pityus  upon  the 
northeast  eru  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  toward 
which  place  he  had  started,  when  at  Comana 
his  strengtii  gave  out  and  he  died. 

Aside  from  his  importance  as  a  preacher 
and  an  exegete,  the  great  importance  of  Chry- 
sostom lay  in  the  example  he  set  in  that  age, 
of  an  earnest,  pure,  and  amiable  Christian 
character.  Eng.  trans,  of  his  works,  Christ. 
Lit.  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1889,  6  vols.  (See  life  bv  W. 
R.  W.  Stephens,  London,  1872  ;  2d  ed.,  1880.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Chubb,  Thomas,  English  Deist  ;  b.  at  East 
Harnham,  ntar  Salisbury,  Sept.  29,  1679  ;  d. 


at  Salisbury,  Feb.  8,  1746-47.  He  was  a  clerk 
for  a  tallov.' -chandler,  imperfectly  educated, 
yet  wrote  several  deistical  books  and  many 
tracts.  His  free-will  theory  was  considered 
worthy  of  an  elaborate  refutation  by  Jonathan 
Edwards  in  his  Treatise  on  the  Freedmn  of  t/ie 
Will  (pt.  i.,  sec.  X.). 

Church  (Greek  kuriakon,  the  Lord's  house). 
The  Greek  word,  ecclesia,  translated  church, 
signifies  an  assembly,  either  secular  (Acts  xix. 
32)  or  religious  (Acts  ii.  47).  It  is  applied 
either  to  a  particular  congregation  in  a  local 
sense,  as  the  church  at  Antioch  (Acts  xiii.  1), 
or  to  a  collection  of  congregations  in  a  prov- 
ince, as  in  Acts  ix.  31  (where  the  true  text 
reads,  "  The  church  throughout  all  Judaea 
and  Galilee  and  Samaria  had  peace"),  or 
finally  to  the  whole  body  of  believers,  whether 
considered  as  the  professed  followers  of  Christ, 
and  therefore  visible  (as  in  1  Tim.  iii.  15),  or 
as  the  aggregate  of  saved  souls,  known  only 
to  God  and  invisible  to  men  (as  in  Heb.  xii. 
23).  In  the  gospels  the  word  is  used  only 
twice,  each  time  by  Matthew.  One  of  these 
is  in  xvi.  18,  "  Upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my 
church,"  Avhere  the  Master  declares  his  pur- 
pose to  construct  the  edifice  of  his  followers 
as  a  society,  the  other  in  xviii.  17,  "  tell  it  imto 
the  church,"  where  he  speaks  in  anticipation 
of  its  existence.  The  day  of  Pentecost  seems 
to  have  been  the  birthday  of  the  Christian 
Church  (Acts  v.  11).  The  word  is  never  used 
in  Scripture  to  denote  a  building  for  worship. 

Churches  are  divided  either  locally,  as  the 
Church  of  England,  the  Kirk  of  Scotland, 
etc.,  or  by  differences  on  important  points  of 
doctrine,  "as  Trinitarians  or  Unitarians,  Pela- 
gians or  Anti-Pelagians,  Calvinists  or  Armin- 
ians.  Reformed  or  Lutheran,  Broad  Church 
or  Evangelical  ;  or  by  variant  views  as  to 
government,  as  Papists,  Prelatisls,  Presbyte- 
rians, Independents,  or  Methodists  ;  or  by  dif- 
ferences as  to  the  sacraments,  as  Baptists  and 
Pisedobaptists  ;  or  by  diversities  of  w^orship,  as 
Liturgical  or  Anti-Liturgical  ;  or  by  two  or 
more  of  these  combined. 

The  most  generally -accepted  definition  of  a 
church  is  that  of  the  Nineteenth  Article  of 
the  Church  of  England—"  a  congregation  of 
faithful  men,  in  tli'e  which  the  pure  Word  of 
God  is  preached,  and  the  sacraments  be  duly 
administered  according  to  Christ's  ordinance", 
in  all  those  things  that  of  necessity  are  requi- 
site to  the  same."  The  "faithful  men"  are 
those  who  confess  their  faith  in  Christ  and 
sustain  that  confession  by  a  correct  outward 
life.  They  are  not  always  what  they  profess 
to  be,  and  this  was  true  in  apostolic  times 
(Acts  viii.  13,  21).  Our  Lord  likened  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  to  a  field  in  which  there 
were  tares  as  well  as  wheat  (Matt.  xiii.  24,  25). 

The  object  of  the  church's  existence  is  to 
promote  the  glory  of  God,  the  edification  of 
its  own  members,  and  the  diffusion  of  the 
gospel  over  the  whole  earth  ;  and  to  accom- 
plish these  ends  ordinances  of  worship  are  ap- 
pointed and  the  rulers  exercise  continual  watch 
and  care.  When  any  members  walk  dis- 
orderly and  continue  to  do  so,  notwithstand- 
ing adnicnition,  they  may  be  excluded  (Matt, 
xviii.    i7,  1  Cor.  v.  3),  but  upon  repentanc« 


OHUROH 


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CHURCH 


may  and  should  be  restored  (Gal.  vi.  1).  Ex- 
pulsion is  the  highest  penalty  that  can  be  im- 
posed, there  being  no  authority  to  inflict  any 
civil  disabilities. 

According  to  the  Scripture  the  church  is  not 
a  voluntary  society,  but  a  divine  institution, 
and  it  is  the  duty'  of  every  believer  to  be  in 
communion  with  his  brethren  ;  but  this  duty 
can  be  enforced  only  by  moral  considerations. 
To  use  violent  means  implies  an  alliance  of 
church  and  state,  and  is  diametrically  opposite 
to  the  will  of  him  who  said,  "  My  kingdom  is 
not  of  this  world."  T.  W.  C. 

Church  and  State  had  at  first  only  the  rela- 
tions of  the  persecuting  or  indiiferent  supreme 
power,  and  the  obscure,  misunderstood,  or 
dreaded,  persecuted  comnuiuity.  In  this 
silence  and  obscurity  the  church  developed 
her  constitution.  When  Constantine  recog- 
nized her  and  set  her  free  from  further  perse- 
cution, and  gradually  gave  her  rights  under 
the  state,  he  did  not  attempt  to  make  any  es- 
sential change  in  her  character  ;  but  the  favor 
which  protected  her  became  gradually  the 
power  which  governed  her.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  laws  of  the  stale  were  changed  to 
agree  with  the  demands  of  Christian  principle, 
viz.,  in  respect  to  slavery,  the  circus,  punish- 
ments, marriage,  etc.  Heathen  lost  their  civil 
privileges,  and  the  Christian  clergy  received 
special  rights.  The  decisions  of  church  coun- 
cils received  the  authority  of  laws.  But  on 
the  other,  the  emperor  assumed  the  right  to 
call  such  councils,  and  regarded  himself  as  in 
some  sense  the  highest  bishop  of  the  Chris- 
tian, as  he  had  been  the  pontifex  maximiis  of 
tlie  heathen  state.  To  some  extent  also  the 
state  contributed  to  the  support  of  the  church 
from  the  public  funds.  Gradually  there  de- 
veloped a  sentiment  in  the  Eastern  CImrch 
which  made  the  emperor  a  holy  person,  and 
gave  him  a  despotic  control  over  all  the  affairs 
of  the  church. 

The  Occident,  while  it  remained  a  portion 
of  the  undivided  Roman  Empire,  shared  in 
these  arrangements,  though  it  had  a  greater 
amount  of  freedom  in  consequence  of  its  dis- 
tance from  the  court.  With  the  beginning  of 
the  barbarian  invasions  in  410,  the  force  of 
circumstances  led  the  church  t)  the  assump- 
tion more  and  more  of  temporal  administrative 
functions.  She  became,  to  a  certain  extent, 
identical  with  the  state,  and  when  Pipin  would 
protect  her  from  the  power  of  the  Lombards, 
it  was  natural  that  he  should  confer  upon  her 
in  a  limited  territory  supreme  local  power 
(States  of  the  Church),  which  was  confirmed 
by  Ciiarlemagne,  and  placed  under  the  gen- 
eral supremacy  of  the  empire.  A  similar  sy.s- 
tem  of  connection  of  church  and  state  char- 
acterized the  whole  monarchy  of  Charlemagne, 
for  the  great  ecclesiastics  were  made  great 
feudal  dependents,  and  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
concerns  were  discussed  and  determined  with- 
out much  reference  to  any  difference  between 
them.  The  Frankish  emperors  also  consid- 
ered themselves  as  the  supreme  bishops  of  the 
empire.  But  soon  a  different  theory  began  to 
appear.  The  possession  of  power  in  a  portion 
of  Italy  led  the  popes  to  desire  more,  and 
complication  with  the  secular   government, 


together  with  the  growing  idea  of  a  universal 
spiritual  monarchy,  led  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  doctrine  that  the  church  was  superior  to 
the  state,  which  advanced  by  regular  stages 
through  Nicolas,  Hildebrand,  Innocent,  and 
Boniface  VIII.  to  the  extreme  position  that 
the  church  is  the  fountain  of  all  power,  and 
that  to  believe  this  is  necessary  to  salvation. 
The  theory  could  not  avoid  calling  out  the  op- 
position of  the  secular  government,  and  the 
history  of  the  middle  ages  is  largely  occupied 
with  the  narration  of  the  struggles  of  popes 
and  emperors,  in  which  now  one  and  now  the 
other  gets  the  advantage,  the  progress  of 
events  leading  irresistibly  toward  the  final 
triumph  of  the  state. 

The  Protestant  Reformation  introduced  a 
new  theory  of  the  relations  of  church  and 
state.  The  power  of  the  church  is  restricted 
to  purely  spiritual  things,  which  are  sum- 
marily expressed  by  the  Augsburg  Confession 
as  "  preaching  the  Word  and  administering 
the  .sacraments."  So  the  power  of  the  state 
extends  only  to  that  which  is  external,  to  the 
management  of  property  and  the  preservation 
of  public  order.  Luther  himself  originally 
denied  the  power  of  the  state  to  remedy 
heresy,  though  he  afterward  had  the  Zwickau 
fanatics  removed  by  the  state  under  the  prin- 
ciple of  care  for  the  public  order.  In  fact, 
neither  then  nor  since  has  the  German  Church 
been  able  to  make  such  a  distinction  between 
the  domain  of  church  and  state  as  to  prevent 
much  intermingling  of  jurisdiction.  At  the 
close  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  the  jus  refor- 
miimli  was  granted  to  princes,  whereby  the 
state  had  the  power  to  determine  the  veligiou 
of  its  subjects.  This  has  gradually  been  sur- 
rendered, till  all  German  states  now  allow  free 
selection  of  confession,  and  make  civil  rights 
independent  of  all  religious  connections.  At 
the  present  time  the  church  in  Germany  is 
established— that  is,  derives  its  support  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  from  the  state,  and  is  in 
external  matters  subject  to  the  state.  It  has, 
theoretically,  control  in  its  own  sphere,  but 
professors  of  theology  are  still  appointed  by 
the  government,  and  the  relics  of  the  idea 
which  regarded  the  church  as  a  police  agent 
in  the  hands  of  the  state  come  now  and  then 
to  view. 

The  Reformation  in  England  produced  a 
different  state  of  affairs.  At  first  under  Henry 
VIII.,  since  the  king  took  the  place  which 
had  hitherto  been  occupied  by  the  pope,  there 
was  the  most  perfect  union,  or  identity  of 
church  and  .state.  This  system  was  continued 
under  Elizabeth,  and  an  offence  against  the 
church  was  considered  a  crime  against  the 
state.  Perfect  uniformity  of  worship  was  de- 
manded, the  result  of  which  was  to  excite  re- 
volt (see  PrnnwNs).  Robert  Browne  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  to  see  that  the  system 
was  wrong,  and  to  teach  the  modern  doctrine 
of  tiie  full  independence  of  church  and  state. 
Tlie  overthrow  of  the  monarchy  in  1G49,  with 
the  following  restoration,  left  affairs  in  the 
same  condition  as  before.  Gradually  more 
and  more  liberty  has  been  given  to  dissenters, 
till  tlie  national  church  enjoys  only  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  established  by  law.  It  is  in 
many  respects  subject  to  the  "state,  as  in  the 


CHURCH 


(166) 


CHURCH 


appointment  of  bishops,  but  is  supported  from 
endowments  and  tithes. 

In  America  the  different  churches  began 
upon  the  same  systems  as  had  prevailed  in 
their  former  homes.  Thus,  though  indepen- 
dence from  the  state  was  more  consonant  witli 
the  principles  of  Congregationalism,  and  the 
experiences  of  the  immigrants  to  Massachu- 
setts had  been  hard  under  the  establishment 
in  England,  the  churches  in  New  England 
were  established  by  law,  in  that  their  min- 
isters were  supported  from  public  funds,  nu- 
merous ecclesiastical  were  made  state  affairs, 
and,  at  first,  at  least,  etforts  were  made  to  ex- 
clude all  other  forms  of  religious  practice 
from  the  country.  The  same  in  general  was 
true  of  all  the  other  colonies  except  Maryland 
and  Pennsylvania.  In  Virginia  the  salaries 
of  the  ministers  were  fixed  by  law  and  at- 
tendance upon  Avorship  required.  With  the 
national  era  there  began  a  different  state  of 
things.  The  terms  granted  to  other  religious 
bodies  were  made  more  liberal  ;  but  not  till 
1817  was  Connecticut,  and  not  till  1833  Mas- 
sachusetts ready  to  break  up  the  union  of 
church  and  state  entirel3^  The  universal 
American  system  is  now  perfect  separation 
of  church  and  state.  The  state  protects  the 
property  of  the  churches,  and  will  in  certain 
cases  protect  the  individual  in  his  rights  under 
the  laws  of  the  church  of  which  he  is  a  mem- 
ber ;  but  no  state  pays  the  expenses  of  any 
church  establishment.  There  is,  however,  no 
provision  at  present  to  prevent  a  state  from 
establishing  a  church,  though  the  general  gov- 
ernment cannot  do  so.  F.  H.  F. 

Church,  States  of  the.  From  the  time  of 
Leo  I.  (440-61),  on  account  of  the  increasing 
weakness  of  the  government  of  Ital_y,  the 
popes  were  obliged  to  take  upon  themselves 
many  of  the  functions  of  civil  government. 
The  reign  of  the  Lombards  in  Italy  (568-755) 
was  particularly  a  time  of  oppression  to  the 
church  and  of  confusion  in  the  state.  When, 
therefore,  at  the  request  of  the  pope,  the  Frank- 
ish  king  had  come  over  the  Alps,  and  in  the 
year  755  had  conquered  the  Lombards  for  the 
second  time,  he  gave  to  the  pope,  as  the  best 
security  against  further  annoyance,  a  strip  of 
land  taken  from  the  Lombards,  as  a  temporal 
sovereiffuty.  The  extent  of  this  is  quite 
doubtful,  but  according  to  the  most  generous 
statements  it  reached  from  Ferrara  on  the 
north  along  the  shore  to  Numana  on  the 
south,  embracing  thus  the  districts  known  as 
the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  the  Pen- 
tapolis.  The  city  of  Rome  was  not  included. 
Charlemagne,  after  his  victory  over  the  Lom- 
bard king  in  774,  returned  these  possessions, 
which  had  been  taken  from  the  pope,  and  in- 
creased them  somewhat,  since  localities  in 
Tuscany  are  mentioned,  with  Spoletum,  Ben- 
eventum,  Corsica,  and  the  Sabine  country. 
What  the  powers  thus  conferred  upon  the 
pope  were  is  not  certain,  but  we  know  that 
the  supremacy  of  the  emperor  was  not  abro- 
gated, since  he  sent,  according  to  Leo  himself, 
his  missi,  or  supreme  judges,  to  Rome. 

Thus  begun,  the  states  of  the  church  were 
variously  enlarged  and  reduced  by  various 
emperors    under    the    guidance    of    circum- 


stances. As  a  feature  of  the  contest  always 
waging  for  supremacy  between  pope  and  em- 
peror, the  pope  sought  to  extend  his  direct 
personal  dominion  and  the  emperor  to  reduce 
it.  Lewis  the  Pious  (817)  made  large  addi- 
tions. The  duchy  of  Rome,  the  duchy  of 
Perusium,  which  connects  this  with  the  Pen- 
tapolis,  portions  of  Tuscany,  nearly  all  south- 
ern Italy,  with  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica 
are  the  principal  of  these.  Within  these  lim- 
its, with  the  addition  of  the  county  of  the 
Duchess  Matilda,  and  even  "  those  portions 
lying  between  tlie  mountains  and  the  sea," 
viz..  Upper  Tuscany  and  Liguria,  the  states 
of  the  church  were  always  confined.  Out  of 
Italy  the  pope  purchased  in  1348  the  city  of 
Avignon  and  the  county  of  Venaissin  in  south- 
ern France. 

By  the  time  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  (1278- 
91)  the  limits  of  the  states  of  the  church  had 
come  to  be  what  they  remained  substantially 
from  that  time  on.  They  extended  from  Bo- 
logna and  Ferrara  on  the  north  along  the 
coast  of  the  Adriatic,  through  the  duchy  of 
Spoleto,  to  the  strip  upon  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  including  the  Campagna,  of 
which  Rome  w^as  about  in  the  centre.  All 
other  possessions  north  and  south,  except  two 
insignificant  duchies,  were  lost.  The  French 
Empire  under  Napoleon  incorporated  these 
states,  but  they  reappeared  in  1815,  to  be 
again  reduced  to  a  strip  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean in  1860,  when  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
absorbed  the  rest,  and  to  disappear  from  the 
map  in  1870. 

The  dogmatic  system  of  the  Roman  Church, 
which  teaches  that  the  temporal  power  is  de- 
rived from  the  spiritual,  cannot  allow  that  the 
pope  can  be  a  subject,  and  demands  for  him 
temporal  sovereignty  ;  but,  historically  speak- 
ing, the  possession  of  the  states  of  the  church 
was  a  great  injury  to  the  papacy,  since  it  en- 
tangled it  in  political  affairs,  and  often  oper- 
ated to  the  disadvantage  of  its  spiritual  inter- 
ests. (See  M.  Brosch,  Oeschichte  des  Kirchen- 
ataates,  Gotha,  1880-82,  2  vols.)      F.  H.  F. 

Church-congress,  an  annual  gathering, 
since  1861,  of  clergy  and  laity  of  the  Church 
of  England  for  the  discussion  of  religious  and 
social  questions. 

Church-diet  {Kirchentag),  gatherings  of 
clergy  and  laity  in  German  Protestant  state 
churches,  held  since  1848,  for  the  discussion 
of  religious  and  social  questions. 

Church  Discipline  rests  upon  the  authority 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  two  passages. 
Matt,  xviii.  15-18  and  xvi.  18-19,  establish  the 
church,  and  direct  that  in  it  discipline  shall 
be  executed,  the  ultimate  fountain  of  which 
is  the  church  itself.  Accordingly  we  find  the 
New  Testament  churches  exercising  discipline 
against  the  openly  immoral  (1  Cor.  v.,  etc.), 
against  those  who  are  negligent  of  their  duty 
(3  Thess.  iii.  6),  against  teachers  of  false  doc- 
trine also  (2  Tim.  ii.  17,  Tit.  iii.  10.  2  Jolm,  vs. 
10,  11,  Rev.  ii.  14).  It  is,  liowever,  always 
for  the  sake  of  the  reformation  of  the  sinner. 

When  the  church  became  involved  in  the 
troubles  arising  from  the  severe  per.secutions 
of  Decius,  the  natural  reaction  of  events  made 
the  discipline  more  formal  and  more  severe. 


OHUROH 


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CHURCH 


The  lapsed  were  restored  to  the  full  commun- 
ioa  of  the  ciiurch  only  after  regular  process 
of  discipline,  which  lasted  iu  some  cases  sev- 
eral years.  The  severity  of  this  resulted  in 
laying  great  weight  upon  the  recommenda- 
tions of  martyrs  and  confessors  in  behalf  of 
the  fallen,  which  in  turn  ended  in  laxness  of 
practice.  The  result  of  this  was  to  call  forth 
the  opposite  extreme  among  the  Montanists 
and  the  Novatians,  the  last  of  whom  forbade 
the  church  to  receive  the  fallen  again  to  mem- 
bership. The  Donatists  also  went  to  the  ex- 
treme of  saying  that  no  sacrament  was  valid 
when  performed  by  an  unworthy  priest.  Witii 
the  development  of  the  Roman  system  of  doc- 
trine purgatory  was  introduced  (q.v.)  and  the 
idea  of  indulgence  (q.v.).  The  confessional 
developed  the  system  of  satisfactions  for  sins 
committed  as  necessary  to  forgiveness.  The 
church  had  also  varieties  of  excommunica- 
tion, of  which  the  "  ban"  was  individual,  the 
"  interdict"  (q.v.)  was  common  to  a  com- 
munity. Discipline  thus  became  an  engine 
for  attaining  political  ends.  To  the  regular 
administration  of  discipline  was  added  the 
Inquisition,  as  a  special  means  for  reaching 
heretics  (q.v.). 

The  Protestant  Reformation  put  an  end  to 
these  abuses  within  the  limits  of  the  new 
churches.  The  private  excommunication,  and 
that  for  the  purpo.se  of  reclaiming  the  soul, 
was  alone  recognized  by  Luther  as  legitimate. 
The  "  Reformed"  churches  laid  more  em- 
phasis upon  discipline  as  a  means  of  building 
up  a  holy  church.  A  general  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  branches  of  the  Protestant 
Church,  though  not  always  observed,  is  that 
the  Lutheran  treats  the  church  rather  as  an 
educational  or  pastoral  establishment  for  the 
purpose  of  training  the  people  in  a  religious 
life,  and  the  Reformed  more  as  a  communion 
composed  of  those  already  regenerate,  who  are 
to  be  developed  to  a  more  perfect  Christian 
life.  Hence  in  the  Lutheran  Church  the  ob- 
ject of  individual  excommunication  is  rather 
the  protection  of  the  conscience  of  the  church 
in  her  office  of  administering  the  sacraments. 

In  America,  tho.se  churches  which  lay  em- 
phasis upon  the  church  as  a  means  of  grace 
(Roman,  Episcopalian,  Lutheran,  etc.),  follow 
the  general  method  of  discipline  observed  by 
their  affiliated  churches  in  Europe  ;  while 
those  which  view  it  rather  as  the  communion 
of  saints  (Congregatioualists,  Baptists,  Presby- 
terians, etc.),  require  a  more  or  less  distinct  con- 
fession of  personal  faith  in  Chri.st  as  a  condi- 
tion of  admission,  and  administer  discipline  in 
cases  of  such  an  open  lapse  from  a  Christian 
walk  as  throws  reasonable  doubt  upon  the 
genuineness  of  such  a  profession.  In  all  cases 
the  oliject  of  discipline  is  the  benefit  and  re- 
covery of  the  offender,  and  no  church  pro- 
fesses to  secure  a  member.ship  in  which  all  are, 
beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt,  regenerated 
persons.  F.  II.  F. 

Church    Edifices.      See    Architecture, 

Curiuii. 

Church  Government.  The  development 
of  the  govenuncnt  of  tlic'  churcih  began  with 
its  first  organization  jus  a  rnmmunity.  Tlie 
apostles  found  need  of  assistants  in  the  work 


of  administering  the  charities  of  the  church, 
and,  possibly  upon  the  suggestion  offered  by 
the  organization  of  the  synagogue,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  set  apart  special  officers  for  this  ser- 
vice, the  first  deacons.  Another  order  of  offi- 
cers was  also  established  in  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  that  of  elders,  who  are  otherwise 
called  bishops  ;  and  these  two  orders  reappear 
in  the  Epistle  of  Clement  (q.v.)  as  already  es- 
tablished in  the  church  at  Rome,  and  many 
other  churches,  when  the  church  emerges 
from  the  apostolic  age.  Another  picture  of 
early  church  life,  differing  somewliat  in  its 
coloring,  is  afforded  by  that  other  earliest 
document,  the  "Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles."  Here  we  find  churches  who.sc 
cherished  leaders  are  the  "  apostles"  and  the 
"  prophets,"  and  upon  whom  the  writer  finds 
it  necessary  to  urge  the  appointment  of  bishops 
and  deacons.  Evidently  here  the  immediate 
influence  of  the  apostles  in  appointing  such 
officers  has  not  been  deeply  felt.  Among  such 
churches  and  other  Gentile  churches  the  in- 
fluences of  the  forms  employed  for  social  or- 
ganization in  the  heathen  society  about  them 
may  have  had  a  large  influence.  There  were 
innumerable  clubs  of  all  sorts,  which  had 
their  privileges,  and  wdiose  officers  were  often 
called  by  the  names  which  were  now  adopted 
in  the  new  societies  or  churches.  Thus, 
"  elders"  or  ruling  officers  may  have  arisen 
on  the  one  side,  and  "  bishops"  or  treasurers, 
and  "  deacons"  or  assistants  in  the  work  of 
distributing  the  treasure  of  the  church  to  the 
poor,  on  the  other.  But,  however  they  arose, 
these  classes  tended  to  unite  into  one  homo- 
geneous body,  in  which  gradually  the  bishop 
became  the  head  of  the  local  church,  the  pres- 
byters assisted  him,  at  first  in  governing,  and 
subsequently  in  instructing,  and  the  deacons 
occupied  a  still  lower  place  in  the  system. 
As  early  <as  Ignatius  (d.  115)  the  bishop  has 
become  in  a  peculiar  sense  the  centre  of  the 
church,  and  in  the  days  of  Cyprian  (d.  258) 
the  unity  of  the  church  at  large  is  assured  bj', 
and  consists  in  the  unity  of  the  bishops. 

The  bishop  once  at  the  head  of  the  local 
church,  two  tendencies  operated  to  give  him 
greater  and  greater  power.  These  w^ere  the 
doctrinal  influence,  derived  from  Judaism, 
which  separated  between  the  clergy  and  the 
people  in  favor  of  sacerdotalism,  and  the  nat- 
ural influence  of  the  form  of  government  iu 
the  Roman  Empire  in  whicii  the  life  of  the 
church  was  cast.  As  the  empire  was  divided 
into  4  prefectures  and  13  dioceses,  with  nu- 
merous provinces  under  these,  so  the  church 
tended  to  imitate  the  secular  hierarchy  by  a 
grailatiou  of  rank,  and  even  to  borrow  secular 
titles  for  the  designation  of  its  new  orders. 
With  this  went  hand  in  hand  the  natural  ten- 
dency of  the  weak  to  resort  to  the  strong  for 
advice  and  help,  and  for  the  strong  to  convert 
this  guidance  of  influence  into  authoritative 
control.  Hence  when  Constantine  put  the 
church  upon  a  new  basis  by  recognizing  it  in 
812,  there  were  already  bishops,  each  with 
several  churches  imder  tiiem,  metropolitans  in 
the  larger  cities,  and  archbishops  in  the  few 
cities  which  were  regarded  as  having  been 
sees  of  tile  apostles  in  .some  special  degree — 
Roma,  Autioch,  and  Alexandria,     Suck  was 


CHURCH 


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CHURCH 


the  constitution  of  the  "  Old  Catliolic 
Ctiurcli,"  in  which  the  whole  church  could 
exercise  government  through  general  synods, 
such  as  that  at  Nice  in  825. 

The  oriental  churches  have  remained  upon 
this  basis,  their  chief  bishops  being  now  called 
patriarchs,  and  in  their  eyes  the  bishop  of 
Rome  is  rightfully  another  patriarch  upon  a 
level  with  themselves.  But  a  variety  of  cir- 
cumstances combined  to  lift  the  patriarchate 
of  the  west  into  a  monarchial  position,  claim- 
ing authority  over  the  universal  church.  The 
chief  of  these  was  the  course  of  political 
events.  After  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians 
into  the  empire  in  376,  the  civil  government 
of  Italy  grew  weaker  and  weaker  till,  100 
years  later,  it  fell.  While  all  was  anarchy  in 
the  state,  the  one  man  who  had  a  consolidated 
authority,  and  who  was  already  exercising 
governmental  functions — the  Roman  bishop 
— was  resorted  to  more  and  more  for  help,  and 
thus  Leo  I.  (440-61)  appeared  in  the  camp  of 
Attila  to  turn  aside  the  deluge  of  barbarian 
invasion,  and  later  saved  the  city  from  Gen- 
seric.  The  pope  became  the  refuge  of  Chris- 
tendom, and  when  the  anarchy  under  the  Lom- 
bards in  755  became  too  great  to  be  endured, 
it  was  he  who  called  in  the  Franks,  and  who 
received  as  the  best  guarantee  of  peace,  a  sec- 
ular sovereignty  in  the  incipient  states  of  the 
church.  With  all  this  went  the  dogmatic  idea 
that  Christ  had  founded  the  church  upon 
Peter,  and  that  it  remained  upon  the  founda- 
tion of  Peter's  successor.  The  practical 
shrewdness  of  the  Roman  bishops,  their  real 
helpfulness,  their  general  orthodoxy  in  trying 
controversies,  the  need  of  some  strong  point 
of  general  power — all  were  elements  in  this 
development.  Above  all,  the  pontiffs  have 
ever  known  how  to  interpret  their  own  ad- 
vice, which  had  been  obediently  received,  it 
may  be,  only  because  of  the  necessities  of  the 
times,  as  an  authoritative  command  univer- 
sally acknowledged  as  binding,  how  to  make 
every  concession  a  step  in  their  progress  up- 
ward, and  how  to  ascribe  every  defeat  and 
every  remonstrance  to  the  wickedness  and  the 
rebellion  of  man.  Thus  by  the  time  of  Boni- 
face VIIL  (1394-1303)  the  pope  claimed  su- 
preme jurisdiction  in  all  human  affairs,  civil 
and  ecclesiastical. 

The  Reformation  developed  in  the  new 
churches  generally  some  form  of  the  Presby- 
terian government,  which  is  based  upon  the 
idea  of  the  rule  of  the  ministry,  but  of  the 
parity  of  all  elders.  The  English  Church,  by 
retaining  her  bishops,  put  herself  substantially 
upon  the  basis  of  the  Old  Catholic  Church. 
Congregationalism  arose  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth in  England  (1581)  in  consequence  of  the 
repressive  measures  of  Elizabeth's  govern- 
ment having  been  discovered  by  Robert 
Browne.  The  Methodist  polity  was" a  growth 
under  the  hands  of  John  Wesley  in  England 
(1738-91),  and  was  somewhat  moditied  in 
America.  It  is  a  variety  of  Presbyterian- 
ism.  F.  H.  F. 

Church  History  is  the  history  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  viewed  as  having*  a  progressive 
development  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.     It  is  therefore  no  mere  record  of  iso- 


lated events,  but  of  events  viewed  in  relation 
to  their  causes  and  effects,  and  in  the  light  of 
those  ideas  of  the  church  which  are  supplied 
by  the  Bible.  When  compared  with  secular 
history,  it  may  be  described  as  a  branch  with 
this  of  the  general  history  of  the  world  ;  and 
yet  he  who  should  suppose  that  no  other  or 
higher  forces  were  to  be  sought  or  treated  in 
church  history  than  in  secular,  would  fail  to 
understand  the  nature  of  the  science.  All 
human  history  is  under  the  guidance  of  the 
divine  providence,  but  the  history  of  the 
church  is  the  history  of  that  movement  in 
which  God  has  specially  interfered  in  count- 
less ways  for  the  redemption  of  man.  The 
clement  of  the  supernatural  must  be  recog- 
nized or  an  essential  element  is  neglected. 

In  its  broadest  sense,  therefore,  church  his- 
tory begins  witli  the  first  manifestation  of  the 
redemptive  purpose  of  God.  It  embraces  the 
history  of  the  pre-Christian  Jewish  Church 
and  the  Apostolic  Church  ;  but  usually,  since 
these  departments  are  intimately  connected 
with  exegesis,  and  are  best  treated  in  connec- 
tion with  the  systematic  discussion  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New,  church  history  is  re- 
garded as  beginning  with  the  first  emergence 
of  the  church  into  the  post-apostolic  world, 
or  with  the  date  a.d.  100.  From  this  time  it 
falls  naturally  into  great  periods,  of  Avliich  the 
principal  are  those  separated  by  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  church  under  Constantine,  312,  the 
establishment  of  the  papal  temporal  power, 
755,  the  beginning  (1517)  and  the  close  (1648) 
of  the  period  of  the  Protestant  Reformation. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  fundamentally  impor- 
tant to  note  that  there  are  no  such  points  of 
separation  in  the  history  that  any  period  is  in- 
dependent of  what  has  gone  before  it.  All  is 
a  unit.  The  process  of  development  has 
never  paused,  and  in  whatever  direction  the 
tide  may  seem  at  any  time  to  be  setting,  the 
general  course  is  ever  under  Providence,  and 
ever  onward. 

The  history  may  also  be  divided,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  topics  of  which  it  treats, 
into  external  and  internal,  into  the  history  of 
what  the  church  has  done  and  what  it  has 
thought.  Under  the  former  head  come  the 
history  of  its  extension,  of  the  development 
of  its  polity,  its  connections  with  the  slate, 
and  all  that  can  be  seen  as  phenomena  accessi- 
ble to  common  observation,  even  to  the  gen- 
eral course  of  its  controversies,  which  have 
upon  another  side  the  most  intimate  connec- 
tion with  its  thought.  Under  the  inlernal 
history  is  treated  the  growth  of  its  system  of 
doctrine  as  the  product  of  the  thinking  of 
various  teachers  and  the  common  decisions  of 
the  church  expressed  in  different  ways.  This 
is  often  discussed  under  the  title  of  "  History 
of  Dogmas,"  and  the  purpose  then  is  to  trace 
the  way  in  which  the  dogmas  of  a  particular 
communion  have  grown  up.  It  may  also  bo 
discussed  as  the  history  of  Christian  thinking, 
witliout  greater  reference  to  particular  de- 
nominations than  is  involved  in  the  fact  that 
certain  results  have  been  embodied  in  certain 
of  them.  The  division  of  the  church  into 
different  branches— Greek,  Roman,  Protes- 
tant—has given  rise  to  another  department  of 
the  subject.   Symbolics,  which  treats  of  the 


CHURCH 


(169) 


CHURCH 


distiuctive  doctrines  of  the  different  churches, 
as  expressed  in  their  public  creeds,  in  a  com- 
parative manner. 

Tlie  sources  of  church  history  are  the  vari- 
ous forms  giv^en  to  tJie  testimonj^  of  the  orig- 
inal witnesses  to  the  facts.  They  are  pre- 
served in  books,  manuscripts,  and  monuments 
of  different  kinds.  The  methods  of  church 
history  do  not  differ  from  tlinse  of  history  in 
general.  The  lirst  step  is  always  inves-tiga- 
tion,  or  the  collection  of  the  facts.  Here  the 
greatest  exactness  is  necessary,  for  evidently 
all  the  value  of  the  tl'suU  will  depend  upon 
the  succe.ss  with  which  this  part  of  the  work 
is  performed.  Hence  criticism  of  the  sources 
stands  lirst  in  order.  The  genuineness  of  a 
document,  the  state  in  which  it  has  come 
down  to  us,  and  the  ability  of  its  writer  to 
testify  upon  the  question  in  hand,  must  all  be 
considered.  A  document  which  is  proved  a 
forgery  may,  however,  be  as  valuable  a  wit- 
ness to  the  condition  of  things  in  the  period 
in  which  it  was  really  written  as  it  may  be 
worthless  in  the  period  in  which  it  professes 
to  have  been  written.  Since  the  introduction 
of  modern  methods  of  stndy,  great  progress 
has  been  made  in  all  these  critical  investiga- 
tions ;  but  the  work  is  only  begun.  When  the 
facts  have  been  collected, 'the  next  task  is  that 
of  combination.  Here  the  historical  imagina- 
tion must  be  called  in,  and  without  this  faculty 
the  work  of  the  historian  must  remain  incom- 
plete. Historical  hypotheses,  which  shall  link 
event  with  event  and  furnish  an  explanation 
of  the  obscure  by  referring  it  to  its  causes,  are 
not  only  proper,  but  absolutely  indispensable. 
La.stly,  the  subject  has  to  be  presented  to  the 
reader,  a  task  in  which  great  literary  skill  is 
requisite  to  the  highest  success,  but  in  which 
the  truth  should  never  be  sacrificed  to  effect. 

The  history  of  the  church  has  been  treated 
in  comprehensive  treatises  by  a  series  of  learned 
writers  since  the  Protestant  Reformation,  of 
whom  the  Magdeburg  centuriators  were  the 
first.  In  the  last  century  Mosheim  gained  the 
most  permanent  fame.  The  present  century 
has  seen  a  series  of  the  most  important  works  : 
Gieseler's,  distinguished  for  its  compressed 
stvle,  its  thorough  critical  spirit,  and  its  care- 
ful and  full  quotations  from  the  sources  ; 
Neander's,  unsurpassed  for  fulness  of  detail, 
for  its  noble  spirit,  and  marked  by  its  prefer- 
ence for  the  development  of  the  inner  life  of 
the  church  ;  Gucricke's,  less  important  but 
useful  ;  and  in  our  own  country,  Schaff's, 
clearly  written,  comi)rehensive,  and  abreast 
with  the  times.  The  tendency  from  this  time 
on  will  be  toward  co  operative  labor  in  this 
departm!!nl,  and  such  works  as  Herzog's  lical- 
encydo])d'lie  are  an  example  of  M'hat  can  be 
thus  effected  in  the  way  of  a  magazine  of 
all  sorts  of  information  in  church  history. 

The  history  of  the  church  in  America  has 
never  been  adequately  .studied,  or  even  the 
labors  preparatory  to  its  presentation  fully 
performed.  It  has  its  distinct  points  of  divi- 
sion, as  at  the  beginning  of  Protestant  settle- 
ment, 1607,  at  the  great  revival,  1734,  at  the 
establishment  of  civil  freedom,  1783,  at  the 
close  of  a  long  period  of  readjustment,  1837. 
and  at  the  civil  war,  1861.  Something  has 
been  done  for  the  history  of  the  individual  de- 


nominations, as  may  be  seen  by  referring  to 
them  in  this  dictionar}'.  There  is  at  present 
a  demand  for  a  comprehensive  general  history, 
written  without  denominational  bias,  by  a 
truly  scientific  historian.  Such  a  book  would 
be  of  great  assistance  in  the  efforts  at  denom- 
inational imion  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
present  time.  F.  H.  F. 

Church  Jurisdiction.  The  relations  in 
which  Christians  stood  to  the  heathen  in  the 
Roman  Empire  rendered  it  natural  that  the 
apostle  should  direct  (Eph.  vi.  2)  that  they 
should  not  have  recour.se  to  the  lieathen  courts 
for  the  adjudication  of  disputes  among  them- 
selves. Hence  there  arose  rudimentary  church 
courts  before  the  recognition  of  the  church 
by  the  stale  in  the  Edict  of  Constantine  (312, 
etc.).  After  this  great  event,  the  judicial 
function  of  church  officials  was  recognizx'd, 
and  when  both  parties  should  agree,  they 
were  permitted  to  refer  their  causes  to  church 
courts.  What  was  thus  entirely  voluntary 
for  the  laity,  became  obligaiory,  according  to 
ecclesiastical  law,  for  the  clergy,  which  obliga- 
tion was  confirmed  by  the  Justinian  code. 
Upon  this  basis  church  courts  spread  through- 
out all  Christendom,  and  tended  to  arrogate 
to  themselves  greater  and  greater  power. 
They  took  cognizance  of  cases  which  were 
purely  spiritual,  such  as  matters  of  doctrine, 
ceremony,  etc.  ;  of  matters  which  were  of  a 
mixed  nature,  as  vows,  oaths,  benefices,  the 
property  rights  of  married  persons,  etc.  The 
persons  who  must  bring  their  ca.ses  before 
ecclesiastical  courts  were,  of  course,  the  clergy 
of  every  rank,  monks,  nuns,  and  also  institu- 
tions of  a  spiritual  character,  such  as  schools, 
also  pilgrims,  etc.  And  the  church  claimed 
generally  the  right  to  decide  whether  a  given 
case  properly  came  before  its  courts  or  not. 

The  system,  the  outlines  of  which  are  here 
indicated,  developed  wHhout  much  successful 
opposition  till  the  13th  century.  But  here, 
just  where  the  papal  pretensions  were  most 
stoutly  maintained  by  a  series  of  popes  from 
Innocent  III.  to  Boniface  VIII.,  they  began  to 
meet  a  check  in  the  rising  sense  of  power  and 
responsibility  among  the  civil  governments 
This  began  in  France  in  1219,  and  continued- 
till  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  all  ecclesias- 
tical jurisdiction  was  abolished  in  matters  in- 
volving secular  interests.  Limitations  wero 
begun  at  about  the  same  time  in  Germany, 
and  have  arrived  at  .substantially  the  same  re- 
sult. Nor  have  the  distinctively  Catholic 
countries  done  very  differently. 

The  ecclesiastical  court  itself  was  in  the  first 
instance  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  Above  tho 
bishop's  couit  stood  that  of  the  metropolitan, 
and  ultimately  that  of  the  pope.  All ' '  greater 
causes"  admitted  of  appeal  to  Rome,  and 
.some  had  to  be  adjudged  there. 

The  apostolical  disciplinary  directions  cm- 
braced  al.so  the  case  of  sinners  against  the 
principles  of  the  Christian  religion,  who  were 
to  be  dealt  with  for  their  own  good.  Out  of 
this  root  sprang  the  system  of  criminal  courts 
and  penal  inflictions  in  the  church.  Excom- 
munication and  deposition  were  inflicted  upon 
offenders  in  the  church  before  Constantine. 
After  him,  the  stale  tried  criminal  offences. 


CHURCH 


(170) 


CILICIA 


and  the  church  came  ia  afterward  with  spir- 
itual discipline  for  the  sin  involved  in  the 
crime.  In  the  German  states,  especially  the 
Fraukish  kingdom,  the  clergy  were  at  tirst 
tried  for  common  offences  by  the  secular 
courts  ;  then  a  bishop  was  added  to  the  bench 
of  judges,  and  finally  all  clergymen  were  tried 
by  courts  exclusively  ecclesiastical.  This  ar- 
rangement the  church  tried  hard  to  maintain, 
but  the  spirit  of  the  modern  state  was  against 
it,  and  it  finally  had  to  give  way. 

The  punishments  employed  in  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal courts  were  the  ban,  or  excommunication  ; 
the  greater  ban,  or  the  interdict  ;  suspension  ; 
sometimes  fines  ;  imprisonment ;  in  the  earlier 
times  branding;  "irregularity,"  or  the  in- 
ability of  one  otherwise  qualified  to  receive 
liigher  orders  in  the  church  ;  degradation  ; 
privation  ;  deposition.  The  offences  were 
purely  ecclesiastical,  such  as  heresy,  or  mixed, 
such  as  perjury,  carnal  transgressions,  etc. 

The  Reformation  put  an  end  to  most  of  this 
so  far  as  the  reformed  churches  were  con- 
cerned. In  Germany  the  whole  judicial  proc- 
ess has  been  put  in  the  hands  of  the  state 
courts,  except  the  personal  discipline,  which 
may  be  exercised  by  a  pastor  for  the  good  of 
some  offender  iu  the  denial  of  the  sacrament, 
etc.  Such  in  general  is  the  state  of  the  case 
in  all  Protestant  lands,  and  increasingly  so  in 
Catholic.  The  best  general  treatise  is  that 
of  A.  L.  Richter,  Lehrbach  des  Kirchenrechts, 
ed.  of  Richard  Dove  and  W.  Kahl,  Leipzig, 
1886.  F.  H.  F. 

Church  Music.     See  Music. 

Church  Polity.  See  Church  Govern- 
ment. 

Church  Property.  Before  the  reign  of 
Constantiue,  the  Cliristian  Church,  siuce  it 
was  an  unlawful  organization,  possessed  no 
rights  in  the  state,  and  could  therefore  hold 
no  property.  Under  this  emperor  it  was, 
however,  converted  into  a  corporation,  and 
obtaiaed  (331)  the  ri<;ht  to  receive  legacies. 
The  emperor  himself  made  contributions  of 
money  for  the  support  of  the  clergy  and  the 
erection  of  church  buildings,  and  thus  estab- 
lished the  general  principle  that  the  church 
was  capable  of  the  ownership  of  property-. 
Gifts  of  temples  followed,  and  wealth  in- 
creased, till  many  churches,  particularly  those 
in  the  large  cities— Antioch,  Rome,  and  Alex- 
andria-became very  wealthy.  In  Rome  in 
the  time  of  Gregory  I.  (490),  the  church  was 
able  out  of  the  proceeds  of  her  estates  to  feed 
the  poor  of  the  city,  a  task  which  properly 
belonged  to  the  civil  government. 

The  right  once  established,  the  annals  of  the 
church  are  full  of  evidences  of  the  mischief 
wrought  by  the  possession  of  great  means. 
The  church  early  regarded  herself  astheproper 
heir  of  all  her  clergy,  asspecially  her  ov.'n  chil- 
dren, and  as  early  as  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(451),  it  was  forbidden  that  the  clergy  should 
seize  upon  the  property  of  a  dead  bishop  by 
violence  for  their  own  advantage.  Through- 
out the  middle  ages  the  succession  to  Uie 
property  of  ecclesiastics  was  an  object  of  fre- 
quent legislative  action.  The  natural  course 
of  things  was  to  make  the  church  richer  with 
the  progress  of  time.     In  connection  with  the 


right  of  holding  private  property,  the  church 
from  the  time  of  Pipin  (755)  began  to  exercise 
civil  power.  This  led  to  prolonged  contests 
(see  Church  and  State).  Pope  Paschal  even 
prepared  and  executed  a  treaty  with  the  em- 
peror, Henry  V.,  relinquishing  all  the  politi- 
cal possessions  of  the  church  (1111),  so  great 
had  the  evils  connected  with  them  become. 
But  the  wealth  of  the  church  still  increased, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  it  amounted 
in  Germany,  France,  and  England,  to  a  por- 
tentous fraction  of  the  entire  wealth  of  those 
countries. 

With  the  Protestant  Reformation  a  change 
in  the  attitude  of  the  church  toward  property 
occurred.  Most  of  the  reformations  were  ac- 
companied with  confiscation  of  ecclesiastical 
property  ;  but  the  new  churches  did  not  seek 
wealth,  nor  provide  occasions  for  its  multipli- 
cation. In  England,  where  the  episcopal  sys- 
tem was  retained,  some  of  the  bishops  were 
p-ciid  large  sums,  being  also  lords  of  the  realm. 
But  in  other  lauds,  with  rare  exceptions,  the 
churches  have  not  had  large  estates. 

F.  H.  F. 

Church-rates,  a  tax  for  the  repair  of  the 
buildings  antl  support  of  the  worship  of  the 
Established  Church  of  England,  abolished  in 
1860. 

Church-wardens,  lay  officers  in  the  Epis- 
copal Church  in  the  British  Empire  and  in 
America  for  the  care  of  the  church  building 
and  the  proper  conduct  of  the  worship. 

Church-year,  the  regular  succession  of 
church  festivals. 

Church  of  God.     See  Baptists,  p.  83. 

Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  the  Latter-Day 
Saints.     See  Mormons. 

Churching  of  Women,  a  religious  ceremony 
of  high  Christian,  if  not  almost  of  primitive 
antiquity,  which  is  not  only  a  thanksgiving 
on  the  part  of  the  woman  for  deliverance 
from  the  perils  of  childbirth,  but  a  formal  re- 
moval of  the  "  uncleanncss"  brought  upon 
her  by  childbed.  Such  a  service  is  ordered  in 
the  Prayer-book  and  was  enjoined  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches.  It  usually  came 
on  the  40th  day  after  the  birth. 

Chytraeus  (ke-tril-us,  properly  Kochhaff), 
David,  prominent  Lutheran  theologian  ;  b. 
at  Ingelfingen,  43  m.  n.n.e.  of  Stuttgart,  Feb. 
26,  1530  ;  d.  as  professor  of  theology  at  Ros- 
tock, June  25,  1600.  (See  his  Opera,  Leipzig, 
1599,  and  biography  by  Pressel  [Elberfeld, 
1863]  and  Krabbe  [Rostock,  1870.]) 

Ciborium,  in  Roman  Catholic  usage.  1.  The 
chalice  (pyx)  which  contains  the  consecrated 
host.     2.  Formerly  tlie  canopy  of  the  altar. 

Ci-lic'-i-a,  the  southeastern  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  having  the  sea  on  the  south,  Syria  on 
the  east,  Pamphylia  on  the  west,  and  on  the 
north  the  Taurus  range  separating  it  from 
Cappadocia.  Its  chief  town.  Tarsus,  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  Apostle  Paul  (Acts  xxii.  3), 
who  after  his  conversion  viisted  his  native  prov- 
ince and  established  churches  (Acts  ix.  30, 
XV.  41).  Goat's-hair  cloth,  called  ciliciurn, 
was  one  of  its  products.  T.  VY.  C. 


CIRCLINE 


(171) 


CITY 


Circline.  See  Cassock. 
Circumcelliones.  See  Agonistics. 
Circumcision  {cutting  around),  a  rite  which 
conwisted  iu  cutting  off  the  foreskin  of  all 
males  on  the  8th  day  after  birth.  It  was  given 
to  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii.  10-14)  as  a  token  of 
God's  covenant  with  him,  and  he  and  all  his 
house  were  circumcised.  The  precept  on  this 
point  was  renewed  to  Mo.ses  (Ex.  xiii.  44,  Lev. 
xii.  3,  John  vii.  22),  making  it  a  necessary 
prerequisite  to  the  Passover.  The  Jews  have 
always  been  exact  in  their  observance  of  it. 
even  when  slaves  in  Egypt  (Ex.  iv.  24),  though 
in  the  desert  it  was  suspended. .  All  other  na- 
tions that  sprang  from  Abraham  observe  it,  as 
Ishmaelites,  Arabs,  etc.  It  is  recognized  by 
Mohammedans,  and  though  not  enjoined  in 
the  Koran  prevails  throughout  Islam.  It  is 
found  also  among  Egyptians,  Ethiopians, 
Abyssinians,  among  the  Caffres  of  South  Afri- 
ca, the  islands  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  some 
South  American  tribes.  In  Scripture  it  is  re- 
garded as  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the 
chosen  race,  separating  them  from  all  the  rest 
of  the  world.  Hence  the  Jews  are  called  "  the 
circumcision"  and  the  Gentiles  "the  uncir- 
cumcision"  (Rom.  iv.  9,  Gal.  ii.  7,  8).  Dis- 
putes as  to  the  binding  authority  of  this  rite 
upon  converts  from  heathenism  gave  much 
trouble  to  the  early  church  (Acts  xv.),  and  it 
was  long  before  all  came  to  see  with  the  apos- 
tle (Gal.  V.  6)  that  "  in  Christ  Jesus  neither 
circumcision  availetli  anything  nor  uncircum- 
cision  ;  but  faith  working  through  love." 

The  rite  was  not  simply  outward  and  na- 
tional, but  had  a  distinct  religious  meaning. 
It  signitied  the  lopping  off  of  evil  appetites 
and  habits,  and  the  consecration  of  the  heart 
to  God.  The  true  Jew  was  he  who  was  such 
inwardly,  whose  "  circumcision  is  of  the  heart, 
in  the  spirit  not  in  the  letter"  (Rom.  ii.  29). 
Hence  the  direction  in  Deuteronomy  (x.  16) 
"  Circumcise  the  foreskin  of  your  heart,"  and 
the  corresponding  promi.se  (xxx.  6)  "  The 
Lord  thy  God  will  circumcise  thy  heart  and 
the  heart  of  thy  seed."  Hence,  too,  the  apos- 
tle calls  it  "  a  seal  of  the  righteousness  of  the 
faith"  which  Abraliam  had  while  he  was  in 
uncircumcision.  T.  W.  C. 

Circumcision,  Feast  of  the,  began  to  be 
celebrated  upon  Jan.  1,  wlien  once  Dec.  25 
had  been  generally  selected  as  the  feast  of  the 
nativity.  Evidences  of  this  occur  about  the 
beginning  of  the  5th  century,  and  a  synod  at 
Tours  in  567  ordered  a  mi'ssa  circumcinonis 
for  the  day.  F.  II.  F. 

Cistercians,  an  order  of  monks,  founded 
by  Robert,  abbot  of  ]\Iolesme,  at  Citeaux  (near 
the  Saone,  south  of  Dijon),  in  the  year  1098. 
Robert,  who  was  of  a  noble  family,  liad  en- 
tered a  monastery  at  an  early  age,  and,  pro- 
moted to  be  prior,  had  tinally  gone  to  Molesme 
(a  spot  in  the  valley  of  the  Saone  south  of 
Citeaux),  where  he  had  founded  a  monastery, 
but  had  not  succeeded  in  subduing  the  monks 
to  perfect  conformity  to  his  ideas.  The  new 
attempt  at  Citeaux,  with  some  of  the  more  de- 
voted of  them,  was  successful  from  the  begin- 
ning, though  Robert  was  obliged  by  the  papal 
authorities  to  return  in  1(J99  to  Molesme, 
where  he  died  in  1108. 


The  Citeaux  monastery  followed  the  rule  of 
Benedict,  but  with  some  moditicalions  in  the 
direction  of  greater  severity.  Its  constitution 
was  confirmed  by  the  pope,  and  even  a  dis- 
tinctive dress  given  to  its  monks,  but  for  a 
time  it  did  not  attract  numbers  to  itself.  Un- 
der its  second  abbot,  Stephen  Harding  from 
England,  it  even  .seemed  likely  to  die  out. 
But  in  1113,  Bernard  with  his  30  companions 
entered  it,  and  from  this  time  on  it  enjoyed 
great  popularity.  Soon  it  was  necessary  to 
form  four  new  monasteries,  among  which 
was  Clairvnux.  The  single  monastery  was 
tiiereb}'  converted  into  the  head  of  an  order, 
and  its  abbot  made  general.  Harding  i)re- 
pared  a  new  constitution,  which  put  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  hands  of  25  definitores,  and 
since  a  monastery  was  never  founded  in  a  dio- 
cese till  the  bishop  had  approved  this  constitu- 
tion, the  order  was  thus  withdrawn  from  epis- 
copal control.  Thanks  to  the  influence  of 
Bernard,  the  order  grew  with  great  rapidity, 
and  in  1151  there  were  500  abbeys,  beyond 
which  it  was  resolved  not  to  go.  But  by  tlie 
middle  of  the  13th  century  there  were  1800. 
But  now  the  time  of  decay  had  come,  since 
the  real  mission  of  the  Cistercians  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  church,  which  was  to  bring  the 
gospel  to  the  multitudes,  had  passed  to  the 
mendicant  monks,  the  Dominicans  and  Fran- 
ciscans. Disorder  and  disunion  within,  and 
the  ravages  of  war  without,  combined  to  bring 
the  order  to  ruin.  Many  attempts  at  reform 
from  1289  to  1493  resulted  in  little.  In  1497 
secessions  began  (in  Tuscany)  for  the  sake  of 
greater  strictness.  Thus  arose  the  Feuillants 
in  Toulouse  (1574),  the  Trappists  (1662).  etc. 
The  famous  convent  of  Port  Royal  should  be 
mentioned  as  belonging  to  the  Cistercians. 
(See  the  principal  source,  Do  Burgen's  Annates 
CMercienses,  Lvons,  1642-59,  4  vols.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Cities  of  Refuge  (Deut.  xix.  2,  3,  Josh.  xx. 
2)  were  divinely  appointed  asylums  for  an  un- 
intentional homicide.  He  could  flee  liithcr, 
and,  if  innocent,  was  protected  from  the  aven- 
ger of  blood,  only  he  must  remain  in  refuge 
till  the  death  of  the  existing  high-priest  (Num. 
XXXV.).  Three  were  chosen  on  each  side  of 
Jordan,  and  the  roads  to  them  were  always 
kept  open,  with  signboards  at  every  cross- 
road. They  are  not  typical  of  Christ,  because 
they  were  intended  for  the  innocent,  but  ho 
for  the  sinful.  T.  W.  C. 

Citizenship,  in  the  New  Testament  the 
privilege  of  native  Romans,  and  of  Jews  and 
others  who  acquired  it  by  purchase  (Acts  xxii. 
28),  by  military  service,  or  by  manumission. 
It  secured  to  its  possessor  exemption  from  im- 
prisonment without  trial  (Acts  xvi.  37)  and 
from  scourging  (xxii.  25),  and  the  right  of  ap- 
peal to  the  emperor.  Paul  repeatedly  availed 
himself  of  its  privileges,  and  in  Pliil.  iii.  20 
uses  the  term  (R.  V.)  to  denote  what  be- 
longs to  the  believer  as  a  citizen  of  the  heav- 
enly Jerusalem.  T.  AV.  C. 

Cit'.y,  a  large  town,  usually  walled  and  for- 
tified or  "  fenced,"  as  the  term  is  in  the  Old 
Testament  (Num.  xiii.  28).  The  first  one  was 
built  by  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  17).  Ancient  cities  had 
uarrow  streets.with  scarce  room  for  two  loaded 


CITY 


(172) 


CLAUDIUS 


camels  to  pass  each  other,  were  provided  with 
watchmen  (Ps.  cxxvii.  1,  Song  v.  7),  and  had 
their  principiil  place  of  concourse  at  the  gate 
(Job  xxix.  7.  Neh.  viii.  1).  Some,  like  Babylon, 
were  adorned  with  open  squares  and  large 
gardens.  T.  W.  C. 

City  of  David,  Mt.  Zion,  the  southern  part 
of  Jerusalem,  which  the  king  took  from  the 
Jebusites  and  called  by  his  own  name  (1 
Chron.  xi.  5).  The  name  was  also  given  to 
Bethlehem  (Luke  ii.  11)  as  the  native  city  of 
David.  T.  W.  C. 

City  of  God  (Deut.  xii.  5,  Ps.  xlvi.  4)  and 
the  Holy  City  (Neh.  xi.  1)  are  names  given 
to  Jerusalem.  The  latter  is  perpetuated  in 
the  modern  title,  El-Kliuds,  the  holy. 

T.  W.  C. 

Clara,  St.,  b.  at  Assissi,  1194  (family  name, 
Sciffi),  d.  there  Aug.  11,  1253  ;  the  founder 
of  an  order  of  nuns  connected  with  the 
Franciscans.  She  greatly  revered  Francis, 
and  upon  his  advice  she  forsook  the  world 
and  founded  her  order  (the  Clarisses)  in  1212. 
In  1224  she  received  a  rule  from  Francis 
which  enforced  communal  poverty,  com- 
manded silence  at  certain  times,  and  common 
labor.  The  order  became  the  mother  of  a 
number  of  orders.  Clara  was  canonized 
shortly  after  her  death.  F.  H.  F. 

Clarendon  Constitutions,  dated  Jan.,  1164, 
the  articles  of  agreement  between  Henry  II. 
and  the  English  bishops  for  the  settlement  of 
the  struggle  between  the  crown  and  the  hier- 
archy. 

Clarke,  Adam,  LL.D.  (Aberdeen,  1808), 
English  Wesleyan;  b.  at  Moybeg,  County  Lon- 
donderry, Ireland,  about  1 762  ;  d.  of  cholera, 
in  London,  Aug.  36,  1832  His  education 
was  defective,  but  through  an  enthusiastic 
love  of  learning,  joined  to  iron  dihgence  and 
strict  system,  he  acquired  great  learning,  which 
put  him  far  above  his  ministerial  brethren  and 
won  for  him  many  honors  unusual  for  a  Wes- 
leyan  to  receive.  "He  prepared  several  learned 
books,  the  best  known  of  which  is  his  Com- 
menUirii  (on  the  entire  Bible),  London,  1810- 
26,  8  vols.  ;  reprinted,  1851,  6  vols.  All  the 
time  he  preached  constantly  and  with  great 
acceptance.  (See  his  life,  London,  1833,  3 
vols.) 

Clarke,  James  Freeman,  D.D.  (Harvard 
College,  1863),  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  Hanover,  N. 
H.,  April  4,  1810  ;  graduated  at  Harvard, 
1829,  and  at  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School, 
1833  ;  was  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Dis- 
ciples, Boston,  from  1841  (with  the  exception 
of  3  years)  till  his  death  there,  June  8,  1888. 
He  was  a  thoughtful  writer,  and  commended 
his  own  creed  vigorously  and  in  good  style. 
He  wrote,  among  others,  Orthodoxy :  Its 
Iruths  and  its  Errors,  Boston,  1866  ;  8th  ed., 
1885  ;  The  Ten  Great  Religions,  1870-83,  2 
vols.  ;  1st  vol.,  22d  ed.,  1886;  2d  vol.,  5th 
ed.,  1886  ;  Legend  of  Thomas  Didymus,  1881  ; 
2d  ed.,  1887  ;  Events  in  Religious  History, 
1881  ;  2d  ed.,  1887. 

Clarke,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1709), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Norwich,  Oct.  11, 
1675  ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  became  rector 


of  St.  James',  Westminster,  London,  1709  ; 
d,  there.  May  17,  1729.  He  was  an  Arian  in 
theology,  although  too  cautious  and  prudent 
to  avosv  himself  openly.  But  it  was  as  a  phi- 
losopher that  he  reigned  supreme  in  England 
after  the  death  of  Locke  (1704).  He  founded 
a  so-called  "  intellectual  "  school,  which  de- 
duced the  moral  law  from  a  logical  necessity, 
and  reduced  moral  philosophy  almost  to 
mathematical  certainty.  (See  his  Scripture 
Doctrine,  of  the  Trinity,  London,  1712  ;  and 
his  Boyle  lectures,  T/ie  Being  and  Attributes  of 
God  [1704],  and  Evidences  of  Natural  and  Re- 
vealed Religion  [1705J,  and  his  life  by  Whiston, 
London,  1730.) 

Classis,  the  term  used  in  the  Reformed 
Church,  corresponding  to  "  presbytery"  in  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  for  the  governing  body 
composed  of  all  the  ministers  and  an  elder 
delegated  by  each  consistory  (governing  body 
of  each  churcli)  within  certain  prescribed 
bounds.  It  stands  midway  between  the  con- 
sistories and  the  particular  synod. 

Class-Meetings,  a  peculiar  institution  of 
the  Methodist  Church  for  the  spiritual  upbuild- 
ing of  its  membership  by  dividing  the  congre- 
gations into  smaller  bodies  called  classes,  which 
meet  weekly  under  the  care  of  some  compe- 
tent leader  for  conference,  prayer,  and  exhor- 
tation. The  idea  was  engrafted  into  his  sys- 
tem by  Wesley  in  1742. 

Claude,  Jean,  Reformed  Church  of  France  ; 
b.  at  La  Sauvetat-du-Dropt,  Agenais,  south- 
west France,  1619  ;  d.  at  the  Hague,  Jan.  13, 
1687.  He  studied  at  Montauban  ;  became 
pastor  successively  at  La  Treine,  1645  ;  at 
Saint  Affrique,  1646  ;  at  Nismes,  1654  ;  at 
Montauban,  1662  ;  at  Charenton,  near  Paris, 
1686  ;  the  tirst  one  exiled  at  the  Revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  1685  ;  settled  at  the 
Hague.  He  was  the  great  leader  of  the  French 
Reformed  ;  their  ablest  disputant  {e.g.,  against 
Arnauld,  Nicole,  and  Bossuet)  ;  their  favorite 
preacher  ;  their  trusted  representative.  His 
works,  translated  into  English,  other  than  his 
controversial  treatises,  embrace  the  much-used 
Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon,  ed. 
Simeon,  London  and  New  York  (several  edd.), 
and  Complaints  and  Cruel  Persecutions  of  the 
Protestants  in  France,  London,  1686  (later 
edd.).  (See  his  life  in  French  by  De  La 
Deveze,  Amsterdam,  1687.) 

Clau'-dius  {lame),  the  4th  Roman  emperor, 
successor  of  Caligula,  a.d.  41-54.  During  his 
reign  occurred  the  famine  predicted  by  Ag- 
abus  (Acts  xi.  28),  and  in  the  9th  year  of  his 
reign  he  banished  all  Jews  from  Rome  (Acts 
xviii.  2)  including  the  Jewish  Christians. 

T.  W.  C. 

Claudius  of  Turin,  b.  in  Spain  ;  became 
bishop  of  Turin,  820  ;  d.  there  839.  Origi- 
nally an  Adoptionist,  he  opposed  the  church 
teaching  on  good  works,  intercession  of  saints, 
monasticism,  and  the  papal  authority,  while 
vigorously,  as  in  his  Apologeticum,  disclaim- 
ing heresy.  He  was  a  famous  exegete.  (See 
his  works  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CIV.) 

Claudius,  Matthias,  b.  at  Rheinfeld,  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  Liibeck,  Aug.  15, 


CLAUSEN 


(1*3) 


CLEMENT 


1740  ;  d.  in  Hamburg,  Jan.  21,  1815.  He  was 
not  a  theologian  but  a  business-man  ;  for  sev- 
eral years  cashier  of  a  bank  in  Altona.  Later 
on  lie  resided  at  Wandsbeck,  8  m.  n.e.  of 
Hamburg,  as  a  private  citizen,  and  published 
in  the  Wdiuhbecker  Bote  a  great  number  of 
articles  and  poems  which,  by  their  quaint 
humor  and  exquisite  tenderness  of  feeling,  at- 
tracted widespread  attention.  They  are  ex- 
clusively religious  and  in  the  worst  days  of 
rationalism  they  did  great  service  by  keeping 
Christian  piety  alive  in  many  hearts.  They 
are  referred  to  in  every  German  or  Scandi- 
navian autobiography  of  the  period  as  the 
guiding  star  of  the  "time,  and  they  are  still 
much  read  in  collections  and  extracts'.  (See  his 
life  in  German  by  Herbst,  Gotha,  1857  ;  M 
ed.,  1863,  and  by  Monckeberg,  Hamburg, 
1870) 

Clausen,  Renrik  Nikolai,  Danish  theo- 
logian ;  b.  at  Maribo,  in  Laaland,  April  22, 
1793  ;  educated  at  Copenhagen,  where  he  was 
professor  of  theology,  1822-74,  and  d.  ]\Iarch 
23,  1877.  He  pla^^ed  a  prominent  part  in 
church  and  state.  Influenced  in  his  student 
days  by  Schleiermacher  he  remained  a  Ration- 
alist, and  so  exposed  himself  to  the  criticisms 
of  Grundtvig  and  Lindberg.  His  autobiog- 
raphy in  Danish  appeared,  Copenhagen,  1877. 

Clean  and  Unclean,  terms  often  used  in  a 
ceremonial  sense,  and  applied  to  persons,  ani- 
mals, and  things  (Lev.  xi.-xv..  Num.  xix., 
Deut.  xiv.).  The  distinction  in  regard  to  ani- 
mals existed  before  the  Flood  (Gen.  vii.  2). 
The  law  on  the  subject  was  founded  partly  on 
sanitary  reasons,  but  was  chiefly  designed  to 
guard  the  people  from  heathen  idolatry  and 
impurity.  The  ritual  still  existed  in  Christ's 
time,  but  was  aboli.shed  by  him  (Mark  vii.  19, 
R.  V.)  and  by  a  special  revelation  to  Peter 
(Acts  x.  9-16).  T.  W.  C. 

Clearstory  (or  clerestory),  the  upper  part  of 
the  central  aisle  of  a  church,  raised  above  the 
roofs  of  the  adjoining  side  aisles  with  windows 
to  light  the  nave  below. 

Clemanges  (klamonge),  Nicholas,  b.  about 
1330  in  a  village  of  tliis  name  in  Champagne, 
France  ;  d.  subsequent  to  1425.     His  course 
was  an  exceedingly  brilliant  one  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  wiieVe  he  began  to  lecture  upon 
secular  topics  in  1381;  became  bachelor  of  di- 
vinity in  1391 ,  and  was  elected  rector  of  the  uni- 
versity in  1393.     He  threw  himself  with  great 
ardor  into  the  elTorts  which  the   university 
was  making  in  this  period  of  the  great  papal 
schism  to  bring  about  a  reform  of  Christen- 
dom, most  of  tiie  tracts  which  appeared  in  the 
universit3'*s  name  having  been  written  by  him. 
Benedict  XHL   made    him   papal   secretary, 
and  in  1407,   when  the  kingdiMn  of  F'rance  ' 
withdrew  from  the  pope  because  of  his  delays  ' 
to  bring  the  schism  to  an  end,  Clemanges  was  j 
accu.scd  of  having  prepared  the  bull  in  which  j 
the  pope  excommunicated  the  nation.     This  ] 
he  denied,  but  was  compelled  to  flee  to  escape  | 
imprisonment,  and  was  concealed  l)y  the  Car-  ' 
thusians.     In  his  retirement  at  Fontainedu-  ' 
"Bosc.  he  turned  his  attention  to  tiie  study  of 
the    Bible.     A    number   of   comiiositions   ap-  ! 
peared  in  which  the  fruits  of  this  study  were  ' 


evident.  He  advanced  also  to  freer  views 
\ipon  the  government  and  authority  of  the 
church,  and  was  a  real  harbinger  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  his  doctrine  that  the  church  is  only 
infallible  where  the  Holy  Ghost  is,  and  that 
this  might  be  confined  even  to  a  single  insig- 
nificant woman.  A  number  of  tracts  upon 
the  reform  of  the  church  appeared  about  the 
time  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  all  breath- 
ing the  geniiine  spirit  of  spiritual  Christianity. 
Clemanges  was  made  a  canon  at  Langres  and 
at  Bayeux.  resumed  his  lectures  at  Paris  in 
1425,  and  died  in  this  employment.  (See  his 
life  in  German  by  Mlintz,  Strassburg,  1846  ; 
chief  works  collected  by  Lydius,  Leyden, 
1613,  2  vols.)  F.  H.'F. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  (Titus  Flavins 
Clemens),  b.  about  150,  was  probably  a  Greek, 
who  journeyed  in  search  of  satisfaction  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  truth  till  he  met  Paut*nus, 
then  or  subsequently  teacher  in  Alexandria, 
His  family  was  of  some  importance,  and  he 
had  enjoyed  the  best  educational  advantages, 
and  exhibits  acquaintance  with  a  very  wide 
range  of  authors.  He  followed  Pautainus  in 
his  general  philosophical  tendency,  and  be- 
came an  eclectic,  though  an  original  one,  and 
when  he  succeeded  his  teacher  in  the  cate- 
chetical school  of  Alexandria,  it  was  to  pre- 
sent Christianity  largely  under  the  point  of 
view  of  a  philosophy,  though  the  highest  and 
best.  The  history  of  the  world  is  the  history 
of  God's  education  of  the  race.  Greek  phi- 
losophy was  one  mode  of  the  divine  prepara- 
tion for  Christianity.  Christ  is  the  end  to 
which  all  true  pliilo.sophy  points.  He  is  the 
divine  reason.  Clement  did  not  intend  thus 
to  deny  his  personality,  or  the  doctrine  of  the 
incarnation  ;  but  this  is  the  essential  nature 
of  Christ.  Salvation  is  gradual.  It  begins 
with  faith,  based  upon  knowledge,  which  is 
at  first  imperfect,  pas.ses  on  through  love,  and 
ends  in  knowledge.  The  highest  knowledge 
is  the  contemplation  of  God.  During  the  per- 
secution of  Septimius  Severus  (201)  Clement 
left  Alexandria  and  sought  refuge  probably 
in  Cappadocia.  Whether  he  returned  to  Alex- 
andria is  not  known,  and  the  date  of  his  death 
is  also  unknown.  His  principal  works  are 
the  Hortatory  AMresH  to  the  Greeks,  in  which 
he  exposes  the  senselessness  of  the  heathen  re- 
ligions and  exhorts  them  to  abandon  them  ; 
the  Tutor,  in  which  he  brings  the  convert  to 
Christ  as  the  great  Teacher,  and  the  Strom- 
ata,  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  observations 
upon  matters  of  morals  and  doctrine.  There 
were  many  other  writings  which  are  now  lost. 
Works  in  Mignc,  Pat.  Gc,  vols.  8,  9  ;  best  ed., 
Dindorf,  Oxford,  1868.  Eng.  trans,  in  Ante- 
Niriiu;  Fathers,  ed.  Coxe,  New  York  Chris- 
tian Literature  Co.,  vol.  ii.  F.  11.  F. 

Clement  of  Rome,  3d  bishop  from  Peter, 
according  to  the  account  of  Irena^iis  and  other 
ancient  authorities,  althoueli  .some  give  an- 
otlier  order.  Very  little  is  positively  known 
about  him,  but  he  is  said  by  Irensrus  to  have 
been  a  ])upil  of  the  apostles.'  He  does  not  call 
him-self  such,  and  this  is  now  regarded  doubt- 
ful. Tlie  supposition  that  he  is  the  Clement 
whom  Paul  mentions  in  Phil.  iv.  3  is 
also    now    generally    rejected.     It  has  been 


CLEMENT 


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CLEMENT 


Suestioned  whether  Clement  was  rehxted  to 
le  imperial  house,  as  is  stated  in  the  pseudo- 
Clementine  Recognitions  and  Homilies.  It  ap- 
pears from  the  most  recent  investigations  that 
Christianity  had  penetrated  the  Flavian  house, 
for  Flavia  Domatilla  was  a  Christian,  and  it 
may  have  been  that  the  Consul  Flavins  Clem- 
ens, whom  Domitian  executed,  also  was. 

If  so,  were  there  two  Clements,  this  consul 
and  the  bishop,  or  were  the  two  one  and  the 
same  ?  In  lack  of  any  positive  proof  that  the 
Consul  Clemens  was  a  Christian,  this  ques- 
tion also  must  be  left  undecided.  Tlius  our 
knowledge  of  the  man  is  limited  to  what  ap- 
pears from  his  writings.  These  are  now  re- 
duced by  modern  criticism  to  the  single  epistle 
to  the  Corinthian  Church,  usually  called  the 
first,  the  so  called  Clementines  (q.v.)  being 
spurious,  and  the  second  epistle  being  a  ser- 
mon by  another  writer.  The  genuine  epistle 
is,  however,  one  of  the  most  interesting  re- 
mains of  Christian  antiquity.  Its  date  is  now 
generally  put  somewhere  between  93  and  97 
A.D  (Gieseler,  Ritschl,  Tischendorf,  Ilarnack), 
and  by  Zahu  even  in  the  definite  year  96-97. 
It  holds,  therefore,  the  honor  of  being  the  first 
Christian  document  that  has  come  down  to  us 
after  the  close  of  the  New  Testament  canon, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Didache 
(q.v.).  It  was  called  out  by  the  contests  which 
had  arisen  in  the  church  at  Corinth,  and  was 
a  friendly  admonition,  though  unsought  by  the 
Corinthians,  from  a  church  which  on  account 
of  its  prominent  position  evidently  felt  a  re- 
sponsibility for  all  the  churches.  No  claim 
of  any  authority  over  churches  is  made.  The 
question  was  the  fundamental  one  of  order  in 
the  church,  not  what  order  there  should  be, 
as  e.g.,  the  government  of  a  bishop  or  of  a  col- 
lege of  presbyters.  The  entire  epistle  is  occu- 
pied with  general  ethical  considerations  calcu- 
lated to  put  an  end  to  the  strife.  The  text 
was  formerly  known  only  from  the  Alexan- 
drine manuscript  of  the  British  Museum.  In 
this  form  it  was  defective.  In  1873  Bryennios 
published  an  edition  from  a  manuscript  dis- 
covered by  him  in  Constantinople.  In  the 
new  part,  added  to  the  epistle  by  this  manu- 
script, there  is  an  interesting  pra^^er  of  a  litur- 
gical character.  In  doctrine  the  epistle  shows 
the  correctness  of  the  date  assigned  to  it  by 
the  undeveloped  character  of  its  views.  The 
Old  Testament  is  the  Bible  of  the  writer,  but 
quotations  from  the  New  Testament  are  nu- 
merous. The  supreme  God  and  the  Creator 
of  the  world  are  identified.  The  Trinity  is 
alluded  to.  The  doctrine  of  justification, 
which  is  presented  clearly  enough  in  one  pas- 
sage is  obscured  in  another.  Salvation  is  as- 
cribed to  the  blood  of  Christ  alone.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  is  defended,  as  in  the 
Apologists.  Of  the  second  epistle,  so  called, 
the  author,  place  of  composition,  date,  and 
text,  are  still  in  dispute.  The  best  edition  of 
Clement  is  that  of  Gebhardt,  Ilarnack,  and 
Zahn,  in  their  Patrum  Apont.  Opera.  Migne 
has  Clement's  works  in  the  Pat.  Oc,  vol.  1. 
Eng.  trans,  in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  ed.  Coxe, 
New  York  Christian  Literature  Co.,  vol.  i. 
and  viii.  F.  H.  F. 

Olemeat,   popes    of    this    name.       1.  (See 


Clement  op  Rome.)  2.  (Suidger,  Bishop  of 
Bamberg),  pope  Dec.  24,  1046-Oct.  9,  1047. 
Henr}'  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  nominated 
him.  and  was  then  (Dec.  25)  crowned  by  him. 
3.  (Paolo  Scolari),  pope  Dec.  19,  1187-March 
25,  1191,  was  elected  at  Pisa,  since  the  popes 
had  been  banished  from  Rome  for  44  years. 
He  secured  his  return  to  Rome  in  1188.  In 
1187  Saladin  had  entered  Jerusalem,  and 
Clement  had  the  crusade  preached  again. 
Frederick  Barbarossa  was  induced  to  take  the 
cross.  By  a  bull  of  March  13,  1188,  he  freed 
the  Scottish  Church  from  subjection  to  the 
Archbishop  of  York,  and  made  it  directly  de- 
pendent upon  the  see  of  Rome.  4.  (Guide 
le  Gros),  pope  Feb.  5,  1265-Nov.  29,  1268. 
Born  at  St.  Gilles,  in  France,  he  had  had  a 
prosperous  secular  career.  Manfred  being 
against  the  papal  interests,  Charles  of  Anjou 
was  made  king  of  the  two  Sicilies  and  given 
Apulia  (1265).  He  proved  a  disagreeable  ally, 
but  when  Conradin  came  into  Italy,  the  pope 
could  not  unite  with  him,  and  so  excommuni- 
cated him  in  1267,  and  was  no  doubt  pleased 
with  his  failure  in  1268.  A  month  later  he 
died  himself.  5.  (Bertrand  d'Agoust)  pope 
June  5,  1305-Apri]  20,  1314.  At  the  death  of 
Benedict  XI.  it  was  the  purpose  of  the  Italian 
cardinals  to  elect  only  such  a  pope  as  could 
be  depended  upon  to  protect  the  honor  of 
Boniface  VIII.  against  the  attacks  of  the 
French  pope.  D'Agoust,  being  then  bishop 
of  Bordeaux,  and  having  always  supported 
Boniface,  was  elected  after  a  long  struggle. 
But  he  had  already  been  purchased  by  the 
French,  and  had  promised  the  king  of  France 
among  other  things  to  begin  a  trial  of  Boni- 
face. In  fact,  he  protected  the  memory  of 
Boniface  so  far  as  not  to  permit  the  king  to 
carry  out  his  plans,  and  it  is  thought  pur- 
chased his  good  name  by  surrendering  the 
Knights  Templars  (q.v.)  to  the  royal  cupidity. 
The  pope  also  satisfied  the  demands  of  the 
king  by  recalling  the  bulls  of  Boniface,  Cleri- 
cis  Laicos  and  Unam  Sanctam,  and  protecting 
the  assailants  of  Boniface's  person.  6.  (Pierre 
Roger)  pope  May  7.  1342-Dec.  6,  1352.  He 
bad  been  a  high  official  in  the  court  of  the 
French  king,  and  refused  to  remove  his  resi- 
dence to  Rome.  He  celebrated  a  jubilee  at 
Avignon  in  1350  with  great  splendor.  (7. 
Anti-pope  to  Urban  VI.,  q.v.)  7.  (Giulio 
Medici)  pope  Nov.  19,  1523-Sept.  25,  1534. 
Though  illegitimate,  he  was  made  archbishop 
of  Florence  and  soon  Cardinal  by  Leo  X., 
whom  he  succeeded  at  the  age  of  45.  His 
pontificate  fell  in  an  evil  time,  and  he  did  not 
succeed  in  conducting  the  affairs  of  the  papacy 
very  well.  He  vibrated  between  alliance  with 
Francis  of  France  and  Charles  V.  of  Germany, 
dispensing  the  former  from  the  oath  of  Mad- 
rid, and  when  overcome  by  the  military  force 
of  the  latter  making  peace  with  him  at  Bo- 
logna, where  he  crowned  him  (1530).  His 
opposition  to  Charles  cost  the  papacy  much, 
for  it  admitted  of  the  result  of  tlie  Diet  of 
Spires  (1526),  by  which  each  German  state  was 
allowed  to  arrange  its  religious  affairs  to  suit 
itself.  The  same  cause,  combined  with  the 
natural  dread  of  a  General  Council,  led  him 
to  reject  the  proposals  of  Charles  that  one  be 
held  in  accordance  with  the  desire  of  the  Q^r- 


CLEMENT 


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CLERGY 


mans,  uud  so  the  last  cliauce  of  a  reunion  of 
the  Roman  and  Protestant  churches  Avas  lost. 
His  fear  of  Charles  when  triumphant  led  him 
to  refuse  Henry  YIII.'s  request  for  a  divorce, 
and  so  lost  him  England.  8.  (Ippolito  Aldo- 
brandini)  pope  Jan.  30,  1592-:\larch  5,  1605. 
His  great  object  was  to  free  the  court  of  Rome 
from  its  subjection  to  the  Spanish  crown. 
Though  at  first  against  Henry  of  Navarre,  he 
acknowledged  him  when  he  had  submitted  to 
the  church,  and  it  was  evident  that  the  French 
nation  had  really  made  liini  king,  and  then 
used  him  successfully  against  the  Spaniards. 
9.  (Giulio  Rospigliosi)  "pope  June  20,  1667- 
Dcc.  1),  1669.  10.  (Emilio  Altieri)  pope 
April  29,  16:0-July  22,  1676.  11.  (Giovanni 
Francesco  Albani)  pope  Nov.  23,  1700-March 
19,  1721.  Principally  famous  for  his  rela- 
tions with  the  Jesuits.  In  the  controversy 
with  the  Dominicitds  about  missionary  meth- 
ods, he  declared  himself  against  the  accom- 
modation by  the  Jesuits  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion to  the  prejudices  and  superstitions  of 
the  heathen.  But  in  their  controversy  with 
the  Jansenists,  he  was  wholly  upon  their  side. 
In  the  bull  Unigenitus  (Sept.  8,  1713)  he  con- 
demned Quesnci's  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment which  was  accompanied  with  notes,  and, 
in  particular.  101  .sentences  taken  from  this 
edition,  some  of  which  were  extracts  from  the 
Scriptures  themselves.  The  bull  stirred  up  a 
great  controversy,  in  which  all  the  friends  of 
the  Galilean  liberties  arranged  themselves 
against  the  pope  and  the  king.  Persecutions 
of  the  Jansenists  followed.  12.  (Lorenzo 
Corsini)  pope  July  12,  1730-Feb.  6,  1740. 
13.  (Carlo  Rezzonico)  pope  July  6,  1758- 
Feb.  2,  1709.  This  pope's  history  also  is 
chiefly  occupied  in  the  struggle  which  at  last 
resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Jesuits  (q.v.). 
Efforts  to  procure  a  reformation  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  order  were  as  unacceptable  to 
the  pope  as  to  the  Jesuits  themselves.  Conse- 
quently they  were  driven  out  of  realm  after 
realm,  often  with  great  crueltj^  ;  but  the  pope 
received  and  sheltered  them.  Bulls  were  is- 
sued tilled  with  praises  of  the  order,  and  the 
governments  and  peoples  of  Christendom  were 
so  embittereil  against  the  papacy,  that  the  car- 
dinals begged  the  pope  to  sacrifice  the  Jesuits 
to  save  the  holy  see.  The  contest  with  the 
Duke  of  Parma  led  to  the  promulgation  of  a 
brief  in  which  the  infamous  bull  In  ca-na 
Domini  was  re-endorsed.  The  secular  powers 
were  even  more  outraged,  and  some  of  them 
began  to  employ  force  against  the  pope.  Avig- 
non and  Yenaissiu  were  seized  by  France. 
What  would  have  happened  had  not  the  pope 
been  removed  at  just  this  juncture  by  apo- 
plexy, it  is  impossible  to  say.  He  was  suc- 
ceed bv  14.  (Lorenzo  Ganganelli)  who  was 
pope  from  3Iay  19,  1769-Sept.  22,  1774.  The 
election  had  been  a  struggle  between  the 
friends  of  the  Jesuits  and  their  enemies,  the 
French  party,  and  the  result  was  the  election 
of  the  least  threatening  of  the  cardinals  favored 
by  France.  But  he  proved  to  be  the  man  for 
the  times.  lie  refused  at  first  to  declare  him- 
self, or  to  take  any  decisive  step  for  or  against 
the  Jesuits.  In  *his  own  mind,  he  was  re- 
solved to  separate  the  contest  with  the  Jesuits 
from  that  against  the  papal  see,  with  which  it 


had  become  involved.  He  recalled  the  brief 
against  the  Duke  of  Parma.  He  made  peace 
with  such  courts  as  he  could.  But  at  last  he 
found  it  necessary  to  sacrifice  the  order,  and 
after  conferences  with  the  great  powers,  he 
first  closed  the  establishments  of  the  Jesuits  in 
the  states  of  the  church,  and  at  last  in  the 
hiii^f  Domi nun  et  Redemjjtor  noster,  published 
Aug.  10,  1773,  he  suppressed  the  order  with- 
out trial,  out  of  the  plenitude  of  papal  power, 
because  of  its  lapse  from  its  ancient  purpose 
and  the  evils  which  had  attended  it.  The  re- 
sult was  the  rehabilitation  of  the  papacy  in 
the  regard  and  loyalty  of  the  Catholic  coun- 
tries, and  the  restoration  of  Avignon,  etc.,  to 
the  papal  jurisdiction.  F.  II.  F. 

Clementines,  The,  are  a  group  of  writings 
falsely  ascribed  to  Clement,  Bishop  of  Rome 
(q.v.),  which  are  commonly  thought  to  have 
had  their  origin  after  the  middle  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury. Three  of  the  group  are  preserved  to  us  : 
the  Homilies,  which  are  20  in  number,  and 
are  introduced  by  two  letters,  ostensibly  by 
Peter  to  the  Apostle  James,  and  by  Clement 
to  the  same  ;  the  Recognitions,  in  10  books, 
the  contents  of  which'are  largely  identical 
with  those  of  the  Homilies  ;  and  the  Epitome, 
an  extract  from  the  Homilies,  with  some  addi- 
tional matter.  The  Homilies  profess  to  be  a 
description  of  the  development  of  the  religious 
life  of  Clement,  who,  in  search  of  the  truth, 
journeyed  to  Judea  to  gain  a  more  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  doctrine  of  Je.sus.  In  Ca?s- 
area  he  finds  Peter,  who  teaches  him  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  promises  to  al- 
low him  to  be  present  *at  a  disputation  with 
Simon  Magus  which  is  soon  to  be  held.  This 
ends  in  the  defeat  of  Simon,  who  flees  from 
Peter,  is  pursued  by  him,  but  not  overtaken 
till  the  apostle,  accompanied  by  Clement,  has 
come  to  Laodicea,  where  another  disputation 
of  4  days  results  in  Simon's  defeat  again.  On 
the  way  Peter  founds  churches  and  instructs 
Clement  more  perfectly  in  the  truth.  Upon 
the  thread  of  this  story  a  peculiar  mass  of 
doctrines  is  brought  out.  It  contains  the  most 
incongruous  materials,  Gncstic  and  Christian, 
Pantheistic  and  Theistic.  The  doctrine  of  the 
true  prophet  plays  a  large  part  in  it,  but  he 
is  not  a  single  person,  but  a  scries  of  persons 
animated  by  the  same  spirit.  Salvation  is  by 
knowledge.  Pure  Judaism  is  the  same  as 
pure  Christianity.  The  world  has  developed 
in  a  series  of  .syzygies,  or  pairs,  heaven-eartli, 
etc.  Still  Go(i.  is  conceived  as  one,  and  as  per- 
sonal. As  to  the  relations  of  the  Homilies  and 
Recognitions,  the  latest  studies  incline  to  make 
them  revisions  of  a  single  original  composi- 
tion, in  each  ca.se  with  peculiar  additions. 
Prof.  Harnack  puts  their  date  at  from  200  to 
250,  makes  them  to  be  composed  by  Catholics, 
for  purposes  not  of  doctrinal  in.struction,  but 
of  edification,  the  materials  possil)ly  deiived 
from  Ebionitic  sources,  and  says  that,  on  the 
whole,  they  give  us  little  information  as  to  the 
rise  of  the  system  and  doctrines  of  the  Old 
Catholic  Church.  F.  H.  F. 

Clementines,  the  name  given  to  a  portion 
of  the  Canon  Law,  attributed  to  Pope  Clement 
V.  (130.5-14). 

Clergy.     There  is  in  the  New  Testament 


CLERICI 


(176) 


CLOTHING 


no  essential  distinction  between  ministers  and 
people,  though  detinite  officers  were  placed 
over  the  churches  by  Paul  and  Timothy.  In 
process  of  time  there  developed  a  regular  series 
of  officers  (see  Church  Government),  which 
began  to  be  distinguished  from  tlie  people  by 
peculiar  rights  as  well  as  privileges.  Thus, 
step  by  step,  there  was  created  a  hierarchy 
which  ascended  from  the  "door-keepers" 
through  exorcists,  acolyths,  cantors,  readers, 
subdeacons,  deacons,  priests,  bishops,  and 
archbishops,  to  the  patriarchs,  and  finally,  in 
the  AVestern  Church,  to  the  pope.  All  these 
constituted  the  "  clergy. "  Tlie  term  is  of  un- 
certain meaning,  though  derived  from  the 
Greeii  k7Jipoq,  which  signifies  a  lot.  It  was 
either  significant  of  the  divine  appointment 
Avhich  was  embodied  in  the  idea  of  ministerial 
service,  or  it  refers  to  the  original  method  of 
selecting  such  servants. 

Under  the  state  (see  Church  and  State), 
such  special  privileges  were  granted  to  the 
clergy  as  had  previously  been  granted  to  the 
heathen  priests.  Thus  they  were  relieved 
from  military  service,  and  gradually  were  re- 
manded to  the  church  courts  for  trial  (see 
Church  Jurisdiction).  The  tendency  was 
immediately  felt  for  persons  to  seek  admission 
to  the  clerical  office  for  sake  of  its  exemptions 
and  privileges  who  had  no  taste  for  its  duties 
or  purpose  to  engage  iu  its  service.  Hence 
the  church  soon  began  the  attempt  to  i)rotect 
the  sacred  office  by  forbidding  any  more  clergy 
to  be  ordained  than  the  service  of  the  church 
actually  called  for.  Gregory  the  Great  and 
the  Council  of  Trent  are  to  be  mentioned  as 
having  issued  laws  upon  this  subject  defining 
improper  motives  for  seeking  ordination.  Cer- 
tain classes  of  persons  were  declared  ineligible 
to  ordination,  such  as  those  who  had  been 
twice  married,  criminals,  those  whose  baptism 
or  position  in  the  church  was  iu  any  way 
irregular,  etc. 

The  tendency  of  the  Roman  Church  was  to 
elevate  the  clergy  constantly  in  importance. 
Their  judicial  otfice  in  the  confessional  made 
them  mediators  between  God  and  man  ;  the 
sacramental  theory  of  the  church  endowed 
them  with  mysterious  and  miraculous  powers, 
and  their  orders  were  declared  indelible  (see 
Orders). 

All  Protestant  churches  have  declared 
against  the  theoiy  of  essential  distinction  be- 
tween the  laity  and  the  clergy,  and  have  dis- 
favored the  exclusive  privileges  granted  to 
clergymen.  A  curious  relic  of  clerical  exemp- 
tions is  to  be  found  in  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Law  of  tlie  United  States,  by  which 
free  passes  on  railroads,  which  are  forbidden 
to  all  other  classes  of  society,  are  made  legal 
to  clergymen.  F.  H.  F. 

Clerici  vagantes,  priests  without  parishes, 
the  freciuent  subject  of  synodical  complaint 
from  the  4th  century  to  the  Council  of  Trent. 

Clericus  (Le  Clerc),  Jean,  Reformed  the- 
ologian ;  b.  at  Geneva,  March  19,  16o7  ;  be- 
came an  Arminian  and  professor  of  philosophy 
(16H4),  and  later  (1712)  of  church  history  at 
Amsterdam  ;  laid  aside  by  paralysis,  1728  ;  d. 
there,  Jan.  8,  1736.  His  literary  activity  was 
marvellous  ;  particularly  worthy  of  mention 


are  his  Ars  eritica  (Amsterdam,  1696,  2  vols.), 
Harnionia  evangelica  (1699),  and  editions  of 
the  Apostolic  Fathers,  1698  ;  2d  ed.,  1724. 

Clergy,  Benefit  of,  a  relic  in  English  law 
of  tiie  exemptions  of  the  clergy  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  civil  courts  (see  Church  Juris- 
diction). As  a  final  outcome  of  the  long 
struggle  in  England  over  this  subject,  the 
clergy  were  exempted  from  the  death  penalty 
for  certain  lighter  crimes.  This  was  by 
"benefit  of  clergy."  For  more  serious  of- 
fences they  were  punished  as  other  men,  and 
hence  were  without  benefit  of  clergy.  The 
plan  was  used  to  mitigate  the  severity  of  law 
by  suffering  any  one  to  claim  this  privilege, 
except  in  greater  offences.  F.  H.  F. 

Clerk,  a  church  term,  from  Latin  clericus, 
a  clergyman,  who  is  therefore  properly  desig- 
nated'as  a  "clerk  in  holy  orders."  In  the 
middle  age  "clerk"  and  "man  of  learning" 
were  synonymous  terms,  as  the  latter  were 
almost  exclusively  clergymen.  Laymen  who 
lead  the  responses  of  the  congregation  are  also 
called  clerks. 

Clerks  of  St.  Paul.     See  Barnabites. 

Clerks,  Regular.  See  Canons  and  Regu- 
lars. 

Cletus,  one  of  the  early  bishops  of  Rome, 
according  to  Irenpeus  the  second  from  Peter, 
and  identified  with  Anacletus  or  Anencletus. 
The  Clementines  and  the  modern  Roman 
Church  distinguish  these,  and  make  Cletus 
tlie  3d  and  Anacletus  the  4tli  from  Peter. 

F.  H.  F. 

Clinic  Baptism,  or  baptism  on  a  sick-bed. 
In  the  early  church  given  only  to  those  at  the 
point  of  death. 

Cloister,  from  Latin  claustrum,  an  enclosing 
wall,  originally  the  whole  of  a  monastic  estab- 
lishment, then  the  enclosed  ambulatory,  which 
is  u.sually  located  in  the  centre  of  the  group 
of  buildings,  constituting  thus  the  central 
locality  of  the  group.  F.  H.  F. 

Clothing  (biblical).  The  dress  of  the  Ple- 
brews  consisted  of  a  tunic  or  inner  garment, 
a  mantle  or  outer  garment,  a  girdle,  and  san- 
dals. The  tunic  was  of  wool,  cotton,  or  linen, 
and  worn  next  the  skin.  It  had  armholes  and 
sometimes  sleeves, was  keot  close  to  the  body  by 
a  girdle,  and  sometimes  woven  without  a  seam 
(John  xix.  23).  A  person  wearing  only  it  was 
called  naked  (1  Sam.  xix.  24,  Isa.  xx.  2,  John 
xxi.  7).  The  mantle  was  a  piece  of  cloth,  ob- 
long or  square,  2  or  3  yards  in  breadth  and 
length,  wrapped  around  the  body  for  protec- 
tion or  ornament,  but  often  worn  loosely  flow- 
ing. It  was  the  poor  man's  bedclothing  (Ex. 
xxii.  27,  Job.  xxiv.  7).  The  c/irdlo  was  a  belt 
of  cord,  cloth,  or  leather,  sometimes  of  silk 
and  richly  embroidered.  It  served  to  bind  up 
the  garments  so  that  they  should  not  be  in  the 
way.  Hence  to  "gird  up  the  loins"  was  a 
symbol  of  strength  and  activity  (Job  xxxviii. 
3,  2  Kings  iv.  29),  while  to  "  loose  the  girdle" 
was  to  give  way  to  indolence  (Isa.  iii.  27). 
The  girdle  also  served  as  a  pouch  to  carry 
arms,  money,  and  the  implements  of  one's 
profes.sion  (2  Sam.  xx.  8,  Matt.  x.  9,  £zek.  ix. 
2).     The  curious  girdle  (cunningly  wove  band. 


CLOTHING 


(177) 


CLUONY 


R  V.)  of  the  high-priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  8)  was  a 
part  of  the  cphod  itself.  The  sandal  was  a 
tlat  piece  of  wood  or  leather  fastened  to  the 
sole  of  the  foot  by  thongs  passing  between  the 
toes,  around  the  heel,  and  over  the  top  of  the 
foot.  The  fastening  was  called  a  latchet  (Gen. 
siv.  23),  and  to  loosen  this  was  a  menial's 
work  (Mark  i.  7).  Sandals  were  put  off  in 
token  of  reverence  (Ex.  iii.  5,  Josh.  v.  15),  and 
also  as  a  sign  of  mourning  (3  Sam.  xv.  30). 
The  sandal  of  the  Bedouin  is  of  a  camel's  hide. 
The  sandals  of  ladies  were  made  of  sealskin 
(Ezek.  xvi.  10,  R.  V.),  and  often  richly  orna- 
mented (Cant.  vii.  1). 

As  fashions  do  not  change  in  the  East,  it 
was  common  to  lay  up  raiment  (Isa.  iii.  6), 
which,  however,  the  moth  could  consume, 
and  hence  the  references  by  Christ  (Matt.  vi. 
19)  and  by  his  apostle  (James  v.  2).  Hence, 
too,  "changes  of  raiment"  as  presents  (2 
Kings  V.  5),  and  the  fact  that  one  person  could 
wear  another's  dress  (Gen.  xxvii.  15,  1  Sam. 
xviii.  4). 

Blue  fringes  were  attached  to  the  borders 
of  the  outer  garments  to  remind  the  wearer 
of  God's  commandments  (Xum.  xv.  38),  and 
Christ  rebuked  the  Pharisees  for  enlarging 
these  borders  so  as  to  attract  attention  (Matt. 
xxiii.  5).  Joseph's  "  coat  of  many  colors" 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  3)  was  probably  a  long  garment 
with  sleeves,  reaching  to  the  feet.  The 
"  changeable  suits  of  apparel"  (Isa.  iii.  22) 
were  festival  robes  (R.  V.)  of  peculiar  rich- 
ness. T.  W.  C. 

Clothing,  Clerical,  or  Ecclesiastical  Vest- 
ments. Tliere  was  originally  no  distinction 
in  the  dress  of  the  clergy  and  laity,  but  a 
Christian  clerical  dress  arose  by  a  process  ob- 
servable in  all  other  religions,  by  the  retention 
of  antique  forms  by  the  clergy  after  they  had 
passed  out  of  use  in  the  ordinary  walks  of 
life.  The  first  trace  of  the  distinction  in 
dress  between  clergy  and  laity  appears  in  a 
picture  at  Ravenna'of  the  year  547,  in  which 
the  emperor  is  clothed  in  a  form  of  garment 
usual  in  his  day,  while  the  bishop  has  tlie 
ancient  toga,  with  two  perpendicular  black 
stripes,  the  orarium,  originally  a  handker- 
chief, depending  from  it.  Above  this  is  the 
toga  Grcemnica,  a  smaller  toga  of  a  green 
color.  The  first  true  official  ecclesiastical 
garments  are  depicted  in  the  church  of  St. 
Sophia  in  Constantinople,  and  belong  to  the 
years  558-63.  The  priest  wears  simple  while 
garments,  a  tunic  beneath  and  a  toga  above, 
with  the  orarium. 

In  the  Roman  Church  this  simple  costume 
was  much  developed.  The  first  garment  put 
on  was  the  amice,  worn  upon  the  neck  and 
shoulders,  and  capable  of  being  drawn  up 
over  the  head  like  a  helmet.  Upon  this  came 
the  .lib  {tunica  alba),  in  the  earliest  times  and 
now  of  linen,  with  close  sleeves.  It  is  held 
together  by  a  girdle.  Above  this  comes  the 
chasuble  (q.v.),  a  garment  hanging  down  to 
about  the  knees.  The  ancient  ^orarium  reap- 
pears in  the  stole,  a  narrow  scarf  so  adjusted 
about  the  neck  that  it  hangs  down  in  front 
nearly  to  the  ankles,  with  a  cross  embroidered 
in  each  end.  This  was  crossed  upon  the 
breast  and    kept    in   position   by   passing   it 


through  the  girdle.  Another  orarium  was  a 
scarf  depending  from  the  left  wrist,  called  the 
maniple.  Next  above  the  alb  another  tunic 
was  worn,  and  over  this  the  dalmatic,  at  first 
the  distinctive  vestment  of  the  deacons,  and 
afterward  worn  as  a  part  of  the  distinctive 
episcopal  costume.  The  cope  v.'as  an  outer 
cloak,  covering  the  whole  person,  and  fast- 
ened by  a  brooch  in  front.  The  pall  was  a 
collar  of  lamb's  wool  hanging  down  so  as  to 
appear  like  a  letter  Y  before  and  behind,  the 
especial  designation  of  archiepiscopal  rank. 

The  dress  of  the  different  monastic  orders 
was  generally  of  sufficient  peculiarity  to  dis- 
tinguish them  rcadiljr,  and  too  various  to  per- 
mit description  here. 

In  the  various  Protestant  churches  vest- 
ments have  been  very  simple.  The  Lutheran 
and  most  Reformed  churches  content  them- 
selves Avith  some  simple  black  gown,  which  is 
not  changed  during  the  entire  service.  The 
English  Church  has  confined  itself  practically 
to  the  use  of  the  white  linen  surpHce  and  silk 
stole  by  deacons  and  priests,  and  the  white 
linen  rochet  (resembling  the  surplice,  but  with 
narrower  sleeves),  black  satin  chiraere  (or 
outer  robe),  with  lawn  sleeves,  and  stole  by 
bishops.  The  cope  is  worn  in  cathedrals. 
Under  the  surplice  is  worn  the  cassock,  a 
close-fitting  coat  reachi-ng  to  the  feet.  The 
stole  is  usually  black,  though  it  often  varies 
in  color  according  to  the  season  of  the  church 
year.  The  deacon  wears  it  over  the  left 
shoulder  and  crossed  under  the  right  arm. 
Priests  and  bishops  wear  it  over  both  shoulders 
hanging  down  in  front.  It  is  often  very  richly 
emb'roidered.  Choir  boys  and  lay  readers 
usually  wear  the  cassock,  and  over  it  the  cotta, 
a  short  surplice  with  shorter  and  close  fitting 
sleeves. 

There  is  a  question  as  to  the  legality  of  using 
the  other  vestments  still  worn  in  tlie  Roman 
Church,  and  by  the  first  Prayer-book  of  Ed- 
ward I.  allowed  in  the  English"  Church,  though 
falling  into  disuse  during  and  after  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  until  revived  by  the  modern 
ritualists.  F.  H.  F. 

Clothing,  Rending  of,  spoken  of  in  the 
Bible,  indicated  grief,  penitence,  or  excessive 
anger  (e.g.,  Jo.sh.  vii.  6,  2  Sam.  xiii.  31)  ;  was 
forbidden  to  the  high-priest  (Lev.  x.  6,  xxi. 
10). 

Cloud,  Pillar  of,  rested  on  the  tabernacle 
in  the  wilderness  during  the  halts,  but  rose 
and  preceded  the  Israelites  and  pointed  the 
direction  of  their  march  when  Jehovah  would 
have  them  mov^e.  By  night  it  was  illumined 
and  was  called  the  pillar  of  fire  (.Ex.  xxxiii. 
9.  10,  xiii.  22).  It  was  miraculous  and  sym- 
bolized Jehovah's  presence  with  his  chosen 
people. 

Clugny  (Clii-nee'),  Cluniac  Monks.  The  ab- 
bey at  Clugny,  eastern  France,  14  m.  by  rail 
n.AV.  of  Macon,  at  present  a  town  of  about  5000 
inhabitants,  was  founded  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury. It  adopt(!d  the  Benedictine  rule,  with 
sonie  lessening  of  its  rigor  in  eating  and  drink- 
ing, dress  (the  color  of  which  was  white),  fast- 
ing, etc.,  but  greatly  increasing  its  minuteness. 
In  course  of  time  it  started  other  abbeys,  and 
others  put  themselves  under  its  control  ;  so 


COADJUTOR 


(178; 


CCELICOLJE 


sprang  up  the  order  of  the  Cluniac  monks, 
■which  eventually  embraced  by  far  the  greatest 
part  of  the  French  and  Burgundian  monas- 
teries. With  the  increase  of  wealth  came 
laxity  and  license.  Various  attempts  at  re- 
form were  made,  but  finally  the  order,  once 
the  favorite  of  the  popes,  the  ideal  of  Hilde- 
brand,  and  the  pride  of  Peter  the  Venerable, 
was  suppressed  (1790)  and  the  abbey  of 
Clugny  destroyed. 

Ooac^utor,  a  bishop  whose  duty  is  to  assist 
another  bishop  in  the  performance  of  his 
specifically  episcopal  functions,  generally  with 
the  right  of  succession  to  the  bishopric.  Such 
services  were  rendered  ia  the  most  ancient 
times  by  the  "country  bishops,"  but  after 
these  disappeared,  and  many  Christian  bishop- 
rics had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  infidels, 
bishops  were  consecrated  for  such  lost  bishop- 
rics in  pao'tibus  infideliwm,  and  were  assigned 
to  large  dioceses  as  assistants.  F.  H.  F. 

Coan,  Titus,  D.D.  (Dartmouth,  1871),  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Killingworth,  Conn.,  Feb. 
1,  1801  ;  d.  at  Hilo,  Hawaii,  Dec.  1,  1882. 
He  studied  privately  ;  converted  under  Nettle- 
ton's  preaching  he  studied  tlicology  at  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary  ;  graduated,  188o  ;  ex- 
plored southern  Patagonia  under  commission 
of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  with  a  view  of  establish- 
ing a  mission  there,  1833-34  ;  was  missionary 
in  Hawaii  (Sandwich  Islands)  from  1835  till 
his  death.  Going  there  in  the  earliest  days 
he  lived  to  see  the  islands  nominally  Christian- 
ized, a  result  to  which  he  largely  contributed. 
He  wrote  AdeentureH  in  Patnqonia,  New 
York,  1880  ;  Life  in  Hawaii,  1883.  (See  life 
by  his  widow,  Chicago,  1885.) 

Oobham,  Lord,  a  leader  of  the  Lollards, 
burned  at  the  stake  in  1417.  He  was  of  lowly 
origin,  but  rose  by  his  abilities  to  a  high  place 
ia  the  confidence  of  Henry  IV.  As  Sir  John 
Oldcastle  he  had  been  famous  as  a  soldier,  and 
married  in  the  reign  of  liichard  into  the  house 
of  Cobham,  and  became  its  head.  Under 
Henry,  he  was  sheriff  of  Herefordshire,  and 
was  a  leader  in  the  service  of  the  king  in 
France.  At  the  same  time  he  was  a  Lollard, 
attached  to  this  cause  from  the  beginning  of 
his  career,  having  heard  Wiclif  preach.  His 
house  was  the  headquarters  of  the  sect.  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  leader  in  frequent  Lol- 
lard attempts  to  supply  the  necessities  of  the 
state  by  confiscating  the  property  of  the 
church.  Thus  he  became  obnoxious  to  the 
bishops,  who  in  1413  denounced  him.  He 
was  seized  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  but 
escaped  and  organized  a  vast  revolt.  In  1414 
a  meeting  of  Lollards  was  called  in  St.  Giles' 
Fields  outside  of  London.  It  was  prevented 
from  assembling,  and  three  years  later,  Cob- 
ham,  who  had  effected  nothing  meantime,  was 
apprehended  and  executed.  (See  life  by  T. 
Gaspey,  London,  1844,  2  vols.)        F.  H.  F. 

Oocceius  (Koch),  Johannes,  Dutch  theolo- 
gian ;  b.  at  Bremen,  July  80,  1603  ;  became 
professor  there,  1629  ;  at  Franeker,  1636  ;  at 
Leiden,  1650  ;  d.  there.  Nov.  5,  1669.  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Federal  Theology  (see 
his  Summa  doctrinm  de  fadere  et  testamento 
Dei,  Leiden,  1648,  6th  ed.,  Frankfort,   1703), 


which  thenceforth  became  dominant  in  PIol- 
land.  He  was  also  the  author  of  the  first 
complete  Hebrew  lexicon.  Lexicon  .  .  .  heb 
et  dial.  V.  T.,  Leiden,  1669. 

Oochlaus  (Dobeneck),  Johann,  Eoman 
Catholic  and  opponent  of  Luther's  ;  b.  at 
Wendelsteiu,  near  Nuremberg,  Jan.  10,  1479  ; 
was  secretary  of  Duke  George  of  Saxony, 
1529-39  ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Reformation  into  Saxony  compelled 
to  leave  the  country,  he  went  to  Brcslau, 
where  he  died,  Jan.  10,  1552.  A  learned  hu- 
manist, he  was  at  first  favorable  to  the  Refor- 
mation, but  became  its  bitter  opponent,  rank- 
ing next  to  Eck.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Luther 
(Mainz,  1549)  which  attributes  the  Reforma- 
tion to  Luther's  hatred  and  jealousy  as  an 
Augustinian  for  the  Dominicans  ( !),  a  ridicu- 
lous statement  often  repeated  ;  also  a  history 
of  the  Hussites,  Mainz,  1549.  (See  lives  by 
Otto,  Breslau,  1874,  and  Felician  Gess,  Op- 
peln,  1886.) 

Codex  (Latin),  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  hence 
the  tablet  of  wood  (sections  of  wood)  upon 
which  the  ancients  wrote,  hence  the  book 
itself,  whose  leaves  were  not  folded  or  rolled, 
but  laid  one  upon  the  other.  The  Greek 
manuscripts  of  the  Bible  are  written  upon 
sheets  folded  and  stitched  together.  Hence 
they  are  called  codices  ;  as  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus.  Codex  Sinaiticus,  etc. 

Coe'-le-Syr'-ia  (hollow  Syria),  the  great  val- 
ley between  the  Lebanon  and  anti-Lebanon 
ranges  of  mountains,  now  called  by  the  na- 
tives El-Buka'a.  It  is  1706  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  is  watered  by  the  Leontes,  now  called 
Litany.  Its  length  is  about  100  m.  and  its 
breadth  10  m.  It  was  celebrated  in  ancient 
times  for  its  fertility,  its  cities  and  its  temples, 
among  which  were  those  at  Ba'al-bek,  which 
for  centuries  have  astounded  the  world.  At 
a  later  period  the  name  obtained  a  wider  ap- 
plication, and  included  the  northern  region 
watered  by  the  Orontes.  The  name  does  not 
occur  in  the  Bible,  but  is  frcquer.t  iu  the 
Apocrypha  (1  Esd.  ii.  24.  27,  1  Mac.  x.  69) 
and  in  Josephus  (Antiq.  xiii.,  iv.  3). 

T.  W.  C. 

Coe-les'-ti'-us,  an  Irish  monk,  who,  from  405 
to  431,  appears  as  a  friend  and  collaborator  of 
Pelagius.  He  was  condemned  for  heresy  by 
a  council  of  Carthage  in  412,  but  acquitted 
by  Zosimus  in  417.  Again  condemned  in  418 
by  a  synod  in  Rome,  he  disappears  after  the 
final  condemnation   of    Pelagianism  by  the 

I  Council  of  Ephesus,  431.  Some  fragments  of 
his  writings  occur  in  the  works  of  Augustine 
and  Jerome. 

CcB-Iic'-o-lae  {icorsJiijipers  of  heaven),  name 
of  a  Jewish  sect  appearing  in  a  law  of  the  Em- 
peror Honorius  in  400.  They  had  a  baptism, 
and  seem  to  have  been  proselytes  to  Judaism 
without  being  bound  to  the  Mosaic  law  iu  all 

I  its  strictness.  They  are  ace  used  of  having  led 
Christians  into  apostasy  to  .ludaism,  and  hence 
are  threatened  with  the  fate  of  heretics,  unless 
they  accept  the  Christian  religion  within  a 
year.  The  law  also  forbids  their  meetings. 
The  party  seems  from  Augustine  to  have 
spread  in  Africa.  F.  H,  F. 


OCBNA 


(179) 


OOLET 


Ooena  Domini.     See  Lokd's  Supper. 

Coenobites.     See  MoNACHisM. 

Coke,  Thomas,  D.C.L.  (Oxford,  1775), 
Methodist  bishop  ;  b.  at  Brecon,  Wales,  Sept. 
9, 1747  ;  d.  on  the  Indian  Ocean  on  his  way  to 
India,  May  3,  1814.  Educated  at  Oxford, 
he  was  curate  at  South  Petherton  from  1770 
until  1777,  when  dismissed  by  his  rector  for 
Methodistic  practices,  such  as  open-air  preach- 
ing and  cottage  services,  he  jv)ined  that  body, 
and  was  till  his  death  their  leading  man  next 
to  the  Wesleys  and  Fletcher.  To  him  is  due  the 
high  honor  of  inaugurating  the  foreign  mis- 
sion work  of  the  denomination  (1784),  and  in 
1804  he  became  "  general  superintendent  of 
all  the  missions."  In  1784  John  Wesley  set 
him  apart  as  "  a  superintendent,"  with  epis- 
copal functions,  of  the  work  in  America,  and 
on  Dec.  25  of  that  year  he  landed  at  Balti- 
more, and  in  conference  ordained  Francis  As- 
bury  superintendent.  At  his  own  request  the 
American  Conference  altered  his  title  to  bish- 
op, much  to  Wesley's  dislike.  He  travelled 
extensively  in  America  and  Great  Britain  and 
to  the  West  Indies.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic 
18  times  at  his  own  expense.  In  1793  he  un- 
successfully tried  to  unite  the  American  Epis- 
copalian and  Methodist  Episcopalian  churches ; 
in  1794  he  advocated  in  England  the  appoint- 
ment of  bishops  in  the  English  Methodist 
societies  ;  in  1799  he  urged  upon  Bishop  Por- 
teus,  of  London,  the  admission  of  Methodist 
preachers  to  Anglican  orders,  with  a  travelling 
commission  ;  in  1813  he  asked  the  prime  min- 
ister, Lord  Liverpool,  to  appoint  him  bishop 
iu  India.  But  his  failures  did  not  deter  him 
from  doing  all  he  could  to  advance  his  own 
denomination  on  separate  lines.  Of  his  nu- 
merous publications  may  be  mentioned  A  His- 
torn  of  the  West  Lidies,  Liverpool,  1808-11,  3 
vols. "  (See  his  life  by  J.  W.  Etheridge,  Lon- 
don, 1860.) 

Oolani,  Timothee,  a  leader  of  the  so-called 
Liberal  party  inside  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of  France  ;  b.  at  Leme.  1824  ;  studied  at 
Strassburg  ;  became  pastor  there,  1851  ;  pro- 
fessor of  practical  theology,  1864  ;  retired  to 
France,  1870  ;  became  librarian  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  1875  ;  d.  at  Grindelwald,  Switzerland, 
Sept.  2,  188S.  His  best-known  and  probably 
most  characteristic  work  is  Jesus  ChriH  et  les 
croyeinces  mes.naniqites  de  son  temps,  Strass- 
burg, 1st  and  2d  edd.,  1864. 

Oolenso,  John  William,  Church  of  Eng- 
land, colonial  bishop  of  Natal  ;  b.  at  St.  Au- 
stell, Cornwall,  Eng.,  Jan.  24,  1814  ;  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge  ;  became  fellow  of  St. 
John's  College,  1837  ;  vicar  of  Forncett  St. 
Mary.  Norfolk,  1846  :  bishop  of  Natal,  1853  ; 
d.  there,  June  20,  1883.  His  fearless  expres- 
sion of  unorthodox  views  in  his  Commentary 
on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ronuins,  London, 
1861,  "  which  asserted  that  the  benefits  re- 
ceived from  and  through  Clirist  were  received 
for  all  the  world,  and  that  the  divine  work 
was  a  work  for  the  extinction  of  sin.  not 
merely  for  its  punishment,"  and  especially  in 
his  Tlu'  Pentateiirh  and  Book  of  Joshua  Criti- 
calhi  Examimd.  London,  lH()2-79,  7  parts, 
which  maintained  that  mucli  of  their  contents 
was  unhistorical ;  that  the  legislation  of  Levit- 


icus and  Numbers  was  the  product  of  cen- 
turies after  Moses  ;  and  that  Deuteronomy 
was  written  by  Jeremiah.  The  publication 
of  the  latter  work  raised  a  tremendous  excite- 
ment. For  his  alleged  heresies  he  was  deposed 
and  excommunicated  by  the  metropolitan  of 
Capetown  and  his  salary  refused.  But  all 
these  proceedings  were  declared  null  and  void 
by  the  law  othcers  of  the  crown,  and  he  kept 
his  position  and  salary  intact.  The  well- 
known  so-called  Speaker's  Commentary  was 
gotten  up  originally  to  combat  his  views.  He 
took  great  satisfaction  in  issuing  in  reply  The 
New  Bible  Co)nnieatary  Critically  Exainiiied, 
London,  1871-74,  6  parts.  Aside  altogether 
from  his  Bible  expositions  he  did  a  great  w-ork 
as  a  bishop  among  the  Zulus,  whose  fast  friend 
he  was,  and  for  whose  interests  he  heroically 
fought.  His  life  was  a  troubled  one,  but  fruit- 
ful "in  Christian  labors.  (See  his  biography 
by  Rev.  Sir  George  W.  Cox,  London,  1888, 
2  vols.) 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  Church  of  Eng- 
land, layman  ;  b.  at  Ottery  St.  Mary,  Devon- 
shire, Eng.,  Oct.  21,  1772;  d.  at  Highgate, 
London,  July  25,  1834.  He  was  educated  iu 
Christ's  College,  London,  and  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  but  left  the  university  without 
taking  a  degree.  At  one  time  he  enlisted  in  a 
regiment  of  dragoons  ;  later  he  preached  oc- 
casionally in  Unitarian  pulpits  ;  later,  again, 
he  maintained  the  "idea  of  emigrating  to 
America  to  establish  a  new  social  order, 
"  Pantisocracy  ;"  but  finally  he  took  to  liter- 
ature and  philosophy.  In  1795  he  married  a 
sister  to  Southey's  wife,  and  in  1798  he  pub- 
lished together  with  Wordsworth  the  famous 
Lyrical  ^Ballads.  In  the  latter  year  he  went 
to  Germany,  where  he  stayed  more  than  a 
year,  and  in  18U4-06  he  visited  Malta  and 
Rome,  where  he  met  Tieck.  After  his  return 
to  England  he  resided  successively  in  the  lake 
country,  Bristol,  and  London,  and  developed 
a  considerable  literary  activity  as  a  writer  and 
lecturer,  but  led  a  somewhat  erratic  life,  and 
suffered  during  his  last  years  greatly  from  the 
habit  of  opium-eating.  While  in  Germany  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Schelling,  and  his  philosoph- 
ical writings.  Aids  to  Ilejiection,  Biographia 
lAtteraria,  etc.,  keep  very  close  not  only  to 
the  ideas  but  to  the  very  text  of  that  phi- 
losopher. They  are,  nevertheless,  interesting 
and  valuable,  and  have  in  the  last  generation 
become  important.  Whenever  Schelling's 
philosophy  came  in  intimate  contact  with  the 
dogmas  of  the  Christian  Church,  it  always 
exercised  a  quickening  influence  on  them, 
broadening  and  deepening  the  conception,  as, 
for  instance,  in  Denmark,  through  Steffens, 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  through 
Hermes,  etc.  ;  and  it  was  through  Coleridge 
it  reached  the  Church  of  Enoiland.  A  col- 
lected edition  by  Prof.  W.  G.  t.  Shedd  of  his 
works  apiK'arcd  in  New  York,  1854,  7  vols, 
(with  index  vol.  1-SS4).  (See  Brandl,  S.  T.  C. 
and  the  E/if/l/.sh  Ihnnantir  S-hool.  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1887  ;  cf.  biographical  sketches  by 
Traill,  London,  1884,  and  Hall  Caine,  1887.) 

Colet,  John,  D.D.  (Oxford.  1504),  Church 
of  EnLdiind.  dean  of  St.  Paul's  :  b.  in  Lon- 
don, 1460  ;  d.  there,  Sept.  16,  1519.     lie  was 


OOLIGNY 


(180) 


COLLINS 


educated  fit  Oxford,  and  with  a  mind  greatly 
enlarged  by  his  travels  and  studies  on  the 
Continent,  began  lecturing  there  on  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Romans  (1497),  and  followed  the 
lirst  course  by  later  ones  on  other  New  Testa- 
ment books.  His  freedom  from  scholastic 
pedantry,  his  bold  jet  reverent  handling  of 
Scripture,  his  denunciations  of  the  evils  of  the 
church,  attracted  great  attention.  In  1504  he 
became  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  Loudou  ;  in  1510 
he  applied  part  of  his  great  wealth  to  found- 
ing St.  Paul's  School  (now  at  Hammersmith), 
and  in  these  new  directions  continued  to  ex- 
ert much  contemporary  and  through  his  school 
much  posthumous  influence.  He  was  a  "  re- 
former before  the  Reformation."  Character- 
istically he  left  the  property  for  the  support 
of  his  school  in  secular  hands,  but  no  money 
for  masses  or  other  ecclesiastical  purposes. 
He  wrote  little,  yet  his  Latin  grammar  (1513) 
was  lo3g  used.  (See  his  life  by  J.  H.  Lupton, 
London,  1887.) 

Coligny  (ko-leen'-ye),  Gaspard  de,  French 
admiral  and  Huguenot  martyr  ;  b.  in  the  cas- 
tle at  Chatillon-sur-Loing,  13  m.  s.e.  of  Mon- 
targis,  eastern  France,  Feb.  16,  1519  ;  mur- 
dered in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
in  Paris,.  Aug.  24,  1572.  His  father  was  a 
marshal  and  his  mother  a  sister  of  the  Con- 
stable Montmorency.  He  became  the  head  of 
the  family  ;  moved  in  the  highest  circles  of 
the  nobility  ;  distinguished  himself  so  re- 
peatedly and  signally  in  the  various  wars 
France  was  carrying  on,  that  he  was  made 
captain-general  of  the  infantry  in  1547,  and 
admiral  of  France.  1552.  In  1557  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards  at  St.  Quen- 
tin  ;  during  his  captivity  he  had  time  for  seri- 
ous thought  ;  came  imder  Calvin's  influence  ; 
and  when  released  two  years  later  he  joined 
the  Huguenot  party.  His  social  position  and 
noble  character  made  him  at  once  a  leader, 
and  he  served  the  new  faith  devotedly  until 
in  Paris  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  jealousy  and 
bigotry  of  Catherine  de  Medici  and  the  Guises. 
A  statue  of  him,  erected  at  the  back  of  the 
Oratoire,  was  unveiled  in  Paris,  Wednesday, 
July  10,  1889.  (See  art.  Fr.\nce,  Rep^ormed 
Church  of,  Bersier,  T/ie  Earlier  Life  of 
Colifjny,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1885,  and 
Besant's  life  of  Coligny,  London  and  Ncm^ 
York,  1879.) 

Collation,  term  (1)  for  the  gift  of  a  benefice 
by  a  bishop,  either  as  patron,  or  one  which 
came  to  him  by  lapse  ;(2)  also  for  the  spare 
meal  on  days  of  abstinence,  consisting  of  bread 
or  fruit,  but  no  meat  ;  (3)  the  readings  from 
the  lives  or  collations  of  the  fathers  in  a  mon- 
astery before  compline.     (Cf.  Hook,  s.v.) 

Collect,  a  brief,  comprehensive  prayer  used 
in  the  service  in  liturgical  churches  ;  as  a  gen- 
eral rule  it  is  addressed  to  God  the  Father, 
expresses  a  single  wish,  and  closes  with  a 
doxology. 

Collegia    nationalia    or    pontifica,   R.    C. 

cloister-like  institutions  wherein  youths  are 
trained  for  the  express  purpose  of  using  them 
in  inducing  their  countrymen  to  liecome  Ro- 
man Catholics.  This  happy  idea  first  oc- 
curred   to    Ignatius   Loyola,    who,    in   1552, 


founded  in  Rome  a  school  for  Germans  (Col- 
legium Germanicum),  followed  bv  others  for 
Greeks  (1577),  Hungarians  (1577),  English 
(1579),  Maronites  (1584),  Scotch  (1600),  Irish 
(1628) ;  all  these  are  (since  1622)  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  congregation  de  Propaganda  fiae , 
which  means  under  Jesuit  instruction. 

Collegia  pietatis,  gatherings  for  prayer  and 
meditation  ;  instituted  by  Spener  in  1670. 

Collegiants  (from  their  "colleges"  or 
gatherings  for  worship),  a  party  of  the  Remon- 
strants of  Holland,  which  rejected  all  creeds, 
a  regular  ministry,  insisted  on  immersion,  and 
held  that  war  and  acceptance  of  civil  office 
were  inconsistent  with  the  Christian  calling. 
It  was  founded  in  1619  by  the  brothers  John, 
Adrian,  and  Gilbert  van  der  Codde  at  Rhyns- 
burg,  near  Leyden,  hence  they  were  called 
Rhynsburgers.  They  boasted  to  possess  the 
Spirit.     The  sect  died  out  in  the  last  century. 

Collegiate  Churches,  (1)  those  having  an 
associated  body  of  clergy,  without  a  bishop, 
even  without  a  dean,  to  preside  over  it.  (2) 
Those  having  the  clergy  in  common  and  gov- 
erned by  a  common  body. 

CoUeglalism.     See  Kollegial  System. 

Collier,  Jeremy,  Nonjuror,  Church  of 
England  ;  b.  at  Stow  Qui,  Cambridgeshire, 
Sept.  23,  1650  ;  d.  iu  London,  April  26,  1726. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  became  rec- 
tor at  Ampton,  Suffolk,  1679  ;  after  1685  re- 
sided in  London,  where  he  held  so  high  a 
place  among  the  Non-jurors,  that  he  was  con- 
secrated one  of  their  bishops  in  1713.  He  led 
a  life  of  great  literary  activity',  varied  by  an 
occasional  imprisonment.  Two  of  his  essays 
are  of  interest,  that  on  the  duties  of  a  chap- 
lain (1697),  for  the  light  it  throws  on  the  con- 
dition of  that  class,  and  that  entitled  A  Short 
VieiD  of  the  Immorality  and  Profaneness  of  the 
English  Stage  (1697),  of  which  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  it  "  ushered  in  a  new  era  in 
dramatic  literature,"  as  it  effectually  stopped 
the  flow  of  indecency  which  had  long  dis- 
graced the  playhouses.  His  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Great  Britain,  1708-14,  2  vols.  ; 
n.e  ,  1852,  9  vols.,  is  still  valuable.  (Cf  art. 
in  Pict.  Nat.  Biog.) 

Collins,  Anthony,  English  deist  ;  b.  at  Isle- 
worth,  or  at  Heston,  near  Hounslow,  June  21, 
1676  ;  d.  in  London,  Dec.  13,  1729.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  ;  enjoyed  through  life 
ample  means,  and  seems  to  have  been  an  ami- 
able and  upright  man.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  Piscourse  on  Frecthinking,  London,  1713, 
crushingly  replied  to  by  Bentley  and  ironically 
by  Swift,  and  his  Piscourse  on  the  Orovnds 
and  Reasons  of  the  christian  Religion,  1724, 
which  Warburton  called  "one  of  the  most 
plausible  attacks  ever  made  against  Christi- 
anity." In  the  former  he  "  urges  that  all  be- 
lief should  be  based  upon  free  inquiry,  and 
insinuates  that  such  inquiry  will  be  destruc- 
tive of  orthodox  views  ;"  in  the  latter  he 
argues  that  the  Old  Testament  prophecies,  the 
claimed  essential  proofs  of  Christianity,  "  can 
only  be  reconciled  to  the  facts  by  such  strain- 
ing" as  is  implied  in  allegorical  treatment— that 
is,  by  making  nonsense  of  them."  (Cf.  art, 
by  Leslie  Stephen  in  Pict.  Kat.  Biog.) 


OOLIiTRIDIANS 


(181) 


OOLUMBANUS 


OoUyridians  (from  Greek,  a  little  cake), 
Thracian  females  who  worshipped  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  offered  little  cakes  in  sacritice  to 
her. 

Colony  (Acts  xvi.  12),  a  city  planted  with 
Italian  colonists,  who  took  with  them  t\\QJus 
Rdlirtim  and  had  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
Roman  citizens.  Luke's  accuracy  is  shown 
in  that  he  calls  Philippi  not  apoikia  (a  settle- 
ment by  Greeks)  but  colonia.  Coins  and  in- 
scriptions are  still  extant  designating  Philippi 
as  a  colony.  T.  W.  C. 

Colors.  The  natural  colors  noticed  in  the 
Bible  are  white,  black,  red,  yellow,  and  green. 
Yellow  occurs  .seldom  and  was  apparently  re- 
garded as  a  shade  of  green,  for  the  same  term 
(greenish)  is  applied'to  gold  (Ps.  l.xxviii.  13) 
and  to  the  spot  on  the  leprous  garment  (Lev. 
xiii.  49).  When  the  word  green  is  used,  it 
refers  to  vigor  and  growth  rather  than  to  color, 
as  in  "green  tree,"  "green  grass,"  etc. 
White  was  to  the  Hebrews  the  highest  devel- 
opment of  color,  and  was  a  symbol  of  inno- 
cence (Rev.  xix.  8),  of  joy  (Eccles.  ix.  8),  and 
of  victory  (Rev.  vi.  2).  Black,  on  the  con- 
trary, expressed  evil  and  mourning  (Job  xxx. 
30,  Jer.  viii.  21).  Red  was  a  symbol  of  blood- 
shed (Rev.  vi.  4). 

The  arfilicial  colors  used  in  dyeing  were 
known  from  an  earl}^  period.  They  were  4 
in  number.  1.  Purple,  obtained  from  the  se- 
cretion of  a  shell-tish  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Robes  of  purple  were  worn  by  kings 
(Judg.  viii.  26),  by  high  officers  (Esther  viii.  15, 
Dan.  V.  7,  R.  V.),  and  by  the  wealthy  and 
luxurious  (Jer.  x.  9,  Luke  xvi.  19,  Rev.  xvii. 
4).  A  similar  value  was  attached  to  this  color 
by  Greeks  and  Romans.  2.  Blue,  produced 
in  a  similar  way,  was  used  for  like  purposes 
(Ex.  XXV.  4,  Num.  xv.  38,  Esther  i.  G).  3. 
Scarlet  (crimson  Isa.  i.  18  ;  Jer.  iv.  30)  was 
gotten  from  an  insect  somewhat  like  cochineal. 
It  dyed  the  wool  used  for  cloths  and  garmeiats 
in  sacred  services  (Ex.  xxv.  4).  It  was  worn 
by  women  (2  Sam.  i.  24),  by  the  rich  (Lam. 
iv.  5),  by  Median  warriors  (Nahum  ii.  3), 
and  by  Roman  officers  (Matt,  xxvii.  28).  4. 
Vermilion  was  used  in  fresco-painting,  for 
decorating  the  walls  and  beams  of  houses  (Jer. 
xxii.  14),  for  drawing  idolatrous  figures  on 
the  walls  of  temples  (Ezek.  xxiii.  14),  or  for 
coloring  the  idols  themselves  (Wis.  xiii.  14). 
T.  W.  C. 

Oolos'-se  or  Colos'-sse,  a  city  of  Phrygia, 
on  the  Lycus,  not  far  from  Hierapolis  and 
Laodicea.  The  church  of  the  Christians  here, 
to  whom  Paul  wrote,  seems  to  have  been  gath- 
ered by  Epaphras  (Col.  i.  7,  8,  iv.  12^13). 
Philemon  and  Onesimus  lived  here,  also  Ar- 
chippus.  Its  ruins  are  near  a  little  village 
called  Chonas.  T.  W.  C. 

Coles  -sians,  Epistle  to  the,  was  written 
by  Paul  from  Rome  during  his  lirst  imprison- 
ment, about  A. 1).  C2.  Epaphras  brought  him 
news  (i.  0-8)  as  to  the  state  of  the  church,  which 
apparently  he  had  not  yet  visited  (ii.  1).  It 
would  seem  that  they  had  been  tempted  by 
Jews  tainted  with  Es.senic  Gnosticism,  and  tiie 
apostle  opposes  (he.'ie  errors  by  holding  up  the 
glorious  majesty  of  Christ's  person  and  the 


completeness  of  his  redemption,  which  pre- 
cluded any  need  of  ascetic  practices,  k-gal 
rites,  or  angelic  mediation,  since  in  Christ  all 
fulness  dwells  and  in  him  all  believers  are 
made  full  (ii.  9,  10).  The  epistle  was  written 
at  the  same  time  with  that  to  the  Ephesians, 
and  was  sent  by  the  same  bearers.  The  two 
closely  resemble  each  other,  and  both  should 
be  studied  together.  The  best  commentary  is 
that  of  Bishop  Lightfoot.  T.  W.  C. 

Co-lum'-ba,  founder  of  the  Christian  mission 
to  the  Picts  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Gartan  (V),  Ire- 
land, Dec.  7,  521  ;  d.  on  the  island  of  lona, 
June  9,  597.  He  was  descended  from  families 
of  princely  rank  in  Ireland,  and  connected 
with  Conal,  king  of  the  Scots  in  Scotland. 
The  monastic  system  was  already  well  estab- 
lished in  Ireland,  and  Columba  was  sent  to  a 
monastery  for  his  education,  where  he  natu- 
rally became  a  monk  himself.  He  subse- 
quently became  the  founder  of  two  Irish  mon- 
asteries, one  at  Daire  (Derry)  and  the  other  at 
Dair-magh  (Durrow). 

His  lifework  was  undertaken  when  he  was 
more  than  40  years  of  age.  He  crossed  to  the 
shores  of  the  major  Britain  with  12  disciples, 
and  settled  down  upon  the  island  of  Hi.  or 
loua,  at  the  invitation  of  his  kinsman.  King 
Conal.  The  Scots  under  this  king,  occupj-- 
ing  Argyll  and  the  neighboring  islands,  were 
already  Christian,  but  their  neighbors,  the 
Picts,  stretching  cast  and  south  of  them,  were 
heathen.  Some  time  was  spent  in  settling  the 
new  community  upon  lona,  in  erecting  a 
humble  church  and  monastery  of  timber  and 
reeds,  and  in  general  preparation,  and  then  a 
beginning  was  made  at  the  court  of  Brude, 
king  of  the  Picts,  upon  the  Ness.  From  here 
the  work  spread,  till  all  northern  Scotland 
was  converted.  Of  the  detiwls  of  the  work 
nothing  is  definitely  known,  except  that  mon- 
asteries were  the  centres  of  all  this  activity, 
and  that  they  soon  covered  the  laud.  For  a 
long  time  the  Church  of  Scotland  remain(.-d  a 
monastic  church.  The  monastery  at  lona  had 
the  chief  place  not  only  in  the  affections  of 
the  church,  but  in  its  government.  There 
were  no  dioceses  or  parishes,  and  even  the 
bishops  who  were  ordained  were  subject  to 
the  abbots  of  lona,  who  themselves  were  onl}' 
presbyters.  The  peculiarities  of  this  church 
were  otherwise  those  of  the  Celtic  Church 
(q.v.)  in  general. 

Columba,  as  the  abbot  of  lona  and  chief 
missionary,  was  greatly  reverenced.  He  ap- 
pears twice  in  the  political  history  of  the  limes, 
consecrating  Aidan,  Conal's  successor,  and  in 
590  going  to  Ireland  to  compose  a  quarrel  be- 
tween the  new  sovereign  of  the  Scots  of  Scot- 
land and  the  king  of  those  in  Ireland.  But 
in  general,  his  life  was  that  of  the  abbot  of 
lona,  where  he  remained,  revered  as  a  saint, 
and  exercising  a  widespread  influence,  till  his 
lieaceful  death  of  old  age.  in  the  church,  of  a 
Sundav  morning,  at  matins.  (See  Reeves'  id. 
of  Adiimnan's  [al)hot  of  lona.  (579]  lAfe,  1857, 
n.e.  by  Skene,  with  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh, 

1871.)  F.  II.  f: 

Col-um-ba'-nus,  an  Irish  monk  ;  b.  in  Lein- 
.ster  about  the  micldle  of  the;  Oth  century  ;  d. 
at  Bobbio,  24  m.  s.w,  of  Tiaceuza,  Italy,  Nov. 


OOMENIUS 


(182) 


OOMMUNIOATIO 


15(?),  615.  Educated  at  the  monastery  of 
Bangor,  he  left  it  about  590,  and  settled  with 
12  companions  among  the  wilds  of  the  Vosges 
mountains  in  595,  upon  the  site  of  a  ruined 
castle,  Anegray.  His  object  was  not  only  to 
remove  the  remaining  traces  of  heathenism  to 
be  found  here,  but  to  introduce  the  higher 
morality  and  religion  of  the  monastic  ideal 
among  a  degraded  Christian  population.  His 
popularity  was  soon  great,  and  crowds  came 
about  him,  so  that  he  was  obliged  to  found 
one  monastic  establishment  after  another,  at 
Luxeuil,  Fontaines,  etc.  But  the  jealousy  of 
the  French  clergy  was  awakened  by  the  pecul- 
iarities of  the  British  rule  which  Columbauus 
observed  (see  Celtic  Church),  and  the  lios- 
tility  of  the  court  by  his  animadversions  upon 
its  immorality.  He  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
country,  and  with  his  companion  Gallus  (q.v.) 
came  to  Bregenz  on  Lake  Constance.  Here  he 
preached  the  gospel  for  a  time,  but  without 
much  success,  among  the  Suevi  and  Alle- 
manni.  War  followed  him,  and  the  territory 
where  he  was  was  conquered  by  his  enemy, 
the  king  of  France.  Obliged  to  leave,  he 
journeyed  to  Italy,  and  here  founded  the 
monastery  of  Bobbio,  south  of  Pavia.  This 
institution  became  an  important  scat  of  relig- 
ion and  literature.  Columbanus'  relations  with 
Rome  were  not  always  harmonious.  He  con- 
ducted himself  quite  independently,  though 
friendly  to  the  Roman  bishop.  His  writings 
embrace  a  Regula,  in  an  elevated  tone  ;  a  Re- 
gula  eoinobialis,  of  doubtful  genuineness,  and 
a  spurious  Liber  penitentialis.  They  give  evi- 
dence of  some  learning.  (Cf.  ed.  Fleming, 
Louvain,  1667.)  F.  H.  F. 

Oo-me'-ni-us  (properly  Komensky),  Johann 
Amos,  last  bishop  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  ; 
b.  at  JSTivnitz,  Moravia,  July  28,  1592  ;  d.  at 
Amsterdam,  Nov.  15,  1671.  He  studied  the- 
ology at  Heidelberg,  and  was  ordained,  1616  ; 
driven  from  his  parish  of  Fulneck,  Moravia, 
1622,  by  persecution,  he  was  in  hiding  until 
1628,  when  he  betook  himself  to  Lissa,  Po- 
land, where  he  superintended  the  high  school. 
He  was  considered  the  best  teacher  of  his  time, 
especially  in  Latin,  and  received  oflicial  invi- 
tations from  the  English  and  Swedish  (1642) 
and  Transylvanian  (1650)  governments  to  visit 
those  countries  and  give  his  counsel  on  im- 
proving their  educational  methods.  He  was 
also  invited  by  Governor  Winthrop  to  succeed 
Henry  Dunster  as  president  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege. In  1642  he  became  bishop  ;  exiled  from 
Poland  in  1656,  he  betook  himself  to  Amster- 
dam and  lived  there  till  his  death.  His  gifts 
were  remarkable.  As  preacher,  as  devotional 
guide  {Labyrinth  cler  Welt  und  Parodies  de» 
Ilerzens,  Prague,  1628  ;  Unum  necessarium, 
1671),  as  bishop,  and  as  theologian,  he  was 
the  leading  man  among  the  Brethren.  It  is, 
however,  as  pedagogue  that  the  after-world 
best  knows  him.  His  Janua  linguarum  re- 
serata  ("  Open  Door  to  Languages"),  Lissa, 
1631,  was  in  a  few  years  translated  into  15 
languages,  including  Persian  and  Arabic  ; 
while  his  Orbis  picttis  (1658)  went  through  in- 
numerable editions  and  reprints  (latest,  "Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  1888).  (See  his  life  by  Laurie, 
London,  1881.  2d  ed.,  1884.) 


Oommendam,  a  living  commended  by  the 
crown  or  a  bishop  to  the  charge  of  a  clergy- 
man until  a  proper  pastor  can  be  provided 
for  it.  The  practice  was  forbidden  by  statute 
in  the  Church  of  England  in  1836. 

Commerce  among  the  Hebrews  was  al- 
ways restricted  and  subordinate,  because  they 
were  mainly  an  agricultural  people,  and  their 
institutions  were  designed  to  segregate  them 
from  other  nations.  At  first  exchanges  of 
commodities  were  carried  on  by  caravans  or 
"travelling  companies"  (Isa.  xxi.  18,  Job  vi. 
18,  19,  R.  v.),  and,  strictly  speaking,  there 
was  no  foreign  trade  until  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon, who  imported  various  commodities  from 
Egypt,  and  despatched  ships  from  Ezion- 
Geber.  After  his  death  maritime  trade  de- 
clined, and  Jehoshaphat's  attempt  to  revive  it 
failed  (1  Kings  xxii.  48).  Still,  Pha>uicia 
brought  fish  and  timber  and  merchandise  in 
exchange  for  wheat,  honej",  oil,  and  balm  ; 
and  the  denunciations  of  the  prophets  (Isa.  ii. 
6,  16,  Hos.  xii.  7,  Jonah  i.  8,  Ezek.  xxvi.  2) 
show  that  Jerusalem,  through  its  port  Joppa, 
carried  on  considerable  intercourse  with  for- 
eign countries.  At  a  later  period  trade  was 
greatly  promoted  by  the  influx  of  foreign- 
born  jews  coming  to  the  great  festivals.  The 
number  of  these  was  far  greater  than  is  gen- 
erally supposed.  The  present  position  of  the 
Hebrews  in  the  commercial  world  is  due  to 
their  exile  among  other  nations,  their  long  ex- 
clusion from  political  and  civil  rights,  and  the 
race  tie  which  enabled  them  to  act  in  concert. 
T.  W.  C. 

Commination  ("threatening"),  the  title  of 
an  office  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, so  called  because  it  denounces  God's 
anger  and  judgment  against  sinners.  It  was 
omitted  in  the  American  Prayer-book,  but  the 
prayers  in  the  English  office  are  ordered  to 
be  used  at  the  end  of  the  Litany  on  Ash 
Wednesday. 

Commissary,  one  who  is  delegated  by  a 
bishop  to  discharge  certain  episcopal  functions 
in  a  portion  of  the  diocese  remote  from  the 
principal  consistory  court. 

Com-mo-di-a'-nus,  a  Christian  poet,  flour- 
ished about  250,  of  whom  two  works  have 
come  down  to  ns,  one  entitled  Iiistrvctiones, 
and  the  other  Carmen  Apologeiieum^  ad. 'E^.. 
Ludwig,  Leipzig,  1877-78,  2  parts,  and  in 
Migne,  vol.  v.  The  latter  contains  the  legend 
of  the  Antichrist.  F.  II.  F. 

Com'-mo-dus,  Roman  emperor,  reigned 
180-92,  of  profligate  character,  but  from  his 
very  indifference  to  religion  and  morality  in- 
dulgent to  the  Christians,  who  were  left  in 
peace  during  his  reign,  for  the  most  part. 
Christians  are  said  to  have  held  positions  even 
in  the  imperial  palace.  The  laws  against 
Christianity  remained  unrepealed,  and  this 
was  a  cause  of  occasional  persecutions. 

F.  II.  F. 

Common  Prayer.     See  Liturgy,  Pratp:r- 

BOOK. 

Common  Service  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
See  Liturgy. 
Commu'-nica'-tio  Idiom'-atum.  a  doctrinal 


COMMUNION 


(183) 


CONANT 


term  relating  to  the  union  of  the  divine  nature 
and  the  human  in  the  person  of  Christ,  the 
two  natures  being  inseparable,  so  that  what- 
ever in  either  nature  is  proper  to  Christ  in  tlie 
abstract  belongs  to  him  in  the  concrete.  So 
far  all  Christians  agree,  but  the  Lutheran 
Church  goes  farther,  and  affirms  that  in  con- 
sequence of  the  hypostatical  union  of  the  two 
natures,  each  nature  shares  in  the  essential 
attributes  of  the  other,  and  this  thej'  apply  to 
the  corporal  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  The  Reformed  consider  this  view 
liable  to  very  serious  objections.  (See  Hodge, 
Strong,  Krautb.)  T.  W.  C. 

Communion.    See  Lord's  Supper. 

Communion  of  Sjiints,  one  of  the  points  of 
a  Christian's  faith  according  to  the  Apostles' 
Creed.  It  does  not  consist  in  identity  of  dog- 
ma or  polity  or  worship,  but  in  the  mutual 
fellowship  that  results  from  believers'  union 
as  living  members  of  the  one  Saviour  (1  John 
i.  6).  Thus  apprehended  it  is  a  great  privilege 
and  blessing  ;  and  it  prompts  to  love,  charity, 
sympathy,  co-operation,  mutual  edification 
and  holiness  of  life,  often  affording  in  the 
present  world  a  foretaste  of  the  blessed  and 
perfect  communion  in  the  upper  sanctuary. 
T.  W.  C. 

Communism  is  a  system  of  society  in  •which 
common  property  is  the  recognized  form.  It 
has  sometimes  been  advocated  on  scriptural 
grounds  as  being  the  pattern  set  by  the  early 
Christians  at  Jerusalem  just  after  Pentecost. 
But  the  community  of  goods  Avhich  then  ex- 
isted was  merely  a  spontaneous  gush  of  good 
feeling,  not  required  by  any  law,  and  soon 
passing  away  with  the  extraordinary  circum- 
stances wiiich  called  it  forth.  Efforts  at  com- 
munistic societies  have  been  made  in  all  ages 
and  countries,  but  have  never  attained  per- 
manent success.  No  artificial  rules  can  take 
the  place  of  the  spirit  of  competition,  accom- 
panied by  the  domestic  affections  and  the 
genial  etliics  which  the  gospel  inculcates. 
Christianity  purities  and  elevates  the  social 
state  by  purifying  individual  members  ;  nor  is 
there  any  other  way.  It  emphasizes  the 
golden  riile  and  furni.shes  the  motive  to  obey 
it,  viz.,  love  to  God.  Human  brotherhood 
rests  upon  the  divine  Fatherhood.  He  who 
loves  God  will  love  his  brother  also.  And 
just  so  far  as  these  obtain,  strife  and  painful 
friction  disappear,  and  there  is  peaceful  prog- 
ress on  all  sides.  (See  Nordhoff,  Coinmu- 
nistic  Societies  of  the  United  States,  New 
York,  1874 ;  T.  D.  Wool.sey,  Communism 
ami  Socialism.,  New  York,  1880.)  T.  W.  C. 

Commutation  of  Penjmce.    See  Penance. 

Competentes.     See  C.\.techetic8. 

Completorium  or  Compline,  the  last  ser- 
vice of  the  day,  when  the  canonical  hours 
(q.v.)  are  observed. 

Complutensian  Polyglot.  See  Poly- 
glot. 

Compostella,  Order  of  Knights  of  St. 
James  of  (San  Jago  de»,  established  in  llGl  to 
protect  from  tlie  .Moors  the  pil<rrims  flocking 
in  large  numbers  to  Compostella,  Spain,  33 


m.  s.w.  of  Corunna,  to  see  the  relics  of  St. 
James  the  apostle.  It  grew  to  immense  wealth, 
but  became  corrupt,  and  was  dissolved  in  1835 
and  made  into  a  mere  order  of  merit.  The 
name  Compostella  is  a  contraction  for  Giacomo 
Postolo  =  James  the  apostle.  Pope  Leo 
XIII.,  in  1884,  by  a  brief  declared  the  relics 
to  be  genuine. 

Comte,  Auguste,  the  founder  of  Positivism, 
was  born  at  Montpellier,  76  m.  n.w.  of  Mar- 
seilles, in  1798,  and  d.  at  Paris  in  1857.  He 
studied  at  Paris,  and  at  an  early  period  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  his  companions  by 
the  boldness  and  novelty  of  his  speculations. 
Afterward  he  came  in  contact  with  St.  Simon, 
by  wiiom  his  inclination  toward  the  recon- 
struction of  thought  and  life  was  confirmed, 
and  for  6  years  he  was  the  disciple  and  collab- 
orator of  "the  older  thinker.  But  gradually 
there  arose  a  disagreement  whicli  ended  in  a 
violent  rupture.  In  1826  he  began  a  course 
of  lectures  in  exposition  of  his  system  of  phi- 
losophy, but  it  was  interrupted  by  an  attack 
of  insanity  wiiich  disabled  him  for  a  few 
mouths.  In  1832  he  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  but 
resigned  in  1853  because  of  differences  with 
his  colleagues.  He  then  resumed  private 
teaching,  but  in  his  later  years  was  supported 
by  "  asubsidv"  from  his  friends  and  admirers. 
The  6  volumes  of  his  Positive  Phil»suphii  (l.SoO- 
42)  contain  his  system  whose  central  position 
is  thus  stated.  The  race  like  the  individual 
necessarily  passes  through  3  intellectual 
stages.  1.  The  Theological,  in  which  a  super- 
natural origin  is  sought  for  all  phenomena, 
and  the  Deus  ex  mnchina  is  the  only  explana- 
tion of  events.  2.  The  Metaphysical,  in  wiiich 
the  sensuouslj"  supernatural  is  set  aside,  and 
all  changes  are  attributed  to  abstract  forces  or 
entities,  occult  causes,  laws  of  nature,  etc.  ; 
3.  The  Positive,  in  wiiich  all  search  into  the 
causes  and  essences  of  things  is  abandoned, 
and  the  mind  restricts  itself  to  the  observing 
and  classifying  of  phenomena  according  to 
the  invariable  relations  of  succession  and  re- 
semblance. The  last  is  the  stage  at  which 
Europe  has  arrived.  Theology  and  metaphys- 
ics are  in  their  dotage,  and  all  the  anarchy  of 
modern  life  arises  from  these  disturbing  ele- 
ments. To  escape  this  Comte  used  the  prin- 
ciples of  Positivism  to  organize  a  new  social 
doctrine,  to  meet  all  man's  intellectual  and 
emotional  wants.  Indeed,  he  undertook  to 
establish  not  only  a  new  philosophy,  but  a 
new  religion,  and  claimed  the  title  of  Foruia- 
teur  de  la  Religion  de  I'humanit^.  This  was 
such  a  system  of  complicated  absurdity  that 
many  attributed  it  to  actual  insanity.  His 
theories  at  one  time  excited  much  attention, 
but  have  now  ceased  to  exert  any  infiuence 
upon  philosophic  thought.  (See  H.  Mar- 
tineau's  translation  of  the  Posidre.  PIiiloKnpliy 
f  1S53,  2  vols.].  J.  S.  Mill,  Comte  s  Philosophy 
[London,  1866].)  T.  W.  C. 

Conant,  Thomas  Jefferson,  D.D.  (Middle- 
burv  Colk'fre,  1844),  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Brandon, 
Vt.;  Dec.  13.  1802  ;  gradnatcd  at  Middlebury 
College,  Yt..  1S23  ;  Was  professor  of  lan- 
guages in  Colby  University,  1827-33  ;  in 
Hamilton  Theological  Institute,  1«35-51 ;  of 


OONOEPTUALISM 


(184) 


CONCORDAT 


Hebrew  and  biblical  exe.ffesis  in  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary,  1851-57  ;  was  in  ser- 
vice of  the  American  Bible  Union,  1857-75, 
and  brought  out  their  revision  of  the  New 
Testament,  1871,  and  of  portions  of  the  Old. 

Conceptualism,  a  doctrine  of  the  School- 
men intermediate  between  realism  and  nomi- 
nalism. It  gave  to  universals  an  existence 
which  was  independent  of  single  objects,  but 
dependent  upon  the  mind  of  the  thinking  sub- 
ject in  which  they  exist  as  conceptions.  Abe- 
lard  is  considered  the  founder  of  the  doctrine. 
T.  W.  C. 

Concision  {cutting  off),  Phil.  iii.  2,  a  re- 
proachful term  for  certain  teachers  who,  lay- 
ing undue  stress  on  circumcision,  required  it 
even  of  Gentile  converts.  In  this  view  Paul 
puts  it  on  a  level  with  the  gashings  and  muti- 
lations of  the  idolatrous  heathen.    T.  W.  C. 

Conclave  (Latin,  properly  a  chamber  which 
can  be  closed  with  one  key),  the  term  applied, 
(1)  to  the  little  chambers  called  "  cells,"  par- 
titioned oflf  the  large  halls  of  the  Vatican,  in 
which  the  cardinals  with  their  attendants  re- 
main until  they  have  elected  a  new  pope  ;  (2) 
to  the  assembly  itself.  The  main  features  of 
a  papal  election  were  developed  and  confirmed 
at  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274.  The  steps 
are  as  follows  :  immediately  after  the  death 
of  the  pope,  the  cardinals,  who  are  the  only 
qualitied  electors,  meet  in  Rome  and  10  days 
after  the  death  they  enter  the  "  cells"  assigned 
to  each  by  lot.  In  the  evening  of  that  day 
every  one,  except  the  cardinals,  their  "  con- 
clavists," z'.^..  the  2  members  of  their  house- 
holds specially  in  attendance,  and  some  ser- 
vants for  tlie  whole  body  of  cardinals,  is  turned 
out.  All  the  entrances  save  one,  through 
which  the  food  is  brought  and  communication 
had  with  the  outer  world,  are  closed.  The 
voting  then  begins.  "  Tliere  are  3  valid 
modes  of  election  :  by  ballot,  which  is  the  or- 
dinary mode  ;  by  compromise,  when  the  choice 
is  delegated  to  a  committee  of  2  or  3  ;  or 
by  acclamation,  i.e.,  when  all  the  cardinals 
spontaneously  announce  one  and  the  same 
choice."  There  are  no  instances  of  such  in- 
spiration in  modern  times.  When  a  ballot  re- 
veals that  two-thirds  have  voted  for  the  same 
person,  that  person  is  declared  elected  and  the 
conclave  ends.  If  no  decision  is  arrived  at 
after  3  days,  only  2  meals  a  day  are  served  ;  if 
none  after  8  days  then  only  bread,  wine,  and 
water  are  given.  In  1799  the  conclave  lasted 
6  months. 

Concomitance,  the  doctrine  of  the  Roman 
Cliurch  that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
sacramentally  accompany  each  other,  so  that 
both  are  received  under  either  species,  whether 
of  bread  or  wine.  This  furnishes  the  basis 
for  the  rule  which  withholds  the  cup  from  the 
laity.  T.  W.  C. 

Concord,  Formula  of,  the  last  of  the  6  sym- 
bolical books  of  the  Lutheran  Church  issued 
in  1580.  Occasioned  by  the  real  or  seeming 
vacillations  of  Melanchthon,  the  CryptoCal- 
vinistic  and  other  controversies,  it  was  the  re- 
sult of  patient  and  protracted  conferences,  in 
which  the  greatest  divines  of  the  church,  espe- 
cially   Andrese    and    Chemnitz,    took    part. 


Eighty-six  of  the  states  of  the  empire  united 
in  it.  Its  topics  are  the  Rule  of  Paith  and  the 
Creed,  Original  Sin,  Pree-will,  Justitication, 
Good  Works,  the  Law  and  the  Gospel,  Third 
Use  of  the  Law,  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  Per- 
son of  Christ,  the  Descent  into  Hell,  Cere- 
monies, the  Adiaphora,  Predestination,  vari- 
ous sects  and  heresies.  T.  W.  C. 

Concordance  (from  the  Latin  concorclare, 
"  to  agree")  denotes  a  collection  of  passages 
which  in  some  respect  agree  with  one  another. 
Such  collections  can,  of  course,  be  made  from 
the  works  of  any  author  and,  indeed,  there 
exist  concordances  to  Shakespeare,  Milton, 
etc.  But  the  idea  originated  from  the  study 
of  the  Bible,  and  developed  gradually  with  the 
increasing  demands  of  that  study.  The  very 
first  work  of  the  kind  was  the  Concordantia 
S.  Jacobi,  made  in  Latin  upon  the  Vulgate  by 
Cardinal  Hugo  de  S.  Caro,  in  1244,  and  named 
after  its  place  of  preparation,  the  convent  of 
St.  Jacob  in  Paris.  There  now  exist  complete 
Hebrew  concordances  to  the  Old  Testament, 
Greek  to  the  New  Testament,  and  French, 
German,  English,  etc.,  to  the  respective  trans- 
lations of  the  whole  Bible. 

The  first  Hebrew  concordance  dates  from 
1448,  and  was  prepared  by  Rabbi  Isaac  Nathan 
and  many  collaborators  ;  it  was  printed  at 
Venice,  in  1524.  The  best  appeared  at  Leip- 
sic,  in  1840,  by  J.  Fiirst,  assisted  by  Delitzsch, 
but  it  is  not  so  very  well  adapted  to  the  wants 
of  the  ordinary  English  student,  who,  how- 
ever, is  supplied  with  a  superior  work  in  the 
Englishmnns  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Concord- 
ance, London,  1843;  3d  ed.,  1866,  by  George 
V.  Wigram,  assisted  by  Tregelles  and  David- 
son. The  first  Greek  concordance  dates  from 
1546,  prepared  by  Xystus  Betuleius  at  Basel. 
The  best,  The  Englishman's  Greek  Concord- 
ance of  the  New  Testament,  appeared  in  Lon- 
don, 1840  ;  5th  ed.,  1868,  prepared  by  George 
V.  Wigram.  There  is  also  an  excellent  and 
very  convenient  work,  A  Critical  Greek  and 
English  Concordance  of  the  New  Testament, 
prepared  by  Charles  F.  Hudson,  revised  and 
completed  by  Ezra  Abbot,  3d  ed.,  Boston, 
1875. 

The  first  concordance  to  the  English  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  was  published  before  1540. 
Others  followed  in  the  course  of  time,  but 
they  were  forgotten  when  Alexander  Cruden 
issued  his  Complete  Concordance  to  the  Holy 
Seriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  Lon- 
don, 1737.  The  Society  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tian Knowledge  gave  an  improved  ed.  of  this 
work,  London,  1859,  and  there  exist  several 
American  edd.  The  best  and  most  compre- 
hensive work  of  the  kind,  however,  is  Robert 
Young's  Analytical  Concordance  to  the  Bible, 
Edinburgh,  1879  ;  4th  revised  ed.,  1881,  rep. 
New  York, 

Concordat  (Latin,  "  things  agreed  upon"), 
a  treaty  between  the  pope  and  a  secular  state 
touching  the  interests  of  the  Roman  Church 
in  that  state.  The  word  first  came  into  use  in 
the  15th  century,  but  the  thing  itself  is  earlier 
and  comparatively  frequent.  Celebrated  con- 
cordats are,  (1)  that  of  Worms,  in  1122,  be- 
tween Calixtus  II.  and  Henry  V.,  which  settled 
the  question  of  investiture  of  bishoixs  and  ab- 


CONCUBINE 


(185) 


CONEY 


bots  in  favor  of  the  pope.  (3)  Of  Constance, 
in  l-tIS,  in  which  the  pope  agreed  to  make 
certain  reforms.  (3)  Of  Frankfort  and  Vienna, 
in  1446-48,  in  whicli  the  emperor  Frederick 
III.  yielded  the  rights  he  liad  claimed  relative 
to  the  appointment  of  bishops.  (4)  Of  1515, 
between  Francis  I.  of  Finance  and  Leo  X.,  in 
which  the  king  agreed  to  abolish  the  prag- 
matic sanction  (q.v.)  of  Charles  VII.,  which 
set  the  general  council  above  the  pope,  and 
the  pope  to  resign  the  nomination  of  bishops 
and  abbots  to  the  king.  (5)  Of  1801,  between 
Napoleon,  when  first  consul,  and  Pope  Pius 
VII.,  by  which  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
was  re-established. 

Concubine,  a  woman  who,  without  being 
married  to  a  man,  lives  with  him  as  a  wife. 
Among  the  Hebrews  the  word  denotes  a  real 
wife,  but  one  of  a  secondary  rank.  She  dif- 
fered from  a  proper  wife  in  that  she  was  not 
married  by  solemn  stipulation,  but  only  be- 
trotlied  ;  she  brought  no  dowry  with  her,  and 
she  had  no  share  in  the  government  of  the 
family.  She  was  liable  to  be  repudiated,  or 
sent  away  with  a  gift  (Gen.  xxi.  14),  and  her 
children  might  be  treated  in  the  same  way 
and  not  share  in  their  father's  inheritance 
(Gen.  XXV.  G).  The  custom  among  the  Jews 
originated  in  the  great  desire  for  children,  and 
therefore  it  was  that  barren  wives  gave  their 
maid-servants  to  their  husbands  that  they 
might  have  children  by  them  (Gen.  xvi.  3, 
XXX.  4,  9).  Such  children  were  not  counted 
as  illegitimate,  but  stood  upon  the  same  foot- 
ing as  those  of  the  wife.  Concubinage  be- 
came a  general  custom,  and  the  law  of  Moses 
restricted  its  abuses  (Ex.  xxi.  7-9,  Deut.  xxi. 
11-14).  The  gospel  has  restored  the  original 
law  of  marriage  (Gen.  ii.  24,  Matt.  xix.  5,  1 
Cor.  vii.  2),  and  concubinage  is  now  ranked 
with  fornication  and  adultery.        T.  W.  C. 

Among  the  Romans  concubinage  was  a 
connecllou  intended  to  be  permanent,  but  not 
admitting  the  female  to  the  complete  rights  of 
a  wife.  The  children  were  not  illegitimate, 
but  did  not  have  full  rights  of  inheritance. 
It  was  regarded  as  the  proper  relation  between 
persons  of  diiferent  rank.  Among  the  Ger- 
mans it  was  continued  as  a  form  of  connection 
between  persons  of  different  rank,  and  still 
subsists  under  the  name  of  morganatic  mar- 
riage, which  is  a  real  marriage,  but  without  the 
usual  public  ceremonies,  and  giving  the  female 
no  right  to  the  husband's  name  or  property. 
The  children  may  take  a  third  of  their  father's 
estate,  if  he  leav^es  no  lawful  children. 

There  is  no  public  utterance  against  concu- 
l)ina'ze  in  the  church  till  tlu;  5tii  century.  It 
was  thea  nn'ntioneil  with  disapproval,  but  not 
forbidden  to  the  laity  till  the  16th  century. 
The  enforcement  of  tiie  celibacy  of  the  clergy 
had  meantime  led  to  much  concubinage  among 
them  (see  Cklibacy).  But  the  Council  of 
Trent,  by  introducing  a  special  form  for  sol- 
emnizing marriage,  made  it  perfectly  easy  to 
distinguish  b"tween  marriage  and  concubi- 
nage, and  forbade  the  latter  entirely.  In  the 
Protestant  churches  front  tlie  beginning  con- 
cubinage lias  been  condemned  and  made  a 
ground  of  cliurch  discipline.  F.  II.  P. 

Concupiscence,    the    desire    of    unlawful 


pleasure.  This,  according  to  the  Scripture 
(Rom.  vii.  7,  8,  17,  20),  is  sin,  and  worthy  of 
condemnation  as  soon  as  it  arises  in  the  heart. 
But  the  Roman  Cluirch  hokls  that  such  sjxin- 
taneous  movements  are  not  sin  until  they  are 
entertained  and  translated  into  action  by  the 
will.  T.  W.  C. 

Concur'-sus  Diviniis,  a  doctrinal  term  re- 
lating to  the  concurrence  of  the  first  cause  and 
of  human  agents  iu  the  evolution  of  nature 
and  history.  All  agree  that  there  is  such  a 
divine  concurrence,  but  whether  it  is  the  de- 
termining factor  in  every  case,  as  the  Re- 
formed maintain,  is  questioned.  It  is  better 
to  hold  the  controlling  providence  of  God, 
without  seeking  to  explain  its  consistency  with 
human  freedom.  The  problem  belongs  rather 
to  philosophy  than  to  religion.  It  seems  to 
have  given  no  trouble  to  the  apostle,  since  he 
said  to  the  Philippians  (ii.  12):  "Workout 
your  own  salvation  with  fear  and  trembling  ; 
for  it  is  God  which  worketh  in  you  both  to  will 
and  to  work,  for  his  good  pleasure"  (R.  V.). 
T.  W.  C. 

Oondignity,  Congruity.  These  terms  are 
used  by  the  Romish  Church  to  indicate,  the 
former  the  merit  of  desert,  which  attaches 
to  works  wrought  after  regeneration  and 
therefore  having  intrinsic  claim  to  reward  ; 
the  latter  the  merit  of  fit  ttess,  which  belongs  to 
the  good  dispositions  or  works  preceding  re- 
generation, and  therefore  such  that  it  is  con- 
gruous that  God  should  reward  them  by  the 
gift  of  grace.  T.  W.  C. 

Conditional  Immortadity  is  the  doctrine  that 
immortality  is  not  inherent  in  man,  but  is 
conditioned  upon  his  acceptance  of  Christ  as 
his  personal  Saviour.  Those  who  hold  this 
view  quote  in  its  behalf  such  texts  as  Rom. 
vi.  23,  and  the  expressions  in  different  parts 
of  the  Bible  wdiich  set  forth  the  death  of  the 
wicked  as  their  "end,"  "perishing,"  being 
"  destroyed  as  natural  brute  beasts,"  "  burnt 
up  as  chaff,"  "  cut  off,"  "  blotted  out  of  the 
book  of  life."  They  do  not  deny  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  wicked  in  the  next  world,  but  only 
their  endless  existence. 

Cone,  Spencer  Houghton,  D.D.  (Princeton, 
1832),  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Aprd 
30,  1785  ;  d.  in  New  York  City,  Aug.  28, 
1855.  Front  1805-12  he  was  an  actor,  then  a 
journalist,  but  after  1815  a  B;q)tist  minister, 
and  pastor  in  New  York  City,  1823,  till  death. 
He  was  a  corresponding  secretary  of  the  AnuTi- 
can  Bible  Society,  1832-35,  but  resigned  owing 
to  the  rejection  of  Judson's  Burmese  Bible, 
and  was  president  of  the  American  and  For- 
eign Bibie  Society  (1837-50),  and  then  of  the 
American  Bible  Union  (1850,  till  death). 

Coney  {the  hider),  a  small  quadruped  like 
a  rabbit,  popularly  said  (Lev.  xi.  5,  Deut.  xiv. 
7)  to  chew  the  cu(l ;  but  not  strictly  ruminant, 
since,  like  the  hare,  it  moves  its  jaws  as  if  chew- 
ing, but  does  not  completely  divide  the  honf, 
as  does  the  deer.  It  lives  in  families  among 
the  rocks  (P.s.  civ.  18,  Prov.  xxx.  20),  but 
does  not  burrow.  It  is  lively  and  quick,  and 
"  exceeding  wise,"  being  very  difficult  to  rap- 
ture. Its  name  comes  either  from  its  liidiug 
itself  or  from  its  cunning.  T.  W.  C. 


CONFERENCE 


(186) 


CONFIRMATION 


Conference.  la  the  9tli  century,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  size  of  the  diocesan  synods, 
district  meetings  of  the  clergy  were  lield  un- 
der this  name  monthly,  but  the  custom  never 
became  general.  Rome  allows  free  pastoral 
conferences,  but  they  must  be  under  the  entire 
control  of  the  ordinariat. 

There  were  two  famous  English  confer- 
ences ;  one,  that  at  Hampton  Court  in  Jan., 
1604,  where  4  leading  Puritans  and  9  bishops 
and  8  deans  discussed  under  the  presidency  of 
James  I.  the  usages  (non-residence,  the  cap 
and  surplice,  etc.)  of  which  complaint  was 
made,  but  with  no  result  save  that  on  sugges- 
tion of  Dr.  Reynolds  a  revision  of  the  English 
Pible  w\as  ordered  ;  the  other,  in  the  Savoy 
palace  in  1661,  where  Presbyterians  and  Epis- 
copalians discussed  the  revision  of  the  Prayer- 
book,  but  with  no  result. 

In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
America  there  are  3  bodies  bearing  this 
name.  1.  The  Quarterly  Conference,  com- 
posed of  all  the  preachers,  stewards,  class- 
leaders,  and  trustees  in  the  circuit  or  station, 
with  the  first  male  superintendents  of  the 
Sunday-schools,  under  direction  of  the  Pre- 
siding Elder  or,  in  his  absence,  of  the  preacher- 
in-cliarge.  They  hear  complaints  aiid  try  ap- 
peals, take  cognizance  of  all  the  preachers, 
exhorters,  stewards,  and  Sunday-school  super- 
intendents, and  supervise  the  whole  work  of 
the  church  according  to  a  schedule  minutely 
laid  down.  It  is  to  meet  4  times  a  year. 
Hence  the  name.  2.  The  Annual  Conference 
consists  of  all  the  ministers  in  a  certain  de- 
fined territory.  It  appoints  its  own  place  of 
meeting,  but  the  length  of  its  sessions  over  a 
week  is  determined  by  the  bishop  who  pre- 
sides. It  elects  and  ordains  deacons  and  elders, 
collects  statistics,  inquires  into  the  conduct  of 
preachers,  and  gives,  particular  attention  to 
all  mission  work  within  its  bounds.  3.  The 
General  Conference  meets  once  in  4  years  and 
is  composed  of  ministerial  and  lay  delegates, 
1  ministerial  for  every  45  members  of  the  an- 
nual conferences,  and  2  laymen  for  each  con- 
ference. They  deliberate  together,  but  vote 
separately  when  one  third  of  either  order  so 
demands.  They  have  power  to  make  rules 
and  regulations  which  do  not  alter  essentials 
in  doctrine  or  polity,  but  any  restriction,  save 
as  to  doctrine,  may  be  altered  by  a  vote  of  two 
thirds  of  the  General  Conference  if  three 
fourths  of  the  members  of  the  annual  con- 
ferences agree.  One  of  the  bishops  presides. 
Besides  these  3  conferences,  which  obtain  uni- 
versally, there  is  a  fourth,  called  a  district 
conference,  composed  of  much  the  same  per- 
sons as  the  quarterly  conferences,  only  cover- 
ing a  much  larger  territory,  which  meets  once 
or  twice  a  year,  and  takes  oversight  of  the 
temporal  and  spiritual  affairs  of  the  district. 
It  is  of  voluntary  origin,  and  may  be  discon- 
tinued, if  its  members  and  the  quarterly  con- 
ferences see  fit. 

The  annual  meetings  of  the  Freewill  Bap- 
tists are  called  conferences.  T.  W.  C. 

Confession,  the  verbal  acknowledgment 
which  a  Christian  makes  of  his  sins.  It  is  a 
distiflct  and  constituent  part  of  praver,  public 
and   private,  and   is  essential  to  forgiveness  ' 


(Prov.  xxviii.  13,  1  John  i.  8,  9).  All  sins  are 
to  be  confessed  to  God,  but  oU'ences  against 
our  fellows  are  also  to  be  acknowledged  to 
them  (James  v.  16).  For  confession  to  a  priest, 
see  AuRicuLAK  Confession.  T.  W.  C. 

Confession  of  Faith,  a  collection  of  the  arti- 
cles of  belief  of  any  church.  A  creed  was 
simply  an  expression  of  faith  in  a  few  leading 
doctrines,  as  the  Apostles',  the  Nicene,  the  so- 
called  Athanasian  ;  a  confession,  on  the  con- 
trary, was  an  effort  to  recover  the  main  body 
of  doctrine  from  the  corruptions  of  former 
ages  and  present  it  in  a  clear  and  distinct 
form,  as  the  Augsburg,  the  Helvetic,  the 
Belgic,  etc.  Both  creeds  and  confessions 
have  been  and  are  objected  to  as  infringing 
Christian  liberty ;  superseding  Scripture; 
tempting  to  hypocrisy,  and  precluding  im- 
provement. Yet  a  system  is  as  necessary  in 
theology  as  in  any  science  ;  a  creed  unites  those 
of  the  same  faith  ;  it  is  indispensable  for  con- 
certed  action,  and  for  detecting  and  repelling 
strange  doctrine. 

The  principal  Confessions,  besides  the  3 
early  creeds  accepted  by  all  the  historical 
churches,  are  in  the  Greek  Church  that  of 
Mogilas,  1643  ;  in  the  Roman  the  Canons  and 
Decrees  of  Trent,  1563  ;  in  the  Lutheran  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  1530  ;  in  the  Re- 
formed the  Helvetic,  1530-66  ;  the  Gallic,  the 
Belgic,  the  Scotch,  the  Heidelberg  Catechism, 
the  XXXIX.  Anglican  Articles,  and  the  West- 
minster Confession.  (See  the  Corjnts  et  Syn- 
tagma Confessionum  [Geneva,  1554]  ;  Schaff's 
Creeds  of  Christendom  [New  York,  1877,  3 
vols.,  4th  ed.  1884].)  T.  W.  C. 

Confessional,  the  enclosure  in  which  the 
Romish  confessor  sits  to  hear  confessions.  It 
is  erected  within  the  church,  and  is  divided 
into  3  compartments  open  in  front.  The  cen- 
tre, intended  for  tlie  priest,  has  a  grated  open- 
ing on  either  side  through  which  the  penitent 
may  speak  without  being  seen.       T.  W.  C. 

Confessor  in  early  ecclesiastical  usage  de- 
noted one  who,  without  enduring  actual  mar- 
tyrdom had  yet  resolutely  maintained  the  faith 
in  the  face  of  torments.  Afterward  it  came  to 
be  applied  to  persons  of  eminently  pious  life. 
Thus  the  Anglo-Saxon  King  Edward  (1004- 
66)  received  the  title  from  Pope  Alexander 
III. 

In  the  Romish  Church  a  confessor  is  a 
priest  who  has  power  to  hear  sinners  in  the 
sacrament  of  penance  and  to  give  them  abso- 
lution. The  confessors  of  the  kings  of  France 
from  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  were  constantly 
Jesuits  ;  before  them,  the  Dominicans  and 
Cordeliers  shared  the  office  between  them. 
They  also  were  the  confessors  of  the  house  of 
Austria,  but  the  later  emperors  have  employed 
Jesuits.  T.  W.  C. 

Confirma'-tion  {strengthening),  a  rite  by 
which  baptized  persons  are  admitted  to  full 
communion  by  the  imposition  of  hands.  It 
obtains  in  the  Oriental,  the  Roman,  the  Lu- 
theran, the  Anglican,  and  some  of  the  Re- 
formed churches.  In  the  Roman  body  it  is 
held  to  be  one  of  the  7  sacraments,  and  in 
its  administration  unction  and  the  sign  of  the 
cross  are  used.     In  the  Anglican,  the  recipi- 


OONPUOIUS 


(187) 


CONGREGATIONALISM 


ents  are  required  to  renew  the  baptismal  vow 
made  by  their  godfathers  and  godmothers,  who 
are  then  released  from  their  responsibility. 
In  both  the  foregoing  it  is  only  the  bishop 
■who  performs  the  rite.  In  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  the  pastor  does  it.  There  are  not 
a  few  in  other  communions  who  consider  the 
rite  a  natural  and  appropriate  complement  to 
that  of  infant  baptism.  T.  W.  C. 

Con-fu'-ci-us  (Latinization  of  Kong-fu-tse, 
"  teacher  from  the  family  of  Kong;"  Kong- 
tse  is  more  correct),  the  great  Chinese  sage, 
whose  real  name  was  Tschung-ni  ;  b.  in  the 
district  of  Tsow,  in  the  feudal  kingdom  of 
Lii,  in  the  southern  part  of  Shantung,  a  prov- 
ince on  the  n.e.  coast  of  China,  551  B.C.;  d. 
in  Lu,  478  b.c.  He  was  of  distinguished 
birth,  but  losing  his  father  early,  was  reared 
in  poverty  and  entered  the  service  of  a  noble- 
man. There  he  observed  the  political  confu- 
sion due  to  the  struggles  of  the  great  vassals 
against  the  central  power  and  with  one  an- 
other, and  thus  came  to  the  determination  to 
strive  to  realize  true  principles  in  the  state. 
He  visited  the  imperial  capital,  and  from  that 
visit,  perhaps,  dates  his  love  for  the  institu- 
tions of  the  Chow  d3-nasty.  At  the  age  of 
35  he  sought  in  Thsi  a  refuge  from  the  con- 
fusions in  Lu,  and  on  his  return  refused  to 
attach  himself  to  any  party.  On  the  restora- 
tion of  the  duke  of  Lu,  he  held  several  high 
offices  during  4  years.  Banished  for  14,  he 
wandered  in  many  states,  teaching  at  court 
and  among  the  people.  He  was  finally  recalled 
through  tile  influence  of  a  pupil.  His  greatest 
service  was  in  the  collection  and  editing  of 
sacred  books  (see  China,  S.vcred  Books  of). 
It  is  doubtful  how  much  lie  himself  innovated. 
His  religious  position  is  that  of  ethical  natural- 
ism (see  China,  Religions  of).  His  ethics  is 
based  on  the  principle  of  harmony  with  the  or- 
der of  the  universe,  and  he  preaches  reverence, 
sincerit3%  humilitj^,  friendliness,  justice,  "  the 
golden  rule. "  His  weak  points  are  to  consider 
individual  so  exclusively  in  his  relation  to  the 
state,  and  to  enjoin  toomuch  external  formal  ob- 
servance. The  dominant  position  of  the  scholar 
in  China  is  due  to  Confucius,  and  he  himself  is 
the  ideal  sage  of  his  people.  Honored  at  first 
as  duke,  then  as  "  the  perfect  sage,"  "the 
king  without  a  throne,"  he  has  many  temples, 
and  receives  offerings  and  prayers.  (See  life 
by  J.  Legge,  London,  1866,  6th  ed.,  1887,  and 
literature  under  China.)  W.  R.  M. 

Conge  d'elire  (French,  "  leave  to  choose"), 
the  king's  writ  or  license  to  the  dean  and 
chapter  of  a  diocese  to  choose  a  bishop  in  the 
time  of  vacancy'  of  the  see.  It  is  now  a  mere 
form. 

Congregatio    de    auxiliis    divinae   gratiae 

(L;itin,  '■  congregation  [or  commissionj,  con- 
cerning the  helps  of  divine  grace"),  the  com- 
mission appointed  by  Pope  Clement  VIII.  in 
Nov.,  1597,  to  examine  the  famous  Liheri 
arbitrii  rum  gr<iti(P  doniK  .  .  ,  Concordia,  etc., 
of  Molina.     See  Molina. 

Congregation.  In  the  Roman  Church.  1. 
A  community  or  order  held  together  by  a  com- 
mon rule  either  with  or  without  vows.  2.  A 
group  of  monasteries  of  the  same  order  which 


combine  for  the  stricter  enforcement  of  their 
rule.  'S.  The  committees  among  the  cardi- 
nals, a.  Of  the  Consistory,  prepares  the  work 
for  the  Consistory,  chielly  that  relative  to  new 
sees,  episcopal  appointments,  new  orders,  etc. 
b.  Of  the  Holy  Office,  i.e.,  the  Inquisition 
(q.v.),  takes  cognizance  of  heresy,  c.  Of  the 
Index  (q.v.),  examines  books  and  forbids 
those  objectionable,  d.  Of  Rites,  secures  uni- 
formity in  worship,  attends  to  beatifications, 
f.  Of  Immunities,  looks  after  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction,  especially  where  it  conflicts  wkh 
the  civil.  /.  Of  the  Fabric,  takes  charge  of 
!  therepairsof  the  cathedral  of  St.  Peter's,  ^r.  Of 
the  Council,  interprets  the  decrees  of  the 
I  Council  of  Trent.  /(.  Of  Bishops  and  Regu- 
j  lars,  settles  disputes  between  bishops  and  their 
I  clergy,  i.  Of  Discipline,  regulates  the  inter- 
nal discipline  of  monasteries,  j.  Of  the  Propa- 
ganda (q.v.).  k.  Of  Indulgences,  also  certifies 
relics.  I.  Of  Heads  of  orders,  selects  topics 
for  consideration  by  the  Consistory,  m.  Of 
Prelates,  assists  that  of  the  Council.  The 
pope  may  make  up  other  congregations  out  of 
the  standing  ones.  4.  Bishops  appointed  by 
the  pope  to  arrange  for  councils. 

Congregation,  Lords  of  the,  the  title  given 
to  the  chief  subscribers  to  the  First  Covenant  at 
Edinburgh,  Dec.  8,  1557,  which  pledged  them 
to  defend  the  Reformed  faith— from  the  re- 
peated recurrence  of  the  word  congregation  in 
tins  document.  For  the  same  reason  the  peo- 
ple who  adhered  to  them  were  called  the  Con- 
gregation. (Cf.  Hetherington,  Hintory  of  the 
GJiurch  of  Scotland,  chap.  ii.  [Carter's  ed.. 
New  York,  p.  38J,  who  gives  the  text.) 

Congregationalism  is  a  form  of  church  life 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  prominence 
which  it  gives  to  the  congregations  of  be- 
lievers. It  holds  that  any  local  company  of 
Ciiristian  people  confederate  by  mutual  agree- 
ment, and  by  covenant  with  God,  is  a  Chris- 
tian church  ;  which  through  such  organiza- 
tion enters  a  great  sisterhood  of  equal  churches 
of  like  faith  and  order.  Every  such  church, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  gov- 
erns itself  according  to  its  understanding  of 
!  the  Scriptures  ;  from  its  own  members  elects 
and  ordains  its  officers  ;  by  tiie  votes  of  those 
members  shapes  and  administers  its  own 
affairs,  and  takes  action,  in  obedience  to 
Christ's  last  command,  for  the  salvation  of  the 
world. 

As  a  polity  it  has  two  fundamental  princi- 
ples :  on  the  one  hand,  the  independence  of 
every  such  local  church  of  all  outward  con- 
trol save  that  of  its  Great  Head  ;  and  on  the 
other,  its  obligation  to  live  in  sisterly  relations 
with  every  other,  taking  and  giving  counsel 
and  friendly  aid  as  need  requires,  and  work- 
ing with  all"  others  for  the  glory  of  God  in  the 
redemption  of  men.  Congregationalism  as  a 
system  is  therefore  to  be  conceived  of,  not, 
like  Independency,  as  a  circle  all  of  whose 
parts  are  tied  to,  and  evolved  from  a  single 
centre  ;  but  rather  as  an  ellipse,  whose  two 
foci,  of  self-completeness  and  equal  fellow- 
ship, symmetrically  control  its  development. 

Congregationalism  understands  the  Bible, 
whether  by  precept  or  example,  to  set  forth 
but  two  sorts  of  church  officers  :  the  first,  io- 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 


(188) 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 


differently  called  bishops,  or  pastors,  or  pres- 
byters, or  teachers,  or  elders — whose  function 
is  that  of  guiding  with  church  autliority  by 
counsel,  and  of  instructing  ;  the  second,  help- 
ers or  deacons,  who  have  charge  of  tlie  secu- 
larities  of  the  body  and  the  relief  of  the  poor, 
and  who  aid  their  superiors  in  their  work. 

Fellowship  between  churches — beyond  the 
interchange  of  members — is  usually  managed 
through  an  ecclesiastical  council,  composed  of 
delegates  from  chiirches  of  the  vicinage,  who 
advise  and  assist  in  the  formation  of  new 
churches,  in  the  settlement  and  dismission  of 
pastors,  and,  in  case  of  trouble,  offer  aid  tow- 
ard deliverance. 

Congregationalists  maintain  and  defend 
their  poltty  mainly  for  these  reasons  :  they 
hold  it  scriptural  in  that  it  only  can  loyally 
practice  Christ's  law  of  discipline  ;  that  the 
Acts  show  how,  under  divine  guidance,  the 
early  Christians  established  Congregational 
churches,  and  that  the  Epistles  ordain  and 
contemplate  only  Congregational  church  ac- 
tion ;  while  the  few  texts  seeming  to  suggest 
another  system  do  so  in  appearance  only. 
They  hold  it  more  practicable  than  any  other, 
in  that  in  small  communities  evangelical  be- 
lievers of  differing  preferences  most  easily 
unite  in  it  ;  that,  of  itself,  it  can  anyw^here 
evolve  a  church  having  an  authorized  minis- 
try, and  that  it  is  free  to  use  whatever  forms 
best  befit  its  needs,  while  \inexposed,  like 
more  centralized  systems,  to  grow  weak  in 
discipline  as  it  grows  strong  in  bulk. 

They   regard    it,   moreover,   as    especially 
fitted,  by  congeniality  of  structure  and  work- 
ing, for  a  republican  form  of  government. 
Henry  jVIaktyn  Dkxter. 

Congregationalists.  It  is  the  conviction  of 
many  Congregationalists  that  the  earliest 
Christian  believers,  in  their  inchoate  ecclesias- 
tical conditions,  were  more  nearly  in  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Congregational,  than  of  any  other 
polity.  Of  the  three  possible  methods  of 
church  life  and  administration — the  democ- 
racy of  Congregationalism,  the  aristocracy  of 
Presbyterianism,  and  the  monarchy  of  the, 
episcopate,  the  patriarchate,  or  the  papacy — 
they  regard  the  Scriptures  as  making  it  clear, 
either  by  implication  in  their  account  of  early 
church  procedures,  or  in  the  way  of  various 
collateral  precepts,  that  the  primitive  disciples 
were,  in  no  honest  sense,  either  Presbyterians, 
Episcopalians,  or  ecclesiastical  monarchists, 
but  essential  Congregationalists.  It  was  not 
long,  however,  before  this  original  constitu- 
tion of  things  passed  away,  and  that  early 
democracy  was  superseded  by  a  "  stronger" 
government.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  Con- 
gregationalism which  now  exists  can  trace 
back  its  lineage  scarcely  more  than  300  years. 

Tlie  Reformation  at  first  turned  men's 
minds  but  little  toward  the  subject  of  polity. 
And  yet  Luther,  who  was  a  man  of  the  people, 
feeling  no  inherent  repugnance  to  a  popular 
government,  came  near  to  the  rediscovery,  if 
not  the  reproduction,  of  the  primitive  Congre- 
gational way.  But  he  proved  to  be  so  over- 
weighted with  a  sense  of  doctrinal  work  need- 
ing to  be  done,  that  he  underestimated  the 
importance  of  the  relation  of  the  form  which 


church  life  takes  to  its  purity,  peace,  and 
growth  ;  and,  reacting  from  the  excessive 
license  of  the  Anabaptists,  the  circumstances 
in  which  he  was  placed  seemed  providentially 
to  invite  him  toward  a  polity  in  which  princes 
should  lead  and  the  people  follow  ;  so,  that, 
while  interpreting  the  Word  as  teaching  that 
under  Christ  all  church  power  inheres  in  the 
congregations  of  believers,  he  drifted  into  an 
organization  of  superintendents  and  consis- 
tories, which  gradually  became  fatally  mixed 
up  with  the  state.  Calvin,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  never  a  man  of  the  people.  He  had  an 
appetence  for  authority,  and  when  suddenly 
called  upon  to  organize  both  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical government  in  Geneva,  he  made  no 
concealment  of  his  preference  for  aristocracy 
as  a  better  form  of  rule  both  for  church  and 
state  than  a  democracy,  and  moulded  his  ar- 
rangements accordingly.  Thus,  since  that 
partial  readjustment  of  religious  affairs  in 
England  under  Henry  VIII. ,  which  it  is  com- 
mon to  call  the  English  Reformation,  had 
taken  no  step  backward  toward  the  original 
republicanism  of  the  church,  it  happened  that, 
to  the  mind  of  the  entire  Protestant  Christian 
world  of  the  16th  century,  the  church  was  left 
subordinate  to  the  state.  The  prevalent  un- 
godliness drove  godly  men  to  feel  that  further 
reform  was  imperative,  and  Cartwright,  Tra- 
vers,  Udal,  and  others  labored  in  England  dili- 
gently^  to  introduce  Presbyterianism — which, 
in  their  exile  imdc-r"  Bloody  Mary, '"they  had 
learned  to  love  at  Geneva — as  sure  to  promote 
such  reform.  But  they  waited  for  it  at  the 
hands  of  the  civil  government,  so  that  nothing 
could  be  done  until  the  impossible  task  of 
moving  the  queen  and  the  court  had  been  ac- 
complished ;  while  their  plan  would  have  left 
all,  could  their  desired  reform  have  been 
gained,  still  at  the  mercy  of  the  same  civil 
control  ;  and  their  theory  of  the  church,  as 
properly  including  the  entire  baptized  popula- 
tion of  the  land,  whose  life  was  to  be  raised 
to  the  level  of  the  gospel  by  a  church  discipline 
which  usually  proved  a  practical  impossibility, 
added  the  last  fatal  inefficiency. 

In  those  days  of  disquietude  and  incertitude 
God,  "  who  worketh  all  things  after  the  coun- 
sel of  his  will"  raised  up— in  the  person  of 
Robert  Browne,  a  student  of  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Cambridge — one  who  should  cry 
mightily  in  the  wilderness,  and  do  his  en- 
deavor to  make  these  crooked  and  tangled 
paths  straight.  Whatever  may  or  may  not 
have  been  "true  of  him  in  those  later  years 
when  his  mind  seems  to  have  been  impaired, 
as  the  consequence  of,  or  in  sympathy  with, 
his  shattered  bodily  health,  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  doubt  that,  at  this  time,  he  was  pro- 
foundly and  evangelically  in  earnest  in  the 
things  of  religion.  In  his  own  touching  lan- 
guage : 

he  had  no  rest  what  he  might  do  for  the  name  and 
kingdom  of  God  :  he  often  complained  of  the^e  evill 
daies,  and  with  manie  tears  sought  where  to  find  the 
righteons  which  glorified  God,  with  whom  he  might 
live,  and  rejoice  together  that  they  put  away  abomi- 
nations. 

Hearing  that  there  were  believers  in  Nor- 
folk who  were  "  verie  forward"  in  the  ways 
of  the  Lord,  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  leave 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 


(189) 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 


Cambridge,  where  oue  of  the  churches  was 
pressing  him  to  receive  ordination  from  the 
bishop,  and  occupy  its  pulpit,  and  "  take  his 
voiage  to  them."  He  accordingly  went  to 
Norwich,  where,  after  some  months  of  prayer 
and  meditation  over  God's  Word,  ho  reached 
at  last  the  conviction  that  the  only  way  to 
untie  the  knot  of  difhculty  was  to  cut  it  ;  and 
that,  without  waiting  any  longer  for  prince 
or  people,  they  who  desired  to  Avalk  with  God 
should  withdVaw  themselves  from  all  who 
walk  disorderly,  and  come  out  and  be  separate 
from  the  world,  touching  no  unclean  thing, 
but  joining  themselves  into  local  companies, 
each  one  of  which,  if  rightly  confederate  of 
true  believers,  would  be  a  true  church  of 
Christ,  competent  to  all  churchly  duty  and 
privilege.  This  he  did,  and,  when  persecuted, 
witii  his  little  company  he  tied  to  .Middelberg 
in  Zealand.  There  he  published  several  works 
setting  forth  in  detail  the  system  which  he 
elaborated  from  the  Scri]"»tures  ;  not  at  tirst  ap- 
pearing to  see  that  he  had  rediscovered,  and 
was  endeavoring  to  reduce  to  practice  the 
original  Congregationalism,  with  a  difference 
which  yet  was  hardly  a  difference.  Democ- 
racy was  not  an  idea  then  current,  and  poor 
Browne  was  no  democrat.  He  taught  that  all 
church  power  resides  in  Christ,  but  that  Christ 
reveals  his  will  to,  and  executes  it  by,  each  of 
his  faithful  ones— his  vicegerents — so  that,  in 
point  of  practical  working,  his  invisible  abso- 
lute monarchy  of  Christ  became  indistinguish- 
able from  a  visible  pure  democracy  of  his  peo- 
ple. The  people  governed.  Christ  knew,  and 
they  knew,  that  it  was  Christ  governing 
through  them  ;  while  to  the  world  it  seemed 
only  as  the  people  bearing  rule.  All  rested 
on  a  mutual  covenant  with  each  other  and 
with  their  risen  Lord.  Their  simple  ofhce- 
bearers— pastors  or  elders,  and  deacons— they 
chose  and  ordained  from  among  themselves. 
The  seals  of  all  were  Baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Since  it  was  their  duty  each  to  be- 
come perfect  as  our  Father  in  heaven  is, 
and  to  help  each  other  to  become  perfect  as 
He  is,  it  was  agreed  that  frequent  meetings 
should  be  had  In  which  each  sliould  criticise 
all,  to  correct  errors,  reform  abuses,  and  b}' 
friendly  attrition  polish  each  other  until  every 
one  become,  before  God  and  man,  "  one  entire 
and  perfect  chrysolite. "  The  system  was  self- 
consistent,  well-rounded,  and  complete.  It 
even  anticipated  the  time  when  the  little  one 
should  become  a  thousand,  and — a  point  in 
which  Browneism  has  always  suffered  injus- 
tice from  the  ignorance  of  those  who  have  un- 
dertaken to  describe  it— it  provided  for  synods 
or  councils,  "  for  redresse  iuid  (h'ciding  of 
matters  which  cannot  wel  be  otiierwise  taken 
vp  ;"  or  "  when  the  weaker  churches  seeke 
helpe  of  the  stronger." 

Could  this  system  have  had  a  fair  chance  in 
its  beginning  by  falling  into  the  hands  of  de- 
vout men  of  delicate  spiritual  scnsihilities  and 
a  considerable  intellectual  culture,  it  might 
more  have  modilied  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  last  300  years.  But  it  re(iuired  some 
degree  of  refinement  as  well  as  of  godliness, 
for  its  proper  development.  To  ptit  a  score 
or  two  of  illiterate  enthusiasts  picked  up  from 
the  humblest  walks  of  life,  utterly  without 


experience  in  affairs,  and  born  into  narrow 
prejudices  from  wiiich  they  had  gained  no  de- 
liverance  by  edu(;ation,  to  "the  development  of 
the  untried  working  of  a  polity  making  such 
demands  upon  the  mind  and  heart,  was  like 
asking  a  blacksmith  with  his  horny  hands  to 
regulate  a  chronometer,  or  like  drafting  a 
conunon  sailor  from  the  forecastle  into  the 
captain's  cabin  with  compass  and  sextant  to 
navigate  the  ship. 

Almost  as  a  nuitter  of  course,  under  its  in- 
hospitable and  insalubrious  environment,  this 
experiment  failed,  the  little  church  went  to 
pieces,  and  Browne,  never  himself  again, 
dropped  back  through  the  favoring  hand  of  a 
nol)le  relative  into  an  obscure  parish,  where 
his  life  was  obscurely  ended.  But  his  books, 
despite  the  elforts  of  botli  church  and  state  to 
have  them  burned,  managed  here  and  there 
to  live  and  fructify. 

And  it  was  but  a  little  while  liefon;  Barrowo 
and  Greenwood,  whose  zeal  toward  church 
reform  had  procured  them  free  lodgings  in  the 
Fleet  prison,  were  writing  there  on  scraps  of 
paper  which,  by  the  friendly  hands  of  occa- 
sional visitants,  they  smuggled  over  to  an  un- 
licensed printing-house  in  Dordrecht,  tracts  ia 
which  tliey  argued  strenuously  for  Browne's 
system,  shorn  of  what  seemed  to  them  its  dis- 
astrous feature.  From  their  point  of  view, 
the  fact  that  his  churcii  had  been  ruled  by  the 
ignorant  brethren,  had  shipwrecked  it.  They 
therefore  proposed  to  borrow  from  the  nascent 
Presbyterianism  of  Cartwright  and  his  friends 
its  idea  of  the  eldership,  which  Ihey  engrafted 
upon  their  Congregationalism  by  the  ingeni- 
ous expedient  of  requiring  the  brethren  of  the 
church  first  freely  to  elect  the  elders  whom 
they  were  afterward  to  obey  in  tiie  Lord.  By 
this  happy  hybridization  it  occurred  to  them 
that  all  tlio  Congregational  elements  of  value 
found  in  Browne's  system  could  be  retained, 
and  the  tremendous  risk  of  its  practical  de- 
mocracy be  avoided  by  resting  the  government 
of  the  church  in  the"  hands  only  of  its  ablest 
and  wisest  men.  On  that  basis  a  church  was 
formed  in  London  whicii.  after  some  years' 
experience  by  most  of  its  members  in  i)rison, 
migrated  to  Amsterdam,  where  it  became 
known  as  "  the  exiled  English  church,"  under 
Francis  Johnson,  pastor,  and  Henry  Ains- 
worth,  teacher. 

The  event  proved  that  imperfectly  sanctified 
human  nature  was  much  tiie  same  in  Amster- 
dam as  in  Middelberg,  and  that  the  new  i)lan 
of  governing  a  church  by  elders  had  its  dilfi- 
cuities  in  tiie  minds  of  some  members  who 
understood  that  the  supremacy  of  their  votes 
had  first  raised  tho.se  eUh-rs  to  power.  More- 
over, most  of  the  various  incapacities  which 
had  interfered  with  the  ]irosperity  of  Browne's 
church  thrust  themselves  into  notice  in  that  of 
Johnson,  and  the  repeated  endeavors  of  the 
bodv  to  make  in(iui.sition  over  it.self.  with  a 
view  to  the  removal  of  remaining  imiK-rf^ec- 
tions.  ended  more  in  mutual  recrimination 
than  in  a  loftier  life.  It  gradually  mmU-  itst-lf 
obvious  that,  whatever  the  resjKCtive  merits 
of  Congregationalism  and  Presbyterianism 
when  .separate,  the  two  systems  are  ill  fitted 
to  work  happilv  together  at  tiie  .same  time  in 
the  same  church.     Hence,  Johnson  and  Ains- 


OONGREGATIONALISTS 


(190) 


OONGREGATIONALISTS 


worth  drifted  apart  ;  the  former  leading  the 
majority  of  the  church  after  him  toward  a 
Presbyterianism  wliicli  was  actual  iu  every- 
thing but  name  ;  the  latter  drawing  the  mi- 
nority toward  a  view  of  the  churcli  constitution 
whicii  reduced  the  Presbyterianism  of  the 
mixture,  wliich  was  known  as  Barrowism  in 
■  distinction  from  Brownism,  to  its  minimum. 
When  John  Robinson  and  his  company 
from  tlie  North  of  England  came  upon  the 
scene,  in  1608,  they  ranged  themselves  upon 
the  more  practically  democratic  of  the  two 
sides,  although  Robinson  was  careful  to  ex- 
plain that  hedid  not  look  upon  democracy  as 
being  really  a  fit  government  for  church  or 
state,  as  Ainsworth  had  already  said  to  Mr. 
Bernard  : 

for  popular  government  (which  Mr.  Bern,  would 
traduce  vs  l)y  ;)  we  hold  it  not,  we  approve  it  not  ;  for 
if  the  multitude  govern,  then  who  ehalbe  governed. 

And  when,  in  1620,  the  minority  of  Robin- 
son's company,  under  the  leadership  of  Elder 
Brewster,  settled  the  Old  Colony,  the  number 
of  Congregational  churches  in  the  world  which 
can  now  be  identified  was  very  small — not 
more  than  5  or  6.  Johnson  had  died  in  1618, 
and  the  fragment  of  his  congregation  which 
had  followed  him  to  Emden  and  then  back  to 
Amsterdam,  seems  to  have  disappeared  as  an 
organization.  Ainsworth's  company  remained 
at  Amsterdam  ;  the  majority  of  Robinson's 
company  were  tarrying  a  little  longer  at  Ley- 
den  under  him,  and  there  seems  to  have  been 
a  remnant  of  the  original  London  church  still 
abiding  in  that  city,  besides  the  company  gath- 
ered, in  1616,  by  Henry  Jacob  in  Southwark. 
Possibly  there  were  feeble  little  churches  in 
Norwich  and  Chatham.  But  by  the  largest 
estimate  the  Congregationalists  of  that  date 
were  but  a  feeble  folk. 

In  this  country  their  growth  for  a  long  time 
kept  p.ice  with  that  of  the  population.  It  is 
notorious  that  when  the  Massachusetts  Colony 
was  settled,  10  years  after  Plymouth,  its  good 
people  had  no  idea  of  becoming  Congregation- 
alists. They  were  Puritans,  but  not  Separa- 
tists, and  they  had  a  very  distinct  prejudice 
against  the  Plymouth  men.  They  left  the 
English  Channel  with  a  vague  notion  that 
somehow  they  were  going  to  reproduce  the 
Church  of  England  here,  in  that  purified  and 
beatific  state  for  which  they  had  long  been 
contending  at  home  in  vain.  But  when  they 
came  on  shore  they  were  confronted  with  the 
facts  that  they  had  no  church,  and  no  bishop 
to  arrange  properly  that  they  should  have  one, 
to  ordain  its  pastor,  and  generally  to  bless  the 
movement.  So  that  precisely  that  happened 
to  them  which  John  Robinson  had  foreseen 
and  predicted  when  he  had  said  to  his  own 
departing  company  :  "  there  will  be  no  differ- 
ence between  the  unconformable  [i.e.,  the 
merely  Nonconformist  Puritan]  Ministers  and 
you,  when  they  come  to  the  practise  of  the 
Ordinances  out  of  the  Kingdome."  To  have 
a  church  it  was  necessary"  for  the  Mattapan 
and  Salem  and  Shawmut  men  to  make  one 
for  themselves,  wliich,  with  some  help  be- 
sought by  themselves  from  the  Plymouth  men, 
they  did.  And  so  they,  too,  had  a  Congre- 
gational church,  and  churches,  and  became 
Congregationalists. 


When  Mr.  Cotton  came  over,  and  when  he 
and  Richard  Mather  and  the  other  great  lights 
investigated  the  subject  and  wrote  upon  it, 
they  came  out  just  where  it  might  safely  have 
been  predicted  that  they  would  come  out. 
Some  kind  of  Congregationalism  necessarily 
they  must  agree  upon,  but  with  the  tremen- 
dous home  pressure  against  popular  rights, 
and  with  the  sharp  eyes  of  king  and  court" and 
hierarchy  upon  them,  it  must  be  that  kind 
which  had  least  of  democracy  entering  into  it. 
So  it  came  about  that — with  the  exception  of 
some  mildness  in  the  insignificant  and  de- 
spised Plymouth  Colony — the  Congregational- 
ism of  New  England  was  handicapped  in  the 
outset  by  so  large  an  infusion  of  Presbyterian- 
ism, as  sadly  to  interfere  with  its  faithful  and 
successful  working.  It  would  indeed  be  diffi- 
cult for  a  Congregationalist  of  to-day  to  be 
present  in  spirit,  as,  by  the  careful  study  of  a 
good  many  documents,  some  printed,  but  more 
unprinted,  he  may  fairly  manage  to  be,  in  an 
assembly  of  a  church  of  that  day  when  en- 
gaged in  the  transaction  of  important  busi- 
ness, without  a  considerable  shock  to  his  sense 
of  fairness,  and  no  little  wonderment  as  to 
what  manner  of  polity  it  might  be  which  was 
undergoing  administration.  Suppose  him  to 
try  the  First  Church  of  Boston  on  lecture-day, 
Thursday,  March  15-25,  1637-38,  where  Mrs. 
Anne  Hutchinson  is  under  examination  before 
the  church  for  divers  heretical  opinions.  The 
members  are  there  in  full  force,  with  Pastor 
Wilson,  Teacher  Cotton,  the  ruling  elders, 
and  6  or  7  ministers  of  neighboring  churches. 
Mr.  Shepard,  of  the  church  in  Cambridge, 
makes  the  charges.  There  was  a  long  discus- 
sion whether  Mrs.  Hutchinson  denied  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul.  She  thinks  the  human 
spirit  is  immortal,  but  wants  it  proved  that 
the  soul  is.  After  some  discussion  Elder  Lev- 
erett  called  upon  the  church  to  say  whether 
they  were  satisfied  with  what  the  accused  said 
on  that  point.  Whereupon  Sergeant  Savage, 
Mrs.  Hutchinson's  sonin-law,  suggested  that 
he  thought  there  was  too  much  haste,  and  the 
church  ought  to  have  time  to  think  of  it. 
But  the  pastor  and  the  governor  thought 
enough  had  been  said  to  warrant  a  decision. 
Pastor  Wilson  blandly  remarked  that  "he 
looked  upon  her  opinion  to  be  dangerous  and 
damnable,  and  to  be  no  less  than  Sadducisme 
and  Atheism,  and  therefore  to  be  detested." 
Mr.  Davenport,  then  in  Boston  on  his  way  to 
New  Haven,  declared  that  her  opinions 
"  shake  the  very  foundat^ion  of  our  faith,  and 
tend  to  the  overthrow  of  all  religion."  The 
pastor  called  for  a  decision.  Then  Mrs. 
Hutchinson's  son,  who  was  a  member  of  the 
church,  wanted  to  know  by  what  rule  lie 
should  act.  The  pastor  told  him  "he  had 
better  think  whether  God  would  confess  him 
in  heaven  if  lie  denied  to  confess  the  truth 
before  men,  even  though  against  his  own 
mother."  Son-in-law  Savage  ventured  also 
to  intimate  that  he  did  not  see  any  rule  which 
would  justify  the  church  in  proceeding  at  this 
stage,  whereat  the  Rev.  IVIr.  Symmcs,  of 
Charlestown,  expressed  the  fear  "  that  if,  by 
any  means,  this  should  be  carried  over  into 
England,  that  in  New  England,  and  in  such  a 
congregation"    such    things    took    place,    it 


OONORBGATIONALISTS 


(191) 


OONORBGATIONALISTS 


would  be  "  oue  of  the  greatest  of  dishonors  to 
Jesus  Christ  and  of  reproach  to  these  cliurclies 
that  hath  bin  done  since  we  came  hither." 
It  was  th!>n  proposed  lliat  all  those  who  dis- 
sented from  the  opinion  of  tlie  majority  of  the 
cliurch  should  be  put  under  admonition,  and 
so  deprived  of  the  power  to  vote,  to  which 
Pastor  Wilson  replied  :  "  I  think  you  speak 
very  well  ;  it  is  very  meet. "  This  accordingly 
was  done,  and  then,  the  church  assentiugW 
silence,  the  chief  culprit  was  also  admonished. 
A  week  later  the  trial  was  resumed.  jMrs. 
Hutchinson  avowed  repentance.  "  She  liad 
spoken  unadvisedly  and  rashly.  The  root  of 
all  was  the  hight  and  pride  of  her  spirit.  She 
was  heartily  sorry  she  had  slighted  the  minis- 
ters."  But  Mr.  Shepard  was  "unsatisfied  if 
her  repentance  were  true. ' '  So  was  Mr.  Eliot. 
Mr.  Symmes  was  glad  to  see  any  humiliation 
in  her  ;  but  Mr.  Peters  "  did  think  she  would 
have  humbled  herself  more."  Deputy-gov- 
ernor Dudley  was  "  very  much  afraid  her  re- 
pentance would  do  more  hurt  than  her  errors 
Her  repentance  w^as  in  a  paper  which  he  didn't 
know  who  drew  up  ;  it  certainly  wasn't  in  her 
countenance."  Mr.  Shepard  returned  to  the 
subject  squarely  to  say  :  "  you  have  not  only 
to  deale  with  a  woman  this  day  that  houlds 
diverse  erronious  opinions,  but  with  one  that 
never  had  any  trew  grace  in  her  hart  :  yea, 
this  day,  she  hatii  shewed  herselfe  to  be  a  no- 
torious" Imposter  :  it  is  a  Tricke  of  as  notori- 
ous Subtiltie  as  ever  was  held  in  the  Church. " 
All  who  spoke  thought  she  ought  to  be  cast 
out,  until  some  one  inquired  "  how  they  could 
cast  out  a  penitent,  since  the  Scripture  de- 
clareth  that  he  who  confesseth  and  forsaketh 
his  sin  shall  have  mercy,  and  we  are  to  bear 
with  patience  the  contrary-minded?"  Tt) 
whom  Mr.  Cotton  tersely  explained  that  that 
applied  to  true  penitence,  and  the  "  contrary- 
minded"  referred  to  vfcra  those  who  were 
icithimt.  Those  who  were  on  the  other  side 
still  boing  under  admonition,  the  church  nnan- 
imouslif  sanctioned  the  proposition  of  expul- 
sion, whereupon  Pastor  Wilson,  in  the  name 
of  the  church,  delivered  the  poor  woman  to 
Satan,  and  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  com- 
manded her  as  a  leper  to  withdraw  herself  out 
of  the  congregation,  as  one  who  may  now 
liave  no  part  in  them  or  benefit  by  them. 

Of  course  it  is  to  bo  borne  in  mind  that,  in 
every  respect,  those  were  ruder  and  harder 
times  than  these  in  which  we  live  ;  but,  with 
all  due  allowance,  it  is  nearly  impossil)le  to 
recognize  in  such  a  scene  the  lineaments  of  a 
fair  and  honorable  government  by  the  people, 
acting  untler  the  benign  orders  of  a  Goil  of 
infinite  justice  and  a  Saviour  of  infinite 
mercy. 

Such  a  phivse  of  Congregationalism  as  this 
could  not  be  permanently  satisfactory  to  an 
intelligent  people  who  were  on  their  way  to 
be  a  free  people.  Yet  it  was  not  until  the 
days  of  John  Wise  and  Nathaniel  Emmons  ; 
not  until  well  into  the  present  century  ;  not 
until  the  aspects  and  infiuences  of  civil  gov- 
ernment favored  such  a  transfer  ;  that  the  gen- 
eral system  of  the  fathers  was  clarified  and 
energized  by  purging  out  the  last  vestige  of 
that  Presbyterianism  which  had  so  long  been 
a  curse  to  it,  and  its  development  into  a  Con- 


gregationalism which  is  a  self-consistent,  ho- 
mogeneous, and  satisfactory  democratic  polity, 
fitting  exactly  the  rights  of  man  and  thf 
commands  of  God. 

Before  a.d.  1800  Congregationalism  was 
scarcely  known  out  of  New  England,  and  the 
first  generation  of  the  10th  century  had  ncarlv 
gone  by  before  New  England  Coiigregational- 
ists  emigrating  to  the  interior  and  the  West 
became  aware  that  I'resbyterianism  is  not  the 
same  church  goveriunent  under  another  name, 
and  began  to  incpiire  why  those  simi)lc  ancl 
scriptural  methods  which  "worked  so  well  on 
the  eastern  side  of  Byram  river  should  not 
also  prove  possible,  practical,  and  beneficent 
on  its  western  side.  In  1852,  by  the  abroga- 
tion of  what  had  been  since  180ron  both  sides 
a  well-intended  "Plan  of  Union"  between 
Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists,  but 
whose  working  had  not  satisfied  the  latter,  the 
Congregationalists  first  steadily  began  to  grow 
in  the  newer  sections  of  the  land.  The  first 
real  attempts  at  accurate  denominational  statis- 
tics date  back  only  to  1845,  although  a  vague 
endeavor  had  been  made  85  years  before.  A 
comparative  glance  at  the  returns  of  a  few 
years  may  be  instructive  : 


Churches. 

Members.               Ministers. 

iroo 

...    5;30.. 

(41  cluirches  vacant 

18-45. 

...1,471.. 

l(ir),'->87....                1,412 

1843 

...1,807.. 

177,008....                1,01-J 

(No  returns  for  1849.) 

1859. 

...2,571.. 

250,452...                 2,.'V1-1 

18B9. 

...3,043.. 

330,391....               3,:i78 

1879. 

...3,074 

382,920....               3,585 

1889. 

...4,569.. 

475,008....               4,408 

It  is  usual  for  the  Congregational  ministers 
of  a  neighborhood  to  be  united  in  a  niinisierial 
as,sociation  which  meets  two  or  three  limes  a 
year  for  purposes  of  better  accpiaintance,  spir- 
itual intercourse,  and  professional  inqirove- 
ment.  It  has  become  the  practice  for  students 
desiring  introduction  to  the  ministry  to  seek, 
and,  if^all  be  well,  to  receive  from  such  asso- 
ciations a  certificate  of  approval,  which  be- 
comes a  sufficient  commendation  to  the 
churches.  Lately  it  has  also  become  common 
for  membership  in  some  such  body,  as  involv- 
ing the  good-will  and  confidence  of  his  neigh- 
bors, to  be  recognized  as  orderly  proof  of  good 
standing  in  the  Congregational  ministry. 

These  district  associations  are  afiiliated  in 
delegated  state  associations  which  meet  once 
a  year.  The  churches  are  also  joined  in  confer- 
ences, much  as  the  ministers  are  in  these  asso- 
ciations. 

The  Triennial  National  Council,  comi>osed 
of  caref(dlv-proportioned  delegations  from  all 
the  ('.)iigregatif)nal  churches  of  the  land,  was 
formrMl  at  Oberlin  in  1871,  and  has  met  at 
New  Haven  in  1874.  Detroit  in  1877.  St.  Louis 
in  18H0.  Concord,  N.  H.,  in  ISS;^  Chicago  in 
1880,  and  Worcester,  Mass.,  in  IHHU. 

There  are  7  benevolent  societies  through 
which  the  Congregationalists  of  the  Lnited 
States  work  together  for  the  advancement  of 
the  kingdom  of  God,  while,  at  the  sauu;  time, 
they  cooperate  largely  with  Christians  of 
other  polities  throuirh"  Bible,  tract.  Sunday- 
school,  seamen's  friend,  temperance,  moral 
reform,  and  kindn-d  organizations. 

These  arc  :  1.  The  American  Board  of  Com- 


OONGREGATIONALISTS 


(192) 


OONGREGATIONALISTS 


missioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  established 
in  1810,  which  has  22  missions,  1050  stations 
and  out  stations,  472  missionaries  and  assist- 
ant missionaries,  2135  native  laborers,  336 
churches,  with  about  31,000  members,  126 
high  schools  and  seminaries  for  young  men 
and  women,  with  over  7000  students,  and  a 
total  of  near  43,000  children  and  youth  who 
are  under  Christian  instruction.  The  annual 
receipts  are  about  $400,000  in  donations  and 
nearly  |150,000  in  legacies. 

2.  The  American  Home  Missionary  Society, 
organized  in  1826.  It  has  aided  to  establish 
5081  churches,  nearly  half  of  which  have 
come  to  self-support.  It  has  collected  and 
disbursed  in  cash  over  12  millions  of  dollars, 
and  supplied  needy  pastors  and  their  families 
with  nearly  3  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of 
clothing,  books,  and  other  valuables.  Its  an- 
nual receipts  are  about  $550,000  in  cash  and 
nearly  $70,000  in  supplies. 

3.  The  American  Missionary  Association, 
organized  in  1846,  was  originally  especially  to 
aid  the  slave,  and  since  emancipation  it  has 
sought  to  prepare  the  colored  people  for  the 
discharge  of  their  duties  as  citizens  and  Chris- 
tians, not  forgetting  the  Indians  and  the 
Chinese.  It  has  been  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing 136  churches  and  58  colleges  and 
schools,  having  under  instruction  nearly  12,000 
pupils.  It  estimates  that  there  are  more  than 
200,000  scholars  taught  by  those  whom  it  has 
trained. 

4.  The  American  College  and  Education 
Society,  organized  in  181G  as  the  "  American 
Education  Society."  lis  object  is  to  aid  col- 
leges when  in  their  formative  stage,  and  to 
assist  pious  young  men  to  obtain  an  education 
for  the  Christian  ministry.  It  has  aided  about 
7500  young  men  into  the  pulpit.  It  had  last 
year  on  its  list  280.  It  has  done  what  it  could 
also  to  aid  23  colleges  and  seminaries  toward 
self-support. 

5.  The  American  Congregational  Union, 
whose  object  is  to  assist  in  the  erection  of 
churches  and  parsonages.  Its  total  resources 
for  church-building  last  year  were  $152,803.,- 
94  ;  for  parsonages,  $26,534.26. 

6.  The  Congregational  Sunday-school  and 
Publishing  Society.  During  1888  it  aided  in 
the  organization  of  497  Sunday-schools,  and 
made  2582  grants  of  Sunday-school  literature. 
Its  total  receipts  were  $45,496.58. 

7.  The  New  West  Education  Commission, 
whose  ob^ 

tion  in  Utah  and  adji 
tories.  It  maintains  30  schools,  with  more 
than  twice  that  number  of  teachers,  in  which 
are  nearly  3000  pupils,  nearly  one  third  of 
whom  are  Mormons,  and  as  many  more  apos- 
tates from  the  Mormon  faith.  It  has  also  24 
Sunday-schools  including  nearly  2000  pupils. 
Its  total  income  for  the  last  year  was  $65,- 
751.89. 

Congregationalists  in  the  United  States  have 
also  7  theological  seminaries  for  the  training 
of  ministers,  intended  especially  for  those  who 
have  already  taken  a  college  degree,  yet  ex- 
ceptionally admitting  others.  These  are  An- 
dover,  opened  for  service  in  1808  ;  Bangor, 
which  began  its  work  in  1816  ;  Yale,  which 
graduated  its  first  class  in   1825  ;  Hartford 


bject  is  to  promote  Christian  civiliza- 
Utah  and  adjacent  states  and  terri- 


(formcrly  East  Windsor),  founded  in  1834  ; 
Oberlin,  which  received  students  in  1838 ; 
Chicago,  which  commenced  its  labors  in  1858, 
and  the  Pacific  (at  Oakland,  Cal.),  where  in- 
struction began  in  1869.  For  the  last  10  years 
these  7  seminaries  in  all  together  have  aver- 
aged, adding  a  whole  one  for  a  fraction,  43 
professors,  21  instructors  or  lecturers,  10  resi- 
dent licentiates,  18  in  their  advanced  or  gradu- 
ate classes,  89  seniors,  95middlers,  104  juniors, 
53  in  special  courses— an  average  total  of  63 
instructors  and  368  students.  It  should  be 
added  that  the  last  reported  year  is  noticeably 
above  these  averages,  reporting  74  instructors, 
with  490  undergraduate  students,  of  whom  92 
were  seniors,  113  middlers,  133  juniors,  and 
153  specials. 

It  is  a  cheering  fact  with  which  to  conclude 
our  view  of  American  Congregationalists,  that 
their  latest  statistics  show  for  the  last  5  years 
a  net  annual  gain  of  very  nearly  112  churches 
and  of  almost  16,000  members. 

We  have  seen  that  there  were  only  2  or  3 
feeble  Congregational  churches  in  England 
M'hen  emigration  to  this  country  began.  Ten 
years  before  the  convocation  of  the  Westmin- 
ster Assembly  there  were  no  more,  save  that 
5  or  6  Baptist  churches,  who  were  immersing 
Congregationalists,  had  added  a  little  to  the 
growth  of  Separatism  in  England.  The  fact 
was  that  Puritanism  never  took  kindly  to 
Separatism,  while  at  the  same  time  New 
England  was  drawing  that  element  to  herself 
over  sea.  But  when  the  ferment  of  the  civil 
war  came  on,  Congregationalism,  which  the 
English  have  usually  preferred  to  call  Inde- 
pendency, began  a  swift  and  large  growth, 
especially  in  London  and  its  neighborhood. 
It  is  probably  to  be  confessed  that  it  t^ourished 
for  a  time  exceptionally  among  the  illiterate, 
who  had  an  enthusiastic  or  even  a  fanatical 
turn.  But  about  the  time  when  the  Long 
Parliament  opened  it  began  to  make  its  way 
as  never  before  among  the  better  class  of  Puri- 
tans, men  like  Nye,  Goodwin,  Bridge,  Bur- 
roughs, and  Simpson  being  numbered  among 
its  stoutest  adherents  ;  a  thing  helped  by  the 
steady  flow  of  a  stream  of  influence  from  New 
England  in  letters  and  trfiatises  from  Cotton. 
Hooker,  Davenport,  Ilicha,rd  Mather,  Samuel 
Stone,  and  their  compeers.  As  late  as  1641  as 
wise  and  good  a  man  as  Richard  Baxter  con- 
fes.sed  that  before  then,  he  "never  thought 
what  Presbytery  or  Independency  were,  nor 
ever  spake  with  a  man  that  seemed  to  know 
it."  There  were  10  or  11  Congregational- 
ists in  the  Westminster  Assembly  ;  Cotton, 
Hooker,  and  Davenport  being  invited  from 
this  country,  but  failing  to  see  "a  sufficient 
call."  Cromwell  and  the  army  favored  Inde- 
pendency, and  the  polity  made  a  long  stride 
forward.  But  the  Kestoration  soon  darkened 
the  heavens,  and  a  series  of  tyrannical  acts 
followed.  Not  until  1689  did  England  begin 
to  mitigate  itself  toward  Nonconformists. 
Slowly  one  senseless  and  cruel  discrimination 
against  them  after  another  has  been  swept 
away,  until  at  last  even  they  have  a  college  in 
Oxford.  English  Congrega"ionalists  deserve 
great  honor  tliat,  in  the  face  of  such  hostility, 
tliey  have  made  so  large  a  growth.  Their 
last  Tcai'  Book  reports  in  England  and  Wales 


CONGRBaATIONALISTS 


(193) 


OONQREGATIONAIilSTS 


4376  churches,  branch  churches,  and  mission 
stations.  Besides  these  they  have  in  Scothmd 
101  churches  and  stations  ;  in  Ireland.  123  ; 
Canada.  201  ;  Australia,  310  ;  New  Zealand, 
24;  Natal,  etc.,  26;  South  Africa,  39;  Ja- 
maica, 41  ;  British  Giiitina.  39  ;  India,  31  ; 
Ciuiia,  2  ;  on  the  Continent,  4,  and  in  the 
Chiuinel  Islands,  11.  These  ajxgregate  5328. 
Add  these  to  the  4569  on  the  American  list, 
and  we  get  a  grand  total  of  well  on  toward 
10,000  (9897)  Congregational  churches  known 
und  tabulated  among  English  speaking  peoples. 
Baptists,  Unitarians,  and  Universalists  have 
sometimes  been  accounted  Congregationalists. 
But  tlie  former,  although  using  substantially 
the  democratic  polity,  so  radically  dilfer  from 
Congregationalists  on  more  than  one  important 
point,  that  it  seems  fallacious  to  endeavor  to 
include  them  under  that  name  ;  while  the 
laxit}^  of  discipline  as  well  as  of  theology  in 
the  case  of  tlie  latter  two,  is  so  great  and  vital, 
that  they  can  hardly  in  fairness  be  accounted 
as  having  any  polity  at  all. 

Hexry  Martyn  Dexter. 

Literature. — R.  Browne,  A  Bookc  wJdch 
sln>weth  the  Life  and  Mnn iters  of  all  True 
Christians  and  Junce  vidike  then  "'"^  ''^'^^"  Turkes 
and  Papistts,  and  Heathen  Folke.  Also  the 
Pointer  and  Partes  of  all  Diainitie,  etc.,  Mid- 
delbvrgh,  1583. 

H.  Barrowe  and  J.  Greenwood,  A  Trve  De- 
scription, out  of  the  Word  of  God,  of  the  Visi- 
ble Church  (Dort),  1589. 

H.  Barrowe,  A  Brief  Discouerie  of  tJie  False 
Church,  etc.  (Dort),  1590. 

F.  Johnson  and  H.  Ainsworth,  A  True  Con- 
feHsion  of  the  Faith,  and  HvnMe  Acknowledg- 
ment of  tiLe  Alege<ince,  iDhich  wee  Mr  Maiesties 
Suhjects  falsely  called  Brownists  doo  Iwuld  toio- 
ards  God,  etc.,  1596. 

H.  Ainsworth,  Confessio  Fidei  Anglorvm 
Quorundani  in  Belgia  Exulantium,  etc.,  1598, 
2d  ed.,  1607. 

F.  Johnson  and  11.  Ainsworth,  An  Apologie 
or  Defense  ef  such  True  Christians  as  are  com- 
monhj  {hut  unjustly)  called  Brownists  {Amster- 
dam), 1604. 

J.  Smyth,  Paralleles,  Ceiisvres,  Observations, 
etc.,  1609. 

J.  Robinson,  A  Justification  of  Separation 
from  the  Church  of  England,  etc.,  1610  ;  in 
Works,  Loudon,  1851. 

J.  Robinson,  The  Peoples  Plea  for  the  Exer- 
cise of  Prophesie,  etc.,  Leyden,  1618 ;  in 
Works,  London.  1851. 

J.  Robinson,  A  lust  and  Necessarie  Apologie 
of  certain  Christians,  no  lesse  contunuiiously 
then  commonly  called  Brownists  or  Barroicists, 
etc.,  1625  ;  in  Works,  London,  1851. 

R.  Mather,  Church- Govern ment  a nd  Church- 
Coveiuint  discasse*l,  in  an  Answer  of  the  Elders, 
etc.,  London,  1643. 

_  J.  Cotton,  The  Keyes  of  tlie  Kingdom  of 
jlearen,  and  Power  thereof,  etc.,  London, 
1644,  4th  ed..  Boston.  1852. 

T.  Weld,  .4  Brief  Xar ration  of  the  Practices 
of  tlie  Churches  in  New  England,  etc.,  London, 
1645  ;   London,  1647. 

W.  Bartlet,  Ichnographia  ;  or  a  Modell  of 
the  Primitive  Congregational  Way,  etc.,  Lon- 
don, 1647. 


T.  Hooker,  A  Survey  of  the  Summe  of 
Church-Discipline,  etc.,  London,  1648. 

A  Platform  of  Church- Discipline  gathered 
out  of  tlie  Word  of  God,  and  agreed  iipnn  by 
the  Elders  and  Messengers  of  the  Churches  as- 
sembled in  the  Si/nod  at  Cambridge,  etc.,  Cam- 
bridge. 1649  ;  Boston,  1855. 

S.  Stone,  A  Congregational  Chvrch  is  a 
Catholike  Visible  Church,  etc.,  London,  1652. 

.1  Dielaration  tf  the  Faith  and  Order  owned 
and  practised  in  the  Congregational  Churchis 
in  England,  agreed  upon,  at  the  Savoy,  etc., 
Loudon,  1658,  3d  ed.,  1688. 

Propositions  concerning  the  Subject  of  Bap- 
tism and  Consociation  of  Churches,  etc.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1662. 

J.  Eliot,  Communion  of  Churches:  or  the 
DiHne  Management  of  Gospel  ChurcJws  by  the 
Ordinance  of  Counrilx,  etc..  Cambridge.  16G5. 

J.  Davenport,  The  Poicer  of  Congregational 
Lhnrches  Asserted  and  Vindicated,  etc.,  Lon- 
don, 1672.    . 

I.  Chauncv,  The  Divine  Institution  of  Con- 
gregational Churches,  etc.,  asserted  and  proved, 
etc.,  London,  1697. 

I.  Mather,  The  Order  of  the  Gospel,  professed 
and  practised  by  the  Churches  of  New  England 
justified,  etc.,  Boston,  1700. 

C.  Mather,  Magnalia  Christi  Americana, 
etc.,  London,  1702,  3d  ed.,  Hartford,  1^<53. 

A  Confession  of  Faith  owned  and  consented 
to  at  Saybrook,  etc.,  New  London,  1710. 

J.  Wise,  The  Churches  Quarrel  Espoused, 
etc.,  Boston,  1710.  5th  ed.,  Boston,  1860. 

I.  Mather,  A  Disquisition  concerning  Eccle- 
siastiad  Councils,  etc.,  Boston,  1716. 


J.  Wise,  A    Vindication  of  the  Gorernmeiit 
•hes,  Boston,  1717 
4th  ed.,  Boston",  1860. 


of  the  New  England  Church 


C.  Mather.  Ratio  Disciplinm  Fratrum  Noc- 
Anglorum,  Boston.  1726. 

S.  Mather,  An  Apology  for  the  Libertiej<  of 
the  Churches  of  Neic  England,  etc.,  London, 
1738. 

E.  Chaplin,  A  Treatise  on  Church  Govern- 
ment, etc.,  Boston,  1773. 

Z.  Adams,  Answer  to  "A  Treatise,"  etc., 
Boston,  1773. 

E.  Chaplin,  Congregationalism  explained  by 
the  Cambridge  Platform,  etc.,  Boston,  1794. 

T.  C.  U[)liam,  Ratio  Dixcijdina-,  or  Vie 
Comtituiion  of  Congregeitional  Churclus  ea- 
amined,  etc.,  Portland,  1829,  2d  ed.,  Port- 
land,  1844. 

G.  Punchard,  .1  View  of  Congregationalism, 
etc.,"  Salem,  1840,  4th  ed.",  Boston.  1856. 

G.  Punchard.  History  of  Congregationalism, 
etc.,  Salem.  1841,  4th  ed.,  greatly  enlarged, 
Boston.  1860. 

R.  V'aughan,  Congregationalism  netred  \n 
relation  to  Modern  Society,  etc.,  London.  1841. 

E.  Pond.  .4  Manual  of  Congregationalism, 
Portland,  1848  ;  Bangor.  1859. 

E.  R.  Tyler,  The  Congregational  Catechism. 
etc..  New  "Haven,  1844. 

Manual  of  Church  Polity,  prepared  by  a 
Committee  of  the  General  Association  of  low  a, 
Burlinirton."  IR^O. 

The  Plan  of  Union  of  1801  between  Congre- 
qationetliKts  and  Presbyterians,  and  Riason* 
'wht/  it  should  be  abandoned.  New  York.  1S.52. 

P.   Cummings,  .1  LHctionary  of  Congrega- 


OONON 


(194) 


CONSILIA 


tional    Usages  and  Principles,  Boston,   1852, 
5th  ed.,  1854. 

J.  W.  Wellman,  The  Church  Polity  of  the 
Pilgrims,  Boston,  1857. 

D.  A.  White,  iSfeic  England  Congregation al- 
ism  in  its  Origin  and  Purity,  etc.,  Salem, 
1861. 

I.  E.  Roy,  A  Manual  of  the  Principles,  etc., 
of  the  Congregational  Chinrhes,  Chicago,  1869. 

H.  M.  Dexter,  Congregationalism  :  W  hat  it 
is  ;  Whence  it  is  ;  IIoic  it  icorks  ;  why  it  is 
letter  than  any  other  polity,  etc.,  Boston, 
1865,  5th  ed.,  1879. 

Debates  and  Proceedings  of  the  Council  of 
1865  (phonographic),  Boston,  1866. 

J.  Waddington,  Congregational  History, 
London,  1869,"finished  in  1878. 

H.  M.  Dexter,  Tlie  Church  Polity  of  the  Pil- 
grims the  Polity  of  the  New  Testament,  etc., 
Boston,  1870. 

L.  Bacon,  The  Genesis  of  the  New  England 
Churches,  New  York,  1874. 

H.  M.  Dexter,  The  Congregationalism  of 
the  last  Three  Hundred  Years  as  seen  in  its 
Literature,  etc..  New  York,  1880. 

G.  Punchard,  Conqregationalism  in  America, 
from  1629  to  1879,  Boston,  1880. 

H.  M.  Dexter,  A  Hand-Book  of  Congrega- 
tionalism, Boston,  1880. 

G.  T.  Ladd,  The  Principles  of  Church 
Polity,  etc..  New  York,  1882. 

A.  H.  Ross,  A  Pocket  Manual  of  Congrega- 
tionalism, Chicago,  1888. 

R.  W.  Dale,  A  Manual  of  Congregational 
Principles,  London,  1884. 

G.  Huntington,  Outlines  of  Congregational 
History,  Boston,  1885. 

A.  H.  Ross,  The  Church-Kingdom,  etc., 
Boston,  1887. 

Henry  Marttn  Dexter. 

Oonon,  pope  686-87  ;  b.  in  Thrace  ;  edu- 
cated in  Sicily.  His  pontilicate  is  distin- 
guished for  nothing.  F.  H.  F. 

Oononites,  followers  of  Conon,  bishop  of 
Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  who  was  himself  a  follower 
of  John  Philoponus,  who  taught  the  so-called 
Tritheism,  the  unity  of  the  Godhead  consist- 
ing in  the  possession  of  one  abstract  and  gen- 
eric nature.  The  party  disappears  after  the 
year  700.  F.  H.  F. 

Conrad  of  Marburg.    See  Konrad  op  ]\L\r- 

BURG. 

Consanguinity.     See  Marriage. 

Conscience  (from  the  Latin  conscientia 
[consciousness]),  which,  hosvever,  was  not 
used  in  a  religious  sense.  The  word  does  not 
occur  in  the  Old  Testament,  nor  was  it  em- 
ployed by  our  Lord.  It  is  the  power  by 
which  a  man  passes  judgment  on  his  own  acts, 
words,  or  thoughts,  as  good  or  evil.  It  is  not 
a  development,  nor  a  conclusion  derived  from 
reflection,  but  belongs  to  man's  nature  as  a 
rational,  moral  being.  It  is  God's  vicegerent 
in  the  soul,  reminding  man  of  his  responsibil- 
ities. The  apostle  recognizes  its  existence  and 
authority  (Rom.  ii.  15.  xiii.  5,  6,  2  Cor.  iv.  2), 
struggled  earnestly  himself  to  keep  it  good 
(Acts  xxiv.  16,  2  Cor.  i.  12),  and  enjoined  the 
same  upon  others  (1  Tim.  i.  5,  19,  iii.  9).  It 
is  not  of  itself  a  standard  of  duty,  for  it  may 


be  perverted,  or,  as  the  apostle  says,  "  detiled" 
(Titus  i.  15),  or  even  "seared  with  a  hot 
iron"  (1  Tim.  iv.  2).  It  requires,  therefore,  to 
be  educated  and  trained,  or  it  may  sadly  mis- 
lead, as  when  Paul  thought  himself  doing  God 
service  at  the  very  time  when  he  was  most 
provoking  his  wrath.  It  always  involves  the 
idea  of  a  law  enjoining  obedience,  and  this 
"  categorical  imperative,"  as  Kant  called  it, 
justilies  or  rather  requires  the  being  of  God  as 
the  founder  and  administrator  of  that  law. 
No  evil  is  worse  than  an  accusing  conscience. 
It  drives  men  into  grosser  sin  in  order  to  es- 
cape the  voice  of  the  inward  monitor,  and 
when  this  fails,  prompts  to  self-destruction. 
On  the  other  hand,  no  pleasure  is  greater  than 
that  of  a  conscience  intelligent  and  active,  yet 
pacified  through  the  cross,  and  henceforth 
approving. 

Liberty  of  conscience  means  that  man  shall 
choose  his  own  faith  and  worship  without 
hindrance  from  any  human  authority.  This 
is  abused  whenever  it  is  made  an  excuse  for 
immorality,  as  in  the  Mormon  practice  of 
polygamy.  It  is  denied  whenever  either  civil 
or  ecclesiastical  authority  undertakes  to  pre- 
scribe the  nature  and  character  of  any  man's 
religion.  T.  W.  C. 

Consecration  means  a  setting  apart  for 
service  of  God.  In  the  Old  Testament  it  is 
applied  to  persons  (Num.  vi.  9-13),  nations 
(Ex.  xix.  6),  fields  (Lev.  xxvii.  28),  cattle 
(2  Chron.  xxix.  83),  vessels  (Josh.  vi.  19),  etc. 
In  general  ecclesiastical  use  it  is  applied  to  the 
elements  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  bishops,  and 
churches.  In  the  last  case,  however,  "  dedi- 
cation" is  now  more  frequently  used,  even  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  though  she  has 
prescribed  certain  forms  and  rites  for  the  con- 
secration of  churches  and  still  keeps  them. 

Consensus.  (1)  Genevensis,  an  elaborate 
defence  of  predestination  drawn  up  by  Cal- 
vin, in  1552,  and  signed  by  the  pastors  of 
Geneva,  but  without  symbolical  authority  out- 
side that  city.  (Cf.  Schaflf,  Creeds,  pp.  474 
sqq.)  (2)  Helveticus,  the  last  doctrinal  con- 
fession of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Switzer- 
land, drawn  up  by  Heidegger,  in  1675,  in  de- 
fence of  the  scholastic  Calvinism  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort  and  against  the  theology  of  Saumur. 
(8)  Tigurinus,  26  articles  on  the  sacraments, 
drawn  up  by  Calvin,  published  at  Zurich  and 
Geneva,  in  1551  ;  adopted  by  these  and  by  the 
churches  of  St.  Gall,  Schaifhausen,  the  Gri- 
sons,  Neuchattl,  and  Basel. 

Consil'-ia  Evangel'-ica,  sometimes  known 
as  "  counsels  of  perfection,"  are  certain  ad- 
vices which  are  distinguished  from  \\\(; pn^ce2^ts 
of  the  law,  obligatory  upon  all  Christians,  by 
the  fact  that  they  are  to  be  assumed  only  by 
such  as  feel  called  to  such  a  course.  The 
doctrine  is  based  upon  Matt.  xxv.  21,  Luke, 
xvii.  10,  1  Cor.  vii.  10,  25,  Rev.  xiv.  4,  and 
gave  rise  to  the  whole  theory  of  monasticism. 
The  vows  assumed  for  this  so-called  higher 
life  are  chastity  (which  means  celibacy),  pov- 
erty, and  obedience  to  an  ecclesiastical  supe- 
rior. These  evangelical  counsels  arose  as  far 
back  as  Hermas  {Past.  Simil.  III.,  v.  3),  and 
are  still  preserved  in  the  Roman  and  Greek 
churches,  but  are  scouted  by  all  Protestants 


CONSISTORY 


(195) 


OONSTANTINB 


as  unscriptural,  unreasonable,  and  injurious. 
(See  Pres.  Reo.  X.)  T.  W.  C. 

Consistory  (Latin),  the  privy  council  of  the 
Roinin  enipiTors  ;  then  the  court  of  a  bishop, 
as  in  the  Church  of  England  to-day.  In  the 
Ilonian  Church  the  ecclesiastical  senate,  com- 
posed of  cardinals,  which  meets  fortnightly  in 
secret  session,  usually  presides!  over  by  the 
pope,  and  publicly,  as  occasion  may  require, 
when  others  than  cardinals  are  in  attendance. 
In  tlie  Lutheran  state  churches  the  consistory 
is  the  board  of  clerical  and  lay  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  sovereign  to  which  ecclesiasti- 
cal oversight  belongs.  Tlie  first  one  was 
established  by  the  elector  of  Saxony  at  Wit- 
tenberg, in  1539.  The  members  are  called 
"  cousistorial  councillors."  In  the  Reformed 
Cliurch,  Dutch  and  German,  consistory  is  tiie 
lowest  cliurch  court,  composed  of  the  minister 
(or  ministers),  elders,  and  deacons  of  the  con- 
gregation. 

Consolamentum.     See  Catiiari. 

Constance,  Council  of,  the  second  of  the  so- 
called  reforming  councils.  The  first  at  Pisa 
(q.v.)had  resulted  in  nothing  except  in  giving 
to  the  church  a  third  pope  instead  of  simply 
the  two  schismatic  popes  which  had  before 
existed.  This  pope,  Alexander  V.,  soon  died, 
and  was  followed  by  Balthazar  Cossa  as  John 
XXIII.  John's  character  was  of  the  worst, 
and  being  compelled  by  political  occurrences 
to  call  upon  SigismuncI,  the  Roman  king,  for 
help,  he  received  it  upon  the  condition  that 
he  should  call  a  free  council  upon  neutral 
ground  for  the  reformation  of  the  church  in 
head  and  members.  He  consented,  and  the 
emperor  selected  Constance  as  the  place. 
Here  the  council  met,  Nov.  5,  1414.  The  at- 
tendance w^as  very  large.  Beside  the  pope 
and  his  court,  including  29  cardinals,  there 
Were  3  patriarchs,  33  archbishops,  150  bishops, 
100  abbots,  and  innumerable  monks,  profes- 
sors, doctors,  ambassadors,  deputies,  and  mis- 
cellaneous followers.  Among  the  Frenchmen 
present  were  Peter  d'Ailli  and  John  Gerson 
(q.v.),  who  was  called  the  soul  of  the  council. 
Ttie  pope  had  expected  to  control  the  council 
by  the  preponderance  of  Italian  votes,  but  this 
was  defeated  by  the  adoption  of  the  plan  of 
voting  by  nations.  Of  these  there  were  4  : 
Italians,  French,  English,  and  Germans,  to 
which  subsequently  the  Spanish  were  added. 
The  first  business  undertaken  was  the  healing 
of  the  schism.  In  February,  1415,  a  com- 
plaint against  John  was  presented,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  abdicate  on  March  7.  He  had 
come  under  the  safe-conduct  of  the  emperor, 
but  this,  like  IIuss's,  was  disregarded.  Hav- 
ing escaped,  he  was  brought  back.  On  April 
6  the  doctrine  was  promulgated  that  a  regu- 
larly assembled  general  council  derives  its 
power  directly  from  Christ,  and  is  hence  su- 
perior to  the  jiope.  Upon  the  basis  of  this  the 
pope  was  deposed.  May  39.  Gregory  II.  vol- 
untarily laid  down  his  power,  and"  Benedict 
XHI.  was  deposed.  Then,  on  Xo\'.  11,  1417, 
Odo  Colonna  was  elected  pojie,  and  took  liie 
name  of  Martin  V.  Aleantime  John  IIuss 
(q.v.)  liad  been  tried  and  executed.  Some 
feeble  elforts  at  reform  were  now  made.  Tlie 
pope  had  sworn  to  undertake  them,  but  did 


nothing  of  any  importance.  Finally,  tlie  sub- 
ject was  referred  to  a  future  general  council, 
to  be  called  by  the  pope  at  Pavia  in  5  years, 
and  upon  April  22,  1418,  the  council  was 
closed.  (See  llefele,  Ilistovy  of  Counnln,  Eng. 
trans.)  F.  H.  F. 

Constantine  and  his  Sons.  Conslantine 
was  the  son  of  Constant  ins  Chlorus  and  Hel- 
ena, and  was  born  in  Naissus,  in  Ma-sia  (mod- 
ern Serbia),  in  274.  He  possessed  a  fine  phys- 
ical constitution,  and  was  trained  in  all  manly 
arts.  His  first  militarj-  exiierience  was  gained 
in  Egypt,  and  lie  remained  in  the  Orient  till 
305.  His  father  was  Ca'sar  of  the  western 
division  of  theemjMie  till  303,  then  Augustus, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Constantine  in  306. 
He  imniediutcly  began  to  favor  the  Chris- 
tians. A  inriod  of  great  ituiitical  confusion 
follows.  Constantine  successively  meets  Max- 
iinian  and  Maxenlius  and  defeats  them,  and 
in  313  forms  an  alliance  Avith  Licinius,  to 
whom  he  gives  his  sister  in  marriage.  For  10 
years  these  princes  remain  the  rulers  of  the 
empire,  till  Constantine  proceeds  against  Li- 
cinius, conquers  and  executes  him.  Murders 
of  nearer  relatives  follow.  From  this  time  to 
his  death  (337)  he  is  the  sole  ruler  of  the  empire. 

Con.stantine's  first  victories  are  accompanied 
with  favors  to  the  Chri.stian  religion.  In  313 
from  Rome,  and  again  in  313  from  3Iilan,  in 
connection  with  Licinius,  he  i.ssued  an  edict 
of  toleration  to  the  Christians,  which  went  so 
far  as  to  compensate  them  for  the  losses  they 
had  met  with  in  the  persecutions.  This  edict 
is  ascribed  in  the  legends  to  the  vision  of  a 
cross  which  Constantine  saw  before  his  battle 
with  Ma.xentius  in  313,  and  which  he  subse- 
quently made  the  standard  of  his  army.  Cer- 
tainly from  this  time  he  manifests  an  ever- 
increasing  inclination  toward  Christianity. 
From  315  to  323  a  series  of  laws  are  issued 
which  bestow  more  and  more  fully  upon 
Christianity  the  riirhts  and  privileges  which 
heathenism  had  had  under  the  old  govern- 
ment. In  325  he  called  the  great  Council  of 
Nice,  which  was  to  re-establish  harmony  in 
the  church,  and  thus  promote  the  unity  of  the 
empire.  In  all  this  it  was  his  design  not  to 
compel,  but  to  invite  the  people  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Christian  religion.  C'ertain  con- 
fessedly evil  features  of  the  heathen  worship 
he  felt'iit  liberty  to  suppress,  as  the  worship 
of  the  priests  of  the  Nile  at  Heliopolis.  He 
was  naturally  involved  in  many  of  the  con- 
troversies of*  the  times.  He  was  not  always 
consistent  in  his  support  of  the  Council  of 
Nice,  but  at  one  time  inclined  to  favor  Arius. 
He  ordered  investigations  in  the  case  of  the 
Donatists  of  Africa  (314)  ;  denounced  the 
heretical  sects  of  the  Yaleiitiiiians,  Marcion- 
ites,  and  Kataphrj-giiins.  though  the  last  were 
left  undisturbed,  and  also  pronounced  against 
the  Novatians.  H(;  inclined  to  tlie  side  of  tlie 
Catholics,  because  he  saw  in  llieiii  tin-  best 
supports  of  unity  in  the  church.  In  the  last 
vears  of  his  lif(''  he  introduced  Ciiristianily 
inore  fullv  into  the  arm  v.  He  called  himself 
the  bishop  of  the  church  for  its  external  af- 
fairs. At  last,  when  evidently  near  his  end, 
he  had  himself  baptized.  He  died  at  Pente- 
cost in  the  year  337. 


CONSTANTINE 


(196) 


CONTRITION 


Of  his  sons,  Constantine  II.  and  Constans 
became  the  rulers  of  the  West,  Constant ius 
of  the  East.  Constantine  died  in  340.  In  341 
Constantius  forbade  heathen  sacrifices,  and  in 
346  the  use  of  the  temples.  Constans  was 
murdered  in  350,  and  Constantius  proceeded 
still  further  asjainst  heathenism.  He  went  so 
far  as  to  make  adherence  to  heathenism  an 
offence  against  the  state.  His  S3'mpathies 
were  with  the  Arians  and  semi-Arians,  and  he 
did  much  to  promote  the  temporary  success 
of  this  party.     He  d.  Nov.  3,  361,  in  Cilicia. 

Numerous  discussions  upon  the  personal 
relations  of  Constantine  to  Christianity  have 
been  written,  of  whicli  see  Keim,  Der  IJeber- 
tritt  Coiifitanttns  des  Orossen  zum  Christen- 
thum,  Zurich.  1862,  and  Brieger,  Konstnntin 
der  Gr.  ah  BeligionspoUtiker,  Gotha,  1880. 
F.  H.  F. 

Constantine.  There  were  two  popes  of  this 
name.  1.  Pope,  March  25,  708-April  8,  715. 
This  pope,  without  having  done  anything  re- 
markable, furthered  the  purposes  of  Kome  by 
his  perfect  adherence  to  the  Roman  ideas. 
The  bishop  of  Ravenna,  Felix,  consented  to 
receive  consecration  at  his  hands,  though  he 
had  before  refused  to  admit  the  claims  of 
Rome.  Constantine  defended  the  indepen- 
dence of  Pavia  from  Milan,  but  made  it  de- 
pendent upon  himself.  Summoned  to  Con- 
stantinople, possibly  on  account  of  the  Roman 
rejection  of  the  Trullan  C-ouncil,  he  succeeded 
in  maintaining  his  independence,  and  returned 
to  Rome  in  safety.  When  Justinian  II.  was 
murdered,  the  pope  opposed  his  successor, 
Bardanes,  as  a  Monothelite,  but  kept  out  of 
all  mere  political  controversy.  The  speedy 
fall  of  Bardanes,  and  the  succession  of  an  or- 
thodox emperor  rescued  the  pope  from  what 
might  have  proved  a  dangerous  position.  2. 
Pope,  June  28,  767-Aug.  7,  768.  A  creature 
of  his  brother  Toto,  Duke  of  Nepi,  his  pontiti- 
cate  is  without  any  significance.      F.  H.  F. 

Constantinople.  The  ancient  Byzantium 
was  founded  in  656  B.C.,  according  to  the 
legend,  was  destroyed  by  Septimius  Severus 
in  196  A.D.,  and  selected  by  Constantine  as  the 
site  of  the  capital  which  he  proposed  to  build, 
in  326.  He  surrounded  it  with  walls,  built 
palaces  and  churches,  gave  rich  possessions  to 
noble  families,  and  in  part  brought  a  popula- 
tion thither  by  force.  The  new  city  was  from 
the  first  entirely  Christian,  and  its  importance 
as  an  ecclesiastical  centre  was  second  only  to 
that  of  Rome.  Originally  not  even  the  seat 
of  a  metropolitan,  it  became  independent,  and 
then,  according  to  the  principle  that  the  eccle- 
siastical organization  must  follow  that  of  the 
state  (Council  of  Chalcedon,  can.  17),  it  was 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  patriarchate,  and 
then  to  that  of  the  principal  patriarchate  of 
the  East.  The  Council  of  Chalcedon  even 
put  it  upon  a  level  with  Rome,  and  this  posi- 
tion was  reaffirmed  by  the  Council  Quinisex- 
tum,  which  was  not  accepted  by  the  West. 
Higher  than  this  Constantinople  never  rose. 
The  spirit  of  the  Oriental  Church,  which  re- 
sisted centralization,  was  against  it.  Often 
the  patriarch  of  Alexandria  opposed  the  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  in  the  most  important 
matters,  and  never  acknowledged  any  true 


subordination  to  him.  The  pretensions  of 
Rome  were  also  an  element  in  the  case. 
Constantinople  was  often  obliged  to  seek  the 
help  of  Rome,  and  was  always  obliged  to  pur- 
chase it  by  flattery.  To  this  was  added  the 
tyranny  of  the  emperors,  who  treated  the 
patriarch  generally  as  their  complete  creature, 
elevating  laymen  to  the  office,  deposing  at 
their  own  arbitrary  will,  or  at  the  demands  of 
the  corrupt  elements  of  their  court,  banishing 
— and  what  not  ? 

Four  periods  in  the  history  of  this  patri- 
archate may  be  distinguished.  The  first  ex- 
tends to  the  separation  of  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man churches  (1054),  the  second  to  the  inter- 
regnum of  the  Latins,  in  which  the  so-called 
Latin  patriarchate  was  established,  and  the 
Greek  patriarchate  obliged  to  remove  to  Nice 
with  the  emperor  (1204-61),  the  third  to  the 
conquest  of  the  city  by  the  Turks  (1453),  and 
the  fourth  to  the  present  day.  The  services 
of  the  Greek  CJhurch  to  Western  Christianity 
in  warding  off  the  attacks  of  the  barbarians 
so  long,  and  in  preserving  letters  till,  at  the 
period  of  the  Reformation,  the  West  was 
ready  to  receive  and  profit  by  them,  were  of 
the  highest  moment.  The  separation  of  Rus- 
sia from  the  Greek  patriarchate  in  1587  did 
much  to  diminish  the  importance  of  Constan- 
tinople. In  our  own  day,  after  a  long  period 
of  inactivity  and  corruption,  the  Greek  Church 
seems  to  be  rising  to  a  higher  place  in  a  liter- 
ary, and  we  may  liope,  religious  sense. 

F.  H.  F. 

Constantinopolitan   Creed.      See   Nicene 

CUEED. 

Consubstantial.    See  Trinity. 

Constitutions,  Apostolical.  See  Apos- 
ToiJCAL  Constitutions. 

Consubstantiation,  the  term  repudiated  by 
Lutherans,  but  considered  by  non-Lutheran 
Avriters  in  the  Reformation  period  and  since 
as  fairly  descriptive  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine 
of  the"  Lord's  Supper,  according  to  which, 
while  the  consecrated  bread  and  wine  are  not 
changed  in  substance,  they  are  the  means 
whereby  the  true,  natural  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  are  communicated  to  the  recipients. 
See  Lokd's  Supper. 

Contarini,  Gaspero,  cardinal-deacon  ;  b.  in 
Venice,  Oct.  16,  1483  ;  d.  at  Bologna,  Aug. 
24,  1542.  After  studying  at  Padua  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  Republic  of  Venice,  and  as 
such  represented  Venice  in  the  Diet  of  Worms 
(1521),  where  he  met  Luther,  who  disappointed 
him.  Paul  HI.  made  him,  although  a  lay- 
man, a  cardinal  deacon,  1535,  and  lie  rendered 
excellent  service  to  the  church,  as  he  had  to 
the  state,  especially  in  the  way  of  churchy  re- 
form, quite  in  the  Protestant  sense,  too,  with- 
out ceasing  to  be  a  good  Catholic.  He  was 
papal  legate  at  Regensburg  in  1541,  and  at 
his  death  in  the  same  capacity  at  Bologna. 
(See  his  life  by  Dittrich,  Braunsberg,  1886.) 

Contrition  in  the  Romish  Church  is  a 
part  of  the  sacrament  of  penance.  It  means 
sorrow  for  past  sins,  with  detestation  of  them 
and  a  purpose  to  commit  them  no  more.  So 
far  as  this  is  concerned  there  is  no  dispute 
among  any  Christians.  T.  W.  C. 


CONVENT 


(197) 


OOPTS 


Convent,  (1)  the  comnumitics  of  men  or 
women  living  under  monastie  discipline  and 
vows  ;  (2)  the  buildings  sucii  inhal)it  ;  (H)  the 
assembly  of  the  members  entitled  to  vote 
therein. 

Conventicle  (Latin,  courditiculuni,  "  place 
of  meeting"):  (1)  In  the  early  church  name 
for  private  religious  meetings  ;  (2)  later  a 
monkish  cabal  ;  (3)  in  English  first  applies 
opprobriously  to  Lollard  gatherings  ;  (4)  then 
in  same  sense  to  meetings  of  Dissenters  in 
Charles  IL's  day.  It  is  now  the  legal  name 
for  such  assemblies.  By  the  Conrcntidc  Art 
of  1664,  repealed  1689,  i't  was  forbidden  any 
person  under  16  to  he  present  at  any  religious 
meeting  of  more  than  5  persons,  more  tlian 
tlie  houseiiold,  if  not  held  in  accordance  with 
the  practice  of  the  Church  of  England. 

Convention,  (he  Synod  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  America.  1.  The  Gen- 
eral Convention  consists  of  two  houses — the 
House  of  Bishops  and  the  House  of  Clerical 
and  Lay  Deputies,  not  to  exceed  4  from  each 
diocese.  2.  Diocesan  Conventions  meet  an- 
nually in  each  diocese,  presided  over  by  the 
bishop,  and  consist  of  all  the  clergy  and  a  lay 
representative  from  each  parish  in  union  with 
the  convention. 

Conversion  {turning)  is  the  change  by 
which  a  man  turns  from  sin  to  holiness.  It 
is  not  a  mere  outward  reformation  nor  a 
change  of  doctrinal  views,  but  an  inward  ren- 
ovation by  which  a  man  forsakes  all  that  is 
sinful  and  chooses  the  service  of  God  as  his 
highest  duty  and  privilege.  It  is  a  conse- 
quence of  regeneration,  or  rather  the  human 
factor  in  the  new  birth.  God  alone  renews 
the  soul,  and  he  does  it  in  accordance  with 
man's  nature  as  a  rational  and  moral  being. 
The  divine  influence  being  exerted,  the  man 
turns  with  all  his  heart  to  a  new  course  of  life. 
This  is  never  done  by  his  own  unaided  will 
(John  i.  13,  XV.  5),  nor  yet  without  his  will 
(Acts  iii.  19,  Phil.  ii.  13).  In  this  feature 
therefore  the  human  and  the  divine  acts  stand 
side  by  side,  and  both  are  to  be  equally  recog- 
nized, and  not  one  at  the  expense  of  the  other. 
Tlie  signs  of  conversion  are  love  to  God  and 
to  his  people,  delight  in  his  worship,  obedi- 
ence to  his  will,  trust  in  his  word,  humility  of 
spirit,  and  renunciation  of  the  world.  Con- 
version may  be  repeated,  as  in  the  case  of  Peter 
(Luke  xxii.  32),  where,  however,  the  word 
seems  to  be  used  in  the  sen.se  of  restoration. 
When  a  backslider  is  reclaimed,  he  turns,  but 
the  turning  is  not  precisely  what  it  was  wlien 
he  first  gave  himself  to  the  Lord.  (See  Hodge 
and  Watson.)  T.  W.  C. 

Conviction,  theologically,  is  that  mental 
exercise  in  which  a  man  comes  to  see  tlie  evil 
and  guilt  of  sin  and  liis  consequent  exposure 
as  a  sinner  to  the  wrath  of  a  h  )ly  God.  It 
may  arise  from  natural  conscience,  moral  sua- 
sion, or  providential  circumstances,  and  be 
short-lived.  True  conviction  arises  from  the 
work  of  the  Spirit,  and  varies  very  mucih  in 
intensity  in  ditferent  persons.  It  is  never  of 
any  avail  unless  it  leads  to  conversion,  but  if 
it  {loes  that  it  is  of  no  consequence  wiiat  iiave 
been  its  characteristics.     The  one  main  tiling 


is  to  have  such  a  sense  of  sin  on  one  hand  and 
of  God's  mercy  on  the  otiier,  that  the  sold 
forsakes  sin  and  fiies  to  the  Lord  Jesus. 

T.  W.  C. 

Convocation,  the  assembly  of  the  bishops 
and  representative  clergy  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  each  of  the  two  Provincial  Coun- 
cils of  Canterbury  and  York.  The  two  when 
acting  in  concert  make  the  "  Sacred  Synod" 
or  National  Council  of  the  English  Church. 
It  meets  at  the  .same  time  as  Parliament. 

Convulsionists.     See  J.vnsenists. 

Conybeare,  William  John,  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  in  England,  Aug.  1,  iHlo  ;  became 
B.A.  at  Cambridge,  1837  ;  first  principal  of 
the  newlyfoundecl  Liverpool  Collegiate  Insli 
tution,  1842  ;  vicar  of  Axminster,  Devonshire, 
1848  ;  d.  at  Weybriilge.  1857.  His  fame  rests 
on  his  Life  and  Epistles  of  t't.  Paul,  London, 
18.")!  (in  connection  with  Dean  Ilowson). 

Cook,  Charles,  French  Methodist  ;  b.  in 
London,  May  31,  1787  ;  sent  as  missionarv  to 
France,  1818,  and  greatly  aided  in  cstahlisliing 
the  Methodist  Church  there  ;  d.  at  Lausainie, 
Feb.  21.  1808. 

Cook,  Joseph,  Congregational  licentiate  ; 
b.  at  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  26,  1838; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College,  1865,  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1868  ;  was 
resident  licentiate  there,  1868-70  ;  studied  in 
Europe,  1872-73  ;  began  Monday  lectures  in 
Boston,  in  1874,  and  has  kept  them  up  ever 
since  while  in  the;  (country.  The  lectures  have 
been  publislied  in  l)()()k  form,  and  several  (Bi- 
olocjy,  I'ranmu  ndcntalism,  and  OrtlMdoxy)  have 
had  large  sale. 

Cooke,  Henry,  D.D.  (Jefferson  College, 
Pa.,  1829),  LL.D.  (Trinitv  College.  Dublin. 
1837),  Irish  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Grillagh. 
near  Maghera,  county  Derry,  :May  11,  1788  ; 
d.  at  Belfast,  Sunday.  Dec.  13,  1868.  He 
studied  at  Glasgow  ;  became  assistant  pjustor 
at  Duneane,  county  Antrim,  1808  ;  private 
tutor,  1810  ;  pastor  at  Donegore,  county  An- 
trim, 1811  ;  continued  his  studies  at  (ila.sgow 
and  Dublin,  1815-lH  ;  pastor  at  Killeleagh. 
1818  ;  at  Belfast.  1829  ;  profe.ssor  of  sacred 
rhetoric  in  Queen's  College,  newly  founded. 
1847.  He  made  a  gallant  and  successful  iiglil 
against  Ariauism  in  the  Irish  Presbyterian 
Church.  (See  his  life  by  J.  L.  Porter,  Bel- 
fast, 1871,  3ded.,  ]s^75.) 

Cookman,  George  Grimston,  Methodist  ; 
b.  at  Hull,  England,  Oct.  21,  1800;  entered 
ministry  in  Philadelphia.  1826  ;  transferred  «» 
Baltimore,  1833  ;  enjoyed  great  reputation  for 
oratorv  ;  .sailed  for  England,  in  the  President. 
March"  11.  1841,  which  was  never  heard  from 
again. 

Cope.    See  Clothing,  Ci.f,uic.\l. 

Copts.  The  Coptic  Church,  numbering 
about  2()0.0()0  members,  is  the  direct  continu- 
ation of  the  old  Egvptian  Church.  Egypt 
was  the  stronghold  of  Monophysitism  ((i.v.). 
and  th(?attemi>ls  of  the  Byzantine  government 
to  stamp  out  that  heresy  "wen-,  in  spite  of  Hi'* 
compromi.se  of  4S2,  the  socalle.l  llenotikon 
((I.V.),  so  incessant  and  so  hanwsing,  thai  the 


COR 


(198) 


OOREA 


Egyptian  Christians  actuall}'^  received  the 
Mohammedaa  Arabs,  when  they  broke  into  the 
country  in  640,  as  liberators.  Tliey  soon  fell 
a  prey,  however,  partly  to  seduction,  partly 
to  coercion.  The  country  became  Mohamme- 
dan, and  the  Copts  represent  only  the  small  and 
insi.sjnificant  remains  of  the  once  so  famous 
Church  of  Egypt. 

The  name  is  a  corruption  of  the  Greek 
'Ar//'rrrwf,  pronounced  "  ghubt"  or  "  ghibt" 
by  the  Arabs  ;  and  the  Coptic  version  of  the 
Bible  is  the  ancient  Egyptian  tongue  written 
down  with  Greek  characters  interspersed  here 
and  there  with  old  Demotic  signs.  This  lan- 
guage is  still  used  in  the  services,  though  it  is 
not  understood  any  more — hardly  even  by  the 
priests  ;  in  every-day  parlance  the  Copts  speak 
Arabic  like  the  rest  of  the  Egyptians.  The 
church,  which  is  spread  in  small  communities 
all  over  the  country,  but  most  strongly  repre- 
sented in  Fayum,  an  oasis  in  Middle  Egypt, 
and  at  Cairo,  has  a  very  elaborate  hierarchy, 
at  the  head  of  which  stands  the  patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  and  maintains  very  pronounced 
ascetic  views  ;  some  of  the  monasteries  dating 
back  to  the  tirst  centuries  are  still  standing. 
But  there  is  no  religious  life — nothing  but  dull 
routine  and  dead  ceremonies. 

In  1825  the  English  Church  Missionary  So- 
ciety tried  with  considerable  success  to  bring 
about  a  kind  of  revival,  and  in  18o5  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  North  America  also 
took  up  the  idea,  founding  in  1875  a  seminary 
at  Siut  for  the  education  of  young  Coptic 
preachers.  (See  A.  J.  Butler,  Ancient  Coptic 
Churches  of  Egypt,  London,  1884.) 

Cor.    See  IMeasures. 

Coran.     See  Koran. 

Cor'-ban,  the  Hebrew  name  for  a  sacred 
gift.  The  Jews  are  rebuked  by  Christ  for 
using  this  as  a  way  of  violating  the  5th  com- 
mandment. A  son  would  say  (Mark  vii.  11), 
"It  is  a  gift  to  God,  by  whatsoever  thou 
mightest  be  profited  by  me,"  and  so  withhold 
it,  although  it  never  passed,  nor  was  intended 
to  pass,  out  of  his  hands.  T.  W.  C. 

Cordeliers,  the  name  given  to  the  Francis- 
cans in  France  on  account  of  the  rope  girdle 
they  wear.     See  Franciscans. 

Cordova,  the  Spanish  city,  in  which  (1)  in 
853  a  synod  convened  which  practically  de- 
cided in  favor  of  opposing,  fanatically,  the 
Mohammedan  power  so  that  the  Christians 
might  win  the  martyr's  crown  ;  (2)  in  980  was 
founded  a  famous  school,  whose  greatest 
teacher  was  Averroes,  and  pupil  INIaimonides, 
and  which  was  the  principal  seat  of  the  study 
of  Aristotle  in  Arabic. 

Corea  (coree'-a).  This  peninsular  king- 
dom lies  between  China  and  Japan,  Asiatic 
liussia  and  the  Eastern  Sea,  and  in  the  his- 
tory of  civilization  has  been  the  link  between 
Cathay  and  Zipangu,  as  was  Cyprus  between 
Egypt  and  Greece.  The  immediate  neighbors 
of  the  Coreans  are  the  Chinese,  Russians,  and 
Japanese,  while  by  means  of  the  electric  cables 
and  overland  telegraph  they  are  in  easy  com- 
munication with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  no 
longer  the  "  hermit  nation." 


The  form  "  Corea,"  which  reached  us 
through  the  Portuguese  navigators  of  the 
16th  century,  is  that  of  the  mediaeval  king- 
dom Korai  in  popular  use  under  the  form 
Gaoli.  The  official  name,  used  from  e.g.  1122 
to  9  A.D.,  and  again  since  a.d.  1392,  when  the 
present  dynasty  was  established,  is  Ch5-sen, 
meaning  Morning  Calm.  This  poetic  phrase 
refers  most  probably  not  to  the  natural  charm 
of  the  dayspring,  but  to  the  gracious  favor  of 
China,  the  "  Middle"  kingdom,  around  which 
all  other  nations  were  as  satellites  to  the  sun, 
or  as  fringes  to  a  robe,  the  audiences  of  the 
emperor  or  Son  of  Heaven  being  gi/en  at  day- 
break. The  name  Cho-sen  is  thus  a  minia- 
ture of  Corean  history,  for  though  justly 
claiming  national  independence,  and  often 
bloodily  fighting  for  it,  and  though  often  in- 
vaded and  oppressed  by  Chinese  armies,  yet 
Corea  has  been  for  centuries  tributary  to  the 
"  Great  Country,"  to  which  she  is  but  '"'a  little 
house."  As  a  pupil  nation  Cho-sen  has  re- 
ceived arts,  science,  literature,  ethics,  and  re- 
ligion from  China,  the  mother  of  Asiatic 
civilization  east  of  the  Ganges. 

Physically,  the  country  consists  of  the  pro- 
longation of  a  great  mountain  chain  from 
Manchuria,  3  eastern  provinces  occupying  the 
ridge  and  5  western  ones  the  slope.  Ta  Cho- 
sen or  "all  Corea"  is  divided  into  8  prov- 
inces, which  have  the  sea  and  rivers  for  their 
outer,  and  mountains  for  their  inner  bound- 
aries, and  are  thus  excellent  natural  divi- 
sions. The}^  take  their  names  from  the  2 
chief  cities  in  each,  the  initial  syllables  being 
united. 

The  northern  part  is  cold,  mountainous,  and 
thinly  settled,  with  mineral  wealth,  but  little 
arable  land,  while  the  southern  provinces  are 
warm,  fertile,  and  densely  populated.  The 
central  province,  which  contains  the  capital, 
Se'oul,  is  the  headquarters  of  the  over-numer- 
ous official  class.  The  total  area  is  about 
82,000  sq.m.,  or  about  twice  the  size  of  Ohio. 
The  population  numbers  10,528,937  souls, 
there  being  in  all  3,356,267  families  ;  5,312,323 
males  and  5,216,614  females  ;  the  greater  care 
exercised  over  boys  during  their  childhood's 
sicknesses  being  the  cause  of  the  excess  of 
males. 

In  physical  appearance  the  Coreans  are  taller 
and  stouter  than  the  Japanese,  resembling 
them  in  the  face  more  than  the  Chinese,  and 
in  character  and  temperament  suggesting  a 
happy  mean  between  the  two  races,  being  less 
mercurial  than  the  one  and  less  stolid  than 
the  other.  The  Coreans  and  Japanese,  as 
shown  especially  by  language,  are  of  one  orig- 
inal stock,  the  former  having  more  Chinese, 
and  the  latter  more  Malay  intermixture  of 
blood. 

Passing  over  their  mythology  and  legends, 
the  first  historical  civilizer  of  Corea  was  Ki-tse', 
a  Chinese  noble,  and  ancestor  of  Confucius,  at 
the  court  of  the  Shang  dynasty,  who.  on  its  fall, 
unable  to  serve  the  conqueror  Wu,  departed 
amicably  and  emigrated  eastw^ard  founding 
Ping  Yang,  on  the  Ta  Toug  river,  a  Corean 
city,  wliich  has  yet  many  memorials  in  art, 
law,  and  custom  of  this  founder  of  stx;ial 
order.  He  named  his  new  domain  Ch5-sen. 
The  mass  of   Corean  people  are,  however. 


OOREA 


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CORINTHIANS 


descended  from  a  northern  people  who  mi- 
grated from  the  Suugari  valley,  and  their 
early  political  evolution  was  through  feudal- 
ism into  monarchy,  Chinese  culture  being 
continually  borrowed. 

We  may  thus  epitomize  the  national  history  : 
EraofoldChO-sen,  1132b.c.-9  a.d.  ;  era  of  the 
Three  Kingdoms.  9-960  a.d.  ;  United  Korai 
or  Corea,  960-1393  ;  modern  ChO-sen,  1392- 
1890. 

The  native  history,  after  the  Christian  era, 
is  in  most  important  events  corroborated  by 
Chinese  and  Japanese  annals,  and  manj-  points 
of  universal  human  interest  are  discovered, 
such  as  the  first  recorded  use  of  the  magnetic 
needle  used  as  a  mariner's  compass  by  the 
Chinese  ships  sailing  to  the  Corean  capital  in 
1133  A.D.,  commerce  with  the  Arabs,  and  con- 
tact with  the  Persians  and  Thibetans. 

The  Corean  language  is  closely  allied  to  the 
Japanese,  tliough  the  Chinese  ideographs  are 
much  used.  A  Corean  nobleman  invented,  in 
the  7th  century,  a  simple  alphabet  of  14  con- 
sonants and  11  vowels,  classitied  according  to 
the  organs  of  speech.  This  most  important 
fact  will  facilitate  the  spread  of  the  Bible 
wiien  translated  into  the  vernacular. 

The  serious  native  literature  is  in  Cliinese, 
and  the  ethics,  philosophy,  and  classics  of 
China  are  made  the  basis  of  education  and 
culture  as  well  as  of  success  in  the  competitive 
examinations  for  the  civil  service. 

In  religion  tlie  primitive  fetichisra  and  wor- 
ship of  the  spirits  of  air,  earth,  and  heaven, 
popularly  prevails  over  all  other  cults. 

Though  Buddhism  from  a.d.  353-1392  pre- 
vailed, it  is  now  supplanted  by  Confucianism. 
Priests  and  monks  are  not  allowed  in  walled 
cities,  and  nearly  the  only  remnants  of  the 
once  dominant  faith  are  mountain  monasteries, 
from  whicli  precious  literary  treasures  may 
yet  come  forlli,  and  certain  colossal  statues  of 
Buddha,  hewn  out  of  natural  rock.  Practi- 
cally the  people  are  without  a  strong  religion 
and  are  waiting  for  one.  It  is  often  supposed 
tliat  Christianity  was  introduced  by  soldiers 
of  the  Japanese  invading  armies  of  1592-97, 
but  of  this  there  is  no  proof. 

In  1777  a  coterie  of  students,  who  had  re- 
ceived from  Peking  through  the  tribute-bear- 
ers some  books  fronr  the  Jesuit  fathers  there, 
were  converted  to  Roman  Christianity.  They 
multiplied  so  fast  tiiat,  in  1794,  a  Chinese, 
and  in  1836,  a  French  mi.ssiouary  priest  se- 
cretly entered  tlie  country  and  a  powerful 
church  was  formed.  Despite  all  governmental 
efforts,  by  desolating  the  frontier,  guarding 
the  ]>asse3  and  coast,  and  otiierwise  to  isolate 
Corea  from  outside  influences,  bloody  inquisi- 
tion and  persecutions,  and  the  outlawry  and 
decapitation  of  9  French  priests  in  1866,  con- 
verts multiplied.  The  pressure  of  Russia, 
Japan,  France,  and  the  United  States,  witli 
blooily  reprisals  by  the  three  latter  nations, 
became  too  great  "for  the  hermit  nation,  and 
in  1876,  the  Japanese,  and  in  1S83,  the  Ameri- 
cans secured  treaties  and  commerce. 

In  defiance  of  China  Corea  has  asserted  her 
sovereignty  by  having  a  legation  in  Wa.sliing- 
ton. 

The  first  missionaries  of  Bible  Christianity, 
the  American  Presbyterians,  began  work  at 


Se'oul  in  1884,  II.  N.  Allen,  M.D.,  and  Rev. 
Horace  Underwood  being  first  on  the  ground, 
though  Rev.  John  Ross,  from  the  iMaueluirian 
side,  had  translated  the  Scriptures  and  bajUizc  d 
Coreans.  The  American  Methodists  have  fol- 
lowed with  a  strong  staif  of  workers.  There 
were  in  February  1H90  over  100  converts,  2 
churches,  and  the  beginnings  of  Christian 
education  in  boarding  and  day  schools,  theo- 
logical instruction,  hospitals,  Sunday-schools, 
union  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  ver- 
nacular, hymnology,  and  religious  literature. 
'J'his  is  the  promise  and  record  of  less  than 
4  years'  planting  of  reformed  C^hristianit  v  in 
a  pagan  nation  whicli  has  been  openecl  to 
Western  intercourse  but  7  years,  nor  does  any 
country  show  a  more  hopeful  missionary  lielcl. 
The  Roman  Catholics  chiim  many  thou- 
sand followers.  Besides  ado])tiiig  telegraphs, 
steamers,  and  the  material  forces  of  Western 
civilization,  as  far  as  the  national  treasury 
will  permit,  the  government  lias  established 
a  hospital,  medical  school,  and  college  of 
liberal  arts,  which  are  under  American  in- 
structors. 

Literature. — John  Ross,  Corean  PHmei', 
London,  1877 ;  W.  E.  Griffis,  fovea,  the 
Hermit  Nation,  New  York.  1882,  3d  ed., 
1889  ;  Percival  Lowell,  Chomn,  Boston,  1885, 
2d  ed.,  1887  ;  W.  R.  Carles,  Life  in  Corea, 
London,  1888  ;  II.  N.  Allen,  Corean  Tales, 
New  York,  1889;  H.  G.  Underwood,  A 
Pocket  JJictionari/  of  the  Korean  Language, 
London,  1890.     William  Elliot  Griffis. 

Cor'-inth,  the  capital  of  Acliaia  on  an  isth- 
mus 40  m.  w.  of  Athens,  and  having  2  ports, 
one  on  the  east,  the  oth.er  on  the  west.  This 
fact  gave  it  great  military  and  commercial 
importance,  and  it  became  very  wealthy  and 
refined.  Destroyed  by  the  Romans  n.c.  146, 
it  was  restored  by  Julius  Ca?sar,  and  regainecl 
its  former  splendor  and  profligacy.  Paul 
(a.d.  52)  introduced  the  gospel,  and  abode 
there  18  months,  during  which  he  wrote  the 
3  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians.  On  a  .subse- 
quent visit  (a.d.  57)  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  T.  \V.  C. 

Corinth'-ians,  The  Epistles  to.  These  are 
not  didactic,  but  discuss  a  variety  of  (pustioiis 
arising  from  the  application  of  Christian  prin- 
ciples to  the  ordinary  nltairs  of  life.  They  are 
so  fuUof  personal  and  local  details  that  their 
genuineness  has  rarely  been  denied. 

The  First  Epistle  was  written  at  Ephcsus 
about  A.D.  57,  when  Paul  received  through 
the  family  of  Chloe  (i.  11)  painful  intt  lligence 
of  the  factions  that  had  arisen,  using  his  name 
and  those  of  Peter,  Apollos,  and  Christ  him- 
self, in  bitter  contentions.  He  rebukes  this 
great  error,  and  guards  the  i)eople  against 
resting  their  faith  upon  the  wi.sdom  of  men 
instead  of  the  simple  Word  of  (iod.  lie  then 
l)roc.eeds  to  reprove  them  for  cirhiiii  gross 
se.xual  immoralities  (ch.  v.),  and  replits  to 
their  questions  respect inir  celibacv  and  mar- 
riai:o((h.  vii.)and  the  eating  of  i'ond  olTered 
to  idols  (ch.  viii.).  lie  also  treats  c.f  decorum 
in  public  as-semblies  and  the  right  use  of  the 
Lord's  Supptr  (ch.  xi.),  and  of  sixeial  giftH 
of  the  Spirit  (chs.  xii.,  .\iv.).  In  the  VMh 
chap,  he  treats  of  love,  and  in  the  15th  of  the 


CORNELIUS 


(200) 


COSIN 


resurrection,  each  in  a  strain  of  wonderful 
beauty  and  eloquence.  He  then  (ch.  xvi.) 
directs  as  to  Christian  beneficence  and  closes 
with  friendly  greetings. 

The  Second  Epistle  was  written  from  Mace- 
donia a  few  months  later  in  the  same  year, 
and  was  occasioned  by  intelligence  received 
through  Titus  (vii.  6,  7)  of  the  favorable  re- 
ception of  his  former  letter  and  its  good  effects, 
although  there  were  still  those  who  were  op- 
posed to  him.  They  accused  him  of  fickle- 
ness in  not  fulfilling  "his  promise  to  visit  them, 
blamed  his  severity  toward  the  incestuous  per- 
son, and  charged  him  with  the  assumption  of 
undue  authority.  In  the  course  of  his  reply 
he  answers  these  objections,  enlarging  upon 
the  excellence  of  the  new  covenant  (iii.,  iv.), 
the  character  of  his  ministry  (chs.  v.,  vi.),  the 
nature  of  repentance  (vii.),  the  duty  of  benefi- 
cence (viii.,  ix.),  and  then  at  length  vindicates 
his  own  course  and  his  apostolic  authority 
(x  -xiii.).  Both  epistles  are  remarkable  for 
the  light  they  throw  upon  the  personal  char- 
acter of  the  apostle — his  history  and  his  intel- 
lectual and  spiritual  greatness.  He  solves  all 
questions  by  an  appeal  to  Scripture,  or  to  the 
words  of  Christ,  or  to  his  own  authority  as 
an  organ  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  His  directions 
apply  not  only  to  the  cases  submitted  to  him, 
but  also  to  numberless  others  of  the  same  kind, 
and  thus  what  at  first  sight  is  only  a  collection 
of  details  becomes  a  book  of  principles.  [The 
principal  separate  modern  commentaries  on 
Corinthians  are  by  Hodge  (1857);  Stanley 
(1855)  ;  Beet  (1882)  ;  Godet  (1885) ;  on  the 
First  Epistle  alone,  Edwards  (1885)  ;  Ellicott 
(1888) ;  Dods  (1889).]  T.  W.  C. 

Come'-lius,  a  Roman  centurion  of  the  Italian 
cohort  stationed  at  Caesarea,  who  was  the  first 
Gentile  convert  to  Christianity  (Acts  x.,  xi.). 
He  was  miraculously  directed  to  send  for 
Peter,  who  was  in  like  manner  caused  to  heed 
the  summons.  On  hearing  the  word  Cornelius 
believed,  and  he  and  his  household  were  bap- 
tized. T.  W.  C. 

Cornelius,  pope,  251-52.  The  Novatians 
were  condemned  by  a  synod  under  his  presi- 
dency.    See  Novatians.  F.  H.  F. 

Cornelius  Agrippa.     See  Agrippa. 

Cornelius  a  Lapide  (properly  van  der 
Steen),  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Boehaff,  near 
Liege,  Belgium,  1568  ;  became  a  Jesuit  ;  paid 
special  attention  to  Bible  study  ;  was  teacher 
of  the  Scriptures  at  Louvain  and  afterward  at 
Rome,  where  he  d.  March  12,  1637.  His 
learned  and  valuable  commentaries  cover  the 
entire  Bible,  except  Job  and  the  Psalms. 
Best  ed.,  Lyons,  1838,  11  vols.,  Eng.  trans,  of 
parts,  London,  1881-87. 

Corporal,  the  cloth  used  in  the  Roman 
cliunih  to  cover  the  bread  and  wine  after 
communion.  It  represents  the  linen  cloth  in 
which  the  body  of  Jesus  was  wrapped,  whence 
its  name.  F.  H.  F. 

Corpus  ("body")  Catholicorum  ('' of  the 
Catholics")  and  Corpus  Evangelicorum  ("  of 
the  Evangelicals"),  the  coile(;tive  names  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  states  of 
Germany,  respectively.     They  first  come  up 


prominently  during  the  proceedings  which 
preceded  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  1648.  The 
head  of  tlie  former  was  the  elector  of  Mayence. 
of  the  latter  that  of  Saxony,  even  after  that 
house  became  Roman  Catholic,  it  being  stipu- 
lated that  the  control  should  be  in  the  Dresden 
privy  council,  which  was  Protestant.  Both 
bodies  ended  with  the  dissolution  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  in  1806. 

Corpus  Christi,  the  festival  in  the  Roman 
church  celebrating  (on  Thursday  of  Trinity 
week)  the  adoration  of  the  Host.  It  was  first 
proposed  by  a  nun,  Juliana,  in  1230,  estab- 
lished in  1264  by  papal  bull,  re-established  in 
1311,  and  is  celebrated  with  processions  and 
great  pomp.  F.  H.  F. 

Cor'-pus  Doctri'-nae,  the  name  given  to 
collections  of  doctrinal  treatises  representing 
a  certain  type  of  faith.  The  first  was  tlie 
C.  P.  Philippicum  (Leipzig,  1560),  which  con- 
tained the  chief  confessional  writings  of  Me- 
lanchthon.  Similar  collections  were  afterward 
made  at  Hamburg,  at  Brunswick,  and  else- 
where ;  but  all  were  finally  superseded  when 
the  Formula  Concordise  was  produced,  and 
accepted  as  the  common  Corpus  Doctrinw  of 
the  whole  Lutheran  Church.  T.  W.  C. 

Corpus  juris  canonici  {i.e.,  "  the  body  of 
canon  law"),  the  canonical  authorities  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  embracing  the  De- 
cretum  Oratiaiii  (1150),  Decretals  of  Gregory 
IX.  (1234),  Liber  sextus  of  Boniface  VIII. 
(1298),  the  Clementines  of  Clement  V.  (1311), 
the  Extravagantes  Joannis  XXII.  (1340),  and 
Extravagantes  cornmunes  (1484).  An  edition 
revised  by  the  commission  of  cardinals  called 
the  Correctores  Romani  appeared  in  Rome, 
1582,  last  ed.,  Friedberg,  Leipzig,  1879-81. 

Correspondences.  See  New  Jerusalem 
Church. 

Cosin,  John,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Norwich,  Nov.  30,  1594  ;  d.  in  London,  Jan. 
15,  1671-72.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  he  rose 
rapidly  in  his  profession  ;  became  a  preben- 
dary of  Durham,  1624  ;  dean  of  Peterborough, 
1640  ;  compelled  to  leave  England,  1643-44, 
he  retired  to  Paris,  where  he  otliciated  as 
chaplain  in  the  household  of  Charles  II.,  who 
at  the  Restoration  made  him  dean  again  and 
ere  the  year  closed  bishop  of  Durham  and 
lord  lieutenant  of  the  county,  1660.  By  his 
energy,  his  administrative  ability,  and  his 
munificence  he  greatly  strengthened  the  dio- 
cese. Two  foes,  Romanism  and  Puritiinism, 
excited  his  sleepless  opposition,  and  he  did  not 
scruple  to  employ  his  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
power  to  rid  his  diocese  of  them.  Yet  the 
strictness  of  his  interpretation  of  the  Fourth 
Commandment  suited  the  latter,  and  his  in- 
sistence on  elaborate  ritualism  gave  color  to 
the  report  that  he  inclined  to  the  former. 
He  had  the  courage  of  his  convictions,  and 
was  of  a  singularly  frank  and  outspoken 
character.  "  He  possessed  the  now  almost 
lost  art  of  composing  prayers  after  the  best 
and  most  ancient  models  ;'and  to  him  w^e  are 
indebted  for  some  of  the  most  beautiful  col- 
lects in  our  prayer-book,  and  probably  for 
most  of  the  alterations  made."  His  best- 
known  work,  indeed,  is  his  Collection  of  Pri- 


COSMAS 


(201) 


COUNTER-REFORMATION 


vate  Devotions,  Loudon,  1626-27,  modern 
edd.  ;  but  his  works  Mil  5  vols.  (Oxford,  1843- 
55).  He  was  a  great  smoker.  (Cf.  Cauou 
Overtou'vS  art.  in  Diet.  Nat'l  Diog.) 

Oosmas  and  Damianus,  Sts.,  brothers  who 
labored  as  Christian  physicians  till  in  303,  in 
'  the  persecution  under  Diocletian,  they  were 
martyred.  Their  remains  are  said  to  have 
been  brought  to  Rome,  where  a  church  was 
dedicated  to  their  memorj',  and  where  they 
are  still  remembered,  Sept.  27  being  set  apart 
for  them.  In  the  middle  ages  they  were  ex- 
tensively honored  as  the  patron  saints  of  all 
physicians  and  apothecaries.  A  clerical  order 
of  knights  was  dedicated  to  them,  which  soon 
went  out  of  existence.  F.  H.  F. 

Oos'ma3  In-di-co-pleu'-stes,  a  monk  who 
travelled  in  India  (whence  his  designation)  and 
wrote  a  "  Christian  Topography,"  which  was 
designed  to  be  a  system  of  geography  based 
on  Christianity,  but  which  was,  in  fact,  tilled 
with  fancies  and  errors.  (See  Montfaucon's 
Collectio  nova  2)atrum  Orcecorum,  Paris,  1707.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Cotelier  (cot'le-a),  Cotelerius,  Jean  Bap- 
tiste,  Roman  Catholic  layman;  b.  at  Nismes,  30 
m.  n.c.  of  Moutpellier,  France,  1627  ;  became 
member  of  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  1649  ;  devoted 
himself  to  learning,  especially  to  the  Greek 
Fathers  ;  brought  out  a  famous  edition  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers,  Paris,  1672  ;  d.  in  Paris, 
Aug.  12,  1686. 

Cotton,  George  Edward  Lynch,  D.D., 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Chester,  Oct.  29, 
1813  ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  became  assist- 
ant master  of  Rugby  under  Arnold,  1837  (he 
is  the  "young  master"  of  Tom  Br&icn  at 
Rngby)  \  master  of  Marlborough  College, 
1852  ■;  bishop  of  Calcutta,  1858";  did  good 
work  for  education  and  missions  ;  drowned 
at  Kushtla,  India,  Oct.  6,  1866. 

Councils  have  been  held  in  the  church  from 
the  first  at  Jerusalem  (Acts,  ch.  xv.)  to  the; 
present  day.  They  may  be  divided  into  live 
distinct  periods  :  1.  To  *325,  the  period  of  the 
founding  of  the  system  ;  2.  325-869,  that  of 
the  ecumenical  councils  of  the  Greek  Church  ; 
3.  869-1311,  the  councils  of  the  West  under 
papal  direction;  4.  1311-1517,  the  "reform- 
ing" councils  ;  5.  1517-1870,  Roman  Catholic 
councils  since  the  Reformation. 

The  councils  of  the  earliest  period  were  held 
to  meet  some  pressing  necessity,  and  of  course 
lacked  all  authoritv  in  the  state.  Thus  one 
was  held  against  _>ionlanisin,  another  a  little 
before  200  upon  the  ci-U  hration  of  Easter,  and 
later,  regular  local  synods  for  the  ordinary 
government  of  tlie  churches  were  introduced. 
The  council  at  Aries,  in  314,  was  in  some 
sense  a  general  assembly  of  the  entire  Chris- 
tian West.  Ultimately  a  hierarchy  of  coun- 
cils was  established  which  corresponded  with 
the  episcopal  hierarchy. 

The  councils  of  the  second  period  began 
with  that  at  Nice.  325,  called  by  (Jonstanline. 
Besides  dctining  the  divinitv  of  Christ,  it  is- 
sued a  number  of  discijilinary  regulations. 
The  second,  at  Constantinople,  381.  contirmi-d 
the  results  of  the  tir.«t,  adding  certain  defi- 
nitions as  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  ^  The  third,  at 


Ephesus,  431,  condemned  Nestorianism,  and 
is  also  remarkable  for  the  tlirection  given  by 
the  pope  to  his  delegates  to  preside  as  judEces 
over  the  council.  Eutychianism  having  de- 
veloped in  opposition  to  Nestorianism,  the 
fourth  council  was  called  at  ('halcedon,  451, 
which  defined  the  doctrine  of  the  nat\ircsof 
Christ  upon  the  basis  of  Leo  of  Ronu^'s  letter 
to  Flavian  of  Constantinople.  The  fifth,  at 
Constantinople,  553,  condemned  tlie  three 
chapters  ((j.v.).  The  sixth,  Con.stantinople, 
Nov.  7,  680,  to  Sept.,  681.  condemned  Mono- 
thelitism,  and  Pope  Ilonorius  as  a  Monothe- 
lile.  This  ends  the  series  of  great  doctrinal 
councils.  The  seventh,  Nice,  787,  sanctioned 
the  worship  of  images,  and  the  eighth,  Con- 
stantinople, 869,  was  occupied  with  questions 
of  discipline. 

Many  of  the  purely  Latin  councils  of  the 
third  period  are  reckoned  T)y  the  Roman 
Catholics  as  ecumenical.  They  decided  a 
number  of  questions.  The  most  important 
was  the  fourth  Lateran  Council,  1215,  held 
by  Innocent  III.,  and  representing  the  extreme 
claims  of  the  hierarchy.  It  begins  the  series 
of  councils  in  which  the  business  has  been 
prepared  by  the  court  of  Rome  and  laid  be- 
fore the  council  for  their  consent. 

The  "  reforming"  councils  grew  out  of  the 
great  schism  (1378-1447),  and  are  those  of 
Pisa,  Constance,  Basel,  and  Ferrara  (qq.v.). 
The  councils  of  the  fifth  period  are  those  of 
Trent  and  the  Vatican  ((|(i.v.).  The  Protes- 
tant churches  have  generally  organi/.ed  under 
regular  councils,  as,  e.g.,  the  '  general  assem- 
blies" of  the  Presbyterian  churches.  The 
Synod  of  Dort  (1618-19)  partook  somewliat  of 
the  character  of  a  Calvinistic  ecaimenieal 
council.  The  best  collection  of  documents 
as  to  the  councils  is  that  of  ^lansi,  31  vols. 
fol.,no\v  reprinting  in  Berlin.  Hefde's  C<>ih- 
ciiienf/csr/iir/ite,  Freiliurg  in  Br..  1M55  s(|q.,  2d 
ed.  1873  sq{(.,  is  the  best  history  ;  partial  Eng. 
trans.,  Edin.,  1871-76,  2  vols.  F.  H.  F. 

Counsels  of  Perfection,  the  three  monastic 
vows  of  voluntary  i)Overty,  perpetual  celibacy, 
and  obedience,  were  so  styled  by  media- val 
casuists  because  they  were  supposed  to  lead 
to  perfect  holiness  when  prrfeclly  kept. 

Counter-Reformation,  the  term  for  the  meas- 
ures taken  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to 
uproot  Protestantism  in  those  lands  in  which 
it  had  entirely  or  partially  triumphed.  The 
movement  was  helped  by  the  imperial  rescript 
whicii,  agreeal)Iy  to  the  Religioiis  Peace  of 
AugsburLT,  1555." had  rendererl  the  ecclesiaisti- 
cal  position  ol  any  particular  territory  de- 
peudenton  liie  relig'iouscoaviclionsof  itsgov- 
ernor.  The  pioneers  of  the  Counter-reforma- 
tion were  everywhere  the  Jesuits,  it  Ixgan 
in  Bavaria,  wlieu  Duke  Albncht  V.,  a  friend 
of  the  Jesuits,  ordered  Count  Joudum  of 
Ortenburu',  the  leader  of  the  evangelical  party 
among  the  nobility,  to  dismi.ss  his  evan- 
gelical preachers,  aiid  since  the  count  n  fused 
to  do  so,  proceeded  to  drive  them  out  by  force 
of  arms,  and  the  nobility  who  favored  them  at 
the  same  time.  1564.  "  This  exptdsion  was 
eonq)leted  in  1573.  an<l  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  reiirned  supreme.  In  l.)72  llie  Klect- 
or  Jakob  of  Eltz  at  Treves,  where  the  Jesuits 


COUNTER.REPORMATION 


(202) 


COVENANT 


had  a  college  since  1560,  refused  the  Protes- 
tants entrance  to  His  court,  and  the  Elector  of 
Mayence,  Daniel  Brendel  of  Ilomburg,  re- 
stored Catholicism  with  the  help  of  the  Jesuits. 
Encouraged  by  the  success  of  Duke  Albrecht, 
Balthasar  of  Dernbach  invited  tlie  Jesuits  to 
his  country  in  1571.  abolished  the  communion 
in  both  kinds,  replaced  the  evangelical  clergy 
by  Roman  Catholics  or  by  Jesuits,  and  re- 
moved his  evangelical  servants  and  office- 
holders. A  stop  was  put  to  his  proceedings 
by  the  Chapter  and  the  knights,  who  in  157G 
compelled  him  to  make  a  capitulation  in  which 
he  gave  over  to  Bishop  Julius  Echter,  at  the 
time  inclined  to  act  liberalily  to  the  Protes- 
tants, the  administration  of  the  foundation  at 
Falda.  But  in  1602  Balthasar,  with  the  per 
mission  of  the  imperial  court  councillor,  took 
back  the  foundation  at  Fulda,  drove  out  again 
the  evangelical  clergy,  and  forced  the  laity 
who  refused  to  enter  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to  go  into  exile.  This  time  ho  had 
the  assistance  of  the  above-mentioned  Julius, 
who  after  1576  had  made  efforts  to  clear  the 
land  of  all  Protestants,  and  so  successfully 
that  it  is  claimed  that  in  one  year,  1586,  62,000 
sibjured  Protestantism.  On  the  other  hand, 
Julius  advanced  the  popular  education,  pro- 
vided capable  clergy,  founded  the  great  hos- 
pital at  Wiirzburg  which  bears  his  name,  and 
in  tlie  same  place  established  the  university, 
1582.  Other  South  German  bishops  imitated 
his  example,  so  that  in  Bamberg  and  Salzburg 
the  Protestants  were  compelled  on  short 
notice  to  leave  their  homes,  1588.  Also  at 
Cologne  and  at  Miiuster  the  Jesuits  carried 
out  their  programme.  Among  the  bishops  of 
Lower  Germany  the  prince-bishop  of  Pader 
born  most  zealously  labored  to  restore  Roman 
Catholicism,  tje  gave  over  to  the  Jesuits  the 
gymnasium  and  the  cathedral  in  that  city,  and 
entirely  suppressed  the  Protestant  cultus, 
1604.  But  it  was  in  Austria  and  in  the  coun- 
tries most  closely  allied  therewith,  Boliemia 
and  Hungary,  that  tlie  greatest  triumphs  were 
won.  The  archduke  Ferdinand,  with  his 
soldiers,  drove  out  the  evangelicals,  destroyed 
their  churches,  and  burnt  their  books.  In 
1602  the  extirpation  of  the  Protestants  was 
completed.  The  emperor  now  took  part  in 
the  work,  closed  the  churches  of  the  Utra- 
quists,  and  forbade  their  assemblies,  1602. 
The  repression  was  not,  however,  of  long 
staading,  for  in  1609  the  Utraquists,  united 
with  the  Calixtines,  the  Reformed,  and  the 
Lutherans,  compelled  him  to  grant  tliem  full 
liberty  in  religion.  In  Hungary  Rudolph  II., 
in  1604,  passed  an  edict  against  the  Protes- 
tants, but  two  years  later  he  was  also  forced 
to  grant  full  religious  liberty.  The  highest 
point  of  the  Counter-reformation  was  reached 
when  Ferdinand  II.  issued  his  restitution-edict 
of  1629,  which  affirmed  the  right  to  extirpate 
all  Protestants.  But,  as  far  as  Germany  was 
concerned,  the  Counter-reformation  came  to 
an  end  with  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  1648. 

Ill  France  the  Counter-reformation  issued 
in  the  massacre  of  Passy.  and  in  the  Nether- 
lands in  the  atrocities  of  the  Duke  of  Alva. 
The  machinations  of  the  Jesuits  were  also  car- 
ried on  in  Poland,  Sweden,  and  England.  (Cf . 
Hanke,  Lie  rumischen  Piipste,  Berlin,  18—,  3 


vols.,  8th  ed.,  1885,  3  vols.,  Eng.  trans..  The 
History  of  the  Popes,  London,  1851,  2  vols., 
4th  ed.,  1867,  3  vols.  ;  Philippson,  La  contre- 
rewlution  rcligieitse,  Paris,  1884  ;  Ward,  The 
Counter  Reformation,  London,  1889. 

Court  and  Legal  Proceedings  among  the 
Hebrews.  According  to  the  very  principle 
of  theocracy  all  authority,  spiritual  and  secu- 
lar, emanated  from  Jehovah,  the  real  King  of 
the  people  ;  so  that  he  who  stood  before  the 
judge  stood  before  the  Lord  (Dent.  xix.  17). 
Moses,  as  the  special  servant  of  God,  combined, 
theoretically,  all  the  offices  of  the  theocracy 
in  his  own  person,  but  as  it  was  practically 
impossible  for  him  to  exercise  his  judicial  au- 
thority personally  in  all  cases  occurring,  he 
instituted  rulers  over  thousands,  over  hun- 
dreds, over  fifties,  and  over  tens  (Ex.  xviii. 
25).  All  minor  legal  matters  were  left  to  those 
rulers,  and  the  personal  decision  of  Moses  was 
claimed  only  in  cases  of  importance.  This 
fundamental  outline  of  judicial  organization 
was  retained  when  the  Hebrews  settled  in 
Canaan,  and  lasted  during  the  periods  of  the 
judges  and  kings.  Only  slight  modifications 
were  introduced,  sucli  as  circumstances  might 
demand,  until  .lehoshaphat  instituted  at  Jeru- 
salem a  supreme  court  to  which  appeals  could 
be  made  from  the  local  courts,  made  up  of 
Levites,  priests,  and  heads  of  tribes  under  the 
guidance  of  the  high-priest  and  a  secular  presi- 
dent (2  Chron.  xix.  8-11).  After  the  exile  the 
Sanhedrin  (q.v.)  exercised  this  function. 

The  legal  proceedings  were  very  simple. 
Both  parties  had  to  appear  before  the  judge 
(Deut.  i.  16),  and  if  the  defendant  .should  try 
to  evade  the  case  bj'  absence,  the  judge  had 
authority  to  bring  him  by  force  into  the  court 
(Deut.  XXV.  8).  The  proceedings  were  oral, 
though  in  later  times  the  sentence  was  also 
given  in  writing  (Isa.  x.  1).  The  testimony 
of  2  or,  in  penal  cases,  3  witnesses  was  consid- 
ered sulficient  evidence.  The  witness  was  not 
required  to  make  any  oath,  but  in  capital 
cases,  when  sentence  was  declared,  he  was  to 
execute  it  (Deut.  xiii.  9).  Perjury  was  pun- 
ished by  intlictiug  the  same  punishment  on  the 
perjurer  as  the  accused  would  have  suffered 
if  found  guilty  (Deut.  xix.  19).  Torture  was 
unknown.  An  immediate  interference  of  di- 
vine judgment  was  appealed  to  in  the  case  of 
a  married  woman  suspected  of  adultery 
(Num.  V.  12-31"),  and,  under  the  form  of  lot, 
also  in  other  cases  (Josh.  vii.  14.  1  Sara,  xiv, 
40).  (See  Benny,  7%e  Criminal  Code  of  the 
Jews,  London,  1880.) 

Court,  Antoine,  French  Reformed  ;  b.  at 
Villeneuve-de-Berg,  in  the  department  of 
Ardeche,  France,  1696 ;  d.  at  Lausanne, 
1760.  He  was  the  most  illustrious  and  useful 
servant  of  his  church  in  his  day.  It  was  he 
who  convoked  the  first  synod  of  the  Desert 
(1715) ;  he  revived  the  Presbyterian  discipline, 
checked  tlie  fanaticism  of  the  Cevennes  proph- 
ets, among  whom  he  had  been  brought  up  ; 
promoted  sound  education  and  enlightened 
piety  ;  defended  his  church,  and  has  left  its 
history,  Ilistoire  des  troubles  des  Cevennes, 
Geneva,  1760,  3  vols.;  n.e.,  Alais,  1819. 

Cov'-enant,  a  mutual  agreement  with  stipu- 
lations.    It  is  the  term  used  in  Scripture  to  de- 


COVENANTERS 


(  203 ) 


OOWPER 


note  God's  dispensations  to  man  (Gen.  xvii.  7, 
Deut.  iv.  18),  and  is  a  vivid  expression  of  the 
Lord's  condescending  giace.  The  two  great 
economies  are  distinguislied  as  tlie  Old  Cove- 
nant (Heb.  viii.  13),  given  througli  Moses, 
■u'hicli  liad  mnch  that  was  legal,  outward, 
and  temporal,  and  the  New  Covenant,  made 
through  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  sealed  with 
his  blood  (Matt.  xxv.  28,  Heb.  xiii.  20),  which 
secures  life  eternal  to  every  believer.  For 
theological  use  of  the  term,  see  Fedekai.  The- 
ology. T.  "VV.  C. 

Covenanters.  See  Presbyterian  Church. 

Coverdale,  Miles,  D.D.  (Tiibingeu,  1541  [V], 
Cambriiige,  1503),  b.  at  Cover-dale  (V),  Kich- 
mondshire,  county  of  York,  England,  1488  ; 
d.  in  London.  Feb.  19,  15G8.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge  ;  entered  the  convent  of 
the  Austin  Friars  at  Cambridge,  1514.  There 
Robert  Barnes,  who  became  prior  in  1523  and 
was  martyred  (July  30,  1540),  lirst  turned  his 
attention  to  the  reformed  faith.  When  Barnes 
was  tried  for  heresy,  in  1526,  Coverdale  as- 
sisted in  his  defence.  He  then  left  the  con- 
vent and  preached  as  an  evangelist.  He  spent 
most  of  the  time  from  1528  to  1535  abroad, 
probably  engaged  ia  translating  the  Bible, 
either  alone  or  with  Tyndale.  In  1535  he 
brought  out  in  London  the  first  complete 
English  translation  of  the  Bible,  Biblin.  The 
Bible,  that  us  the  Holy  Scripture  of  the  Okie 
and  Xew  Testament,  faithfully  and  truly 
translated  out  of  Douche  [i.e.,  German']  and 
Latyn.  In  1538  Coverdale  was  in  Paris  su- 
perintending the  printing  of  the  Great  Bible, 
whicb  was"  partly  a  revision  of  his  own. 
(See  Bible,  p.  105).  He  returned  to  England 
in  1539,  but  the  troubles  drove  him  away  in 
1540,  and  he  did  not  return  till  1548.  He  was 
well  received  by  Edward  VL  and  made  a 
king's  chaplain  ;  and  in  1551  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Exeter.  On  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary  he  was  deprived  ;  again  betook  himself 
to  the  continent,  and  stayed  there  until  the 
accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  1558.  His  re- 
ligious scruples  prevented  his  reinstatement 
in  the  see  of  Exeter,  and  brought  about  his 
resignation  in  1566  of  the  living  of  St.  Magnus, 
near  London  Bridge,  to  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed in  1563.  He  made  numerous  trans- 
lations of  edifying  books  in  German  and 
Latin.  His  name  "  will  always  be  revered  as 
that  of  a  man  who  first  made  a  complete  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  English,  but  he  was  not 
ft  figure  of  marked  historical  interest.  He 
wa.s  somewhat  weak  and  timorous,  and  all 
through  his  life  leaned  on  a  more  powerful 
nature.  Barnes,  Crgmwell,  Cranmer,  and 
Grindal  were  successively  his  patrons.  In  the 
hour  of  trouble  he  was  content  to  remain  in 
obscurity,  and  left  the  crown  of  martyrdom 
to  be  earned  by  men  of  tougher  fibre'  But 
he  was  jiious,  conscientious,  laborious,  gener- 
ous, and  ;i  thoroughly  honest  and  good  man. 
He  knew  German  and  Latin  well,  some  Greek 
and  Hibrcw,  and  a  little  French.  He  did  lit- 
tle original  work.  As  a  translator  h(;  was 
faithful  and  harmonious.  He  was  fairly  read 
in  theology,  and  became  more  inclined  to 
Puritan  irieas  a.s  his  life  wore  on.  All  ac- 
counts agree  in  his  remarkable  popularity  as 


a  preacher.  He  was  a  leading  figure  during 
the  progress  of  the  reformed  opinions,  and 
had  a  considerable  share  in  the  introduction 
of  German  spiritual  culture  to  English  readers 
in  the  second  quarter  of  the  si.xteenth  cen- 
tury." (Cf.  H.  R.  Tedder  in  Diet.  yaf.  Bioy., 
who  gives  list  of  Coverdale 's  translations  and 
other  works.) 

Cowl,  a  monk's  hood  attached  to  a  robe, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  cover  the  head  or  lie 
upon  the  back  at  pleasure.  The  term  was 
also  applied  to  the  entire  garment,  which 
varied  in  length  and  was  without  sleeves. 
F.  H.  F. 

Cowles,  Henry,  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at 
Norfolk,  Conn.,  April  24,  1803  ;  d.  at  Janes- 
ville,  Wis.,  Sept.  6,  1881.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  1826  ;  studied  in  Yale  Divinity 
School,  1826-28  ;  was  a  pioneer  missionary 
and  pastor  in  the  Western  Reserve  (Ohio), 
1828-35  ;  professor  in  Oberlin  College,  first 
of  Latin  and  Greek,  1835-38  ;  later  of  He- 
brew, ecclesiastical  history  and  polity,  1838- 
48  ;  editor  of  The  Oberlin  Evanyelist,  1848- 
63  ;  autjior  of  a  commentarv  on  the  entire 
Bible,  New  York,  1867-81,  16  vols. 

Cowper  (pronounced  cooper),  William, 
Church  of  England,  layman,  poet  ;  b.  in  his 
father's  rectory  at  Great  Berkhampstead.  28 
m.  n.w.  of  London,  Nov.  15,  1731  ;  d.  at  East 
Dereham,  countv  of  Norfolk,  15  m.  w.n.w. 
of  Norwich,  April  25,  1800.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  School,  London,  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  June  14, 
1754.  But  being  in  ea.sy  circumstances,  and 
disliking  his  profession,  he  paid  more  attention 
to  literature  than  law,  until  the  first  attack  of 
insanity,  induced  by  nervous  dread  of  an  ex- 
amination for  a  clerkship  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  1763,  put  an  end  entirely  to  all  pre- 
tence of  being  a  lawyer  and  his  life  hence- 
forth was  spent  in  the  country.  He  was  sub- 
ject to  frequent  fits  of  melancholy,  to  relig- 
ious doubts  and  hallucinations,  and  needed 
constant  stimulus  to  arouse  him  to  action  and 
drive  away  his  care.  This,  providentially, 
was  supplied.  At  Huntingdon,  on  the  Ouse, 
he  met  the  Unwin  family;  in  1765,  on  his  re- 
lease from  the  asylum,  and  soon  became  au 
inmate  of  their  household.  When  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Unwin  died,  in  1767,  he  removed  with 
Mrs.  Unwin  to  Olney,  and  there  he  met  Rev. 
John  Newton,  the  ex-slaver,  who  guided  him 
religiously,  induced  liim  to  lead  prayer-meet- 
ings, visit  the  sick,  and  otherwise  act  as  a  sort 
of  lay-curate.  With  Newton  he  brought  out 
the  well-known  Olney  Hymns.  Mrs.  Unwin 
encouraged  him  to  write  poetry  and  he  pro- 
duced his  first  volume  in  1782.  Another 
widow,  Lady  Austen,  by  her  gayety  did  much 
for  him.  She  induced  him  to  write  the 
"  Task,"  and  told  him  the  diverting  story  of 
John  Gilpin,  which  he  (juickly  turned  "into 
immortal  verse.  In  1785  he  resumed,  after  a 
long  interval,  his  correspondence  with  Lady 
Hesketh,  a  widow  since  1778,  the  sister  of  his 
early  love  Theodora.  These  ladies'  society 
had  an  excellent  effect  upon  Cowper,  l)ut  still 
he  occasionally  w.as  acutely  deranged.  Cowper 
was  the  author  of  several  of  tlie  best  hymns 
in  the  language,  as  ' '  God  moves  in  a  mysteri- 


cox 


(204) 


CREATION 


ous  way,"  "There  is  a  fountain  filled  with 
blood,"  "O  for  a  closer  walk  with  God," 
ranks  as  one  of  the  best  letter-writers  in  all 
literature,  and  some  of  his  poems  are  models 
of  tender  verse.  His  translation  of  Homer  is 
no  longer  read.  (See  his  complete  works, 
with  memoir  by  Southey,  in  Bohn's  Standard 
Library,  8  vols.,  and  i'or  a  sketch,  that  by 
Goldwin  Smith,  London  and  New  York, 
1880.) 

Cox,  Samuel,  D.D.  (St.  Andrews,  1882), 
General  Baptist  ;  b.  in  London,  Eng.,  April 
19,  1826  ;  graduated  at  the  Stepney  Baptist 
Theological  College,  London,  1851  ;  since  1863 
has  been  pastor  in  Nottingham.  He  founded 
and  edited  The  Expositor  (s.  monthly),  1875  to 
1884,  and  is  author  of  Quest  of  the  Chief  Good 
(commentary  on  Ecclesiastes),  London,  1865  ; 
2d  ed.,  1890;  Expositor's  Note-book,  1873; 
Pilgrim  Psalms  (songs  of  degrees),  1874  ;  Sal- 
vator  Mundi,  1877  (defence  of  Restoration- 
ism)  ;  The  Larger  Hope  (sequel),  1883  ;  Ex- 
positions, 1885,  1886,  1887,  and  other  works. 

Cox,  Samuel  Hanson,  D.D.  (Williams, 
1823),  LL.D.  (Marietta  College,  1855  ;  Colum- 
bia College,  1863),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Rail- 
way, N.  J.,  Aug.  25,  1793  ;  d.  at  Bronx ville, 
near  New  Yorli,  Oct.  2,  1880.  He  became 
pastor  at  Mendham,  N.  J.,  1817,  of  the  Spring 
Street  church,  New  York  City,  1821  (removed 
to  Laight  Street,  1825) ;  professor  of  pastoral 
theology  at  Auburn  Theological  Seminary, 
1834  ;  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Brooklyn,  1837  ;  retired,  1854.  He  was  a 
learned,  eloquent,  and  eccentric  preacher. 
Among  many  witty  things  he  said  the  most 
famous  is  his  designation  of  the  letters  D.D. 
as  "  semi-lunar  fardels." 

Ooxe,  Arthur  Cleveland,  D.D.  (St.  James' 
College,  Hagerstown,  Md.,  1856),  S.T.D. 
(Trinity  Cotlege,  Hartford.  Conn.,  1868), 
LL.D.  (Kenyon  College,  Gambler,  O.,  1868), 
Episcopilian  bishop  of  Western  New  York, 
son  of  preceding  ;  b.  at  Mendham,  N.  J.,  May 
10,  1818  ;  graduated  at  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York,  1838,  and  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  in  the  same  city,  1841  ; 
became  rector  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  1842:  at 
Baltimore,  Md.,  1854 ;  in  New  York  City 
(Calvary  Church),  1863  ;  bishop,  1865.  He 
edited  the  American  reprint  of  the  Anie-Nicem 
Fathers,  published  by  the  Christian  Literature 
Co.,  Butfalo  (now  New  York),  1885-87,  9 
vols.  Hii  headed  the  opposition  to  the  alter- 
ation of  tlie  Authorized  Version  in  punctua- 
tion and  text  attempted  by  the  American  Bible 
Society  in  1857,  and  also  that  to  the  Revised 
Version  of  1881-85.  He  has  published  several 
volumes  of  poems  and  others  of  prose. 

Cramp-rings,  those  hallowed  by  the  mon- 
archs  of  England  in  former  days  on  Good 
Friday,  and  worn  as  a  sure  protection  against 
epilepsy. 

Cranmer,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1523), 
b.  at  Aslacton,  Nottinghamshire,  Eng.,  July 
2.  1489  ;  d.  at  the  stake,  in  Oxford,  March  21, 
1556.  He  studied  theology  at  Cambridge  ; 
married  in  1522,  but  lost  his  wife  in  the  same 
year  ;  wre  ordained  a  priest  in  1523  and  in 
1529  introdaced  to  Henry  VIIL,  who  commis- 


sioned him  to  prepare  an  argument  upon  the 
invalidity  of  his  marriage  with  Catharine  of 
Aragon.  In  1530  he  accompanied  the  Earl 
of  Wiltshire,  the  father  of  Anne  Boleyn,  on 
his  embassy  to  the  emperor  and  the  pope, 
and  in  1532  he  was  himself  sent  on  a  mission 
to  the  emperor,  but  was  recalled  in  the  same 
year  and  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
which  preferment,  however,  proved  some- 
what embarrassing,  as  he,  during  his  stay  in 
Germany,  had  secretly  married  a  niece  of 
Osiander.  His  first  official  duty  was  to  an- 
nul the  marriage  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Cath- 
arine of  Aragon  and  legitimize  the  union  be- 
tween the  former  and  Anne  Boleyn,  and  he 
always  showed  himself  an  obedient  servant 
in  the  king's  many  matrimonial  troubles. 
The  latter,  on  his  side,  had  unwavering  con- 
fidence in  the  archbishop,  and  left,  in  a  great 
measure,  the  whole  management  of  the  neces- 
sary religious  and  ecclesiastical  reforms  to 
him.  He  not  only  introduced  but  he  was 
the  principal  author  of  the  Thirty-nine  Arti- 
cles and  the  Prayer-book,  and  on  the  question 
of  transubstantiation  he  took  a  very  decided 
stand  by  his  essay  on  the  subject  and  his  re- 
sponse to  Gardiner's  attack  on  it.  During 
the  minority  of  Edward  he  was  one  of  the  re- 
gents and  continued  to  work  undisturbed  for 
the  establishment  of  the  Reformation  in  Eng- 
land. But  on  the  death  of  Edward  he  com- 
mitted himself  to  the  cause  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  and  immediately  after  the  accession  of 
Mary  he  was  imprisoned  and  accused  of  trea- 
son and  heresy.  The  history  of  this  last  part 
of  his  life,  from  Nov.  13,  1553,  to  his  death, 
is  very  singular.  He  signed  one  recantation 
after  the  other,  evidently  in  the  hope  of  sav- 
ing his  life,  but  when  he  saw  that  there  was 
no  hope  any  more,  he  publicly  retracted  all 
his  recantations  and  suffered  martyrdom  with 
great  heroism.  His  life  has  been  written  by 
Todd,  London,  1831,  and  Le  Bas,  London, 
1833,  reprinted  in  New  York,  1835. 

Cranz,  David,  Moravian  ;  b.  at  Neugarten, 
Pomerania,  1723  ;  was  secretary  to  Count 
Zinzendorf,  1747  ;  successful  missionary  in 
Greenland  ;  returned.  1762  ;  d.  as  pastor  of 
the  Moravian  congregation  at  Gnadenfrei, 
Silesia,  June  6,  1777.  He  wrote  the  history 
of  the  Moravian  Brethren  (Barby,  1771,  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1780)  and  of  Greenland  and 
the  Moravian  mission  there,  1765,  Eng.  trans., 
1767,  n.e.,  with  continuation,  1820,  2  vols. 

Crashaw,  Richard,  Roman  Catholic  lay- 
man ;  b.  in  London,  1613  (?)  of  Protestant  par- 
ents ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  was  fellow 
there  ;  went  over  to  the  Roman  Church,  1646  ; 
was  attendant  on  Cardinal  Palotta,  and  d.  as 
sub-canon  at  Loreto,  Aug.  25,  1649.  He  was 
a  religious  poet  {Steps  to  the  Temple,  Loudon, 
1646)  of  great  merit,  and  inspired  the  muse  of 
Milton,  Pope,  Coleridge,  and  Shelley.  He 
wrote  while  an  undergraduate  the  famous  line 
on  the  miracle  at  Cana,  "  Nympha  pudica 
Deum  vidit  et  erubuit"  ("  the  shamefaced 
water  saw  God  and  blushed"). 

Crea'-tion,  the  act  by  which  God  causes  to 
exist  that  which  did  not  exist  before  in  any 
form  (Gen.  i.  1,  Heb.  xi.  3).  The  common 
doctrine  of  the  Scripture  is  that  in  this  way 


CREATIONISM 


(205) 


CREED 


the  world  came  into  being,  whereas  all  an- 
cient philosophers  assumed  the  eternal  exist- 
ence of  mutter,  an  assumption  which  is  wholly 
unreasonable,  since  it  implies  either  atheism 
or  dualism.  The  Bible  opens  with  an  account 
of  creation  which  in  its  sublime  simplicity 
contrasts  most  favorably  with  all  other  cos- 
mogonies. It  describes  the  process  as  con- 
tinuing through  six  days.  On  the  1st  day 
cosmic  light  was  formed  ;  on  the  2d  the  firma- 
ment was  made  and  called  lieaven  ;  ou  the  3d 
the  earth  appeared  and  was  divided  into  sea 
and  land,  and  clothed  with  vegetation  ;  on 
the  4th  light  was  concentrated  in  the  sun,  and 
the  planetary  system  organi/.ed  ;  on  the  5th 
the  lower  orders  of  aninial  life  in  water  and 
air  were  created  ;  on  the  6th  the  higher  ani- 
mals, and  man,  their  heail,  made  in  the  image 
of  God  ;  and  on  the  7th  God  rested  from  his 
created  work,  and  instituted  the  weekly  da}' 
of  rest.  That  the  term  day  is  not  to  be  taken 
strictly  the  narrative  itself  shows,  since  the 
sun  was  not  created  till  the  4th  day,  and  the 
7th  day  is  still  in  progress.  The  precise  har- 
mony of  this  narrative  with  the  discoveries  of 
geology  is  still  under  debate,  but  its  agree- 
ment in  certain  general  outlines  is  most  re- 
markable. These  are  the  remote  creation  of 
the  elements,  the  intermediate  existence  of 
chaos,  the  advance  of  the  earth  through  vari- 
ous changes  to  its  present  condition,  the  suc- 
cessive appearance  of  organized  beings— -the 
vegetable  before  the  animal — the  lower  before 
the  higher— according  to  the  improving  con- 
dition of  the  earth,  and  man  last  of  all.  Yet 
the  Mosaic  account  dates  back  to  a  very  early 
period,  and  it  was  not  written  for  scientific 
purposes,  as  was  seen  by  Augustine  and  Cal- 
vin, but  to  teach  religious  truth,  and  to  serve 
as  a  general  introducdon  to  the  history  of  re- 
demption. The  •statements  made  in  the  As- 
syrian tablets  recently  discovered  are  mutilated 
and  confused,  but  indicate  that  they  came 
from  a  common  source  with  the  Hebrew  tradi- 
tion, which,  however,  was  written  by  men  en- 
joying a  divine  guidance,  and  is  therefore  cor- 
rect. It  gives  the  true  order  of  events,  and 
bears  throughout  the  impress  of  truth. 

T.  W.  C. 

Crea'-tionism  is  a  term  used  to  denote  one 
view  of  the  origin  of  the  human  soul,  and 
stands  in  opposition  to  the  two  theories,  desig- 
nated as  Traducianism  and  Preexistence. 
The  question  is  whether  the  soid  of  each  man 
is  immediately  created  by  God  and  joins  the 
embryo  just  after  conception  ;  or  whether  it 
is  derived  from  the  first  man,  being  propa- 
gated along  with  the  body  by  natural  gener- 
ation ;  or  whether  it  has  existed  from  the  be 
ginning  and  when  born  into  the  world  has 
.simply  a  new  manifestation.  The  last-men- 
tioned was  borrowed  by  Origen  from  Plato, 
held  by  John  Scotus  Erigena,  and  defended 
by  some  moderns,  as  Kant  and  Julius  Miiller. 
The  second  view  was  taught  by  Tertullian  and 
for  some  time  prevailed  in  the  Western 
Church,  and  as  it  best  explains  the  problem 
of  hereditary  sin  has  been  adopted  by  all  the 
Lutheran  divines.  The  first  view,  that  of  a 
divine  concursus  at  the  origin  of  each  indi- 
vidual was  accepted  by  Augustine  and  Leo 


the  Great,  and  became  a  conspicuous  feature 
of  the  whole  system  adopted  by  such  school- 
men as  Auselm  and  Thomas  Acjuinas.  In 
modern  times  it  has  been  advocated  by  most 
Roman  Catholic  and  Reformed  theologians, 
mainly  because  it  agrees  best  with  the  prevail- 
ing representations  of  Scripture,  is  most  con- 
sistent with  the  indivisible  nature  of  the  soul, 
and  explains  the  freedom  of  Christ's  soul  from 
sin  though  he  was  born  of  a  woman.  Of  re- 
cent American  writers  on  theology  Charles 
Hodge  was  a  creationist,  while  Dr.  A.  H. 
Strong  is  a  traducianist.  There  are  not  a  few 
who  hesitate  to  side  with  either,  and  say  with 
Augustine,  "  When  I  wrote  my  former  book 
I  did  not  know  how  the  soul  derives  its  being, 
and  I  do  not  know  now."  T.  W.  C. 

Credence-table,  the  small  table  on  the  epis- 
tle side  of  the  altar  on  which  the  bread  and 
wine,  the  candlesticks  for  the  acolytes,  etc., 
are  placed  before  the  celebration  of  mass. 
The  word  credence  comes  from  the  Italian 
credenzare,  "  to  taste  meats  and  drink  before 
they  were  offered  to  be  enjoyed  by  another." 

Credner,  Karl  August,  German  rationalis- 
tic Bible  critic  ;  b.  at  Waltershausen,  near 
Gotha,  Jan.  10,  1797  ;  d.  as  professor  at  Gies- 
sen,  July  16, 1857.  His  best -known  book  is  his 
Zur  Geschichte  dcs  Kanons,  Halle,  1847  ;  Gc- 
schichte  des  neutcstamentlichen  Kanons,  ed. 
Volkmar,  Berlin,  1860. 

Creed,  a  confession  of  faith  for  public  use, 
embracing  the  acknowledged  tenets  of  the 
person  or  body  from  which  it  comes.  The 
propriety  of  creeds  has  often  been  objected  to 
on  the  ground  that  they  stand  in  the  way  of 
free  inquiry  and  theological  progress.  But 
they  are  a  necessity.  Since  all  truth  is  self- 
consistent  and  the  human  mind  instinctively 
seeks  to  reduce  its  knowledge  to  a  logical 
unity,  men  must  and  do  construct  a  system 
of  faith  out  of  the  teachings  of  Scripture. 
Besides,  a  Christian  society  cannot  exist  with- 
out organization,  and  this  implies  agreement 
in  religious  opinions  ;  and  accordingly  all  the 
creeds  of  Christendom  have  had  an  historical 
basis  arising  from  the  existence  of  errors  which 
required  the  renewed  affirmation  of  the  truth. 
"The  real  question  between  the  church  and 
the  impugners  of  creeds  is  not,  as  often  pre- 
tended, between  the  Word  of  God  and  the 
creed  of  man,  but  between  the  proved  faith 
of  the  collective  body  of  God's  people  and  the 
unassisted  wisdom  of  the  individual  objec- 
tor." Existing  creeds  are  of  great  service  as 
they  mark  the  progress  of  religious  knowledge 
in  any  past  age  ;  as  they  define  truth  and  dis- 
criminate it  from  error  ;  as  they  form  a  bond 
of  union  among  those  who  hold  them  ;  and 
as  they  furnish  a  means  of  popular  instruc- 
tion. '  They  are  usually  divided  into  four 
classes.  1.  The  (Ecumenical  (Apostles', 
Nicene,  Chalcedon,  Athanasian).  2.  Those 
which  .'^et  forth  the  faith  of  the  Greek  Church 
as  distinguished  from  the  Roman.  ?>.  The 
Roman  creeds  from  the  Tridcntine  to  that  of 
the  Vatican  Council.  4.  The  evangelical. 
comDrehending  the  various  confessions  of  the 
L<itlierans  .and  the  Reformed,  who  agreeing 
in  other  things  differ  as  to  the  divine  decrees 
and  the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments 


OREIGHTON 


(206) 


CRUCIFIXION 


The  Apostles'  Creed  in  its  present  form  can- 
not be  traced  beyond  the  sixth  century,  yet 
the  several  articles  considered  separately  are 
all  of  Niceue  or  Ante-Nicene  origin,  and 
hence  it  is  justly  inferred  that  what  we  have 
now  gradually  grew  out  of  the  assimilation  of 
the  various  baptismal  creeds  of  the  principal 
"Western  cliurches  (Rome,  Aquileia,  Milan, 
Carthage,  Hippo).  Its  reception  has  been  and 
is  now  well  nigh,  if  not  absolutely,  universal. 
It  is  used  in  the  baptismal  confession  of  the 
Roman,  Lutheran,  Reformed,  Anglican,  Prot- 
estant Episcopal,  and  Methodist  churches,  and 
was  subjoined  by  the  Westminster  divines  to 
their  catechism. 

For  the  creeds  in  general  see  Schaff,  Creeds 
of  C hrutetidom.  New  York,  1877,  3  vols.,  4th 
ed.,  1884.  T.  W.  C. 

Creighton,  Mandell,  LL.D.  (Glasgow, 
1884  ;  Harvard,  1886),  D.C.L.  (Durham, 
1885),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Carlisle, 
county  of  Cumberland,  Eng.,  July  5,  1848  ; 
B.A.  and  fellow  of  Merton,  Oxford,  1867  ; 
vicar  of  Embleton,  Northumberland,  1875  ; 
Dixie  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history,  Cam- 
bridge, 1884  ;  bishop  of  Peterborough,  1891. 
He  wrote  A  History  of  the  Papdcy  During  the 
Feriod  of  the  lie  formation, l^ondon,  1882,  sqq., 
vol.  4,  1887,  and  other  historical  works. 

Crespin  (cres-pan'),  Jean,  Protestant,  au- 
thor of  the  immortal  Histoire  des  Martyrs;  b. 
at  Arras,  France,  100  m.  n.e.  of  Paris  ;  studied 
law  at  Lou  vain  and  Paris  ;  became  advocate 
in  Parliament  ;  lied  on  account  of  his  relig- 
ious opinions  to  Geneva,  1548,  where  he  set 
up  a  printing-press  ;  d.  there,  1572.  His 
great  work  appeared  at  Geneva,  1554,  n.e., 
Lelievre,  Toulouse,  1886-89,  3  vols. 

Crete,  now  Candia,  an  island  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, 150  m.  long,  6  to  35  m.  wide,  origi- 
nally peopled  probably  by  the  Caphtorim. 
It  i:i  mountainous,  but  has  many  fertile  valleys. 
Cretans  were  at  Jerusalem  on  Pentecost  (Acts 
ii.  11)  ;  Paul  was  shipwrecked  near  the  island 
(Acts  xxvii.  13,  21)  ;  and  he  left  Titus  there 
to  "  appoint  elders  in  every  city." 

T.  W.  C. 

Crispin  and  Cris-pin-i-a'-nus,  two  saints, 
and  according  to  tradition  brothers.  About 
the  end  of  the  3d  century  they  travelled  to- 
gether to  Soissons,  France,  to  propagate  the 
Christian  religion.  Here  they  were  beheaded 
by  the  mayor  of  the  town.  The  date  of  their 
martyrdom  is  given  as  287.  Their  day  is 
Oct.  "25.  F.  H.  F. 

Critici  Sacri,  the  name  of  the  series  of  com- 
mentaries aud  other  biblical  works  in  Latin, 
compiled  from  ditfereut  authors,  designed  to 
supplement  Walton's  Pulyglott,  and  published 
in  London,  1660,  9  vols.,  later  edd.  Poole's 
Synopsis  (1689)  is  an  abridgment  of  it. 

Crosby,  Howard,  S.T.D.  (Harvard,  1859), 
LL.D.  (Columbia,  1872),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  in 
New  York  City,  Feb.  27,  1826  ;  graduated  at 
New  York  University,  1844  ;  became  profes- 
sor of  Greek  there,  1851,  and  at  Rutgers  Col- 
lege, New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1859  ;  pastor  of 
the  Fourth  Avenue  Presbyterian  Church, 
New  York  City,  1863.     He  is  prominent  in 


every  good   work,  and  has   written  several 
works  on  biblical  subjects. 

Croaier,  or  Pastoral  sta£f,  a  bishop's,  for- 
merly also  an  abbot's,  staff  of  office.  It  is  long 
and  has  a  crook  on  the  upper  end  and  a  point 
at  the  lower,  and  originated  in  the  shepherd's 
crook.  "  A  bishop  carried  it  in  his  left  hand, 
with  the  crook  turned  outward,  to  indicate 
his  authority  over  the  diocese  ;  an  abbot  in 
his  right  hand,  with  the  crook  turned  inward, 
to  signify  his  jurisdiction  over  the  members 
of  his  house."  (Cf.  Diet,  of  Relig.  s.v.  Pas- 
toral staff.) 

Cross,  an  instrument  of  various  forms,  gen- 
erally made  by  the  intersection  of  two  beams 
of  wood,  used  in  ancient  times  as  a  means  of 
execution,  among  the  Romans  only  in  case  of 
slaves,  or  persons  of  the  lowest  cla.sses.  The 
criminal  was  bound  to  the  cross  by  ropes,  or 
nailed  upon  it,  and  sometimes  had  a  block 
upon  which  he  could  half  sit,  sometimes  not. 
The  crime  was  proclaimed  by  a  crier,  or  writ- 
ten upon  a  "  title"  and  suspended  over  the 
cross.  The  usual  form  ascribed  to  the  cross 
of  Christ  was  suggested  by  Justin  Martyr. 
It  is  confirmed  by  the  position  of  the  tifle, 
which  was  suspended  above  the  person  of 
Jesus.  Iremeus  and  Tertullian  mention  the 
existence  of  a  seat  (sedile). 

Bull  of  the  Cross,  a  name  given  to  the  bull 
issued  in  1487,  granting  indulgences  to  all 
who  would  take  up  arms  under  Henry  of 
Castile  against  the  infidels.  It  was  subse- 
quently often  renewed  and  much  enlarged, 
being  last  issued  in  1753.  A  similar  bull  was 
given  in  favor  of  Sebastian  of  Portugal  in 
1514.  Cross-bearer.  The  person  who  bears  a 
cross  before  the  higher  orders  of  the  Roman 
hierarchy  as  a  sign  of  office.  The  term  was 
also  applied  to  the  Flagellants  (q.v.).  Exalta- 
tion of  the  Cross.  This  is  a  festival  celebrated 
upon  Sept.  14.  By  some  it  is  carried  back  to 
the  time  of  the  vision  of  Constantine,  by 
others  to  the  dedication  of  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem  in  335.  More 
probably  it  arose  from  the  restoration  of  the 
pretended  true  cross  to  Jerusalem  in  631  by 
Heraclius,  who  had  recovered  it  from  the  Per- 
sians by  whom  it  had  been  carried  away  from 
its  place  in  war.  He  brought  it  into  the  city 
with  solemn  ceremony  to  "  exalt"  it  in  the 
church  again.  The  pope.  Honorius  I.,  soon 
introduced  the  feast  in  the  West.  In  (mention 
of  the  Cross,  a  feast  celebrated  in  the  Roman 
Church  upon  May  3.  in  memory  of  the  pre- 
tended discovery  in  Jerusalem  by  the  mother 
of  Constantine,  Helena,  in  326,  of  the  cross 
upon  which  Christ  was  crucified.  The  other 
crosses,  the  nails,  and  the  tablet  with  the  in- 
scription, were  also  found.  Miracles  are  said 
to  have  pointed  out  unmistakably  the  true 
cross  from  the  others.  Later,  splinters  from 
the  cross  were  given  to  pilgrims,  but  the  cross 
never  wasted  !  (See  W.  C.  Prime,  Hob/  Cross, 
New  York,  1877.)  Orders  of  the  Cross.  Sev- 
eral monastic  orders,  of  which  the  principal 
are  (1)  The  Canons  Regular,  founded  in  1211, 
since  1850  also  in  the  United  States,  (2) 
Daughters  of  the  Cross,  founded  in  1640, 
principally  engaged  in  teaching,  (3)  Sisters  of 
the  Cross",  founded  in  1834,  since  1843  in  the 


CRUCIFIX 


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CRUSADES 


United  States  also,  (4)  Congregation  of  Regu- 
lar Clerks  of  the  Holy  Cross,  founded  in  1885, 
and  now  quite  numerous.  Sign  of  the  Cross. 
Used  especially  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches  in  various  ceremonies  ;  but  because 
generally"  connected  with  superstition,  disused 
in  most  of  the  Protestant  churches.  (Cf .  IJlake, 
The  Cross,  Ancient  and  Mvdirn.  New  York, 
1888;  Nestle,  Be  Sanda  Cruce,  Berlin,  1889). 
F.  H.  F. 

Crotus  Rubianus  (properly  Johannes  Jager), 
Humanist  ;  b.  at  Dornheim,  near  Arnstadt, 
Thiiringia,  1480  (?)  ;  place  and  date  of  death 
unknown.  As  a  student  at  Erfurt  he  fol- 
lowed the  schoolmen  ;  but  after  graduation 
(1500)  he  became  a  Plumanist.  His  religious 
life  exhibits  similar  changes.  While  in  the 
Roman  Church  he  planned  and  took  the  prin- 
cipal part  in  the  famous  satire  on  scholasti- 
cism and  monkery,  Epistahv  virorum  obscuro- 
rum  [Hagenau?],  1515  ;  in  1530,  while  rector 
of  the  University  of  Erfurt,  he  went  over  to 
the  side  of  Luther  and  was  in  the  court  of 
Albert  of  Brandenburg  ;  but  in  1530,  like  other 
Humanists,  perhaps  without  sympathy  for 
the  spiritual  side  of  the  movement,  returned 
to  the  Roman  Church.  After  this  all  trace  of 
him  is  lost. 

Crucifix.  The  cross  with  the  figure  of  the 
dying  Saviour,  or  crucitix,  was  not  employed 
in  the  early  times  in  the  Christian  Church. 
The  cross  alone  sufficed  till  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  5th  century.  The  earliest  pictorial 
representation  of  Christ  in  connection  with 
the  cross  occurs  in  a  sarcophagus  of  a  certain 
Probus  (d.  395)  in  which  Christ  is  pictured  as 
a  youthful  teacher,  pointing  to  his  cross.  The 
first  case  in  which  the  form  of  Christ  is  carved 
upon  a  cross  is  in  an  ivory  relief  of  the  5th 
century,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Grad- 
ually there  .was  created  a  distinct  type  of  rep- 
resentation which  became  the  invariable  stand- 
ard in  the  Greek  Church,  in  which  Christ  ap- 
peared in  deep  suffering,  the  only  strange 
peculiarity^  being  that  the  wound  of  the  spear 
was  \ipon  the  right  side.  In  the  "West  the 
greatest  variety  is  to  be  found.  While  the 
crucifix  has  been  banished  from  the  Reformed 
churches,  the  Lutheran  have  retained  it. 

F.  H.  F. 

Crucifixion.  This  was  a  common  form  of 
execution.  Alexander  caused  2000  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Tyre  to  be  crucified.  Regulus  is 
said  to  have  been  destroyed  thus  by  the  Car- 
thaginians. The  Israelites  employed  cruci- 
fixion. After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  Titus 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  scanty  room 
for  tlie  number  of  crosses  he  would  set  up. 
There  was  no  special  form  of  crucifixion. 
The  simplest  way  was  to  tie  both  arms  above 
the  head  to  a  single  stake.  In  fact  "  crwa;" 
does  not  mean  precisely  what  we  mean  by 
cross.  But,  a  transvc  r.^e  timber  being  added, 
the  modern  form  was  ac(iuired.  The  scourg- 
ing, the  bearing  of  the  (to'*s,  the  agency  of 
the  soldiers,  tiie  parting  of  the  clothes,  of 
which  we  read  in  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus, 
were  all  common  features  of  ordinary  cruci- 
fi.xions.  The  criminal  was  usually  pulled  by 
a  rope  up  to  his  position  upon  the  cross,  which 
was  already  fixed  in  the  ground.  The  hands 
and  feet  were  often  nailed  to  secure  him  more 


firmly  in  his  place.  His  sufferings  arose  from 
the  unnatural  position,  and  the  pain  caused 
by  every  motion,  from  the  tenderness  of  the 
parts  through  which  the  nails  had  been  driven, 
from  intiammation,  from  the  arrestment  of 
circulation,  which  caused  the  head  to  ache, 
the  lungs  to  refuse  their  office,  the  extremities 
to  become  rigid  and  at  last  the  heart  to  stop, 
though  sometimes  not  till  this  agony  had  been 
endured  a  second  or  a  third  day,  (See  H. 
Fiilda,  Das  Kreuz  u.  d.  Kreuzigunq,  Breslau, 
1878.)  F.  II.  F. 

Cruden,  Alexander,  Presbyterian,  layman  ; 
b.  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  May  31,  1701  ;  d. 
"  suddenly,  while  praying,  in  his  lodgings  in 
Camden  Passage,  Islington,"  London,  Nov. 
1,  1770.  Shortly  after  his  graduation  at  Mar- 
ischal  College,  Aberdeen,  he  first  showed  signs 
of  insanity,  and  never  was  entirely  sane  after- 
ward, and  was  several  times  in  confinement 
for  brief  periods.  He  was  a  private  tutor  un- 
til 1732,  when  his  London  career  of  bookseller 
and  corrector  of  the  press  began.  In  1736  he 
began  the  Concordance  to  the  Bible,  which  he 
issued  the  next  year.  A  second  edition  was. 
published  in  1761,  and  a  third  in  1769.  He  is. 
said  to  have  made  £800  from  it.  By  it  he  has 
won  an  imperishable  name  as  among  the  most 
useful  of  biblical  authors.  Many  stories  are 
told  of  his  eccentricities  ;  how  he  called  him- 
self "  Alexander  the  Corrector,"  and  believed 
himself  inspired  to  correct  the  morals  of  the 
nation,  especially  in  regard  to  swearing  and 
neglect  of  the  Sabbath  ;  how  he  sought  a  seat 
in  parliament,  the  honor  of  knighthood,  and 
other  distinctions  ;  how  he  was  the  victim  of 
a  practical  joke,  being  dubbed  knight  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  how  he  paid  unwelcome  addrt.sses  to 
young  ladies,  and  other  such  tales.  But  his 
piety,  his  honorable  life,  and  his  biblical 
labors  entitle  him  to  respect.  (Cf.  Diet.  Hat. 
hiog.  s.v.) 

Crusades,  expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land 
from  papal  Europe  in  the  middle  ages  (1095- 
1291)  to  rescue  it  from  the  dominion  of  the 
^Mohammedans.  The  supremacy  of  the  first 
Mohammedan  conquerors  of  Palestine  had 
been  favorable  to  the  continuation  of  Chris- 
tian pilgrimages,  which  had  long  been  a  fea- 
ture of  Catholic  piety.  But  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  10th  century  there  was  a  change, 
and  from  that  time  a  greater  and  greater  de- 
gree of  difficulty  was  experienced  till,  about 
1070,  the  trouble  reached  its  height.  Pilgrim- 
ages had  grown  so  conunou  about  the  year 
1000,  on  account  of  the  expectation  of  the  ap- 
proacliiiig  end  of  the  world,  that  their  practi- 
cal prohil)iti()n  was  immediately  felt,  and  Syl- 
vester II.  and  Gregory  VII.  had  both  thought 
of  seeking  to  drive  the  infidels  out  of  the  Holy 
Land.  A  loud  cry  for  help  from  the  Greek 
emperor  was,  however,  the  real  ocea.'-ion  of 
the  beginning  of  expeditions  to  Palestine. 
His  ambassadors  accoini)anied  Urban  II.  to 
the  Council  of  Clermont,  and  there  the  pope 
preached  the  crusade  with  great  effect.  "NV'ith 
one  voice  the  mullitude  shouted,  "  God  wills 
it,"  and  thou-i^ands  "took  the  cross,"  as  it 
was  called,  i.e.,  vowed  to  devote  themselves 
to  the  work  and  had  a  red  cross  stitched  upon 
the   right  shoulder  as  a  sign  of  this.     The 


CRUSADES 


(208) 


CUMBERLAND 


movement  thus  begun  lasted  two  centuries, 
led  to  the  expenditure  of  an  enormous  number 
of  lives  and  vast  sums  of  money,  and  gave  a 
fantastic  air  to  the  whole  civifization  of  the 
times  ;  but  it  also  moditied  the  constitution  of 
Europe  at  many  points,  as  in  promoting  the 
rise  of  the  free  cities,  creating  a  free  peasantry, 
and  giving  new  direction  to  commerce,  opened 
a  new  world  to  the  knowledge  of  Europe,  cre- 
ated new  wants,  and  new  means  of  gratifica- 
tion, and,  particularly,  largely  increased  the 
power  of  the  church  at  many  points. 

Details. — The  first  crusade  commenced  un- 
der Walter  the  Penniless,  who  led  an  innu- 
merable multitude  out  toward  Constantinople. 
He  was  followed  by  Peter  the  Hermit,  whom 
the  legend  has  made  the  first  preacher  of  the 
crusades,  with  40,000  men,  whom  Peter  aban- 
doned in  Bulgaria,  and  who,  after  losing  half 
their  number  in  that  country,  were  altogether 
destroyed  by  tlie  Turks  at  Nice.  New  crusad- 
ing armies  followed,  amonsc  which  was  an  un- 
disciplined host  of  200,000  men,  who  all  per- 
ished in  Hungary,  or  upon  its  borders.  The 
first  effective  force  was  sent  out  under  God- 
frey of  Bouillon,  80,000  men  strong,  which 
was  re-enforced  at  Constantinople  till  it  num- 
bered 600,000,  and  got  into  Asia  Minor  in 
1097.  It  took  Nice,  Edessa,  Antioch,  and  in 
1099  Jerusalem  itself.  The  enormities  per- 
petrated in  the  capture  were  indescribable. 
Godfrey  was  made  "  Defender  of  the  Sepul- 
chre," since  he  would  not  be  king  and  wear 
a  golden  crown  where  his  Lord  had  worn  a 
crown  of  thorns,  but  Avhen  he  died,  his  less 
scrupulous  brother  Baldwin  was  crowned 
king.  In  1101  three  armies  were  equipped  in 
Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  but  all  perished 
in  Asia  Minor.  In  1143  the  Kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem embraced  the  whole  Holy  Land  from 
the  Northern  Euphrates  to  the  Red  Sea  and 
easterly  to  the  Syriaa  Desert.  A  Latin  patri- 
archate was  erected,  four  archbishoprics,  and 
a  corresponding  number  of  bislioprics  estab- 
lished. But  uotv  disasters  began.  In  1146 
Edessa  fell  before  the  Saracens.  The  second 
crusade  was  proclaimed  by  Eugene  III.  and 
preached  by  the  famous  Bernard  of  Clairvaux 
(q.v.).  Lewis  VII.  of  France  and  Conrad  III. 
of  Germany  embarked  in  it.  The  Germans 
took  the  short  route  through  the  Sultanate  of 
Icoiiium  (1147)  were  met  by  the  Sultan  and 
defeated,  and  returned  to  Nice  in  small  num- 
bers. Joined  by  the  French,  they  got  through 
the  Cilician  Gates  to  Antioch,  and  besieged 
Damascus,  but  without  success.  The  whole 
crusade  accomplished  nothing.  In  one  year 
it  was  all  over.  The  third  crusade  (1189-93) 
was  called  out  by  the  appearance  of  Saladin 
upon  the  scene,  who  conquered  the  whole 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  in  1187,  and  impris- 
oned the  king.  Philip  Augustus  of  France 
and  Frederick  Barbarossa  of  Germany  led 
armies  to  Palestine.  Frederick  conquered  the 
Sultan  of  Iconium,  but  died  himself  while 
bathing  in  the  Calycadnus.  Richard  of  Eng- 
land now  appeared,  and  having  gained  a  posi- 
tion upon  the  coast,  secured  from  Saladin  a 
truce  for  three  years.  Otherwise  this  crusade 
was  also  a  failure.  The  fourth  crusade 
(1203-4)  resulted  in  nothing  at  all  within  the 
Holy  Land,  but  the  troops  which  had  gath- 


ered, being  unable  to  provide  for  their  trans- 
portation to  Palestine,  entered  the  service 
of  Venice,  conquered  Constantinople  to  please 
her,  and  set  up  a  Latin  empire  there  which 
endured  from  1204  till  1261.  In  1212  80,- 
000  children  had  been  led  out  to  a  crusade, 
all  of  whom  miserably  perished  on  the  way, 
or  were  sold  into  slavery.  Three  more  cru- 
sades followed,  which  resulted  in  nothing. 
The  fifth  was  to  be  a  means  in  the  pope's  hand 
of  humbling  Frederick  II.,  but  scarcely  did 
this.  In  1291  Ptolemais,  or  Accho,  the  last 
possession  of  the  Christians,  in  Palestine  fell. 
(See,  besides  the  standard  histories.  Gibbon, 
Milman,  and  Hallam,  Michaud,  Eistoire  des 
Croisades,  Paris,  1825  ;  Wilken,  GescMcMe 
der  Kreuzzuge,  Leipzig,  1807-26,  7  vols.  ; 
Kiigler,  Oeseh.  d.  Krenzz.,  Berlin,  1880.  and 
Prutz,  KvUnrgesch.  d.  Krenzz.,  1883  ;  and  for 
brief  handling  G.  G.  Perry,  London,  1865, 
3d  ed.,  1873  ;  G.  W.  Cox,  New  York,  1875  ; 
J.  I.  Mombert,  1891.)  F.  H.  F. 

Crypt  (Greek  for  concealed),  general  term 
for  subterranean  passages  or  grottos,  then 
used  of  subterranean  burial-places.  These 
were  the  places  where  the  martyrs  were  laid 
away,  and  thus  became  places  of  resort,  and 
then  osf  worship.  Churches  were  built  over 
them  for  the  service  of  preaching,  and  the 
crypt  became  so  thoroughly  a  part  of  the 
place  of  worship  that  no  church  was  thought 
complete  without  a  martyr's  grave,  and 
so  a  crypt.  In  the  Germanic  church  archi- 
tecture the  crypt  wus  built  under  the  choir 
(see  Church  Architecture),  and  was  at 
last  often  an  extensive  place.  F.  H.  F. 

Oryp'-to-Calvinism,  a  name  given  to  the 
views  of  those  among  the  Lutherans  who, 
while  denying  predestination,  secretly  held 
Calvin's  doctrine  of  Christ's  spiritual  presence 
in  the  eucharist,  since  Luther's  view  implied 
the  ubiquity  of  Christ's  body.  Melanchthon 
sympathized  with  Calvin,  and  many  agreed 
with  him,  but  the  more  rigid  view  finally  pre- 
vailed. Of  late  years  the  Missouri  Lutherans 
have  been  called  Crypto  Calvinists,  because, 
though  they  are  sound  on  the  eucharist,  they 
defend  the  doctrine  of  unconditional  election 
as  taught  in  the  Formula  of  Concord. 

T.  W.  C. 

Cubit.    See  Measures. 

Cudworth,  Ralph,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1651), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Alter,  Somerset- 
shire, 1617  ;  d.  at  Cambridge,  June  26,  1688. 
He  w^as  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  was 
a  fellow  (1639),  tutor,  master  of  Clare  Hall 
(1645-54);  master  of  Christ's  College  (1654), 
and  professor  of  Hebrew  1645,  till  death. 
His  fame  rests  on  his  The  True  Intellectual 
System  of  tlie  Universe  [the  first  part ;  all  pub- 
lished] ;  Wherein  all  the  Reason  and  Philoso-  > 
phy  of  Atheism  is  Confuted  and  its  Impossi- 
bility Demonstrated,  London,  1678  ;  n.e.,  1845, 
^  vols.  The  title  sufficiently  describes  this 
learned  work.  Cudworth  was  the  leader  of 
the  Cambridge  Platonists  (q.v.). 

Culdees.     See  Celtic  Church,  p.  150. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Chxirch.  See 
Presbyterian  Church. 


CUMMING 


(209) 


CUSA 


Gumming,  John,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1844). 
Niitioual  Scottish  Church  ;  b.  in  the  parish  of 
Plntray,  Aberdeenshire,  Nov.  10.  1807  ;  d.  in 
London,  July  5,  1881.  Educated  at  Aber- 
deen, he  was  from  1833  till  his  death  pastor  in 
London.  He  attracted  notice  and  crowds  by 
liis  determined  opposition  to  popery  and  con- 
fident interpretation  of  prophecj'. 

Cummins,  Gaorge  David,  D.D.  (Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  1857).  Keformed  Episcopal;  b. 
near  Smyrna,  Kent  County,  Del.,  Dec.  11, 
1833  ;  d.at  Luther vdlle,  near  Baltimore,  Md., 
June  26,  1876.  jae  graduated  at  Dickinson 
College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1841  ;  entered  the 
Methodist  ministry  ;  changed  to  the  Epis- 
copal, 1845  ;  became  assistant  bishop  of  Ken- 
tucky, 1866  ;  left  the  denomination  and  es- 
tablished the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  its  first  bishop,  1873,  See  art.  Epis- 
copal Chluicii,  Reformed. 

Cuneiform  Inscriptions.  See  Assyriol- 
OGY,   p.  ~)2. 

Cunningham,  William,  D.D.  (Princeton, 
N.  J.,  1842),  Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at 
Hamilton,  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  Oct.  2, 
1805  ;  educated  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  lived 
as  pastor  (1834)  and  professor  of  theology 
(1843)  until  his  death,  Dec.  14,  1861.  He  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Free  Church  and  an 
able  controversialist.  His  books  are  post- 
humous, the  best  being  The  Reformers  and 
the  Tiieohgy  of  the  Rfiformntion,  Edinburgh, 
1863.  (See  his  life  by  Rainy,  Edinburgh, 
1871.) 

Cup,  a  drinking  vessel  of  horn,  earthen- 
ware, or  .some  precious  metal  (Gen.  xl.  13, 
x\\v.  3,  1  Kings  vii.  26).  In  a  figurative  sense 
it  meant  the  portion  given  one  by  divine  Provi- 
dence (Ps.  xi.  6,  xvi.  5),  the  blessings  of  this 
life  (Ps.  xxiii.  5),  a  thank-offering  to  God  (Ps. 
exvi.  13),  the  judgments  of  heaven  (Ps.  Ixxv. 
8,  Isa.  li.  17),  and  also  the  sufferings  of  our 
Saviour  (Matt.  xx.  23,  xxvi.  39).     Tr  W.  C. 

Curate,  i.e.,  one  who  has  the  ctire,  or  care, 
of  souls  in  a  parish  ;  so  in  the  Prayer-Book 
phrase  "all  bishops  and  curates;"  but  now 
generally  u.sed  "  to  denote  the  minister, 
whether  presbyter  or  deacon,  who  [in  the 
Cliurch  of  England]  is  employed  imder  the 
spiritual  rector  or  vicar,  as  assistant  to  him  in 
the  same  church,  or  else  in  a  cliapel  of  ease 
witliin  the  same  parish,  belonging  to  the 
motiier  church.  Where  there  is  in  a  parish 
neither  spiritual  rector  nor  vicar,  but  a  clerk 
employed  to  officiate  there  by  tlu;  improprietor 
[i.e.,  the  layman  who  has  the  income  of  the 
ecclesiastical  property],  this  is  called  a  per- 
petual curacy,  and  the  priest  thus  employed 
tlie  perpetual  curate.''  Such  curates  are  now 
made  vicars.     (Cf.  Hook,  Diet.,  14th  ed.,  s.v.) 

Cureton,  William,  LL.D.  (Oxford,  1858), 
D.D.  (llallf,  Germany),  Church  of  Enirland  ; 
b.  at  Westbury,  Shropshire,  1S08  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, June  17, "1864.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford ;  assi.stant  keeper  of  Mss.  Britisii  Museum, 
1837  to  1849  ;  canon  of  Westminster  and  rec- 
tor of  St.  ^[argaret's,  1849  till  death.  His 
fame  rests  on  his  Syriac  labors — e.g..  Corpus 
Ignatianum,  1849  ;  Reinaim  of  a  very  antient 


Recension  of  the  Four  Gospels  in  Syriac,  1858  ; 
Fragmenta  Erangelica,  1870. 

Curci,  (koor'-chee).  Carlo  Maria,  Roman 
Catholic  ;  b.  at  Naples,  Sept.  4,  1809  ;  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  1826  ;  was  expelled  for 
his  liberal  political  views,  1877  ;  submitted 
to  the  pope,  1879  ;  offended  again  by  his  lib- 
eralism, 1883,  but  again  submitted.  His  great 
offence  is  his  desire  to  reconcile  church  and 
state  in  Italy.  _  His  various  writings  on  this 
topic  have  excited  widespread  attention. 

Curia  Romana,  the  Roman  Court,  or  the 
estal)lishnient  of  the  pope  for  the  transaction 
of  his  official  duties.     See  Cardinal. 

Cu'-sa,  Nicolas  de,  Cusanus  (Nicolaus 
Chrypffs),  b.  at  Cues,  on  the  Mosel,  in  the 
diocese  of  Treves,  1401  ;  d.  at  Todi,  24  m.  s. 
of  Perugia,  Italy,  1464  ;  was  the  .son  of  a  poor 
fisherman.  When  a  mere  boy  he  displaved 
unusual  ability,  and  Count  Ulrich  of  Mandcr- 
scheid  sent  him  to  the  .school  of  the  "  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life"  at  Deveiiter.  At  the 
age  of  23  he  graduated  in  law  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua.  He  soon  abandoned  this  pro- 
fession and  entered  the  church.  He  became 
well  versed  in  philology,  theology,  philosophy, 
and  mathematics.  In*1430  he  i.s' found  at  Cob- 
lenz  as  dean,  and  ascends  from  this  time  to 
one  grade  in  the  church  after  another.  As 
Archdeacon  of  Liege  he  was  at  the  Council  of 
Basel,  where  he  completed  his  book  entitled 
De  Catholica  Concordantia,  in  which  he  main- 
tained the  proposition  that  the  papal  office  is 
not  restricted  to  the  bishop  of  Rome,  and  that 
he  is  only  to  be  recognized  as  head  of  the 
church  when  properly  elected  to  that  position 
by  the  representatives  of  the  whole  church. 
The  "  Donation  of  Constantine"  he  declared 
to  be  a  forgery,  and  maintained  the  indepen- 
dence of  secular  princes  in  matters  not  per- 
taining to  religion,  of  the  pope.  In  another 
tract  he  seeks  to  prove  that  general  councils 
have  their  authority  directly  from  Christ,  and 
so  are  superior  to  the  pope.  A  few  years  later 
he  is,  however,  found  upon  the  side  of  the 
pope,  without  assigning  any  .satisfactory  rea- 
son for  the  change.  He  served  under  Eugene 
IV.  as  ambassador  to  France,  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  to  Germany.  In  1448  he  was 
made  cardinal.  In  145-1  he  was  involved  in  a 
dispute  with  archduke  Sigismund  in  his  own 
diocese  of  Brixcn.  Sigismund  even  impris- 
oned him,  but  released  him  the  same  year. 
He  had  already  been  engaged  upon  a  number 
of  missions  of  a  reformatory  character  in  the 
Netherlands,  to  the  Bohemians,  etc.,  in  which 
he  had  met  with  but  little  success.  A  hospital 
which  he  had  founded  at  Cues  received  his 
library  and  still  possesses  unpublished  mss.  of 
his. 

As  a  philosopher,  Cusa  was  the  first  to  break 
with  the  ruling  scholasticism.  God  is  the  ab- 
solute maximum  and  the  absolute  minimum. 
There  is  something  like  the  Hegelian  idea  in 
his  declaration  tliat  God  pa.^ses  out  of  unity 
into  equality,  and  then  back  into  unity  again. 
God  passes  over  into  the  world,  yet  he  does 
not  become  the  world.  Thus  Cu.sa  saves  him- 
.self  from  Pantheism.  Ultimately,  God  is  un- 
knowable. As  a  mathematician  Cusa  may 
claim  to  be  the  first  who  tauglit  the  revolution 


OUSH 


(210) 


CYPRIAN 


of  the  earth  about  the  sun  and  the  plurality 
of  worlds.  (See  Scharpff,  Der  Cardinal  unci 
Bifichof  Kicolaus  von  Cusa  als  Reformator, 
Tubingen,  1871.)  F.  H.  F. 

Cush,  a  name  applied  in  Scripture  to  three 
countries :  (1)  the  Oriental  Cush,  near  the  Gihon 
(Gen.  ii.  13)  ;  (2)  the  southern  parts  of  Arabia 
and  the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  Nimrod 
originated  and  whence  the  wife  of  Moses  came 
(Gen.  X.  8,  Num.  xii.  1.  3  Chron.  xxi.  16)  ;  (3) 
more  commonly  Ethiopia  proper,  lying  south 
of  Egypt  and  now  called  Abyssinia  (Ps.  Ixviii. 
31,  Isa.  xviii.  1,  Jer.  xiii.  23).        T.  W.  C. 

Cuthbert,  St.,  bishop  of  Lindisfarne.  The 
place  and  date  of  his  birth  are  luicertain  ;  d. 
at  Fame,  March  20,  687.  Entering  the  mon- 
astery of  Mailros  (Melrose)  in  651,  he  soon  be- 
came a  favorite  of  the  abbot,  Eata,  and  the 
prior,  Boisil.  When  Eata,  at  the  suggestion 
of  king  Alchfrid,  founded  the  monastery  of 
Ripon,  as  it  is  now  called,  he  took  Cuthbert 
with  him  as  prior.  But  the  Mailros  monks 
could  not  maintain  themselves  at  Ripon  after 
661,  probably  because  they  followed  the  Scot- 
tish rule.  Boisil  dying  about  this  time,  Cuth- 
bert succeeded  him  as  prior,  and  exerted  him- 
self not  only  as  a  faithful  prior,  but  as  a 
preacher  in  the  surrounding  regions.  Several 
years  after,  we  find  him  at  Lindisfarne  as 
prior,  with  the  object  of  reforming  this  mon- 
astery in  accordance  with  the  Roman  ritual. 
He  must  accordingly  have  already  taken  the 
tonsure.  After  a  time  the  charms  of  the  an- 
choritic  life  led  him  to  retfi-e  to  the  island 
Fame  as  a  hermit.  The  fame  of  his  piety 
caused  him  to  be  elected  bishop  of  Lindisfarne 
in  684,  but  after  a  short  period  of  active  labor 
in  this  new  position,  he  insisted  the  same  year 
upon  returning  to  his  cell.  (See  life  by  A.  C. 
Fryer,  London,  1881.)  F.  H.  F. 

Cutty-stool,  a  raised  seat  or  gallery  once 
used  in  Scotch  churches  by  repentant  unchaste 
persons,  who  would  be  restored  to  full  com- 
munion. 

Cuyler,  Theodore  Ledyard,  D.D.  (Prince- 
ton, 1866),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Aurora,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  10,  1822  ;  graduated  at  Princeton  Col- 
lege, 1841,  and  Theological  Seminary,  1846  ; 
became  pastor  of  the  Lafayette  Avenue  Pres- 
byterian Church,  Brooklyn,  1860  ;  resigned 
1890.  He  is  a  noted  total  abstinence  advo- 
cate, and  one  of  the  most  prolific  authors  in 
tiie  religious  press.  Two  of  his  numerous 
books,  Stray  Arrows,  New  York,  1852,  and 
IVie  Cedar  Christian,  1858,  have  been  widely 
circulated. 

Cyaxeres.     See  Darius. 

Cycle,  from  the  Greek  k'vkIoq,  "a  ring," 
"a  circle,"  means  generally  a  number  of 
years  used  as  a  larger  unit  in  reckoning  time, 
and  specially  such  an  arrangement  used  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  perfect  congruity 
between  the  solar  and  lunar  computation  of 
time.  A  very  ancient  cycle  was  the  Octaetcris, 
or  cycle  of  8  years,  founded  on  the  fact  that 
8  solar  years  correspond  very  nearly  to  99 
lunations,  or  8  lunar  years  with  3  intercalary 
months.  A  still  more  famous  cycle  w-as  the 
Metouic,  or  cycle  of  19  years,  invented  in  432 


B.C.,  and  based  on  the  fact  that  the  diilerence 
between  19  solar  years  and  235  lunations,  or 
19  lunar  years  with  7  intercalary  months,  is 
only  2  hours  and  3  minutes. 

Cyp'-ri-an  (Thascius  Caecilius  Cyprianus), 

bishop  of  Carthage  ;  b.  apparently  in  Car- 
thage, about  the  year  200  ;  martyred  there, 
Sept.  14,  258.  His  family  was  one  of  wealth, 
and  he  received  a  good  education,  and  became 
a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  in  which  profession  he 
gained  a  position  of  influence  in  Carthage. 
His  conversion  and  baptism  occurred  in  the 
year  245  or  246.  He  immediately  gave  a  large 
portion  of  his  wealth  to  the  poor,  and  devoted 
himself  to  ascetic  self-discipline,  and  to  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  church  writers. 
Tertullian  especially  became  a  favorite  of  his. 
In  a  short  time  he  was  made  a  deacon,  and 
then,  in  247(?),  presbyter.  His  election  to  the 
bishopric  (248),  a  post  of  difficulty  to  a  man  of 
his  opinions,  he  resisted,  but  in  vain.  He  was 
immediately  involved  in  contests.  Personal 
opposition  combined  with  the  circumstances 
of  the  times  and  place  to  stir  up  enemies 
against  him.  The  discipline  of  the  church 
had  fallen  into  neglect,  and  the  long  period  of 
peace  which  the  church  had  enjoyed  had 
given  occasion  for  many  to  seek  an  entrance 
to  her  membership  who  scarcely  belonged 
there.  Hence  many  fell  away  from  the  faith 
in  the  persecution  of  the  year  249.  Cyprian, 
who  found  himself  in  danger,  sought  safety 
in  flight,  and  was  much  reproached  therefor. 
But  he  paid  little  attention  to  the  calumnies 
which  were  heaped  upon  him,  and  continued 
from  his  place  of  refuge  to  provide  for  his 
charge.  The  circumstances  of  the  time  had 
given  a  new  emphasis  to  the  evils  attending 
the  custom  of  receiving  to  the  membership  of 
the  church  again  any  of  the  lapsed  for  whom 
a  martyr  or  a  confessor  should  intercede. 
Whole  families  were  thus  sometimes  restored 
without  any  profession  of  repentance.  In- 
deed, in  Carthage,  confessors  had  ordered  the 
restoration  of  all  the  lapsed  without  distinc- 
tion. Against  all  this  Cyprian  protested  and 
commanded,  but  for  the  most  part  in  vain. 
And  now  came  the  greater  trouble,  the  schism 
of  Felicissimus.  Among  Cyprian's  opponents 
was  a  certain  Novatus,  a  presbyter  at  Carthage, 
who  during  Cyprian's  absence  had  ordained 
Felicissimus  as  deacon.  When,  now,  Cyprian 
sent  two  bishops,  Caldonius  and  Herculanus, 
to  distribute  his  bounty  among  the  poor  and 
also  to  put  suitable  men  into  the  ministry, 
Felicissimus  resisted  them,  and  five  presbyters 
joined  him.  Cyprian  returned  to  the  city 
shortly  after  Easter,  251 ,  and  held  a  synod  the 
same  year,  in  which  rules  more  in  accordance 
with  "his  ideas  about  the  restoration  of  the 
lapsed  were  adopted,  and  also  Felicissimus 
was  condemned  and  excommunicated.  The 
next  year  there  was  another  synod,  and  now 
Felicissimus,  who  had  meantime  seen  the  No- 
vatian  party  set  up  a  rival  bishop  to  Cyprian 
in  the  person  of  Maximus,  himself  elected  a 
second  anti-bishop,  Fortunatus.  Maximus 
would  receive  none  who  had  lapsed  to  the 
communion  of  the  church,  Fortimatus  all, 
but  Cyprian  those  who  gave  signs  of  true  re- 
pentance.    The  wisdom  of  Cyprian  and  his 


CYPRUS 


(211) 


CYRIL 


evident  benevolence  and  faithfulness  daily 
f^aiued  liini  friends,  and  his  opponents  de- 
stroyed each  other. 

But  now  arose  a  contest  with  the  bishop  of 
Home  upon  the  question  of  the  validity  of 
heretical  baptism.  Cyprian  denied  this,  and 
Stephen  affirmed  it.  The  question  itself  re- 
mained undecided  between  them  ;  but  the  as- 
sertion of  his  independence  and  his  equality 
in  rank  to  the  Roman  bishop  by  Cyprian  has 
rendered  the  dispute  of  great  importance  in 
the  history  of  church  polit}'.  In  general 
Cyprian's  position  was  that  of  a  high  church- 
man, lie  made  salvation  dependent  upon 
connection  with  the  church.  He  emphasized 
the  unity  of  the  church,  and  made  this  unity 
to  reside  in  the  unity  of  the  bishopric  as  a 
whole,  but  made  Peter  the  head  among  equal 
brethren  in  the  apostolic  college. 

The  persecution  broke  out  again  in  256  un- 
der Valerian  in  Cartilage.  C3'prian  was  seized 
Aug.  80,  257,  and  examined,  when  he  con- 
fessed himself  a  Christian  and  refused  to  sac- 
rifice. He  was  banished  to  Curubis,  not  far 
from  Carthage,  where  he  remained  a  year. 
Then  he  was  brought  back  and  confined  in 
liis  own  country  residence.  From  here,  called 
to  the  city,  he  was  again  examined,  and  on 
the  same  day  executed  bj^  the  sword. 

His  works,  consisting  of  letters  and  treatises, 
are  to  be  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Ltit.  IV.  and 
V.  ;  translated  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Library, 
Christian  Literature  Publishing  Company, 
vol.  v.,  263-596.  Life  bv  G.  A.  Poole,  Ox- 
ford, 1840.  See  also  O.  Ritschl.  Cuprian.  ron 
Carthago  u.  d.  VerfassuiKj  d.  Kiirlie,  Giittin- 
gen,  1885.  F.  II.  F, 

Oy-prus,  a  large  fertile  island  in  the  north- 
cast  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  140  m.  long 
and  about  50  m.  broad.  It  was  the  Kiltim  of 
the  Old  Testament  (Num.  xxiv.  24.  Ezek. 
xxvii.  0).  Its  inhabitants  were  noted  for  cul- 
ture, but  also  for  all  manner  of  luxury  and 
profligacy.  Of  the  cities  of  the  island,  Paphos, 
at  the  west  end,  and  Salamis  at  the  east  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  gospel  was 
preached  there  at  an  early  day  (Acts  xi.  19). 
Barnabas  (Acts  iv.  36)  and  Mnason  (xxi.  16j 
were  natives.  Paul's  first  missionary  tour 
began  there,  and  one  of  its  fruits  was  Sergius 
Paulus,  the  proconsul  of  the  island.  (See 
Loher,  Cyprus,  New  York,  1878.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Cy-ro'-ne,  the  chief  city  of  Cyrenaica  (now 
Tripoli),  or  the  Lybian  pontapolis.  It  was  a 
Grecian  city,  but  under  Roman  rule.  Many 
Jews  were  .settled  there,  and  they  had  a  syna- 
gogue in  Jerusalem,  some  of  who.se  members 
(Acts  vi.  9)  took  part  against  Steplien,  but 
others  became  heralds  of  the  gospel  (xi.  20, 
xiii.  1).  Simon,  who  bore  our  Lord's  cross 
(Matt,  xxvii.  32),  was  of  this  citv. 

'  T.  W.  C. 

Cyrenius.     See  Quikinius. 

Cjrr-i'-a-cus,  name  of  several  persons.  1. 
(Saint)  a  (.leiicndary)  deacon  in  Rome,  mar- 
tyred. Day  is  celehrated  on  Aug.  8.  2.  (Saint) 
bishop  of'Ancona,  also  legendary,  .said  to 
have  shown  to  St.  Helena  the  place  of  the  true 
cross.     Day  is  May  4.     3.  The  saint  and  pre- 


tended pope,  companion  of  St.  Ursula  (q.v.), 
who  was  martyred  in  Cologne.  Day  Aug.  8. 
4.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  595-606.  He 
a,ssumed  the  title  "ecumenical  bishop"  and 
had  it  contirmed  by  a  synod,  though  against 
the  remonstrances  of  Gregory  I.  of  Rome. 
When,  in  602,  Phocas  ascended  the  imperial 
throne,  and  his  relations  with  the  patriarch 
had  become  unpleasant,  Gregory  induced  him 
to  forbid  the  use  of  the  objectionable  title. 
Cyriacus  had,  however,  died  '(Oct.  7,  606)  be- 
fore the  decree  was  issued.  5.  Metropolitan 
of  Carthage,  and  contemporar-'  of  Gregory 
VII.  (1073-85).  F.  H.  F. 

Oyr'-il  of  Alexandria,  b.  there  about  the 
close  of  the  4th  century  ;  d.  there  also  in  444. 
Patriarch  in  412,  he  soon  became  famous  for 
liis  zeal  in  opposing  every  kind  of  error.  He 
closed  the  churches  of  the  Novatians,  drove 
out  the  Jews,  and  was  thought  to  have  had  a 
hand  in  the  murder  of  Hypatia.  He  is  most 
famous  for  his  contest  with  Nestorius,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  (q.v.).  Nestorius  had 
denied  that  the  predicate  "Mother  of  God" 
should  be  applied  to  Mary.  Without  men- 
tioning the  name  of  Nestorius.  Cyril  is.sued  a 
tract  against  this  view,  teaching  that  the 
Logos,  with  the  assumed  human  nature,  was 
born  of  Mary.  Later,  at  a  .synod  at  Alexan- 
dria (430),  Cj'ril  issued  a  letter  to  Nestorius 
condemning  his  doctrine  in  12  anathemas. 
Nestorius  replied  with  counter-auathenias. 
The  following  year  the  ecumenical  council  at 
Ephesus  was  called,  which  resulted  in  the 
deposition  of  Nestorius  by  the  council,  and 
that  of  Cyril  and  Memnon  of  Ephesus  by  the 
Antiochian  party,  all  of  which  depositions 
were  confirmed  by  imperial  decree.  But 
Cyril  and  Memnon  were  soon  restored,  while 
Nestorius  was  sent  back  to  his  monastery.  A 
reconciliation  of  Cyril  witli  John  of  Antioch 
was  now  procured,  by  wliich  John  was  led  to 
condemn  Nestorius.  Cyril  afterward  attacked 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  Diodorus  of 
Tarsus.  His  dogmatic  writings  embrace 
treatises  upon  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation, 
and  the  worship  of  God.  He  also  composed 
an  apology  for  the  Christian  religion  against 
Julian  (10  book.s).  (See  the  art.  Ciiristol- 
OGY.)  Works  in  Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  LXVI.- 
LXXVII.  Eng.  trans,  of  his  commentary  on 
L.ike,  Oxford,  1S50,  and  Fice  Totacs  agaiiList 
Xestoriiis,<iic.,  1S81.  F.  11.  F. 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  bishop  there  from  350 
or  351  to  his  death,  March  18,  386.  Born 
315(?),  he  became  deacon  in  334  or  335.  under 
]\Iacarius,  who  entrusted  him  with  the  cate- 
chetical instruction  of  those  catechumens  in 
immediate  preparation  for  baptism  (com2)e- 
tentes,  .see  art.  C.vTKrHUMKXs).  In  the  per- 
formance of  this  duty  he  prepared  those 
"  catechi-sms"  which  have  come  down  to  us 
as  his  principal  literary  remains.  They  are 
not  composed  in  tiie  form  of  question  and 
answer,  but  in  continuous  discourses  they 
dwell  upon  the  duties  of  a  Christian  in  gen- 
eral, and  then  treat  of  bai)tism.  of  sin,  and  of 
the  creed,  commenting  upon  this,  word  for 
word.  The  creed  employed  does  not  differ 
essentially  from  that  formulated  at  Nice,  ex- 
cept in  omitting  the  "  homo-ousion. "     After 


CYRIL 


(212) 


CYRIL 


the  baptism  there  followed  several  addresses 
which  explained  the  meaning  of  the  sacra- 
ments. 

When  Cyril  became  bishop  he  was  neces- 
sarily iuvoWed  somewhat  in  the  Arian  con- 
troversy. He  favored  the  more  indistinct 
form  of  teaching  common  in  the  East  before 
the  Council  of  Nice.  He  was  ordained  bishop 
by  Acacius  of  Caesarea,  with  whom  he  was 
for  a  time  upon  good  terms.  But  the  abnor- 
mal relations  of  the  two  bishoprics  could  not 
fail  to  develop  friction  at  last.  Acacius  was 
the  metropolitan  superior  of  Cyril,  and  yet 
Cyril,  as  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  was  a  patri- 
aich,  ne.xt  in  rank  to  those  of  Home,  Alex- 
andria, and  Antioch.  The  quarrtl  which 
broke  out  resulted  in  the  deposition  of  both 
bishops  by  partisan  councils,  but  Cyril,  being 
deposed  by  the  synod  at  Constantinople  in 
360,  had  the  worst  of  it.  Julian  restored  him 
the  following  year,  and  though  driven  out 
again  under  Yalens,  he  finally  returned  and 
passed  his  closing  days  in  peace.  Works  in 
Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  XXXIII.  Eng.  trans,  of 
The  Catechetical  Lectures  in  Oxford  Library 
and  in  the  series  of  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene 
Fathers,  Christian  Literature  Company,  New 
York,  1891.  F.  H.  F. 

Cyril  Lucar,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  author  of  the  famous  "Confession"  of  the 
year  1629,  in  wliich  he  placed  liimself  upon 
the  doctrine  of  Calvinistic  Protestantism. 
Born  in  Crete  probably  iu  1573  (d.  at  Con- 
stantinople, 16B8),  he  pursued  studies  there 
with  Meletius,  later  patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
and  after  1583  went  to  Venice,  under  whose 
government  the  island  of  Crete  then  was,  and 
spent  a  number  of  years  in  study  and  travel 
iu  all  parts  of  Europe,  tarrying  for  some  time 
at  Geneva,  and  afterward  teaching  at  Ostrog 
in  Lithuania.  In  1595  he  was  present  at  the 
Synod  of  Brzesc,  which  was  held  for  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  about  the  union  of  the  Greeks 
in  Poland  with  the  Roman  Church.  Returned 
to  Crete,  he  was  made  abbot  by  Meletius,  was 
his  ambassador  to  Brzesc  to  bear  his  refusal 
to  join  in  the  efforts  at  union  made  there,  and, 
in  1602,  after  the  death  of  Meletius,  was  made 
patriarch  of  Alexandria.  Here  he  remained 
till  1621.  We  know  little  of  his  work  at  this 
period  of  his  life,  but  he  was  evidently  grad- 
ually approaching  the  Protestant  position 
upon  justitication  by  faith  and  the  sacraments, 
though  without  abandoning  the  ancient  creeds, 
or  the  distinctive  spirit  of  his  own  church. 
He  perceived  the  intellectual  darkness  of  his 
church,  and  set  about  illuminating  it.  He 
caused  numbers  of  books  to  be  sent  him,  and 
entered  into  some  literary  intercourse  with  the 
West,  sending  the  Alexandrine  MS.  as  a  pres- 
ent to  James  I.  of  England.  In  1621  he  w^as 
finally  made  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
here  found  himself  in  the  midst  of  lukewarm 
friends  and  determined  enemies.  The  Jesuits 
in  particular  gave  him  endless  trouble.  Ac- 
cused by  a  Greek  bishop  of  treason,  he  was 
banished  to  Rhodes  in  1622.  to  be  soon  brought 
back  nnder  the  friendly  mediation  of  the  Eng- 
lish ambassador.  In  1624  emissaries  from 
Rome  sought  to  win  him  over  to  that  church, 
and  when  he  refused,  they  set  up  a  Latin 


patriarch.  In  1627  he  procured  a  printing- 
press  for  the  publication  of  various  necessary 
literature,  but  the  Jesuits  excited  the  suspicion 
of  the  Turks,  and  it  was  seized  and  destroyed. 
Yet  he  managed  to  get  his  "  Confession"  pub- 
lished at  Geneva  in  1629  iu  Latin,  and  in  1633 
in  Greek.  This  begins  with  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  then  proceeds  with  unconditional 
election,  which  is  referred  to  the  free  mercy, 
the  punitive  justice,  and  the  absolute  will  of 
God.  There  is  no  moral  freedom  before 
regeneration.  The  med  atorial  and  priestly 
work  of  Christ  is  emphasized.  The  doctrine 
of  justification  by  faith,  wiiich  is  by  faith  and 
not  by  works,  is  simply  expressed,  and  he 
seems  to  have  intended  to  teach  not  a  forensic 
justification,  but  the  immediate  appropriation 
of  the  righteousness  of  Christ.  Only  baptism 
and  the  eucharist  are  mentioned  as  sacraments, 
which  are  defined  so  thai;  their  working  is 
spiritual,  not  external  and  magical.  The  "Con- 
fession" seems  scarcely  intended  as  that  of  an 
individual,  though  not  publicly  authorized. 
It  seems  rather  to  represent  a  point  of  develop- 
ment to  which  Cyril  hoped  to  bring  his  church. 
It  naturally  made  him  a  very  conspicuous  ob- 
ject among  both  the  churches  of  the  West. 
The  Jesuits  renewed  their  efforts  against  him. 
After  several  more  deposals,  they  finally  con- 
vinced the  Sultan,  who  was  about  to  leave  for 
the  Persian  war,  that  Cyril  was  a  dangerous 
man  to  leave  behind  him,  and  he  was  accord- 
ingly seized  by  the  Janizaries,  in  1638,  and 
drowned  in  the  Bosphorus.  Years  afterward 
he  was  honorably  buried  by  his  church  in 
Constantinople.  To  resist  his  theological  in- 
fluence an  "  orthodox"  confession  was  pre- 
pared by  the  bishop  Peter  Mogilas,  in  1642, 
which  is  standard  in  the  Greek  Church  to- 
day. It  was  even  denied  that  Cyril  had  ever 
written  his  "Confession."  (See Thomas  Smith, 
Collectanea  de  Cyrillo  Lvcan,  London,  1707, 
and  Narratio  de  Vita,  etc.,  Halle,  1724,  and 
Pichler  [German],  Miinchen    1862.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Cyril  and  Methodius,  apostles  of  the  Slavs. 
They  were  brothers,  and  were  born  in  the 
first  half  of  the  9tli  century.  Constantiue 
(the  real  name  of  "  Cyril")  was  early  well 
known  for  his  natural  talents,  became  a  friend 
of  Photius,  and  was  called  the  Philosopher. 
But  the  religious  tendency  was  so  strong  in 
him  that  he  abandoned  the  prospects  of  the 
briirhtest  career,  and  entered  the  monastery 
with  his  brother  ilethodius.  His  earliest  mis- 
sionary work  was  done  among  a  tribe  of  Tar- 
tars who  occupied  the  country  on  the  north- 
east of  the  Black  Sea,  in  which  he  met  with  a 
temporary  success.  Meantime  the  Slavs  in 
Bulgaria  and  the  regions  beyond  had  been  ap- 
proached by  various  single  missionaries,  who 
seemed,  however,  likely  to  introduce  a  form 
of  church  life  which  would  render  the  Slavs 
dependent  upon  Rome  or  Constantinople,  and 
then,  as  now,  they  sought  religious  indeoen- 
dence.  Constantino  upon  his  return  had  given 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  Slavic  dialects,  and 
had  translated  portions  of  the  Scriptures  and 
the  most  important  liturgical  books  into 
Slavic.  He  began  his  missionary  activity 
upon  a  call  from  king  Ratislav,  who  had 


CYRUS 


(213) 


DALMATIC 


founded  a  great  Slavic  kingdom  in  and  about 
Moravia.  Witli  Methodius  he  came  to  tlie 
court  of  Ratislav  about  863,  and  soon  had  a 
seminary,  and  was  preaching  with  great  suc- 
cess. The  service  was  held  in  the  Slavic  lan- 
guage, and  a  Slavic  national  church  was  in 
process  of  creation.  But  German  jealousy 
soon  stirred  up  trouble.  Upon  certain  com- 
plaints Nicholas  I.  summoned  him  to  Rome. 
The  two  brothers  obeyed,  won  the  pope  Ha- 
drian (868,  Nicholas  was  now  dead)  to  their 
.support,  and  were  conhrmed  in  the  use  of  the 
Slavic  language  in  divine  service  and  of  their 
translation  of  the  Bible,  and  in  their  turn 
promised  to  carry  out  the  plans  of  Rome  for 
the  connection  of  the  new  church  with  the 
Roman  hierarchy.  The  powers  of  Constantine 
now  gave  way.  Retiring  to  a  monastery,  he 
took,  as  a  monk,  the  name  of  Cyril,  and  soon 
died  (Feb.  14,  869).  Methodius  returned  to 
Moravia  as  archbishop  and  went  on  with  the 
work.  But  the  old  dilRculties  soon  arose 
again.  Again  the  pope  (John)  summoned 
him  to  Rome  (June  14,  879).  lie  immediately 
obeyed,  and  won  the  pope  over  to  his  side. 
He  returned  the  following  year  fully  master 
of  the  situation  ;  but  the  death  of  John,  882, 
deprived  him  of  his  protector.  German  jeal- 
ousy began  immediately  to  undermine  his  in- 
fluence upon  the  king,  and  he  died  in  the 
midst  of  much  confusion,  April  6,  885,  ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  though  the  real  date 
may  have  been  as  late  as  910.  German  hostil- 
ity finally  drove  out  all  the  Slavic  priests,  and 
also  the  Slavic  Bible  and  liturgy,  which 
through  Bulgaria  came  into  Russia. 

F.  H.  F. 

Cjrrus.    See  Assyriology,  p.  59. 


D. 

D'Achery  (dash-are),  Jean  Luc,  Roman 
Catholic  ;  b.  at  St.  Quentin,  Picardy,  N.  E. 
France,  1609  ;  became  a  Benedictine  first  at 
St.  Quentin  ;  then,  1633,  in  the  stricter  con- 
gregation of  St.  Maur  at  Veudome  ;  became 
librarian  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Germain  des 
Pres,  Paris  ;  d.  there,  April  29,  1685.  His 
great  learning  comes  out  in  his  collection  of 
mediaeval  writings,  Spicilegium  ;  sire  collectin 
Teti'ru/ii  aliquot  srriptornm,  Paris,  1655-77,  13 
vols.,  2d  ed.,  enlarged,  1733,  3  vols.  fol. 

Da  Costa,  Isaak,  Protestant  lavman  ;  b.  in 
Amstenlum,  Jan.  14,  1798  ;  d.  there.  April  38. 
1800.  He  was  born  in  a  wealthy  and  promi- 
nent family  of  Portuguese  Jews  ;  studied  law 
at  Amsterdam  and  at  Leyden,  where  he  be- 
came doctor  of  law  in  1818.  In  1822,  after 
his  fatiier's  death,  he  professed  Christianity, 
and  was  a  brilliant  and  learned  defender  of 
the  orthodo.\'  faith,  c.;)..  The  Four  Wit nesnen 
(1840,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1851),  against 
Strauss.     He  was  also  ti  poet  of  repute. 

Da'-gon  {JliJt),  the  national  god  of  the 
Piiilistines  whose  temples  were  at  Gaza  and 
Aslidod.  The  former  was  destroyed  by  Sam- 
son (Ja<lg.  xvi.  33-30).  In  the  Tatter  the  im- 
age of  the  god,  hiilf-man  half-fish,  fell  down 
miraculously  before  the  ark  twice  (1  Sam.  v. 


2-4),  and  in  the  second  fall  his  head  and  hands 
were  broken  off,  leaving  only  the  stump.  In 
his  temple  the  Philistines  hung  up  Saul's  head 
(1  Chron.  x.  10).  T.  W.  C. 

Daille  (da-ya),  Jean,  Reformed  Church  of 
France  ;  b.  at  Chatellerault,  20  m.  n.n.e.  of 
Poitiers,  Jan.  6,  1594  ;  became  preacher  at 
Saumur,  1635  ;  at  Charenton,  near  Paris, 
1636  ;  was  moderator  of  the  last  Reformed 
National  Synod,  1659  ;  d.  in  Paris,  April  15, 
1670.  He  was  a  voluminous  author  and 
highly  esteemed  for  his  learning  and  elo- 
quence. His  most  famous  book  is  his  2)ratise 
Concerning  the  Right  Use  of  the  Fathers,  in  the 
DeeiHion  of  the  Controversies  that  are  at  this 
Day  in  Religion,  Geneva.  1632,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1651,  2d  ed.,  1675. 

D'AilU.     See  Aii.li. 

Dale,  James  Wilkinson,  D.D.  (Ilampden- 
Sidney  College,  Va.,  186- ;  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  186-),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Odessa,  Del.,  Oct.  16,  1812  ;  d.  at  Media,  Pa., 
April  19,  1881.  He  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  1831,  and  studied  at  An- 
dover  (1833,  1834),  and  Princeton  (1833).  the- 
ological seminaries  ;  became  agent  of  the 
A.B.C.F.M.,1835;  M.D.,  Philadelphia,  1838, 
thinking  to  be  a  foreign  missionary,  but  became 
pastor  at  Ridley  and  Middletown.'Pa.,  1845-66, 
and  then  at  Media,  1866-71  ;  at  Wayne,  1871- 
76  ;  retired  in  broken  health.  He  wrote  Classic 
Baptism,  Philadelphia,  1867  ;  Judaic  Baptism, 
1869;  Johannic  Bajttisni,  1871  ;  Christie  and 
Patristic  Baptism,  1874.  (See  life  by  James 
Roberts  [Philadelphia],  1886.) 

Dale,  Robert  William,  D.D.  (Yale,  1877), 
LL.D.  (Glasgow,  1883),  Congregationalist  ;  b. 
in  London,  Dec.  1,  1839  ;  graduated  M.A.  at 
the  University  of  London,  1853  ;  since  1853 
has  been  pastor  of  Carr's-lane  Church,  Bir- 
mingham (till  1859  co-pastor  with  John  Angell 
James).  He  is  the  author  of  Life  of  John  An- 
gell James,  London,  1861,  5th  ed.,  1863;  The 
Jewish  Temple  and  the  Chrixtian  ( hurch,  1865, 
7th  ed.,  1886  ;  The  Ten  Cnnmandments,  1871, 
5th  ed.,  1885;  Protestantism:  its  Ultimate 
Principle,  1874,  2d  ed.,  1875;  The  Atone- 
ment, 1875,  9th  ed.,  1883;  Nine  Lectures  on 
Preaching  (on  the  Lyman  Beecher  founda- 
tion), 1877,  5th  ed.,  1886  ;  Fnistle  to  the  Ephe- 
sians,  1882,  4th  ed.,  1888  ;  The  Laws  of  Christ 
for  Common  Life,  1884,  3d  ed.,  1886;  Ltn- 
pressions  of  Australia,  1889,  and  other  vol- 
umes. 

Dal-ma-nu'-tha,  a  town  w,  of  the  sea  of 

Galilee  (Murk  viii.  10),  and  near  Magdala 
(Matt.  XV.  39).  It  is  probably  'Ain-el-Bari- 
d-eh,  "  the  cold  foimtain,"  at  the  mouth  of  a 
glen  a  mile  s.  of  Magdala,  near  the  beach. 
T.  W.  C. 
Dal-ma'-tia,  a  region  e.  of  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
forming  j)art  of  Illyricum  and  contiguous  to 
Macedonia.  Paul  sent  Titus  there  (3  Tim.  iv. 
10)  and  had  himself  preached  in  the  neighbor- 
hood (Rom.  XV.  19).  T.  W.  C. 

Dalmatic,  a  fnll-sleeved  tunic  reaching 
about  to  the  knees,  the  distinctive  dress  of  the 
deacon  in  the  celebration  of  mass  in  the  lio- 
mau  Church.     Sue  Clotuing.         F.  U.  F. 


DAMASCUS 


(214) 


DAN2:US 


Da-mas'-cus,  the  capital  of  Syria,  the  old- 
est city  on  the  globe,  situate  in  a  fertile  plain 
on  the  Barada  (the  Ahana  of  3  Kings  v.  12), 
on  the  edge  of  the  Arabian  desert,  whose  in- 
habitants always  came  to  Damascus  for  their 
supplies.  First  mentioned  in  Gen.  xiv.  15,  it 
appears  next  in  2  Sam.  viii.  5  as  captured  by 
David.  Afterward  becoming  independent  it 
warred  with  the  Hebrews,  but  was  again  cap- 
tured by  Jeroboam  11.  (3  Kings  xiv.  28).  A 
century  later  it  was  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser 
(2  Kings  xvi.  9),  and  afterward  became  suc- 
cessively subject  to  the  Babylonians,  Persians, 
Seleucida?  and  Romans.  In  the  time  of  Paul 
it  was  held  for  a  time  by  Aretas,  King  of 
Arabia  Petnea  (2  Cor.  xi.  33).  The  Khalif 
Omar,  635  a.d.,  took  it,  and  in  1516  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  under  Selim  I. 
It  is  memorable  to  Christians  as  the  scene  of 
Paul's  conversion  (Acts  ix.).  Trade  and 
manufactures  have  made  it  rich.  Its  damask 
cloth  and  its  steel  were  long  unrivalled.  Still 
as  of  old  huge  caravans  traverse  from  here 
desert  routes  to  remote  cities.  It  now  has  a 
population  of  150,000,  mostly  bigoted  Mo- 
liammedans.  In  1866  there  was  a  dreadful 
slaughter  of  the  Christians,  owing  to  the  lierce 
fanaticism  of  the  Mohammedans. 

T.  W.  C. 

Dam'-a-sus,  the  name  of  two  popes.  1. 
Born  in  Rome  ('?),  306,  bishop  of  Rome  3(56  to 
384,  canonized  as  a  saint,  and  his  day  fixed  as 
Dec.  11.  A  rival  was  set  up  in  the  person  of 
the  deacon  Ursicinus,  and  the  schismatic 
clergy  were  handed  over  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
Damasus  as  a  measure  of  protection  against 
lieathen  judges.  Damasus  opposed  Arianism, 
and  called  a  council  in  Rome  (368)  which  con- 
demned Ursacius  and  Valens,  Illyrian  bishops, 
and  also  Auxentius  of  Milan.  He  was  repre- 
sented in  the  Council  at  Constantinople  in 
381.  He  was  also  the  occasion  of  Jerome's 
undertaking  the  revision  of  the  Latin  Bible. 
His  works,  in  Latin,  in  Migne,  vol.  xiii.,  and 
life  by  M.  Rade,  Freiburg  in  Br.,  1882. 
2.  Bishop  of  Brixcu,  elected  pope  in  1048,  died 
23  days  afterward.  F.  H.  F. 

Dam-i-a'-nus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
(d.  601),  who  taught  that  the  deity  is  so  di- 
vided among  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinit^^ 
that  tliey  are  God  only  in  connection  with 
each  other,  not  each  in  itself,  and  that  in  their 
union  they  are  the  one  divine  essence.  His 
followers  were  called  Damianites,  or  Angel- 
ites,  from  their  place  of  meeting  in  Alexan- 
dria, the  Angelium,  or  Tetradites. 

F.  H.  F. 

Damiani  (da-me-a'-nee),  or  Damianus, 
Peter,  cardinal  of  the  Roman  Church  ;  b.  in 
Ravenna,  Italy,  1007 ;  d.  in  Faenza,  Feb.  33, 
1073.  His  name  he  derived  from  his  brother 
Damianus,  who  had  been  very  kind  to  him 
after  a  season  in  which  he  had  suffered  much. 
Ha\ing  obtained  a  liberal  education,  he  pur- 
sued at  first  the  calling  of  a  teacher  in  Raven- 
na, but  suddenly  abandoned  his  fine  prospects 
and  became  a  hermit.  Having  taken  up  his 
residence  in  the  region  of  Gubbio,  which  was 
filled  with  hermitages,  he  soon  became  so  dis- 
tinguished for  asceticism  that  he  was  made 
prior,  and  later  abbot,  and  Jjecame  the  leader 


and  example  of  all  that  region .  There  was 
at  that  period  an  unbounded  passion  for  great 
self-inflictions  of  torture  with  the  scourge. 
One  hundred  lashes  a  Psalm,  as  the  Psalter 
was  repeated,  gave  15,000  for  the  whole  Psal- 
ter, which  according  to  the  reckoning  of  the 
day  was  equal  to  five  years  of  Purgatory. 
The  rage  for  this  sort  of  penance  grew  so 
great  that  Damiani  was  himself  obliged  to  set 
a  limit  to  the  number  of  lashes  a  monk  should 
receive  at  one  time.  One  of  his  most  promis- 
ing pupils  had  lashed  himself  to  death.  At 
last  Damiani  grew  so  famous  that  he  was  said 
to  work  miracles,  and  he  thus  became  the 
chosen  leader  of  the  new,  popular,  and  rigid 
monasticism  of  the  times.  The  emperor, 
Henry  III.,  sought  his  help  in  making  the  re- 
forms he  had  at  heart  popular.  Hildebrand 
was,  however,  the  first  who  iinderstood  how 
to  take  advantage  of  the  power  of  the  man, 
and  so  to  guide  him  that  he  might  become  one 
of  the  foremost  champions  of  the  papacy  in 
its  struggle  against  simony  and  for  celibacy. 
Stephen  X.  made  him  bishop  of  Ostia,  and 
put  him  at  the  head  of  the  College  of  Cardi- 
nals. In  1059  Nicholas  II.  sent  him  to  Milan 
as  papal  legate.  Without  the  "  Patareni" 
(q.v.)  he  might  not  have  succeeded,  but  with 
their  help  he  laid  the  entire  clerg)'  under  oath, 
prescribed  penance  for  them  all,  and  read- 
mitted only  the  most  worthy  to  their  former 
positions.  Under  Alexander  II.  he  was  also 
active,  once  going  to  Germany  to  bring  the 
young  king,  Henry  IV.,  to  a  recognition  of 
the  claims  of  the  court  at  Rome  to  decide  the 
royal  divorce.  His  last  service  was  of  a  sim- 
ilar kind.  The  bishop  of  Ravenna  having 
died,  Damiani  was  called  upon  to  bring  the 
church  in  that  city  back  to  the  obedience 
which  it  had  long  refused.  In  this  also  he 
succeeded  ;  but  lie  became  ill  upon  the  jour- 
ney back,  and  soon  died.  Of  his  works  the 
most  famous  is  his  Liber  Gomorrhianus,  which 
gives  a  frightful  picture  of  the  clerical  cor- 
ruption of  the  times  (See  life  bv  J.  Kleiner- 
manns,  Steyl,  1882.)  ~  F.  H.  F. 

Damien,  Father  (properly  Joseph  Deveu- 
ster).  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Tremeloo,  near 
Louvain.  Belgium,  Jan.  3,  1840  ;  d.  at  Kala- 
wao, Molokai,  Monday,  April  15,  1889.  Fol- 
lowing the  example  of  an  older  brother  he 
entered  the  missionary  congregation  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  and  Mary  at  Louvain. 
Feb.  2, 1859  ;  sailed  for  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
1863  ;  there  carried  on  missionary  labors  in 
various  places,  xmtil  in  1873  he  settled  on  the 
leper's  island  of  Molokai,  and  there  devoted 
himself  to  the  care,  temporal  and  spiritual,  of 
the  poor  lepers,  and  lived  unharmed  until 
1883,  when  the  fell  malady  struck  him,  but 
he  was  unwearied  in  his  services  to  otliers  till 
the  last.  (See  his  Life  and  Letters,  London 
[Catholic  Truth  Society],  1889.) 

Damnation.    See  Eschatology. 

Dan.     See  Tribes. 

Dan-ae'-us  (properly  Daneau  [dan'-o]). 
Lambert,  Reformed  Church  of  France  ;  b. 
about  1530  at  Beaugency-sur-Loire,  15  m.  s.w. 
of  Orleans  ;  d.  at  Castres,  Nov.  11,  1595.  He 
studied  law  at  Orleans  and  Bourges  ;  inclining 


DAirCE 


(215) 


DANIEL 


to  Protestantism,  he  went  to  Geneva,  1560  ;  and 
next  year  became  a  preacher  at  Gien,  France, 
1561,  where  he  remained  till  1572,  when  he 
fled  to  Geneva  to  escape  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew.  From  then  on  he  taught  tlie- 
ology  and  preached  at  various  places  for  longer 
or  shorter  periods — Geneva,  Leyden,  Ghent, 
Orthez,  Lescar,  and  Castres.  Of  his  numer- 
ous works  his  Christinn  Ethics  is  the  best 
(Geneva,  1577,  7th  ed.,  1640),  the  first  attempt 
at  a  system  of  morals  apart  from  dogmatics. 

Dance,  a  measured  rhythmical  movement  of 
the  feet  usually  to  a  musical  accompaniment. 
Among  the  Hebrews  it  was  commonly  re- 
ligious in  its  character  (Ex.  xv.  20,  2  Sara.  vi. 
14),  and  always  by  one  sex  only,  for  the  most 
part  in  the  daytime  and  in'^the  open  air. 
Sometimes  it  was  in  honor  of  a  conqueror 
(1  Sam.  xviii.  6),  or  on  occasions  of  domestic 
joy  (Judg.  xxi.  21,  Luke  xv.  25),  or  for  amuse- 
ment (^Matt.  xi.  17,  Mark  vi.  22).  It  was  also 
connected  with  idolatrous  worship  (Ex.  xxxii. 
19),  and  then  was  often  licentious. 

T.  W.  C. 

Dancers  appeared  in  the  summer  of  1375 
in  Aachen,  whither  they  came  from  Upper 
Germany.  They  spread  throughout  this  re- 
gion. They  went  through  the  streets  and 
churches,  dancing  as  they  went,  not  seeing 
the  people  who  were  about  them,  but  filled 
with  fancies,  as  e.g.,  that  they  were  in  a 
stream  of  blood  from  which  they  sought  to 
escape  by  leaping  into  the  air.  They  thought 
they  perceived  also  the  heavens  opened  and 
the  Son  of  man  appearing  there.  They  con- 
tinued to  dance  till  exhausted,  and  then  fell 
into  cramps,  which  were  only  stopped  by 
compresses  upon  the  abdomen.  The  cause  o*f 
the  phenomenon  was  evidently  disease.  The 
people  joined  them  somewhat.  Various 
causes  were  ascribed  for  the  dancing,  such  as 
possession,  the  married  priests  who  had  bap- 
tized the  tmfortunates  not  having  been  able 
to  drive  the  devil  out  of  them  in  the  regular 
exorcism.  The  dancing  lasted  about  16 
weeks.  In  1418  a  similar  mania  broke  out  in 
Strassburg,  which  received  the  name  of  St. 
Vitus'.s  dance,  from  the  saint  invoked  to  heal 
the  disease.  (See  Hecker,  The  Epidemics  of 
the  Middle  Arjes,  Berlin,  1832-a4,  3  parts,  ed. 
Hirsch,  1865  ;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1833-35, 
3d  ed.,  1859,  pp.  87  sqq.).  F.  H.  F. 

Dan'-iel  (God  is  my  judge),  a  descendant  of 
David,  who  when  very  youag  was  taken  to 
Babylon  in  the  3d  year  of  Jehoiakim,  and  put 
in  training  (cf.  Isa.  xxxix.  7)  for  a  courtier  of 
the  palace.  He  with  liis  companions  refused 
to  eat  the  food  that  was  ceremonially  im- 
clean  and  lived  only  on  pulse  and  water.  At 
the  end  of  3  years  they  excelled  all  others,  and 
Daniel  by  interpreting  the  monarch's  dream 
became  governor  of  Babylon.  He  was  ab.sent, 
perhaps  on  a  foreign  mission,  when  his  com- 
panions were  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace.  At 
a  later  period  he  interpreted  another  dream  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  afterward  the  noted 
vision  of  Belshazzar,  who  promoted  liim  .still 
higher  than  before.  Under  Darius  he  held  I 
an  exalted  position  which  awakened  the  envy  I 
of  the  .satraps,  who  plotted  to  liave  liim  cast 
into  the  lions'  den,  but  the  plot  recoiled  to  ' 


their  own  destruction  (Dan.  vi.).  He  was  con- 
tinued in  all  his  offices  and  enjoyed  the  favor 
of  Cyrus  till  his  death.  He  laborecl  by  fast- 
ing and  prayer  to  secure  the  return  of  the  peo- 
ple to  their  own  land,  and  he  lived  to  see  the 
decree  issued  and  many  of  his  countrymen 
sent  back,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  re- 
visited Jerusalem  himself,  possibly  on  account 
of  his  age,  being  now  (536  B.C.)  over  80  years. 

Daniel  was  one  of  the  most  spotless  person- 
ages of  whom  we  have  record.  His  youth 
and  his  age  were  alike  devoted  to  God.  High 
in  station  and  wealth  and  power,  he  never  for- 
got the  claims  of  duty.  He  was  faithful  to 
his  calling  at  all  costs  and  risks.  Bribes  could 
not  corrupt,  nor  threats  awe  him,  nor  lux- 
uries tempt  him.  He  was  a  i)ure  patriot  and 
his  countrj-men  were  dear  to  his  heart.  His 
piety  was  profound  and  earnest,  and  his  com- 
munion with  God  so  intimate  that  twice  he 
was  called  by  the  angel  "  a  man  greatly  be- 
loved. ' '  (See  life  by  W.  M.  Taylor,New  York, 
1878,  and  H.  Deane,  1888.) 

Two  others  bear  the  same  name,  one  the  2d 
son  of  David  by  Abigail  (1  Chron.  iii.  1),  the 
other,  a  de.scendant  of  Ithamar,  the  4th  son 
of  Aaron,  who  returned  with  Ezra  to  Judea 
and  took  part  in  the  reformation  of  the  people 
(Ezra  viii.  2,  Neh.  x.  6).  T.  W.  C. 

Daniel,  Book  of.  The  first  6  chapters  are 
mainly  historical,  the  remainder  prophetical. 
Like  Ezra  it  is  written  partly  in  Hebrew  and 
partly  (ii.  4-vii.  28)  in  Aramaic,  a  fact  which 
favors  its  authenticity,  because  a  forger  of  a 
later  period  would  hardly  use  two  languages, 
although  Daniel's  position  rendered  it  natural 
for  him.  The  striking  miracles  it  relates  were 
designed  to  encourage  the  exiled  people  and 
to  teach  their  foes  the  difference  between 
Jehovah  and  idol  gods.  Daniel,  though  a 
seer,  was  not  by  office  a  prophet,  and  there- 
fore his  book  was  put  by  the  Jews  not  with 
the  Prophets,  but  among  what  were  called  the 
Hagiographa— a  fact  which  shows  that  it  was 
not  an  interpolation  of  later  times.  Besides, 
Daniel  does  not  as  the  others  put  God's  peo- 
ple in  the  foreground,  but  sets  forth  in  front 
the  kingdoms  of  the  world,  and  behind  these 
the  kingdom  of  God  destined  ultimately  to 
rule  them  all.  The  scope  of  the  prophecies 
runs  from  the  days  of  Daniel  to  the  general 
resurrection.  The  empires  of  the  world, 
which  appear  first  in  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream 
under  the  figure  of  a  colossal  image  (ch.  ii.), 
and  afterward  under  the  form  of  4  beasts 
.seen  by  the  prophet  himself  (ch.  vii.),  are 
usually  supposed  to  be  the  Babylonian,  Per- 
sian, Grecian,  and  Roman.  The  prediction 
in  ch.  xi.  was  so  completely  fulfilled  in  the 
history  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  that  Porphyry 
and  others  asserted  that  it  was  written  after 
the  events  had  taken  place  ;  but  even  in  1 
Maccabees  (i.  24,  ix.  27,  40)  the  book  is  re- 
ferred to  as  extant.  The  precise  lime  of 
Christ's  advent  is  told,  with  the  rise  and  fall 
of  Antichrist,  and  the  victory  of  Christ  over 
his  foes,  and  the  universal  prevalence  of  his 
reliirion.  ■* 

The  genuineness  of  the"  book  has  been  often 
attacked,  but  in  vain.  The  presences  of  Greek 
words  has  been  accounted  for  :  historical  dis- 


DANTE 


(216) 


DARBY 


erepancies  have  been  removed  by  monumental 
discoveries ;  the  manners  and  customs  of 
Babylon  as  recently  ascertained  agree  with 
the  language  of  the  book  ;  and  the  testimony 
of  Christ  (Matt.  xxiv.  15)  is  clear  and  incon- 
trovertible. Besides  the  general  commentaries, 
see  Pusey,  London,  1854 ;  J.  G.  Murphy 
(1884)  ;  R.  P.  Smith  (1886). 

There  exist  in  the  Greek  Version  3  apocry- 
phal additions  to  the  book  :  (1)  the  Song  of 
the  Three  Children,  i.e.,  those  cast  into  the 
furnace,  a  part  of  which,  under  the  title  Dene- 
clicite,  has  passed  as  a  hymn  into  the  service  of 
the  Christian  Church  ;  (3)  the  History  of  Susan- 
na, probably  based  on  fact ;  and  (3)  the  History 
of  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  a  strange  exaggeration 
of  Daniel's  deliverance  from  the  den  of  lions. 
See  PSEUDEPIGRAPHA.  T.  W.  C. 

Dante  (dan'-ta),   or  Durante,  Alighieri,  b. 

at  Florence  between  May  18  and  June  17, 
1265  ;  d.  at  Ravenna,  Sept.  14,  1321.  He  re- 
ceived a  careful  education,  and  by  his  own 
application  became  master  of  all  the  learning 
of  his  time.  Of  an  ancient  family,  he  was 
early  engaged  in  political  life,  having  fought 
at  Campaldino  in  1289,  and  in  1295  rising  to 
some  degree  of  prominence.  In  1300  he  was 
made  one  of  the  G  imori  of  the  city.  A  quar- 
rel having  arisen  between  2  factions,  desig- 
nated as  the  Whites  and  the  Blacks,  Dante 
and  his  colleagues  banished  the  heads  of  both 
parties.  Both  afterward  returned,  and  the 
Blacks  vowed  vengeance.  They  accused  the 
Whites  as  Ghibellincs  to  Charles  of  Valois, 
then  marching  through  Italy.  B}^  his  help 
they  gained  the  city,  and  at  first  while  banish- 
ing a  multitude  of  Whites,  put  a  large  fine 
upon  Dante  (Jan.  27,  1302)  and  later  (March 
10)  condemned  him  to  be  burned  alive,  if  he 
should  ever  return  within  the  power  of  the 
republic.  From  this  time  he  remained  in  per- 
petual exile.  We  find  him  in  various  Italian 
cities,  Bologna,  Padua,  Verona  ;  then  in 
Paris,  and  even  Oxford  ;  and  then  in  Italy 
again,  till  in  the  end,  having  refused  to  return 
to  Florence  upon  dishonorable  terms,  he  died 
at  Ravenna. 

But  Dante  lives  in  his  works.  Of  the  minor 
works,  the  Neic  Life  describes  his  early  love 
for  Beatrice.  He  first  met  her  in  their  9th 
year,  in  1274,  and  though  they  saw  little  of 
each  other,  and  she  knew  little  of  him,  and 
married  another,  as  he  afterward  did,  she  re- 
mained the  ideal  of  beauty  and  virtue  to  him, 
and  in  his  great  work  was  his  guide  through 
Paradise.  His  Latin  treatise  De  Monarchia 
defended,  in  opposition  to  the  papacy,  the 
doctrine  that  the  two  swords,  spiritual  and 
temporal,  are  both  derived  immediately  from 
God.  His  great  work,  the  Dimne  Comedy,  is 
divided  into  3  parts,  of  33  cantos  each,  and  a 
prologue  to  the  whole.  In  it  he  passes  in 
vision  through  the  3  regions  of  hell,  purga- 
tory, and  heaven,  and  gives  utterance  to  all 
the_  profound  thoughts  upon  the  universe 
which  his  various  studies  and  his  experiences 
of  joy  and  sorrow  had  brought  him.  It  was 
completed  but  shortly  before  his  death,  and  is 
the  ripe  fruit  of  his  whole  life. 

In  the  theological  sphere,  Dante  has  been 
sometimes  called  a  reformer  before  the  Refoi- 


mation.  In  his  opposition  to  the  excessive 
claims  of  the  papacy,  and  in  his  emphasis  of 
the  spiritual  elements  of  the  truth,  he  is  such, 
though  the  type  of  his  theology  is  the  ancient 
Catholic,  rather  than  the  modern  Protestant. 
The  specially  theological  portions  of  the  poem 
are  not  confined  to  any  part.  In  the  24th, 
25th,  and  26th  cantos  of  the  Paradiso  we  have 
the  doctrines  of  Christian  faith,  its  source 
and  contents,  of  hape  and  its  goal,  of  love,  its 
origin  and  object.  The  doctrines  of  the  satis- 
faction of  Christ  for  all  the  guilt  of  man  (Par., 
VII.)  and  of  salvation  by  him  alone  (Par., 
XIX.)  are  emphasized,  but  although  it  is  faith 
alone  which  makes  the  soul  acceptable  before 
God  (Par.,  XXV.  10),  works  must  be  added 
to  faith  (Par.,  XXV.  68),  and  penitential  dis- 
cipline and  the  performance  of  vows  are  meri- 
torious (Prg..  XL  133  ;  Par.,  III.  97,  VL  119, 
XXIX.  62,  XXXI.  69).  The  doctrine  of  the 
descent  of  Christ  to  Hades  is  sharply  brought 
out  (Inf.,  IV.,  VIII. ,  XII.).  With  all  this 
goes  a  strain  of  animadversion  upon  the  abuses 
of  the  church,  as  indulgences  (Par.,  XXIX.), 
and  a  thorough  reformation  is  demanded, 
which  the  poet  expects  not  from  the  papacy, 
but  from  the  magistracy.  Thus  Dante  sum- 
marizes in  himself  the  noblest  theology  of  his 
times,  alike  a  mirror  of  his  day  and  a  prophecy 
of  the  future.  His  works  were  immediately 
made  the  instrument  of  classical  instruction 
in  his  own  country,  and  have  remained  such 
ever  since.  In  1494  Florence  reversed  his 
sentence,  and  in  1830  erected  a  statue  to  him. 
The  Divine  Comedy  is  translated,  among 
others,  by  H.  F.  Cary  (1814,  the  most  popu- 
lar, many  later  edd.)  and  by  Longfellow 
(1867),  whose  edition  gives  full  material  for 
the  study  of  the  poem  and  the  poet. 

F.  H.  F. 

Darboy,  Georges,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at 
Le  Fayl-Billot,  Eastern  France,  Jan.  16, 
1813  ;  became  archbishop  of  Paris,  1863  ;  very 
active  in  caring  for  the  wounded  during  the 
siege  of  Paris,  1870-71  ;  but  was  shot  by  order 
of  the  Commune,  May  24,  1871.  He  was  a 
declared  foe  to  Jesuitism  and  one  of  the  lead- 
ers of  the  opposition  to  the  Infallibility  Dog- 
ma in  the  Vatican  Council,  1870,  but  accepted 
it  on  its  promulgation.  He  is  still  mourned 
as  one  of  the  best  prelates  France  ever  had. 
He  edited  the  French  translation  of  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite,  Paris,  1845  ;  of  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  and  of  Giles'  life  of  Thomas  Becket, 
1858,  and  wrote  Lcs  femmes  de  le  Bible,  1849, 
5th  ed.,  1859,  and  other  popular  works.  (See 
his  life  by  Mgr.  J.  A.  Foulon,  Paris,  1889.) 

Darby,  John  Nelson,  founder  of  the  Darby- 

ites  ;  b.  in  London,  Nov.  18,  1800  ;  d.  at 
Bournemouth,  April  29,  1882.  He  graduated 
B.A.  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1819  ;  was 
gold  medallist  ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  Ire- 
land, 1825  ;  became  curate  in  Wicklow  ;  re- 
signed, 1827,  and  joined  "  The  Brethren,"  a 
sect  now  known  as  the  Plymouth  Brethren, 
and  from  that  time  till  his  death  he  travelled 
and  wTote  incessantly  on  their  behalf,  defend- 
ing their  tenets  by  voice  and  pen.  Although 
his  works  are  largely  controversial  and  doc- 
trinal, he  took  most  delight  in  writing  devo- 
tional and  practical  treatises.     He  translated 


DARBYITBS 


(217) 


DAVID 


the  New  Testament  into  German,  1854  ;  and 
the  Old  into  Freneli,  1880.  He  wrote  also 
hymns  and  edited  a  hymnal  for  the  "  Breth- 
ren." Ilis  collected  writings,  ed.  W.  Kell}', 
appeared,  London,  1867-83,  32  vols. 

Darbyites.    See  Plymouth  Brethren. 
Darius.     Bee  Assyriology,  p.  60. 

Datarius,  the  otficer,  generally  a  bishop, 
of  the  J\oman  Chancery,  who  represents  the 
pope  in  the  business  of  making  grants,  dis- 
pensations, etc.,  and  who  registers  and  dates 
all  bulls  and  other  documents  issued  from  the 
Vatican. 

Daub,  Karl,  German  theologian  ;  b.  at 
Cassel,  March  30,  1765  ;  studied  at  Marburg  ; 
became  docent  there,  17!)1  ;  teacher  of  phi- 
losophy at  Ilanau,  1794  ;  ordinary  professor  of 
theology  at  Heidelberg,  1795  ;  d.  there,  Nov. 
33,  1836.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  specu- 
lative school  of  theology.  His  works  show 
the  influence  of  Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  and 
Hegel  successively. 

D'Aubigne.     See  Merle. 

Davenport,  John,  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at 
Coventry,  Warwickshire,  England,  1597  ;  d. 
at  Boston,  Mass.,  March  13,  1669-70.  He  was 
graduated  at  Oxford  ;  became  chaplain  at 
Hilton  Castle,  near  Durham,  and  shortly 
afterward  vicar  of  St.  Stephen's  Church,  Cole- 
man Street,  London,  1635  ;  resigned,  1633,  to 
escape  prosecution  for  participation  iu  the 
Puritan  scheme  to  purchase  church  lands  in 
the  hands  of  laymen  and  with  the  profits  sup- 
port a  ministry  in  the  parts  of  the  kingdom 
which  lacked,  which  manifestly  would  aid 
the  Puritan  party,  and  therefore  excited  Laud's 
opposition,  and  became  co-pastor  of  the  Eng- 
lish church  at  Amsterdam  ;  went  to  New 
England,  1637,  and  founded  the  colony  of 
New  Haven,  1638  ;  became  pastor  of  First 
Church  in  Boston,  1668  ;  shortly  after  founded 
the  South  Church.  He  was  the  leader  of  the 
opposition  to  the  "  Half-way  Covenant"  (q.v.) 

Da'-vid  {bdored),  the  youngest  son  of  Jesse, 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  was  born  in  Bethlehem, 
1085  B.C.  While  employed  as  a  shepherd,  he 
was  anointed  by  Samuel  (1  Sara.  xvi.  13)  as 
the  Lord's  chosen  one  for  king,  but  he  re- 
turned to  his  shei)herd  life,  wdience  he  was 
called  as  an  expert  in  music  to  soothe  the 
troubled  mind  of  Saul.  He  succeeded,  but 
again  went  back  to  his  flock,  when  a  visit  to 
the  camp  led  to  his  famous  conflict  witli 
Goliath  and  its  brilliant  result  ;  but  he  had  so 
altered  that  Saul  did  not  recognize  him  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  55).  His  success  in  arms  made 
him  the  king's  son-in-law,  but  awoke  Saul's 
jealousy  so  that  he  sought  to  kill  him,  and 
David  was  constrained  to  flee  first  to  Gath, 
then  to  the  wilderness,  where  at  the  liead  of 
600  men  he  maintained  an  independent  posi- 
tion. Here  he  was  relentlessly  pursued  by 
Saul,  and  at  last  sought  refu'.a' witli  the  Phil- 
istines, where  he  remained  until  the  death  of 
Saul  and  his  sons  on  Gilboa.  which  opened 
his  way  to  the  throne.  He  was  at  once  chosen 
king  ov'er  Judah,  and  a  .second  time  anointed 
at  Hebron  (3  Sam.  ii.  4).  Here  he  reigned  for 
7  jears,  when  he  was  chosen  king  over  united 


Lsrael,  and  was  a  third  time  anointed  (3  Sam. 
V.  3).  In  this  position  he  manifested  distin- 
guished ability.  He  brought  up  the  ark  to 
the  city  Avhich  he  had  made  his  own,  remod- 
elled the  ordinances  of  worship,  administered 
justice  impartially,  and  organized  an  army  by 
which  he  conquered  neighboring  nationsand 
extended  his  dominion  from  the  Red  Sea  to 
tlie  Euphrates.  From  the  spoils  of  war  he 
accumulated  rich  treasures  to  be  expended  in 
a  magnificent  temple  to  Jehovah,  which  Solo- 
mon afterward  erected. 

Although  David  was  a  good  man,  he  fell 
into  dreadful  sins  which  brought  upon  him 
shame  and  disaster.  His  condiict  toward 
Bathsheba  and  Uriah  was  repaid  T)y  domestic; 
trials  which  rent  his  heart  in  the  case  of  Ab- 
salom, Amnon,  and  Tamar.  The  rebellion 
of  Absalom  nearly  cost  him  his  throne,  and 
his  later  days  were  often  clouded  with  gloom. 
His  farewell  words  (3  Sam.  xxii.,  xxiii.)  are 
full  of  humility  and  piet)',  and  his  charge  to 
Solomon  (1  Kings  ii.  1-9)  was  the  voice  of 
justice  and  wisdom,  not  of  revenge.  After  a 
reign  of  40  years  (7^  in  Hebron  and  33  over 
all  Israel)  he  died  at  the  age  of  70,  and  was 
buried  in  the  city  of  David,  where  his  tomb  is 
still  shown.  He  is  called  in  Scripture  a  man 
after  God's  "own  heart"  (1  Sam.  xiii.  14, 
Acts  xiii.  33),  in  reference  to  his  general 
course  of  obedience,  which,  indeed,  was  exem- 
plary, but  not  in  regard  to  each  particular 
act.  As  human  he  was,  of  course,  imperfect, 
but  his  errors  were  not  condoned.  Still  he  was 
remarkable  for  his  devotion  to  God's  service 
and  his  freedom  from  all  idolatry.  His  men- 
tal abilities  were  of  a  high  order,  as,  indeed, 
they  must  have  been  in  one  who  was  eminent 
alike  as  a  warrior,  a  statesman,  and  a  poet. 
He  had  a  rich  moral  nature,  shown  in  his  ten- 
derness, his  generosity,  his  passionate  friend- 
ships, his  forbearance,  and  his  general  integ- 
rity. In  his  Psalms  the  whole  heart  of  the 
singer  comes  out.  Every  possible  experience 
of  tile  child  of  God  is  rehearsed,  and  a  model 
is  furnished  for  the  public  and  private  devo- 
tions of  men  of  all  lands  in  all  ages.  David 
did  not  write  the  whole  collection,  but  he 
struck  the  key-note  and  gave  the  pattern  for 
all  the  other  sweet  singers  of  Israel. 

As  a  king  David  was  a  remaikable  type  of 
Christ,  ami  his  conquests  foreshadowed  those 
of  his  greater  Son  whose  kingdom  was  to  have 
no  end.  His  royal  dignity  was  revived  in  the 
pei'son  of  our  Saviour,  who  was  descended 
from  him  after  the  flesh,  and  is  therefore 
called  "  Son  of  David"  (Matt.  ix.  27,  xii.  23, 
xxii.  43-45),  and  is  said  to  sit  upon  his  throne 
(Luke  i.  32,  Acts  ii.  30).  (See  life  by  Wm.  M. 
Tavlor,  New  York,  1875  ;  11.  E.  Stone,  Lou- 
don and  New  York,  1888.)  See  Psalms. 
T.  W.  C. 

David,  St.,  of  Wales,  b.  about  the  end  of 
the  5th  cenHu-y  ;  d.  at  St.  David's  about  601. 
He  built  a  chapel  at  (Jlastonbury,  and  founded 
12  monasteries,  of  which  the  greatest  was  at 
Menevia,  called  after  him.  St.  David's.  Ik- 
opposed  Pclagianism  at  the  Synod  of  Brevy, 
519.  He  died  as  archbishop."  Life  bv  Uice- 
marcb.  bishop  of  St.  David's,  d.  about  ]n99. 
(See  Butler's  Liven  of  the  tidinta.)   F.  H.  F. 


DAVID 


(218) 


DDACONDSSDS 


David,  Christian,  Moravian  ;  b.  at  Senft- 
leben,  Moravia,  Dec.  31,  1G90  ;  d.  at  Herrn- 
hut,  Feb.  3,  1751.  Brought  up  a  Roman 
Catholic,  taught  the  carpenter's  trade  and 
enlisted  as  a  Prussian  soldier,  he  became  a 
Lutheran  in  Berlin,  joined  the  pietists  at 
Gorlitz,  1717  ;  founded  the  Moravian  colony 
at  Hutberg,  Lusatia,  which  was  then  named 
Herrnhut,  1722,  and  was  elected  the  first  of 
the  12  elders.  He  lived  henceforth  as  a  mis- 
sionary and  travelled  through  Holland,  Li- 
vonia, Greenland  (1733,  the  first  mission,  1747, 
1749)  and  elsewhere.     See  Moravians. 

David  of  Dinanto  (a  village  on  the  Maas), 
a  philosoplic  theologian  at  the  beginning  of 
the  13th  century.  Though  lie  has  been  reck- 
oned as  a  teacher  of  Amalric  of  Bena  (q.v.), 
and  as  his  pupil,  there  is  no  evidence  of  any 
connection  between  them.  His  book,  now 
lost,  entitled  Quaterni,  distinguished  3  classes 
of  beings — heavenly,  intellectual,  and  material. 
Of  these  the  principles  are  God,  mind,  and 
matter.  These  are  essentially  identical,  since 
there  can  be  but  one  absolute.  The  theories 
of  David  seem  to  be  nothing  but  logical  subt- 
leties, and  to  have  contributed  nothing  to  the 
progress  of  thought  in  his  time.  (Se"e  Kron- 
lein,  AmalHchv.  B.  unci  David  v.  Duiant,  in 
Stud.  V.  Krit.,  1847.)  F.  H.  F. 

David  George.     See  Joris. 

David  Nicetas.     See  Nicetas. 

Davidson,  Andrew  Bruce,  D.D.  (  ). 

Free  Church  of  Scotland  *  b.  in  Scotland 
about  1840  ;  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Old  Testament  exegesis.  New  College,  Edin- 
burgh, 1863.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old 
Testament  Revision  Company.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  A  Commentary  on  Job,  Edinburgh, 
vol.  i.,  1862  ;  An  Introductory  Hebrew  Oram- 
??!«;■,  1874,  4th  ed.,  1881:  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  1882  ;  Job,  Cambridge,  188.4. 

Davidson,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Halle,  1848), 
LL.D.  (Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  1838), 
rationalist  ;  b.  at  Kellswater,  County  Antrim, 
Ireland,  Sept.  23,  1807  ;  educated  at  Belfast, 
professor  there  to  the  General  Synod  of  Ulster, 
1835-41  ;  professor  of  biblical  literature  and 
ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Lancashire  Inde- 
pendent College,  Manchester,  1842-57.  He 
wrote  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament, 
London,  1862-63,  3  vols.,  and  to  the  New, 
1868.  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1882;  The  Canon  of  the 
Bible,  1876,  3d  ed.,  1880  ;  translated  Fiirst's 
Hebreio  and  CJialdee  Lexicon,  1865,  4lh  ed., 
1871. 

Davies,  Samuel,  Presbyterian  ;  b.  near 
Summit  Ridge,  Newcastle  County,  Del.,  Nov. 
3,  1723  ;  d.  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Feb.  4,  1761. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Fagg's  Manor  School  ; 
ordained  as  an  evangelist,  1747,  and  labored 
in  Virginia  ;  secured  in  person  the  royal  dec- 
laration that  the  Act  of  Toleration  did"  extend 
to  Virginia,  a  disputed  point,  while  in  Great 
Britain  successfully  collecting  funds  for  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  at  Princeton.  1753-54. 
In  1758  and  again  in  1759  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  that  college  and  at  last  accepted.  He 
was  an  eloquent  preacher.  (See  his  Sermons, 
ed.  with  memoir  by  Albert  Barnes,  New  York, 
1851,  3  vols.) 


Day.  The  natural  day  is  one  revolution  of 
the  earth  upon  its  axis.  The  civil  day  is  reck- 
oned variously,  by  some  nations  from  sunrise 
to  sunrise,  by  others  from  sunset  to  sunset, 
by  others  still  from  noon  to  noon  or  from 
midnight  to  midnight.  The  Hebrews  began 
their  day  in  the  evening,  and  they  divided  it 
into  morning,  noon,  and  night  (Ps.  Iv.  27). 
The  mention  of  hours  dates  from  the  captivity 
(Dan.  iii.  6),  and  the  divi-sion  is  therefore 
doubtless  of  Babylonian  origin.  The  night 
was  divided  into  3  watches,  from  sunset'to 
midnight,  from  midnight  to  cockcrow  (Judg. 
vii.  19),  and  from  cockerow  to  sunrise  (Ex. 
xiv.  24).  But  in  New  Testament  times  the 
Greek  and  Roman  division  into  4  watches  was 
adopted.  The  word  "  day"  was  used  to  de- 
note an  indefinite  period  (Gen.  ii.  4),  a  time  of 
retribution  (Joel  i.  15,  Amos  v.  18.  Ezek.  xiii. 
5),  the  day  of  judgment  (Acts  xvii.  31,  1  Thess. 
V.  2),  and  in  Ezek.  iv.  6  it  stands  for  a  year. 
T.  W.  C. 

Day's  Journey,  a  distance  mentioned  Gen. 
xxxi.  23,  Ex.  iii.  18,  Luke  ii.  44.  An  or- 
dinary day's  journey  in  the  East  is  15  to  20 
m.,  with  a  rest  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 
The  custom  of  the  country  is  to  make  the  first 
stage  a  short  one  in  order  that  one  may  more 
easily  send  back  for  some  forgotten  article  or 
supplies.  T.  W.  C. 

Daysman,  Job  ix.  33,  umpire,  one  to  arbi- 
trate at  an  appointed  day 

Dayspring.  The  first  dawning  of  light 
(Job  xxxviii.  12,  Luke  i.  78). 

Day  star  or  Morning-star,  2  Peter  i.  19,  a 
figurative  expression  to  denote  the  spiritual 
influence  which  guides  the  believer  to  a  full 
perception  of  the  true  meaning  of  the  divine 
word.  T.  W.  C. 

Deacon,  a  servant,  attendant,  minister 
(Matt.  XX.  26,  2  Cor.  vi.  4,  Eph.  iii.  7).  As  a 
title  of  office  it  was  given  to  the  7  men  who 
w^ere  appointed  (Acts  vi.  1-6)  to  serve  tables 
and  thus  relieve  the  apostles,  and  were  set 
apart  by  prayer  and  the  laying  on  of  hands. 
Of  the  men  thus  named,  2,  Stephen  and 
Philip,  are  found  afterward  laboring  as  evan- 
gelists. The  qualifications  and  duties  of  dea- 
cons are  particularly  set  forth  in  1  Tim.  iii. 
8-12.  T.  W.  C. 

Deaconess.  In  the  early,  if  not  in  the 
Apostolic,  church  there  were  women  wdio 
served  in  those  olfices  in  which  the  deacons 
could  not  properly  engage,  such  as  keeping 
the  doors  of  that  part  of  the  church  where  the 
women  sat,  privately  instructing  those  of 
their  own  sex,  visiting  the  sick,  entertaining 
strangers  (1  Tim.  v.  10).  In  Rom.  xvi.  1 
(margin)  Phoebe  is  said  to  be  a  deaconess  of 
the  church  at  Cenchrete,  and  Tryphena,  Try- 
phosa,  and  Persis  seem  to  have  occupied  the 
same  office  in  the  Roman  Church. 

T.  W.  C. 

Deaconesses,  Institution  of,  for  the  nursing 
of  the  sick,  tlu'  teaching  of  the  poor,  and  the 
rescue  of  the  fallen,  was  first  attempted  within 
the  pale  of  the  Protestant  Church,  in  1836.  by 
Fliedner,  who  organized  the  "  Order  of  Dea- 
conesses" at  Kaisers werth,  in  Rhenish  Prus- 


DSAD 


(219) 


DEcros 


sia,  6  m.  n.w.  of  Dusselilorf.  No  vows  were 
demanded,  no  uniformity  of  dress  enforced, 
only  an  excellent  training  was  given.  The  in- 
stitution proved  a  great  success  ;  it  became 
theparentof  similar  institutions  in  Paris,  Ber- 
lin, Stockholm,  Cop^'nliagen,  etc.,  and  at  pres- 
ent it  controls  the  Protestant  hospitals  in  Con- 
stantinople, Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  and  the 
deaconess  seminaries  of  Smyrna,  Florence, 
etc.  In  the  following  decade  similar  institu- 
tions were  formed  independently  in  the  Church 
of  England  and  the  Episcopal'Church  of  the 
United  States,  and  developed  a  great  and  most 
beneficial  activity.  (See  J.  S.  Howson,  Dea- 
conesses, London,  1873;  Henry  C.  Potter,  Sis- 
terhoods and  Deacoiu'sses.  New  York,  1873  ; 
Jane  M.  Bancroft,  Benronesses  in  Einvpe, 
New  York,  1889  ;  II.  Wheeler,  Deaconesses, 
1889.) 
Dead,  Baptism  for  the.  See  Baptism,  p.  74. 

Dead,  Communion  of  the,  denotes  a  custom 
of  the  ancient  church,  according  to  which  a 
piece  of  the  eucharistic  bread  was  placed  in 
the  mouth  of  Christians  who  by  a  sudden 
death  were  prevented  from  communing.  The 
idea  seems  to  have  been  thereby  to  protect 
them  from  demons  on  their  way  to  heaven. 
The  practice  was  condemned  and  prohibited 
by  the  councils  of  Hippo,  393  ;  Carthage, 
397  ;  and  Auxerre,  578. 

Dead,  Prayer  for  the.  A  practice  which 
prevails  in  the  Roman,  Greek,  and  Oriental 
churches,  but  is  repudiated  by  Protestants 
almost  without  exception.  It  was  recognized 
b\^  the  post-biblical  Jews,  as  appears  from  2 
Mac.  xii.  42  and  the  inscriptions  found  in 
Jewish  catacombs.  Among  Christians  the 
custom  dates  from  the  time  of  Origan.  The 
objections  to  it  are  that  there  is  neither  pre- 
cept nor  example  for  it  in  the  Scripture,  and 
that  it  implies  and  leads  to  the  doctrine  of 
purgatory,  which  is  a  very  pernicious  error. 
T.  W.  C. 

Dean,  an  officer  originating  in  the  monas- 
teries, so  named  as  having  charge  of  10  monks, 
and  thus  introduced  into  cathedral  churches, 
since  monks  had  charge  of  these.  Usually 
there  was  but  one  dean  in  a  cathedral,  and  he 
became  the  general  assistant  of  the  bishop. 
Rural  deans  were  especially  for  this  latter 
purpose.  In  the  universities,  deans  are  the 
heads  of  the  separate  faculties,  or  where  these 
liave  lost  their  independence,  the  secretaries 
of  the  same.  From  these  uses  the  term  has 
passed  over  into  other  callings,  as  into  the 
law.  F.  II.  F. 

Death,  the  extinction  of  life.  It  is  descri1)ed 
as  a  yielding  up  of  the  spirit  (Ps.  civ.  29),  as 
a  return  to  the  earth  (Eccles.  xii.  7),  as  a  soul's 
laying  off  the  body,  its  clothing  (2  Cor.  v.  3), 
or  the  tent  in  which  it  has  dwelt  (2  Peter  i. 
13).  The  term  nowhere  means  annihilation. 
It  occurs  in  3  .senses  in  Scripture.  (1)  the  sepa- 
ration of  body  and  soul  (Gen.  xxv.  11),  (2) 
alienation  from  God  by  sin  (Eph.  ii.  1),  (3) 
eternal  perdition  (James  v.  20).  In  all  these 
senses  it  was  the  penalty  of  Adam's  transgres- 
sion, and  in  all  of  them  it  wa.s  overcome  by 
Him  who  destroyed  the  last  enemy,  so  that  to 


believers  death  is  but  a  going  home,  a  falling 
asleep  in  Jesus,  and  they  share  Christ's  spir- 
itual and  eternal  life.  "  The  gates  of  death" 
(Job  xxxviii.  17)  signify  the  unseen  world 
where  departed  spirits  dwell.  T.  W.  C. 

Death,  Brethren  of,  was  the  name  of  a 
monastic  order  formed  in  1250  by  the  union 
of  the  hermits  of  Patak  with  the  hermits  of 
Pisilia  in  the  Diocese  of  Gran,  Hungary,  24 
m.  n.  of  Buda-Pesth,  confirmed  in  1308  under 
the  name  of  the  "  Order  of  Hermits  of  St. 
Paul,"  and  endowed  with  extensive  privileges 
by  Gregory  XL,  1377,  and  Boniface  IX.,  1380. 
Their  dress  was  black,  marked  by  a  skull, 
and  their  greeting  consisted  in  thfe  words  me- 
mento  mori  ("  remember  that  you  must  die"). 

Death,  Dance  of,  a  common  .subject  of  art 
in  the  15th  century,  painted  on  the  walls  and 
windows  of  churches,  in  illustrated  books,  on 
house-fronts,  etc.  There  are  several  sketches 
by  Holbein,  but  they  are  rather  humorous 
and  picturesque,  while  the  older  ones  from 
Basel,  Minden,  Dijon,  etc.,  are  of  a  sombre, 
dismal  impressivcness.  (See  Douce,  The 
Dance  of  Death,  London,  1833  ;  Smith,  Hol- 
bein's Dance  of  Death,  London,  1849.) 

Deb-o-rah.  1.  The  nurse  of  Rebekah, 
whom  she  accompanied  from  Aram  into  Ca- 
naan. She  was  buried  at  Bethel  under  the 
oak  of  weeping  (Gen.  xxiv.  59,  xxxv.  8).  2. 
A  prophetess  and  a  judge  of  Israel  who 
roused  Israel  to  attack  Jabin  and  Sisera,  and 
promised  them  victory,  which  was  obtained, 
and  which  she  celebrated  in  a  triumphal  song 
of  remarkable  sublimity  and  beautv  (Judir. 
v.).  T.'W.  C.'^ 

Decalogue.     See  Ten  Commandments. 

Decani  Side,  the  southern  side  of  the  choir 
of  a  cathedral,  or  now  of  any  other  church, 
thus  named  because  the  stall  of  the  dean,  de- 
can.us,  was  on  that  side,  while  the  stall  of  the 
chanter,  cantor,  was  on  the  opposite. 

De-cap'-o-lls  {ten  cities),  a  region  in  North 
Palestine  mainly  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan, 
mentioned  in  Matt.  iv.  25,  Mark  v.  20,  vii.  31. 
Writers  are  not  agreed  as  to  their  names. 
Pliny  states  them  to  be  Scylhopolis,  Philadel- 
phia, Raphanse,  Gadara,  IIii)pos,  Gerasa, 
Dios,  Pella,  Canatha,  Damascus.   T.  W.  C. 

De-ci-us,  Roman  emperor,  b.  at  Budalia  near 
Sirmium,  Lower  Pann(mia,  date  unknown  ; 
d.  in  battle  with  the  Goths  upon  the  Lower 
Danube  in  251.  He  ascended  the  throne  in 
249  with  great  plans  for  the  restoration  of  the 
imperial  power  to  the  city  of  Rome,  and  the 
con.solidation  of  the  empire  upon  the  basis  of 
old  Roman  idcjis  and  virtues.  This,  of  course, 
demanded  the  restoration  of  the  pagan  re- 
ligion, now  threatened  by  Christianity.  The 
unity  of  the  empire  seemed  also  to  demand 
the  extirpation  of  Christianity.  Hence  a  gen- 
eral (the  first  such)  persecution.  It  lasted  but 
a  year.  Many  fell  away  (the  lapsi,  classed  as 
thurifcafi,  who  burnt  incense,  the  sacrificati, 
who  sacrificed,  the;  lihcUafiri,  who  got  certifi- 
cates that  they  had  sacrificed,  and  the  acta 
facientes,  who  made  false  statements).    But 


DECLARATION 


■ ( 220 ) 


DEISM 


the  total  result  was  the  purification,  and  so 
the  strengthening  of  the  church.     F.  H.  F. 

Declaration  of  Thorn.     See  Thorn. 

Decree,  in  general  an  authoritative  deci- 
sion. 1.  In  theology  the  eternal  decree  of 
God  respecting  the  salvation  of  man.  2.  In 
Roman  Catholic  Church  law  (a)  the  papal 
ordinances,  (b)  the  decisions  of  the  College  of 
Cardinals,  (c)  as  used  in  the  Acts  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  the  theoretical  exposition,  the 
dogmatic  detinitions,  and  the  law  concerning 
ecclesiastical  discipline,  (d)  the  decisions  which 
govern  canonical  trials. 

Decretal  is,  canonically  speaking,  the  let- 
ter conveying  the  authoritative  papal  decision 
of  some  matter  submitted  to  the  pope.  See 
Canon  Law. 

Decretals,  Pseudo-Isidorian.     See  Canon 
Law,  p.  137. 
Decretum  Gratiani.     See  Canon  Law,  p. 

137. 

Dedication,  a  religious  ceremony  by  which 
any  person,  place,  or  thing  is  set  apart  to  a 
sacred  purpose  (Num.  vii.  84).  Cities,  walls, 
gates,  and  private  houses  were  thus  dedicated 
(Deut.  XX.  5,  Neh.  xii.  27).  The  "  feast  of  the 
dedication"  (John  x.  22)  was  a  yearly  com- 
memoration of  the  cleansing  of  the  temple 
after  it  had  been  polluted  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  B.C.  167.  T.  W.  C. 

De  Dominis.     See  Dominis. 

Deems,  Charles  Force,  D.D.  (Randolph- 
Macon  College,  Ashland,  Va.,  1850),  LL.D. 
(University  of  North  Carolina.  Chapel  Hill, 
1877),  b.  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec.  4,  1820; 
graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa., 
1889  ;  was  professor  of  logic  and  rhetoric. 
University  of  North  Carolina,  1842-45  ;  of 
chemistry,  Randolph-Macon  College,  Virginia, 
1845-46  ;  president  of  Greensborough  Female 
College,  1850-55  ;  since  1866  has  been  pastor 
of  the  Church  oif  the  Strangers,  New  York 
City.  He  founded  the  American  Institute  of 
Christian  Philosophy,  1881,  and  has  ever  since 
been  its  president.  Besides  sermons  he  has 
published  JeMis,  New  York,  1872,  n.e.,  1880  ; 
Ihe  Gospel  of  Common  Sense  as  Contained  in 
the  Canonical  Epistle  of  James,  1889,  and 
other  volumes. 

Defectus,  canonically,  is  the  defect  which 
prevents  the  reception  of,  and  especially  the 
exercise  of  the  duties  involved  in,  ordination. 
Defectus  sacramenti  means  bigamy  and  other 
offences  against  the  marriage  ideal. 

Defender  of  the  Faith,  the  epithet  given  to 
Henry  VIII.  by  Pope  Leo  X.  in  his  bull  Ex 
supernm  dispositionis  arbitrio,  Oct.  11,  1521, 
in  recognition  of  Hemy's  services  in  writing 
the  book  De  septeni  sacramentis  against 
Luther.  The  pope  afterward  revoked  it,  but 
parliament  made  it  part  of  his  and  the  suc- 
ceeding rulers  of  England's  title  (35  Henry 
VIII.  cap.  3,  "An  act  for  the  ratification  of 
the  king's  styles  and  titles").  The  epithet  is, 
however,  earlier  than  Leo. 

Defensor  Matrimonii,  a  clerical  officer  in 
the  Roman  Church  charged  with  preventing 


divorces,  if  possible,  wherever  such  cases 
come  before  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  He  al- 
ways appeals  from  the  first  sentence  by  which 
the  divorce  is  granted.  The  institution  dates 
from  the  bull  of  Benedict  XIV.,  Dei  misera- 
tione  (Nov.  3,  1741). 

Degradation,  Deposition,  terms  in  ecclesi- 
astical law.  Deposition  deprives  a  priest  of 
the  privileges  and  duties  of  his  order,  but 
does  not  deprive  him  of  the  order  itself.  It 
may  be  consistent  with  the  hope  of  restora- 
tion, in  whicli  case  it  is  called  privation  ;  or  it 
may  be  perpetual.  Degradation  removes  a 
clergyman  from  one  order  to  a  lower  one,  or 
from  orders  altogether,  though  in  the  latter 
case,  since  the  character  of  a  priest  is  indeli- 
ble, the  degraded  is  still  a  clergyman  in  es- 
sence. Degradation  has  often  been  performed 
with  solemn  ceremonies,  in  which  the  official 
vestments  were  one  after  another  stripped 
off.  F.  H.  F. 

Degrees,  Songs  of.     See  Psalms. 

Dei  gratia  {by  the  grace  of  Ood),  a  term  used 
by  Paul  (1  Cor.  i.  1,  2  Cor.  i.  1,  etc.),  and 
since  the  4th  century  by  bishops,  and  since 
Charlemagne  by  other  rulers,  to  indicate  that 
it  is  by  divine  permission  they  exercise  their 
functions. 

Deipara  (mother  of  God),  a  title  applied  to 
the  Virgin  Mary  at  the  Council  of  Nice. 

Deism  properly  means  belief  in  a  God,  as 
opposed  to  Atheism.  In  ordinary  usage,  how- 
ever, deism  is  opposed  to  belief  in  a  revela- 
tion, and  a  deist  is  one  who  holds  the  exist- 
ence and  providence  of  God,  but  rests  his  be- 
lief on  reason  and  the  evidence  afforded  by 
the  constitution  of  things,  and  rejects  the  testi- 
mony of  revelation.  The  name  is  often  used 
vaguely  by  way  of  reproach.  It  sometimes 
designates  a  series  of  writers  who  appeared  in 
England  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  and 
sought  to  establish  Natural  Religion  on  the 
basis  of  reason  and  free  inquiry  in  opposition 
to  all  positive  religious  and  especially  to  super- 
natural revelation.  They  denied  miracles,  the 
Trinity  and  atonement  by  Christ.  They  by 
no  means  agreed  in  the  details  of  their  teach- 
ing. Somebelieved  in  immortality  and  man's 
free-will,  but  others  did  not.  They  were  not 
for  the  most  part  accurate  scholars,  and  were 
rather  acute  than  profound  thinkers.  Their 
influence  soon  declined  in  Britain,  but  it 
passed  over  to  the  continent  and  contributed 
largely  to  the  rise  and  progress  of  Rational- 
ism. The  leading  names  were  Lord  Herbert 
of  Cherbury  (d.  1648),  called  "  the  Father  of 
Deism,"  Blount,  Tindal,  Woolston,  Toland, 
Shaftesbury,  Bolingbroke,  Collins,  Morgan, 
and  Chubb  (d.  1746).  The  name  is  not  so 
much  used  now  as  formerly.  They  who  hold 
these  views  generally  call  themselves  free- 
thinkers, rationalists,  or  liberals.  They  are 
often  called  "  infidels."  Thomas  Paine,  who 
wrote  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century, 
was  the  most  eminent  champion  of  deism  in 
the  United  States.  (See  Leland,  View  of  the 
Deisticnl  Wrilirf<  [1754]  ;  A.  S.  Farrar,  His- 
tory of  Firr  'HunKild  [18631  ;  Cairns,  Unbelief 
in  the  EioMecnth  Century  [1881].)  T.  W.  C. 


DELITZSCH 


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DENE 


Delitzsch,  Franz,  Ph.D.  (Halle,  1842), 
D.D.  (Leipzig?  1846  ?),  German  Lutheran  ;  b. 
at  Leipziir,  Feb.  23, 1813,  of  Christian  mother  ; 
d.  there  March  4,  1890.  He  studied  there  and 
became  frivat-doccnt,  1842 ;  ordinary  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Rostock,  1846  ;'at  Er- 
langen,  1850  ;  at  Leipzig,  1867.  He  always 
manifested  the  liv^eliest  interest  in  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews ;  edited  a  paper  in  its  behalf 
since  1868.  In  1880  founded  anew  the  "  In- 
stitutum  Judaicuni,"  and  in  1886  a  school  for 
training  missionaries  among  the  Jews.  To 
this  end  also  he  translated  the  New  Tes- 
tament into  Hebrew,  Loudon,  1877,  8th  ed., 
1889  (more  than  60,000  copies  have  been  cir- 
culated). He  was  called  the  "  Christian 
Talmudist"  because  of  his  rare  union  of  pro- 
found Hebrew  scholarship  and  acquaintance 
■with  post-biblical  and  rabbinical  lore,  with  a 
pronounced  Cliristian  faith  and  practice.  A 
complete  list  of  his  works  down  to  1886, 
which  include  commentaries  on  Genesis, 
Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Canticles,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  Isaiah,  Habakkuk,  Hebrews,  and  other 
biblical  works,  and  a  few  theological  treatises, 
is  given  in  the  Encuclopiedia  of  Living  Divines 
(supplement  to  the  Schaff-Uerzog  Eticyclopce- 
dia).  New  York,  1887.  Since  have  appeared 
Fortgesetzte  Studien  zur  Entstehungsgeschichte 
der  compliitensisc/ien  Polyglotte,  Leipzig,  1886  ; 
Neuer  Comnuentar  uber  die  Genesis,  Leipzig, 

1887  (Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1888  sqq.,  3 
vols.)  ;  new  trans,  of  his  commentary  on  the 
Psalms,  London,  1887-89,  3  vols.  ;  A  Bay  in 
Cnpernaiim,  New  York,  1887  ;  Behold  the 
Ma.i !  New  York,  1888  ;  Ernste  Frngen  an 
die    Gebildeten  judischer    Religion,    Leipzig, 

1888  ;  L'is,  1888  ;  Ber  tiefe  Grahen  zwischen 
alter  und  moderncr  Theologie,  1888  ;  Sind  die 
Juden  wtr/dich  das  auserwdhlte  Volk  ?  1889. 

Deluge.     See  Flood. 

De-me'-tri-us.  1.  A  maker  of  silver  shrines 
at  Ephesus,  whose  adroit  speech  on  a  memor- 
able occasion  is  recorded  in  Acts  xix. 

2.  A  Syrian  king,  surnamed  ^Jiier  {saviour), 
who  endeavored  to  control  Judea,  but  was  de- 
feated and  slain  in  battle,  k.c.  150,  by  the 
usurper,  Alexander  Balas. 

3.  Son  of  the  foregoing,  surnamed  Nikator 
{victorious),  who  after  living  many  j-ears  in  ex- 
ile regained  the  throne,  but  lost  it  by  his 
cruelty  and  vices.  After  10  years  he  regained 
it  once  more,  but  was  assassinated  hj  his 
wife.  T.  W.  C. 

Demission,  the  act  by  which  a  Scotch  Pres- 
byterian minister  resigns  his  charge. 

Demiurge.     See  Gnosticism. 

Demon  (Greek  daimon),  improperly  ren- 
dered devil  in  the  Authorized  Version,  is  one 
of  the  spirits  of  the  kingdom  of  darkness. 
These  are  called  "  unclean  spirits"  (Mark  vii. 
25)  ;  they  beliet'e  and  shudder  (James  ii.  19)  ; 
they  confess  the  deity  of  Christ,  yield  to  his 
authority,  and  dread  the  comin<r  judgment 
(Matt.  viii.  29,  Luke  iv.  41,  Acts"  xix.  15). 
They  are  many  in  number  (Mark  v.  9),  and 
under  the  control  of  one  who  is  called  "the 
prince  of  the  demons"  (Mark  iii.  22).  In  Acts 
xvii.  18  and  1  Cor.  x.  20,  the  name  is  applied 
to  heathen  deities.  T.  W.  C. 


Demoniac  denotes  one  who  is  possessed  by 
a  demon  or  unclean  spirit.  Some  have  argued 
that  these  persons  were  affected  with  diseases 
such  as  epilepsy,  insanity,  etc.,  but  the  Scrip- 
tures clearly  distinguish  between  demoniacs 
and  other  diseased  persons  (Mark  i.  32,  Luke 
vi,  17, 18).  Our  Saviour  speaks  to  the  demons 
and  is  answered  by  them,  and  at  his  command 
they  leave  the  bodies  which  they  were  tor- 
menting. He  alleged  as  proof  of  his  mission 
that  demons  were  cast  out  ;  he  promised  his 
apostles  the  same  power  over  them  which  he 
exerted  ;  and  in  conversation  both  with  his 
disciples  in  private  and  with  the  Jews  in  pub- 
lic asserted  the  agency  of  evil  spirits  in  the 
demoniacs.  To  deny  this  fact  is  to  deny  the 
honesty  of  Christ.  The  fact  is  a  mysterious 
one,  and  it  is  hard  for  us  to  understand  the 
double  consciousness  in  a  possessed  person, 
l)ut  this  is  no  reason  for  contradicting  the 
plain  words  of  Scripture.  No  such  cases  oc- 
cur now,  but  they  were  allowed  to  occur  of 
old  in  order  that  the  Saviour  might  conspicu- 
ously show  his  mission  "  to  destroy  the  works 
of  the  devil,"  and  exhibit  his  power  to  save 
both  the  souls  and  the  bodies  of  men. 

T.  W.  C. 

Denck.     See  Denk, 

Denarius.    See  Money. 

Denis,  St.  (san  deh-nee),  the  legendary 
apostle  of  France,  said  to  have  been  sent  from 
Rome  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  Gauls  about 
250.  He  finally  arrived  in  Paris,  where  he 
was  seized  by  the  governor,  tortured,  and 
then  beheaded,  and  his  body  with  those  of 
two  other  Christians  cast  into  the  Seine.  His 
day  in  the  Roman  Church  is  Oct.  9. 

F.  H.  F. 

Denis,  Abbey  of  St.,  famous  abbey,  was 
founded  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  by 
Dagobert  I.  in  honor  of  the  patron  saint  of 
the  Franks,  and  came  to  play  a  most  promi- 
nent part  in  the  life  of  tlie  French  people. 
The  soldiers  shouted  the  name  of  the  saint 
when  charging  ;  the  kings  were  buried  in  the 
cathedral,  and  great  endowments  and  rich 
gifts  poured  in  from  every  part  of  the  coun- 
tiy.  In  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century 
abbot  Hilduin  wrote  the  life  of  the  saint, 
identif3nng  him  witli  Dionvsius  Areopagita 
(Migne,  Bat.  Lat.  CVL),  and  this  fiction, 
thoiigli  doubted  already  by  Abelard,  con- 
tinued in  course  until  the  17th  century.  (See 
Launoy,  Be  Areopagiticis  llildnini,  Paris. 
1641,  and  Sirmond,  Biss.,  same  year.)  The 
abbey  was  plundered  by  a  mob  under  the 
Revolution,  Nov.  12,  1793. 

Denk  (or  Denck),  Johann,  Anabaptist  :  b. 
in  Bavaria  about  1490  ;  d.  at  Basel,  Nov., 
1527.  He  studied  at  Basel  ;  took  :NLA.  there  ; 
became  corrector  of  the  press  for  the  book- 
sellers ;  acquainted  witli  GOcolampadius,  who 
secured  him  the  position  of  rector  of  the  Se- 
bald  School  at  ^uremberg,  1523.  There  he 
fell  in  with  Liidwig  HiUzer  and  Thomas  Miin- 
zer,  and  imbibed  their  Anabaptist  and  Zwing- 
lian  views.  In  consequence  he  was  banished 
from  the  city  at  the  instigation  of  Osiander, 
and  went  to\St.  Gall,  1525.  then  to  Augsburg, 
whence  he  was  driven,  1526.    He  appeared  at 


K 


DENS 


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DETERMINISM 


Strassburg  and  other  places  until  lie  reached 
Basel,  where  he  died.  (See  Anabaptists  and 
life  by  L.  Keller,  Ei)i  Ajwstel  der  Wieder- 
tiiufer,  Leipzig,  1882.) 

Dens,  Petrus,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Boom, 
near  Antwerp,  Belgium,  1690  ;  d.  at  Malines, 
Feb.  15,  1775,  where  he  was  president  of  the 
college  for  40  years.  He  held  various  ecclesi- 
astical positions.  His  fame  rests  on  his  Moral 
and  Dogmatic  TJieology,  in  Latin,  n.e.,  Dub- 
lin, 1832,  8  vols.,  which  was  partly  translated 
and  condensed  by  J.  F.  Berg,  Philadelphia, 
1840. 

Deodand,  from  the  Latin  Deo  dandum, 
"that  which  shall  be  given  to  God."  In 
England  any  personal  chattel— a  cart,  a  horse, 
or  the  like— which  happened  to  be  the  imme- 
diate occasion  of  the  death  of  any  rational 
creature,  was,  until  the  abolishment  of  the 
law  of  deodand,  in  1846,  forfeited  to  the  sov- 
ereign to  be  applied  to  pious  uses,  and  by  him 
distributed  in  alms  through  the  high  almoner, 
the  original  arrangement  being  that  it  was 
given  to  the  church  to  purchase  masses  for 
the  soul  thus  suddenly  snatched  away. 

Deodatus.    See  Deusdedit. 

Deposition.     See  Degradation. 

Deprivation.     See  Degradation. 

Der'-be,  a  small  town  of  Lycaonia  to  which 
Paul  and  Barnabas  tied  from  Lystra(Acts  xiv. 
20).  It  was  not  far  from  the  pass  called  "  the 
Cilician  Gates."  Here  many  disciples  were 
made,  and  Paul  afterward  revisited  them 
(Acts  xvi.  4).  T.  W.  C. 

Dervish  (Persian,  -poor),  Mohammedan 
monk,  called  in  Arabic  fakir.  Monasticism 
sprang  up  in  Islam  within  a  generation  of 
Mohammed's  death,  and  is  now  a  nourishing 
institution.  The  dervishes  are  divided  like 
Christian  monks  into  orders  and  fraternities 
and  have  convents  ;  they  fast  and  mortify 
themselves,  but  unlike  them  they  have  no 
vows  of  chastity  or  mendicancy.  There  are 
two  great  orders,  commonly  called  the  How- 
lers and  the  Dancers.  Each  gives  public  ex- 
hibitions which  are  considered  by  the  people 
religious  services.  The  Howlers  holding 
liands  and  swaying  back  and  forth  cry,  in 
Arabic,  incessanily,  till  they  drop  from  sheer 
exhaustion,  "  No  God  but  Allah. "  The  Dan- 
cers whirl  around  upon  the  left  heel  for  sev- 
eral minutes  at  a  time  during  an  hour.  (See 
J.  P.  Brown,  Dervishes,  London,  1867,  Phila- 
delphia, 1868.) 

De  Sacy.     See  Sacy. 

De  Sales.    See  Francis  op  Sales. 

De  Sanctis  (da  sank-tes),  Luigi,  Walden- 
sian  ;  b.  at  Rome,  Dec.  81,  1808  ;  d.  in  Flor- 
ence, Dec.  31, 1869.  He  came  of  Roman  Cath- 
olic parents  ;  entered  the  priesthood,  1831,  and 
attained  high  rank,  but  was  through  the  study 
of  the  Bible  convinced  of  the  errors  of  that 
church,  and  to  escape  persecution  for  avowing 
them  he  left  Rome,  where  he  had  a  parish, 
and  went  to  Malta,  1847.  There  he  married 
and  began  authorship.     In  1850  he  went  to 


Geneva ;  in  1852  joined  the  Waldenses  at 
Turin,  but  from  1854  till  1864  he  labored  in 
connection  with  the  Plymouth  Brethren.  On 
his  return  to  the  Waldenses  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Florence,  1864,  and  edi- 
tor of  a  paper.  He  is  the  most  important  the- 
ologian won  to  Protestantism  in  Roman 
Catholic  Italy.  His  writings  are  mostly  po- 
lemical.   (See  anonymous  life,  Florence,  i870.) 

Des  Cartes  (da  cart),  Rene,  a  chief  reformer 
of  philosophy ;  b.  at  La  Haye,  29  m.  s.  of 
Tours,France,  March  31,  1596  ;  d.  in  Stock- 
holm, Feb.  11,  1650.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Jesuit  College  at  La  Fleche  and  made  great 
progress  but  soon  became  dissatisfied  with 
scholasticism  and  abandoned  books.  He  trav- 
elled, served  in  the  army,  and  at  last  retired  to 
Holland,  where  he  prepared  most  of  his  works. 
In  1649  he  accepted  an  invitation  of  Queen 
Christina  to  go  to  Sweden,  but  soon  after  his 
arrival  died,  Feb.  11,  1650.  His  great  object 
was  to  attain  a  firm  philosophical  conviction. 
The  way  to  do  this  was  exi^lained  in  his  fa- 
mous Discourse  on  Method  (1637),  and  more 
fully  in  two  other  works,  Meditationes  (1641), 
and  Principia  Philosophim  (1644).  He  also 
achieved  great  and  lasting  results  in  his  math- 
ematical studies.  He  performed  the  same 
service  in  the  philosophy  of  mind  that  Bacon 
did  in  natural  science,  and  Hallam  says  that 
in  his  sphere  he  worked  a  more  important 
change  than  any  who  had  preceded  him  since 
the  revival  of  learning. '  He  found  the  basis 
of  all  positive  knowledge  in  self- conscious- 
ness, expressed  by  the  enthymeme,  Cogito  ; 
ergo  svm ;  "  I  think,  therefore  I  exist."  (See 
Kuno  Fischer,  History  of  Modern  Philosophy  ; 
Des  Cartes  and  His  School,  Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1887.)  T.  W.  C. 

Desert  in  Scripture  usually  means  an  un- 
cultivated tract  or  pasture  ground,  though 
sometimes,  as  "  the  wilderness  of  Jiidah" 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  28),  it  denotes  an  utter  waste. 
The  "great  and  terrible  wilderness"  of  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula  has  some  barren  wastes  of 
sand,  but  in  many  parts  shows  plain  signs  of 
previous  fertility.  This  and  the  Arabah. 
through  which  the  Jordan  runs,  and  which 
extends  to  the  Red  Sea,  were  the  chief  of  the 
Scripture  deserts.  T.  W.  C. 

Desert,  Church  of  the.  See  France,  Re- 
formed Church  op. 

Desk,  as  a  piece  of  church  furniture,  is  («)  a 
simple  reading-desk  erected  outside  the  chan- 
cel for  reading  the  morning  and  evening  ser- 
vices so  as  to  be  better  heard  by  the  congre- 
gation ;  {h)  the  stall  of  the  precentor  in  Scotch 
churches  ;  {c)  the  pulpit  is  so  called  in  the 
United  States. 

Des  Marets  (da  ma-ra  ;  Latin  form  Ma- 
resius),  Samuel,  Reformed  Church  of  France  •, 
b.  at  Oisemont,  Aug.  9,  1599  ;  d.  at  Gronin- 
gen,  Holland,  March  18,  1673,  where  he  had 
been  professor  of  theology  since  1643.  His 
105  works  enumerated  in  La  France  Protes- 
tantc,  2d  ed.,  vol.  v.,  cols.  323-32,  are  all 
forgotten. 

Destnuctionists.     See  Annihilationism. 
Determinism,  the  system  that  regards  all 


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DEVOTION 


the  operations  of  the  will  as  determined  by 
causes  antecedent.  The  upholders  of  the  sys- 
tem now  prefer  this  name  to  the  earlier  desig- 
nation, Necessitarianism.  It  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  Fatalism,  a  confusion  which 
both  Sir  William  Hamilton  and  John  Stuart 
Mill  repudiate.  Fatalism  derives  the  sequence 
from  a  power  outside,  but  Determinism  insi.bts 
that  ail  our  volitions  are  determined  by  the 
force  of  motives  within,  which  produce  their 
results  as  invariably  as  physical  forces  effect 
their  ends.  T.  W.  C. 

De-US -de-dit,  same  as  Deodatus,  or  Adeo- 
datus,  pope  from  615  to  018.  but  effected 
nothing.  Spurious  decretals  were  forged  in 
his  name.  He  was  canonized,  and  his  day  is 
Nov.  9.  F.  H.  F. 

Deutero-canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  those  which  are  not  in  the  Jewish 
canon  but  in  the  Septuagint,  and  hence  came 
to  be  read  in  the  Christian  Church.  They 
constitute  the  Apocrypha.  See  Pseude- 
PiGHAPii.v  AND  Apocrypha. 

Deuteronomy  {second  laic),  so  called  by  the 
Greeks  because  it  recapitulates  much  of  the 
preceding  books.  It  contains  3  addresses  of 
Moses  to  the  Israelites,  delivered  in  the  11th 
month  of  the  40th  year  of  their  journeyings. 
1l\\g first  (i.  1-iv.  40)  rehearses  the  history  of 
the  "  Wandering,"  upon  which  is  based  an  ex- 
hortation (0  obedience.  Then,  after  a  notice 
of  the  3  cities  of  refuge  east  of  the  Jordan, 
follows  the  second  address  (v.  1-xxvi.  19), 
which  after  a  short  introduction  recounts 
with  a  few  alterations  or  additions  many  of 
the  laws  before  given,  stating  them  with  much 
tenderness  and  spiritual  earnestness,  in  the 
tone  of  a  father  rather  than  of  a  legislator. 
Then  after  a  brief  command  to  write  the  law 
upon  plastered  stones  when  they  had  crossed 
the  Jordan,  comes  the  third  address  (xxvii. 
11-xxx.  20),  whose  main  topic  is  "  The  bless- 
ing and  the  curse."  Then  follows  in  ch. 
xxxi.  Moses'  charge  to  Joshua,  his  successor, 
in  ch.  xxxii.  the  Song  of  Moses,  in  ch. 
xxxiii.  his  blessing  of  the  13  tribes.  The  last 
chapter,  giving  an  account  of  Moses'  death, 
was  added  by  another  hand,  probably  Joshua. 
The  book  is  often  quoted  by  later  inspired 
writers,  and  noticeably  by  our  Lord,  who  in 
his  tem|>tation  (Matt.  "iv.  4,  7,  10)  thrice  uses 
its  words  to  rcpi'l  the  great  adversary  of  souls. 
See  Pkntateuch  on  the  question  of  its  date 
and  for  literature.  T.  W.  C. 

Deutsch  (doitsh),  Emanuel  Oscar  Men- 
ahem,  ilclirew  ;  b.  at  Xeis.-c,  Prussian  Silesia, 
Oct.  28,  1829  ;  was  since  IH.").")  assistant  in  the 
British  Museum  ;  wrote  a  brilliant  article  on 
the  Talmud  {Qnarterli/  Reriew,  Oct.,  1867) 
wliich  attracted  wide  attention  ;  d.  at  Alex- 
andria, Egypt.  May  12,  1873.  (See  his  Liter- 
nry  llnmnins,  with  memoir,  London  and  New 
York,  1874.) 

Davay,  Matthew  Biro  (properly  Miityas 
Biro  of  Deva),  founder  of  the  IlefornW 
CImrch  of  Hungary  ;  b.  at  Deva.  Transyl- 
vania, about  l.")00;"d.  at  l);'br(>r7.in.  Eastern 
HunL'ary,  about  1547.  He  .studied  theology 
at  Cracow.  1523-24  ;  then  entered  a  monastery 
and  became  a  priest.     In  1527  he  embraceil 


the  Reformation,  and  in  1529  he  went  to  Wit- 
tenberg on  a  visit  to  Luther  and  spent  18 
months  in  his  house.  His  zeal  in  preaching 
the  new  faith  among  his  countrymen  led  him 
into  constant  danger,  and  twice  (1531,  1532- 
34)  he  was  for  lengthy  periods  imprisoned. 
In  1534  he  put  himself  under  the  protection 
of  the  powerful  Count  Nadasdy,  who  was  a 
Protestant,  and  did  not  suffer  further  persecu- 
tion. In  1541  he  tied  before  the  Turks  and 
betook  himself  to  Switzerland.  There  he  im- 
bibed the  Swiss  doctrine  of  the  sacraments  and 
preached  it  boldly  on  his  return  home,  much 
to  the  scandal  and.  amazement  of  the  Luther- 
ans, and  the  disappointment  and  disgust  of 
Luther  himself.  His  last  years  were  pa.s.sed 
in  ministerial  labor  at  Debreczin.  Like  the 
other  reformers  he  wrote  a  number  of  treatises 
in  behalf  of  the  new  faith,  some  of  these  were 
popular  (expositions  of  translation  of  Luther'ii 
small  catechism,  etc.),  others  more  scholarly, 
but  all  helped  powerfully  toward  the  same  end. 

Development,  in  the  theological  sense,  is 
the  theory  that  our  conception  of  our  relation 
to  the  intinite  is  progressing  toward  the  per- 
fect ;  and  in  regard  to  Christianity  that  we 
are  continually  understanding  it  better.  In 
a  more  special  application  of  the  term,  it  is 
applied  to  the  claim  that  doctrines  now  de- 
veloped were  in  germ  in  the  New  Testament — 
e.g.,  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  the  Roman  and 
Greek  churches  ;  in  this  sense  the  word  is  used 
by  Cardinal  Newman  in  his  Development  of 
Christian  Doctrine,  London,  1845.  For  the 
philosophical  use  of  the  term,  see  Evolution. 

Devil  {slanderer),  the  chief  of  the  fallen 
angels.  The  term  {diabolos)  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  very  wicked  men  or  women  (John  vi. 
70,  Acts  xiii.  10,  2  Tim.  iii.  3,  Tit.  ii.  3),  and 
translated  "devil"  or  "  false  accusers,"  but 
usually  it  denotes  Satan,  the  great  leader  of 
evil  in  the  world.  There  is  only  one  devil, 
all  the  other  unclean  spirits  are  demons  of 
whom  he  is  the  prince.  In  Hebrew  he  is 
called  Satan,  the  adrersary  of  God  and  man. 
Elsewhere  he  is  called  "  the  prince  of  this 
world"  (John  xii.  41);  "the  prince  of  the 
power  of  the  air"  (Eph.  ii.  2)  ;  "  the  god  of 
this  world,"  (2  Cor.  iv.  4)  :  "  the  dragon,  the 
old  serpent"  (Rev.  xx.  2)  ;  "  the  wicked  one" 
(1  John  V.  8);  "Beelzebub"  (Matt.  xii.  24). 
He  is  everywhere  shown  to  be  full  of  deceit, 
malignity,  and  cruelty,  "  of  evil  all  compact," 
a  liar  and  a  murderer.  It  is  not  uncommon 
for  men  to  say  that  the  existence  of  Satan  is 
a  mere  superstition,  but  the  Scriptures  with 
one  voice  declare  it  to  be  a  terrible  reality. 
Nor  is  there  anything  unreasonable  in  it.  It 
is  quite  as  conceivable  that  an  angel  fell  as 
that  man  fell.  We  know  the  fact  only  from 
Revelation,  but  that  is  enougli,  and  we  should 
act  accordingly,  putting  on  the  whole  armor 
of  God  since  we  wrestle  not  alone  with  flesh 
and  blood.  "  Tlie  denial  of  tiie  personal  Satan 
is  the  first  step  in  tlie  denial  of  tlie  sinfulne.«8 
of  sin."  (SeeE.  H.  Jewett,  y;/</W'V'/y//,  New 
York.  1889.)  T.  W.  C. 

Devil-worshippers.     Sec  Yezidees. 

Devotion  means  every  exercise  of  the  soul 
in  which  the  attention  is  turned  to  things  di- 


I 


DE  WETTE 


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vine.  To  it  belong  public,  family,  and  private 
worship,  consisting  of  reading  the  Scriptures, 
prayer,  praise,  meditation,  and  conference. 
Such  devotion  needs  to  be  rendered  at  stated 
times,  and  also  on  special  occasions,  and  for- 
mality and  listlessness  should  be  carefully 
guarded  against.  It  is  a  snare  of  the  evil  one 
to  postpone  the  service  until  one  "  feels  like 
it."  The  true  method  is  to  persevere  until 
the  fire  burns.  The  Scripture  is,  of  course, 
the  best  means  of  putting  the  soul  in  a  glow, 
but  devotional  works,  such  as  Augustine's 
Confessions,  the  Imitation  of  Christ,  Baxter's 
Saint's  Rest,  Jeremy  Taylor's  Holy  Living 
and  Holy  Byiny,  and  the  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
are  of  great  service.  T.  W.  C. 

De  Wette,   Wilhelm   Martin  Leberecht, 

German  theologian  ;  b.  at  UUa,  near  Weimar, 
Jan.  12,  1780  ;  d.  at  Basel,  June  16,  1849.  He 
studied  at  Jena  ;  became  pvivat-docent  there, 
1805  ;  professor  extraordinary  at  Heidelberg, 
1807  ;  ordinary,  1809,  and  as  such  came  to 
Berlin,  1810.  On  March  31,  1819,  he  wrote  a 
consolatory  letter  to  the  mother  of  Karl  Lud- 
wig  Sand,  an  Erlangen  theological  student, 
who  had  been  executed  for  the  murder  of  the 
Russian  nobleman  August  Friedrich  Ferdi- 
nand von  Kotzebue,  whose  scoffs  at  those  Ger- 
mans who  desired  more  liberal  iastitutions 
had  enraged  the  enthusiasts  very  much.  De 
Wette  himself  shared  these  aspirations  and  I 
excused  the  young  man's  bloody  deed  on  the 
ground  of  patriotism.  The  letter  came  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  king's  councillors  and  De 
Wette  was  peremptorily  dismissed.  He  de- 
clined to  receive  the  quarter  salary  offered 
him,  and  retired  home.  In  1822  he  was  called 
to  Basel  as  professor  of  theology  ;  and  there 
he  labored  the  rest  of  his  days.  Inclined  nat- 
urally to  scepticism  and  yet  desiring  faith,  he 
presents  the  unusual  spectacle  of  a  man  who 
denied  the  authority  of  the  Bible  and  the  di- 
vinity of  Christ,  and  yet  tried  to  believe  the 
orthodox  dogmas.  His  books  are  noted  for 
ability,  taste,  learning,  and  candor.  Ameri- 
can Unitarians  have  translated  the  more  impor- 
tant of  them  :  Human  Life ;  or.  Practical 
Ethics  (orig.  Ohristliche  Bittenlelire,  Berlin, 
1819-23,  3  parts,  Eng.  trans,  by  S.  Osgood, 
Boston,  1842,  2  vols.,  n.e.,  1856)  ;  Theodore  ; 
or,  the  Sceptic's  Conversion  {ov\g.  Berlin,  1822, 
2d  ed.,  1828,  Eng.  trans,  by  James  Freeman 
Clarke,  Boston,  1849,  2  vols.)  ;  A  Critical  ami 
Historical  Introduction  to  the  Canonical  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  Testament  (orig.  takes  in  both 
Testam'jnts,  Berlin,  1817-26,  2  parts,  8th  ed., 
O.  T.  part,  E.  Schrader,  1869,  6th  ed.,  N.  T., 
1860,  Eng.  trans.,  from  5th  ed.  by  Theodore 
Parker,  Boston,  1843,  2  vols.).  His  work  of 
most  permanent  value  was  his  concise  exeget- 
ical  commentary  on  the  New  Testament, 
Leipzig,  1836-48,  3  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1845-65.  He 
made  with  Augusti  a  remarkably  good  Ger- 
man translation  of  the  entire  Bible,  Heidel- 
berg, 1809-11,  5  parts,  4th  ed.,  1858,  3  vols., 
and  edited  the  letters  of  Luther,  Berlin,  1825- 
28  (a  very  meritorious  labor). 

Dewid,  St.     See  David,  St. 

Dexter,  Henry  Martyn,  D.D.  (Iowa  Col 
lege,  Grinnell,  la..  1865),  S.T.D.  (Yale,  1880), 
Congregationalist ;    b.    at  Plympton,   Mass., 


Aug.  13,  1821  ;  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
1840,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary; 
1844;  became  pastor  at  Manchester,  N.  H., 
1844,  and  at  Boston,  1849,  but  since  1867  he 
has  been  editor  of  The  Congregationalist,  Bos- 
ton. His  principal  works  are  Congregational 
ism,  Boston,  1865,  5th  ed.,  1879  ;  As  to  Roger 
Williams,  1876,  2d  ed.,  1877  ;  The  Congrega- 
tionalism of  the  Last  Three  Hundred  Years  as 
Seen  in  its  Literature  (noteworthy  biblio- 
graphical appendix),  New  York,  1880  ;  I'he 
True  Story  of  John  Smyth,  the  Se-Baptist, 
1881.  D.  at  New Bedford,Mass., Nov.  13,1890. 
Diabolus.     See  Devil. 

Diaconicum,  in  Greek  churches  a  room 
corresponding  to  the  sacristy  of  a  Western 
church ;  usually  on  the  south  side  of  the 
bema. 

Di-an'-a  of  the  Ephesians  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  Artemis  of  the  Greeks  or 
the  Diana  of  the  Latins.  She  was  a  nature 
goddess,  and  was  worshipped  with  impure 
rites  and  magical  mysteries  (Acts  xix.  24-35). 
Her  splendid  temple  was  the  pride  of  Ephesus, 
and  the  "  silver  shrines"  made  by  Demetrius 
and  others  were  probably  small  models  of  this 
famous  structure.  T.  W.  C. 

Diaspora  (dispersion).  Designation  1.  Of 
those  Jews  who  after  the  exile  were  scattered 
through  the  old  v;orld  (John  vii.  35).  2.  Of 
those  Christians  living  among  heathens  (James 
i.  1  ;  1  Peter  i.  1).  3.  By  the  Moravians  of 
those  members  outside  of  the  parent  congre- 
gation. 4.  Of  Protestant  congregations  in  the 
midst  of  Roman  Catholics. 

Diatessaron  (throngJifour),  a  combination 
of  the  four  gospels  into  one  continuous  nar- 
rative. Thelact  that  such  a  thing  was  possi- 
ble early  attracted  notice,  for  Tatian  con- 
structed one  in  the  2d  century.  Many  have 
done  so  since.  Successful  recent  efforts  in 
English  are  those  of  Edmund  Kirke  (J.  R. 
Gilmore),  Boston,  1867  ;  F.  Gardhicr,  An- 
dover, 1871  ;  G.  W.  Moon.  London,  1877 ; 
J.  P.  Cadman,  Chicago,  1885  ;  A.  T.  Pierson, 
New  York,  1890. 

Diaz  (dee'-az),  Juan,  Protestant  martyr  ;  b. 
at  Cuen(,a,  Castile,  Spain  ;  studied  in  Paris  ; 
was  converted  through  Luther's  and  Calvin's 
writings,  1540  ;  accompanied  Butzer  to  the 
Ratisbon  Colloquy,  1546  ;  met  his  brother 
Alphonso,  a  Roman  priest,  at  Neuburg-on- 
the-Danube,  who,  because  he  would  not  ab- 
jure his  faith,  had  his  servant  murder  him, 
March  27,  1546.  Alphonso  was  arrested,  but 
the  pope  protected  him  as  an  ecclesiastic. 
His  confession  of  faith,  Christiana}  religionis 
svmma,  was  published  at  Neuburg,  1546  ;  in 
French,  Paris,  1565,  in  Spanish,  1865. 

Di'-bon  {pining),  a  town  of  Gad  (Num. 
xxxii.  34),  afterward  of  Reuben  (Josh.  xiii. 
17),  and  later,  in  the  hands  of  the  Moabites 
(Isa.  XV.  2,  Jer.  xlviii.  22).  It  lay  in  a  plain 
3  m.  north  of  the  Anion.  Traces  of  it  re- 
main at  a  place  called  Dhibdn.       T.  W.  C. 

Dick,  John,  D.D.  (Princeton,  N.  J.,  1815), 
Presbyterian,  Secession  Church  ;  b.  at  Aber- 
deen, Oct.  10,  1764  ;  d.  in  Glasgow,  Jan.  25, 


DICK 


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DIMCERITES 


1833,  wliere  he  had  been  a  pastor  since  1801, 
nad  theological  professor  since  1820.  He  is 
remembered  by  his  Essay  oa  the  Inspiration 
4of  tilt  Holy  ^criptiu-es,  Ghispjow,  1800,  and 
his  Lectures  on  TJieoloqi],  Edinburgh,  1834,  4 
vols.,  2d  ed.,  1838,  rep.  New  York,  1836,  2 
vols.,  with  memoir. 

Dick,  Thomas,  LL.D.  (Union  College, 
Schenectad}^  JS.  Y.,  183-),  Presbyterian  proba- 
tioner, Secession  Church  ;  b.  at  Dundee,  Scot- 
land, Nov.  24,  1774  ;  d.  at  Broughty  Ferry, 
near  Dundee,  July  29,  1857.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  and  till  1827  taught,  but 
the  success  of  his  works,  which  happily  phici- 
dated  science  in  the  intere.sts  of  religion,  de- 
termined his  devotion  thenceforth  to  litera- 
ture. He  wrote  Ilia  Christian,  Pltilosopher, 
Glasgow,  1823,  25th  ed.,  1881  ;  Celestial  Sce- 
nery, 1838,  12th  1000.  1881,  New  York,  1845, 
and  other  popular  volumes. 

Dictates  of  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  the  name 
given  to  27  thest's  not  now  supposed  to  be  of 
Gregory's  composition,  though  reliecting  his 
spirit,  in  which  are  set  forth  the  principles  de- 
termining the  relations  of  the  pope  to  the 
bishops  and  other  clergy,  and  to  the  secular 
power.  F.  H.  F. 

Didache.  See  Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles. 

Diderot  (did-e-ro),  Denis,  eminent  French 
philosopher  ;  b.  at  Langres,  in  Champagne, 
Oct.  5,  1713;  d.  in  Paris,  July  30,  1784. 
Educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  Langres,  he  be- 
came a  bitter  enemy  to  Roman  Catholicism. 
From  early  manhood  he  lived  by  his  pen  in 
Paris.  He  was  not  a  great  writer,  but  he 
was  a  suggestive,  fertile,  and  daring  thinker. 
His  fame  rests  on  the  Ewyclopedie,  which  he 
projected  and  with  D'Alembert  and  others 
completed  (Paris,  1751-65,  17  vols.,  supple- 
ment, 1776-77,  4  vols.,  index,  1780,  2  vols.), 
which  although  professedly  orthodox  was  in 
spirit  anti-religious.  His  complete  works  ap- 
peared, Paris,  1875-77,  20  vols.  (See  life,  by 
J.  Morley,  Loudon,  1878,  2  vols.;  3d  ed., 
1886.) 

Didymus  of  Alexandria,  b.  there  in  308  ; 
d.  also  there,  395.  Although  blind  from  his 
4th  year,  he  gained  a  comprehensive  knowl- 
edge of  all  learned  branches,  and  became  the 
presiding  teacher  in  the  catechetical  school  at 
Alexandria.  His  influence  was  widespread. 
Although  he  combated  Arianism,  he  could 
not  escape  the  suspicion  of  the  Origeni.stic 
heresy,  and  was  condemned  by  the  2d  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  (787).  A  work  upon  the  Holy 
Spirit  is  the  most  important  of  his  remains. 
F.  H.  F. 

Didymus  (properly  Zwilling),  Gabriel, 
Saxon  Reformer  :  b.  at  Joachimsthal,  Bohe- 
mia, 1487  ;  d.  at  Torgau  (?).  70  m.  s.s.w.  of 
Berlin,  May  7,  1558.  Educated  at  AVitten- 
berg  and  an  Augustinian  monk,  he  embraced 
the  Reformation  and  sided  with  Luther 
first,  but  later  with  Carlstadt,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  zeal  which  was  often  with- 
out knowledge.  In  1523  he  became  pastor  at 
Torgau,  and  there  incited  an  attack  on  the 
Franciscan  convent.     In  1549  he  was  deposed 


for  opposing  the  Leipzig  Interim,  and  died  in 
poverty. 

Dies  Irae,  the  famous  Latin  judgment  hymn 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  written  (?)  by  Thonias  a 
Celano,  of  which  the  first  stanza  is, 

Dice  irse,  dies  ilia, 
Solvet,  SiT^clum  in  favilla, 
Teste  David  cum  Sibylla. 

It  is,  perhaps,  the  most  famous  liymn  ever 
written,  and  has  called  out  a  large  number  of 
attempts  to  translate  it,  and  some  portion  of 
it  may  be  found  in  almost  every  modern 
hymn-book.  (Cf.  Abraham  Cole,  Dies  Tree. 
New  York,  4th  ed.,  1866.)  F.  H.  F. 

Di'-et,  from  Latin  dies,  day,  the  name  of  con- 
gresses in  Germany  held  twice  a  year,  between 
the  electors,  princes,  and  delegates  of  the  free 
cities,  presided  over  by  the  emperor,  to  dis- 
cuss imperial  affairs.  Famous  diets  are  those 
of  Worms  (1521),  at  which  Luther  was  out- 
lawed ;  Spires  (1526),  which  called  for  a  gen- 
eral council  to  settle  religious  matters,  and 
meanwhile  allowed  each  state  to  do  as  it 
pleased  about  them  ;  Spires  (1529),  at  which 
the  protest  was  made  which  originated  the 
epithet  Protestants  ;  Augsburg  (1530),  at 
which  the  famous  Augsburg  Confession  was 
presented  ;  Augsburg  (1555),  at  which  the  Re- 
ligious Peace  of  Augsburg  settled  the  civil 
status  of  the  Lutherans. 

Digby,  Sir  Kenelm,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at 
Gothurst,  Buckinghamshire,  Eng.,  July  11, 
1603  ;  d.  in  London,  June  11,  1665.  Author 
of  Observitiions  on  Browne's  Religio  Medici, 
London,  1643,  and  of  Treatise  on  the  Nature 
of  Bodies,  1644. 

Dillmann  (Christian  Friedrich),  August, 
Ph.D.  (Tiibingen,  1846),  D.D.  (Leipzig,  1862), 
Evangelical  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Illingeu,  Wiir- 
temberg,  April  25,  1823  ;  studied  at  Tiibin- 
gen ;  became  tutor  there,  1848  ;  professor  ex- 
traordinary, 1852  ;  ordinary  at  Kiel,  1854  ;  at 
Giessen,  1864  ;  at  Berlin,  1869.  His  bil)lical 
and  Ethiopic  scholarsiiip  is  famous.  Of  his 
books  may  be  mentioned  his  commentaries  on 
the  Hexateuch  (Leipzig,  1875-86,  3  vols.)  and 
Job  (1869). 

Dimissory  Letter,  one  given  by  a  bishop  to 
a  clergyman,  permitting  him  to  remove  into 
another  diocese,  or  to  a  layman,  permitting 
him, to  be  ordained  elsewhere. 

Diocesan  Conferences  were  resumed  in  the 
English  Church  in  1850,  after  an  interval  of 
many  j'cars,  and  are  now  the  rule.  In  1879 
the  Convocation  of  Canterbury  appointed  a 
special  committee  to  receive  reports  from  the 
conferences  of  the  province. 

Dimcerites,  a  name  signifying  "  having  a 
douljle  sh:ire,"  applied  first"  in  Epiphaniu.s' 
history  to  the  followers  of  Apollinaris  (q.v.). 
The  i)arty  subsetpiently  divided  into  two  por- 
tions, of  which  one.  the  Polemians,  so  called 
from  Polemo,  taught  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
two  natures  was  an  invention  of  Athanasius 
and  his  associates,  and  the  other,  the  Valen- 
tinians,  .seemed  to  have  remained  in  substan- 
tial agreement  with  their  founder. 

F.  n.  F. 


DINANTO 


(326) 


DIONYSIUS 


Dinanto,  David  of.     See  David  of  Dinan- 

TO. 

Diocese,  originally  a  division  of  the  Roman 
Empire  for  governmental  purposes.  It  ranked 
there  next  to  the  highest  division,  the  prefec- 
ture. It  was  then  applied  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  a  patriarch,  but  in  the  West  to  that  of  a 
bishop,  and  is  now  the  common  desisnation 
of  the  latter.  F.  H.  F. 

Diocletian,  Roman  emperor  from  Sept.  17, 
284,  to  his  abdication.  May  1,  305  ;  d.  in  313. 
The  son  of  freed  slaves,  he  ascended  by  his 
distinguished  merit  to  the  highest  place.  To 
give  his  throne  a  secure  cliaracter  he  sur- 
rounded himself  with  the  ceremony  and  mys- 
tery of  an  Oriental  court.  He  even  called 
himself  Dominus,  Lord,  and  had  divine  hon- 
ors paid  to  him.  In  spite  of  this  he  tolerated 
Christianity  for  a  long  time,  but  was  tinally 
urged  by  the  priests  and  Galerius  to  begin  a 
general  persecution,  or  attempt  to  stamp 
Christianity  out.  It  began  in  298  with  the 
command  that  all  soldiers  should  sacrifice. 
In  303  more  vigorous  measures  were  begun 
with  the  destruction  of  the  church  in  Nico- 
media.  The  persecution  lasted  till  the  edict 
of  toleration,  312,  but  accomplished  nothing. 
Diocletian  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.  (Cf. 
Mason,  The  Persecution  of  Diocletian,  Cam- 
bridge, 1876.)  F.  11.  F. 

Diodati  (de-o-da'-tee),  Giovanni,  Reformed 
Church  ;  b.  at  Geneva,  of  Italian  parents, 
June  6,  1576  ;  d.  there,  Oct.  3,  1649,  where 
he  had  been  professor  of  Hebrew  from  1597  to 
1609,  and  of  theology  from  1609  to  1645.  He 
was  delegate  member  of  the  Synod  of  Dort 
(1618-19).  He  made  a  paraphrastic  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  Italian,  Geneva,  1607,  now 
circulated  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  and  wrote  Pious  Annotations  upon 
the  Holy  Bible  (orig.  Geneva,  1641  ;  English 
trans.,  London,  1643  ;  6  parts,  4th  ed.,  1664) 
(See  his  life  by  E.  de  Bud6,  Lausanne,  1879.) 

Di-o-do'-rus,  bishop  of  Tarsus  from  378  ; 
d.  about  394  ;  founder  of  the  dogmatic  activ- 
ity of  the  Antiochiau  school  (see  art.  An- 
Tiocn).  In  his  day  Antioch,  where  he  was 
born  and  spent  his  life  till  he  was  made  bishop, 
was  the  centre  of  all  sorts  of  religious  parties 
— heathen,  Arians,  Jews,  and  heretics  of  every 
kind.  The  literary  activity  of  Diodorus  took 
therefore  a  polemic  turn,  and  almost  all  his 
writings  were  controversial.  He  was  a  strong 
adhere'nt  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  but  in  Chris- 
tology  he  taught  that  it  was  not  the  Logos 
that  Avas  born  of  Mary,  but  the  man  Jesus, 
and  that  the  Logos  dwelt  in  him  as  in  a  tem- 
ple (see  art.  Chkistoloc4\).  Hence  he  was 
condemned  by  Cyril  and  later  writers  as  Nes- 
torian,  and  his  writings  were  suffered  to  per- 
ish, but  a  few  fragments  remaining. 

F.  H.  F. 

Di-og-ne'-tus,  Epistle  to,  an  epistle  in  an- 
swer to  an  inquiry  as  to  ihe  Christian  religion 
by  an  unknown  author,  probably  dating  about 
150,  but  put  by  some  much  later  (even  as  late 
as  310).  It  founds  the  true  religion  entirely 
upon  revelation.  The  idols  of  the  heathen 
are  nothing  but  senseless  stone,  brass,  or 
wood.    The  Jews,  though  they  are  right  in 


worshipping  one  God,  are  wrong  in  thinking 
they  can  please  him  with  sacrifices.  Men 
were  utterly  miserable  till  the  Word  came. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Logos  is  the  most  interest- 
ing thing  in  the  epistle.  God  long  endured 
the  wickedness  of  men  that  they  might  learn 
how  impossible  it  was  to  save  themselves. 
Out  of  his  infinite  goodness,  however,  he  had 
ever  determined  to  save  them.  Thus  he  sent 
his  Son.  When  he  did  this,  the  Creator  of 
the  world  did  not  send  an  angel,  or  inferior 
being,  but  the  very  Creator  and  Founder  of 
the  world.  The  plan  of  salvation  had  been 
communicated  in  eternity  to  the  Son  in  con- 
sequence of  the  economic  relation  subsisting 
between  Father  and  Sou.  This  Son  was  the 
Logos,  which,  "  speaking  openly,"  revealed 
the  truth.  By  him  the  church  is  now  en- 
riched, from  him  comes  all  the  teaching  of 
the  church,  through  him  comes  the  tradition 
of  the  apostles,  and  by  him  every  individual 
teacher  is  inspired.  The  epistle  has  sometimes 
been  ascribed  to  Justin  Martyr,  but  it  is  quite 
different  in  certain  turns  of  "thought  from  his 
writings.  The  best  edition  is  Harnack's 
Pair.  Apost.  0pp.,  Leipzig,  1875,  trans,  in 
Ante-Nicene  Library,  Christian  Literature 
Company  ed..  New  York,  vol.  i.      F.  H.  F. 

Di-o-nys'-i-us  Areopagita,  i.e.,  the  writings 
ascribed  to  him.  The  name  is  that  of  the 
member  of  the  Areopagus  at  Athens  con- 
verted by  Paul,  said  to  have  been  the  first 
bishop  of  Athens,  and  to  have  died  a  martyr. 
Under  his  name  there  were  quoted  at  the  con- 
ference between  the  Monophysiles  and  the 
Orthodox  at  Constantinople,  in  533,  a  number 
of  writings  which  were  claimed  as  favoring 
Monophjsitism,  and  said  to  have  been  known 
by  Cyril  and  to  be  deposited  in  the  archives 
at  Alexandria.  The  following  have  come 
down  to  us  :  (1)  Concerning  the  heavenly 
Hierarchy  ;  (2)  Concerning  the  churchly  Hier- 
archy ;  (3)  Concerning  divine  Names  ;  (4)  Con- 
cerning Mystic  Theology  ;  (5)  Ten  Epistles. 
They  soon  got  currency  in  the  Eastern  Church, 
and  still  more  in  the  Western,  where  they 
were  used  by  the  Scholastics  as  the  source  of 
mysticism,  translated  and  commented  upon, 
till,  about  the  time  of  the  Revival  of  Learn- 
ing, their  spuriousness  became  evident.  Mod- 
ern investigations  as  to  their  authorship  have 
shown  that  they  do  not  profess  to  have  been 
written  by  the  Areopagite  ;  that  they  quote 
later  writers  in  perfect  good  faith,  as  Ignatius 
and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  that  they 
were  probably  written  by  a  priest  Dionysius, 
who  was  abbot  of  Rhinocolura  (on  the  sea,  at 
the  borders  of  Egypt  and  Palestine),  about 
the  close  of  the  4th  century  (see  F.  Hipler, 
D.A.,  1861,  and  E.  Boehmer,  in  the  review 
Damaris,  1864).  This  Dionysius,  educated 
in  Greek  philosophy  and  become  a  Christian, 
purposes  to  bring  all  the  speculations  which 
he  has  wrought  out,  to  the  defence  and  de- 
velopment of  the  Christian  system.  The  great 
original  mystic  teacher  who,  like  the  sur,  illu- 
minates all  creatures,  is  the  divine  hierarch, 
Christ,  and  the  ideal  plan  of  all  earthly  order 
is  the  heavenly  hierarchy,  wrhich  consists  in 
ranks  and  grades  of  angels  and  holy  spirits. 
In  what  is  properly  theology  Dionysius  at- 


DIONYSIUS 


(227) 


DISCIPLES 


taches  himself  to  the  churchly  system.  The 
freedom  of  the  will,  the  sin  and  misery  of 
men,  the  purpose  of  redemption,  the  incarna- 
tion, etc.,  are  all  embraced  in  his  system.  In 
Christology  he  emphasizes  a  thought  which  is 
not  afterward  let  drop,  that  the  activity  of 
Christ  is  not  a  human  activity  or  a  didne,  but 
a  divine-human,  or  that  Christ  acts  as  the  undi- 
vided God-man.  The  works  of  Dionj-sius  are 
to  be  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Or.  III.,  "IV.  An 
English  trans,  of  the  3Iystic  Theology  is  given 
in  Epcrard's  Gospel  Treasures,  London,  1653. 
(See  fine  summarv  in  Herzog,  litmleiicyclo- 
piu'iUe  [by  Moeller],  III.,  61G.)        F.  11.  F. 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  became  head  of 
the  catechetical  school  there  iu  282,  and  in 
247  bishop  of  Alexandria.  In  the  Decian  per- 
secution (250)  he  fled,  and  upon  his  return 
was  entangled  in  the  controversies  of  his  time, 
Novatianism,  etc.  In  the  persecution  of  257 
he  was  banished  to  the  region  of  Mareotis, 
till  his  restoration  in  260.  He  maintained  the 
position  of  Origen  upon  the  Trinity,  and  ran 
some  danger  of  getting  the  reputation  of 
heresy,  but  avoided  it.     He  died  in  264. 

F.  H.  F. 

Dionysius  of  Rome,  bishop  259-69,  was 
fortunate  to  enter  upon  his  oltice  only  shortly 
before  the  toleration  edict  of  Gallienus,  and 
could  bring  the  affairs  of  tlie  Roman  Church 
into  shape  again.  He  took  part  in  the  contest 
against  Sabellius,  avoiding  both  extremes  of 
doctrine.  He  also  opposed  Paul  of  Samosata. 
F.  H.  F. 

Dionysius  Exiguus  {the  Little)  flourished 
in  the  first  half  of  the  6th  century  ;  was  a 
Scythian,  educated  at  Rome  and  abbot  there  ; 
noted  for  originating  the  common  Christian 
era  l)y  his  method  of  reckoning  Easter,  and 
for  his  collection  of  Canons  and  Decretals. 
F.  H.  F. 

Dionysius  the  Carthusian,  b.  1403  at 
Rickel,  in  Belgic  Limburg  ;  d.  1471,  in  Roer- 
monde.  He  studied  at  Cologne,  and  became 
familiar  with  philosophy  and  theology  before 
his  reception  into  the  C!arthusian  order  in  his 
21st  year.  He  exercised  a  great  influence 
upon'  his  times.  His  writings  were  very 
numerous,  F.  H.  F. 

Dicscurus,  anti-pope  to  Boniface  II.,  Oct. 
15,  520,  but  died  Nov.  12  of  the  same  year. 

Dippel,  Johann  Conrad,  Ph.D.  (Giessen, 
1693).  M.D.  (Leyden,  1711),  German  Luther- 
an ;  b.  at  Frankenstein,  near  Darmstadt,  Aug. 
10, 1673  ;  d.  in  tiie  castle  of  Witgenstein,  Berle- 
burg,  April  25,  1734.  He  began  as  orthodox, 
became  a  pietist,  and  finally  an  out-and  out 
rationalist.  He  preached  for  a  while,  but  de- 
voted himself  at  la.'*!  to  alchemy  and  chemis- 
try. He  discovered  Prussian  blue  and  Dip- 
pel's  animal  oil.  Persecuted  for  his  religious 
opinions,  he  wandered  over  Germany,  Hol- 
land, Denmark,  and  Sweden.  (See  his  col- 
lected works,  Berleburg,  1743,  and  life  by  W. 
Bender,  Berlin,  1882.) 

Diptychs,  "  tablets  folded  in  two  leaves," 
were  r'-gislcrs  in  which  the  names  of  bishops 
and  others  deserving  of  special  memorial  in 
tile  church  were  kept,  to  be  read  iu  divine 


service.  To  erase  from  the  diptychs  was  the 
same  as  to  excommunicate.  F.  H.  F. 

Directory  of  Worship,     See  Worsiiif. 

Dis-cal-ce-a'-ti,  barefooted,  a  name  given 
to  monks  and  nuns  who  wore  only  some  slight 
sandal  on  the  fool.  There  are  very  many 
orders  thus  designated,  of  whom  the  Francis- 
cans and  sub-orders  of  Franciscans  are  the 
chief.  F.  H.  F. 

Disciples  of  Christ.  Out  of  the  great  re- 
vival which  originated  iu  Tennessee  and  Ken- 
tucky in  the  year  1800  came  the  people 
known  as  Disciples  of  Christ.  The  Disciples 
do  not  claim  to  be  the  Church  of  Christ, 
but  to  be  an  organized  movement  within  the 
church  of  Christ  in  behalf  of  Christian  unity 
and  union,  by  a  return  to  the  religion  of 
Jesus,  its  creed,  its  ordinances,  and  its  life,  as 
these  are  presented  on  the  pages  of  the  New- 
Testament.  Each  one  of  their  organized  con- 
gregations calls  itself  "  the  Church  of  Christ," 
in  its  place.  la  1886,  according  to  Dr.  Dor- 
chester, the  Disciples  liad  5800  cliurch  organi- 
zations, 3500  ministers,  and  615,500  communi- 
cants. It  is  probable,  as  their  increase  is  very 
rapid,  that  the  number  of  members  at  the 
present  time  is  at  least  700,000. 

The  Disciples  are  successfully  engaged  in 
mission  work  in  Scandinavia,  England,  India, 
Japan,  China,  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
Foreign  Cliristian  Missionary  Society  was  or- 
ganized iu  1875,  with  headquarters  in  Cincin- 
nati, O.  More  than  4000  additions  to  the 
churches  under  its  fostering  care  have  been 
reported.  The  Christian  Woman's  Board  of 
Missions  was  organized  the  same  year,  with 
headfiuarters  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.  There  are 
36  state  missionary  societies.  The  General 
Convention,  Avith  headquarters  in  Cincinnati, 
expends  from  $30,000  to  $50,000  a  year  in  mis- 
sion work  iu  such  portions  of  the  liome  field 
as  are  not  cultivated  by  the  agents  of  the  state 
organization.  There  is  also  a  Board  of  Church 
Extension  in  connection  with  the  General  Con- 
vention, which  is  doing  a  good  work  in  ren- 
dering financial  assistance,  on  easy  terms,  to 
weak  churches,  in  building  hou.ses  of  worship. 

Five  universities,  19  colleges,  and  5  schools 
of  lower  grade  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Disciples.  Bethany  College,  Bethany,  W. 
Va.  ;  Kentucky  University,  Lexington,  Ky.  ; 
Butler  University,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  ;  Gar- 
field Universitv,  Wichita,  Kan.  ;  Drake  Uni- 
versity, Des  Moines,  la.  ;  and  Eureka  College, 
Eureka,  111.,  are  their  most  prominent  institu- 
tions of  learning. 

The  Disciples  publish  22  papers- 9  weekly, 
8  monthly,  and  5  semi-monthly.  There  arc 
also  11  Sunday-school  papers. 

The  Disciples  are  in  accord  with  evangelical 
Christians  in  the  doctrines  usually  accounted 
orthodox,  but  they  object  to  making  any- 
thing other  than  faith  in  Jesus  and  submis- 
sion to  his  authority  a  test  of  fellowship. 
They  baptize  converts  on  a  public  confession 
of  the  Lord  Jesus.  They  contend  that  the 
original  and  only  divinely  authorized  creed, 
the  true  Apostles'  Creed,  thi!  creed  of  Christi- 
anity, is  this  :  I  believe  in  my  heart  that  Jesus 
is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God,  and 
my  Saviour, 


DISCIPLES 


(228) 


DOOETiE 


The  especial  work  of  the  Disciples  is  in  be- 
half of  Christian  union,  and  they  maintain 
that  when  the  church  was  satisfied  with  this 
creed  there  was  unit^  and  union,  and  that  a 
return  to  this  single,  simple,  and  sublime  arti- 
cle of  belief,  with  all  that  it  involves,  will  re- 
store to  the  church  this  lost  unity. 

The  Disciples  baptize  only  penitent  be- 
lievers, and  baptism  is  with  them  immersion, 
as  being  more  in  harmony  with  the  letter  of 
Scripture,  and  also  as  a  practice  entirely  out 
of  the  region  of  controversy. 

They  teach  that  baptism  is  connected  with 
remission  of  sins.  Theirs  is  not  the  doctrine 
of  "baptismal  regeneration,"  since  the  Dis- 
ciples baptize  only  believing  penitents.  Com- 
ing to  baptism  such  persons  find  an  assurance 
of  forgiveness  in  the  written  Word  that  can- 
not be  obtained  in  any  other  way.  This  doc- 
trine concerning  baptism  they  find  in  such 
texts  as  Mark  xvi.  16,  Acts  ii.  B8,  Acts  xxii. 
16,  1  Peter  iii.  21. 

They  observe  the  Lord's  Supper  on  every 
first  day  of  the  week.  On  the  c[uestion  of  re- 
stricted communion  they  are  neither  "  open" 
nor  "  close  communionists."  They  maintain 
that  in  the  Lord's  Supper  the  communion  is 
with  Christ,  and  only  in  a  secondary  sense,  if 
at  all,  with  Christians.  It  is  not  unusual,  there- 
fore, for  unimmersed  believers,  living  in  a 
godly  manner,  to  unite  with  the  Disciples  in 
the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

The  Standard  Publishing  Company,  Cincin- 
nati, O.,  and  the  Christian  Publishing  Com- 
pany, St.  Louis,  Mo.,  are  the  principal  pub- 
lishing houses  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ.  The 
Christian  Standard,  Cincinnati,  and  The 
Christian  Evangelist,  St.  Louis,  are  their  lead- 
ing papers. 

Easily  accessible  books  containing  informa- 
tion as  to  the  origin,  aim,  growth,  doctrinal 
position,  peculiar  customs,  and  methods  of 
work  are  :  Memoirs  of  Alexander  Campbell,  by 
Robert  Richardson  ;  The  Christian  System, 
bv  Alexander  Campbell  ;  IVie  Scheme  of  Re- 
demption,  by  Robert  Milligan  ;  The  Campbell 
and  Rice  Debate,  and  2' he  Origin  of  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ,  by  George  W.  Longan.  These 
works  can  be  obtained  through  the  pub- 
lishing houses  mentioned  above. 

B.  B.  Tyler. 

Disciples  of  St.  John.    See  Sabians. 

Disciplina  Arcani.     See   Arcani  Discip- 

LINA. 

Discipline.    See  Church  Discipline. 
Dismes.    See  Taxes,  Ecclesiastical. 

Dispensation,  the  power  exercised  in  the 
Roman  Church  to  release  from  the  obligation 
of  some  law,  spiritual  or  temporal.  Thus  the 
pope  dispenses  from  the  obligation  of  an  oath, 
as  that  of  Francis  to  Charles  V.,  or  permits 
marriage  within  limits  not  otherwise  allowed, 
or  permits  the  non-performance  of  vows.  In 
Protestant  countries  there  were  formerly  large 
powers  of  dispensation.  Special  licenses  of 
marriage  are  still  granted  by  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  the  pardons  granted  in 
the  civil  sphere  by  the  government  are  ex- 
amples of  the  survival  of  the  custom. 

F.  H.  F. 


Dissenter,  one  who  dis.sents  from  the  doc- 
trine or  ritual  of  an  established  ch\irch,  as  iu 
England.  In  the  ITth  century  such  in  Eng- 
land were  called  Nonconformists,  and  that 
term  is  often  now  used.  Formerly  English 
Dissenters  had  various  legal  disabilities,  but 
they  are  now  all  removed.  They  are  divided 
into  more  than  170  sects. 

Dissidents  is  the  general  name  for  non- 
Catholic  Poles  under  the  old  elective  Polish 
monarchy,  who,  while  the  established  church 
was  Roman  Catholic,  were  allowed  the  free 
exercise  of  their  faith — viz.,  Lutherans,  Cal- 
vinists,  Greeks,  and  Arrainians,  but  not  Ana- 
baptists, Socinians,  or  Quakers. 

Distaffs  Day,  St.,  is  the  day  after  Twelfth 
Day,  also  called  St.  Rock's  Day. 

Divination,  the  pretended  discovery  of 
things  secret  or  future  by  peculiar  rites,  or  by 
attention  to  certain  appearances,  as  the  flight 
of  birds,  entrails  of  animals,  etc.  It  was 
usually  in  the  hands  of  a  priestly  caste,  and 
gave  them  great  power  (Gen.  xli.  8,  Isa.  xlvii. 
13,  Dan.  ii.  2).  It  was  forbidden  to  the  Jews 
under  severe  penalties  (Lev.  xix.  26,  31),  and 
Saul  disobeyed  to  his  cost  (1  Sam.  xxviii.).  A 
new  impulse  w^as  given  to  the  practice  among 
the  Jews  by  their  intercourse  with  Chalda^ans 
(Isa.  ii.  6,  viii.  19,  Ezek.  xiii.  6,  9).  It  never 
was  auvthing  but  a  base  imposture  (Acts  viii. 
9,  xvi.  19,  xix.  19),  and  it  is  the  height  of  folly 
and  sin  for  Christians  to  resort  to  it  in  any 
form  or  under  any  pretence.  T.  W.  C. 

Divinity.    See  Theology. 

Divorce.     See  Markiage. 

Dix,  Morgan,  S.T.D.  (Columbia  College, 
New  York,  1862),  D.C.L.  (Univtisity  of  tiie 
South,  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  1885),  Episcopalian  ; 
b.  in  New  York  City,  Nov.  1,  1827  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  College,  1848,  and  at  the 
General  Theological  Seniinary,  1852  ;  became 
assistant  minister  of  St.  Mark's,  Philadelphia, 
1853  ;  and  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York, 
1855  ;  assistant  rector  of  Trinity,  1859  ;  rec- 
tor, 1862.  He  has  published  Manual  of  the 
Christian  Life,  New  York,  1857,  16th  1000. 
1864  ;  Book  'of  Hours,  1865,  n.e.,  1881  ;  Lec- 
tures on  the  Two  Estates,  1872  ;  Historical 
Lectures  of  the  First  Prayer-book  of  King  Ed- 
ward VL.,  1881,  4th  ed.,  1885  ;  Lectures  on 
the  Calling  of  a  Christian  Woman,  1883,  6th 
1000,  1885  ;  Memoir  of  John  A.  Dix  (his 
father),  1883,  2  vols.  ;  flie  Gospel  and  Philoso- 
phy, 1886  ;  Christ  at  the  Dom'ofthe  Heart,  and 
other  Sermons,  1887  ;  Seven  Deadly  Sins,  1888. 

Do-ce'-tae.    All  the  Gnostic  sects,  since  they 
taught  that  there  was  an  irreconcilable  oppo- 
sition between  God  and  matter,  taught  more 
or  less  distinctly  that  the  body  of  Christ  was 
a  mere  appearance  ((^uKr/a/g),  whence  the  term 
docetism.     Hippolytus   speaks  of  a  distinct 
I  sect  to  which  this  name  was  applied  par  exeel- 
I  len-ce,  not  because  it  laid  more  emphasis  upon 
I  the    phenomenal   character  of    the  body  of 
Christ,  but  rather  because  its  members  were 
the  truly  perfect  under,  the  appearance  of 
humiliation.     Their  system  was  a  combina- 
tion  of   those   of   Basilides   and   Valentinus. 
They  identified,  however,  the  highest   God 


DOOTOR 


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DOOTOR 


with  the  "seed  of  the  world."  There  may- 
have  been  aa  irenical  attitude  ia  this  party 
toward  other  Christians.  (See  Hippolytus, 
in  the  Ante-Niceue  Library,  Christian  Liter- 
ature Publishing  Company,  JS^ew  York,  1886. 
See  the  art.  Gnosticism.)  F.  H.  F. 

Doctor  {teacher).  1.  The  "  doctors  of  the 
law"  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Lulie  V.  17,  Acts  v.  34,  etc.),  also  called 
"scribes,"  were  scholars  and  expounders  of 
the  law  of  Moses  and  of  the  traditions  of  the 
elders.  They  were  mostly  Pharisees,  had 
pupils  from  whom  they  received  presents,  but 
recei^red  no  salary  ;  were  addressed  as  "  Eab- 
bi" — i.e.,  master,  and  played  a  leading  part  in 
Jewish  affairs.  (See  Rabbins.)  3.  Doctor 
of  divinity,  the  highest  academical  degree  in 
theology,  now  iisually  merely  honorary,  was 
in  the  Middle  Ages  only  aftainable  by  one 
who  passed  the  degrees  of  bachelor,  'licen- 
tiate, and  master,  and  was  given  by  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  in  the  name  of  the 
pope.  In  the  17th  century  the  bearer  of  the 
title  among  Protestants  was  addressed  as 
"  your  excellency. ' '  The  degree  is  an  inherit- 
ance of  the  early  church  thiough  the  cate- 
chetical schools  of  Alexandria,  Autioch,  and 
elsewhere.  The  most  famous  of  the  mediaeval 
teachers  received  from  their  pupils  the  degree 
with  some  allix  which  set  forth  some  note- 
worthy quality  of  their  writings,  and  the  dif- 
ferent orders  boasted  each  of  their  respective 
leaders.  The  following  alphabetical  list  of 
such  affixes  is  taken  from  Wetzer  and  Wette, 
Kircheidt'xikoii,  2d  ed.,  Kaulen,  iii.  cols.,  1867- 
69.  The  word  Doctor  is  to  be  prefixed  to  each 
epithet  ;  the  date  is  that  of  death,  and  the 
contractions  are  as  follows  : 


O.  Carmel.  =  Carmelite. 
O.  Carth.  =  Carthusian. 
O.  Cist  =  Cisterciau. 
O.  M.  =  Minorite. 
O.  Pr.  =  Dominican, 


O.  Prsem.  =  Prfemonstrant. 
O.  S.  Aug.  =  Autrustinian. 
O.  S   B.  =  Benedictine. 
O.  Trin.  =  Trinitarian. 
S.  J.  =  Jesuit. 


Doctor  abstractionum,  acutus  et  illuminatis- 
simus— Francis  of  Mayroni,  d.  1325. 

—  aciitissimus — Francesco  d'Albescoladella 
Rovere  (Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  1484). 

—  acutus —Gabriel  Vasquez,  S.  J.,  1604. 

—  admirabilis(mirabilis)— Roger  Bacon,  O. 
M..  1294. 

—  anicEnus— Robert  of  Cownton,  O.  M., 
about  1340. 

—  augelicus,  communis,  or  cherubicus— St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  O.  Pr.,  1374. 

—  autlienticus— Gregory  of  Rimini,  O.  S. 
Aug.,  13r)8. 

—  authoratus,  copiosus,  fuudatissimus  et 
solidus— Richard  ot  Middletown,  O.  M.,  about 
1300. 

—  beatus  et  fundatissimus— Agidius  de  Co- 
lonna,  O.  S.  Aug.,  1316. 

—  bonus— Walter  Brinkelius,  O.  M,,  about 
1310. 

—  cherubicus  (see  angelicas)  —  Thomas 
Aquinas,  1274. 

—  christianissimu-s— John  Charlier  of  Ger- 
80n,  1439. 

—  christianus— Nicholas  of  Cusa,  1464. 

—  clarus— Louis  de  Montesinos,  1621. 

—  clarus  et  subtilis — Diouysius  junior,  O. 
Cist,,  14th  century. 


Doctor    collectivus— Landulfo    Caracciolo, 
O.  M.,  1351. 

—  columna  doctorum — William  of  Cham- 
peaux,  O.  S.  B.,  1121. 

—  communis  (see  angelicus). 

—  contradictionum — Johann  Wessel,  1489. 

—  couspicuus  et  planus — Walter  Burleigh, 
after  1337. 

—  copiosus  (see  authoratus). 

—  divinus,  ecstaticus— Johannes  von  Ruys- 
broeck,  1381. 

—  doctorum — Anselm  of  Laon,  1117. 

—  dulcitluus — Antonius    Andreii,    O.   M., 
about  1320. 

—  ecstaticus— Dionysius  de  Leewis  of  Rick- 
el,  O.  Carth.,  1471. 

—  ecstaticus  (see  divinus). 

—  elegans  et  facundus — Peter  Aureoli,  O. 
M.,  1322. 

—  eminens— St.  John  of  Matha,  O.  Trin., 
1213. 

—  cvangelicus— John  Wiclif,  1384. 

—  exceilentissimus — Anton  Corsetti,  1503. 

—  eximius — Johannes    Tisserius,    O.    M., 
about  1564,  and  Francis  Suarez,  S.  J.,  1617. 

—  facundus  (see  elegans). 

—  famosissimus — Peter  Alberti,  O.  S.  B., 
about  1426. 

—  famosus — Bertrand  de  la  Tour,  O.  M., 
1334. 

—  fundamentalis,   subtilis    et    perspicacis- 
simtis — Jolm  Faber  of  Bordeaux,  about  1350. 

—  fuudatissimus  (see  authoratus  and  bea- 
tus). 

—  fundatus— William  Verus   (de  Waria), 
O.  M.,  about  1370. 

—  illibatus— Alexander    Alemannicus,    O. 
M.„15th  century. 

—  illuminatissimus  (see  abstractionum). 

—  illuminatus— Raymund  Lullus,  O.  M., 
1315, 

—  illuminatus  et  sublimis — John  Tauler,  O. 
Pr  ,  1361. 

—  illustratus — Franciscas  Picenus  (de  Mar- 
chia),  O.  M.,  14th  century. 

—  illustris  or  illustratus— Adam  of  Marisco, 
O.  M.,  about  1308. 

—  inclytus— William  Mackelfield,  O.  Pr., 
about  1300. 

—  ingeniosissimus— Andrew   of  Neufcha- 
teau,  O.  M.,  about  1300. 

—  invincibilis— Peter  Thomas,  O.  M.,  14th 
century  (?). 

—  invincibilis      et      singularis  —  William 
Occam,  O.  M.,  about  1347. 

—  irrefragabilis,  fons  vitaj,  monarcha  theo- 
logorum — Alexander  of  Hales,  O.  M.,  1345. 

—  magnus,  universalis— Alanus  of  Ryssel, 
O.  Ci.st.,  1202. 

— marianus — St.    Anselm    of    Canterbury, 
1109,  and  Johannes  Duns  Scotus,  O.  M.,  1308. 

—  mellitluus— St.  Bernard,  O.  Cist.,  1153. 

—  mcllifUius  alter— Aelred,  O.  Cist.,  1166. 

—  mirabilis  (see  admirabilis). 

—  niirabili.s— Anton  Perez,  S,  J.,  1649. 

—  moralis — Gerhard  Eudo  (Odonis),  O.  M., 
1349, 

—  notabilis — Peter  of  Ryssel,  O.  M. 

—  ordinatissimus  or  ornatissimus— Jolian- 
nes  de  Bassolis.  O,  M.,  about  1347. 

—  ornatissimus    et    stilliciens— Petrus    de 
Aquila,  O,  M.,  about  1344, 


DOCTORS 


(230) 


DODDRIDGS 


Doctor  pacificus  et  proficuus  (profitabilis) — 
Nicolas  Bouet,  O.  M.,  1860. 

—  perspicacissimus  (see  funcCamentalis) 

—  perspicuus  (see  conspicuus). 

—  planus  (see  conspiciius). 

—  planus  et  utilis — Nicholas  of  Lyra,  O. 
M.,  1341. 

—  pifeclarus — Petrus  of  Kaiserslautern,  O. 
Praem.,  about  1330. 

—  praestantissimus— Thomas  Netter  of 
Walden,  O.  Carm.,  1431. 

—  proficuus  and  profitabilis  (see  pacificus). 

—  profundus — Thomas  of  Bradwardine, 
1349. 

—  profundissimus— Paul  of  Venice,  O.  S. 
Aug.,  1428  ;  Gabriel  Biel,  1495  ;  Joannes  Al- 
phonsus  Curiel,  O.  S.  B.,  1609. 

—  refulgidus — Peter  Philargi  (Pope  Alex- 
ander V.),'l410. 

—  resolutissimus — William  Duraud  of  St. 
Pour(;ain,  O.  Pr.,  1332. 

—  resolutus,  princeps  Averroistarum — John 
Bacon,  O.  Carm.,  1346. 

—  scholasticus— Peter  Abelard,  1142  ;  Gil- 
bert de  la  Porree,  1154  ;  Peter  Lombard, 
1164  ;  Peter  of  Poitiers,  1205,  and  Guigo  de 
Castro  Novo,  O.  M.,  after  1322. 

—  seraphicus — St.  Bonaventura,  O.  M., 
1274  ;  sometimes  also  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
O.  M.,  1226. 

—  singularis  (  ee  invincibilis). 

—  solemnis— Henry  Goethals  of  Ghent, 
1293. 

—  solid  us  (see  authoratus). 

—  speculativus— Jacob  of  Viterbo,  O,  S., 
Aug.,  1308. 

—  sublimis  (see  illuminatus). 

—  sublimis— Francis deBachorie,  O.  Carm., 
1372,  and  Jean  de  Courtecuisse,  about  14!25. 

—  Rubtilis— John  DunsScotus,  O.  M.,  1349. 

—  subtilis  (see  clarus  and  fundamentalis). 

—  subtilissimus— Peter  of  Mantua,  14th  cen- 
tury (?). 

—  succinctus — Francis  of  Ascoli,  O.  M., 
about  1340. 

—  sufticiens  (see  ornatissimus). 

—  summus  doctorum  —  Peter  of  Belle 
Perche,  1308. 

—  universalis — Albert  the  Great  O.  M., 
1280. 

—  universalis  (see  magnus). 

—  utilis  (see  planus). 

—  veraudus— Walfried  de  Fontibus,  O.  M., 
after  1240. 

Doctors  of  the  Church.  In  the  broadest 
sense  of  this  term  the  following  Fathers  are 
so  called  :  (Greek)  Athanasius,  Basil,  Chry- 
sostom,  and  Gregory  of  Nazienzen  ;  (Latin) 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  Gregor}^  the  Great,  and 
Jerome.  But  in  the  Latin  Church  the  epithet 
is  now  given  to  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  St. 
Bernard,  Bonaventura,  Francis  of  Sales  (since 
1877),  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Isidore  of  Seville, 
John  of  Damascus,  Leo  the  Great,  (Alphonso 
de)  Liguori  (since  1871),  Peter  Chrysologus, 
and  Peter  Damiani. 

Doddridge,  Philip,  D.D.  (Aberdeen,  1736), 
Independent  ;  b.  in  London,  June  26,  1702  ; 
d.  in  Lisbon,  Oct.  26,  1751.  His  father  was  a 
tradesman  ;  both  his  grandfathers  had  been 
ministers.    He  was  the  youngest  of  20  chil- 


dren, all  of  whom  but  2  died  in  infancy  ;  at 
birth  he  was  thought  to  be  dead.  His  pious 
mother  taught  him  Bible  history  by  means  of 
Dutch  tiles  in  the  chimney.  He  was  sent  to 
private  schools,  and  lost  his  parents  in  youth. 
The  Duchess  of  Bedford  offered  to  educate 
him  for  the  church  ;  this  he  declined  from 
conscientious  scruples.  Dr.  E.  Calamy  dis- 
suaded him  from  preparation  for  the  dissent- 
ing ministry,  but  Dr.  S.  Clark,  of  St.  Albans, 
enabled  him  to  continue  his  studies  under  Dr. 
Jennings,  of  Kibworth,  Leicestershire.  Here 
he  began  to  preach  in  1722,  and  soon  suc- 
ceeded to  the  charge  of  the  academy,  which 
was  afterward  enlarged  and  transferred  to 
Harborough,  near  by.  In  Dec,  1729,  he  re- 
moved to  Northampton,  Miiere  for  the  rest  of 
his  life  he  was  engaged  in  pastoral  and  edu- 
cational duties.  In  Dec,  1730,  he  married. 
By  rising  at  5  throughout  the  year  he  found 
time  for  extensive  study,  and  for  those  writings 
which  have  won  lasting  reputation.  In  Dec, 
1750,  he  took  cold  while  journeying  to  St.  Al- 
bans to  preach  the  funeral  sermon  of  his  friend 
and  benefactor,  Dr.  Clark.  His  health  rapidly 
declined  ;  a  voyage  to  Portugal  was  recom- 
mended, and  a  subscription  for  its  expenses 
started  by  a  clergyman  of  the  Established 
Church  ;  the  patient  sailed  Sept.  30,  1751,  but 
died  shortly  after  his  arrival.  The  sweetness 
of  his  spirit  and  the  width  of  his  sympathies, 
no  less  than  his  eminent  talents,  won  a  wide 
circle  of  admiring  friends.  The  doctrines  of 
his  school  he  held  in  their  mildest  form  ; 
though  his  own  orthodoxy  was  unim peached, 
some  of  his  pupils  became  Socinians,  as  Kip- 
pis  and  Cappe,  or  "  rational  theologians,"  as 
Farmer.  His  publications  consist  of  numer- 
ous sermons,  among  which  those  on  Regener- 
ation, 1741,  have  perhaps  been  most  valued  ; 
Passages  in  the  Life  of  Colonel  Gardiner,  1747, 
and  the  famous  Rise  and  Progress  of  Religion, 
in  the  Soul,  1750,  which  has  gone  through 
many  editions,  and  been  translated  into  Ger- 
man, Danish,  Dutch,  and  French.  Apart 
from  this,  his  most  important  works  appeared 
posthumously.  The  Family  Expositor,  6  vols., 
4to,  1760-62,  has  been  widely  and  highly 
valued,  though  Hervey  thought  he  "  leaned 
to  the  trimming  side,"  and  Bickersteth  found 
"  feebleness  in  his  doctrinal  statement. "  This 
was  reprinted  in  1808,  with  a  life  by  Dr.  Kip- 
pis,  and  again  in  1840,  besides  an  abridgment 
by  S.  Palmer.  A  Course  of  Lectures  (to  his 
divinity  students)  was  published  by  S.  Clarke, 
1763,  and  his  Hymns  by  Job  Orton,  in  1755. 
These  last  are  his  best  memorial  ;  as  James 
Montgomery  said,  "  they  shine  with  the 
beauty  of  holiness,"  and  are  notable  for  their 
"  mild  and  human  tone."  Some  of  them,  as 
"  Hark  !  the  glad  sound,"  and  "  My  God,  and 
is  thy  table  spread?"  have  been  sung  in  al- 
most every  English-speaking  congregation  for 
the  last  century  and  more.  Among  the  fol- 
lowers of  Watts,  Doddridge  stands  highest  ; 
his  poetic  talent  is  shown  in  his  hymns,  and 
in  what  Dr.  Johnson  called  "  one  of  the  finest 
epigrams  in  the  language" — "  Live  while  j'ou 
live."  His  life  was  written  by  Orton,  1766  ; 
by  J.  Stoughton,  1851,  and  by  C.  Stanford, 
1881.  His  "works  were  collected  in  10  vols., 
1802,  by  D,  Williams  and  E.  Parsons  ;  his 


DODS 


(231) 


DOGMATICS 


Sermons  in  4  vols.,  1826  ;  his  Correspondence 
ami  Diary  ia  5  vols.,  1829.        F.  M.  Bird. 

Dods,  Marcus,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1872), 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Belford, 
Northumberland,  Eog..  April  11,  1834  ;  grad- 
uated M.A.  at  Edinburgh,  1854,  and  studied 
theology  at  New  College,  Edinburgh,  1854- 
58  ;  from  1864  to  1889  was  pastor  of  Rentield 
Free  Church,  Glasgow  ;  since  1889  has  been 
professor  of  New  Testament  exegesis  in  New 
College,  Edinburgh.  He  has  published  The 
Prayer  that  Teaches  to  Pray,  Edinburgh,  1863, 
6th  ed.,  1889  ;  The  Epistles  to  the  Seven 
Churches,  1865,  2d  ed.,  1885  ;  Israel's  Iron 
Age,  London,  1874,  4th  ed.,  1886  ;  Mohammed, 
Buddha  and  Christ,  1877,  4th  ed.,  1887  ;  Isaac, 
Jacob  and  Joseph,  1880  ;  The  Parables  of  our 
Lord,  1st  series,  1883,  3d  ed.,  1886,  2d  series, 
1885  ;  An  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament, 

1888  ;   The  First  Epistle  to  the   Corinthians, 

1889  ;  Handbook  on  Ilaggai,  Zechariah,  and 
ifaiac7w  (Edinburgh.  1879,  last  ed.,  1885),  and 
on  Genesis  (1882),  and  other  works. 

Dodwell,  Henry,  Church  of  England  lay- 
man ;  b.  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  Oct..  1641  ;  d.  at 
Sliottesbrooke.  Berkshire,  Eng. .  June  7,  1711. 
He  was  a  fj^llow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ; 
resigned  in  1666  because,  from  conscientious 
scruples,  he  declined  to  take  holy  orders. 
From  1688  to  1691  he  was  Camden  professor 
of  history  at  O.xford,  but  refusing  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary,  he 
was  deprived.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was 
spent  at  Sliottesbrooke.  Shortly  before  his 
death  he  abandoned  his  non- juror  views.  He 
was  a  very  learned  man.  He  is  remembered 
as  the  asserter  of  the  opinions  that  the  gospel 
demoniacs  were  epileptics,  and  that  baptism 
bestowed  immortality.  (See  his  life  by  F. 
Brokesby,  London,  1715.) 

Doederlein,  Johann  Ohristoph,  German 
theologian  ;  b.  at  Windsheim,  Franconia, 
Jan.  20,  1746  ;  d.  at  Jena,  Dec.  2,  1792,  where 
he  had  been  professor  of  theology  since  1782, 
being  formerly  at  Altdorf  (1772),  where  he 
studied.  He  advocates  supcrnaturalism  in 
his  In-stitutio  theologim  christiatue,  Niirnberg 
u.  Altdorf,  1780,  6th  ed.,  1797,  Ger.  trans., 
1790-1803.  12  parts. 

Do'-eg  {fearful),  an  Edomite.  overseer  of 
Saul's  flocks,  who  reported  to  him  the  relief 
Ahimelech  gave  to  David  (1  Sam.  xxii.),  and 
in  obedience  to  Saul  put  Ahimelech  and  the 
■whole  city  of  the  priests  to  the  sword.  Psalm 
lii.  describes  the  fate  foretold  to  him. 

T.  W.  C. 

Doel-ling-er,  JohannJoseph  Ignatius,Ph.  D. 
(Vicuna  and  Marburg.  1873),  D.D.  (Oxford, 
1881),  LL.D.  (Oxford  and  Edinburgh,  1873); 
b.  at  Bamberg,  Bavaria,  33  m.  n.  of  Nurem- 
berg, Feb.  28,  1799  ;  d.  iu  Munich,  Jan.  10. 
1890.  He  studied  theology  at  Wiirzburg  and 
Bamberg  ;  became  ]iries;t,'l822  ;  profes.sor  in 
the  lyceum  of  A^flnlFenburg,  1823  ;  professor 
extraordinary  of  cliurch  history  and  church 
law  at  Munich.  is2(i  ;  ordinary,  1827.  At 
first  a  strenuous  defender  of  Ultramontanism 
(cf.  his  Ileforinatioh,  Heg(msburg,  1846-48,  3 
vols..  2d  ed..  vo'  i.,  1X51)7  he  graduallv  verged 
to  the  other  side.     A  journey  into  Italy  (1857) 


and  his  observations  on  the  Italian  war  of  1859 
completed  his  conversion.  Henceforth  he  ad- 
vocated the  surrender  of  the  pope's  temporal 
power  ;  sharply  and  adversely  criticised  the 
Syllabus,  1864,  and  in  1870  refused  to  accept 
the  infallibility  dogma.  He  was  excommuni- 
cated, yet  was  chosen  rector  of  the  Munich 
University  iu  1873.  He  presided  at  the  Old 
Catholic  Congress  held  in  Munich  in  1871,  and 
was  present  at  that  of  Cologne,  1872,  but.  being 
opposed  to  a  separate  church,  took  no  part  in 
tlie  movement.  He  was  president  of  the  Bonn 
Conferences  of  1875  and  1876.  His  books  are 
very  numerous,  and  all  are  important.  In 
English  translation  have  appeared  History  of 
the  Church,  London.  1840-42,  4  vols.  ;  Ge'ntile 
and  Jew  in  tJie  Courts  of  the  Temple  of  Christ, 
1862,  2  vols.  (Ger.  title  Heidenthum  u.  Juden- 
thum :  Vorhalle  zur  Oeschichte  des  Christen- 
thums)  ;  The  Church  ami  the  Churches,  1863, 
n.e.,  1866  ;  Tlie  First  Aqe  of  Christianity  ami 
the  Church,  1866,  2  vols!,  3d  ed.,  1877  ;  Fables 
Respecting  the  Popes  of  the  Middle  Ages,  1871, 
rep.  New  York,  with  Essay  on  the  Proplietic 
Spirit,  1872  ;  Lectures  on  the  Re-union  of  the 
Churches,  1872  ;  Prophecies  and  the  Prophetic 
Spirit  in  the  Christian  Era,  1873  ;  Ilippolytus 
and  CaUistus,  Edinburgh,  1876  ;  -Asohis,  Janus 
(with  Friedrich  and  Huber),  1869.  His  latest 
(untranslated)  books  comprise  a  collection  of 
hitherto  unprinted  accounts  and  journals  as 
materials  for  a  history  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
{Sa7nmlung  von  Urkunden  zur  Oeschichte  des 
Konzils  mn  Triente,  Nordlingen,  1876  sqq., 
Bd.  I.,  2  parts),  academic  lectures  {Akade- 
mische  Vortrdge,  1888-89,  2  vols.),  and  contri- 
butions toward  a  history  of  medieval  sects 
(Beitrdge  zur  Sektengeschiclite  des  Mittelalters, 
Munich,  1890,  2  vols.)  ;  and,  in  connection 
with  Professor  Reusch,  a  reprint  of  Bellar- 
rnine's  rigorously  suppressed  autobiography 
(Latin  text,  with  Ger.  translation.  Die  Selbst- 
hiographie  des  Cardinals  BdUtrtnins,  Bonn, 
1887),  and  with  him  also  a  history  of  the  ethi- 
cal controversies  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  since  the  IClh  century  {Oeschichte  der 
MoralstreitigkeltPn  m.  der  romisch-kathoUschen 
Kirclie  seit  dein  IG.  Jahrh.  mit  Beitrdgen  zur 
Oeschichte  in  Charakteristik  des  Jesuitenordens, 
Nordlingen,  1889,  2  vols.). 

Dogma  {decree),  a  Greek  word,  used  in  the 
Septuagint  and  the  New  Testament  to  denote 
a  precept  of  a  public  and  general  character 
(Luke  ii.  1.  Acts  xvi.  4,  Eph.  ii.  15).  In  clas- 
sic Greek  it  means  a  philosophical  tenet.  Fi- 
nally it  came  to  signify  the  truths  originating 
from  divine  revelation,  especially  such  as  have 
been  authoritatively  expressed  by  the  church 
as  distinguished  from  the  opinions  of  indi- 
vidual teachers.  T.  W.  C. 

Dogmatics,  the  systematic  treatment  of  the 
Christian  verities  as  they  have  been  histori- 
cally developed  and  taken  up  iuto  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  church.  It  is  the  scientific 
or  technical  term  for  doctrinal  theology.  Dur- 
ing the  first  3  centuries  the  doctrine  of  Christ 
as  the  pre-exisfent  and  personal  Logos  of  God, 
and  therefore  of  tlie  Trinity,  came  to  be  every- 
whor(j  recognized  as  the  fundamental  article 
of  revealed  truth.  Then  followed  tlie  Eastern 
development  of   doctrine  according    to   the 


DOGS 


(232) 


DOMINIO 


standard  of  its  original  conception,  from  the 
Arian  controversy  to  the  image  controversy 
and  the  7th  General  Council  in  the  year  787, 
and  the  Western  or  mediaeval  development, 
under  the  influence  of  Augustine  and  Anselm 
and  the  policy  of  the  Roman  See.  At  the 
Reformation  there  was  a  new  departure,  the 
Protestants  carrying  out  the  supremacy  of 
Scripture  and  the  doctrines  of  grace  in  various 
directions,  and  the  Romanists  solidifying  and 
completing  their  doctrinal  development  from 
the  Council  of  Trent  to  the  Vatican  Council 
in  1870. 

Dogmatics  usually  is  divided  into  Theology 
proper,  which  treats  of  God  ;  Anthropology, 
which  treats  of  man  as  created  and  especially 
as  fallen  ;  Ghnstology,  or  the  doctrine  of  the 
Person  of  Christ  ;  Soteriology,  or  the  means 
and  method  of  salvation  ;  Ecdesiology ,  or  the 
doctrine  of  the  church  ;  and  E&chatology,  or 
the  last  things.  Sometimes  men  have  included 
Ethics,  which  is  the  science  of  duties  (1)  tow- 
ard God  and  (2)  toward  men,  but  it  is  a  dif- 
ferent province,  although  it  finds  its  norm  and 
its  motive  in  Christian  theology.  Dogmatics 
then  is  not  a  philosophy  of  religion,  nor  a 
bare  history  of  doctrines,  nor  a  piecemeal 
summary  of  Scripture  teachings,  but  a  system- 
atized statement  of  all  the  truths  of  the 
Christian  faith  in  their  organic  connection 
with  each  other  and  with  the  facts  of  reve- 
lation. 

Ljterature. — Roman  Catholic  :  Mohler 
(1832),  Perrone  (1835).  Lutheran  :  Melanch- 
thon(1521),  Chemnitz  (1592),  Knapp  (1827), 
Marteuseii  (1849),  Thomasius  (1853),  Luthardt 
(1865).  Reformed  :  Turretin  (1682),  Witsius 
(1687),  Pictet  (1696),  Ebrard  (1851),  Muller 
(1870),  Dorner  (1879\  Anglican  :  Hooker 
(1594),  Pearson  (1659),  Bull  (1685).  Harold 
Browne  (1850).  Scotch  :  Hill  (1821),  Dick 
(1833),  Chalmers  (1849).  American  :  Edwards 
(Works,  1809),  Dwight  (1818),  Hodge  (1872), 
Dabney  (1874),  Strong  (1887),  Shedd''(1889). 
T.  W.  C. 

Dogs  were  unclean  by  the  Jewish  law  and 
held  in  contempt  by  the  people.  To  call  one 
a  dog  was  very  reproachful  and  abusive 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  43,  xxiv.  14).  Yet  they  were 
sometimes  kept  to  guard  flocks  and  houses 
(Job  XXX.  1,  Isa.  Ivi.  10,  Matt.  xv.  26).  Scrip- 
ture applies  the  name  to  some  classes  of  men 
to  denote  their  rapacity  (Ps.  xxii.  16,  Matt. 
vii.  6),  or  their  beastly  vices  (Deut.  xxiii.  18, 
2  Peter  ii.  22,  Rev.  xxii.  15).  T.  W.  C. 

Dolcino,  b.  in  the  diocese  of  Novara,  Pied- 
mont, North  Italy,  the  son  of  a  priest,  suc- 
ceeded Segarelli  as  leader  of  the  Apostolic 
Brothers  or  Dulciuists  (1300),  and  maintained 
his  command,  although  his  prophecies  of  vic- 
tory for  them  over  their  persecutors  in  1303 
and  1304  were  proved  false  by  events.  His 
writings  show  him  to  have  united  fanaticism 
with  a  clear  understanding  of  the  degeneracy 
of  the  times  and  real  desire  to  improve  them. 
(See  life  by  Mariotte,  London,  1853.) 

Dolet  (do-la),  Etienne,  French  freethinker  ; 
b.  at  Orleans,  Aug.  3,  1509  ;  educated  at  Tou- 
louse; became  printer  at  Paris,  1534;  for  print- 
ing Protestant  works  and  for  his  own  pronounc- 
ed Deism  he  was,  after  trial,  hanged  and  then 


burned  there,  Aug.  3, 1546.  On  Sunday,  May 
19,  1889,  a  statue  to  his  memory  was  unveiled 
on  the  Place  Maubert,  where  he  was  executed. 
(See  his  biography  by  R.  C.  Christie,  Loudon, 

1880.) 

Dominic,  and  the  Dominicans.  Dominic 
was  born  at  Calaruega,  near  Osma  in  Old  Cas- 
tile, Spain,  in  1170  ;  d.  at  Bologna,  Italy,  Aug. 
6,  1221.  He  was  of  a  good  family,  tliough 
not  a  Guzman  ;  was  educated  at  Palencia,  and 
at  the  age  of  24  was  made  canon  at  the  cathe- 
dral at  bsma.  The  engagements  of  his  bish- 
op, Diego,  in  marriage  affairs  of  the  king,  led 
him  to  journey  several  times  into  the  South 
of  France,  the  region  where  the  Albigenses 
(see  Cathahi)  were  giving  much  trouble  ;  and 
from  one  of  these  journeys  he  went  with  his 
bishop  to  Rome,  returning  through  the  Al- 
bigensian  country.  The  (jisterciau  order  had 
received  the  commission  to  convert  the  her- 
etics, and  several  abbots  had  journeyed  hither 
and  thither  upon  this  pious  errand.  They 
had  met  with  Imt  little  success,  and,  assembled, 
at  ]\Ionlp('lli('r,  had  about  concluded  to  re- 
linquisli  the  mission.  At  this  moment  Diego 
and  Dominic  arrived  at  Montpellier,  and 
joined  in  their  deliberations.  Dominic,  who 
had  himself  preached  much  to  Mohammedans 
and  heretics  in  former  days,  proposed  a  new 
plan,  which  was  adopted  "by  the  abbots  with 
some  enthusiasm.  It  was  to  lay  aside  all 
pomp,  and  to  go  two  by  two  through  the 
country,  without  money,  preaching  the  gospel 
in  a  simple  manner,  and  exhibiting  their  sym- 
pathy for  the  poor  deceived  people  in  every 
way.  But  the  work  was  difficult.  The  peo- 
ple had  been  too  long  neglected,  and  had 
formed  too  strong  an  antipathy  to  the  church 
to  be  easily  gained.  Diego  had  soon  to  leave. 
The  abbots  became  discouraged  and  retired, 
sending  no  helpers  in  their  places.  The  work 
was  left  to  Dominic,  and  he  continued  in  it 
with  a  few  assistants.  Having  founded  an 
asylum  for  girls  in  Prouille,  he  collected  his 
companions  here,  and  soon  a  house  was  given 
them  in  the  city  Toulouse.  Certain  that  by 
the  institution  of  an  order  of  preaching  monks 
the  evils  of  the  church  in  his  day  would  best 
be  met,  Dominic  declined  offers  of  bishoprics, 
and  labored  for  the  establishment  of  the  or- 
der. But  he  was  obliged  to  turn  aside  from 
his  work  of  preaching  and  take  part  in  the 
horrors  of  the  Albigensian  war.  When  it  was 
over  Dominic  sought  the  confirmation  of  his 
order  of  Innocent  III.  (1215).  But  it  was  just 
then  resolved  to  create  no  more  monastic  or- 
ders. It  was  not  till  Honorius  III.  ascended 
the  papal  throne  that  the  proposed  order  was 
approved  (1216).  An  earnest  attempt  was 
now  made  to  extend  the  order,  and  with  great 
success.  The  preaching  monks  met  a  want 
and  found  a  place  for  themselves.  Dominic 
soon  grew  into  great  favor  at  Rome,  and  was 
made  chief  preacher  to  the  papal  court.  In 
1219  he  adopted  the  idea  of  the  Franciscans, 
and  at  the  first  general  chapter  (1220)  com- 
manded perpetual  poverty.  The  order  thus 
became  a  mendicant  order.  By  this  step  still 
greater  access  to  the  common  people  was 
gained.  By  the  second  general  chapter,  held 
at  Bologna,  in  1221,  tliere  were  already  60 


DOMINICA 


(233) 


DONATUS 


monasteries.  Dominic  soon  dietl,  and  in  a 
few  years  (12o8)  was  canonized.  Bnt  the  or- 
der spread.  In  142")  the  pope  removed  the 
prohibition  of  holding  propertj',  and  the  order 
began  to  grow  very  rich.  The  tendency  of 
its  founder  to  hiy  great  stress  upon  the  doc- 
trine, of  tlie  church  has  characterized  the  order 
from  the  beginning.  In  1228  it  got  a  foothold 
in  the  University  of  Paris.  It  became  the 
great  learned  order,  and  did  much  to  preserve 
and  extend  science.  The  Franciscans  joined 
also  in  this  work,  but  it  was  never  so  much 
their  proper  employment  as  that  of  the  Do- 
minicans. IL  also  had  the  management  of  the 
Spanish  Inquisition.  The  Reformation  gave 
it  a  serious  blow,  and  Dominicans  were  often 
superseded  by  Jesuits.  It  has  also  been  a 
great  missionary  order.  In  the  year  18G2  its 
hou.ses  were  estimated  at  3(30.  with  4000  mem- 
bers. (See  Caro,  St.  Dojuinique  ct  las  Domini- 
cain^,  Paris,  1853  ;  and  life  by  Lacordaire, 
Eug.  trans.,  Loudon,  1883.)  F.  II.  F. 

Dominica  in  Albis  {flic  Sunday  of  white  gar- 
ments), the  lirst  Sunday  after  Easter,  so  called 
in  the  early  church  because  those  who  had  been 
baptized  at  Easter  appeared  for  the  last  time 
on  that  day  in  their  white  baptismal  robes. 

Dominical  letter,  that  used  in  ecclesiastical 
almanacs  to  designate  the  Lord's  Day  through 
an  entire  year,  according  to  the  scheme  ex- 
plained in  the  Prayer-Book  (q.v.). 

Dominicale,  a  linen  cloth  used  by  women 
when  communing,  either  as  a  veil  or  to  receive 
the  bread  upon. 

Dominicans.     See  Dominic. 

Dominis,  Marco  Antonio  de,  b.  on  the  Ital- 
ian island  of  Arbe  on  the  Dalmatian  coast, 
l.")G6  ;  d.  a  prisoner  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo, 
liome,  Sept.,  1G24.  Educated  by  the  Jesuits, 
favored  by  the  pope  (made  bishop  of  Segui, 
1596,  archbishop  of  Spalatro  and  primate  of 
Dalmatia,  1598),  he  yet  left  the  church,  1616  ; 
went  to  England,  Avas  by  James  I.  well  re- 
ceived and  made  dean  of  Windsor,  1617.  But 
5  years  afterward  he  took  back  all  the  hard 
things  he  had  said  against  Rome,  and  after 
long,  secret  negotiations  he  went  to  Rome — 
and  into  thi^  clutcliesof  tlu;  Inipiisition,  which 
Jiad  no  difbeulty  in  condemning  him  for 
heresy.  He  wrote  ably  against  the  temporal 
claims  of  the  Cliurch  of  Rome  in  his  iJe  re- 
publica  ecclesiastica,  London,  1617-18,  3  vols. 

Domitian,  Roman  emperor  81-96.  In  the 
year  95,  led  to  it  by  the  natural  confusion  of 
Cliristians  with  Jew.s,  Domitian  is  .said  to  have 
persecnted  the  chr.rch.  Tiie  occasion  was  the 
refusal  of  certain  Christians  to  pay  the  temple 
tax  wliich  Domitian  exacted  for"  tiie  service 
of  the  C'apitoline  Jupiter.  They  were  taken 
for  recalcitrant  .lews.  TcrtulHan  says  the 
persecution  was  of  short  duration  ;  I^usebius, 
that  m.my  suffered  deatli.  Iletresippus  re- 
ports (but  with  doul)tful  credibility)  that 
Domitian,  having  heard  tliat  tiiere  were  mem- 
bers of  tiu'  famiiv  of  David  amonir  tlic  Jews, 
had  the  family  of  St.  Juile  brought  before 
him  for  examination.  But  when  he  saw  tlieir 
hands  liardcned  with  toil,  and  lieard  them  say 
that  the  kingdom  tliey  expected  wa.s  not  of 


this  world,  he  dismissed  them  in  disdain.  See 
art.  Do.MrnL],.\.  F.  H.  F. 

Domitilla,  Flavia,  relative  and  wife  of 
Flavins  Clemens  (q.v.)  who  was  put  to  death 
luider  Domitian.  She  was  banished  to  a  des- 
ert island.  The  real  cause  was  her  connection 
with  the  imperial  hou.se  (she  was  the  niece  of 
the  emperor),  biit  the  reason  assigned  was  the 
charge  of  atheism.  As  this  was  a  common 
charge  against  the  Christians,  it  has  been 
thought  that  both  Clemens  and  Domitilla 
were  Christians  ;  but  it  is  uothiug  more  than 
a  possibility.  F.  H.  F. 

Domnus.     See  Donus. 

Donation  of  Constantine,  a  spurious  docu- 
ment ascribed  to  Constantine  tlie  Great,  in 
wliich  he  gives  to  the  pope  Sylvester  (314-35) 
all  the  imperial  rights  over  the  entire  Western 
Empire,  and  himself  withdraws  to  Constanti- 
nople. The  primacy  of  the  pope  over  all 
patriarchs  is  also  acknowledged.  This  Dona- 
tion 18  first  mentioned  in  a  letter  of  Hadrian 
I.  in  778,  and  must  have  been  invented  about 
that  time.  Still,  Hadrian  speaks  of  supremacy 
in  Italy— not  the  exact  thought  which  appears 
in  the  text  of  the  Donation  as  given  in  the 
Pseudo-Isidorian  decretals.  F.  H.  F. 

Donative,  certain  incumbencies  in  England 
absolutely  in  the  gift  of  the  patron,  without 
consultation  with  the  bishop. 

Donatus   the   Great,   and   the    Donatists. 

The  persecution  under  Diocletian  developed 
a  new  demand  upon  the  Cliristians,  that  they 
should  deliver  up  the  copies  of  their  sacred 
Scriptures.  This  they  refused  to  do,  and 
branded  every  one  who  had  sinfully  yielded 
to  tlie  demand  as  a  "traditor."  Mensurius, 
bishop  of  Carthage,  had  thought  fit  to  substi- 
tute other  writings  for  the  Scriptures,  and  be- 
cause he  had  thus  delivered  up  something, 
though  not  the  Scriptures,  was  regarded  by 
many  as  equal  to  a  traditor.  He  had  also  op- 
posed the  fanaticism  with  which  many  paid 
the  honors  almost  of  worship  to  the  martyrs 
and  confessors.  Hence  at  a  synod  in  305  he 
received  an  admonition,  and  was  soon  sum- 
moned to  Rome,  where  he  was  acquitted,  and 
died  upon  the  journey  home  (311).  Caecilian- 
us,  his  archdeacon,  was  now  elected  by  the 
friends  of  Mensurius  with  unseemly  haste, 
and  without  the  concurrence  of  the  primate 
and  the  Numidian  bishops  in  general,  and 
hurriedly  consecrated  b\'  bishop  Felix  of  Ap- 
tunga,  himself  luider  some  suspicion  as  a 
traditor.  Schism  resulted.  The  consecration 
performed  by  a  "'  traditor"  was  declared  in- 
valid. The  primate  and  the  more  strenuous 
party  elected  Lucillas,  and  upon  liis  death  io 
313.  Donatus  the  Great,  bishop  of  Carthage. 
The  schism  spread  over  all  North  Africa. 
Abroad  C;ecilianus  was  recognized  as  bishop, 
and  the  schismatics  were  called  Donatists  ; 
and  when  Constantino  in  313  issued  an  edict 
favorable  to  the  church  in  Africa,  they  were 
expressly  excluded  from  its  favorable  provi- 
sions. Tiiey  now  began  a  series  of  efforts  to 
get  themselves  righted  by  process  of  law. 
The  e?nperor  appointed  a  commission  which 
met  at  Rome  and  deposed  Donatus.  Then  at 
their  request,  a  commission  was  sent  to  Mvi- 


i 


DONNE 


(234) 


DORNER 


ca,  to  judge  the  cause  upon  the  ground.  It 
pronounced  against  the  Donatists.  ISo  did  the 
Synod  of  Aries  (314).  This  synod  is  remarli- 
able  for  the  decision  that  in  case  Fehx  were  a 
traditor,  the  consecration  of  Csecilian  M^ould 
not  be  invalid,  as  the  Donatists  claimed,  since 
the  unworthiness  of  a  celebrant  does  not  in- 
validate the  office  performed  by  him.  The 
Donatists  now  appealed  directly  to  the  em- 
peror himself,  and  in  316  he  decided  against 
them.  Now  they  saw  clearly  that  the  em- 
peror has,  in  the  nature  of  things,  no  right  to 
interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the  church.  They 
bade  defiance  to  the  imperial  decision,  and 
Constantine  began  the  policy  in  321  of  ignor- 
ing them  entirely.  For  a  time  this  had  no 
good  effect,  and  was  abandoned  too  early  to 
accomplish  anything.  In  330  there  were  270 
Donatist  bishops,  and  the  successors  of  Con- 
stantine resorted  to  persecution.  The  Circum- 
celliones,  a  body  of  roving  ascetics,  produced 
great  disorder  in  the  country,  and  were  re- 
pressed by  arms  (345).  Upon  the  death  of 
CjEcilian,  Gratus  was  chosen  his  successor, 
and  the  schism  continued.  In  348  efforts 
were  made  to  persuade  the  Donatists  to  yield, 
but  these  were  ineffective,  and  Donatus  was 
then  banished.  Julian  returned  him,  and  put 
the  Donatists  in  their  churches  again.  The 
Donatists  divided  among  themselves,  having 
a  second  schismatic  bishop  in  Carthage  in 
393.  Augustine  began  his  efforts  at  their  con- 
version about  the  year  400.  Synods  were 
held,  and  persuasions  used,  but  in  vain.  Then 
Augustine  uttered  the  fateful  word,  "  Compel 
them  to  come  in."  Various  efforts  at  sup- 
pression were  therefore  made,  but  in  vain. 
In  411,  286  Catholic  bishops  were  met  at  a  con- 
ference by  279  Donatist  bishops  ;  and  it  was 
not  till  the  Vandals  came,  and  finally  the 
Saracens,  that  the  Donatists,  and  the  Catho- 
lics with  them,  disappeared  from  Africa.  (See 
Augustine's  works,  ed.  Christian  Literature 
Company,  New  York,  vol.  iv.  ;  Ribbeck,  Do- 
natus und  Augustinus,  1858.)  F.  H.  F. 

Donne,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1615), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  of  Roman  Catholic 
parents  in  Loudon,  1573  ;  d.  there,  March  31, 
1631.  He  entered  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  in  his 
11th  year,  1584  ;  left  it  without  taking  his  de- 
gree ;  travelled  on  the  continent,  1588-91  ; 
admitted  to  Lincoln's  Inn,  1592  ;  made  secre- 
tary to  the  lord  keeper  of  the  privy  seal.  Sir 
Thomas  Egerton,  1596,  but  for  secretly  marry- 
ing, without  permission,  the  niece  of  Sir 
Thomas's  wife,  was  removed,  1601,  and  until 
his  entrance  into  holy  orders,  1615,  Donne  led 
a  dependent  and  precarious  existence.  But 
in  1615  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  king, 
James  I.  ;  elected  "divinity  reader"  to  the 
benchers  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  1616  ;  became  dean 
of  St.  Paul's,  1621  ;  besides,  he  held  several 
benefices.  Prior  to  his  ordination  he  was 
known  and  esteemed  as  a  poet,  a  wit,  a  schol- 
ar, a  gentleman  of  singular  charm  of  manner  ; 
and  when  he  essayed  preaching  he  evinced 
such  remarkable  powers,  that  he  quickly  be- 
came the  foremost  preacher  in  London.  His 
works  comprise  The  Pneudo- Martyr,  a  learned 
work  directed  against  the  English  Roman 
Catholics,  London,  1610,  sermons  and  poems. 


(See  his  works,  ed.  Alford,  London,  1839,  6 
vols.     The  classic  life  is  by  Isaac  Walton.) 

Donnell,  Robert,  Cumberland  Presbyte- 
rian ;  b.  in  Guilford  County,  N.  C,  April, 
1784  ;  d.  at  Athens,  Ala.,  May  24,  1854.  He 
became  a  preacher  in  1806,  and  from  1811  was 
connected  with  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
body,  in  which  he  attained  high  rank.  (See 
his  life  by  Lowry,  Nashville,  fenn.,  1867.) 

Donnellan  Lectures,  The,  six  in  number, 
delivered  annually  in  the  chapel  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  under  regulations  similar  to 
those  of  the  Bampton  lectures  at  Oxford,  were 
founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century 
by  Anne  Donnellan,  who  bequeathed  £1243 
for  the  purpose,  and  were  opened  in  1794.  To 
the  series  belong  Dr.  Graves'  lectures  on  the 
Pentateuch,  Archbishop  Magee's  on  Prophecy, 
etc. 

Donus  I.,  bishop  of  Rome  676-78,  who 
brought  Ravenna  back  to  the  control  of  the 
Roman  bishop.  The  supposed  Pope  Donus 
II.,  said  to  have  been  pope  in  974,  is  now 
proved  to  be  no  historical  character,  since 
there  was  no  pope  of  that  name  between  Bene- 
dict VI.  and  Boniface  VII.  F.  H.  F. 

Dora,    Sister   (Miss    Dorothy   Wyndlow 

Pattison),  b.  at  Hauxwell,  Yorkshire,  Eng., 
Jan.  16,  1832  ;  d.  at  Walsall,  8  m.  n.n.w.  of 
Birmiugham,  Dec.  24,  1878.  Joined  in  1864 
the  "  Sisterhood  of  the  Good  Samaritans"  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  was  sent  to  the 
Cottage  Hospital  at  Walsall,  wliere  she  mani- 
fested not  only  a  most  edifying  spirit  of  Chris- 
tian goodness  and  love,  but  also  an  extraor- 
dinary capacity  for  practical  management. 
(See  "her  life  by  Margaret  Lonsdale,  London 
and  Boston,  1880.) 

Dor'-cas  {gazelle),  the  name  of  a  pious  and 
charitable  woman  at  Joppa,  called  in  Syriac 
Tab'-itha,  whom  Peter  raised  from  the  dead 
(Acts  ix.  36-42),  a  miracle  that  was  followed 
by  many  conversions.  T.  W.  C. 

Dorcas  Societies,  the  name  appropriately 
taken  by  many  associations  which,  in  imita- 
tion of  iier  of  Joppa,  ' '  made  coats  and  gar- 
ments" for  widows  and  other  poor  people. 
T.  W.  C. 

Dorner,  Isaac  August,  Prussian  State 
Church,  United  Evangelical,  b.  atNeuhausen, 
in  Wiirtemberg,  June  20,  1809  ;  d.  at  Wiesba- 
den, July  8,  1884.  He  was  educated  at  Tiibin- 
gen,  where  in  1838  he  was  made  professor  ex- 
traordinary of  theology.  In  1839  he  was  ap- 
pointed ordinary  professor  of  theology  at  the 
Lfniversity  of  Kiel  ;  in  1843  at  Kcinigsberg,  in 
1847  at  Bonn,  in  1853  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1862 
at  Berlin,  where  he  remained  till  the  end  of 
his  life.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  of 
keen  insight,  large  constructive  power,  and  at 
the  same  time  of  deep,  simple,  and  earnest 
piety.  He  had  a  very  gentle  spirit  yet  strong 
convictions,  and  was  active  in  whatever  prom- 
ised to  advance  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth. 
Faith  in  the  personal  Christ  was  the  key-note 
of  his  theological  thought  and  effort.  His 
greatest  work  is  the  Bistori/  of  the  Derelop- 
mcnt  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ 


DOROTHEA 


(235) 


DOXOLOGY 


(Ens:,  trans.,  1861-63,  5  vols.)-  Besides  this, 
his  Ristori/  of  Prutestant  Thcolofiy  (1867,  Eng. 
trans.,  1871,  3  vols.).  System  of  Vhristidii  I)oc- 
^rz/ic  (1879-80,  En?,  trans.,  1880-84.  4  vols.), 
and  Ghristian  Ethics (\m^,  Eng.  trans.,  1887), 
through  translations  have  become  familiar  in 
Britain  and  America.  T.  W.  C. 

Dorothea,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Church, 
■willi  no  historical  existence.  A  second  Doro- 
thea was  a  peasant  maiden,  vs^ho  married,  and 
after  many  years  withdrew  from  her  home, 
and  in  1394  occupied  a  cell  in  the  cathedral  at 
Maiienwerder,  in  Prussia.  Miracles  were 
■wrought  at  her  grave,  but  an  investigation  in- 
stituted with  reference  to  her  canonization 
brought  to  light  the  fact  that  she  was  accus- 
tomed to  speak  reproachfully  of  the  order  of 
Teutonic  Knights,  and  she  failed  of  the  honor. 
F.  H.  F. 

Dort,  Synod  of,  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant council  es'er  held  by  the  Reformed. 
It  was  called  together  by  the  States-General 
of  Holland  to  settle  religious  issues.  In  one 
sense  it  was  a  .national  assembly,  in  another  it 
was  oecumenical,  for  all  the  Reformed 
churches  of  Europe  (save  Anhalt)  were  invited 
to  send  delegates,  and  all  did  so,  only  the  four 
selected  by  the  French  were  forbidden  by  the 
king  to  attend.  James  I.  sent  Carleton,  bishop 
of  tilandaff  ;  Davenant,  afterward  bishop  of 
Salisbury  ;  Sam\iel  Ward,  professor  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  Joseph  Hall,  afterward  bishop  of 
Exeter  and  Norwich,  and  Walter  Balcauquall, 
chaplain  to  the  king.  Twentv-three  delegates 
cam')  from  Germany,  the  'Palatinate,  and 
Switzerland.  Among  the  Dutch  delegates 
were  31  ministers.  5  professors,  and  20  elders, 
together  with  18  commissioners  appointed  by 
the  States-General.  All  of  these  were  Calvin- 
ists,  the  3  Arminian  delegates  from  Utrecht 
being  denied  seats.  The  synod  convened  at 
Dort,  Nov.  13,  1618,  and  John  Bogermana 
was  made  President.  The  Arminians  were 
from  the  first  tre.ited  as  an  accused  party,  and 
at  the  4th  sitting  their  letiders  were  summoned 
to  appear  and  defend  themselves.  This  they 
did  at  the  32d  session,  and  Episcopius  spoke 
with  much  eloquence  and  boldness.  Then 
followed  a  protracted  discussion,  the  Armin- 
ians being  excluded,  which  did  not  close  till 
the  57th  session  (Jan.  14,  1619),  when  the  body 
began  to  frame  its  decision  on  the  5  disputed 
points,  which  was  concluded  at  the  136th  ses- 
sion and  publicly  announced  at  the  144th  (the 
last  but  one).  May  8.  The  sj-nod  unanimously, 
save  Hesse  and  England,  voted  that  the  Ar- 
minians should  be  excluded  by  the  synods  and 
classes  from  their  ecclesiastical  places,  which 
was  enforced  by  the  civil  authorities  and 
caused  a  great  deal  of  suffering.  This  pain- 
ful result  is  somewhat  extenuated  b}"-  the  fact 
that  political  issues  were  involved.  At  the 
head  of  the  Arminians  were  John  of  Barne- 
veLl  and  the  great  scholar  Grotius,  while  the 
sta  Itholder,  prince  Maurice,  headed  the  Cal- 
vinists.  The  2  former  concluded  a  12  years' 
truce  with  Spain,  which  was  regarded  as  dis- 
loyal by  the  adherents  of  Maurice,  and  hence 
they  and  their  party  were  pursued  and  driven 
out  not  only  as  heretics  but  as  unpatriotic. 
For  doctrinal  statements  see  C.\lvinism,  for 


history,  cf.  Schaff,  Creeds  of  Christeudoin    i. 
508  sqq.  T.  VV.  C. 

Do-sith-e-us,  a  Samaritan  false  Christ,  and 
founder  of  a  sect.  He  was  a  Samaritan,  and 
appeared  about  the  time  of  the  true  Messiah. 
Ilis  doctrines  seem  to  have  differed  little,  if  at 
all,  from  those  of  the  Samaritans  in  general, 
and  he  gathered  about  him  a  few  followers. 
They  still  maintained  an  existence  in  the  6th 
century.  He  is  often  confounded  with  an- 
other Do.sitheus,  teacher  of  Sadok,  the  founder 
of  the  Sadducees.  (See  Gieseler,  Church  His- 
tory.) F.  II.  F. 

Dossal,  from  the  Latin  dorsum,  "  the  back," 
is  tilt!  name  of  the  back  of  the  chasuble,  or  the 
hood  of  the  cope,  or  the  embroidered  hanging 
behind  the  altar. 

Douai,  or  Douay,  a  town  of  Northern 
France,  20  m.  s.  of  Lille.  Here  Cardinal 
Allen,  in  1568,  established  a  college  for  the 
education  of  English  Roman  Catholic  priests, 
now  transferred  to  Ushaw,  3  m.  w.  of  Dur- 
ham, Eng.  Here  also  appeared,  in  1609,  the 
Old  Testament  part  of  the  Rheims  and  Douay 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  completing  the 
Bible.     See  Bible,  p.  105. 

Dove,  a  bird  clean  by  the  Mosaic  law,  of- 
fered in  sacrifice  by  the  poor  (Lev.  xii.  6-8, 
Luke  ii.  24)  ;  a  symbol  of  simplicity  and  in- 
nocence (IIos.  vii.  11,  Matt.  x.  16)  ;  the  har- 
binger of  God's  returning  favor  after  the  flood 
(Ge^n.  viii.  11)  ;  and  the  chosen  emblem  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  (Luke  iii.  22).  T.  W.  C. 

Dow,  Lorenzo,  b.  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  Oct. 
16,  1777;  d.  at  Georgetown,  D.  C,  Feb.  2, 
1834.  He  was  "called  to  preach"  1793,  and 
was  for  a  time  a  member  of  a  Methodist  con- 
ference (1799),  but  for  the  rest  of  his  life  was 
independent  of  ecclesiastical  bonds.  His  elo- 
quence, joined  to  an  eccentricity  which 
amounted  to  insanity,  attracted  great  crowds 
to  him  in  America  and  in  Ireland,  where  he 
also  preached  on  two  visits,  but  he  was  fre- 
quently insulted  and  maltreated.  He  earnestly 
opposed  what  he  considered  Jesuitical  schem- 
ing. (See  his  Life  and  Writings,  New  York, 
1854.) 

Dowling,  John,  D.D.  (Translyvania  Uni- 
versitv,  1846),  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Pavensey,  Sus- 
sex, Eng.,  May  12.  1807  ;  d.  at  iliddletown, 
N.  Y.,  July  4,  1878.  He  was  pastor  at  Cats- 
kill, -N.  Y.,  1832-34  ;  Newport,  R.  I.,  1834- 
36  ;  New-  York,  1836-38  ;  Providence,  1838- 
44  ;  New  York,  1844-52  ;  Philadelphia,  1852- 
56  ;  New  York.  1856-68  ;  Newark,  N.  J.,  and 
again  New  York.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
History  of  liomanism,  New  York,  1845. 

Doyiology  (praising),  an  utterance  ia  honor 
of  God,  such  as  the  .song  of  the  angels  (Luke 
ii.  14),  the  close  of  the  Lord's  Pra3'er,  or  the 
Trisagion,  Holy,  holy,  etc.  (Isa.  vi.  3),  or  the 
exclamations  Paul  uses  at  the  end  of  Romans 
or  in  the  middle  of  an  arirument  (Rom.  ix.  5, 
Eph.  iii.  20,  21,  1  Tim.  i.  17).  What  is  called 
the  Greater  Doxology  is  simply  an  expansion 
of  the  angelic  hymn,  and  begins  Gloria  in 
excelsis  Deo.  It  is  of  Eastern  origin,  and  is 
first  met  with  in  Book  VII.  of  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions.    The  Lesser  Doxology,  "  Glory 


D'OYLY 


(236) 


DRUSES 


be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the 
Holy  Ghost,  as  it  was,"  etc.,  is  of  obscurer 
origin,  but  owes  its  present  form  to  tlie  con- 
troversy against  the  Arians.  Both  are  admi- 
rably adapted  to  public  worship,  and  the  use 
of  them  is  constantly  increasing  among  Chris- 
tians of  every  name.  T.  W.  C. 

D'Oyly,  George,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  18—), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Buxted,  Sussex, 
Oct.  31,  1778  ;  educated  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  ;  became  rector  of 
Lambeth,  Surrey,  and  Sundridge,  Kent,  1820  ; 
d.  at  Lambeth  (London),  Jan.  8,  1846.  He  is 
known  for  his  part  in  D'Oyly  and  Maut's 
Bible,  an  annotated  edition  of  the  Scriptures 
printed  for  the  Society  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tian Knowledge,  London,  1814,  3d  ed  ,  1818. 
(See  his  son's  memoir  in  liis  ed.  of  his  Sermons, 
1847,  2  vols.) 

Drachma.     See  Money. 

Draeseke  (dra-sek-a),  Johannes  Heinrich 
Bernhard,  German  theologian  ;  b.  at  Bruns- 
wick, Jan.  18,  1774  ;  d.  at  Potsdam,  Dec.  8, 
1819.  From  1832  to  1843  he  was  evangelical 
bishop  at  Magdeburg.  He  was  a  famous 
patriot  and  pulpit  orator,  and  published  many 
sermons. 

Dragonnades,  the  designation  for  the  forced 
conversion  of  French  Protestants,  especially 
in  the  south  of  France,  undertaken  by  Louis 
XIV.  by  dragoons,  who  were  quartered  upon 
their  houses  and  committed  many  outrages. 
The  attempt  was  a  failure. 

Dream,  a  method  of  divine  revelation,  as  to 
Jacob  (Gen.  xxviii.  12),  Joseph  (Gen.  xxxvii. 
5-10),  the  Magi  (Matt.  ii.  12).  Dreams  are  dis- 
tinguished from  visions  (Joel  ii.  28),  in  that 
the  former  occurred  during  sleep,  the  latter 
when  one  was  awake.  God  forbade  false 
dreams  (Deut.  xiii.  1-5),  and  if  a  Jew  thought 
he  had  a  significant  dream  he  was  to  consult 
the  Lord's  prophets  or  the  high-priest  in  his 
ephod.  Dream  and  vision  are  now  both  su- 
perseded by  the  Bible,  our  unerring  guide 
through  earth  to  heaven.  It  is  a  dangerous 
delusion  to  confide  in  dreams  as  an  indication 
of  the  future,  and  to  pretend  to  be  able  to  in- 
terpret them  is  both  foolish  and  inipious. 

T.  W.  C. 

Drelincourt  (dr5-lin-cour),  Charles,  Re- 
formed Church  of  France  ;  b.  at  Sedan,  July 
10,  1595  ;  studied  there  and  at  Saumur  ;  was 
pastor  at  Charenton,  near  Paris,  from  1620  till 
his  death,  Nov.  3,  1669.  His  fame  rests  on 
his  Christian's  Defence  Against  the  Fear  of 
Death  (Charenton,  1651,  41st  ed.,  Nimes, 
1819,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1675,  27th  ed., 
Liverpool,  1820),  to  which  Defoe,  in  1705, 
prefaced  his  fiction  of  Mrs.  Veal,  who  came 
from  the  dead  to  recommend  Drelincourt's 
book.  (!) 

Dress.     See  Clothing. 

Driver,  Samuel  RoUes,  D.D.  (by  decree  of 

Convocation,  1883),  Cluirch  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Southampton,  Oct.  2,  1846  ;  graduated 
B.A.  at  Oxford,  1869  ;  succeeded  Dr.  Pusey 
as  regius  professor  of  Hebrew  and  canon  of 
Christ  Church,    Oxford,    1882.     He    was    a 


member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision  Com- 
pany. He  is  the  author  of  A  Treatise  on  tlie 
Use  of  the  Tenses  in  Hebrew,  Oxford,  1874,  2d 
ed.,  1881  ;  Isaiah,  London  and  New  York, 
1888,  and  other  works. 

Droste  (dr5s-te)  zu  Vischering,  Klemens 
August,  Baron  von,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at 
Vorhelm,  near  Miinster,  Jan.  21,  1773  ;  d.  at 
Milnster.  Oct.  19,  1845.  He  became  vicar- 
general  at  Miinster,  1807  ;  assistant  bishop, 
1827  ;  archbishop  of  Cologne,  1836,  and  the 
next  year  was  imprisoned  for  determined  oppo- 
sition to  the  wishes  of  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment. In  1841  he  was  released,  but  did  not 
again  govern  the  diocese. 

Druids.  This  name  is  given  by  Julius  Cje- 
sar,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  nearly  all 
the  reliable  information  we  have  about  them, 
to  the  religious  leaders  of  the  ancient  Gauls 
and  Britons.  They  were  also  the  guardians 
and  expounders  of  the  laws.  They  had  the 
power  of  inflicting  penalties  upon  those  Avho 
refused  to  submit  to  their  decisions,  of  which 
excommimication  was  the  chief.  They  were 
not  an  hereditary  class.  They  had  a  long 
course  of  training  through  which  they  carried 
their  pupils,  •which  was  communicated  orally. 
They  made  some  use  of  the  Greek  alphabet. 
Their  president  was  elected  for  life,  and  had 
supreme  authority  among  them.  They  taught 
the  immortality  of  the  soul.  They  studied 
astrology,  the  sciences,  and  natural  theology. 
Britain  was  their  headquarters,  but  they  an- 
nually held  a  meeting  in  Gaul,  near  the  pres- 
ent Dreux.  In  some  cases  the  Gallic  Druids 
offered  human  sacrifices,  the  victims  being 
criminals.  Caesar  identifies  their  chief  deity 
with  the  Mercury  of  the  Romans.  Other 
classical  writers  add  little  to  this  account. 
The  elder  Pliny  speaks  of  their  love  for  the 
oak  and  the  mistletoe,  but  he  also  tells  a  fable 
about  the  snake's  egg.  In  modern  times 
speculation  and  theoretic  history  have  busied 
themselves  a  great  deal  about  the  subject  with 
no  results.  John  Tolaud  began  this  line  of 
study  (^4  Collection  of  Several  Pieces  of  Mr. 
John  Toland,  etc.,  London,  1726),  and  later 
Reynaud  in  France  (see  his  L  Esprit  de  la 
Oaule,  Paris,  1866)  has  maintained  that  thev 
had  as  high  conceptions  of  the  nature  of  God 
as  the  Jews  themselves.  Stonehenge,  on  Salis- 
bury Plain,  England,  has  been  called  the 
Druidical  Cathedral.  This  is  mere  specula- 
tion. (See  also  Henri  Martin,  Histoire  de 
France,  Paris.)  F.  H.  F. 

Drummond,  Henry,  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land, layman  ;  b.  at  Stirling,  Scotland,  in  the 
year  1852  ;  studied  at  Edinburgh  ;  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  and  science  in  the  Free 
Church  College,  Glasgow.  1879.  He  is  the 
author  of  JVatvral  Lain  in  the  Spiritual  World, 
London  and  New  York,  1883,  23d  ed.,  1888  ; 
Tropical  Africa,  1888. 

Druses,  the  name  of  a  people  of  peculiar 
religion,  occupying  the  ranges  of  Lebanon, 
certain  settlements  In  the  Hauran,  and  having 
scattered  members  elsewhere.  They  were 
long  independent  of  the  Turks.  The  Western 
Druses  have  about  120  villages,  and  share 
with  Christians  nearly  230  more.     Their  whole 


DRUSILLA 


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DUPP 


number  is  calculated  at  from  60,000  to  65,000 
men.  There  may  be  10,000  more  iu  the 
Hauran. 

The  Druses  properly  date  from  1019  A. d., 
■when  Hakim  became  Fatimite  caliph.  He 
was  prol)ably  insane,  and  deemed  himself  to 
be  thi,"  incarnation  of  God.  In  1040  his  pecul- 
iar claims  Avere  made  known  in  Cairo  by  a 
certain  missionary,  Darazi,  "wlio  was  in  con- 
sequence driven  out  of  the  city.  The  follow- 
ing year  Hamze,  a  felt-maker,  came  forward 
as  the  promoter  of  the  movemsut,  and  was 
more  successful.  Three  yeais  later  tiie  ex- 
cesses of  the  caliph  led  to  a  conspiracy  airainst 
him,  and  his  sister  had  him  assnssinated. 
Hamze  gave  out  that  he  had  withdrawn  from 
the  world  and  would  corac  again.  The 
Druses  are  still  living  in  the  hope  of  this  re- 
turn. 

The  creed  of  the  Druses,  or  Unitarians,  as 
they  call  themselves,  is  tirst  that  there  is  but 
one  God,  incomprehensible  by  man.  He  has 
appeared  in  10  successive  incarnations,  the 
last  of  which  was  in  Hakim.  No  further  in- 
carnation is  to  take  place.  The  first  creature 
or  emanation  of  God  is  the  Universal  Intelli- 
gence, which  is  Hamze.  lie  is  the  first  medi- 
ator between  man  and  God.  Under  him  are 
many  mediators  of  various  ranks.  The  num- 
ber of  human  souls  is  fixed.  Souls  migrate 
from  one  being  to  another,  and  descend  if 
wicked  into  animals,  even  so  low  as  the  dogs. 
The  virtuous  rise  in  the  scale.  Converts  are 
not  admitted  to  the  Druse  Church,  and  so 
their  doctrines  are  kept  as  secret  as  possible, 
thougli  their,  books  have  been  gradually 
brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  world.  To 
protect  themsels^es  they  are  permitted  to  pro- 
fess other  religions,  and  so  appear  as  Moham- 
medans. Their  own  system  of  morality  en- 
joins truthfulness,  care  for  one  another,  and 
complete  resignation  to  the  will  of  God.  They 
deny  the  propriety  of  prayer,  but  maintain 
the  freedom  of  the  will.  Their  more  impor- 
tant doctrines  are  imparted  only  to  the  initi- 
ated, and  they  have  their  secret  signs  by  which 
they  know  one  another.  Their  ockals,  or 
initiated  leaders,  maintain  a  lofty  standard  of 
living,  and  are  much  revered.  Their  worship 
is  simple,  consisting  of  the  reading  of  sacred 
writings  and  the  eating  together  of  figs  and 
raisins.  Their  houses  of  worship  are  remote 
from  the  villages  and  very  simple.  (See 
Churchill,  Mount  Lebanon:  A  'Ten  Years' 
Reudence  from  1842  to  1853,  London,  1853  ; 
G.  W.  Chasseaud,  The  Druses  of  the  Lebanon, 
London,  1854  ;  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  Expose  de 
la  Reliqion  des  Druses,  1838  ;  and  Churchill, 
The  Druses  and  Maronltes  under  the  Turkish 
Bale  from  1840  to  1860,  London,  1863.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Dru-sil'-la,  third  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa 
(Acts  xii.)  and  a  ■'voman  of  great  i)ersonal 
beauty,  who  married  the  king  of  Emesa,  but 
forsook  him  and  married  Felix,  procurator  of 
Jud;ea.  and  was  present  at  the  hearing  he 
gave  Paul  at  Cicsarea  (Acts  xxiv.  34).  Ac- 
cording to  Josepiius  she  perished  in  the  erup- 
tion of  Vesuvius  (79  a.d.).  T.  W.  C. 

Druthmar,  Christian,  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  S)th  century  ;  b.  in  Aquitaine, 


and  lived  first  as  a  monk  at  Corvey,  France. 
He  finally  went  to  Stavelo,  a  monastery  of 
the  diocese  Liege,  and  in  his  teaching  there 
prepared  a  commentary  upon  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew,  upon  which  his  fame  rests.  It  was 
written  upon  the  principles  of  grammatical 
and  historical  exegesis,  and  seems  clearly  to 
have  rejected  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 
tion,  though  this  is  disputed  by  Romanists. 
F.  H.  F. 
Dryander.     See  Enzinas. 

Dualism,  in  the  theological  sense,  is  the  as- 
sumptiou  that  there  are  two  original  and  eter- 
nal beings,  one  good,  the  other  e^  il,  between 
whom  a  constant  warfare  exists.  This  is 
found  in  its  com])letest  form  in  the  doctriritj 
of  Zoroaster.  Philosophically  the  term  de- 
notes two  contrarieties  which  cannot  be  de- 
rived one  from  the  other,  as  the  ideal  and  the 
real,  the  material  and  the  thinking  substance. 
The  opposite  of  dualism  is  monism. 

T.  W.  C. 

Du  Bourg  (dii-boor),  Anne,  Reformed 
Church  of  France,  layman  ;  b.  at  Riom  about 
1520  ;  became  a  counsellor  of  parliament  in 
Paris,  1557  ;  arrested,  June  10,  1559,  for  his 
bold  deprecation  of  religious  persecution 
spoken  before  King  Henry  II.,  he  was  con- 
demned to  death  and  was  strangled  and  then 
burned,  Dec.  33,  1559. 

Du  Cange  (dii-konzh),  Charles  du  Presne, 

Roman  Catholic,  layman  ;  b.  at  Amiens,  Dec. 
18,  1010  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Oct.  33,  1688,  where  he 
had  lived  since  1668.  His  great  and  indis- 
pensable works  are  Glossarium  ad  Scriptores 
medi(B  et  inflmw  Latinitatis  (Paris,  1678,  3 
vols.,  fol.,  n.e.  embodying  all  supplements, 
Henschel's  additions,  and  other  improve- 
ments by  L.  Favre,  Niort,  188-1^87,  10  vols. 
4°),  and  Glossarium  ad  Srrintores  viedim  et 
infimm  Greecitatis,  Lyons,  1688,  2  vols. ;  new 
ed.,  Breslau,  1890-91. 

Duchobortzi.  Duchowny  Christians.  See 
Russian  Sects. 

Duflf,  Alexander,  D.D.  (Aberdeen,  183-), 
LL.D.  (University  of  New  York  City,  1854), 
Free  Cliurch  of  Scotland,  missionar}'  ;  b.  at 
Auchnahyle,  in  the  parish  of  ]Moulin,  Perth- 
shire, April  36,  1806  ;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Feb. 
13,  1878.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Antlrews, 
went  as  first  missionary  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  to  India,  and  after  being  twice  ship- 
wrecked he  arrived  at  Calcutta,  ^lay,  1830. 
He  struck  out  on  an  original  i)ath  in  mission 
work,  for  he  opened  a  school  in  which  in- 
struction was  given  in  English,  and  Western 
learning  imparled.  This  school  he  hoped  to 
see  develop  into  a  college,  then  into  a  univer- 
sity, to  start  many  similar  schools  and  col- 
j  leges,  which  thus  would  labor  together  for  the 
destruction  of  paganism.  The  Bible  was  the 
avowed  basis  of  instruction,  and  to  be  daily 
read  in  all  classes.  This  scheme  he  had  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  carried  out  by  missions, 
and  in  a  modified  way  by  the  government. 
Tiie  spiritual  results  have  been  good.  The 
Hindoos  brought  thus  into  close  contact  with 
Western  thought  have  in  many  instances  ac- 
cepted Christianity,  the  religion  of  the  West- 


DULOINISTS 


(238) 


DUNSTAN 


em  lands.  Duff  maintained  to  liis  death  un- 
shaken confidence  in  his  own  plan.  From 
1834  to  1840  he  was  in  Scotland  advocating 
missions  and  advancing  his  schemes.  When 
the  Free  Church  was  formed  he  joined  it. 
Thus  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  the  build- 
ings and  their  apparatus  ;  but  he  appealed 
once  more  for  money  and  was  able  to  erect 
better  buildings.  In  1844  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Calcutta  Revieio,  and  its  editor 
from  1845  to  1849.  From  1849  to  1856  he  was 
in  Scotland  and  the  United  States  (1854), 
where  his  speeches  awakened  great  enthusi- 
asm. In  1863  his  failing  health  compelled 
him  to  leave  India  for  good.  On  his  way 
home  he  visited  mission  stations  in  Africa, 
the  better  to  qualify  himself  for  the  convener- 
ship  of  the  Foreign  Missions  Committee  to 
which  he  had  been  appointed.  He  raised 
£10,000  for  the  endowment  of  a  missionary 
chair  in  Xew  College,  Edinburgli,  and  filled 
it  himself,  although  nothing  was  farther  from 
his  thoughts  than  doing  so  while  raising  the 
money,  from  1867  till  his  death.  He  managed 
the  sending  out  of  the  Free  Church  mission  to 
Lake  Nyassa  ;  co-operated  in  establishing  the 
Gordon  Memorial  Mission  in  Natal.  In  1851 
and  again  in  1873,  he  was  called  to  the  moder- 
ator's chair.  He  tried  unsuccessfully  to  pro- 
mote union  between  the  Free,  United  Pres- 
byterian, Reformed  Presbyterian,  and  English 
Presbyterian  churches,  but  successfully  to 
form  the  Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches 
(q.v.).  He  left  an  endowment  for  a  lecture- 
ship on  missions.  Among  his  publications 
are :  Missions  the  Chief  End  of  the  Christian 
Church,  London,  1839  ;  Missionary  Addresses, 
1835-37-39,  London,  1850.  (See  his  life  by 
George  Smith,  London,  1879,  2  vols.,  n.e., 
1881,  1  vol.,  and  by  Thomas  Smith,  London 
and  New  York,  1883.) 

Dulcinists.     See  Dolcino. 

Dulia.     See  Adoration. 

Dumoulin  (dii-moo-lan),  Charles,  Reformed 
Church  of  France,  layman  ;  b.  in  Paris, 
1500  ;  d.  there,  Dec.  27,  1566.  He  was  a 
famous  lawyer,  whose  wandering  life  was  a 
troubled  one,  owing,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the 
persecutions  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  on 
the  other  to  the  suspicions  of  the  Reformed 
ministers.  His  most  famous  book  is  his  com- 
mentary on  the  edict  of  Henry  II.  against  cer- 
tain abuses  of  the  Roman  curia  (Latin,  Lyons, 
1552,  French,  1554.  See  his  Opera,  Paris, 
1612,  3  vols.) 

Dumoulin       (Molina;us),      Pierre,      D.D. 

(Cambridge,  1615),  Reformed  Church  of 
France  ;  b.  in  the  chateau  of  Buhy  at  Vexin, 
near  Mantes,  on  the  Norman  boundary,  Oct. 
16,  1568  ;  d.  at  Sedan,  March  10,  1658.  After 
a  somewhat  adventurous  youth  he  became 
preacher  at  Charenton,  near  Paris,  1599,  and 
entered  upon  a  career  of  great  prominence  and 
honor  as  a  vigorous  and  learned  defender  of 
his  faith.  In  1615  he  visited  England  by  in- 
vitation of  King  James  I.  In  1621  he  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Sedan.  His  best  book 
is  his  Buckler  of  the  Faith  (Charenton,  1617, 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1620,  2  parts.  See  life 
by  G.  Gory,  Paris,  1889.) 


Duncan,  John,  LL.D.  (Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  1840),  Free  Church  of  Scotland  ; 
b.  at  Gilcomston,  near  Aberdeen,  1796  ;  d. 
in  Edinburgh,  Saturday,  Feb.  26,  1870.  He 
studied  at  Marischal  College,  and  in  the  Seces- 
sion and  then  in  Established  Church  divinity 
halls  ;  became  missionary  to  the  Jews  at  Pesth, 
1840  :  professor  of  Oriental  languages.  New 
College  (Free  Church),  Edinburgh,  1843.  He 
could  not  teach,  but  he  could  pray  and  raise 
the  students  up  to  a  higher  plane  of  life,  for 
he  had  a  genius  for  piety.  His  learning  was 
great  and  ready.  (See  his  life  by  David 
Brown,  Edinburgh,  1872,  and  his  Colloquia 
feripatetica,  1870,  5th  ed.,  1879.) 

Dunin    (du-neen),     Martin     von,    Roman 

Catholic  ;  b.  at  Wal,  Poland,  Nov.  11,  1774  ; 
d.  at  Posen,  Dec.  26,  1842,  where  he  had  been 
archbishop  since  1831.  He  was  imprisoned 
(1839-40)  for  refusing  to  sanction  mixed  mar- 
riages or  allow  his  clergy  to  officiate  at  them, 
but  he  afterward  yielded  the  point  on  condi- 
tion that  the  children  of  such  should  be 
brought  up  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Dunkards,  Dunkers.     See  Baptists,  p.  83. 

Duns  Scotus,  Johannes,  founder  of  the 
"  Scotist"  school  of  scholasticism,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  "Thomist";  b.  1260  (others, 
1274),  at  Dunstane,  Northumberland  (others 
in  Duns,  Scotland,  or  even  in  Ireland)  ;  d.  at 
Cologne,  1308.  He  entered  the  Franciscan 
order,  became  a  popular  lecturer  in  the  Uni- 
versity at  Oxford,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
had  3000  hearers,  transferred  himself  to  Paris 
in  1301,  where  in  1305  he  obtained  the  degree 
of  Doctor  upon  a  disputation  with  the  Do- 
minicans upon  the  immaculate  conception  of 
Mary,  which  was  thereby  brought  forward 
as  a  doctrine,  and  was  made  the  condition  of 
promotions  in  that  university.  His  career  in 
Cologne  was  verj^  brief.  As  a  theologian 
Scotus'  strength  lay  more  in  the  critical  ele- 
ment than  in  the  positive.  As  in  psychology 
he  emphasized  the  freedom  of  the  will,  so  in 
the  doctrine  of  God  he  emphasized  the  ele- 
ment of  freedom  more  than  that  of  necessity. 
The  wull  of  God  is  unconditioned,  and  from 
his  free  causality  the  world  proceeds.  Still, 
the  creation  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul 
are  not  truths  which  can  be  derived  from  the 
reason.  This  can  only  defend  them  with 
probable  arguments  ;  the  proof  for  them  is  to 
be  obtained  from  revelation  alone.  Yet  he 
does  not  assume  that  there  is  an  irreconcilable 
conflict  between  faith  and  reason.  In  phil- 
osophy he  was  less  under  the  influence  of 
Aristotle  than  many  scholastics,  and  we  find 
traces  of  Platonic  and  Neo-Platonic  ideas  in 
his  works.  His  collected  works  were  pub- 
lished in  1639.  (Sec  Karl  Werner,  Sprachlogik 
des  Scotus,  Vienna,  1877,  and  J.  D.  S.,  1881.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Dunstan,  archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  b. 
near  Glastonbury,  Eng.,  925  ;  d.  May  18, 
988.  Canonized  as  a  saint,  his  day  is  May  19. 
He  began  his  public  career  at  an  early  age, 
being  made  abbot  of  Glastonbury,  according 
to  the  report,  in  943.  Here  he  introduced  the 
rule  of  Benedict.  He  acquired  great  influ- 
ence in  public  matters,  and  though  once  ban- 


DUPANLOUP 


(239) 


DUTCH 


ished,  was  advanced  successively  to  the  sees 
of  Bradford,  Worcester,  London  (958),  and 
Canterbury  (959).  Ke  was  active  in  cliurch 
reforms,  particularly  in  reforming  tlie  mon- 
asteries. "  >.  11.  F. 

Dupauloup  (dii-pon-loo),  Felix  Antoine 
Philibert,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  St.  Felix, 
Savo}',  Jan.  3.  1802  ;  d.  attheC;istle  Lacombe, 
near  Grenoble,  Oct.  11,  1878.  He  studied  at 
Paris  ;  became  priest,  1825  ;  vicar-general  of 
Paris,  1888  ;  professor  of  the  Sorbonnc  ; 
bishop  of  Orleans,  1849.  He  was  vigorouslj^ 
opposed  to  the  papal  infallibility  dogma,  but 
accepted  it.  (See  his  life  by  F.  Lagrange, 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1885,  2  vols.) 

Du  Perron  (dii  pa-rOn),  Jacques  Davy- 
Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Bern,  Switzerland,  of 
Huguenot  parents,  1559  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Sept.  5, 
1618.  He  entered  the  Roman  Church,  1578, 
and  devoted  himself  to  converting  Protestants, 
liis  most  notable  convert  being  King  Henry 
IV.,  1593.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Ei-reaux,  1595  ;  cardinal,  1604  ;  archbishop 
of  Sens  and  grand  almoner  of  France,  1606. 
(See  his  life  by  Feret,  Paris,  1876.) 

Dupin  (dii-pan),  Louis  Sllies,  Jansenist  ; 
b.  at  Paris,  June  17,  1657  ;  d.  there,  June  6, 
1719.  He  was  educated  at  Paris  ;  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  College  of 
France  there,  1686,  but  for  embracing  Jansen- 
ism was  removed  and  banished  to  Chateller- 
ault,  1703,  and  although  recalled  not  restored 
to  his  chair.  He  took  prominent  part  in  the 
attempted  union  between  the  Anglican  and 
Gallican  churches,  and  between  the  Greek 
and  Roman.  His  great  work  was  A  New 
Hintorfi  of  Ecclesiastical  Writers  (orig.  French, 
Noumlle  hibliotheque  des  auteurs  ecclesinstiq^tes, 
Paris,  1686-1714,  47  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1690-1715, 
19  vols.,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1693-1707,  17 
vols,  in  7,  3d  ed.,  Dublin,  1722-24,  3  vols.). 

Du  Plessis-Mornay.  See  Mornay,  Phi- 
lippe DK. 

Durand  of  St.  Pour9ain,  philosopher  and 
theologian  of  the  14th  century  ;  b.  near  tlie 
end  of  the  13th  century  at  St.  Pourgain,  in 
Auvergne,  Fratice  ;  d.  "at  Meaux,  Sept.  10, 
1334.  He  entered  the  Dominican  order  at  an 
early  age  at  Clermont,  went  subsequently  to 
Paris,  and  taught  theologv  in  the  University 
tliere  about  1312.  In  1318  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Annecy,  and  in  1326  bishop  of 
Meaux.  In  1331  he  was  engaged  in  a  contest 
with  Pope  John  XXII.  on  the  beatitic  vis- 
ion. 

His  principal  writing  is  his  commentary 
upon  tlie  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard.  Dur- 
and here  exliibits  himself  as  a  man  of  inde- 
pendcnee,  who  relies  upon  the  utterances  of 
the  reason.  He  was  at  first  a  Tiiomist,  but 
in  his  tiieory  of  knowledge  begins  with  tlie 
doctrine  of 'Albert  the  Great  (q.v.),  that  the 
unirersals  are  before,  in,  and  after  the  thing. 
God  .sees  the  universal  and  the  particular  in 
one  mental  intuition.  Man  sees  only  the  in- 
dividual, and  arrives  at  the  general  by  his 
reason.  Hence  he  has  no  a  priori  knowledge. 
Durand  also  separates  sharplv  between  the 
realms  of  knowledge  and  of  fa'ith.  Tliev  are 
incommensurable  magnitudes.      Faith  "rests 


solely  upon  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
the  Roman  Church  is  the  only  authorized  in- 
terpreter of  these.  Theology  is  therefore  not 
a  science,  because  nothing  in  it  is  iu  itself 
certain.  Even  its  subordinate  principles, 
since  they  go  back  to  the  first  principles  which 
are  founded  upon  authority,  are  not  scientific. 
It  has,  in  fact,  nothing  to  do  with  knowing, 
but  only  with  acting.  We  arc  not  concerned 
with  God  as  he  is  in  himself,  but  only 
with  such  knowledge  as  shall  enable  us 
to  act  rightly.  Thus  the  Thomist  system 
is  completely  reversed.  As  to  the  sacrament, 
Durand  taught  that  there  was  no  true  trau- 
substantiation.  (See  J.  Launoy,  Syllabus  ra- 
tionum,  quibns  Durandi  causa,  etc.,  0pp.  i. 
[written  in  1636]  ;  Herzog,  Realenci/clopaedic, 
in.,  778.)  F.  II.  F. 

Durbin,  John  Price,  D.D.  (  ),  LL.D. 

(  ),  Methodist  ;  b.  in  Bourbon  County, 

Ky.,  in  1800  ;  d.  in  New  York  City,  Oct.  17. 
1876.  He  entered  the  M.  E.  ministry  in  1819  ; 
graduated  at  Cincinnati  College,  1825  ;  be- 
came professor  of  languages,  Augusta  Col- 
lege, Ky.  ;  was  president  of  Dickinson  Col- 
lege, Carlisle,  Pa. ,  1834-45  ;  secretary  of  the 
Missionary  Society,  1850-72.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished for  eloquence  and  executive  ability. 
He  did  much  for  the  increase  of  interest  iu 
and  expenditure  for  foreign  missions  by  his 
denomination.  His  Observations  on  his  travels 
in  Europe  (New  York,  1844,  2  vols.),  and  in 
Egypt,  Palestine.  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor 
(1845,  2  vols.)  were  very  popular.  (See  life  by 
J.  A.  Roche,  New  York,  1889.) 

Durham,  The  See  of,  a  city  of  England, 
14  m.  s.  of  Newcastle,  was  founded  in  995  by 
Bishop  Ealdhun,  who  fled  thither  from  Ches- 
ter-le-Street  before  the  Danes.  William  the 
Conqueror  made  the  prelate  of  Durham  a 
prince-bishop,  and  the  see  soon  became  one 
of  the  richest  in  England,  The  cathedral, 
containing  the  remains  of  St.  Cuthbert  and  of 
Beda,  was  built  1093-1480.  Under  Henry 
VIII.  the  see  lost  much  of  its  power  and  still 
more  of  its  wealth. 

Durie,  or  Dury,  John,  Protestant  ;  b.  at 
Edinburgh,  1596  ;  d.  at  Cassel,  Germany, 
Sept.  26,  1680.  He  was  educated  at  Sedan, 
France,  and  Ley  den  ;  lived  most  of  his  life 
on  the  Continent,  where  he  travelled  a  great 
deal,  and  in  every  place  he  was— in  the  courts 
of  kings  and  other  rulers,  in  church  assemblies 
and  congregations,  in  private  and  public— he 
ceased  not  to  press  the  cause  of  church  union. 
He  was  chaplain  to  Charles  I.  and  to  Mary 
princess  of  Orange  ;  a  member  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly  of  Divines,  and  in  other 
offices.  But  his  numerous  publications,  his 
correspondence,  his  colloquies,  and  his  jour- 
neyings,  all  had  ecclesiastical  union  for  their 
object.  He  strove  first  to  unite  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  churches  ;  then  in  liis  own  country 
the  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists.  At 
times  he  wasgrcatlveneouratred.  ashis.schemes 
met  the  favor  of  dislingnishcd  persons,  but  he 
accomplished  notliiiiLr  visilile  with  all  his 
efforts.     (See  Diet.  Xnf.  lUog.  s.v.) 

Dutch  Reformed  Church.  See  Refoumed 
Cuuucu. 


DUTIES 


(240) 


EASTER 


Duties,  Conflict  of,  a  misnomer  which  has 
occupied  a  large  phice  in  books  of  casuistry, 
hut  really  has  no  existence,  for  duties  cannot 
clash.  The  conflict  referred  to  occurs  only  in 
the  mind  of  one  at  a  loss  to  determine  what 
his  duty  in  a  given  case  is.  T.  W.  C. 

Dwight,  Timothy,  D.D.  (Chicago  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  111.,  1869),  LL.D.  (Harvard, 
1886),Congregationalist;  b.  at  Norwich, Conn., 
Nov.  16,  1828  ;  graduated  at  Yale  College, 
1849  ;  studied  at  the  Yale  Divinity  School, 
and  became  professor  of  sacred  literature  in 
it,  1858  ;  president  of  Yale  College,  1886.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  New  Testament  Revision 
Company. 

Dykes,  James  Oswald,  D.D.  (Edinburgh, 
187B),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Port  Glasgow,  near 
Greenock,  Scotland,  Aug.  14,  1885  ;  gradu- 
ated M.A.  at  Edinburgh  University,  1854  ; 
studied  theology  at  New  College,  Edinburgh, 
1854-58,  and  at  Heidelberg  and  Erlangen, 
1856  ;  became  pastor  at  East  Kilbride,  County 
Lanark,  Scotland,  1859  :  co-pastor  of  Free  St. 
George's,  Edinburgh,  1861  ;  in  Australia  for 
health's  sake,  1864-67  ;  pastor  of  Regent's 
Square  Presbyterian  Church,  Loudon,  1869  ; 
principal  of  English  Presbyterian  Theological 
College,  London,  1889.  He  is  the  author  of 
From  Jerusalem  to  Antioch,  London,  1875,  2d 
ed.,  1880  ;  Abraham,  1877,  3d  ed.,  1878  ;  The 
Manifesto  of  the  King,  an  Exposition  of  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  1881  (a  n.e.  of  3  earlier 
volumes);  The  Law  of  the  Ten  Words,  1884; 
The  Gospel  According  to  Paul,  1888,  and  other 
volumes. 


E. 


Eadie,  John,  D.D.  (St.  Andrews,  1850), 
LL.D.  (Glasgow,  1844),  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Alva,  Stirlingshire, 
May  9,  1810  ;  d.  iu  Glasgow,  Saturday,  June 
3,  1876.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Glasgow,  and  in  divinity  at  the  Hall  of  the 
Secession  Church,  in  the  same  city  ;  was 
licensed,  March  24,  1835  ;  called,  June  24, 
and  ordained,  Sept.  24,  pastor  of  the  Cam- 
bridge Street,  United  Secession,  Church,  Glas- 
gow— a  remarkably  short  probationership. 
He  remained  in  this  position  till  1863,  when, 
with  a  portion  of  the  congregation  (68  mem- 
bers), he  began  the  Lansdowne  church,  in  the 
same  city,  and  ministered  to  it  till  his  death. 
In  1843  he  became  professor  of  biblical  litera- 
ture in  the  United  Secession  Divinity  Hall, 
Edinburgh.  He  thus  did  double  duty,  and  in 
two  places,  but  his  professorial  work  extended 
over  only  two  months  of  the  year.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  New  Testament  Revision  Com- 
pany. He  was  a  born  expositor  of  Scripture, 
and  published  commentaries  on  the  Greek 
text  of  Ephesians  (London,  1854),  Colossians 
(1856,  2d  ed.,  1884),  Philippians  (1857,  2d  ed., 
1884),  Galatians  (1869),  First  Thessalouians 
(1877).  He  edited  (and  condensed)  Cruden's 
Concordance,  1839  ;  A  Biblical  Cyclopaedia, 
1849,  25th  ed.,  1888;  Classified  Bible:  an 
Analyticnl  Concordance  to  Holy  Scripture, 
185G,'6th  ed.  ;  Ecclesiastical  Cyciopmdia,  1862, 
6th  ed.,  and  wrote  Life  of  John  Jvitto,  Edin- 


burgh, 1857  ;  The  English  Bible :  an.  External 
and  Critical  History  of,  London,  1876,  2  vols. 
(a  valuable  book).  (See  his  life  bv  James 
Brown,  London,  1878.) 

Eadmer,  a  monk  of  Canterbury,  d.  1124(?)  ; 
author  of  the  contemporary  life  of  Anselm 
(q.v.),  published  first  at  Antwerp,  1551  ;  and 
of  the  excellent  Historia  Novorum,  a  history 
of  England  from  the  Conquest  till  1122  (best 
ed.  of  both  by  Rule  in  the  Rolls  series,  Lon- 
don, 1884),  and  other  pieces. 

Eadmund,  St.,  b.  at  Abingdon,  51  m.  w.n.w. 
of  London,  Nov.  20,  1170(?),  of  Reinald  and 
Mabel  Rich  ;  d.  at  Soisy,  Eastern  France, 
Nov.  16,  1240.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford 
and  Paris  (1185-90)  ;  taught  in  both  places 
first  secular,  then  sacred  learning  ;  preached 
the  crusade  over  a  great  part  of  England, 
1227,  and  won  such  fame  that  iu  1234  he  was 
elected  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  had  a 
stormy  time  of  it,  opposed  by  king,  monks, 
and  the  pope— all  because  he  took  the  side  of 
the  people.  At  last,  in  despair,  he  resigned  in 
the  summer  of  1240  and  entered  the  Cistercian 
monastery  at  Pontignj',  in  Champagne, 
France,  but  very  soon  after  removed  to  that 
at  Soisy,  not  far  off,  where  he  died.  He  was 
an  ascetic  of  an  extreme  type,  but  generous, 
kind-hearted,  humble,  and  pure,  and  justly 
entitled  to  sainthood.  He  was  canonized  after 
careful  examination,  1247.  (See  Butler,  Lives 
of  Saints,  under  Nov.  20 ;  Hook's  Arch- 
bisJiops,  vol.  iii.) 

East,  Praying  toward,  a  custom  of  the 
early  church,  as  appears  from  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Tertullian,  and  Augustine.  It  made 
some  charge  Christians  with  being  sun-wor- 
shippers, but  the  reason  was  that  the  rising 
sun  was  a  type  of  the  new  life.  The  Jews  iu 
exile  turned  toward  Jerusalem  in  prayer  (Dan. 
vi.  10),  the  Moslems  toward  Mecca,  their  holy 
city.  T.  W.  C. 

Easter,  the  church  festival  celebrated  in 
memory  of  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord  by 
the  Greek,  Roman  Catholic,  Episcopal,  and 
Lutheran  churches,  and  now  also  by  many  of 
the  non-liturgical  churches,  which  otherwise 
do  not  regard  the  church-year.  The  English 
Easter  and  the  German  Ostern  are  derived 
from  the  Saxon  Eastra  or  Eostra,  the  goddess 
of  spring  ;  while  iu  the  Romanic  languages,  the 
Italian  Pasqua,  the  French  Pdques,  and  in  the 
Scandinavian,  the  Danish  Paaske,  the  name 
has  come  directly  tlirough  the  Latin  Pascha, 
and  the  Greek  7r«cr;fa,  from  the  Hebrew  ;j)e.sacA, 
the  passover  of  the  Jews.  Some  features  of 
its  popular  celebration,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Easter-egg,  are  of  Teutonic  origin  ;  others,  as, 
for  instance,  the  Easter-lamb,  of  Jewish  ;  but, 
generally  speaking,  no  other  Christian  festival 
is  so  thoroughly  an  outgrowth  of  the  Chris- 
tian spirit.  "The  date  of  its  observance,  such 
as  it  has  been  fixed  by  the  Council  of  Nice, 
325,  is  the  first  Sunday  after  llie  first  full 
moon  after  the  vernal  equinox.  As  the  vernal 
equinox  invariably  falls  on  March  21,  the  first 
full  moon  after  the  equinox  may  occur  in  the 
night  between  March  21  and  March  22,  and 
the  first  Sunday  after  the  full  moon  may  be 
the  next  day.     Thus  March  22  is  the  earliest 


EASTERN 


(241) 


ECCLESIASTES 


day  on  which  Easter  can  fall.  There  may, 
however,  pass  a  whole  lunar  month,  minus 
one  clay,  after  the  equinox  before  the  first  full 
moon  occurs,  and  Hgain,  there  may  pass  a 
wliole  week,  minus  one  day,  after  the  first 
full  moon  before  a  Sunday  comes  round,  and 
thus  Easter  may  fall  as  late  as  April  25.  The 
date  of  its  observance  must  consequently  vary 
froui  j'ear  to  year,  though  within  the  above 
terms,  and  with  it  will  also  vary  those  other 
church  festivals  which  are  depentlent  upon 
it.  The  stipulations  of  the  Council  of  Nice, 
however,  were  the  result  of  a  protracted 
controversy,  the  so-called  Paschal-Controver- 
sies, which  see. 

Eastern  Church.    See  Greek  Chuucii. 

E'-bal  (stone),  a  mountain  in  Ephraim  over 
against  Mt.  Gerizim,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  valley  500  yards  wide,  in  which  is  the 
town  of  Shechem".  From  Ebal  the  curses  of 
the  law  were  pronounced  (Deut.  xxvii.  13). 
T.  W.  C. 

Ebbo,  archbishop  of  Rheims  ;  b.  786  ;  d. 
March  20,  851.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Saxon 
serf,  but  was  made  a  freeman  by  Charle- 
magne ;  educated  in  a  cloister  school  as  the 
foster-brother  of  Louis  the  Pious  ;  ordained 
priest,  and  in  81G  appointed  archbishop  of 
Rheims.  In  822  he  was  put  at  the  head  of  the 
Danish  mission  and  made  2  visits  to  Den- 
mark. He  also  succeeded  in  having  Harold 
Klak  baptized  at  Mayence  in  826.  Neverthe- 
less, his  mission  work  was  nothing  but  politi- 
cal intrigue,  and  the  same  character  bears  his 
work  at  liome.  He  deserted  Louis  the  Pious 
in  a  most  ungrateful  manner  and  joined  his 
rebellious  sons.  When  the  emperor  again  re- 
turned to  power  he  sought  to  be  reconciled  to 
him,  but  was  thrown  into  a  dungeon  and  re- 
t-iined  there  for  several  years.  Reinstated  by 
Lothair,  he  was  again  expelled  by  Charles, 
and  he  died  in  ob'scurity  in  the  diocese  of 
Hildesheim,  where  Louis  the  German  had 
given  him  a  refuge.  He  is  by  some  considered 
to  have  had  a  principal  part  in  the  authorship 
of  tlie  Pseudo-Isidorean  Decretals.       C.  P. 

Ebed  Jesu,  surnamed  Bar  Brika,  "  Son  of 
the  Blessed,"  a  Nestorian  theologian,  was  first 
bishop  of  Sinshar,  in  Arabia,  and  afterward 
metropolitan  of  Nesebis,  or  Loba,  in  Armenia, 
where  he  died  in  1318.  His  dogmatical  works 
on  the  incarnation  of  the  Logos,  the  sacra- 
ments, etc.,  have  been  edited  in  Syriac  and 
Litin  by  A.  Mai,  and  are  found  in  Script. 
Vit.,  X.,  317-66  ;  ins  poetical  works  are  found 
in  Assemanni,  Bibl.  Or.,  iii.,  1,  p.  325  sqq. 

Ebionites  (Hebrew,  poor),  a  name  first  ap- 
plied to  the  early  Christians  of  Jerusalem  be- 
cause of  tlieir  poverty.  Then  it  was  applied 
to  Jews  who  had  become  Christians.  Wlien 
certain  Jewish  Christians  .separated  themselves 
from  the  general  movement  of  the  church, 
and  either  laid  an  undue  or  an  exclusive  im- 
portance upon  the  observances  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  they  in  particular  received  this  name. 
Discussions  upon  Ebionitism  have  been  very 
prominent  in  connection  witli  the  attempts  of 
the  school  of  Baur  to  explain  the  earlv  Chris 
tian  history  according  to  the  scheme  of  Hegel. 


But  it  is  evident  that  altogether  too  much  im- 
portance has  been  attached  to  the  Ebionites  ; 
that  the  Jewish  elements  in  Christianity  which 
have  had  a  great  influence  upon  it  are  the 
legitimate  outcome  of  the  fact  that  Cliristi- 
anity  is  founded  upon  Judaism  ;  that  the  he- 
retical Jewish  Christianity  which  received  the 
name  Ebionitism  soon  separated  itself,  and 
never  had  any  appreciable  influence  upon  the 
development  of  the  church.  (See  Ritschl, 
Ent.stcJnuKi  (Jrr  ultkafhoUxrhcn  Kirche,  p.  152 
If.,  and  llarnack,  Doginenycschichte,  i.,  215-40.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Ebrard  (Johannes  Heinrich),  August, 
Ph.D.  (Erlangen,  1841),  Lie.  Tlieol.  (Erlangen, 
1842),  D.D.  (Basel,  1847)  ;  Reformed  ;  b.  at 
Erlangen,  Jan.  18,  1818  ;  d.  there,  July  23, 
1888.  He  studied  at  Erlangen  and  Berlin  ; 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Ziirich,  1844-47  ; 
at  Erlangen,  1847-61,  and  since  1875  was  pas- 
tor of  tlie  French  Reformed  church  there. 
He  wrote  many  literary  works  under  the 
pseudonyms  Gottfried  Flammbcrg,  Christian 
Deutsch,  Sigmund  Sturm,  or  Schliemann,  d.j., 
and  many  theological  works  vmder  his  projier 
name,  of  which  may  be  mentioned  The  Gospel 
History  (Erlangen,  1842,  3d  ed.,  1868,  Eng. 
trans.,  Edinburgh,  1863)  ;  Die  iroschottisehe 
Missionskirche,  Giitersloh,  1873  ;  Apolocjetics 
(1874-75,  2  parts,  2d  ed.,  1st  part,  1878,  2d 
part,  1881,  Eng.  trans.,  1886-87,  3  vols.); 
Bonifntius,  der  Zerstorer  des  columbanisclien 
Kirchentums  auf  dem  Festlarule,  1882  ;  Lebens- 
fuhrungen,  1888. 

Ec-bat'-a-na,  the  capital  of  Media,  once 
mentioned  in  tlie  Bible  (Ezra  vi.  2),  often  in 
the  Apocrypha  (cf.  especially  Judith  i.  1  sqq.), 
and  in  Greek  authors  (cf .  especially  Herodotus, 
i.  98,  99)  ;  the  modern  Hamadan,  in  Persia, 
165  m.  s.w.  of  Teheran.  It  -w^as  the  Persian 
royal  summer  residence.  There  Cyrus'  decree 
concerning  the  building  of  the  temple  was 
found.  The  tombs  of  Mordecai  and  Esther 
are  now  shown  there. 

Ecgberht.     See  Egbert. 

Ecce  Homo  {"  Beliold  tlw,  man'')  is  the 
Latin  rendering  in  the  Vidgate  of  the  Greek 
words  by  whicii,  in  John  xix.  5,  Pilate  presents 
Jesus  to  the  people,  and  has  afterward  become 
a  technical  term  applied  to  pictures  of  Christ 
as  the  suffering  Saviour. 

Ecclesiastes,  the  Greek  name  of  a  book 
the  autiior  of  which  calls  himself  Koheleth, 
one  who  gathers  an  assembly,  or,  as  many 
think,  who  addresses  such  an  a.s.sembly,  i.e., 
is  a  preacher.  Its  canonical  authority  is  un- 
disputed. Its  author  was  cither  Solomon,  as 
tradition  declares,  or  some  later  inspired  writer 
wdio  availed  himself  of  his  large  and  varied 
experiimce  and  spoke  as  in  his  name.  The 
chief  reason  for  the  latter  opinion  is  the  style 
of  the  book,  in  which  occur  words  that  are 
not  iis;'d  at  all  in  the  earlier  books  of  Scrip- 
ture, others  that  occur  there  rarelv',  and  others 
that  are  found  only  in  the  Chaldee  of  Ezra 
and  Daniel  ;  and  besiiles,  the  prevalent  con- 
struction is  dilTerent  from  cla.ssic  Hebrew  as 
to  the  use  of  participles,  the  relative,  and 
what  is  known  n^  viir  ronrersivc.  Some  say, 
however  that  these  peculiarities  may  be  due 


ECCLESIASTICAL 


(242) 


ECKHART 


to  Solomon's  long  intercourse  -5\ith  foreigners, 
and  that  tlie  Clialdaisms  may  be  fragments 
preserved  from  the  common  tongue  of  which 
the  Semitic  hinguages  were  offshoots.  Tlie 
book  is  discursive  and  apothegmatic,  and  the 
precise  course  of  the  thought  is  not  easily  as- 
certained, but  the  chief  theme  is  very  appar- 
ent— viz.,  the  vanity  of  all  human  pursuits 
apart  from  the  chief  end  of  life,  and  the  con- 
sequent wisdom  of  making  the  fear  of  God 
and  the  keeping  of  his  commandments  our 
main  aim.  To  reach  this  it  roams  over  a  wide 
tield  of  experience  and  observation,  not  ob- 
serving the  logical  divisions  of  a  philosophical 
treatise,  at  times  introducing  a  string  of  prov- 
erbs (vii.  1-22,  X.  1-20),  now  apparently  a 
pessimist,  again  an  optimist,  but  never  a 
sceptic,  often  observing  the  parallelism  pecul- 
iar to  poetry  and  again  relapsing  into  prose. 
The  writer  records  with  entire  freedom  the 
successive  moods,  whether  sad  or  genial, 
through  which  he  passes,  and  sometimes  there 
are  utterances  which  one  is  perplexed  to  un- 
derstand or  to  reconcile  with  other  portions 
of  Holy  Writ,  but  this  only  shows  that  we  are 
not  to  deduce  opinions  from  detached  portions 
or  sentiments,  but  to  weigh  the  general  scope 
and  combined  force  of  the  whole.  The  book, 
with  all  its  peculiarities  and  difficulties,  is  a 
constituent  part  of  Scripture,  and  its  absence 
would  leave  a  void  in  the  sacred  literature  in- 
tended to  instruct  and  guide  man  amid  the 
varied  phases  of  human  life.  Lit.  Tayler 
Lewis  in  Lange  ;  Perowne  in  Camb.  Bible  for 
Schools.  T.  W.  C. 

Ecclesiastical  History.  See  Church  His- 
tory. 

Ecclesiastical  Polity.  See  Church  Pol- 
ity. 

Ecclesiasticus.    See  Pseudepigrapha. 

Eck,  Johann,  Mayer  von,  D.D.  (Freiburg, 
lolO),  Roman  Catholic  opponent  of  the  Refor- 
mation ;  b.  at  Eck,  Swabia,  Nov.  13,  1486  ; 
d.  at  Ingolstadt,  Bavaria,  Feb.  10,  1543.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg  philosoph}"  and  classics, 
at  Tubingen  theology  and  philosophy,  and  at 
Freiburg  in  Breisgau,  law.  After  such  a 
preparation  he  was  ordained  a  priest  (1508), 
and  became  professor  of  theology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Ingolstadt,  1510.  He  quickly  won 
a  wide  reputation  for  scholastic  learning,  but 
especially  for  dialectical  skill  and  readiness. 
Accordingly  when  Luther  issued  liis  famous 
95  theses  he  entered  the  lists  against  him 
(March,  1518)  by  his  ms.  book  Ohelian  ("  obe- 
lisci"  were  marks  made  in  books  by  Origen  in 
his  Hexapla,  which  called  attention  to  sus- 
picious words  or  passages,  hence  the  title  of 
Eck's  book  was  well  chosen).  Luther  denom- 
inated his  reply  Asferisci,  a  title  borrowed  also 
from  Origen's  custom.  He  and  Eck  had  been 
friends,  and  Eck's  tone  grieved  him  greatly. 
At  the  Leipzig  Disputation  (June  27-July  16, 
1519)  with  Karlstadt  and  Luther  he  argued  on 
the  Catholic  side,  and  with  the  effect  that 
Duke  George  of  Saxony  was  confirmed  in  his 
opposition  to  the  Reformation,  while  Luther 
was  damaged  in  the  opinion  of  the  hearers  bj^ 
being  compelled  to  confess  sympathy  with 
Hus.    From  that  time  on  Eck  devoted  himself 


to  opposing  the  Reformation.  He  had  meagre 
success.  It  is  true  that  he  induced  Leo  X.  to 
issue  a  bull  against  Luther,  but  he  hud  great 
labor  in  getting  it  read,  although  he  returned 
with  it  to  Germany  with  the  authority  of 
papal  nuncio.  He  found  himself  a  butt  of 
lidicule,  and  was  compelled  to  flee  from  place 
to  place  to  a^oid  being  mobbed.  His  vanitv, 
however,  sustained  him,  and  he  had  some- 
thing to  boast  of  as  the  great  champion  of  the 
old  faith.  In  1521  and  1523  he  visited  Rome 
to  solicit  help  in  opposing  Protestantism.  In 
1524  he  took  part  in  the  Regensburg  conven- 
tion ;  in  1525  went  to  the  Netherlands,  and 
then  to  England,  where  he  was  pleasantly  re- 
ceived by  Henry  VIII.  In  1526  he  appeared 
against  (Ecolampadius  at  the  Baden  (im  Aar- 
gau)  conference.  May  21  to  June  8.  He  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  reply  to  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  (1530),  and  prevented  the 
Roman  Catholic  princes  from  accepting  the 
Regensburg  Interim  of  1541.  He  was  indeed 
indefatigable  in  his  opposition  to  Protestant- 
ism, and  used  every  available  means.  He  had 
ready  wnt  and  considerable  learning,  which  he 
well  knew  how  to  use.  Although  grossly 
slandered,  there  is  nothing  proved  again.st  his 
character.  His  vanity,  his  partisanship  were 
faults,  but  easily  forgiven.  His  writings  in- 
clude an  elaborate  defence  of  the  Roman 
papacy,  the  principal  theme  of  the  Leipzig 
Disputation  {De  pmnatu  Petri  adversns  Lnd- 
derum,  1520) ;  a  manual  of  apologetics  against 
Luther  {Enchiridion  locorum  comnmnium  ad- 
verms  Lutheriim,  1525,  46th  ed.,  1576),  and  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  German,  Ingol- 
stadt, 1537,  rev.  ed.,  1550.  (See  life  by  Th. 
W  iedemann,  Regensburg,  1865.) 

Eckhart  (generally  called  Meister  Eckart), 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  most  impressive 
representatives  of  German  mysticism,  was 
born  in  Thuringia  between  1250-60  ;  entered 
the  Dominican  order  ;  studied  philosophy  in 
Paris,  which  city  he  often  visited  ;  was  made 
a  prior  at  Erfurt  in  1298  ;  taught  theology  at 
Strassburg  in  1312  ;  moved  in  1317  to  Frank- 
fort ;  lived  afterward  at  Cologne,  and  died 
before  1829.  His  system  is  pantheism  :  God 
and  nature  are  one.  But  the  emphasis  is  laid 
on  the  nature-absorbing  God  and  not  on  the 
God-inspired  nature,  and  his  pantheism  ends 
in  an  ascetic  ecstasy  whose  visions  are  sub- 
limely poetical  in  spite  of  their  austerity.  He 
was  the  pride  and  boast  of  the  Dominican 
order,  but  at  many  points  he  approached  so 
near  to  Scotus  Erigena,  the  Beghards,  the 
Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,  the  Waldenses, 
etc.,  that  he  came  into  bad  repute,  and  difficul- 
ties arose.  The  biill,  however,  condemning 
certain  of  his  doctrines  did  not  appear  until 
after  his  death.  (See,  for  his  selected  works, 
Ausrietrdldte  Predigten  vnd  xerwandte  Hchrift- 
stuc'ke.  Mit  einer  einleitenden  MonogrdjiMe, 
von  W.  Schopff,  Leipzig,  1889  ;  cf.  Preger. 
QeschicMe  der  deutschen  Mystik  im  Mittel- 
nlter,  1874;  Jundt,  ITisioire  du  j)anthcisme 
■jojmlair,  Strassburg,  1875  ;  and  monograplis 
by  Martensen,  German  trans.,  Plamburg,  1842  ; 
Bach,  Vienna,  1864  ;  Lasson,  Berlin,  1868  ; 
Linsemann,  Tiibingen,  1873  ;  Haupt,  1874 
etc.) 


ECLECTICS 


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EDUCATION 


Eclectics,  a  name  given  to  certain  ancient 
philosophers  who  selected  from  different  sys- 
tems what  they  saw  tit  and  combined  it  into  a 
system  of  their  own.  Their  example  was 
followed  by  the  Neoplatonists  of  Alexandria, 
whose  chief  exponents  were  Plotiuns,  Por- 
phyry, and  Proclus.  T.  W.  C. 

Ec  the'-sis,  the  name  given  to  a  letter  issued 
by  the  En)peror  Heraclius  in  638  to  pacify 
the  troubles  occasioned  by  the  Eutychian 
heresy  ;  but  as  it  did  not  'meet  with  general 
favor  and  was  condemned  by  Pope  John  IV., 
it  was  withdrawn  by  the  emperor,  Constans 
II.  T.  W.  C. 

E  des-sa,  a  very  ancient  city  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, 78  m.  s.w.  of  Diarbekir.  Christianity 
was  early  introduced  into  it,  and  the  cit}^  con- 
tained 300  monasteries.  It  was  the  seat  of 
Ephraim  Syrus  and  his  school.  Here  the 
famous  portrait  of  Christ  said  to  have  been 
painted  by  St.  Luke  and  sent  by  the  Saviour 
himself,  with  a  letter,  to  Abgarus,  king  of 
Edessa,  was  preserved,  till  it  was  carried,  in 
944,  to  Constantinople,  and  thence  to  Rome. 
Neither  the  picture  nor  the  letter  appears  to 
have  any  historical  foundation.  The  city, 
which  contains  40,000  inhabitants,  is  still  the 
seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop.  T.  W.  C. 

Eddy,  Richard,  S.T.D.  (Tufts,  1883),  Uni- 
versaiist  ;  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  June  21, 
1838  ;  has  been  in  the  ministry  since  1851,  and 
since  1878  president  of  the  Univer.salist  His- 
torical Society.  He  wrote  Unimrftalism  in 
America,  a  History,  Boston,  1884-86,  2  vols. 

Eden  (cf.  Accadian  edin,  "a  plain"),  the 
primitive  home  of  our  tirst  parents  (Gen.  ii.  8), 
of  uncertain  or  unknown  locality  ;  probably 
in  the  highlands  of  Armenia,  or  in  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates.  Cf.  art.  Assyiiiology,  p. 
54. 

Edersheim,  Alfred,  Ph.D.  (Kiel,  1855), 
D.D.  (Vienna,  Berlin,  and  New  College,  Edin- 
burgh), Church  of  England  ;  b.  of  Jewish 
parents  in  Vienna,  March  7,  1825  ;  d.  at  Men- 
tone,  France,  Saturday,  March  16,  1889. 
After  studying  at  Vienna  he  was  converted  to 
Ciiristiauity  ;  entered  the  New  College,  Edin- 
burgh. 1843,  and  in  1849  became  minister  of 
the  Free  Church  ;  in  1875  entered  the  Church 
of  England  ;  was  vicar  at  Loders,  Dorsetshire, 
1876-83,  when  he  finally  went  into  literary  re- 
tirement at  Oxford.  Of  his  numerous  works 
may  be  mentioned  T/w  Iloim  dud  Synagogue 
of  the  Modern  Jew,  1872;  The  Temple;  its 
Ministry  and  Service  as  they  tcere  in  the 
Time  of  Jesm  Christ,  Loudon,  1874  ;  Bible 
History  (down  to  the  Ass3Tian  captivity), 
1875-87,  8  vols.  ;  The  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus 
tlie  Messiah,  1883,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1886,  New 
York.  rep.  1  vol.  ;  Prophecy  and  History  in 
Relation  to  the  Messiah,  1885  ;  Jesus  the  Mes- 
siah (abridgment  of  Lijfe  and  Times),  1890. 

Edict,  Rescript,  both  are  orders  enjoining 
or  proliil)itiiig  >oiue  line  of  conduct,  but  the 
latter  dilTcrs  from  tlie  former  in  that  it  is  is- 
sued in  response  to  an  iiKpnry.  Famous  edicts 
aretliT^efDof  the  Roman  "emperor  Consfan- 
tine  (313-23)  estaltlishing  Christianitv  ;  (2)  of 
Worms  U521),  which  coudenmcd  Luther  ;  (3) 


of  Nantes  (1598),  which  guaranteed  the 
Huguenots  certain  religious  rights.  See 
France,  Reformed  Church  of. 

Edification  {building  up)  denotes  in  spirit- 
ual things  the  growth  of  the  believer  in  the 
graces  of  Christian  character.  The  means  of 
securing  it  are  prayer,  meditation,  reading 
the  Scriptures,  attendance  upon  public  wor- 
ship, the  use  of  the  sacraments,  and  mutual 
conference.  And  each  believer  is  bound  also 
to  edify  others  by  a  holy  and  blameless  walk, 
and  by  the  diligent  use  of  such  means  of  grace 
as  are  within  his  reach.  T.  "W.  C. 

E'-dom  (red),  called  also  Idumaea  and  Mt. 
Seir.  It  extended  from  the  Dead  Sea  to 
Akaba,  and  east  of  the  Arabah  to  the  desert 
of  Arabia.  It  is  a  mountain  district,  well 
watered  and  bearing  a  luxuriant  growth  of 
plant  and  vegetable  life.  Its  first  inhabitants 
were  the  Horites  (Gen.  xiv.  6),  wlio  were 
probably  cave-dwellers.  They  were  dispos- 
sessed by  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  8),  the  chief  of 
whose  descendants  are  called  "  dukes"  (vv. 
15-31),  probably  the  same  as  the  Bedouin 
Sheikhs  of  modern  times.  The  enmity  of 
Jacob  and  Esau  was  perpetuated  in  their  de- 
scendants. Edom  at  tirst  opposed  the  passage 
of  Israel  through  their  country  (Num.  xx.  20), 
but  afterward  granted  it  (Deut.  ii.  4-7).  Saul 
warred  with  the  Edomites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47) 
and  David  conquered  them  (2  Sam.  viii.  14), 
but,  at  the  instigation  of  Hadad,  they  revolted 
against  Solomon  (1  Kings  xi.  14).  Edom  was 
for  a  long  time  tributary  to  the  kingdom  of 
Judah,  but  asserted  their  independence  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoram  (2  Kings  viii.  20-22).  Sub- 
sequently they  seized  the  southern  part  of 
Judah,  and  were  succeeded  in  Mt.  Seir  by  the 
Nabatheans.  Their  new  home  took  the  name 
of  Idunifea.  Here,  in  the  days  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, they  were  defeated  by  Judas  M.,  and 
afterward  subjugated  and  forcilily  prosely- 
tized by  John  Hyrcanus,  B.C.  130.  From 
them  sprang  Antipater,  who  obtained  the 
government  of  Jud;ea,  b.c.  47,  and  his  sou 
was  Herod  the  Great.  The  prophecies  which 
foretold  the  destruction  of  Edom  (Jer.  xlix. 
7-32,  Obadiah  8)  have  been  strikingly  ful- 
filled. The  many  ruined  cities  of  their  coun- 
try attest  the  former  greatness  and  the  present 
desolation.  (See  E.  H.  Palmer,  Desert  of  the 
Exodus,  London  and  New  York,  1871.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Education  among  the  Hebrews,  so  far  as 
the  body  of  the  people  was  concerned,  con- 
sisted mainly  in  the  instruction  given  by  par- 
ents (Deut.  vi.  6-9,  20,  21),  which,  with  the 
influence  exerted  b}^  their  ritual,  gave  them  a 
mental  training  far  sujierior  to  that  of  any 
contemporary  nation.  There  was  a  body  of 
educated  men — the  priests,  the  surveyors  of 
Canaan  (Josh,  xviii.  8,  9),  the  annali.sts.  and 
those  who  did  business  with  foreign  courts 
(3  Kings  xviii.  26).  The  schools  of  the  proph- 
ets (1  Sam.  xix.  20,  2  Kings  ii.  3,  5,  7.  15) 
added  to  the  niunbor.  During  the  captivity 
the  .synagogue  svstem  was  developed,  and 
with  it  regular  instruction  to  tlie  younir  by 
authorized  teachers.  This  includ;'d  the  leach- 
ing of  a  trade  to  each  pii|)il,  as  we  see  in  the 
case  of  Paul,  who,  although  well  trained  by 


EDUCATION 


(244) 


EDWARDS 


Gamaliel,  had  learned  the  art  of  tent-making 
(Acts  xviii.  3).  Girls,  although  higher  in  posi- 
tion than  in  other  countries,  received  only  the 
rudiments  of  learning.  The  Hebre^A^  ideal 
wife,  "the  capable  woman"  described  in 
Prov.  xxxi.  (10-31),  did  not  have  a  great  deal 
of  book  knowledge.  T'.  W.  C. 

Education,  Ministerial.  From  the  earliest 
ages  the  church  was  accustomed  to  aid  in 
training  indigent  students  for  the  ministry. 
This  was  done  at  first  by  the  piimitive  fathers 
and  afterward"  by  the  monastic  establishments. 
At  the  Reformation  the  end  was  reached  by 
scholarships  attached  to  the  schools  or  by  con- 
tributions from  congregations  or  individuals. 
In  Britain  university  endowments  were  made 
for  the  purpose.  In  America  colleges,  such 
as  Harvard,  Yale,  Nassau  Hall,  and  Queens, 
were  founded  with  this  aim  in  view.  After- 
ward societies  were  formed  to  aid  students 
with  the  necessary  means.  The  American 
Education  Society,  formed  in  1815,  vip  to  this 
time  has  aided  7500.  The  Board  of  Education 
of  the  Presbyteritxn  Church,  formed  in  1819, 
has  aided  more  than  one  half  of  her  ministers. 
The  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  formed  its 
board  in  1832.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  has 
two  societies  :  one  for  the  Increase  of  the  Min- 
istry (1857),  the  other,  the  Evangelical  Educa- 
tional Society  (1862),  both  prosperous  and  use- 
ful. The  Methodists  organized  a  board  in 
1869.  The  Baptists  have  local  organizations, 
as  do  also  the  Reformed  (German),  the  Luther- 
ans, and  nearly  all  other  Christian  bodies.  It 
has  been  justly  said  that  to  the  wise  and  liberal 
policy  thus  pursued  is  due  the  high  character 
of  the  Protestant  ministry  in  this  country,  not 
only  for  moral  and  religious  worth,  but  also 
for  broad  intelligence  and  sound  learning. 
The  Roman  Catholics  have  many  colleges,  and 
are  increasing  their  seminaries  for  the  more 
thorough  training  of  candidates  for  the  priest- 
hood. T.   W.  C. 

Ed'-re-i  {strong).  1.  One  of  the  two  capitals 
of  Bashan  (Num.  xxi.  33),  and  afterward  in 
the  limits  of  Manasseh  (Josh.  xiii.  31).  Its 
ruins  cover  a  large  space,  and  are  now  called 
Edhra.  2.  A  town  of  Naphtali,  near  Kedesh 
(Josh.  xix.  37). 

Edwards,  Bela  Bates,  D.D.  (Dartmouth, 
1844),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Southampton, 
Mass.,  July  4,  1802;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College,  1824,  and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1830  ;  became  professor  of  sacred 
literature  in  the  latter  institution,  1848  ;  d.  at 
Athens,  Ga..  April  20,  1852.  He  edited  the 
Amerkiin  (^'uittn-ly  Register,  1828-42,  and 
the  Bihll<>t],,,',i  S„cm,  1844-52.  He  wrote  a 
meritorious  JfiKsionnn/  Gazetteer,  Boston, 
1832,  reprinted  in  J.  Newton  Brown's  Enryclo 
pfpdia  of  Relirjioiis  Knowledge,  ed.  Philadel- 
phia, 1859,  pp.  1187-1250. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  the  elder  ;  b.  at  East 
Windsor,  Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1703  ;  d.  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  March  22,  1758.  The  family  of 
Edwards  was  of  Welsh  origin,  and  his  great- 
grandfather had  emigrated  to  America  at  an 
early  date,  and  settled  in  Hartford.  His 
father.  Timothy  Edwards,  was  born  in  Hart- 
ford in  1669,  was  settled  in  Windsor  in  1694, 


and  continued  to  serve  here  in  the  ministrj^  of 
the  gospel  till  1758.  He  was  a  man  of  extensive 
and  accurate  learning,  a  faithful  pastor,  and 
a  truly  religious  man.  His  parish  enjoyed  fre- 
quent revivals.  And  thus  his  son  was  brought 
up  in  an  atmosphere  both  highly  intellectual 
and  genuinely  religious. 

Edwards  began  to  exhibit  very  earl}'  the 
superior  powers  of  mind  with  which  he  was 
endowed.  At  10  years  of  age  he  was  able  to 
refute  with  cogency  and  wit  the  doctrine  that 
the  soul  is  material  and  sleeps  with  the  body 
till  the  resurrection.  At  13  years  of  age  he 
was  ready  for  college,  and  entered  at  Yale. 
He  had  already  made  some  original  observa- 
tions upon  the  habits  of  spiders,  which  proved 
great  talent  for  natural  science.  But  the 
course  of  study  at  that  day,  the  influences  of 
his  home,  the  general  atmosphere  of  the  col- 
onies, and  still  more  his  own  peculiarly  deep 
religious  nature,  all  turned  him  more  and  more 
toward  the  ministry  as  his  calling  in  life. 
When  14  years  of  age  he  was  reading  Locke's 
Essay  v^wn  Hnman  Understanding,  enjoying 
a  far  higher  pleasure  in  the  perusal  of  its 
pages  "  than  the  most  greedy  miser  finds  when 
gathering  up  handf uls  of  silver  and  gold  from 
some  newly-discovered  treasure."  The  col- 
lege was  much  broken  up  during  this  period, 
and  Edwards  had  to  migrate  with  his  class 
from  New  Haven  to  Wethersfield,  and  back 
again  to  New  Haven.  But  his  studies  suffered 
no  interruption.  He  early  formed  tlie  habit 
of  studying  with  his  pen  in  his  hand,  not  for 
the  purpose  of  mere  note-taking,  but  as  a 
means  of  the  independent  exercise  of  his  mind. 
Notes  "  on  the  mind  "remain,  which  contain 
the  seeds  of  his  most  important  subsequent 
work.  Indeed,  his  theory  of  virtue,  whether 
derived  from  a  reading  of  Cumberland  or 
from  his  Bible,  is  as  clearly  stated  in  these 
boyish  notes  as  in  the  treatise  written  in  ma- 
ture manhood.  Thus  he  went  on  in  indepen- 
dent study  till,  in  the  year  1720,  he  graduated 
with  the  highest  honors  of  the  college. 

The  next  two  years  of  Edwards'  life  were 
spent  at  college  preparing  for  the  work  of  the 
ministry.  His  religious  life  had  already  taken 
upon  itself  that  deep  and  even  mystic  char- 
acter which  always  distinguished  him.  Early 
religions  emotions  and  the  habit  of  secret 
prayer  had  given  way  to  later  coldness,  but  ho 
had  come  out  of  this  into  the  clear  light  of 
the  love  of  God.  The  doctrine  of  the  divine 
sovereignty  had  been  a  stumbling-block  to 
him,  but  he  had  come  not  only  to  acquiesce  in 
it,  but  even  to  regard  it  as  infinitely  glorious, 
and  it  remained  a  leading  thought  with  him 
through  life.  His  first  ministerial  experience 
was  in  the  town  of  New  York,  where  he 
preached  about  8  months,  and  was  afterward 
invited  to  settle,  but  did  not  accept.  In  1723 
he  returned  to  the  college  as  tutor,  and  remain- 
ed there  3  years.  It  was  a  critical  time  for  the 
institution.'  The  rector,  Mr.  Cutler,  had  be- 
come an  Episcopalian,  and  his  ottice  had  been 
declared  vacant.  The  whole  duty  of  instruc- 
tion and  government  devolved  upon  Edwards 
and  2  other  young  men,  and  President  Clap 
was  afterward  ready  to  acknowledge  the  in- 
debtedness not  only  of  the  college,  but  of  liter- 
ature to  them.     Amid  these  occupations  Ed- 


EDWARDS 


(245) 


EDWARDS 


•wards'  religious  life  deepened,  ;xnd  here  we  find 
the  beginning  of  those  70  resolutions  which 
formed  the  guiding  force  of  his  character,  and 
of  which  the  6th  was,  "  Resolved,  to  live  with 
all  my  might  while  I  do  live." 

In  1727  Edwards  was  installed  as  colleague 
pastor  with  his  grandfather,  the  aged  and 
venerable  Solomon  Stoddard,  over  the  church 
in  Northampton,  Mass.  Mr.  Stoddard  lived 
till  1729.  Meantime  Edwards  had  married 
Miss  Sarah  Pierrepoiit,  a  lady  of  rare  religious 
nature,  who  was  a  help  meet  for  such  a  man. 
For  some  j'ears  no  great  event  marked  the 
course  of  the  Northampton  life,  but  in  1734  a 
revival  of  religion  occurred  which  was  of  un- 
usual power  and  extent.  The  revival  was  the 
result  of  Edwards'  preaching  in  a  fresh  and 
original  manner  of  the  old  doctrine  of  jusliti- 
cation  by  faith,  which  the  inroads  of  a  Pela- 
gianizing  Arminianism  had  already  brought 
into  considerable  neglect.  The  revival,  which 
was  the  beginning  of  Edwards'  great  practical 
services  to  the  church,  was  also  the  beginning 
of  his  labors  as  a  constructive  theologian.  As 
a  consequence  of  the  revival  he  appeared  be- 
fore the  public  with  2  volumes,  a  Narrative 
of  Sarpridiifi  Conversions  (1736)  and  Five 
Jbiscoiirses  (1738),  of  which  the  first  was  upon 
justification.  The  religious  interest  waned 
somewhat  for  a  time,  but  in  1740,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  visit  of  Whitefield,  who  arrived 
in  Northampton,  Oct.  16,  there  occurred  an- 
other revival  of  great  power.  It  was  accom- 
panied with  some  excesses  which  have  since 
appeared  in  similar  seasons,  in  which  ph3's- 
ical  excitement  played  a  large  part,  and  led 
al.so  to  some  irregularities  in  the  way  of  lay 
preaching,  and  the  intrusion  of  ministers  into 
other  ministers'  parishes.  Edwards,  who 
was  the  most  powerful  preacher  in  New  Eng- 
land, had  himself  done  evangelistic  work  in 
various  places,  and  so  had  many  others.  All 
these  things  gave  offence  ;  but  the  chief 
ground  of  offence  was  the  fact  that  the  revival 
laid  emphasis  upon  the  new  birth,  and  had  a 
direct  and  evident  tendency  to  break  up  a  sys- 
tem then  prevailing  in  New  England,  intro- 
duced by  the  so-called  "  Half-way  Covenant" 
(q.v.),  wliich  made  the  church  a  school  for 
educating  men  in  religion,  and  thus  making 
them  Christians  by  a  gradual  and  indefinite 
process.  Hence  there  arose  a  great  contro- 
versy, in  which  Edwards  took  part  by  sev- 
eral works,  Bistinrjnisliinq  Marks  of  a  Work 
of  the  Spirit  of  God  (1741),  Thoughts  on  the 
Jieviral  (1742),  and  after  a  change  of  view  as 
to  the  subject  consequent  upon  experiences 
which  followed  upon  the  revival.  Qualifica- 
tion,^ for  Foil  Communion  (1749). 

It  W!us  this  change  of  view,  whereby  Ed- 
wards had  come  to  discard  the  practice  which 
his  grandfather  had  introduced,  of  inviting 
persons  confessedly  uuregenerate  to  the  com- 
munion in  the  hope  of  their  conversion,  which 
led  to  a  painful  crisis  in  his  life.  The  church 
did  not  take  kindly  to  his  new  ideas.  They 
raised  a  storm  about  him,  denied  him  a  hear- 
ing, called  a  council,  and  dismissed  him  (1700). 
He  was  thus  driven  out  of  the  most  favorable 

{)osition,  as  one  would  think,  in  New  Eng- 
and,  and  finally  had  to  accept  the  post  of  mis 
Bionary  to  the  Indians  at  Stockbridge,  Mass., 


whither  he  went  the  following  year.  In  this 
position  he  was  an  able  and  laborious  teacher 
of  his  humble  charge.  He  also  fouglit  suc- 
cessfully the  first  fight  in  America  with  the 
rapacious  Indian  agent.  But  his  retirement 
gave  him  opportunity  to  do  greater  things 
than  he  might  have  done  had  he  remained  in 
Northampton.  In  his  abundant  leisure  ho 
prepared  the  treatises  upon  The  Freedom  of 
the  Will  (1754),  on  Virtue  (written  in  1755), 
and  Original  Sin  (1758).  They  were  the  fruit 
of  his  long  and  profound  studies  upon  the 
state  of  the  country  and  the  "  prevailing" 
Arminianism.  They  were  a  stout  defence  of 
the  principal  tenets  of  the  old  Calvinism,  but 
they  contained  the  seeds  of  those  great  modi- 
fications which  the  cour.se  of  the  "  Edward- 
ean,"  or  New  England  school  of  theology, 
has  developed.  See  New  England  The- 
ology. 

Edwards'  daughter  Esther  had  married  the 
Rev.  Aaron  Burr,  who  had  been  made  presi- 
dent of  the  college  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  In 
1757  he  died,  and  the  trustees,  meeting  soon 
after  his  death,  elected  Edwards  as  his  suc- 
cessor. The  call  was  probably  an  unwelcome 
one.  It  w^as  certainly  a  perplexing  one,  for 
Edwards  had  laid  his  plans  for  the  production 
of  a  number  of  works  by  which  he  hoped  to 
promote  the  cause  of  religion.  But  he  re- 
ferred the  matter  to  a  council,  and  they,  to 
the  permanent  loss  of  the  world,  advised'  him 
to  accept.  It  is  said  that  he  burst  into  tears. 
But  finally  he  went.  He  was  inaugurated 
president  "in  1758.  He  had  scarcely  entered 
upon  the  work  of  the  presidency,  when  ho 
was  inoculated  with  the  small-pox.  TJie  dis- 
ease took  an  unfavorable  turn,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  after  he  had  dropped  his  pen  at  Stock- 
bridge  he  was  dead. 

The  best  editions  of  his  works  are  the  Wor- 
cester, originally  published  in  8  vols. ,  1809. 
now  republished  in  4,  and  the  D wight  ed.,  l6 
vols..  New  York,  1829-30.  There  still  exist 
many  unpublished  Mss.  Dwight's  ed.  in- 
cludes a  life.  (See  also  A.  V.  G.  Allen, 
Jonathan  Edwards,  Boston,  1889.) 

F.  II.  F. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  the  younger ;  b.  at 
Northampton,  Mass.,  May  26,  1745  ;  d.  at 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  1,  1801.  He  w^as 
but  6  years  of  age  when  the  family  removed 
to  Stockbridge,  and  since  his  playfellows 
here  were  usually  Indian  children,  he  natu- 
rally became  very  proficient  in  their  language. 
This  circumstance,  which  was  regarded  with 
some  surprise,  determined  his  father  to  devote 
him  to  the  ministry  of  the  gospel  among  the 
Indians,  and  to  send  him  to  the  Oneidas  upon 
the  Susquehanna  River  in  care  of  Rev.  Gideon 
Ilawley,  when  but  10  years  of  age,  to  learn 
their  language.  But  the  war  then  in  progress 
interfered,  and  he  returned  to  Stockbridge  in 
less  than  a  year.  Next  came  the  removal  to 
Princeton,  and  then  the  speedy  death  of  his 
father,  followed  by  the  death  in  the  same  j'ear 
of  his  mother,  'though  Avithout  means,  he 
was  not  without  friends,  and  in  1760  he  began 
his  education  in  the  grammar-school  at  Prince- 
ton, was  admitted  to  the  college  after  a  year's 
study,  and  graduated  in  1765.     As  a  classical 


EFFECTUAL 


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EGYPT 


student  he  maintaiued  a  high  rank,  but  his 
strength  was  in  philosopliy.  While  in  college 
he  had  been  converted,  and  in  1766,  after  a 
period  of  stud}^  with  Joseph  Bellamy,  he  was 
licensed  to  preach.  From  1767  to  1769  he 
was  a  tutor  in  Princeton  College,  and  from 
Jan.  1,  1769,  to  May  19,  1795,  pastor  of  the 
church  of  White  Haven,  in  the  town  of  New 
Haven,  Conn.  From  1796  he  was  pastor  at 
Colebrook,  Conn.,  till  in  May,  1799,  he  was 
elected  president  of  Union  College,  Schenec- 
tady. His  work  here,  though  short,  was  such 
as  to  mark  him  as  a  great  teacher.  His  svi- 
perior  abilities  as  a  theologian  and  a  controver- 
sialist had  already  been  proved  by  his  reply 
to  the  treatise  of  Chauncy  upon  the  Salvation 
of  All  Men  (1789),  and  that  to  Samuel  West's 
Essays  upon  Liberty  and  Necessity,  written 
while  at  Colebrook.  In  these  works  he  ex- 
hibited the  keenest  logic,  the  most  remorseless 
analysis  and  refutation  of  an  adversary,  the 
greatest  thoroughness  of  treatment.  If  he 
lacked  something  of  the  intuitive  eye  of  his 
father  for  great  truths,  he  knew  how  to  state 
far  better  than  his  father  what  he  did  see. 
His  great  constructive  work  in  theology  was 
done  in  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  (see 
New  England  Theology),  in  which  he  ad- 
vanced upon  his  father,  though  following  him 
in  his  other  writings.  If  the  school  is  called 
"  Edwardean"  in  honor  of  the  father,  the 
theory  of  the  atonement  held  by  it  should  be 
called  "  Edwardean"  in  honor  of  the  son. 

Edwards'  works  were  published  at  Andover 
in  2  vols.,  1842,  and  are  accompanied  by  a 
Memoir  by  Trj^on  Edwards.  F.  H.  F. 

Effectual  Calling.     See  Call. 

Effectual  Prayer.  That  which  attains  its 
end  and  is  answered.  The  term  is  derived 
from  the  common  version  of  James  v.  16, 
"  the  effectual  fervent  prayer  of  a  righteous 
man  availeth  much,"  but  the  true  rendering, 
as  given  in  the  Revised  English  Bible,  is,  "  the 
supplication  of  a  righteous  man  availeth  much 
in  its  working." 

Efficacious  Grace.     See  Grace. 

Egbert  (or  Ecgberht),  St.,  b.  in  Northum- 
bria,  Eug.,  639  ;  d.  at  the  monastery  on  the 
Island  of  lona,  Scotland,  April  24,  729.  In 
youth  he  went  to  Ireland  to  study  ;  taken  sick, 
he  vowed  that  if  restored  he  would  take  return 
to  England,  but  would  become  a  monk  and 
practise  certain  austerities.  He  kept  his  vow, 
aud  won  a  great  reputation  for  sanctity.  He 
interested  himself  in  missions,  but  was  provi- 
dentially hindered  from  going  himself  till  716, 
when  he  went  to  lona,  Scotland,  and  there 
labored  till  his  death. 

Egede,  Hans,  b.  at  Senjen,  in  the  northern 
part  of  Norway,  Jan.  31, 1686  ;  d.  at  Stubbek- 
jcibiiiu,  in  the  Danish  island  of  Falster,  Nov. 
5,  17r)8.  He  studied  theology  at  the  Uni  versity 
of  Copenhagen,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of 
Waagen,  one  of  the  Lofoten  islands,  in  1707. 
In  1721  he  went  to  Greenland  to  preach  Chris- 
tianity to  the  heathen  natives,  and  he  remained 
there  till  1740  ;  but  even  after  his  return  to 
Denmark  he  continued  to  work  for  the  mis- 
sion, tlie  result  of  whicli  has  been  that  there 
are  no  more  heathens  in  Greenland,  but  a 


number  of  flourishing  churches.  (See  Fenger, 
H.  Egede  og  den  grvulaiulske  Mission,  Copen- 
hagen. 1879.)  C.  P. 

Eginhard  or  Einhard,  b.  about  770  in 
Franconia  ;  d.  at  Seligenstadt-on-the-Main, 
15  m.  s.e.  of  Francfort,  March  14,  844  ;  was 
educated  at  Fulda  and  at  the  court  of  Charle- 
magne under  Alcuin,  and  became  secretary 
to  the  emperor  and  superintendent  of  public 
buildings.  "Whether  his  wife  Emma  was 
Charlemagne's  daughter  of  the  same  name  is 
uncertain  ;  at  all  events,  the  marriage  was 
dissolved  about  815,  and  Eginhard  was  or- 
dained a  priest  and  retired  to  the  monastery 
of  Seligenstadt.  His  life  of  Charlemagne  and 
his  letters  have  great  interest  also  to  church 
history;  best  ed.  Jaffe,  Mon.  Carol.,  Berlin, 
1867.  Collected  editions  of  his  works  were 
given  by  Migne,  CIV.  351-610,  XCVII.  25- 
62  ;  and  by  Teulet  (with  French  trans.),  Paris, 
1840-43,  2  vols.  The  best  ed.  of  his  poetry  by 
E.  Dtinmler  in  his  Poetm  Latini  ceri  Carotini, 
Berlin,  1884  (ii.  125-135) ;  his  French  trans- 
lation of  all  his  works  separately  iss\ied  by 
Teulet,  Paris,  1856 ;  German  translation  of 
the  Annales  by  Abel,  Berlin.  1850  ;  English 
translation  of  the  Life  of  Charlemnqne  by  "W. 
Glaister,  London,  1877,  and  S.  E.  Turner, 
New  York,  1880 ;  cf.  J.  I.  Mombert,  diaries 
the  Or  eat,  New  York,  1888. 

Eg'-lon  {calf),  a  king  of  Moab  wlio  held 
Israel  in  bondage  18  years,  having  Jericho  for 
his  seat  of  government.  He  was  slain  by 
Ehud,  and  his  people  west  of  the  Jordan  were 
destroyed  (Judges  iii.  12-30).  T.  W.  C. 

Egypt,  General  History  and  Statistics  of. 
Egj'pt  is  520  miles  long,  and  on  an  average 
160  miles  wide,  extending  on  both  sides  of 
the  Nile  from  the  first  cataract  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  arable  soil  is  not  more  than  8 
miles  broad  on  an  average,  but  expands  to  160 
miles  at  the  widest  point,  that  at  which  the 
river  divides  into  its  7  arms  before  entering 
the  sea.  The  name  was  given  to  the  coun- 
try by  the  Greeks,  and  first  occurs  in  Homer. 
The  natives  themselves  called  it  Kem  (and  so 
it  is  called  in  hieroglyphics),  the  "  black 
[land],"  referring  to  the  color  of  its  cultivable 
soil.     The  Hebrew  name  was  Mizraim. 

This  valley  is,  so  far  as  the  Nile- floods  reach, 
a  land  of  inexjiaustible  fertility,  and  sheltered, 
as  it  was,  on  all  sides  by  the  sea  and  the  desert, 
it  became  one  of  the  first  starting-points  of 
human  civilization.  Indeed,  the  history  of 
Egypt  goes  farther  back  than  that  of  any  other 
people.  There  once  existed  a  continuous  rep- 
resentation of  that  history  from  its  beginning 
down  to  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
written  by  an  Egyptian  priest  Manetho.  But 
it  has  perished  ;  only  fragments  of  it,  in  the 
form  of  extracts  made  by  Josephus,  Eusebius, 
etc.,  have  come  down  to  us.  Something  may 
be  learned,  however,  from  the  Old  Testament, 
Herodotus.  Diodorus  Siculus,  etc.,  and  still 
more  from  the  monuments  of  the  country  and 
their  hieroglyphic  inscriptions,  a  source  which 
as  yet  is  very  far  from  having  been  exhausted. 

Manetho  enumerates  30  dynasties  as  having 
ruled  in  Egypt  before  Alexander  the  Great, 
probably  several  of  them  at  the  same  time, 
but  over  separate  parts  of  the  country.    la 


EGYPT 


(247) 


EISENMENGER 


the  first  year  of  the  1st  dynasty  mentioned  by 
him,  which  is  fixed  by  Lepsius  as  3892  B.C. 
and  by  Bockli  as  5702  B.C.,  King  Menes  built 
Memphis  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  to  the  same 
millennium  belong  the  great  pyramids  at  Gizeh 
and  the  tombs,  with  their  innumerable  pic- 
torial representations  and  inscriptions.  Dur- 
ing the  11th  dynasty  Thebes  and  its  local  god, 
Aininon,  became  celebrated,  and  from  the 
same  period  date  the  great  reservoir  of  Lake 
Moeris  with  its  system  of  distributing  canals. 

This  even  development  was  suddenly 
stopped  about  2100  ]$.c.  by  the  invasion  of  a 
warlike,  nomadic  people,  coming  from  the 
east,  the  Hyk.sos,  who  conquered  Lower 
Egypt,  made  Upper  Egypt  tributary,  and  re- 
mained in  the  country  for  500  years.  Be- 
tween this  people  and  the  Israelites  Manetho 
makes  a  sharp  distinction,  and  he  puts  the 
exodus  of  the  latter  250  years  later  than  the 
expulsion  of  the  former.  After  the  liberation 
from  the  Hyksos  followed  another  glorious 
period,  to  which  belonged  the  great  kings 
Ramases  IL ,  of  the  19th  dynasty,  and  Hamases 
IIL,  of  the  20th  dynasty.  But,  as  is  often  the 
case,  the  great  prosperity  of  the  country  weak- 
ened the  race,  and  Egypt  was  once  more  over- 
run by  foreigners.  The  Ethiopian  king 
Shabak  conquered  the  country  near  the  close 
of  the  8th  century  B.C.,  and  "established  the 
25th  dynasty.  The  rule  of  the  Ethiopians 
seems  to  have  been  qtnet  and  uneventful,  but 
when  they  retired  to  their  own  country, 
wearied  and  exhausted,  they  left  Egypt  in  a 
state  of  confusion,  the  so-called  dodekarchy, 
wliich  bordered  on  anarchy  and  threatened 
with  dissolution. 

From  this  calamity  the  country  was  saved 
by  Fsammetichus  I.,  one  of  the  dodekarchs, 
who  established  the  26th  dynasty  chiefly  bj' 
the  aid  of  Ionian  and  Carian  mercenaries. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  these  Greek  soldiers 
were  settled  in  Egypt,  obtained  estates,  ac- 
quired privileges,  and  formed  a  prosperous 
colon}'  which  rapidly  became  the  connecting 
link  between  Greece  and  Egypt.  Under 
Araa.'sis  the  Greeks  were  allowed  to  build 
Nankrabis,  which  soon  became  an  important 
commercial  place  and  really  opened  up  Egypt 
to  foreign  commerce.  Great  riches  tlowed 
into  the  country.  Tlie  number  of  cities  ro.se 
to  20,000,  and  private  peopk-  were  often  pos- 
ses.sed  of  almost  incredible  wealth.  But  just 
the  riches  of  the  country  allured  its  enemies, 
and  it  was  twice  conquered  by  the  Persians — 
in  525  and  in  340.  The  Persians,  however, 
would  probably  never  have  made  themselves 
masters  of  Egypt  for  any  long  period,  but  tlie 
Greeks  did.  After  the  conquest  by  Alexander 
the  Great  in  332,  and  his  death  in  323,  Egypt 
was  ruled  by  a  Greek  dyna.sty,  the  Ptolemies, 
until  it  Ix'came  a  province  of  the  Koman  Em- 
pire after  the  battle  of  Actium,  30  n.c. 

Under  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Romans  Egyp- 
tian civilization  reached  its  point  of  culmina- 
tion. Alexandria,  a  Greek  city  on  Egyptian 
soil,  became  the  intellectual  centre  of  the 
world.  Here  the  Greek  philo.sopher  met  with 
the  Oriental  dreamer,  the  Hebrew  prophet, 
and  the  Egyptian  .scientist,  and  the  results 
wore  Xeo-Piatonism,  the  Septuagint  Version, 
Philo,  Manetho,  etc.    Very  early  the  country 


became  Christianized,  and  the  influence  which 
the  Egyptian  Church  has  exercised  on  Chris- 
tianity through  the  Gnostic,  the  Alexandrian 
School  of  Theology,  and  the  monk  is  felt 
down  to  this  very  day.  Under  the  East  Ro- 
man sway,  however,  decay  set  in  and  devel- 
oped rapidly.  The  Egyptian  Church  became 
monophysitic,  and  this  circumstance  made  the 
country  an  easy  prey  for  Islam  in  638.  See 
Coptic  Ciiuucir.  For  ancient  Egypt,  see  Wil- 
kinson, edition  Birch,  Loudon,  1878,  3  vols.; 
for  modern  Egypt,  see  Lane.  6th  ed.,  1882,  2 
vols. ;  for  Egyptology  and  the  Bible,  see  Na- 
ville  in  Schatf's  Through  Bible  Lands.  Kew 
York  (1888),  new  ed.,  pp.  428-453. 

E'-hud  [union),  a  Benjamite  who  delivered 
Israel  from  the  Moabites  by  first  slaying  their 
king  at  Jericho,  and  then  rai.sing  an  army  and 
defeating  his  people.  He  judged  Israel  with 
honor  for  many  years  (Judges  iii.  12-31). 
T.  W.  C. 

Eichhorn  (ike-horn),  Johann  Gottfried, 
D.D.  (Gottingen,  1811),  German  theologian  ; 
b.  at  Dcirrenzimmern,  Wiirtemberg,  Oct.  16, 
1752  ;  d.  at  Gottingen,  June  27,  "l827.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen,  1770-74  ;  became  profes- 
sor of  Oriental  la'nguages  at  Jena,  1775,  and  at 
Gottingen,  1788.  Of  his  numerous  writings, 
the  most  famous  are  his  Introductions  to  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  {Einleitung  in'a 
A.  7'.,  Leipzig.  1780-83,  3  parts,  4th  ed.,  Got- 
tingen, 1820-24,  5  vols.;  Einleitvnf/in'n N.  T., 
Leipzig,  1804-14,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1820-27,  5 
vols.  ;  Einleitung  in  die  (qwc.  Schviften  A.  T., 
1795),  which  marked  a  new  departure  in  such 
treati-ses,  inasmuch  as,  for  the  first  time,  the 
Scriptures  as  a  whole  received  a  purely  liter- 
ary treatment,  being  examined  in  the  light  of 
classical  and  Oriental  learning.  He  had  him- 
self no  interest  in  the  Bible  as  a  religious  book. 
Many  of  his  thoroughly  rationalistic  ideas 
were  enthusiastically  received,  only  to  be 
dropped  after  a  Wme—e.g.,  that  the  gospels 
were  compilations  by  later  writers  from  docu- 
ments no  longer  extant  ;  that  many  of  the 
O.  T.  books  and  some  of  the  epistles,  etc..  are 
ungenuine.  (See  his  letters  in  Lcirsch,  Bonn, 
1881.) 

Einhard.     See  Eginhard. 

Einsiedeln  or  Maria  Einsiedeln,  the  fa- 
mous Swiss  Benedictine  monastery  and  place 
of  pilgrimage,  because  of  its  wonder-working 
image  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  its  chapel, 
which  she  personally  consecrated,  Sept.  14, 
948,  is  locflted  about  25  m.  s.e.  of  Ziirich. 
Here  Zwingli  was  priest  (1516-19),  and 
preached  against  image  worship  so  effectively 
as  to  seriously  impair  the  revenues  of  the 
monks  for  a  time.  It  revived  at  the  close  of 
that  century,  and  it  is  now  visited  by  150,000 
pilgrims  annually.     It  has  a  valuable  library. 

Eisenmenger  (I  zen-menger),  Johsmn  An- 
dreas, (Jc  rniiin  theologian  ;  b.  at  ^Mannheim, 
1054  ;  (I.  at  Ib-idelberg.  Dec.  20.  1704.  where 
he  stuilied  and  had  been  profes.sor  of  Oriental 
langiuiges  since  1700.  He  wrote  the  famous 
anti-Semitic  work  Judaiftm  ExjioKcd  [Ent- 
d(clt,H  Judenifnim,  Frankfort,  1700,  1st  ed., 
suppressed  in  response  to  Jewish  pleading,  2d 


ESKEHARD 


(248) 


ELEUTHEROPOLIS 


erl.,  at  the  expense  of  King  Frederick  I.,  of 
Prussia,  Konigsberg,  1711),  the  fruit  of  19 
years  of  diligent  scraping  together  from  203 
treatises  of  all  the  myths,  stories,  arguments, 
misunderstandings,  and  everything  else 
against  Christianity  which  he  could  trace  to  a 
Jewish  source. 

Ekkehard  is  the  name  of  5  monks  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Gall,  who  became  very  cele- 
brated in  their  time  as  teachers  and  writers. 
They  wrote  hymns.  Liber  Benedictiorinm ; 
history,  a  continuation  of  the  chronicle  of  St. 
Gall  commenced  by  Ratpertus  ;  legends,  etc. 
(See  Meyer  von  Knonau,  hie  Ekkeharte,  Basel, 
1876.) 

El-a-ga-ba  -lus  or  He  li-o-ga-ba-lus,  Roman 
emperor,  218-222  ;  was  supposed  to  be  a  son  of 
Caracalla  ;  b.  at  Antioch,  204  ;  educated  at 
Eraesa,  Syria  ;  elected  high-priest  of  the  sun- 
god  there,  and  by  the  intrigues  of  his  mother, 
Julia  Sodmis,  and  grandmother,  Julia  Mse.sa, 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiers  of  the 
Syrian  camp.  But  his  reign  was  a  series  of 
such  cruelties  and  debaucheries  that,  4  years 
later,  the  same  soldiers  threw  him  and  his 
mother  and  grandmother  in  the  Tiber.  The 
Christian  Church  remained  in  peace  during 
those  years,  as  he  found  no  time  to  realize 
his  idea  of  amalgamating  all  the  different 
kinds  of  religious  worship  found  in  the  em- 
pire into  the  worship  of  the  one  god  El-gnbal, 
"  god  the  creator,"  his  own  name,  to  which 
he  had  changed  his  original  name  Varius 
Avitus  Bassianus. 

E'-lah  {terebinth).  1.  The  valley  in  which 
David  slew  Goliath  (1  Sam  xvii.  2,  xxi.  9), 
now  Wady-es-8umt,  16  m.  s.w.  from  Jeru- 
salem. 2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Baasha, 
king  of  Israel,  926  B.C.,  who  reigned  2  years, 
and  was  slain  while  intoxicated  by  Zimri,  one 
of  his  officers  (1  Kings  xvi.  6-10). 

T.  W.  C. 
E'-lam  (Mfjhland),  a  region  which  took  its 
name  from  a  son  of  Shem  (Gen.  x.  22), and  cor- 
responded to  the  Elymais  of  Greek  and  Roman 
writers.  The  city  Susa  or  Shusan  was  in  it 
(Dan.  viii.  2),  and  thence  it  extended  southeast 
to  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  was  a  powerful  mon- 
archy in  Abraham's  day  (Gen.  xiv.  9),  and 
long  retained  its  own  princes,  but  finally  be- 
came a  province  of  Babylonia  and  afterward 
of  Persia.  It  aided  in  the  overthrow  of  Baby- 
lon (Isa.  xxi.  2),  and  invaded  Israel  (Isa.  xxii. 
6).  Its  destruction  was  foretold  by  Jeremiah 
(xlix.  34-39)  and  Ezekiel  (xxxii.  24,  25). 

T.  W.  C. 
E'-lath  or  Eloth  (trees),  an  Edomitic  sea- 
port, the  modern  Akiba,  on  the  northern  end 
of  the  Gulf  of  Akiba  ;  an  important  place 
imder  Solomon  (1  Kings  ix.  26,  28)  ;  taken  by 
the  Assyrians  (2  Kings  xvi.  7-9). 

Elder,  the  oldest  office  known,  running 
back  to  the  days  of  Abraham,  whose  servant 
Eliezer  is  called  (Gen.  xxiv.  2)  "  the  elder  of 
his  house"  (R.  V.).  During  Israel's  sojourn 
in  Egypt,  the  elders  (Ex.  iv.  29)  were  treated 
by  Moses  as  the  representatives  of  the  people, 
they  being  probably  the  heads  of  the  tribes. 
Every  city  had  its  elders  (Deut.  xix.  12,  Judges 
viii.  14),  "but  there  was  a  special  body  of  70 


men,  who  were  with  Moses  on  Mt.  Sinai  (Ex. 
xxiv.  1,  9),  and  were  selected  for  service  for 
the  whole  people  (Num.  xi.  16,  17.  24,  25). 
At  a  later  period  we  find  a  tribunal  of  70 
elders  known  as  the  Sanhedrin,  which  the 
Rabbins  maintain  was  a  continuance  of  the 
original  appointment  by  Moses.  The  name  is 
mentioned  in  Maccabaean  times  about  175  B.C. 
(1  Mac.  vii.  33,  xii.  6),  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment mention  is  made  of  "  elders  of  the 
Jews,"  distinct  from  the  Sanhedrin,  but  co- 
operating with  it  (Matt.  xvi.  21,  xxi.  23,  xxvi. 
57). 

In  the  Christian  Church  the  name  is  applied 
to  the  local  officers  of  congregations,  wdio  are 
also  called  bishops  or  overseers.  In  Acts  xx. 
28  Paul  addresses  as  "bishops"  (R.  V.)  the 
very  same  rulers  of  the  Ephesian  church  who 
had  just  before  (ver.  17)  been  called  "  elders." 
In  Titus  i.  5,  he  directs  Titus  to  "  appoint 
elders  in  every  city,"  and  then,  proceeding  to 
describe  what  sort  of  persons  they  should  be, 
says,  '"For  the  bishop  must  be  blameless," 
etc.  Peter  also,  in  his  first  epistle  (ver.  1), 
says,  "  The  elders  among  j^ou  I  exhort,"  etc. 
Of  the  time  and  method  of  the  institution  of 
this  office  there  is  no  record,  whence  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  infer  that  it  existed  from  the  begin- 
ning, the  elders  of  the  church  taking  the  place 
and  discharging  the  functions  of  "  the  rulers 
of  the  synagogue"  (Mark  v.  22),  who  con- 
ducted the  prayer,  reading  of  Scripture,  and 
exhortation  which  constituted  the  service. 
Every  church  had  a  number  of  elders.  Nor  is 
any  distinction  made  between  the  teaching 
ancl  the  ruling  elder,  unless  it  be  found,  as 
some  say  it  is,  in  1  Tim.  v.  17. 

Since  the  Reformation  the  name  has  been 
given  in  non-prelatical  communions  to  certain 
officers  charged  with  the  spiritual  care  of  a 
congregation  in  common  with  the  minister. 
They  are  appointed  either  for  life  or  for  a 
term  of  years.  Their  duties  are  to  maintain 
dicipline,  guard  against  unsound  doctrine, 
visit  the  sick,  counsel  the  young,  and  see  that 
there  is  no  lording  over  God's  heritage.  In 
the  churches  of  the  Reformed  they,  in  equal 
numbers  with  the  ministers,  compose  all  eccle- 
siastical assemblies  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest.  T.  W.  C. 

Elect  {chosen),  a  term  applied  in  the  New 
Testament  to  those  who  are  not  only  called  to 
Christ,  but  actually  come  to  him  and  are  saved 
(Matt.  xxii.  14).  They  were  chosen  in  Christ 
from  eternity  that  they  should  be  holy  (Eph. 
i.  4,  5).  "  The  elect  lady"  in  2  John  was 
either  some  eminent  Christian  woman  or  a 
figurative  expression  for  a  Christian  church. 
T.  W.  C. 

Elec'-tion.     See  Predestination. 

Elements,  in  ecclesiastical  usage  the  ma- 
terials employed  in  the  sacraments — viz. ,  water 
in  baptism,  and  bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  These  are  of  divine  appointment, 
and  for  them  nothing  else  can  properly  be 
substituted.  T.  W.  C. 

El-eu'-ther-op'-o-lis,  an  ancient  city  of 
Palestine,  28  m.  e.n.e.  of  Gaza,  having  very 
extensive  ruins  with  massive  vaults.  It  is 
identified  with  the  village  of  Beit  Jibrin. 

T.  W.  C. 


ELEUTHERUS 


(249) 


ElilOT 


E-leu'-the-rus,  pope  177-93,  was  a  Greek 
by  birth.  The  Liber  Pontijicalin  and  Beda 
in  his  Ilist.  EccL,  iii.,  25,  tells  us  that  the 
British  Kiug  Lucius  wrote  a  letter  to  Eleuthe- 
rus  askiut,^  him  to  send  teachers  of  Christianity 
to  his  kinj^dom.  If  such  a  letter  has  ever  ex- 
isted, Elcutherus  has  neglected  to  pay  any  re- 
gard to  it,  as  it  was  the  Celtic  and  not  the 
lioman  Church  which  did  the  first  mission- 
ary work  among  the  Britons.  C.  P. 

Elevation  of  the  Host.  The  custom  of 
lifting  up  the  consecrated  bread  in  the  cele- 
bration of  the  eucharist,  for  the  adoration  of 
the  congregation,  was  not  known  in  the  Ro- 
man Church  until  about  1200,  when  it  was  in- 
troduced for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing  the 
belief  of  the  church  in  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
synodical  constitutions  of  Odo  de  Sulli,  bishop 
of  Paris. 

E'-li  {(lucent),  a  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  and 
also  a  judge.  lie  governed  Israel  40  years. 
He  was  a  pious  man,  but  negligent  of  family 
discipline.  His  3  sons  were  slain  in  battle, 
and  the  Ark  was  captured,  a  calamity  that 
broke  his  heart,  and  he  died  in  his  98th  year 
(1  Sam.  ii.  11,  iii.,  iv.).  T.  W.  C. 

Ellas  Ijevita  (properly  Elihu  l)en  Asher 
Hallevi),  the  great  Hebrew  teacher  of  the  16th 
century  ;  b.  at  Neustadt-on-the-Aisch,  near 
Nuremberg  (Feb.  8  ?),  1472  ;  d.  in  Venice, 
1549.  Driven  out  of  his  country  by  persecu- 
tion, he  went  to  Italy,  1502  ;  settled  first  at 
Padua  as  Hebrew  teacher,  1504,  and  from 
1512  to  1527  lived  with  Cardinal  Egidio  of 
Vitcrbo  ;  from  1540  to  1547  was  at  Isny, 
Swabia,  as  assistant  to  the  printer  Paul  Fagius. 
but  spent  the  close  of  his  life  in  Venice.  He 
remained  unconverted,  although  constantly 
with  Christians.  Two  of  his  grandsons  be- 
came Roman  Catholic  priests.  He  had  ios  his 
day  among  the  Jews  the  hardihood  to  deny 
the  high  antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  vowel  points, 
asserting  that  they  were  later  than  the  Tal- 
mud. He  also  first  popularized  tlie  theory 
that  to  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue we  owe  the  present  canon  of  the  O.  T. 

El-ig'-i-us,  b.  at  Chatelet,  near  Limoges, 
in  the  Department  of  Haute- Vienne,  France, 
about  588  ;  d.  at  Noyon,  67  m.  n.e.  of  Paris, 
the  birthplace  of  Calvin,  Nov.  30,  659  ;  was 
a  goldsmith  by  profession,  and  employed  in 
the  royal  nnnt  in  Paris.  Both  on  account  of 
his  professional  ability  and  by  dint  of  the 
force  of  his  cliaracter  he  occupied  a  high 
standing  at  the  Neustrian  court  under  the 
reigns  of  Clotaire  and  Dagobert.  He  was  a 
Gallo-Roman.  not  a  Frank,  by  descent  ;  be- 
came early  a  pupil  of  Columbanus,  and  began 
an  ascetic  life  without  giving  up  his  trade. 
He  bought  Sa.xon  slaves  by  the  hundreds,  gave 
lliem  freedom,  and  made  tiuin  monks.  He 
built  churches  and  founded  monasteries,  one 
at  Solignac  near  Limoges,  another  in  Paris. 
In  640  lie  was  made  bisliop  of  Noyon,  and  as 
such  he  made  hiiriself  conspicuous  with  his 
courage  and  a\istcrity  at  the  .synods  of  Chalons, 
644,  and  Orleans,  650.  ]\Iiracles  were  sai<l  to 
take  place  at  his  grave,  and  he  was  honored 
after  his  death  by  the  people  as  a  saiut.    His 


life,  said  to  have  been  written  by  his  friend, 
Audcenus,  and  found  in  D'Achery,  Sj.icile- 
ffiicui,  ii.,  76,  is,  at  all  events,  much  interpo- 
lated, and  the  sermons  ascribed  to  him  in  Bibl. 
Max.  Pair.  XII.,  300,  are  evidently  from  a 
later  period.  C.  P. 

E-li'-jah  {my  Ood  is  Jeliovdh),  a  highlander 
of  Tishbeh  in  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  long- 
haired and  roughly  robed  with  a  sheepskin 
mantle  and  a  leathern  girdle  (2  Kings  i.  8, 
1  Kings  xix.  13),  whose  parentage  and  early 
history  are  unknown.  Suddenly  he  appeared 
to  Ahab  and  announced  indefinite  years  of 
drought  and  famine  ;  then  by  divii^e  direction 
lied  to  the  brook  Cherith,  wliere  he  was  mir- 
aculously fed  by  ravens.  Thence  he  went  to 
Zarephath,  where  one  miracle  gave  him  food 
and  another  restored  the  widow's  son  to  life 
(1  Kings  xvii.).  Returning  to  Ahab,  he  pro- 
cured the  assembly  at  Carmel  where  God 
"answered  by  fire,"  and  hundreds  of  idola- 
trous prophets  were  destroyed.  The  drought 
was  broken  at  Elijah's  prayer,  and  rain  de- 
scended in  torrents.  A  reaction  from  such  a 
mental  strain  led  him  to  fiee  to  the  desert  and 
ask  for  death,  but  the  Lord  brought  him  to 
Horeb  and  gave  him  a  startling  vision  of 
God's  power  and  grace.  Six  years  later  he 
denounced  the  murder  of  Naboth,  and  after- 
ward foretold  the  death  of  Ahaziah,  calling 
fire  from  heaven  upon  the  troops  sent  to  arrest 
him.  Finally  he  was  translated  to  heaven  in 
a  chariot  of  fire  without  tasting  death,  B.C. 
896.  He  was  the  most  eminent  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets  of  action,  a  man  bold,  fearless,  and 
zealous  to  the  last  degree.  To  him  and  Moses 
alone  was  given  the  honor  to  appear  on  the 
Mount  of  Transfiguration  ages  after  their 
death  and  commune  with  Jesus  (Luke  ix.  30). 
Of  John  the  Baptist,  our  Lord's  forerunner, 
the  angel  predicted  that  he  would  "  go  before 
his  face  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah" 
(Luke  i.  17).  •       T.  W.  C. 

E'-lim  {trees),  the  2d  station  of  Israel  after 
crossing  llie  Red  Sea  (Ex.  xv.  27).  It  had  12 
wells  and  70  palm-trees,  and  has  been  identi- 
fied with  Wady  Gharandel,  40  m.  s.e.  of  Suez, 
where  are  fountains  and  brooks  and  palms. 
T.  W.  C. 

Eliot,  John,  the  "  Indian  apostle,"  Congre- 
gationalist  ;  baptized  at  Widford,  Hertford- 
shire, Eng.,Aug.  5,  1604  ;  d.  at  Roxbury  (now 
part, of  Boston),  Mass. ,  JMay  21,  1690.  He  Avas 
educated  at  Cambridge;  B.A.,  1622;  taught 
in  a  grammar  school  at  Little  Baddow,  near 
Chelmsford  ;  enlei'ed  the  ministry  of  the 
Church  of  England  ;  came  to  America,  land- 
ing at  Boston,  Nov.  4,  1631.  For  some  mont  lis 
he  preached  in  a  temporarily  vacant  church 
at  Boston,  but  in  1632  became  "  teacher"  of 
the  church  at  Roxbury,  and  so  renuiined  till 
his  death.  "  Eliot's  fame  depends  mainly 
ujion  his  labors  in  Christianizing  the  Indians. 
The  translations  of  the  Bible  [1663]  and  sev- 
eral other  books  into  their  language  are  his  in»- 
perishable  monument.  As  far  north  as  the 
.Merrimac  River,  as  far  east  as  Cape  Cod,  to 
the  towns  in  tiie  southern  part  of  3Iassachu- 
setts,  to  Brookfield,  60  m.  w.  of  Roxbury,  to 
j  Northeastern  Connecticut  and  to  the  vicinity 
of  Hartford  and  to  Martha's  Vineyard,  he 


ELIPANDUS 


(250) 


ELLIS 


travelled,  proclaiming  the  gospel  to  the  red 
man  with  an  enthusiasm  that  brought  thou- 
sands under  its  influence.  ...  It  was  then 
believed  by  many  that  these  Indians  were  the 
descendants  of  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel,  and 
this  opinion  was  an  additional  incentive  for 
efforts  to  convert  them.  Mr.  Eliot  was  con- 
vinced that  the  Indians  must  give  up  their 
roving  habits  and  become  members  of  settled 
comrnunities  before  they  could  make  much 
progress  in  the  Christian  life.  .  .  .  Town 
after  town  was  organized,  and  worshipping  as- 
semblies gathered  in  several  instances  presided 
over  by  Indian  preachers,  until  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts  there  were  7 
old  and  7  new  '  praying  towns  '  [i.e.,  those  in 
which  the  Christianized  Indians  lived],  em- 
bracing not  few(;r  than  1100  'souls  yielding 
obedience  to  the  gospel.'  Those  in  Plymouth 
Colony  and  the  isles  of  the  ocean  much  ex- 
ceeded this  number."  But  in  the  Indian  wars 
these  towns  suffered  dreadfully,  and  after 
Eliot's  death  became  extinct.  There  is  no 
authentic  likeness  of  Eliot  ;  that  often  printed 
is  without  identification.  (See  Dr.  Eliot's  art. 
in  Appleton's  Gydopmdia  of  American  Biog- 
raphy, S.V.,  the  source  of  the  above  quotations, 
for  a  list  of  Eliot's  books.  The  Lenox  Li- 
brary, New  York  City,  has  the  best  collection. 
Best  biography  of  Eliot  by  Convers  Francis, 
Boston,  1886.) 

Elipandus.     See  Felix  of  Urgel. 

E-li'-sha  {God  saves),  the  disciple  of  Elijah, 
who  called  him  when  ploughing  to  be  a 
prophet.  He  ministered  to  the  older  prophet 
for  8  years,  and  then  became  his  successor, 
receiving  a  first-born's  share  in  his  spirit  (2 
Kings  ii,  9).  But  he  was  dift'erent,  living  not 
in  the  desert  but  in  cities,  and  mingling  freely 
with  men.  He  wrought  many  miracles,  heal- 
ing the  waters  at  Jericho,  supplying  the  wid- 
ow's cruse  with  oil  and  tlie  allied  armies  with 
water  (2  Kings  iii.  22),  giving  a  son  to  the 
Shunamite  and  raising  him  when  dead,  heal- 
ing Naaman's  leprosy  and  giving  it  to  Gehazi, 
making  iron  swim,  defying  the  hosts  of  Syria, 
and  turning  at  once  Samaria's  famine  into 
plenty.  Even  a  year  after  his  death  a  body 
deposited  in  his  sepulchre  by  the  contact  came 
back  to  life.  For  60  years  he  exercised  the 
prophetic  office,  B.C.  892-832,  and  died  sorely 
lamented  by  Israel's  king.  In  gentleness  and 
kindness  he  was  like  Christ,  w^ose  miracles 
were  anticipated  b}'  him  in  2  instances,  the 
multiplying  the  barley  loaves  and  the  healing 
of  the  Syrian  leper.  T.  W.  C. 

Elizabeth,  St.,  of  Hungary,  b.  in  Press- 
burg,  1207  ;  d.  at  Marburg,  Hesse  Nassau, 
48  m.  s.e.  of  Cassel,  Nov.  '19,  1281  ;  was  a 
daughter  of  King  Andreas  11.  of  Hungary, 
and  in  her  4th  year  betrothed  to  Landgrave 
Ludwig  of  Tliuringia,  to  whose  court  at  the 
Wartburg  she  arrived  in  a  silver  cradle.  In 
1221  the  marriage  was  perfected.  Both  she 
and  her  husband  were  of  a  grave,  religious 
disposition,  and,  though  their  marriage"  was 
very  happy  and  she  bore  several  chiklren  to 
liim,  she  spent  most  of  her  time  and  energy  in 
devotional  practices  and  charitable  workt  In 
1227  her  husband  died,  and  from  that  moment 
she  gave  herself  up  entirely  to  the  morbid 


views  of  the  time  with  respect  to  a  perfect  re- 
ligious life,  and  submitted  herself  to  the  harsh- 
est and  meanest  treatment  by  her  confessor, 
Konrad  of  Marburg.  But  the  result  was  her 
canonization  in  1235  by  Gregory  IX.  (See 
Montalembert,  L'hidoire  de  St.  Elizabeth, 
Paris,  1836, 14th  ed.,  1876  ;  Kahnis,  Der  Gang 
der  Kirche,  Leipzig,  1881,  p.  227.) 

Elkesaites,  the  name  of  a  sect  founded  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Trajan  by  a  Jew,  Elkesai,  in 
Pera?a,  Moab,  Itura^a,  and  Nobatjea.  The 
religious  system  adopted  by  this  sect  was  a 
mixture  of  Essenism,  paganism,  and  Christi- 
anity. Of  the  books  of  the  Bible  they  adopted 
some  and  excluded  others  (the  epistles  of 
Paul),  but  they  had  a  holy  book  of  their  own, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  name  Elkesai, 
"  the  hidden  power,"  refers  to  the  person  of 
the  founder  or  to  this  book  of  the  foundation. 
Still  more  doubtful  it  is  whether  the  Elkesaites, 
who  are  also  called  the  "  Sampsseans"  in  Epi- 
phanius,  Hores.  19,  or  the  "  Subiaeans"  in  Hip- 
polytus,  PhilosophnmenaQ,  13,  had  anything  to 
do  with  the  Suabians,  a  sect  still  found  in 
Southern  Mesopotamia. 

Ellicott,  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  John,  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  at  "VVhitvvell,  near  Stamford, 
April  25,  1819  ;  studied  at;  Cambridge  ;  be- 
came professor  of  divinity  King's  College, 
London,  1848  ;  Hulsean  professor  of  divinity, 
Cambridge,  1860  ;  dean  of  Exeter,  1861  ; 
bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol,  1863.  He 
was  the  chairman  of  the  British  New  Testa- 
ment Revision  Compan}^,  1870-81.  Of  his  nu- 
merous works  may  be  mentioned  Life  of  our 
Lord,  London,  1860,  and  his  invaluable  com- 
mentaries on  Galatiaus  (1854,  2d  ed.,  1859), 
Epliesians  (1855,  5th  ed.,  1884),  Philippians, 
Colossians,  and  Philemon  (1857,  5th  ed.,  1888), 
Thessalonians  (1858,  4th  ed.,  1880),  Pastoral 
Epistles (1858,  5th  ed.,  1883),  First  Corinthians 
(1887).  He  edited  a  commentary  on  the  whole 
Bible  (1877-84,  8  vols.),  of  which  the  N.  T. 
part  was  reissued  in  revised  form  (1883,  13 
vols.)  under  title  Handy  Commentary. 

Ellis,  William,  Congregationalist  ;  b.  in 
London,  Aug.  29,  1794  ;  d.  at  Hoddesdon, 
20  m.  from  London,  June  9,  1872.  His  par- 
ents were  working  people,  and  he  had  only 
a  scanty  education.  He  went  to  work  for  a 
market  gardener  (1806)  and  so  earned  his  living 
till  1814,  when  he  was  accepted  for  training 
in  the  London  Missionary  Society's  institution 
at  Homerton,  and  in  1816  left  England  as  a 
missionary  to  the  South  Sea  Islands.  He 
labored  first  at  Eimeo,  one  of  the  Georgian  or 
Windward  Islands  (1817),  then  at  Huahine 
(1818),  but  in  1822  he  removed  to  Oahu,  one 
of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  was  very  helpful 
to  the  American  missionaries  there,  especially 
in  reducing  the  language  to  a  written  form,  a 
task  for  which  he  had  peculiar  fitness.  His 
mechanical  skill,  which  had  been  cultivated 
in  various  directions,  practical  acquaintance 
with  plants,  and  general  capacity,  joined  to  his 
scientific  and  antiquarian  tastes,  rendered  him 
unusually  qualified  for  successful  labor  in 
Polynesia,  and  enabled  him  to  do  much.  But 
his  wife's  health  compelled  his  return  (1824). 
He  passed  through  the  United  States  (1825), 
and  greatly  aided  the  cause  of  missions  by  his 


ELLWOOD 


(251) 


EMMONS 


speeches.  On  liis  journey  home  he  wrote  his 
first  bjok,  Tour  through  Hawaii,  London, 
1826.  lie  immediately  entered  the  home  S(  r- 
vice  of  tlie  London  Missionary  Society,  and 
presented  its  cause  tlirougli  tlie  country.  In 
1831  lie  became  assistant  foreign  secretary  ; 
in  18;32  the  chief  foreign  secretary,  and  so  re- 
mained until  1841,  wh'en  his  health  compelled 
his  resignation.  In  1847  he  lu'came  i)astor  of 
the  independent  congregation  at  lloddesdou, 
■uhere  he  had  resided  since  1841.  In  this  con- 
nection he  remained  till  death.  Between  1852 
and  1861,  by  commission  of  the  Society,  he 
made  4  visits  to  Madagascar,  when  the  Chris- 
tians were  being  persecuted,  and  the  last  time 
remained  till  1865  and  did  much  good.  His 
advice  served  to  avert  fresh  troubles  and  settle 
the  government  firmly.  His  chief  books  are, 
Polynesian  Researches,  London,  1829,  2  vols., 
3d  ed.,  1853,  4  vols.  ;  History  of  Madagascar, 
18;38,  2  vols.  ;  History  of  the  Tendon  Mission- 
ary Society,  1844  (vol.  1.  all  pub.) ;  Three  Vis- 
its to  Madagascar,  1858  ;  Madagascar  Re- 
visited,  1867  ;"  The  Martyr  Church  [of  Mada- 
gascar], 1870.  (See  his  life  by  his  son,  Lon- 
don, 1878.) 

EUwood,  Thomas,  Friend  ;  b.  at  Crowell, 
Oxfordshire,  Eug.,  Oct.,  1639  ;  d.  at  Hunger 
Hill,  near  Amerdean,  Buckingliamshire, 
March  1,  1713.  He  was  Milton's  reader  in 
Latin  for  a  time,  and  suggested  the  composi- 
tion of  Paradise  Regained. 

Er-o-him,  the  plural  of  majesty,  a  Hebrew 
name  of  God. 

Emanation,  a  theory  according  to  which 
the  w>)rld  was  not  created  by  a  divine  fiat,  but 
all  things  emanated  or  flowed  from  a  Suprejne 
Principle  without  any  conscious  exercise  of 
will  on  the  part  of  God.  What  is  thus  given 
off  departs  more  and  more  from  its  source, 
and  gradually  deteriorates,  and  thus  the  origin 
of  evil  is  accounted  for.  The  doctrine  per- 
vades ancient  Egyptian  and  Indian  mythology, 
Neoplatonism,  and  Gnosticism.      T.  W.  C. 

Embalming,  such  as  practised  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, consisted  in  opening  the  body,  removing 
tbe  viscera,  and  filling  out  the  cavity  with 
antiseptic  drugs  and  herbs.  The  Jews  must 
liave  learned  this  practice  in  Egypt,  but  the 
only  examples  on  record  in  the  Old  Testament 
are  those  of  Jacob  and  Joseph.  Later  it  be- 
came more  frequent,  as  is  seen  from  the  de- 
scription of  the  burial  of  our  Lord  by  St. 
John,  and  from  the  Jews  it  was  adopted  by 
the  Cliristians  and  applied  not  only  to  martyrs, 
but  quite  generally  in  the  first  centuries  of  the 
church. 

Ember  Days  (Latin,  Qnatnor  Tempora  ; 
French,  Qaatre  Temps;  German,  Qiiatember ; 
Danish  and  Swedish,  I'ainperdag ;  Norwe- 
gian, Iinbredagar)  means  the  first  Wednesday, 
Friday,  and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday 
in  Lent,  after  Whitsunday,  after  S.'pt.  14,  and 
after  Dec.  13,  set  apart  by  the  Council  of 
Placenlia,  1095,  for  fasting  and  prayers  for 
the  se;\-<ons.  In  the  Danish  Church  they  were 
connei-ted  with  the  exercise  of  church  disci- 
pline :  in  the  Anglican  Church  they  are  still 
connected  with  ecclesiastical  ordination. 


Embury,  Philip,  the  first  Methodist  min- 
ister in  America  ;  b.  at  Ballygaran,  Ireland, 
Sept.  21,  1729  ;  d.  at  Camden.  Washingtoa 
County,  N.  Y.,  Aug.,  1775.  He  was  a  car- 
penter ;  became  a  local  preacher,  1758  ;  came 
to  New  York,  1760,  and  in  response  to  the  ex- 
hortation of  his  cousin,  Barbara  Heck,  he  be- 
gan preaching  in  1766,  at  first  in  his  own 
liouse  on  Barrack  street,  now  Park  place, 
but  in  1767  in  a  rigging  loft  on  what  is  now 
William  street.  In  1768  a  chapel  was  erected 
on  the  site  of  the  present  John  street  church. 
In  1769  lie  went  to  Camden,  N.  Y..  and 
worked  at  his  trade  and  preached  on  Sundays. 
He  died  of  an  accident  received  while  mow- 
ing. A  monument  was  erected  to  liim  in  1873 
at  Woodland  Cemetery,  Cambridge,  N.  Y. 

Em'-ma-us  {hot  springs),  a  village  60  fur- 
longs or  7i  m.  from  Jerusalem,  where  our 
Lord  revealed  liim.self  to  2  of  his  disciples  on 
the  afternoon  of  the  day  on  which  he  rose 
from  the  dead.  Its  precise  site  is  much  dis- 
puted, but  at  present  the  most  probable  view 
puts  it  at  Kubeibeh,  a  little  over  7  m.  n.w.  of 
Jerusalem.  T.  AY.  C. 

Emmeram  (or  Haimaram,  Heimraban), 
St.,  missionary  in  Soutliern  Germany,  mur- 
dered in  Ilellfendorf,  near  liatisbon,  Sept.  22, 
652.  He  was  bishop,  probably  at  Poitiers, 
but  resigned  about  649  and  went  toward 
Pannonia  to  preach  the  gospel  there.  He 
rested  at  Ratisbon  and  was  persuaded  to  stay 
there  for  3  years,  during  which  he  did  much 
good.  On  his  way  to  Rome  he  was  murdered. 
He  is  the  subject  of  3  biograpliies,  whicli  con- 
tradict one  another.  The  famous  Benedictine 
abbey,  St.  Emmeram,  now  suppressed,  con- 
tained his  reliques. 

Enunerich,  Anna  Katharina,  b.  at  Flamske, 
near  Cosfeld,  Prussia,  Sept.  8,  1774  ;  d.  at 
Diilmen,  Feb.  9,  1824.  She  became  an  Au- 
gustinian  nim  in  the  Agnetenberg  cloister  at 
Diilmen,  Westphalia,  1803  ;  when  it  was  sup- 
pressed in  181 1  she  removed  to  a  private  house. 
The  next  year  she  received  the  "stigmata," 
the  wounds  of  Christ,  on  hands,  feet,  and 
side,  and  soon  after  began  the  mysterious  ex- 
istence without  food  which  rendered  her  such 
a  phenomenon.  Clemens  Brentano  believed 
her  ecstatic  utterances  to  be  revelations,  and 
committed  them  to  paper  in  several  volumes. 
(Cf.  art.  s.v.  in  Wetzcr  and  Wette,  2d  ed.) 

Emmons,  Nathaniel,  D.D.  (Dartmouth, 
1798).  b.  .Alay  1,  1745.  in  East  Iladdam  (Mil- 
lington),  Conn.;  d.  Sept.  23,  1840,  in  Franklin, 
Mass.  In  early  life  he  did  not  show  much 
aptitude  for  study,  and  was  put  upon  a  farm  ; 
but  conceiving  a  desire  for  an  education,  he 
began  to  fit  for  college  in  1762,  entered  Yale 
the  following  j'car,  and  in  due  time  graduated 
(1767),  at  the  age  of  22.  The  loss  of  liis  par- 
ents and  indebtedness  compelled  liim  to  spend 
some  time  in  teaching,  but  he  soon  contrived 
to  begin  his  theological  studies,  which  he 
prosecuted  with  Rev.  Nathan  Strong  of  Co- 
ventry, and  then  with  Dr.  John  Smalley,  of 
Berlin,  Conn.  By  the  latter  he  was  intro- 
duced to  the  princii>les  of  the  "  New  Divin- 
ity." He  experienced  some  difficulty  in  get- 
ting licensure  to  preach,  one  of  the  obnoxious 


EMPIRICISM 


(252) 


ENCYCLOPEDISTS 


views  being  this,  that  only  the  infants  of  those 
■who  were  themselves  in  full  eommunion  with 
the  church  were  to  be  baptized.  He  was, 
liowcver,  licensed  Oct.  3,  1769.  After  some 
time  spent  in  candidating  in  Central  and  West- 
ern New  York,  and  in  New  Hampshire,  he 
came  finally  to  Wrentham  (Franklin),  Mass., 
where  he  received  a  call  and  M'as  ordained 
April  21,  1773.  Here  he  remained  all  his  life, 
resigning  the  pastorate  May  28,  1827. 

Emmons  gave  himself  to  the  studies  and 
the  spiritual  duties  of  his  calling  with  an  en- 
tireness  of  devotion  scarcely  ever  equalled. 
Though  surrounded  with  a  family  (he  was 
thrice  married)  and  owning  a  farm  from  which 
he  derived  a  portion  of  his  support,  he  never 
engaged  in  the  least  manual  labor,  or  even 
superintended  his  establishment.  He  spent 
his  life  almost  literally  in  his  study.  His  read- 
ing was  broad  and  comprehensive,  though 
principally  in  theology  ;  but  he  was  above  all 
things  a  man  of  thought.  His  great  work  in 
the  world  was  the  influence  which  he  wielded 
upon  the  convictions  of  men.  His  preaching 
was  stimulating  and  instructive  in  the  ex- 
treme, and  made  a  parish  of  theologians.  For 
more  than  40  years  he  taught  candidates  for 
the  ministry,  instructing  100  such.  His  ser- 
vices in  developing  Hopkinsianism  are  detailed 
in  the  article  upon  New  England  Theology. 
But  he  was  not  without  influence  upon  the 
general  course  of  events  in  his  times.  In  poli- 
tics he  was  a  firm  Federalist,  and  regarded 
Jefferson  as  a  "  Jeroboam."  His  influence  in 
sustaining  Congregationalism  in  Massachu- 
setts, especially  against  those  who  would  have 
adjusted  it  to  or  combined  it  with  Presby- 
terianism,  was  decisive  against  such  a  move- 
ment. He  was  one  of  the  framers  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Home  Missionary  Society,  and 
always  greatly  interested  in  its  work.  Ten 
years  before  the  organization  of  the  American 
Board,  he  was  advocating  foreign  missions. 
He  was  an  opponent  of  slavery  and  of  Ma- 
sonry. The  "  Hopkinsian  Seminary"  which 
was  to  have  been  formed,  and  which  was 
finally  united  with  that  of  the  "  Old  Calvin- 
ists"  to  produce  Andover  Seminary,  was  to 
liave  been  located  in  his  parish.  The  Andover 
Creed  was  adopted  under  his  advice.  He  was 
also  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  magazines 
of  the  day,  and  these  efforts,  with  some  vol- 
umes of  published  .sermons,  constituted  his 
literary  activity.  His  works  have  been  pub- 
lished, the  best  ed.  being  that  of  1861,  Boston, 
6  vols.,  with  a  Memoir  by  Professor  Park. 
F.  H.  F. 

Empiricism,  that"  philosophy  which  allows 
notiiing  to  be  true  but  what  is  given  by  ex- 
perience, and  rejects  all  a  priori  knowledge. 
It  arose  out  of  the  system  uf  Heraclitus,  which 
Plato  refuted.  Its  modern  founder  was  Locke, 
who  made  experience  comprehend  both  sensa- 
tion and  reflection.  Condillac  and  other 
French  writers  pushed  this  to  an  extreme,  re- 
jecting reflection.  Hence  has  been  developed 
what  has  justly  been  called  the  Sensualistic 
Philosophy,  which  is  alike  untrue  and  per- 
nicious. T.  W.  C. 


Cologne,  Treves,  Mayence,  and  Salzburg, 
which  produced  the  so-called  Ems  Punctua- 
tion, in  which  certain  restrictions  were  laid 
upon  the  power  of  the  pope  in  the  dioceses, 
and  especially  the  abolition  of  the  ortice  of 
nuncio  in  Germany  was  demanded.  The  Isi- 
dorean  decretals  were  declared  to  be  a  for- 
gery. The  occasion  of  this  congress  was  the 
establishment  of  a  nunciature  at  Munich .  The 
suspicion  that  the  above-named  archbishops 
were  really  working  to  strengthen  their  hands 
at  the  expense  of  the  bishops  weakened  their 
cause,  and  the  pope's  answer  to  the  Punctu- 
ation, which  denied  its  position  entirely,  was 
received  as  settling  the  matter. 

Ems  Punctuation.    See  above. 

Emser,  Hieronymus,  Roman  Catholic,  op- 
ponent of  Luther  ;  b.  at  Ulm,  March  20, 
1477  ;  d.  at  Dresden,  Nov.  8, 1527.  He  studied 
at  Tubingen  anil  Basel  ;  became  chaplain  and 
secretary  of  Cardinal  Raymond  of  Petrandi, 
1501  ;  delivered  humanistic  lectures  at  Erfurt, 
1504,  and  there  Luther  is  said  to  have  heard 
him  ;  lectured  with  small  success  at  Leipzig, 
1505  ;  entered  the  service  of  Duke  George  of 
Saxony,  and  entertained  Luther  at  Dresden, 
1517.  After  the  Leipzig  Disputation  of  1519 
he  arrayed  himself  openly  against  Luther,  and 
the  two  had  a  violent  and  abusive  pamphlet 
war,  nothing  to  the  credit  of  either.  He  ren- 
dered Protestantism  a  service,  however,  by 
pointing  out  1400  errors  and  lies,  as  he  called 
them,  in  Luther's  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  but  his  own  translation  (anony- 
mously and  without  place,  1527,  3d  ed.,  Leip- 
zig, 1529,  6th  ed.,  1660),  based  on  the  Vulgate, 
is  lightly  esteemed.  (See  life  by  Waldau, 
Anspach,  1783,  and  writings  of  1521,  edited 
by  Enders,  Halle,  1890. 

Encratites  {abstiiients)  does  not  denote  a 
distinct  sect,  but  certain  views  of  asceticism, 
enjoining  abstinence  from  flesh-meat,  wine, 
marriage,  etc.  Such  views  were  found  among 
the  Jews  (Essenes),  the  Greeks  (Pythago- 
reans), in  India,  and  also  in  the  Christian 
world,  especially  among  the  Gnostics. 

Encyclica,  Encyclical  Letters,  are  sent 
by  the  popes  to  all  the  bishops  of  that  church, 
giving  direction  or  advice  in  relation  to  some 
danger  or  special  emergency.  Particularly 
famous  among  modern  encyclicals  is  that  of 
Pius  IX.,  called  the  Syllabus  of  Dec.  8,  1864, 
in  which  he  condemned  what  the  Protestants 
hold  to  constitute  modern  civilization. 

Encyclopsedia,  Theological,  is  that  disci- 
pline which  sets  forth  the  entire  range  of  the- 
ological activity  in  outline,  and  shows  the 
bearings  and  inter-relations  of  the  several  de- 
partments, thus  furnishing  an  introduction  to 
the  study.  The  best  modern  works  are  in 
German  'by  Hagcnbach  (Leipzig,  1833,  12th 
ed.,  Reischle,  1889,  upon  which  Crooks  and 
Hurst  have  based  their  work,  Theological  En- 
cyclopa>dia  and  Methxlology,  New  York,  1885, 
and  Weidner  his,  Philadelphia,  1885),  and 
Rabiger,  Leipzig,  1880,  Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1884-85,  "2  vols. 


Congress  of,  held   Aug.,    1786,   be-        Encyclopedists   is   the  common  name  of 
tween  representatives  of  the  archbishops  of    that  party,  comprising  both  readers  and  wri- 


SNDOR 


(253) 


ENGLAND 


ters,  which  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
was  represented  in  France  by  the  Encyclopedic 
den  Sciences,  des  Arts,  et  des  Metiers,  edited  by 
Diderot  and  D'Alembert,  Paris,  1751-65,  17 
vols.,  suppl.,  1776-77,  4  vols.,  and  which,  in 
spite  of  striking  national  differences  and  in- 
numerable incidental  variations,  corresponds 
exactly  to  the  party  known  a  little  later  in  Ger- 
many under  the  name  of  Rationalists.  In  both 
cases  the  starting-point  is  the  same — the  pliilos- 
opliy  of  Locke  ;  and  the  result  is  the  same— a 
ready  acceptance  of  the  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity and  the  polity  of  the  Christian  Church,  but 
for  reasons  which,  with  inherent  neces'^ity, 
must  make  the  doctrines  a  subject  of  indiffer- 
ence and  the  polity  an  object  of  ridicule.  See 
Dn>EuoT.  C.  P. 

Endor,  Witch  of.     See  Saul. 

Energumens  (Greek  ivepyoh/xevoi,  "  pos- 
sessed by  an  evil  spirit,"  that  is,  insane), 
formed  a  separate  class  of  members  in  the 
primitive  church,  and  were  put  under  the  care 
of  tlie  exorcist.  When  they  were  quiet  they 
were  allowed  to  be  present  during  service  to- 
gether with  the  catechumens  and  penitents  at 
the  porch.  When  they  were  cured  they  were 
immediately  restored  to  full  membership. 

Enfantia  (on-fon-tan),  Barthelemy  Pros- 
per, Saint-Simonist,  b.  in  Paris.  Feb.  8,  1796  ; 
d.  tiiere,  Sept.  1,  1864.  He  received  tlie  in- 
structions of  the  dying  Saint  Simon,  and  with 
Radriguez  endeavored  to  carry  out  his  great 
scheme  for  social  and  political  progress,  and 
for  a  while  seemed  to  make  headway,  so  that 
in  1831  he  boasted  to  have  40,000  followers. 
But  his  free-love  doctrine  brought  him,  in 
18:^2,  in  contact  with  the  police,  and  his  im- 
prisonment was  the  death-blow  to  his  society, 
which  soon  became  extinct.  He  was  a  man  of 
noble  presence  and  very  charming  manners, 
and  doubtless  sincere.  "He  wrote  in  1832  a 
substitute  for  the  Bible,  but  did  not  publish  it. 

En-ge'-di  {fountain  of  the  kid),  called  also 
Ilazezon-Tamar,  the  city  of  palm  trees  (Gen. 
xiv.  7),  on  tlie  west  side  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
about  24  m  s.e.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  David's 
hiding-place  from  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  29),  and 
is  now  called  Ain-Jidy.  The  heights  of  Engedi 
are  1500  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  vineyards  are 
mentioned  Song  Sol.  i.  14.  T.  W.  C. 

England,  Church  of.  The  Church  of  Eng- 
lan  1  is  tliat  branch  of  the  Cliristian  Church 
wiiich  has  existed  in  England  from  the  ear- 
liest times.  The  beginning  of  its  history  goes 
back  to  the  year59(;.  when  the  English  people 
were  converted  to  Christianity  and  Augustine 
became  the  first  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Previous  to  this  date  there  existed  in  Britain 
a  Christian  church  whose  origin  is  imknown, 
but  was  probably  derived  from  Gaul  during 
the  2d  century.  Our  meagre  knowledge  of 
this  church  is  mainly  based  upon  the  chronicle 
of  Gildas  and  Bcde's  ecclesiastical  history. 
We  know  regarding  it  that  in  its  organiza- 
tion, doctrine,  and  worship  it  resembled  the 
churches  on  the  continent  ;  that  during  the 
Diocletian  persecution  it  gained  a  famous 
martyr  in  St.  Alban  ;  that  tlie  records  of  the 
Council  of  Aries,  in  314,  contain  the  names 


of  8  of  its  bishops  ;  that  it  was  invited  to  send 
representatives  to  the  Council  of  Nice.  Gildas 
and  Bede  speak  of  its  infection  by  the  Ariau 
heresy — a  testimony  which  is  weakened  or 
counterbalanced  by  the  allusions  of  prominent 
church  fathers  to  its  orthodox  reputation. 
The  author  of  the  Pelagian  heresy  was  a 
Briton,  and  his  teaching  is  said  to  have  been 
acceptable  in  his  native  land.  It  does  not 
speak  well  for  the  intellectual  activity  of  the 
British  Church  to  find  that  recourse  was  had 
to  Gaul  for  combatants  to  overcome  this  her- 
etical tendency.  After  the  Saxon  conquest  in 
449,  the  British  Church  took  refuge  in  Wales 
and  the  western  coast,  doing  nothing  for  the 
conversion  of  its  conquerors,  and  England  re- 
mained in  heathen  darkness  for  nearly  150 
years. 

Under  the  name  of  the  British  church  are 
sometimes  erroneously  included  the  cliurches 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland.  But  these  were  in- 
dependent of  Britain,  having  no  closer  rela- 
tionship to  it  than  had  the  Celtic  church  of 
Gaul.  Ireland  was  converted  by  St.  Patrick, 
a  Briton  by  birth,  in  432,  according  to  the  ac- 
credited date.  Scotland  owes  its  "conversion 
to  Irish  zeal,  Columba,  an  Irishman,  establish- 
ing himself  there  in  563.  While  the  British 
Church  became  barren  and  inactive  after  the 
Saxon  conquest,  these  northern  Celtic 
churches  were  distinguished  for  piety,  mis- 
sionary zeal,  and  learning,  especially  the 
knowledge  of  Greek,  which  had  almost  dis- 
appeared from  Western  Europe.  But  all  of 
these  Celtic  churches  possess  one  common 
characteristic  in  having  derived  their  Christi- 
anity from  Gaul,  into  whose  worship  had 
passed  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  Eastern 
Churcli,  and  whose  liturgy  differed  in  many 
respects  from  the  Roman  use. 

The  conversion  of  England  by  Augustine 
and  his  40  monks  is  a  familiar  story.  It 
marks  the  beginning  of  the  Englisli  Church, 
and  is  full  of  significance  for  the  later  history, 
bringing  England  into  relationship  with  Rome, 
inspiring  a  sentimeijt  of  gratitude  to  its  bishop, 
Gregory  the  Great,  whose  interest  in  England 
had  originated  the  mission  of  Augustine. 
There  is  no  continuity  between  the  British 
Church  and  the  Church  of  England.  As  Mr. 
Freeman  has  remarked,  no  English  bishopric 
dates  further  back  than  the  landing  of  Augus- 
tine or  the  early  part  of  the  7th  century,  while 
on  the  continent  episcopal  sees  go  back  to  the 
2d  century,  or  are  almost  coeval  with  the  rise 
of  Christianity.  (Cf.  Canon  Bright,  Early 
Eiifilish  History  ;  Dean  Hook,  Lices  of  the 
Archbishops  if' Canterbury ,  vol.  i.  ;  Freeman, 
The  Oririia  of  the  Enr/lish  Nation.) 

The  labors  of  Augustine  as  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (+605)  resulted  in  the  Christiani- 
zation  of  Southern  and  i\Iiddle  England.     The 
conversion   of  the  north  and  east  was  soon 
I  after  hopefullv  begun  bv  Paulinus.  archbishop 
I  T)f  York  (625)';  but  the'death  of  Edwin,  king 
I  of  Northumbria  (633),  caused  his  fiight,  and 
I  liis  work  was  almost  undone.    If  the  British 
'  Chiirch  had  done  nothing  for  the  conversion 
I  of  the  English,  yet  the  connection   of  Eng- 
land's Church  with  the  Irish-Scotch  churches 
I  becomes  from  this  time  a  dose  one.    When 
Oswald  becanje  king  of  Northumbria  (635-42) 


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he  invited  Aidan,  a  Scotch  mouk,  to  under- 
take the  reconversion  of  his  kingdom,  an  at- 
tempt which  was  followed  by  such  remark- 
able success  that,  in  a  few  years,  the  northern 
part  of  England  became  Christian,  receiving 
also  that  type  of  Christianity  which  owed 
nothing  to  llome,  and  was  jealous  of  its  intiu- 
ence.  The  differences  between  the  Roman 
and  the  Irish-Scotch  confessions,  as  they  are 
commonly  enumerated,  relate  to  such  unim- 
portant points  as  the  manner  of  baptism,  the 
mode  of  tonsure,  and  the  time  of  keeping 
Easter  ;  but  it  is  these  little  things  which  cre- 
ate irritation  and  make  harmonious  church 
life  impossible.  In  addition  to  these  points 
there  was  an  unwillingness  on  the  part  of  the 
Irish-Scotch  churches  to  recognize  the  author- 
ity of  Rome  ;  they  maintained  also  the  fitness 
of  marriage  for  the  clergy,  nor,  in  a  word, 
had  they  accepted  the  usages  and  develop- 
ments of  Latin  Christianity  which  date  from 
the  time  of  Leo  the  Great  (440-61).  It  is 
quite  possible  that  they  might  have  adopted 
them  had  their  relations  with  church  life  on 
the  continent  been  closer  ;  yet  it  is  also  ad- 
missible to  suppose  that  the  purer  type  of 
Christianity  which  they  retained  rested  upon 
discernment  of  principles,  and  was  not  merely 
a  stagnant  conservatism  (cf.  Ebrard,  Die  Iro- 
schott.  3Iissionskirche,  Giitersloh,  1873).  It  was 
formerly  supposed  that  the  Irish-Scotch 
churches  were  Quart odeciman  in  their  view  of 
Easter,  but  since,  according  to  Bede,  they  held 
the  festival  on  Sunday,  the  difference  was  not  a 
doctrinal  one,  but  sprang  rather  from  an 
earlier  mode  of  computing  Easter,  after  it 
had  been  abandoned  by  Rome  for  the  cycle  of 
Dionysius  Exiguus  (525).  At  the  Council  of 
Whitby  (664)  the  Roman  use  triumphed  over 
that  of  the  Irish-Scotch,  so  far  as  England 
was  concerned  (cf.  Hart,  Ecclesiastical  Rec- 
ords ;  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  Councils  and  Ec- 
clesiastical Documents).  In  668  came  Theodore 
as  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a  Greek  ap- 
pointed by  Rome,  who  introduced  discipline 
among  the  clergy,  reorganized  monasteries, 
stimulated  learning,  especially  the  study  of 
Gre(!k,  and  so  thoroughly  asserted  the  primacy 
of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  as  to  be  entitled  to 
the  name  of  founder  of  a  national  church  in 
England.  In  716  the  Roman  usage  began  to 
win  its  way  in  the  Irish-Scotch  churches, 
though  Scotland  was  not  entirely  converted 
to  Rome  until  in  1093  Malcolm,  the  first  of  its 
kings,  undertook  the  task,  which  was  com- 
pleted by  his  son  David  in  1152.  Ireland 
wheeled  into  line  only  after  the  conquest  of 
the  country  in  1171,  when  Henry  II.,  who  had 
been  authorized  by  Pope  Hadrian  I V^.  to  in- 
vade the  country,  subjected  its  church  to  the 
authority  of  the  see  of  Canterbury. 

This  first  period  in  the  history  of  the  Church 
of  England,  extending  to  1066,  the  time  of  the 
Norman  Conquest,  and  sometimes  known  as 
the  Anglo-Saxon  age,  coincides  with  the  early 
Middle  Ages,  and  is  marked  by  the  same  sub- 
stantial characteristics.  But  the  differences 
are  significant,  and  are  chiefly  owing  to  the 
isolation  of  England,  as  also  in  some  'measure 
to  the  character  of  its  people.  While  there  is 
a  sentiment  of  reverence  for  Rome,  there  are  no 
traces  of  the  later  Roman  supremacy.    Tiie 


Church  of  England  is  practically  governed  by 
its  king  in  conjunction  with  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  to  whose  see  the  northern  metro- 
politan of  York  offers  no  rivalry.  There  is  no 
distinction  between  church  and  state,  the 
Witenagemot  being  composed  of  prelates  and 
nobles,  who  unite  in  legislation  affecting  the 
temporal  or  spiritual  interests  of  the  kingdom. 
Monasticism  also  assumes  a  less  rigid  shape 
than  the  Benedictine  rule.  The  secular  clergy 
are  more  prominent,  and  the  building  of  par- 
ish churches,  which  have  always  been  the 
beauty  and  glory  of  England,  was  stimulated 
by  a  regulation  of  Athelstan  (925-40),  which 
allowed  any  churl  or  franklin  admission  to 
the  Witenagemot  whose  estate  possessed  a 
church  with  a  bell-tower.  The  number  of 
parish  churches  at  the  Conquest  is  estimated 
at  4500.  In  learning  the  English  Church 
equals,  if  it  does  not  surpass,  the  church  in 
the  Frankish  monarchy,  as  is  evident  from  the 
names  of  Bede,  Alcuin,  John  Scotus  Erigena, 
and  Alfred  the  Great,  the  latter  of  whom 
found  time,  in  addition  to  his  work  in  resist- 
ing the  Danes,  to  translate  Boethius'  Consola- 
tion of  Pltilosophy,  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory, and  parts  of  the  Bible.  In  his  time 
(840-901)  the  worship  of  images  was  intro- 
duced into  England,  which  had  been  sanc- 
tioned by  the  7th  General  Council  in  787.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  in  his  translation  of 
the  Decalogue  Alfred  felt  at  liberty  to  omit 
the  second  commandment.  As  to  doctrine, 
judging  from  the  writings  of  Elfric,  which 
had  the  sanction  of  the  archbi.shop  of  Canter- 
bury, transubstantiation  yielded  to  the  more 
sober  and  scriptural  view  of  Ratramnus.  But 
signs  of  a  coming  change  appear  in  the  time 
of  Duustau,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (959- 
988),  who  restored  and  built  monasteries,  the 
monastic  system  having  been  broken  down 
during  the  Danish  invasion,  introduced  the 
foreign  Benedictine  rule,  banished  the  married 
and  secular  clergy  from  the  cathedrals,  thus 
laying  the  foundation  for  the  antagonism  be- 
tween the  secular  and  religious  clergy  which 
lasted  till  the  Reformation.  In  Edward  the 
Confessor  (1043-66)  we  have  the  type  of  a 
king  more  interested  in  the  church  than  in 
the  state,  whose  reign  constituted  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  "  Ages  of  Faith." 

During  the  Norman  period,  which,  begin- 
ning with  the  Conquest  in  1066,  may  be  taken 
as  extending  to  the  time  of  Wycliffe,  a  great 
change  passed  over  the  Church  of  England. 
It  became  one  of  the  papal  states  in  the  vast 
scheme  of  Hildebrand,  a  result,  however,  not 
achieved  without  vigorous  and  persistent  op- 
position from  the  English  kings.  The  famous 
investiture  controversy  is  represented  by  St. 
Anselm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1093- 
1109),  who  advocated  the  separation  of  church 
and  state,  supporting  the  extreme  ultramon- 
tane claims  of  the  popes,  presenting  also,  for 
the  first  time,  the  spectacle  of  the  primate  of 
all  England  iu  opposition  to  the  English 
throne.  'His  episcopate  marks  the  first  stage 
in  the  process  by  which  England  was  sub- 
jected to  the  civii  supremacy  of  Rome.  The 
second  stage  was  represented  by  Thomas  a 
Becket,  who,  as  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1162-70),  fought  for  the  prerogatives  of  the 


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ecclesiastical  courts  iu  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  the  forged  decretals,  overcoming 
the  king,  who  aimed  to  subject  the  clergy  to 
the  secular  tribunals.  The  third  stage  in  the 
great  conflict  was  rej^resented  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent III.  (1198-1316),  who,  after  humiliating 
King  John,  took  possession  of  England  as  a 
papal  fief,  allowing  the  king  his  throne  on 
condition  of  an  annual  payment  of  tribute  of 
1000  marks.  Innocent  also  established  the 
right  of  the  papacy  to  the  appointment  to 
English  sees  and  benefices,  and  the  "  Ages  of 
Faith"  were  proclaimed  when  the  religious 
sentiment  of  the  people  bent  beneath  the  force 
of  the  papal  ban  and  interdict.  It  was  tlie  in- 
troduction of  the  Norman  people  into  England 
which  had  made  this  revolution  possible. 
They  brought  with  them  devotion  to  the 
papacy  as  one  feature  in  the  religious  ideal  of 
the  age.  William  the  Conqueror  had  received 
the  papal  sanction  for  his  invasion,  together 
with  a  banner  blessed  for  the  undertaking  by 
the  pope.  It  was  by  William  that  the  ecclesi- 
astical courts  were  for  the  first  time  introduced 
into  England.  He  also  ejected  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  occupants  of  all  high  positions,  filling 
their  places  with  his  Norman  adherents.  It 
was  the  Normans  who  covered  England  with 
monasteries  of  foreign  origin,  owning  a  for- 
eign allegiance  ;  for  it  is  characteristic  of  the 
English  that  they  have  never  originated  any 
great  monastic  order,  but  liave  been  forced  to 
receive  the  creations  of  France  or  Italy.  The 
Normans  stimulated  the  building  of  cathe- 
drals, churches,  and  monasteries,  after  the 
new  type  of  architecture  in  France  known  as 
the  Gothic.  While  the  Conquest  was  attended 
by  great  evils,  yet  in  many  respects  it  was  a 
blessing  to  England  and  the  English  Church. 
It  enlarged  the  national  horizon,  inspired  Eng- 
land with  the  ideals  of  the  time,  and  possibly 
prevented  the  English  Church  from  subsiding 
into  a  mere  creature  of  tlie  state  without  inde- 
pendence or  spiritual  infiuence. 

Although  the  effect  of  the  Norman  invasion 
was  to  reiluce  England  beneath  papal  suprem- 
acy, yet  the  Norman  kings  caught  the  con- 
tagion of  that  national  spirit  which  may  be 
discerned  so  clearly  iu  the  older  England,  and, 
like  their  predecessors,  labored  for  the  growth 
of  English  nationality.  When  the  hour  came 
for  tlie  assertion  of  the  national  consciousness 
in  the  different  countries  of  Europe,  England 
was  foremost  in  asserting  the  rights  of  the  na- 
tions against  that  policy  which  had  subordi- 
nated the  nations  to  an  imperial  power  calling 
itself  spiritual.  The  Reformation  in  England, 
as  on  the  continent,  dates  from  the  14th  cen- 
tury. It  was  through  a  later  interpretation  of 
the  history,  when  the  church  no  longer  appre- 
ciated the  spiritual  significance  of  the  nation- 
ality, that  the  Reformation  was  conceived  as 
originating  with  the  revolution  of  the  16th 
century.  So  far,  at  least,  as  the  Church  of 
England  is  concerned,  there  can  be  no  ade- 
quate presentation  of  the  Reformation  nor,  in 
reality,  any  justification  of  its  method,  if  the 
national  consciousness  be  not  regarded  as  its 
supreme  factor.    It  needed  only  the  trium- 

fhant  assertion  of  papal  principles  as  under 
Qnocent  III.  and  his  successors  to  develop 
the  antagonism  to  a  power  which  hindered  its 


growth.  Thus  Magna  Charta  was  the  mani- 
festation of  a  national  purpose  which,  ripening 
slowly,  w^asat  last  to  shatter  Christendom  into 
fragments.  There  were,  indeed,  abuses  which 
called  loudly  for  reform.  If  in  the  time  of 
William  II.  or  Henry  I.  the  state  had  shown 
a  tendency  to  tyrannize  over  the  church,  from 
the  time  of  Innocent  the  situation  was  reverted, 
and  simony  when  practised  by  the  church  was 
a  worse  evil  than  when  practised  by  the  state. 
When  ecclesiastical  offices  were  sold  to  the 
highest  bidder  or  were  claimed  by  the  popes 
as  their  own  property  wherewith  to  enrich 
their  friends  or  relations,  morality  and  religion 
declined  together,  and  the  shameless  spectacle 
nowhere  awoke  sterner  or  more  effective  pro- 
tests than  in  England.  Robert  Grosseteste, 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  defended  the  church  against 
papal  encroachments,  prevented  Innocent  IV. 
(1235)  from  making  his  infant  nephew  canon 
of  Lincoln  Cathedral,  and  died  at  war  with 
the  papal  see.  In  1275  a  statute  of  Westmin- 
ster enacted  what  Henry  II.  had  vainly  striven 
to  accomplish  against  Becket,  that  clerks  in- 
dicted for  felony  should  first  undergo  a  trial 
before  lawful  men.  In  1279  was  passed  the 
famous  statute  of  mortmain,  which  made  the 
king's  consent  necessary  for  the  transfer  of 
lauded  property  to  the  church.  The  statute 
of  Provisors,  in  1343,  prohibited  the  popes 
from  making  reversionary  grants  of  benefices, 
or  from  interfering  with  the  freedom  of  eccle- 
siastical elections,  or  disparaging  the  king's 
prerogative.  In  order  to  prevent  cases  arising 
under  these  statutes  from  being  carried  to 
Rome,  the  statute  of  Prtsmunire  was  enacted, 
which  declared  any  pcsrson  an  outlaw  who 
should  carry  any  plea  to  Rome  which  belonged 
to  the  king's  court.  Again,  in  1379,  foreigners 
were  prohibited  from  holding  livings  in  Eng- 
land ;  in  1392  the  statute  of  Praemunire  was 
confirmed,  putting  an  end  to  the  nomination 
of  English  bishops  by  the  popes,  and  in  1404 
these  statutes  were  reatfirmed  and  an  effort 
made  to  prevent  the  king  from  granting 
licenses  for  their  violation. 

These  assertions  of  the  national  conscious- 
ness through  parliament  were  not  inspired  by 
a  mere  spirit  of  national  selfishness.  Beneath 
them  lies  a  theological  or  moral  principle  first 
presented  by  Wycliffe  (1324-84).  Not  to  dwelt 
upon  Wycliffe's  efforts  to  reform  the  church 
by  reconstituting  its  doctrinal  standards,  by 
his  warfare  against  monks  and  mendicancy, 
by  his  infusion  of  new  life  through  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  and  by  sending  forth 
preachers  throughout  the  kingdom,  it  is  im- 
portant to  lay  emphasis  upon  his  relations  to 
the  papal  see  and  the  motive  of  its  justifica- 
tion, lie  regarded  the  pope  as  Antichrist,  and 
was  prepared  to  substitute  for  his  visible  head- 
ship of  the  church  the  invisible  sovereignty  of 
Christ.  He  discerned  the  sanctity  and  spir- 
itual character  of  the  state,  as  fulfilling  a  spir- 
itual purpose  no  less  than  the  church.  Hence 
he  spoke  of  the  state  as  the  dominium  of 
Christ,  while  the  church  represents  his  minis- 
terium.  His  teaching  reverses  the  argument 
of  Ilildebrand,  whicli  had  carried  conviction 
for  300  years,  that  the  state  dealt  only  with 
temporal  affairs,  and  must  therefore  be  subor- 
dinate to  the  church,  which  dealt  with  eternal 


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interests.  It  has  been  questioned  -wliether  the 
teaching  of  Wj^cliffe  continued  to  influence 
the  nation  during  the  period  that  intervened 
until  the  Reformation.  If  his  intiuence  seemed 
to  diminish,  yet  his  teaching  regarding  the  re- 
lation of  church  and  state  was  not  forgotten, 
and  in  the  16th  century  it  became  the  material 
principle  of  the  struggle  -which  England  waged 
with  Rome.  Others  beside  Wycliffe  labored 
for  the  same  end.  Bradwardine,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  (ob.  1349),  revived  the  Augus- 
tinian  theology,  and  Langland,  the  author  of 
Piers  Ploiighman.  proclaimed  the  purest 
moral  ideal  amid  the  prevailing  decline  and 
corruption. 

The  forces  or  causes  which  led  directly  to 
the  separation  of  the  English  Church  from 
Rome  were  (1)  the  growth  of  nationalism  ; 
(2)  the  rise  of  the  new  learning  represented  in 
England  by  Colet,  Erasmus,  and  Sir  Thomas 
More,  and  (3)  the  influence  of  Lutheran  prin- 
ciples. These  forces  appear  in  combination, 
as  in  Archbishop  Cranmer  (1533-56),  but  they 
also  acted  apart,  giving  rise  to  the  various 
parties  of  the  time.  They  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  occasion  of  the  Reformation, 
which  was  the  divorce  of  the  king,  Henry 
VIII.  (1509-47).  This  event  was  not,  as  it  is 
often  misrepresented,  an  unworthy  motive  for 
so  great  a  change.  It  was  an  event  which 
put  the  papacy  to  the  test,  demonstrating  in  a 
practical  way  to  the  English  people  its  unfit- 
ness for  its  high  position.  The  question  was 
not  treated  by  Pope  Clement  VII.  on  its  own 
merits,  but  depended  on  diplomacy,  in  which 
the  pope  was  subject  to  the  intiuence  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  Even  if  Henry's  rea- 
sons in  seeking  a  divorce  were  not  wholly  justi- 
fiable, the  papacy  was  clearly  manifested  as 
incompetent  for  the  determination  of  inter- 
national issues  as  well  as  tliwarting  the  na- 
tion's interest  ;  thus  came  the  opportunity  for 
which  2  centuries  of  protest  and  growing  in- 
dignation had  prepared  the  way.  Through- 
out the  reign  of  Henry  the  movement  for  re- 
form was  almost  exclusively  a  national  one. 
"  The  swing  of  Henry  VIII. 's  monarchy  was 
nationalism;  the  nation  delighted  in  it."  The 
movement  was  led  by  the  laity  against  the  in- 
difference of  the  clergy,  who  were  finally 
obliged  in  convocation  to  submit  to  the  will  of 
the  king  in  the  famous  "  Act  of  Submission" 
(1532).  In  1534  the  nation  was  formally  sepa- 
rated from  Rome  and  the  king's  supremacy  in 
ecclesiastical  affairs  proclaimed  by  parliament. 
This  was  followed  by  the  abolition  of  the 
monasteries  (1536-39),  which  f(!ll  without  a 
protest.  It  was  the  intention  of  the  Anglican 
or  Nationalist  party  that  reforms  should  go 
no  further,  but  some  of  the  doctrinal  standards 
put  forth  in  this  reign  indicate  that  the  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith  was  struggling 
for  utterance.  With  the  king's  consent  the 
Bible  had  been  translated,  and  other  measures 
of  reform  were  in  contemplation  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  With  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
(1547-53)  the  distinctively  Protestant  move- 
ment began.  Cranmer 's  method  consisted  in 
giving  to  the  people  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  as  a  means  of  education,  as  well  as  of 
lifting  the  worship  to  a  higher  level,  where  the 
laity  take  part  on  equal  terms  with  the  clergy. 


The  source  of  the  Prayer-Book  was  princi- 
pally the  Roman  Breviary  reduced  to  sim- 
plicity with  a  more  biblical  character  ;  in  its 
formation  also  may  be  traced  the  infiuence  of 
Archbishop  Hermann's  Consultation.  The 
mass,  according  to  the  Sarum  use,  was  turned 
into  a  communion  office.  The  first  Prayer- 
Book,  put  forth  in  1549,  was  offensive  to  the 
growing  Protestant  party  on  account  of  its  re- 
tention of  mediaeval  elements  in  doctrine  and 
ritual.  The  call  for  its  revision  was  probably 
stimulated  by  German  reformers  then  in  Eng- 
land, with  wiiom  Cranmer  was  in  sympathy. 
After  undergoing  extensive  revision,  with 
many  changes  in  the  communion  office,  it  was 
reissued  in  1552,  and  is  known  as  the  second 
book  of  Edward  VI.  It  received  the  sanction 
of  parliament  in  the  same  year,  and  its  use 
was  made  binding  on  the  kingdom  (cf. 
Procter  on  TJie  Book  of  Common  Prayer ; 
Maskell's  Moniimenta  Ritualia ;  Cardwell, 
Conferences,  etc.). 

In  the  same  year  were  drawn  up  the  Arti- 
cles of  Religion  under  the  direction  of  Cran- 
mer and  Ridley.  They  were  based  ujwn  an 
earlier  document,  which  was  modelled  after 
the  Augsburg  Confession.  Originally  42  in 
number,  they  were  afterward  reduced  to  39, 
and  among  the  Articles  omitted  was  one  which 
asserted  the  doctrine  of  endless  punishment 
and  condemned  those  who  taught  universal 
restoration.  Much  difference  of  opinion  has 
prevailed  in  regard  to  the  authority  and  inter- 
pretation of  the  Articles.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  they  were  revised  and  reissued  in  1563 
and  again  in  1571,  they  must  be  regarded  as 
intended  to  oppose  tlie  teaching  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  whether  in  its  popular,  undefined 
form  or  as  set  forth  at  the  Council  of  Trent, 
which  finally  adjourned  in  1563.  Opinion 
also  differs  as  to  whether  they  shall  be  con- 
strued strictly,  according  to  their  grammatical 
construction  (cf.  the  Declaration  in  the  Eng- 
lish Prayer-Book),  or  in  their  historical  signifi- 
cance, as  decided  by  the  opinions  of  their  au- 
thoi's.  The  former  method  has  been  approved 
by  the  Declaration  of  Charles  I.  However 
they  may  be  interpreted  they  have  not  the 
weight  of  the  Catholic  creeds,  nor  is  it  asserted 
of  them  that  they  may  be  proved  by  most  sure 
warrant  of  Holy  Scripture.  They  are  now 
binding  only  upon  the  clergy.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Church  of  England  is  most  clearly  seen 
in  the  exhortations  distributed  through  the 
various  offices  in  the  Prayer-Book,  in  the 
morning  and  evening  prayer,  the  baptismal, 
confirmation  and  eucharistic  offices  and  the 
ordinal,  which  have  a  predominantly  ethical 
tone.  To  these  expressions  of  doctrine  are  to 
be  added  the  homilies  in  two  books,  the  first 
of  which  was  set  forth  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI.  and  the  second  in  1562  (cf.  Hardwick,  Ilift- 
tory  of  the  Articles;  Burnett  On  the  Articles 
from  the  Latitudinarian  point  of  view  ;  Bishop 
Brown  On  tJie  Articles,  moderate  High 
Church,  and  evangelical,  and  Bishop  Forbes 
of  Brechin,  who  takes  the  Anglo- Catholic 
view,  in  sympathy  with  the  famous  tract  No. 
90,  by  Dr.  Newman). 

Since  the  Reformation  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, like  any  of  the  great  estates  of  the  realm, 
is  subject  to  the  king  and  parliament,  the 


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ENGLAND 


House  of  Commons  represeutin.i^  tlie  hiy  elc- 
iiiL-nt  of  the  church,  while  the  bishops  retain 
their  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Convocu- 
tioii,  a  representative  synod  of  the  church 
composed  of  bishops  and  clergy,  and  datinu; 
from  the  13th  century,  lost  the  power  which 
it  formerly  possessed  of  enacting  canons  at  its 
pleasure.  It  continued  to  meet  contemporane- 
ously with  parliament,  but  by  the  writ  of  the 
king,  not  of  its  president,  and,  in  accordance 
witii  the  Act  of  Submission,  required  from 
this  time  the  king's  consent  for  its  legislation. 
Its  canons  had  no  weight  unless  incorporated 
in  acts  of  parliament,  with  the  exception  tiiat 
statutes  relating  to  the  clergy  were  valid  with 
the  approval  of  the  king. 

From  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
(1559)  the  Church  of  England  was  substan- 
tiall}''  ti.xed  in  its  constitution,  doctrine,  and 
worship  as  it  exists  to  the  present  day.  Some 
few  changes  were  made  in  the  Prayer-Book 
in  1582,  whose  purpose  was  to  conciliate  the 
Romanists.  But  the  queen  paid  no  heed  to 
the  rising  disaffection  of  the  Puritans,  nor 
was  the  danger  to  the  church  conceived  as 
lying  in  that'  direction.  Puritan  opposition 
was  at  first  chiefly  confined  to  externals  in 
worship,  such  as  the  surplice,  kneeling  at  the 
communion,  the  ring  in  marriage,  etc.  When 
the  queen  made  the  bishops  her  agents  in  en- 
forcing uniformity,  the  controversy  with  the 
Puritans  changed  and  turned  on  the  scriptural 
authority  for  the  office  of  a  bi.shop.  During 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  Puritan  opposition  was 
kept  in  check.  The  danger  from  Home  was 
still  a  real  one,  and  the  sanctity  of  the  crown 
still  the  most  effectual  weapon  against  the 
popj.  For  this  reason  the  tyranny  of  the 
Tudors  was  not  felt  as  such  by  the  people,  for 
it  coincided  in  the  main  with  the  well-being 
of  the  nation.  It  is  not  probable  that  conces- 
sions to  the  Puritans  at  this  early  stage  would 
have  prevented  the  later  developments  which 
resulted  in  civil  war  and  the  temporary  over- 
throw of  the  church.  Puritanism  from  the 
first  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new"  era,  a 
changed  conception  of  the  nation,  which  is  in 
conflict  with  the  ideal  which,  from  the  days  of 
kingly  resistance  to  feudalism,  had  regaVded 
the  state  as  centring  in  the  king.  Great  as 
had  been  the  service  which  such  an  ideal  had 
rendered  to  the  church  and  to  national  devel- 
opment, the  demand  for  liberty  now  began  to 
create  the  ideal  of  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
in  which  the  will  of  the  people  should  find 
expression.  Puritan  disaffection  toward  the 
Church  of  England  was  in  reality  a  demand 
for  religious  liberty.  No  constitution  of 
church  government,  no  form  of  worship 
however  lofty,  would  have  been  acceptable  to 
them  so  long  as  it  was  imposed  by  external 
authority.  Hence  the  few  concessions  to  the 
Puritans  at  the  Hampden  Court  Conference 
(1604)  were  of  no  avail.  When,  with  the  acces- 
sions of  the  Stuarts,  the  Church  of  England 
tended  to  identify  itself  with  the  cause  of  ab- 
solute monarchy,  political  Puritanism  began 
to  make  rapid  .strides  toward  victory. 

The  Church  of  England  from  the  time  of 
Edward  VI.  to  James  I.  sustained  close  rela- 
tions with  the  continental  churches.  The 
popular  type  of  doctriue  was  Calvinistic,  and 


episcopacy  was  not  held  as  invalidating  the 
government  of  other  churches  (cf.  Goode 
on  Orders  ;  Fisher,  Biscujimmsin  Hi/itori/  and 
Philosophy  ;  Drunmi,  Vox  Ecclesi(v).  Hooker, 
the  most  representative  of  its  theologians, 
maintained  the  Zwinglian  or  Calvinistic  doc- 
trine of  the  Lord's  Supper — that  the  spiritual 
presence  is  in  the  rite  as  a  whole,  not  in  the 
elements.  With  the  accession  of  James  I. 
tliere  grew  up  a  theology  unknown  to  the 
Elizabethan  age,  in  which  the  emphasis  wa,i 
placed  on  apostolic  succession  and  sacramental 
grace.  Arminianism  also,  which  the  Puritans 
hated  and  feared,  became  the  prevailing  type 
of  doctrine,  for  which  authority  was  found  in 
the  ancient  church  before  the' appearance  of 
Augustine.  Hence  Jeremy  Taylor  could  re- 
ject the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  original  sin 
and  still  remain  orthodox,  and  Bishop  Burnett, 
in  the  preface  of  his  work  On  the  Articles, 
could  write:  "I  follow  the  doctrine  of  the 
Greek  Church,  from  which  St.  Austin  de- 
parted and  formed  anew  system."  Among 
the  representatives  of  this  school  of  high  An- 
glican theology  were  Archbishop  Laud,  An- 
drewes.  Hall,  and  others.  Together  with 
their  doctrine  of  the  exclusive  divine  right  of 
the  episcopate,  they  combined  the  doctrine  of 
the  divine  right  of  kings,  asserting  it  in  ex- 
treme shapes  at  a  moment  when  the  popular 
irritation  against  the  church  and  the  throne 
was  at  its  height.  The  unwise  policy  of  Laud, 
the  responsible  adviser  of  the  king,  precipi- 
tated the  civil  war.  To  his  influence  in  great 
part  is  attributed  the  attempt  to  introduce  the 
Pra^-er-Book  into  Scotland,  which  led  to  the 
League  and  Covenant,  as  also  the  C'anons  of 
1640,  which  created  anger  and  suspicion  in  the 
English  mind.  The  Church  of  England  was 
now  overthrown,  and  for  15  years  the  see  of 
Canterbury  was  vacant.  The  Puritans  at 
Westminster,  in  1643,  substituted  a  directory 
of  public  worship  for  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  whose  use  was  now  forbidden  ;  the 
bishops  were  ejected  from  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  a  large  number  of  clergy  from  their  bene- 
fices. Presbyterianism  now  aspired  to  be  the 
established  church— an  aim  which  was  de- 
feated by  the  rise  of  the  Independents,  to 
wiiom  Cromwell  belonged.  At  the  Restora- 
tion in  1559-60  there  was  no  disposition  on 
the  part  of  the  restored  Church  of  England, 
which  had  suffered  so  much  during  the  Com- 
monwealth, to  make  any  concessions  by  which 
even  the  more  moderate  of  the  Presbyterians 
might  b(>  retained  in  the  church.  The  Prayer- 
Book  was  again  revised,  but  the  changes  were 
for  the  most  part  of  a  character  to  repel  the 
Puritans.  When,  in  1662,  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formit}'  made  the  Prayer-Book  binding  upon 
clergy  and  parishes,  demanding  Episcoi)al  or- 
dination of  all  ministers,  with  other  severe  re- 
quirements, as  a  test  of  conformity,  2000  min- 
isters who  were  unable  to  comply,  including 
the  famous  Richard  Baxter,  were  lost  to  the 
church.  Among  the  prominent  High  Angli- 
can divines  of  tlie  age  oi  the  Restoration  were 
Hammond,  Walton,  Pearson,  Barrows  and 
Taylor,  Cosin,  Sanderson,  etc.  The  doctrine 
of  "the  divine  right  of  kings  was  now  reas- 
.serted  by  this  sciliool  and  held  by  them  with 
such  deep  conscientiousness  that  on  the  acces- 


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ENGLAND 


sion  of  William  and  Mar_y  (1688)  many  pre- 
ferred to  resign  their  benefices  than  to  pray 
for  the  new  sovereigns.  Among  them  were 
Sancroft,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the 
saintly  Bishop  Ken,  together  with  7  other 
bishops  and  some  400  clergy.  These  were 
henceforth  known  as  Non- jurors  ;  they  main- 
tained their  line  of  bishops  amid  growing 
weakness  till  it  finally  ceased  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19lh  century.  (Cf.  Lathbury, 
Jlist.  Non- Jurors). 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century  there 
arose  another  school  of  theology  differing 
widely  from  the  High  Anglican  or  Puritan 
theologies,  sometimes  known  as  Latitudina- 
rianisra,  or,  as  Mr.  Tulloch  has  designated  it, 
the  School  of  Rational  Theology.  Its  descent 
is  traced  from  Hooker  ;  it  includes  in  its  first 
generation  the  names  of  Hales,  Chillingworth 
and  Falkland,  and  at  a  later  time  Cud  worth, 
Whichcote,  More,  Smith,  Stillingfleet,  Bur- 
nett, and  Tillotson,  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1691-94),  and  the  foremost  preacher  of  the 
time.  To  these  men  it  fell  as  a  task  to  medi- 
ate between  High  Churchmen  and  Puritans, 
to  comprehend  dissenters  in  the  church,  to  re- 
sist the  rising  deism.  A  scheme  for  the  re- 
vision of  tlie  Prayer-Book  in  the  interest  of 
comprehension  (1689)  gained  the  approval  of 
the  bi.shops  in  Convocation,  but  failed  to  secure 
the  approval  of  the  Lower  House.  As  the 
18th  century  advanced  quietness  settled  down 
upon  the  distracted  nation.  With  the  silenc- 
ing of  Convocation  (1717)  the  angry  contro- 
versies subsided,  and  the  Church  of  England 
regained  its  earlier  popularity.  There  grew 
up  naturally  a  distrust  of  all  religious  enthu- 
siasms, while  preaching  assumed  an  ethical 
character  (cf.  Abbey  and  Overton,  Church 
of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century).  The 
emotional  side  of  religion  was  reasserted  about 
the  middle  of  the  century  by  Wesley,  who, 
although  he  lived  and  died  a  presbyter  of  the 
Church  of  England,  had  organized  a  move- 
ment within  the  church  which  after  his  death 
inevitably  tended  toward  separatism.  Wes- 
ley's reform  found  sympathizers  in  the  Eng- 
lish Church,  although  for  the  most  part  they 
followed  the  lead  of  Whitefield  and  accepted 
the  tenets  of  Calvinism.  Among  them  were 
Scott,  the  author  of  the  commentary,  Newton, 
Venn,  Cowper  the  poet,  and  at  a  later  time 
the  famous  Charles  Simeon.  These  empha- 
sized the  importance  of  conversion,  and  found 
difficulty  in  reconciling  their  attitude  with  the 
doctrine  of  regeneration  as  contained  in  the 
Prayer-Book.  They  attached  importance  to 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  as  anti-Roman  in 
their  purport,  and  combatted  Arianism  and 
Socinianism  within  the  church.  They  origi- 
nated, in  1799,  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
which  has  done  a  vast  work  in  carrying  the 
gospel  to  the  heathen. 

The  changes  through  which  the  Church  of 
England  had  passed  in  the  18th  century  had 
almost  obliterated  from  the  popular  mind  that 
ancient  theology  which,  however  imperfectly 
apprehended  at  any  time  by  its  professed  sup 
porters,  was  yet  the  characteristic  of  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer.  Deism  also  had  elimi- 
nated much  that  was  distinctively  Christian. 
The  evangelical  school,  while  loyal  to  the  Es- 


tablishment, was  hardly  distinguishable  from 
Puritan  or  Methodist  nonconformity.  When, 
about  1880,  a  liberal  government  began  to 
talk  of  the  reform  of  the  church,  there  was 
suddenly  produced  a  mighty  reaction  whose 
aim  was  to  revive  the  Anglo-Catholic  theology 
of  the  17th  century,  to  reassert  and  emphasize 
all  that  was  peculiar  to  the  English  Church 
in  discipline,  doctrine,  and  worship.  The 
movement  led  by  Newman,  Rose,  Pusey,  and 
Keble,  sometimes  known  as  Tractarianism, 
from  the  Tracts  for  the  Times,  threw  the 
church  into  excitement  and  consternation, 
which  reached  its  height  in  1845,  when  New- 
man perverted  to  the  Roman  Church.  From 
that  date  the  Anglican  party  discriminated 
more  carefully  against  Romanizing  tenden- 
cies. About  the  same  time  there  appeared  an- 
other school  of  theologians  who  were  neither 
Evangelical  nor  Tractarian  in  their  attitude, 
who  availed  themselves  of  modern  criticism 
and  the  fresh  impetus  given  to  historical 
studies,  and  aimed  to  represent  the  Church  of 
England  in  a  Jiiore  rational  and  spiritual  as 
well  as  comprehensive  manner.  Of  these  in 
the  first  generation  were  Coleridge,  Whately, 
and  Arnold,  and  in  the  second  Jowett,  Stanley, 
Thirlwall,  Kingsley,  and  Maurice.  The  latter 
especially  devoted  his  life  to  expounding  the 
theology  of  the  English  Church,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  Prayer-Book,  discriminating  it 
from  High  Anglicanism,  evangelical  Calvin- 
ism, and  Socinianism. 

In  1860  was  published  Essays  and  Reviews, 
a  collection  of  papers  by  leading  scholars, 
among  whom  were  Temple,  the  present  bishop 
of  London,  Jowett,  Powell,  Rowland  Will- 
iams, and  Wilson.  While  each  writer  claimed 
to  be  responsible  only  for  his  own  contribu- 
tion, yet  the  book  had  one  common  aim — to 
vindicate  freedom  of  thought  and  of  speech 
on  all  questions  of  moment,  whether  relating 
to  biblical  criticism,  to  science,  to  historical 
theology  or  eschatology.  The  work  created 
consternation  in  the  ranks  of  the  Anglo- 
Catholic  and  Evangelical  parties,  one  result  of 
which  was  the  rise  of  a  new  school  known  as 
the  Ritualistic,  which  laid  a  .stress  upon  the 
importance  of  ceremonial  worship  formerly 
ascribed  to  theology  alone,  aiming  to  accom- 
plish by  an  appeal  to  the  imagination  what 
was  despaired  of  through  the  reason.  While 
many  who  belong  to  this  school  are  moved 
chiefly  by  aj.sthetic  considerations,  its  leaders 
are  characterized  by  an  aversion  to  modern 
biblical  criticism  and  a  tendency  in  theology 
toward  unqualified  Augustinianism.  The 
conflicts  generated  by  these  hostile  attitudes 
created  bitterness  and  division,  even  threaten- 
ing the  stability  of  the  Establishment.  The 
appeal  to  ecclesiastical  law  in  order  to  deter- 
mine them  has  resulted  in  a  series  of  decisions 
from  the  Privy  Council,  to  which  appeals  are 
taken  from  the  lower  Court  of  Arches,  which 
justify  the  existence  within  the  church  of  each 
"of  the  3  great  historical  parties— as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  case  of  Rev.  Mr.  Gorham,  whom 
the  bishop  of  Exeter  refused  to  institute  be- 
cause of  his  denial  that  regeneration  always 
accompanied  baptism,  it  was  decided  that  to 
maintain  that  regeneration  does  not  invariably 
accompany    baptism    does  not  impugn    the 


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ENGLAND 


standards  of  the  church.  In  the  cases  spring- 
ing out  of  L'f(t<i(i/s  and  Recieics  it  was  main- 
tained that  the  Cluirch  of  England  had  enun- 
ciated no  theory  of  inspiration,  as  also  that  it 
did  not  contravene  her  standards  to  express  a 
hope  for  the  ultimate  restoration  of  all  the 
wicked  ;  or  again,  in  the  Bennett  case,  the 
High  Anglican  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  not  construed  as  contradicting  the  formu- 
laries of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  most  of  the 
cases,  however,  where  ritual  was  in  issue,  an 
adverse  judgment  lias  been  rendered,  as,  e.g., 
the  eastward  position,  incense,  lighted  candles, 
crucifixes,  etc.  The  court  known  as  the 
Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council, 
which  gave  these  judgments,  does  not  claim 
to  be  a  synoi  determining  questions  of  doc- 
trine, but  to  possess  only  the  power  of  deter- 
mining whether  certain  statements  are  contra- 
dictory or  repugnant  to  the  church's  doctrinal 
standards.  While  these  decisions  have  been 
received  by  those  who  hold  to  the  clmrch  as 
by  law  established,  there  are  others  who  mis- 
like  the  composition  of  the  court  as  not  ex- 
clusively ecclesiastical  or  spiritual,  and  main- 
tain the  Hildehrandian  or  Puritan  principle 
that  spiritual  things  should  be  determined 
only  by  ecclesiastics.  Those  maintaining  this 
attitude  have  in  some  cases  become  so  dis- 
affected toward  the  Establisliment  as  to  be 
willing  to  unite  with  Nonconformists  for  its 
overthrosv.  In  consequence  of  the  refusal  of 
the  Ritualistic  party  to  abide  by  the  decisions 
of  the  Privy  Council,  other  methods  have 
been  devisediu  order  to  adjust  cases  involving 
the  ceremonial  of  the  church,  as  Lord  Pen- 
zance's Act  of  Worsiiip  bill,  but  without  satis- 
factory results.  A  trial  was  held  in  1890  in 
which  Dr.  King,  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  was 
the  defendant,  charged  with  practising  the 
eastward  position,  lighted  candles,  mixed 
chalice,  etc. ,  before  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, whose  juris;lictioa  was  questioned  or  la- 
mented as  the  restoration  of  a  mediaeval  method 
not  in  harmony  with  the  course  of  the  church 
since  the  Reformation.  The  present  status  of 
the  church  in  its  relation  to  Parliament  has 
also  begotten  a  certain  restlessness,  especially 
since  the  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  Act 
and  the  Jewish  Disabilities  Removal  Act  have 
allowed  the  admission  to  Parliament  of  Ro- 
man Catholics  and  Jews. 

These  and  other  complications  and  anom- 
alies are  part  of  the  inheritance  of  an  estab- 
lished church,  whose  aim  is  to  represent 
broadly  the  national  life.  They  are  escaped 
by  the  Protestant  churches  who  make  agree- 
ment in  doctrine  the  bond  of  ecclesiastical 
unity,  though  often  only  at  the  expen.se  of  in- 
creasing the  di\'isions  of  Christendom.  The 
difficulties  of  the  present  situation  are  some- 
times regarded  as  indicating  that  the  downfall 
of  the  Establishment  is  only  a  question  of 
lime,  especiallv  since  the  disestablishment  of 
the  Irish  Cluirch.  But  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land is  deeply  rooted  in  the  nation's  life  ;  as 
an  organization  it  existed  in  England  before 
the  state  had  achieved  its  unity  ;  it  has  been 
identified  with  its  eventful  history  for  more 
than  13  centuries.  It  is  by  no  means  easy  to 
prognosticate  its  future  relation  to  the  state. 
The  ditliculties  with  which  it  is  now  couleaJ- 


ing,  such  as  tlie  clashing  of  hostile  parties, 
may  signify  the  throes  of  its  new  life  rather 
than  a  growing  weakness.  There  is  one  force 
in  particular  which,  entering  into  its  history 
at  the  Reformation,  differentiates  it  from 
other  Protestant  churches  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  Lutheran,  and  binds  it  close- 
ly to  the  national  sympathies — the  spirit  of 
humanism,  represented  in  England  by  Eras- 
mus, and  only  itnperfectly  represented  by 
Luther,  which  crowned  the  Elizabethan  age 
with  the  glory  of  Shakespeare,  when  else- 
where throughout  Europe  it  had  disappeared 
under  tiie  Catholic  reaction  or  the  restricted 
moral  purpose  of  Calvinism.  It  is  owing  to 
the  nourishment  of  this  humanistic  element 
by  and  in  the  Church,  which  Puritanism  failed 
to  check,  that  English  literature  siirpa.sses 
every  other  in  modern  Europe.  Had  the 
Church  of  England  stood  only  for  some  special 
doctrinal  teaets,  her  history  would  have  been 
different  and  her  downfall  more  sure.  Even 
in  her  failures  and  defects  she  has  represented 
the  phases  of  the  nation's  life.  The  revival 
of  the  spirit  of  nationalism,  which  played  so 
large  a  part  also  in  the  Reformation  of  the 
lOth  century,  may  make  her  again  the  bul- 
wark of  the  national  cause  against  all  disin- 
tegrating tendencies. 

Despite  the  difficulties  of  tlie  situation  which 
spring  out  of  the  relation  br'tween  state  and 
church,  the  Church  of  England  has  witnessed 
in  the  last  2  generations  a  marvellous  growth, 
exhibiting  an  aggressiveness  and  flexibility 
which  give  great  promise  for  the  future.  It 
has  sought  to  fulfil  its  mission  to  the  English 
nation  by  the  development  of  a  large  and  rich 
variety  of  charitable  and  educational  agencies, 
as  well  as  by  ridding  it.self  of  abu.ses  and  en- 
cumbrances which  check  its  progress.  Many 
of  these  are  heirlooms  of  the  past  which  have 
become  incongruous  by  the  change  and  proc- 
ess of  time,  "rhe  following  facts  and  stati-stics 
may  serve  as  an  indication  of  the  life  and 
progress  of  the  church  within  the  last  60  years. 
Up  to  182.)  there  were  but  5  colonial  bish'ops— 
Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  Calcutta,  Jamaica,  and 
Barbadoes.  These  5  have  now  increased  to 
81,  including  12  missionary  bishops  in  districts 
not  included  among  English  colonies.  The 
clergy  in  the  colonies  and  missionary  districts 
number  3800.  Vast  sums  of  money  are  expend- 
ed in  the  maintenance  of  missions,  especially  by 
the  Church  .Missionary  Societj'  and  the  Society 
for  the  Propau^atiou  of  the  Gospel.  New  sees 
at  home  are  :  Ripon(1830),  iSIanchester  (1847), 
St.  Albans  and  Truro  (both  1877),  Liverpool 
(1880K  Newcastle-on-Tvne  (1882),  Southwell 
(1884),  and  Wakefield  ( I'SHS).  The  order  of  suf- 
ragan  bishops  has  been  revived,  proving  of 
great  service  in  the  older  and  larger  dioceses. 
Since  1840  more  than  £40.000.000,  or  on  an 
average  £1.000,000  a  year,  have  been  spent  in 
building  and  restoring  churches.  ^lore  than 
5000  parsonage  houses  has'e  also  been  built 
within  the.se  years.  Tlie  total  income  of  the 
church  is  placed  at  about  £3,500,000.  By  vari- 
ous acts  of  parliament  this  sum  lias  been  .so 
treated  as  to  remove  inequalities  in  .salaries  and 
livings  to  a  large  degree,  and  from  the  cathe- 
drals £134,000  have  been  taken  in  order  to  aug- 
ment the  smaller  livings.  A  great  stimulus  has 


ENGLAND 


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ENTHUSIASM 


been  given  to  education  in  church  schools,  so 
that  provision  is  now  made  for  3,500,000  chil- 
dren. Enrichment  of  the  services,  more  nu- 
merous services,  and  in  greater  variety  of 
forms,  the  use  of  the  cathedral  naves  are 
among  the  means  by  which  the  life  of  the 
church  has  been  quickened.  To  enumerate 
the  various  charitable  agencies  is  impossible 
here.  The  higher  universities,  which  were 
once  regarded  as  sleepy,  have  been  regener- 
ated and  their  reproach  taken  away,  by  which 
dissenters  were  prevented  from  sharing  in 
their  benefit.  The  number  of  clergy  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century  was  about  10,000  ; 
it  has  now  increased  to  upward  of  35,000.  Of 
these,  according  to  a  crude  estimate,  it  is  sup- 
posed that  about  13,000  are  Higii  CJiurch,  be- 
tween 5000  and  6000  Low  Church  or  Evan- 
gelical, and  2500  Broad  Church.  Opinion 
differs  as  to  the  proportion  betw^een  the  ad- 
herents of  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
number  of  Nonconformists,  including  secu- 
larists and  Jews.  Recent  attempts  to  form  an 
estimate  seem  to  indicate  that  the  total  num- 
ber of  Nonconformists  of  every  kind  amount 
to  from  23  to  38  per  cent  of  the  population 
(Hore,  Eighteen  Centuries  of  the  Church  of 
England,  p.  600). 

Since  1850  has  taken  place  the  revival  of 
Convocation,  after  a  silence  of  4  generations. 
■^Vhile  it  possesses  no  legislative  power  and 
cannot  be  called  a  representative  body  so  far 
as  clergy  and  laity  are  concerned,  it  has  served 
since  its  revival  as  a  desirable  means  for  ini- 
tiating legislation  in  Parliament.  To  it  be- 
longs the  credit  of  taking  steps  for  a  Revised 
Version  of  the  Bible  (1871),  and  under  its 
auspices  the  great  work  was  completed.  Dio- 
cesan synods  and  conferences  have  been  also 
revived.  The  Church  Congress  originated 
in  1868,  and  meets  annually  for  the  discussion 
of  theological  and  practical  questions.  In  its 
meetings  all  schools  of  churchmanship  par- 
ticipate. The  Lambeth  or  Pan-Anglican 
synod,  under  the  presidency  of  the  archbishop 
oi  Canterbury  since  1867,  calls  together  for 
the  purposes  of  consultation  all  the  bishops 
throughout  the  world  in  communion  with  the 
English  Church,  including  those  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church  in  the  United  States.  It  is  im- 
portant also  to  note  the  growth  of  friendly  re- 
lations between  the  Church  of  England  and 
the  ancient  historic  churches  of  the  East. 

The  Church  of  England  exists  as  an  estab- 
lishment in  England  and  Wales.  The  connec- 
tion between  the  United  Church  of  England 
and  Ireland  was  severed  in  1871,  when  the 
crown  ceased  to  appoint  Irish  bishops,  who 
also  lost  their  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
The  property  of  the  Irish  Church,  estimated 
at  £16,000,000,  after  satisfying  the  life  inter- 
ests of  incumbents  and  other  charges,  is  to 
be  applied  "  to  the  relief  of  unavoidable 
calamities  and  suffering,  in  such  manner  as 
Parliament  shall  hereafter  direct. ' '  The  Irish 
Church  has  since  then  displayed  great  wisdom 
and  courage  in  overcoming  the  obstacles  which 
threatened  its  well-being.  While  there  has 
been  a  decline  in  the  number  of  its  clergy,  it 
reports  13  dioceses  and  bishops  and  some  1300 
benefices.  The  details  of  its  reorganization  may 
be  found  in  the  Church  of  England  Year  Books. 


The  Church  of  England  is  represented  in 
Scotland  by  what  is  known  as  the  Scotch 
Episcopal  Church,  whose  history  has  been  a 
complicated  and  peculiar  one  (cf.  Cook's, 
Cunningham's,  and  Grub's  histories).  It  ac- 
quired additional  unpopularity  in  consequence 
of  being  implicated  in  the  attempt  to  over- 
throw the  Hanoverian  dynasty  after  the  death 
of  Queen  Anne  (1717).  The  terms  Episco- 
palian and  Jacobite  thus  became  almost  syn- 
onymous. After  1792  its  representatives  ac- 
knowledged the  reigning  dynasty.  It  has 
adopted  the  Thirty'-nine  Article's,  and  its 
Prayer-Book  differs  from  that  of  the  English 
Church  mainly  in  the  communion  office.  For 
some  time  it  kept  up  a  succession  of  bishops 
with  no  diocesan  jurisdiction.  The  ancient 
dioceses  are  now  reduced  to  7  with  as  many 
bishops,  one  of  whom  is  called  primus,  and 
282  clergy. 

(Cf.  Strype,  MemoiHals,  etc.,  in  complete 
works,  1840  ;  Parker  Society  Library,  contain- 
ing writings  of  the  Reformers,  1854  ;  Wilkins, 
Concilia  MagncB  Britannue  et  Hibe.rnice,  1736  ; 
E.  Cardwell,  Docimientary  Annals,  1844,  and 
Synodalia,  1842  ;  Burnett's  History  of  the 
Eeformation  and  History  of  his  Own  Time ; 
John  Foxe,  Book  of  Martyrs  ;  Ussher,  British 
Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  ;  Stillingfleet,  Orig- 
ines  Britannica;  ;  Church  Histories  of  Collier, 
Fuller,  Heylin,  Blunt,  Massingberd,  Dixon, 
Short,  Carinthen,  Hardwick,  and  Perry  ;  Hal- 
lam,  Constitutional  History  ;  Blunt  aiid  Phil- 
limore,  Laio  of  the  Church  of  England; 
Brooks,  Six  Privy  Council  Judgments;  also  the 
histories  of  Lingard,  Hume,  Macaulay,  Ranke, 
Green,  and  Freeman.) 

Alexander  V.  G.  Allen. 

Ell-no '-di-us,  Magnus  FeliK,  b.  at  Aries, 
on  the  Rhone,  15  m.  from  the  Mediterranean, 
of   a  distinguished   Gallic  family;    left  th<' 
Avorld  and  was  ordained  a  deacon  andmadii 
bishop  of  Pavia,  where  he  died,  July  17,  521 
He  was  much  engaged  in  the  political  busi 
ness  of  the  church,  and  was  the  first  who  ad 
dressed  the  bishop  of  Rome  as  pajM.    Hi  ? 
works,  a  panegyric  of  Theodoric,  a  defence  oi' 
Symmachus,  a  life  of  Epiphanius,  etc.,  are 
found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lett.  LXIIL,  and  have 
been  separately  edited  by  Hartel,  Vienna,  1882, 
and  Vogel,  Berlin,  1885.  C.  P. 

E'-noch  {dedicated),  "  the  7th  from  Adam," 
the  father  of  Methusaleh.  He  lived  near  to 
God,  owing  to  his  faith  (Heb.  xi.  5,  13),  and  in 
consequence  was  translated,  clothed  with  im- 
mortality without  suffering  the  ordinary  dis- 
solution of  the  body  (Gen.  v.  18-24).  There 
is  only  one  reference  in  the  Bible  to  him  as  a 
prophet  (Jude  14),  but  an  apocryphal  book 
called  after  him  was  well  known  to  the  early 
fathers  and  then  passed  from  human  knowl- 
edge save  in  fragments.  It  was  recovered  by 
Bruce,  in  1773,  in  an  Ethiopic  translation 
which  Dillman  ably  edited  in  1851.  "  It  is  a 
series  of  revelations  said  to  have  been  given 
to  Enoch  and  Noah,  which  are  designed  to 
vindicate  the  iinivcrsal  providence  of  God." 
Its  date  and  authorship  are  unknown.  It  was 
never  received  as  inspired  and  canonical.    See 

PSEDDEPIGKAPHA.  T.    W.   C. 

Enthusiasm   (from   evdeog,  possessed  by   the 


ENZINAS 


(261) 


EPHESUS 


god),  an  intense  moral  earnestness  in  •which  a 
man  is,  as  it  were,  lifted  above  himself.  It  is 
a  wonderful  quality,  and  by  it  the  greatest  re- 
sults have  been  achieved.  But  everything  de- 
pends upon  the  motives  from  which  it  springs 
and  the  judgment  with  which  it  is  directed. 
Sometimes  it  is  a  mere  excitement  of  the  im- 
agination or  a  furor  of  the  passions,  having 
no  good  purpose  in  view  and  not  controlled 
by  the  one  unerring  standard  of  duty,  and 
then  it  is  apt  to  work  great  harm,  however 
conscientious  a  man  may  be.  But  when  it 
proceeds  from  the  love  of  Christ,  leading  to 
the  love  of  man  for  Christ's  sake,  no  bounds 
need  be  set  to  it  any  more  than  to  him  to 
whom  were  applied  the  words,  "  The  zeal  of 
thine  hou.se  shall  eat  me  up"  (John  ii.  17, 
R.  v.).  In  such  cases  the  noble  ardor  of  mind 
leads  to  toils,  sacrifices,  and  self-denials  almost 
incredible,  yet  without  any  bitterness,  harsh- 
ness, or  conceit.  In  tliis  sense  the  apostles  and 
those  in  after  ages  wlio  have  most  resembled 
them  are  the  best  examples  of  a  genuine  and 
lofty  entlmsiasm.  T.  W.  C. 

Enzinas  (en-thee'-nas),  Francisco  de  (or 
Dryander),  Spanish  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Burgos 
about  1520  ;  d.  at  Strassburg,  Dec.  80,  1552. 
Secretly  a  Protestant,  he  still  studied  theology 
at  Louvaiu,  1589  ;  but  in  1541  he  matriculated 
at  Wittenberg,  and  was  Melanchthon's  assist- 
ant. In  1548  he  presented  to  Charles  V.  at 
Brussels  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Greek.  Unsuspecting  evil,  he  contin- 
ued to  live  there.  On  Dec.  18,  1543,  he  was  cast 
into  prison.  On  Feb.  1,  1545,  he  managed, 
through  the  influence  of  his  friends,  to  escape, 
aud  returned  to  Wittenberg.  Leaving  there 
at  the  end  of  June,  1546,  he  travelled  through 
South  Germany  and  Switzerland.  In  1548  he 
went  to  England  and  was  made  professor  of 
Greek  at  Cambridge.  He  was  on  his  return 
from  Geneva  when  he  was  fatally  seized  with 
the  plague.  His  brother  Jaime  was  burnt  at 
the  stake  as  a  heretic  in  Rome,  1546. 

Eobanus,  Helius,  Hessus  (properly  Eoban 
Koch),  humanist  ;  b.  probably  at  Halge- 
hausen,  He.sse,  1488  ;  d.  at  Marburg.  Oct.  4, 
1540.  He  studied  the  humanities  at  Erfurt, 
1504-9  ;  was  court  poet  at  liiesenburg,  East 
Prussia  ;  studied  law  first  at  Frankfort  on-tlie- 
Oder  and  then  at  Leipzig,  1518  ;  became  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  at  Erfurt,  1517  ;  took  part  in 
the  composition  of  the  famous  Epistohr  obxcu- 
roruin  vironcm  (q.y.).  He  tauu;l)t  at  Nurem 
berg,  1526  ;  at  Erfurt,  1533  ;  at  iMarburg  be- 
came professor  of  hi.story,  1586,  and  there 
brought  out  his  translation  of  Ihe  Psalms  in 
Latin  {Psalterium  unioersinn,  carmine  ekgiaco 
redclitiun  atque  expUcatum,  Marburg,  1537), 
which  won  him  the  epithet  of  tlie  "Hessian 
David."  and  also  a  poetical  rendering  of  Ec- 
clesiastes  (1582).  He  belonged  to  those-  human- 
ists wlif)  were  in  sympathy  with  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  contributed  to  its  spread  as  an  in- 
tellectual movement.  (See  his  life  by  Schwert- 
zell,  1874.  and  Krause,  Gotlia,  1879.  2  vols.) 

Eon  or  Eudo  de  Stella,  b.  in  Bretagne, 
France',  in  tiie  beginning  of  the  12th  century, 
was  an  entiiusiast.  probably  connected  with 
the  Cathari  ;  believed  himself  .specially  called 
on  account  of  a  mistake  between  his  name 


"  Eon"  and  the  word  euin  {per  eum  qui  ren- 
tu}-us  est  judicare  vivos  et  mortuos,  "through 
him  {eum}  who  is  come  to  judge  the  quick  aud 
the  dead"),  and  caused  considerable  commotion 
in  Bretagne,  Guienue,  and  Champagnes  by  his 
preaching  aud  prophesying.  In  1 145  the  papal 
legate,  (Cardinal  Albericus  of  Oslia  luvachod 
against  him  at  Nantes  ;  Archbishop  Hugo  of 
Rouen  wrote  a  book  against  him.  JJoijinidnm 
Libres  7'res,  found  hiBibl.  Pair.  Mi(.r.  XXII.; 
finally  troops  were  sent  out  against  him  ;  he 
was  shut  up  in  a  dungeon  and  declared  crazy 
b.y  a  synod  of  Rheims  (1148),  and  several  of  his 
followers  were  burnt  at  the  stake.         C.  P. 

Epaon,  a  town  in  Burgundy  whose  site  can- 
not be  identified  any  more,  but  which  is  noted 
as  the  seat  of  a  council  called  by  Bishop 
Avitus  of  Vienne  in  517,  the  year  after  the 
conversion  of  King  Sigismund,  attended  by 
24  bishops  and  resulting  in  40  canons,  mostly 
of  a  disciplinary  description,  but  very  char- 
acteristic.   (See  Mansi,  Con.  Coll.  VIII.) 

C.  P. 

Eparchy  is  the  Greek  name  for  a  province 
in  the  Roman  Empire,  and  carried  over  into 
the  church,  it  was  the  division  ruled  by  a 
metropolitan. 

Eph-esians,  Epistle  to.  It  was  written  by 
Paul  during  his  imprisonment  at  Rome,  prob- 
ably A.D.  62,  at  the  same  time  with  that  to 
the  Colossians,  which  it  greatly  resembles. 
The  first  part  is  a  profound  discourse  upon 
the  election  of  grace,  the  glory  of  Christ,  the 
new  relation.ship  established  through  him, 
and  concludes  with  a  prayer  of  amazing 
power.  The  second  part  upon  this  basis 
urges  unity,  godly  living,  relative  duties,  aud 
ends  with  a  fine  description  of  the  whole 
armor  of  God.  Few  even  of  Paul's  epistles 
have  so  much  fulness  of  matter,  depth  of 
doctrine,  and  warmth  of  emotion.  (See  the 
commentaries  of  Ellicott,  London.  1855,  5th 
ed.,  1884;  Hodge,  New  York,  1856.  many 
later  edd.,  and  R.  W.  Dale,  London.  1882.  4th 
ed..  1888.)  T.  W.  C. 

Eph'-e-su3,  the  most  important  commercial 
city  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Cayster.  about  40  m.  s.e.  of  Smyrna.  It 
was  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Diana,  one  of 
the  7  wonders  of  the  world.  The  churc-h  here 
was  founded  by  Paul,  a.d.  54  (Acts  xviii.  19), 
who  soon  afterward  spent  over  2  years  there 
(Acts  xix.  10),  and  was  so  successful  that 
many  who  practised  the  "  Ephesian  letters" 
or  amulets,  for  which  the  city  was  famous, 
brought  their  books  and  burned  them  to  the 
value  of  $80,000  ;  but  afterward  the  craftsmen 
whose  trade  in  superstitious  silver  shrines  was 
interfered  with  e.xcited  a  riotous  tumult  of 
very  threatening  character,  but  Paul  escaped. 
The  next  year,  meeting  the  elders  of  P^pliesus 
at  3Iiletus,  he  gave  them  an  affecting  fan^well 
address  (Acts  "xx.  17-85).  The  church  en- 
joyed the  labors  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  of 
Tychicus  and  Timothy.  Here  Apollos  first 
pi-eaclied  (Acts  xviii.  28).  Here  the  Apo.stle 
John  spent  his  last  years  (Eusebius).  and 
probably  wrote  his  gospel  and  epistles.  To 
this  church  one  of  the  7  epi.stles  of  tlie  Apoc- 
alypse (Rev.  ii.  1-5)  vas  addressed.  But 
long  since  the  candlestick  was  removed  out  of 


(262) 


EPIPHANinS 


its  place.  The  site  of  the  great  city  is  desolate, 
and  only  of  recent  years  have  the  remains  of 
its  ruined  edifices  been  discovered. 

T.  W.  C. 

Ephesus,  Councils  of,  were  several  in  num- 
ber. 1.  About  196  upon  the  Easter  question. 
2.  About  245  against  Noetas,  who  was  an  ex- 
treme Patripassian.  3.  In  400,  under  Chry- 
sostom,  who  deposed  Gerontius,  and  restored 
order  in  the  Ephesian  Church.  4.  The  QEcu- 
menical  Council  of  Ephesus  against  Nes- 
torius,  431.  It  was  called  at  Pentecost.  Nes- 
torius  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria  both  arrived  in 
time,  but  the  Syrian  bishops,  upon  whom 
Nestorius  depended  for  sympathy  and  sup- 
port, were  quite  late.  Cyril  waited  for  them 
16  days,  and  though  intelligence  came  that 
they  were  then  quite  near,  he  refused  to  wait 
longer,  and  in  one  day  condem.ned  and  de- 
posed Xestorius.  The  Syrians  soon  arriving 
held,  5.  The  second  Council  of  431,  in  which 
they  condemned  and  deposed  Cyril  and  Mem- 
non.  Both  parties  appealed  to  the  emperor, 
and  though  both  sentences  were  at  first  con- 
firmed, finally  Cyril  and  Memnon  were  re- 
stored, Nestorius  not.  6.  This  was  probably 
held  in  445,  of  no  importance.  7.  The  so- 
called  Robber  Synod,  449.  Under  the  lead  of 
Dioscurus  of  Alexandria  it  proceeded  by 
means  of  terrorization  to  secure  the  restora- 
tion of  Eutyches  (q.v.)  and  the  confirmation 
of  the  Alexandrian  doctrir.e  of  one  nature  in 
Christ.  Soldiers  were  brought  in,  blood  shed, 
and  Flavian  of  Constantinople  so  mishandled 
that  he  soon  died.  8.  This  was  held  in  476 
against  certain  bishops  who  favored  Chalce- 
don.  F.  H.  F. 

Ephesus,  The  Seven  Sleepers  of.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  which  at  its  time  was  com- 
monly current  and  adopted  in  the  Koran  (Sura 
xviii.),  7  young  men  from  Ephesus  concealed 
themselves  in  a  neighboring  cave  during  the 
persecution  of  Decius  (249-57),  fell  asleep 
there  and  slept  for  187  years.  C.  P. 

Eph-od,  a  part  of  the  priest's  official  dress, 
of  plain  linen  ordinarily  (1  Sam.  ii.  18).  but 
for  the  high-priest  richly  embroidered.  It  was 
of  2  pieces,  one  covering  the  front  of  the  per- 
son, the  other  the  back,  joined  at  the  shoulders 
with  buckles,  and  held  in  place  below  by  a 
girdle  round  the  body  (Ex.  xxviii.  2-6).  The 
high-priests  had  golden  clasps  and  rings  to 
keep  in  place  the  begemmed  breastplate. 
David  at  the  transfer  of  the  Ark  (2  Sam.  vi. 
14)  was  "  girt  with  a  linen  ephod. "  Gideon's 
ephod  became  a  snare  to  Israel,  and  Micah 
made  one  for  his  idolatrous  worship  (Judges 
viii.  27,  xvii.  5,  xviii.  17).  T.  W.  C. 

Ephraim.     See  Tribes. 

Ephrem  Syrus,  the  most  famous  preacher 
and  theologian  of  the  Syrian  Church  in  the 
4th  century  ;  b.  in  Mesopotamia  shortly  after 
306,  perhaps  at  Nisibis  ;  d.  at  Edessa,  prob- 
ably in  378.  He  was  educated  at  Nisibis,  and 
then  made  teacher  in  the  school  there.  When 
the  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Persians  in 
368  he  left  it,  and  after  some  delay  took  up 
his  abode  at  Ede.s,sa,  where  he  lived  as  a  her- 
mit, and  gathered  about  himself  pupils,  serv- 
ing also  as  a  preacher  to  the  people,  and  en- 


gaging in  controversy.  He  is  said  also  to  have 
travelled  in  Egypt  and  in  Asia  Minor,  to  have 
met  Basil  the  Great,  and  to  have  miraculously 
received  the  knowledge  of  the  Greek  tongue. 
But  all  this  is  legend.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  he  was  acquainted  with  Greek.  His 
writings  were  numerous,  and  had  the  honor 
of  being  frequently  read  after  the  Scriptures 
in  divine  service.  They  have  been  variously 
published,  the  chief  edition  being  that  issued 
under  the  authority  of  the  papal  see  at  Rome 
in  6  folio  volumes.  1732—46.  J.  B.  Morris  ha.s 
issued  Select  Works  of  St.  Ephraem  the  Syrian, 
translated  out  of  the  Original  Syriac,  Oxford, 
1847,  and  H.  Burge.ss  has  tran,slated  some  of 
his  Hymns  and  Ho^nilies,  London,  1853,  and 
his  Repentance  of  Nineveh,  1853.  His  works 
comprise  a  large  number  of  commentaries 
upon  the  Scriptures,  and  discourses  and  trea- 
tises in  metrical  form  upon  various  topics, 
such  as  the  birth  of  Christ,  heresies,  sermons, 
a  treatise  upon  the  will,  etc.  His  eloquence 
is  of  such  a  character  as  to  excite  our  admira- 
tion still.  F.  H.  F. 

Ep-ic-te'-tus,  b.  at  Hierapolis,  Phrygia  ; 
was  brought  to  Rome  as  a  slave,  but  given 
freedom  by  Epaphroditus,  taught  philosophy 
there  until  expelled  with  other  stoic  philoso- 
phers in  90  A. D.  ;  settled  at  Nicopolis,  Epirus, 
and  continued  teaching  there  till  he  died.  He 
wrote  nothing,  but  ample  notes  weie  taken 
down  by  his  pupil,  Flavius  Arrianus,  and 
have  never  ceased  to  exercise  a  deep  influence. 
Best  edition  by  Schweighauser,  Leipzig,  1799- 
1800,  6  vols.  ;  *Eng.  trans,  by  Elizabeth  Carter, 
London,  1758,  revised  by  Thomas  W.  Hig- 
ginsou,  Boston,  1865,  and  by  George  Long, 
London,  1876.  Of  his  Enchiridion  2  transla- 
tions appeared  in  London,  1881  :  one  bv  T. 
Talbot  and  one  by  T.  W.  H.  Rolleston.  "(See 
F.  "W.  Farrar,  Seekers  after  Qod,  London, 
1868.)  C.  P. 

Epicureans,  a  sect  of  philosophers  in  high 
repute  of  old.  They  held  that  the  atoms  of 
nature  existed  from  eternity  and  formed  the 
world  by  chance,  that  the  gods  have  no  con- 
cern about  the  earth  and  there  is  no  provi- 
dence, that  the  soul  dies  with  the  body,  and 
that  man's  chief  good  lies  in  pleasure  properly 
regulated.  Epicurus,  their  founder,  was  a 
moral  man,  but  his  disciples  deteriorated  and 
became  very  corrupt.  Their  opinions  and 
their  life  made  them  bitterly  opposed  to  all 
religion,  and  especially  to  the  serious  and 
humbling  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  (Acts  xvii. 
16-34).  (See  W.  Wallace,  Epicureanism, 
London,  1880.)  T.  W.  C. 

Ep-i-pha'-nl-xis  of  SaJamis,  b.  at  Besan- 
dirke,  a  village  of  Palestine,  near  Eleuther- 
opolis,  28  m.  e.n.e.  of  Gaza,  in  310,  of  Jewish 
parentage  ;  was  educated  among  Christian 
monks  partly  in  his  native  country  and  partly 
in  Egypt  ;  became  a  monk  himself  ;  founded 
a  monastery,  and  was  in  367  made  bishop  of 
Salamis,  the  later  Constantia,,  on  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  where  he  died  in  403.  He  took  a 
very  lively  part  in  the  theological  controver- 
sies of  his  time,  representing  the  monkish, 
fanatical  dogmatism  of  the  age  over  against 
any  free  religious  movement,  more  especially 
Origen's,  whose  disciples  he  attacked  both  in 


EPIPHANY 


(363) 


EPISOOPAOY 


Jerusalem  and  in  Constantinople  with  blind 
violence.  Of  his  numerous  works  the  most 
important  are  Uavdpiov,  the  drug-chest,  a  ref- 
utation of  80  heresies,  and  'AyKvp6rop^  the 
anchor,  an  exposition  of  orthodox  doctrines. 
Collected  editions  in  Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  XLI.- 
XLIII.,  and  by  Dieudorf,  Leipzig,  1859,  5 
vols.  (See  Eberhard,  Die  Betluiligung  des 
Epiphanius  an-  dem  Streite  ilbcr  Origines, 
Treves,  1859  ;  Lipsius,  Zur  Quellen  Kritik  des 
E.,  Vienna,  1865.)  C.  P. 

Epiphany,  from  the  Greek,  meaning  the 
manifestation  of  a  god  in  liis  divinity.  The 
Eastern  Church  helcl  that  the  true  manifesta- 
tion of  Clirist  to  man  took  place  not  at  his 
birth,  but  at  his  baptism.  It  consequently 
celebrated  his  nativity  only  as  an  introduction 
to  his  epiphany,  and  with  the  latter  festival, 
which  fell  on  Jan.  6,  it  opened  the  annual 
cyclus  of  church  feasts.  The  custom  seems 
to  have  originated  there  in  the  2d  century, 
and  it  became  firmly  established  in  the  3d. 
In  the  Western  Church,  however,  it  never  be- 
cani3  really  popular,  and  Leo  I.  even  opposed 
it  as  an  irrational  novelty.  The  doctrinal 
basis  of  the  observance  was  also  another 
here  :  the  manifestation  of  Christ  not  to  man 
in  general,  but  especially  to  the  heathen,  the 
3  wise  I'Aou  from  the  East,  the  3  holy  kings. 
Hence  tl^e  name  of  the  festival  in  German  and 
Danish,  tlie  Three  Holy  Kings'  Day.  The 
old  English  name  was  Twelfth  Day,  because 
it  was  12  days  from  Christmas.  It  closed  the 
Christmas  festivities.  In  Rome  the  day  is  cele- 
brated by  sermons  in  all  the  different  languages 
represented  by  the  Propaganda.  C.  P. 

Episcopacy  is  the  most  ancient  and  at  the 
present  day  the  most  widely  received  form  of 
church  polity,  representing  some  nine  tenths 
of  the  Christian  world.  The  Greek  churches, 
including  the  Armenian  and  Nestorian,  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, including  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  America,  the  Lutheran  Church  in 
Sweden,  the  Moravian,  the  Jansenist  Cliurch 
in  Holland,  the  Old  Catholic  in  Germany,  are 
episcopally  constituted  churches.  The  epis- 
copate, as  existing  in  these  churches,  is  known 
as  the  Historic  Episcopate,  laying  emphasis 
on  its  long  descent,  claiming  even  to  reach 
back  to  the  days  of  the  apostles.  The  His 
toric  Episcopate  is  distinguished,  therefore, 
from  certain  forms  of  polity  whose  resem- 
blance is  only  in  name,  such  as  the  Danish, 
which  is  merely  titular,  or  the  Methodist, 
which  body  originated  with  John  Wesley  while 
a  presbyter  of  tlie  Church  of  England.  It  is 
difficult  to  give  an  adequate  definition  of  His- 
toric Epicopacy  which  shall  cover  its  various 
phases  in  their  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment. Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  said  to 
stand  for  centralization  in  church  government 
as  compared  with  more  democratic  methods, 
of  which,  perhaps,  Congregationalism  or  In- 
dependency is  the  most  complete  and  consis- 
tent form.  But  episcopacy  may  also  have  its 
democratic  phases  as  in  the  American  Epis- 
copal Ciuirch,  where  it  is  subject  to  a  General 
Convention,  of  whose  legislation  it  is  the  ex- 
ecutive. 

The  origin  of  the  episcopate  is  still  one  of 


the  undetermined  (luestions  of  history.  The 
claim  sometimes  put  forth,  that  it  was  insti- 
tuted by  Christ  or  his  apostles,  possessing 
therefore  a  divine  and  exclusive  sanction  for 
all  time,  and  necessary  to  the  existence  of  a 
church  or  the  validity  of  its  rites,  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  pious  belief  or  a  religious  tenet, 
which  rests  rather  upon  a  jiriori  principles 
for  its  support  than  on  well-ascertained  his- 
torical information.  Despite  differences  of 
opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  episcopate, 
there  is  a  growing  consensus  of  scholarship 
that  it  originated  after  the  apostolic  age  and 
was  a  development  from  the  presbyterate. 
Among  the  grounds  of  this  conviction  is  the 
fact,  now  universally^  conceded,  that  in  the 
New  Testament  and  in  the  earlier  Christian 
writings  (cf.  the  1st  Epistle  of  Clement)  the 
terms  Tvpea[ivTepoc  and  ewinKonoQ  are  used  in- 
terchangeably. It  is  probable,  however,  that 
there  was  a  development  from  above  down- 
ward, as  well  as  from  beneath  upward  ;  and 
that  the  desire  to  perpetuate  tiie  apostolic 
order  as  well  as  governmental  exigencies  con- 
tributed to  the  rise  of  the  episcopate  out  of 
the  presbyterate.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
the  time  of  Cyprian  (ob.  258)  that  the  doctrine 
of  apostolic  succession  was  first  distinctly  as- 
serted. In  the  Ignatian  writings  it  is  pres- 
byters, not  bishops,  who  are  successors  of  the 
apostles.^  The  picture  of  church  organization 
reflected'in  the  Didache  certainly  diifers  from 
that  in  the  Ignatian  writings,  and  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  suggest  tliat  the  latter  advocate 
rather  an  ideal  view  than  one  which  was  as 
yet  generally  accepted  in  the  church.  It  is 
also  noticeable  that  in  the  ante-Niceue  age  it 
is  not  bishops  but  presbyters  or  even  laymen 
that  are  most  prominent  in  the  literature,  and 
especially  in  the  formulating  of  theology,  as 
Justin  Martyr,  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, and  Origen.  After  the  Council  of 
Nice,  however,  we  meet  bishops  where  before 
were  presbyters.  So  late  as  the  4th  and  5th 
centuries  there  were  some,  Jerome  and  Am- 
brosiaster,  who  still  asserted  the  original 
equality  of  bishop  and  presbyter,  placing  the 
authority  of  the  former  upon  governmental 
grounds  or  necessities.  The  action  of  the 
Council  of  Nice  (325)  in  requiring  the  co-ojxjr- 
ation  of  3  bishops  in  order  to  the  legality  of 
an  episcopal  consecration— a  rule  rigidly  ad- 
hered to  for  the  most  part  ever  since^is  ex- 
jilained  as  an  effort  to  secure  the  strongest 
guarantees  of  character  and  respectability  for 
so  responsible  an  ofilce,  especially  at  a  time 
when  its  growing  dignity  incited  the  aspira- 
tion of  numerous  applicants. 

The  governmental  aspects  of  episcopacy 
nuist  be  distinguished  from  the  sacerdotal 
theorj'  of  its  nature,  according  to  Avhich  it  i.s 
the  sole  original  depositor}'  of  divine  jrrace, 
and  as  such  carrying  the  church  in  itself. 
This  view  is  wanting  in  Ignatius,  but  appears 
in  Cyprian's  treatise,  I)e  vnitdte  cccUsid.  Ac- 
cording to  Baur,  the  eventful  transition  to 
the  sacerdotal  view  took  place  in  conse({<ience 
of  the  >[ontaiiistic  teaching,  tiiat  the  Holy 
Spirit  still  spoke  in  the  chunli  in  the  jxtsous 
of  laymen  or  women — a  doctrine  which  it  was 
sought  to  overcome  by  the  counter-attitude 
maintained  by  Home  that  the  Spirit  spoke 


EPISCOPACY 


(264) 


EPISCOPAL 


only  through  the  hierarchy.  As  this  view 
gained  predominance,  hiymen  and  presbyters 
ceased  to  take  part  in  the  councils  of  the 
church,  and  the  voice  of  the  bishops,  as  at 
the  Council  of  Nice,  was  registered  as  the  ut- 
terance of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Closely  connected 
with  this  view  was  the  practice  in  the  West 
of  restricting  to  the  bishop  the  right  of  laying 
on  of  hands  in  confirmation,  symbolic  of  tlie 
impartation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  ;  whereas  in 
the  East,  more  free  but  less  consistent,  the  act 
of  confirmation  is  performed  by  the  presbyter. 

The  episcopate  in  the  ancient  church  differs 
from  the  modern  in  many  particulars,  as,  for 
example,  in  its  presence  in  almost  every  city 
or  town  where  a  church  had  been  planted. 
In  North  Africa  alone,  in  the  5th  century,  it  is 
estimated  that  there  were  between  400  and 
500  bishops,  forming  what  has  been  called  a 
parochial  episcopate.  The  change  to  the 
larger  dioceses,  as  in  France,  England,  and 
Germany,  took  place  in  the  Middle  Ages  (cf. 
Hatch,  Growth  of  Church  Institutions).  It 
was  another  noteworthy  event  in  the  history 
of  the  episcopate  when  the  bishops  lost  their 
independence  in  the  West  by  their  subjection 
to  Rome.  This  was  effected  by  Boniface  in 
Germany  in  the  8th  century,  and  by  the 
forged  decretals  in  the  9th  century.  From 
this  time  dates  the  oath  of  obedience  to  the 
pope  by  the  bishops,  and  a  corresponding 
oath  by  the  clergy  to  the  bishop.  The  Church 
of  England  has  retained  the  episcopate  as  a 
governmental  institution,  but  with  no  recog- 
nition of  its  sacerdotal  character.  She  ele- 
vated the  presbyterate  by  imposing  upon  it 
the  bishop's  vow  to  defend  the  faith.  The 
presbyter  still  takes  the  vow  of  obedience  to 
the  bishop,  but  it  is  a  qualified  vow,  i-equiring 
the  presbyter  to  judge  for  himself  whether 
the  admonition  of  the  bishop  is  a  righteous 
one  or  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the 
church.  The  oath  of  a  priest  in  the  Latin 
Church  is  a  simple  one,  "  Will  you  obey 
your  bishop?"  with  no  qualification  what- 
ever. The  spiritual  functions  of  a  bishop  in 
the  Historic  Episcopate  are  substantially  the 
same  in  the  different  branches  of  the  church, 
such  as  confirmation  (with  the  exception  of 
the  Greek  Church),  ordination,  and  the  con- 
secration of  churches  or  the  res  sacrm.  They 
also  officiate  at  the  coronations  of  kings,  and 
in  the  Latin  Church  at  the  benediction  of  ab- 
bots and  abbesses.  The  jurisdiction  of  a 
bishop  is  confined  to  his  diocese,  where  his 
power  may  be  monarchical,  as  in  the  Latin 
Church,  checked  only  by  a  possible  appeal  to 
Rome,  or  in  the  nature  of  a  limited  monarchy, 
as  in  England,  or  the  more  democratic  type 
of  the  American  Episcopal  Church. 

(Cf.  Hatch,  Orcjanization  of  the  Early  Chris- 
tian Churches,  London,  1881,  2d  ed.,  1882  ; 
The  Orowth  of  Church  Institutions,  1887 ; 
Lightfoot,  Commentary^  on  Philippians,  7th 
ed.,  1883  [note],  also  his  edition  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Fathers,  1869-85  ;  Rothe,  Die  Anfange 
der  Ch.  Kirche,  Wittenberg,  1837 ;  Ritschl. 
Die  Entstehunq  der  altkathoUschen  Kirche, 
Bonn,  1850,  2d  ed.,  1857;  Harnack,  Lehr- 
buch  der  Doqmenyeschichte .  Freiburg  i.  Br., 
1886-87,  2  vols.,  2d  ed..  1888.) 

Alexander  V.  G.  Allen. 


Episcopal     Church,    Protestant,    in    the 

United  States.  Previous  to  the  Revolution 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  was  known  as 
the  Church  of  England  in  the  various  colonies 
iu  America.  It  was  established  in  Virginia 
from  1606.  when  the  Virginia  Company  ob- 
tained its  charter,  one  of  the  articles  of  which 
provides  for  the  preaching  of  the  true  Word 
and  the  service  of  God,  according  to  the  rites 
and  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Jingland,  not 
only  in  the  colonies,  but  as  far  as  possible 
among  the  savages  bordering  upon  them. 
Among  the  devoted  clergy  who  labored  in 
Virginia  was  Whittaker,  who  is  famous  for 
having  converted  the  Indian  maiden  Pocahon- 
tas. So  early  as  1619  a  college  was  projected 
in  order  to  promote  the  interests  of  religion 
and  learning,  but  it  was  not  till  1692  that  the 
College  of  William  and  Mary  was  chartered, 
with  the  design  "  that  the  Church  of  England 
in  Virginia  may  be  furnished  with  a  seminary 
of  ministers  of  the  gospel,  that  the  youth  may 
be  piously  educated  in  good  letters  and  man- 
ners, and  that  the  Christian  faith  may  be 
propagated  among  the  Western  Indians  to  the 
glory  of  Almighty  God."  The  spirit  of  an- 
tagonism to  Puritanism  which  marked  the 
reign  of  James  I.  appears  also  in  Virginia, 
where  a  law  was  enacted  forbidding  any  but 
ministers  episcopally  ordained  to  officiate  in 
the  colony.  The  Church  of  England  became 
the  established  Church  of  Maryland  from 
1692,  and  of  New  York  from  1664,  when  New 
Amsterdam  was  transferred  to  English  rule. 
In  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  the  church  did 
not  gain  so  early  or  so  secure  a  footing.  John 
Wesley  was  rector  of  a  church  in  Savannah 
in  1736,  where  he  became  obnoxious  on  ac- 
count of  his  High  Church  principles.  White- 
field  also  was  iu  Georgia  at  intervals  from 
1738.  In  New  Jersey,  where  the  principle  of 
religious  toleration  prevailed,  the  church  was 
from  the  first  comparatively  strong.  It  had 
been  planted  in  Philadelphia  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, where  Christ  Church  was  founded  in 
1695.  It  was  with  great  clifficulty  that  the 
church  made  its  entrance  into  New  England, 
and  more  particularly  in  the  colony  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay.  King's  Chapel,  the  first  Epis- 
copal church  in  Boston,  was  erected  in  1679. 
After  the  withdrawal  of  the  charter,  in  1685, 
all  obstacles  were  removed  except  the  prej- 
udices of  the  people  against  a  church  whose 
identification  with  the  obnoxious  policy  of 
the  Stuarts  was  associated  in  their  minds  with 
the  sufferings  and  sacrifices  of  their  ancestors. 
Among  the  older  and  stronger  churches  were 
Christ  Church,  Boston,  1729  ;  Trinity  Church, 
1735  ;  Christ  Church,  Cambridge,  1760,  and 
churches  at  Salem,  Marblehead,  Newbury- 
port,  Portsmouth,  etc.  An  interesting  cir- 
cumstance iu  Connecticut  was  the  conversion 
to  episcopacy,  in  1722,  of  Dr.  Cutler,  rector 
of  Yale  College,  together  with  two  of  the 
tutors,  Johnson  and  Brown.  The  cause  -is 
said  to  have  been  the  gift  to  the  library  of 
some  800  volumes  from  England,  among 
which  were  standard  works  of  the  Church  of 
England.  To  this  circumstance  it  is  in  some 
measure  owing  that  the  Episcopal  Church 
became  stronger  in  Connecticut  than  else- 
where   in    New    England.     These    seceding 


EPISCOPAL 


(265) 


EPISCOPAL 


clergy  sought  ordination  in  England  ;  Dr. 
Cutler  became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Bos- 
ton, and  Dr.  Johnson,  president  of  King's 
College,  afterward  Columbia,  New  York. 

The  exact  strength  of  the  church  in  this 
pre-Revolutionary  period  is  not  known.  It 
is  estimated  that  there  were  100  clergy  in 
Virginia  and  80  in  the  colonies  north  and  east 
of  ]\Iaryland.  The  church  made  but  little 
progress  during  the  18th  century,  owing  to 
the  low  state  of  piety  and  the  general  want  of 
interest  in  religion.  Similar  complaints  are 
made  by  other  religious  bodies.  While  it 
was  an  \infavorable  age  for  missionary  effort, 
yet  the  Church  of  England  suffered  from 
special  causes,  such  as  the  growing  dislike  to 
Englanl  in  the  colonies,  and  chietly  from  the 
fact  of  its  incomplete  organization.  In  the 
absence  of  bishops  it  was  difficult  to  obtain 
clergy,  who  were  either  sent  out  from  Eng- 
land or  had  been  obliged  to  make  the  long 
and  perilous  voyage  in  order  to  procure 
ordination.  The  English  Church  governed 
the  churches  in  America  through  the  bish- 
op of  London,  who  appointed  a  commis- 
sary to  act  in  his  place.  But  zeal  and  disci- 
pline must  necessarily  suffer  under  such  an 
arrangement.  The  organization,  in  1701,  of 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
in  Foreign  Parts,  the  tirst  missionary  organi- 
zation for  the  direct  purpose  of  ministering  to 
the  needs  of  America,  relieves  the  church  at 
home  from  any  appearance  of  indifference  ; 
but  there  could  be  no  substitute  for  the  full 
organization  of  the  church  in  the  colonies. 
It  was  mainly  the  fear  of  political  complica- 
tions which  prevented  the  consecration  of 
bishops  for  America,  the  English  Government 
having  experienced  so  much  difficult3'  with 
religious  questions  in  the  17th  century  ihat  it 
persistently  abstained  from  any  course  which 
might  arouse  religious  antipathies  in  the 
colonies.  Bishops  as  a  class  had  also  suffered 
in  the  popular  estimation  from  their  relation 
to  the  crown  since  the  days  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  unfortunately  had  inherited  the 
odium  produced  by  the  measures  and  policy 
of  Archbishop  Laud.  It  was  a  prevailing  be- 
lief that  if  they  were  sent  to  America  they 
would  become  agents  for  enforcing  the  claims 
of  the  crown.  Nor  was  the  type  of  the  Eng- 
lish episcop-ite  a  congenial  one  to  the  growing 
democratic  tendencies  in  America,  standing, 
as  the  bishops  did,  for  a  monarchical  otfice 
■without  guarantees  for  freedom.  They  were 
also  known  only  as  lord  bishops,  requiring 
large  and  expensive  establishments  to  keep  up 
their  dignity.  Hence  not  only  outside  the 
church,  but  within  its  fold,  there  was  a  repug- 
nance ti)  having  bishops  which  showed  itself  in 
striking  ways.  It  would  have  been  an  easy 
matter  at  any  moment  to  have  obtained  bishops 
consecrated  by  the  non-jurors  in  England,  but 
these  were  not  the  bishops  wanted.  There  is 
a'tradifiiMi  tiiat  two  of  the  American  clergy. 
AVeltou  and  Talbot,  had  obtained  non-juring 
consecration  ;  but  the  evidence  for  the  tradi- 
tion is  doubtful  and  there  is  no  trace  of  their 
Lavmg  performed  episcopal  acts. 

h\  addition  to  these  disadvantages  tl)e 
church  laboreil  under  other  and  greater  dith- 
culties  in  the  period  of  the  American  Revolu- 


tion. Suspicions  of  disloyalty  were  added  to 
other  prejudices — a  ciiarge'  not  wholly  without 
foundation,  as  many  of  the  clergy  conscien- 
tiously believed  themselves  bound  to  pray  for 
the  king,  and  therefore  either  left  the  country 
or  ceased  to  officiate.  The  church  in  conse- 
quence, after  the  Revolution,  was  reduced  to 
great  weakness,  very  f(;w  of  its  clergy  were 
left,  and  many  of  its  edifices  closed  or  de- 
stroyed. But  it  speaks  much  for  its  vitality 
and  for  an  influence  out  of  all  proportion  to 
its  numbers,  that  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  American  army,  the  one  man  by  whom, 
under  God,  the  nation  achieved  its  indepen- 
dence, whose  faith  sustained  both  army  and 
people  in  the  darkest  hours,  was  indebted  for 
his  religious  training  to  the  Episcopal  Church  ; 
that  an  Episcopal  minister,  William  VV^hite, 
was  the  first  chaplain  of  Congress  ;  and  that 
it  was  to  an  Episcojxxl  church  (St.  Paul's)  in 
New  York  that  Wasliiugtou  and  the  twohouscs 
of  Congress  adjourned  for  divine  service,  after 
Washington  had  delivered  his  inaugural  ad- 
dress as  the  first  President  of  the  United  States, 
April  30,  1789.  These  facts  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  overcome  the  vulgar  prejudice  that  the 
Episcopal  Church  is  a  foreign  institution,  con- 
tributing nothing  to  the  growth  of  the  Amer- 
ican state.  It  is  a  defect  in  the  writing  of 
American  history  from  the  New  England 
point  of  view  that  the  contribution  of  the 
Southern  and  Middle  States,  where  the  Church 
of  England  e.xerted  its  widest  influence,  is  too 
much  overlooked  when  considering  the  forma- 
tive influences  in  early  American  history. 

In  1783,  after  the  independence  of  the  colo- 
nies had  been  acknowledged  by  England,  we 
enter  upon  the  second  stage  of  the  history  of 
the  American  Church.  At  this  interesting 
moment,  when  it  became  an  independent  and 
national  church,  suggestive  hints  may  be 
gained  of  the  religious  situation  at  the  close 
of  the  18th  century.  It  seemed  to  have  been 
taken  for  granted,  without  much  discussion, 
that  the  Prayer-Book  should  be  thoroughly  re- 
vised, and  that  after  the  model  put  forth  by 
the  great  Latitudinarian  divines  in  1689.  (Cf. 
Proctor,  History  of  the  Prayer- Book  ;  Perry, 
Iltstory  of  the  American  E}mcojy<il  Church.) 
Many  of  the  features  of  that  attempted  re- 
vision, together  with  others  of  an  original 
kind,  were  now  incorporated  in  the  "  Proposed 
Book"  put  forth  in  1785.  Among  the  more 
important  changes  were  the  rejection  of  the 
Nicene  and  Athanasiau  creeds,  the  reduction 
of  the  39  Articles  to  20  in  number,  and  these 
so  modifietl  as  to  present  Arminianism  in 
place  of  the  qualified  Calvinism  of  the  orig- 
inal. There  were  many  other  changes  of  a 
doctrinal  character,  for  the  most  part  in  the 
direction  of  that  prevailing  tendency  in  the- 
ology characteristic  of  the  last  century,  where 
the  deeper  mysteries  of  the  faith,  springing 
out  of  I  he  central  truth  of  the  Incarnation, 
were  sacrificed  to  the  interests  of  an  imagined 
lucidity  or  common-sense.  The  "  Proposed 
Book"  proved  unacceptable  to  the  worship- 
pers after  the  old  use  ;  it  must  have  jarred  at 
many  points,  and  often  needlessly,  Ujwn  the 
sacred  as.sociations  of  vears.  Upon  the  bishop>« 
of  the  English  Cliurch  it  left  a  duiiious  ini- 
pression,  suggesting  the  fear  that  the  Ameri- 


EPISCOPAI. 


(266) 


EPISCOPAL 


can  Church  was  departing  from  the  common 
faith.  But  on  the  assurance  that  this  was 
not  the  case,  and  after  the  concession  that  the 
Nicene  Creed  should  be  restored,  they  seem 
to  hav^e  made  no  further  objection  to  this 
sweeping  revision,  and  consented  to  proceed 
in  the  matter  of  consecrating  bisliops  for 
America.  Tlie  act  of  parliament  authorizing 
thdr  procedure  was  passed  in  1786,  and  in  the 
following  year  Dr.  White,  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  Dr.'Pirovost,  of  New  York,  were  conse- 
crated in  Lambeth  Chapel. 

An  earlier  attempt  had  been  made  to  pro- 
cure the  episcopate  from  England  by  the 
clergy  of  Connecticut,  who,  acting  by  them- 
selves, had  elected  Dr.  Seabury  as  their  bish- 
op ;  but  he,  meeting  with  vexatious  delays 
M'hile  in  England  seeking  for  consecration 
from  English  bishops,  had  turned  to  the  Epis- 
copal Church  in  Scotland,  from  whence  he 
easily  obtained  the  desired  boon.  Returning 
thence,  in  1785,  he  exercised  his  functions 
within  his  own  diocese,  but  did  not  join  in 
consecrating  new  bishops  for  the  American 
Church  until  after  a  third  bishop  had  obtained 
consecration  in  Enghmd,  thus  making  the  re- 
quired number,  according  to  the  ecclesiastical 
tradition,  for  handing  down  the  episcopate  in 
the  English  line.  The  type  of  church  life  in 
Connecticut  was  a  different  one  from  that  pre- 
vailing in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States— a 
difference  in  some  measure  owing  to  the 
dominant  Puritanism,  which  tended  to  breed 
a  reactionary  ecclesiastical  tone,  in  which  the 
emphasis  was  placed  upon  saci'ament  rather 
than  upon  Scripture,  together  with  a  strong 
assertion  of  episcopal  authority.  The  clergy 
of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  took  no 
part  in  the  informal  convention,  composed  of 
clergy  and  laity,  which  met  in  New  York  in 
1784,  and  to  which  belongs  the  credit  of  giv- 
ing shape  to  the  organization  of  the  American 
Church.  The  New  England  clergy  objected 
to  the  lay  element  in  the  church  councils,  nor 
did  they  believe  that  any  action  should  be 
taken  in  revising  the  Prayer-Book  or  shaping 
the  organization  until,  under  the  presidency 
of  bishops,  the  divine  form  of  the  church  was 
complete.  It  was  not  until  the  Convention  of 
1789  that  these  objections  were  overcome  and 
they  united  with  their  brethren  in  one  com- 
mon organization. 

The  organization  of  the  American  Church 
differs  in  many  respects  from  that  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church.  The  democratic  spirit  which 
inspired  the  new  republic  intlueuced  vitally 
the  first  councils  of  clergy  and  laity,  resulting 
in  a  system  which  is  substantially  what  is 
known"  as  Archbishop  Usher's  "Scheme  of 
Episcopacy."  This  system  consists  of  a 
graded  series  of  representative  synods,  which, 
beginning  with  the  parish,  where  the  vestry  is 
elected  by  the  congregation  and  the  rector  by 
the  vestry,  rises  to  the  Diocesan  Convention, 
composed  of  lay  delegates  from  the  parishes, 
together  with  their  rectors,  and  presided  over 
by  the  bishop.  The  Diocesan  Convention  is 
empowered  to  legislate  for  the  diocese  within 
certain  limits,  to  elect  its  bishop  and  also  to 
send  delegates  to  a  General  Convention  of  all 
the  dioceses,  whose  sessions  are  triennial. 
The  General  Convention  is  composed  of  3 


houses,  that  of  the  bishops,  of  which  every 
bishop  is  ex  officio  a  member,  and  the  House 
of  Deputies,  composed  of  4  clergy  and  4  laity 
from  every  diocese.  The  concurrence  of  the 
3  orders,  bishops,  clergy,  and  laity,  is  neces- 
sary for  any  legislation.  It  shows  the  power 
possessed  by  the  laity  that  they  are  able  to 
veto  the  action  of  the  two  clerical  orders. 

The  Prayer-Book  was  finally  revised  at  the 
General  Convention  of  1789,  where  the  "  Pro- 
posed Book"  was  abandoned  and  the  English 
Prayer-Book  made  the  basis  of  revision.  The 
flifferences  between  the  English  and  American 
Prayer-Books,  though  few  in  number,  are  yet 
significant.  They  include  the  rejection  of 
the  Athanasian  Creed  by  an  almost  unani- 
mous opinion  ;  the  optional  use  of  the  words,  in 
the  Apostles'  Creed,  "  he  descended  into  hell," 
and  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  baptism  ;  the 
rejection  of  a  mediaeval  form  of  absolution 
from  the  office  for  the  visitation  of  the  sick. 
A  change  was  made  in  the  communion  ottice, 
at  the  instance  of  Bishop  Seabury  and  in  pur- 
suance of  a  pledge  he  had  made  to  the  Scotch 
bishops,  by  which  the  oblation  of  the  ele- 
ments, the  invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
more  particularly  the  solemn  act  of  self-sacri- 
fice on  the  part  of  the  worshipper,  in  which 
the  service  culminates,  are  introduced  after 
the  prayer  of  consecration  and  before  the  act 
of  communion.  This  brief  outline  of  the  or- 
ganization of  the  church  and  the  revision  of 
the  Prayer-Book  would  be  incomplete  with- 
out paying  a  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Bishop 
White,  of  Pennsylvania,  to  whose  rare  wis- 
dom, prudence,  and  conciliatory  spirit  the 
American  Church  owes  more  than  to  any 
other  formative  agency  at  the  critical  moment 
of  its  reconstruction. 

The  title  "  Protestant  Episcopal"  was  as- 
sumed as  the  designation  of  the  American 
Church  without  discussion  as  to  its  fitness. 
It  had  been  commonly  applied  to  the  Church 
of  England  in  the  17th  century  to  describe  its 
attitude  in  relation  to  Rome,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  Puritanism,  on  the  other.  Although 
the  American  Church  was  now  independent 
of  the  English  and  possessed  a  modified  or- 
ganization, it  still  regarded  itself  as  identical 
with  the  Church  of  England.  In  1814,  in 
consequence  of  questions  which  had  arisen  in 
relation  to  the  tenure  of  property,  the  General 
Convention  declared  that  "  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  is  the 
same  body  heretofore  known  in  these  States 
as  the  Church  of  England."  During  the 
early  years  of  its  independent  career,  the 
church  made  but  little  progress,  in  conse- 
quence partly  of  the  many  prejudices  which 
it  had  still  to  encounter,  causing  some  of  its 
representatives  to  feel  and  act  as  if  it  ex- 
isted merely  by  tolerance  ;  partly  also  because 
it  was  lacking  in  any  deep  sense  of  a  peculiar 
mission  to  the  American  people.  The  diver- 
gence in  opinion  known  as  High  Church  and 
Low  Church,  which  had  been  represented  by 
Bishops  Seabury  and  White,  still  continued, 
but  with  no  clear  apprehension,  on  the  part  of 
either,  of  the  deeper  issues  in  theology  which 
the  distinction  concealed.  In  the  controver- 
sies with  the  other  religious  bodies,  the  ques- 
tions at  issue  turned  chiefly  upon  the  superi- 


EPISCOPAL 


(267) 


EPISCOPAL 


ority  of  a  liturgy  to  cxtcmj)orc  prayer,  or  as 
to  whether  conversion,  in  the  popular  sense, 
was  necessary  iu  order  to  contirmation,  or 
whether  episcopacy  was  necessary  to  the 
being  or  the  well-being  of  a  church.  The 
main  differentia  of  the  church  was  commonly 
supposed  to  lie  iu  its  possession  of  a  liturgy. 
With  the  episcopate  of  Bishop  Ilobart,  of 
New  York  (1811-;?0),  there  appeared  an  ag- 
gressire  t3"pe  of  churchmanship,  asserting  the 
exclusive  aspects  of  episcopacy  and  the  im- 
portance of  the  sacraments  iu  a  vigorous  man- 
ner, which  arrested  attention  and  inspired  a 
new  zeal.  From  this  time  began  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  custom  on  the  part  of  Low  Church- 
men of  "  exchanging  pulpits"  with  ministers 
of  other  denominations,  to  the  methods  also 
and  the  theology  associated  with  the  revival 
system  of  Methodists  and  Puritans,  of  which 
customs  Bishop  Griswold,  of  the  Eastern 
Diocese,  a  contemporarj'  of  Bishop  Ilobart, 
may  be  taken  as  a  representative.  A  period 
of  controversy  now  ensued  of  which  the 
echoes  still  linger,  one  temporary  result  of 
which  was  to  isolate  the  church  from  sym- 
pathy with  the  surrounding  religious  bodies 
—a  result,  however,  incidental  only  to  the 
necessity  of  developing  within  it  a  deep  con- 
sciousness of  its  own"  distinctive  principles, 
and  to  the  production  of  a  distinctive  type  of 
church  life.  Before  this  result  had  been 
achieved,  church  unity,  if  realized,  would 
have  been  a  premature  thing,  to  whicli  the 
American  Church  would  have  brought  no 
valuable  contribution,  and  gained  even  at  the 
cxpen-se  of  sacrificing  essential  truth.  Bishop 
Hobart  died  on  the  eve  of  the  Tractarian  Con- 
troversy, which  in  America,  as  iu  England, 
produced  a  widespread  excitement  and  alarm. 
Now  tliat  the  excitement  has  passed  away,  the 
beneficial  results  of  the  "  Oxford  Movement" 
may  be  discerned.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned the  fuller  appreciation  of  the  the- 
ology of  the  Prayer-Book— a  theology  neither 
Roman  nor  Genevan,  but  older  than  either, 
which  centres  in  the  Incarnation,  and  sanc- 
tions the  principle  of  Christian  nurture  as  the 
true  method  of  dealing  with  a  redeemed  and 
regenerated  humanity  ;  the  study  of  church 
history  as,  equally  with  Scripture,  the  record 
and  the  vehicle  of  divine  revelation  ;  the  iden- 
tity of  the  church  in  all  ages  as  the  manifesta- 
tion of  the  life  of  a  risen  and  glorified  Lord. 
That  these  results  have  been  striven  after  by 
some  blindly  and  in  one-sided  and  extreme 
ways,  false  often  to  the  spirit  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, may  be  conceded,  as  also  that  tliey  have 
been  resisted  by  others  blindly,  withoiit  dis- 
cerning their  spiritual  motive  and  relations. 
Among  those  who  have  bpst  represented  the 
movement  may  be  mentioned  Bishops  Wliit- 
tingham,  Hopkins,  and  Doane,  and  among 
those  who  have  resisted  its  one-sided  tenden- 
cies. Bishops  McTlvaine,  Meade,  and  Eastburn, 
and  Drs.  Tyng,  Vinton,  and  Stone.  Tlu; 
American  Church  has  had  also  its  Broad 
Church  school,  among  whose  deceased  repre- 
sentatives are  Muiilenberg,  Washburn,  and 
Cotton  Smith.  To  the  larger  spirit  in  whicli 
they  labored  is  owing  the  greater  freedom  of 
thousrht  and  speech  which  the  church  enjoys, 
03  also  the  birth  of  the  ccmceptiou  of  the 


church  as  distinct  from  a  sect,  where  vari- 
eties of  practice  and  belief  may  coexist  with- 
out breakifig  Christian  charity.  Tiie  vital 
distinction  still  remains  between  those  who 
lay  stress  upon  Scripture,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
those  who  assert  the  sacraments,  on  the  other, 
as  alike  symbols  of  the  divine  communica- 
tion ;  but  the  adherents  of  each  co-operate 
toward  common  ends  within  the  sacred  fel- 
lowship of  the  church. 

The  new  era  in  the  growth  and  extension 
of  the  church  is  generally  dated  from  1835, 
%vheu  it  woke  to  the  importance  of  domestic 
mLssions,  enlarging  and  reconstituting  its 
Missionary  Jioard.  Bishop  Chase,  who  began 
the  work  of  planting  the  clmrch  in  the  region 
west  of  the  Alleglianies.  was  followed  by 
Bishop  Kemper,  the  pioneer  of  the  North- 
west, and  by  the  devoted  Breck,  who  lirst 
penetrated  into  the  more  distant  regions  west 
of  the  Mississippi.  Since  those  days  the 
church  has  sought  to  keep  pace  with  the 
growth  of  the  country,  till  it  is  now  repre- 
sented in  every  state  and  territory.  In  1820 
it  had  15  dioceses,  9  bishops,  and  310  clergy  ; 
in  1890,  62  dioceses  and  17  missionary  juris- 
dictions, 72  bishops,  and  4058  clergy.  Its 
communicants  now  number  470,000,  and  its 
sum  total  of  contributions  is  $11,483,597,  an 
average  of  $24  to  each  communicant.  The 
legislation  of  tlie  church  in  recent  years  in- 
cUides  topics  of  vital  interest  to  its  constitu- 
ency. The  threatened  division  caused  by  the 
Civil  War  was  overcome  by  the  General  Con- 
vention of  1865,  which  welcomed  back  the 
Southern  dioce.ses  that  during  the  war  had 
formed  an  independent  organization.  The 
conventions  of  1868,  1871,  and  1874  were 
largely  occupied  with  the  ritualistic  con- 
troversy, the  convention  in  the  latter  year 
specifying  for  condemnation  such  ritual  acts 
as  "  the  elevation  of  the  elements  in  such 
manner  as  to  expose  them  to  the  view  of  the 
people  as  objects  toward  which  adoration  is 
to  be  made  ;  any  act  of  adoration  of  or  toward 
the  elements  in  the  Holy  Conununion,  such 
as  bowings,  prostrations,  or  geuutlections,  and 
all  other  like  acts  not  authorized  by  the  ru- 
brics of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer."  la 
1877  a  canon  of  divorce  was  enacted  which 
forbade  the  clergy  to  solemnize  marriage  iu 
the  case  of  divorced  persons,  unless  the  cause  of 
divorce  had  been  adultery  and  it  was  the  inno- 
cent party  who  came  to  be  married.  In  1883 
the  subject  of  the  revision  of  the  Prayer-Book 
was  introduced  into  tiic  General  Convention 
by  the  Rev.  Dr.  William  R.  Huntington,  of 
New  York,  the  result  of  which  was  various 
modilicalions  and  enrichments,  with  the  priv- 
ilege of  .shorter  and  varied  services.  Other 
topics  of  legislation  have  been  the  organiza- 
tions known  as  sisterhoods  or  deaconesses, 
the  provision  of  a  court  of  appeal,  on  which 
no  action  has  yet  been  taken,  the  formation  of 
provinces,  corresponding  to  the  larger  divi- 
sions of  the  English  Church,  and  the  change 
of  the  name  of  the  church  in  order  to  meet, 
as  is  alleged,  the  changed  conditions  of  the 
time.  The  present  name  is  undoubtedly  open 
to  criticism  ;  the  dilliculty  lies  in  finding  an 
acceptable  substitute.  Iii  the  hope  that  it 
might  pfbmotc  the  cause  of  Christian  unity, 


EPISCOPAL 


(268) 


EPISCOPAL 


the  House  of  Bishops,  iu  1886,  put  forth  a 
declaration  of  the  basis  on  which,  in  Its  opin- 
ion, union  might  be  achieved,  of  which  the 
leading  features  are  the  acceptance  of  the 
Nicene  creeds  and  the  Historic  Episcopate. 

Among  the  general  institutions  of  the  church 
the  most  important  is  the  Domestic  and  For- 
eign Missionary  Society,  founded  in  1820, 
which  sustains  missions  abroad  in  Mexico, 
Africa,  China,  and  Japan.  There  are  some 
25  colleges  and  theological  seminaries,  among 
the  most  important  of  the  former  being  Co- 
lumbia College,  New  York,  and  from  the  press 
there  issue  17  periodicals  of  various  kinds. 

(Cf.  J.  S.  M.  Anderson,  History  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  the  Colonies  and  Foreign 
Dependencies  of  the  British  Empire,  London, 
1854-55,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1856  ;  Bishop  Samuel 
'WilbcriovcQjIistory  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  America,  London,  1844,  2d  ed., 
1856  ;  Bishop  William  White,  Memoirs  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  AnwricM,  Philadelphia,  1820,  2d  ed., 
A836,  3d,  ed.  De  Costa,  New  York,  1880; 
"Bird  Wilson,  Memoir  of  Bishop  White,  Phila- 
delphia, 1839  ;  Bishop  W.  S.  Perry.  Histori- 
cal Collections  of  tlie  American  Colonial  Church, 
1871-78,  5  vols.;  Bishop  W.  S.  Perry,  History 
of  the  Ainei'^ican  Episcopal  Church,  Boston, 
li^5.  2  vols.  ;  Bishop  W.  S.  Perry,  Handbook 
of  the  General  Convention,  New  York,  1874, 
4th  ed.,  1881  ;  F.  L.  Hawks,  Contribvtions  to 
the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  United  States, 
New  York,  1836-39,  2  vols.  ;  F.  L.  Hawks 
with  Bishop  Perry,  Documentary  History  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  New  York,  1862-63,  2  vols.; 
Murray  Hoffman,  A  Treatise  on  the  Lato  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States,  New  York,  1850.) 

Alexander  V.  G.  Allen. 

Episcopal  Chiurch,  The  Reformed,  is  an  off- 
shoot from  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
originating  iu  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1873, 
imder  the  leadership  of  Rev.  Dr.  George 
David  Cummins,  Assistant  Bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Diocese  of  Kentucky. 
Its  motive  was  begotten  in  the  bitter  con- 
troversies springing  out  of  the  Oxford  ^love- 
mcnt  in  this  country,  which  led,  in  the  decade 
of  the  sixties,  to  ecclesiastical  trials,  and  tinally 
to  the  enactm.ent  of  a  canon  forbidding  min- 
isters without  episcopal  ordination  from  offici- 
ating in  Protestant  Episcopal  churches.  At  a 
moment  when  the  evangelical  party  in  the 
church  was  seeking  to  extirpate  ritualism  or 
to  overcome  the  predominance  of  High  Church 
exclusiveism  in  the  General  Convention,  and 
when  its  memorial  petitions  asking  for  some 
modihcation  iu  the  baptismal  office,  by  which 
the  word  '"regenerate"  might  be  dropped  or 
its  use  made  optional,  had  been  tinally  rejected 
— at  this  moment,  when  the  excitement  of  the 
contest  struggled  with  the  conviction  of  ulti- 
mate defeat,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cheney,  of  Chicago, 
was  suddenly  inhibited  from  preaching  by 
his  diocesan,  the  Rt.  Rev.  H.  J.  Whitehouse, 
on  account,  as  was  alleged  at  his  trial,  of  hav- 
ing omitted  the  word  "  regenerate"  when  per- 
forming the  rite  of  baptism  (1871).  When 
Dr.  Cheney  continued  to  preach  affcr  his  in- 


hibition, he  was  deposed  from  the  ministry 
by  Bishop  Whitehouse  on  the  ground  of  con- 
tumacy. Bishop  Cummins,  who  had  been 
prominent  in  the  councils  of  the  evangelical 
party,  had  shortly  before  this  been  inhibited 
from  preaching  in  the  diocese  of  Illinois,  by 
Bishop  Whitehouse,  as  creating  factious  dis- 
turbance. Like  Dr.  Cheney,  he  disregarded 
the  prohibition  because  limiting  his  rightful 
liberty.  These  two  events  tending  toward 
separatism  were  followed,  in  18T3,  by  the 
meeting  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  at  which 
Bishop  Cummins  participated  in  a  communion 
service  in  a  Presbyterian  church  in  New 
York,  at  which  were  present  the  pastor,  Dr. 
Hall,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Arnot,  of  Scotland,  and 
the  illustrious  and  venerable  Dr.  Dorner,  of 
Germany.  The  Rev.  Dr.  R.  Payne  Smith,  the 
Dean  of  Canterbury,  and  the  Rev.  Canon  Free- 
mantle,  of  London,  who  were  in  the  country 
attending  tlie  meetings  of  the  Alliance,  also 
joined  in  communion  services  in  other  Presby- 
terian churches.  These  events  called  out  criti- 
cism and  condemnation  from  the  opposite 
party  in  the  church,  and  incited  also  a  certain 
Dr.  Tozer,  missionary  bishop  of  the  English 
Church  at  Zanzibar,  to  write  a  sharp  letter  cen- 
suring the  Dean  of  Canterbury  and  Canon 
Freemantle  for  their  action,  as  a  violation  of  the 
ecclesiastical  order  of  the  Church  of  England. 
Dr.  Cummins  replied  to  Dr.  To7-er  in  a  public 
letter,  reiterating  the  familiar  facts  regarding 
the  relations  of  tlie  Church  of  England  in  the 
age  of  the  Reformation  to  the  continental 
churches,  and  maintaining  that  the  act  of  in- 
tercommunion was  no  violation  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal order.  Dr.  Cummins'  letter  involved  him 
iu  a  heated  controversy,  a  result  of  which  was 
to  force  him  to  the  conclusion,  to  which  he 
had  already  been  slowly  and  reluctantly  gravi- 
tating, that  the  battle  for  evangelical  truth 
had  been  lost  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and 
that  nothing  remained  but  to  found  a  new 
order,  which,  while  retaining  episcopacy  and 
a  liturgical  worship,  should  be  free  from  what 
were  considered  "  Romanizing  germs"  in  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  which  were 
claimed  by  Ritualists  and  exclusive  High 
Churchmen  as  justifying  their  attitude.  TTo 
this  end  he  organized  the  body  known  as  the 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  with  some  8 
clergy  and  some  20  laymen,  who  with  him 
seceded  from  their  former  communion.  Two 
years  later,  in  1875,  these  numbers  had  in- 
creased to  some  50  clergy,  with  as  many  con- 
gregations. 

The  principles  of  the  new  organization,  as 
stated  positively,  were  the  acceptance  of  Scrip- 
ture as  the  only  rule  of  faith,  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  two  sacraments,  and  what  are 
called  the  "  doctrines  of  grace,"  as  set  forth 
in  the  39  Articles.  Episcopacy  was  also  de- 
clared to  carry  with  it  no  divine  right.  The 
following  list  of  negations  presents  more 
clearly  the  purport  of  the  new  movement  : 
"  (1)  The  Church  of  Christ  does  not  exist  only 
in  one  order  or  form  of  ecclesiastical  polity. 
(2)  Christian  ministers  are  priests  in  no  other 
sense  than  that  in  which  all  believers  are  a 
royal  priesthood.  (3)  The  Lord's  table  is  not 
an  altar  on  which  the  oblation  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  is  offered  anew  to  the 


EPISCOPAL 


(269) 


EPISTLES 


Father.  (4)  The  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Lord's  Slipper  is  not  a  presence  in  tlie  ele- 
ments of  bread  and  wine.  (5)  Regeneration 
is  not  inseparably  connected  M'ith  baptism." 
The  Pra3'^er-Book  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
was  rejected,  and  in  its  place  was  taken  the 
"  Proposed  Book"  of  1785— a  work  which, 
whatever  its  merits  as  a  liturgical  compila- 
tion, was  fairly  successful  in  having  elimi- 
nated any  recognition  of  priestly  authority — 
the  word  pried  being  everywhere  changed  to 
minister — or  of  a  real  presence  in  the  sacra- 
ment or  of  baptismal  regeneration,  togetiier 
with  whatever  else  was  incompatible  with  the 
prevailing  type  of  theology  at  the  close  of  the 
18th  century.  The  "  Proposed  Book,"  how- 
ever, was  subjected  to  vi.^orous  revision,  in 
which  the  process  of  elimination  was  carried 
still  further  ;  the  forms  of  ministerial  absolu- 
tion were  rejected  ;  in  the  communion  oflice, 
instead  of  the  words  of  delivery,  as  in  the 
"Proposed  Book,"  "Take  and  eat  this," 
were  substituted  "  Take  and  eat  this  bread,'' 
etc.  ;  the  otticiating  minister  is  obliged  by 
rubric  to  invite  Christians  of  other  denomina- 
tions who  may  be  present  to  join_  in  the  com- 
munion, and  express  provision  is  made  for 
extempore  prayer,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
minister.  Only  a  few  traces  still  remain  of 
an  earlier  theology  and  ritual  practice,  as  in 
the  prayer  of  General  Thanksgiving,  where  the 
assertion  of  the  actual  redemption  of  the 
world  in  Christ— the  correlate  or  ground  of 
the  regeneration  declared  in  baptism— still  lin- 
gers, or  in  the  baptismal  office,  where  the  sign 
of  tha  cross  is  allowed. 

Tlie  Articles  of  religion  in  the  "  Proposed 
Book,"  with  their  Arminian  coloring  and 
semi-rationalistic  tone,  were  too  obnoxious  to 
be  revised.  Hence  the  original  39  Articles  of 
the  Ciuu-ch  of  England,  as  contained  in  the 
American  book,  were  taken  as  the  basis  for 
revision.  Among  the  more  important  changes 
or  additions  was  one,  directed  against  the  so- 
called  Broad  Church  party,  whicli  detines  the 
Bible  as  not  merely  containing  the  oracles  of 
God,  but  as  being  itself  the  oracles  of  God  ; 
a  new  article  was  added  which  condemns  the 
principle  and  practice  of  private  confession  as 
against  the  Ritualists,  while  priestly  absolu- 
tion is  declared  to  be  a  blasphemous  usurpa- 
tion ;  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  election  is 
firmly  asserted  in  the  modified  17th  Arti 
cle,  but  the  freedom  of  the  will  is  also  de- 
clared to  be  the  teacliiug  of  Scripture  ;  and 
another  new  article  reduces  regeneration 
to  what  is  commonly  known  as  conversion. 
In  the  place  of  the  moderate  statement  of 
original  sin  in  the  English  article,  that  "  man 
is  very  far  gone  from  original  riirliti'ousness," 
is  introduced  the  tenet  of  total  depravity,  the 
revised  article  reading  that  man  is  "  wholly" 
gone,  etc.  At  a  later  time,  in  connection  with 
some  controversy  within  tiie  body,  a  resolution 
was  passed  altirming  the  doctrine  of  endless 
punisiunent,  without,  however,  adding  the 
statement  to  the  Articles. 

Among  other  usages,  the  ministers  of  other 
denomiiiations  are  received  without  reordina- 
tion,  and  their  communicants  without  con- 
firmation. Letters  dismissory  are  given  to 
ministers  and  laymen  seeking  to  join  other 


communions,  except  Unitarians  and  Univer- 
salists.  Those  of  their  own  communion  are 
also  instructed,  when  they  are  in  any  place 
where  there  is  no  church  of  their  own  order, 
to  affiliate  with  the  evangelical  denominations 
in  preference  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  The  stamp  impressed  upon  the 
body  at  its  inception  still  leads  it,  on  marked 
occasions,  to  unite  the  ministrations  of  other 
religious  bodies  with  its  own,  as  if  a  sacred 
duty.  The  co-operation  of  Presbyterians  and 
Methodists,  more  particularly,  is  sought  when 
conferring  ordination,  and  the  Jlethodist 
Episcopate  has  thus  in  several  instances  been 
fused  with  its  own  episcopal  succession. 

The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  has 
branches  in  Canada  and  in  England.  It  pos- 
sesses a  theological  seminary  in  Philadelphia. 
Its  statistics  in  lSi)()  represent  its  clergy  as 
numbering  79  presbyters  (including  8  bishops) 
and  29  deacons,  with  lOfi  parishes  in  the  United 
States  and  Cunaila,  and  its  communicants 
about  nsoO.  Its  organization  includes  a  Gen- 
eral Council,  whi(;h  meets  annually.  In  place 
of  dioceses  it  has  synods  and  missionary  ju- 
risdictions, over  which  its  bishops  ]ireside. 

(Cf.  Life  of  Ocorge  David  CinniiUHs,  bv  his 
wife.  New  York,  1878  ;  A  C<>U,rtion  of  Pam- 
phlets with  Reference  to  the  Estidilislunvnt  of 
tlie  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  Philadelphia, 
1876  ;  also  Canons,  and  Journals  of  General 
Councils  from  1873  to  1890.) 

Alexander  V.  G.  Allen. 

Ep-is-cc'-pi-vLs,  Simon  (properly  Biscop), 
Remonstrant  Church,  Holland  ;  b.  in  Amster- 
dam, 1583  ;  d.  there,  April  4,  1643.  He  stud- 
ied at  Leyden,  1600-06,  and  became  professor 
of  theology  there,  1611  ;  but  in  consequence 
of  his  declared  Arminianism,  at  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the  country 
(1618).  In  1626  permission  was  given  him  to 
return.  From  1634  till  his  death  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  Remonstrant  semi- 
nary at  Amsterdam.  He  is  one  of  the  stand- 
ard Arminian  divines,  and  next  to  Grotius  did 
most  to  give  the  theology  of  that  body  its  sys- 
tematic form.  He  wrote  in  Latin  the  Armin- 
ian Confession,  Brussels,  1622.  His  theologi- 
cal works  appeared  at  Amsterdam,  1650-65, 
2  vols.  (See  his  life  by  F.  Calder,  London, 
1835,  New  York,  1837.) 

Episcopus  in  partibus  infidelium  [hishop 
in  parts  of  the  world  in  the  hands  of  the  in- 
fidels), a  bishop  who  has  his  title  from  some  de- 
funct diocese  in  a  country  in  which  now  there 
is  no  Roman  church— e.^. ,  in  what  is  now  a 
Mohammedan  country.  Such  bishops  com- 
monly live  in  Rome  and  act  as  assistants  to 
other  bishops. 

Epistles,  the  term  applied  to  the  inspired 
letters  in  the  New  Testament,  which  apply 
irospel  truths  to  the  various  emergencies  of 
life.  They  are  of  3  classes  :  one  addressed  to 
a  particular  cliureh,  another  to  individuals, 
and  a  third  to  all  Christians  in  general.  Paul's 
are  13  in  number,  the  earliest,  the  2  to  the 
Thessalonians,  A.n.  52  at  CJorinth  :  the  second 
group,  Galatians,  .53  or  55  at  Ephesus  ;  1  Cor- 
inthians, 57  at  Ephesus  ;  2  Corinthians,  57  in 
>[acedonia,  and  Romans,  58  or  59  at  Corinth  ; 
the  epistles  of  the  imprisonment,  Colossians, 


EPISTOL-E 


(270) 


ERASMUS 


Ephesians,  Philemon,  Philippians,  62  or  63  ; 
and  the  hist,  the  pastoral  epistles,  1  and  2 
Timothy  and  Titus,  66-68.  Hebrews  is  quite 
uncertain  as  to  author,  date,  and  place  of 
composition.  The  Epistle  of  James  is  sup- 
posed to  be  of  early  date,  those  of  John  of  a 
very  late  period,  1  and  2  Peter  and  Jude  in- 
termediate. All  the  epistles  are  remarkable 
for  their  adaptation  to  time  and  place,  and 
yet  for  being  suitable  for  all  times  and  all 
places.  They  need  to  be  studied  as  to  their 
occasion,  their  scope,  their  aim,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances both  of  the  writer  and  the  first 
readers  ;  but  when  thus  studied  they  yield 
principles  and  instructions  of  permanent  and 
universal  worth.  (See  literature  under  sepa- 
rate epistles  or  authors.)  T.  W.  C. 

Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum  {letters 
from  obscure  men),  a  collection  of  letters  writ- 
ten in  monkish  Latin  with  the  express  design 
of  holding  up  to  ridicule  the  ignorance,  im- 
morality, and  scholastic  hair-splitting  of  the 
mendicant  monks.  They  profess  to  come 
from  these  monks  and  are  addressed  to  Or- 
tuinus  Gratius  (i.e.,  Ortwin  of  Graes,  b.  at 
Holtwick,  near  Cosfeld,  Westphalia,  about 
1480  ;  d.  at  Cologne,  where  he  was  professor, 
1542).  The  immediate  occasion  of  their  com- 
position was  Keuchlin's  issue  of  letters  ad- 
dressed to  him  by  distinguished  persons,  up- 
holding him  in  his  controversy  with  Pfeffer- 
korn  and  the  Dominicans  in  their  demand  for 
the  destruction  of  all  Jewish  books  {Clarorwm 
mrorum  epistolm  latinm,  Tiibingen,  1514). 
This  suggested  to  Mutianus  Ruf  us,  Ulrich  von 
Hutten,  and  other  humanists,  strong  partisans 
of  Reuchlin's,  the  idea  of  coming  to  the  de- 
fence of  their  friend  by  a  series  of  imaginary 
letters  which  should  associate  opposition  to 
Reuchlin  with  darkness  and  hypocrisy.  The 
letters  thus  produced  caused  a  great  sensation 
throughout  Europe.  They  are  remarkably 
clever  imitations  of  the  monkish  style,  so 
much  so  that  the  monks  were  at  first  deceived 
by  them  and  considered  them  genuine,  but  in 
the  judgment  of  such  men  as  Erasmus  (Op. 
III.  3,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1708,  1622,  1626),  who  at 
first  praised  them,  and  Luther  (letters,  ed.  de 
Wette,  L  37  sqq.),  they  carried  the  joke  too 
far  and  caused  disgust.  The  pope  issued  a 
bull  against  them,  1517.  They  are  perhaps 
only  in  character  in  their  frequent  quibblings 
and  indecencies.  The  first  series  of  41  ap- 
peared in  1515,  the  second  of  62  in  1517,  and 
a  third,  not  worthy  to  be  compared  with  the 
first  two,  in  1689.  Best  ed.  by  Biicking,  Suppl. 
U.  Hutteni  operum.  Leipzig,  1864-70,  2  vols., 
Ger.  trans,  by  Binder,  Stuggart,  1876. 

Epworth  League.     See  p.  988. 

Era  (from  the  Latin  mri  or  era)  means  a 
chronological  arrangement  starting  from  a 
fixed  point.  Thus  the  Roman  era  began  with 
the  year  in  which  the  city  of  Rome  was 
founded.  It  was  used,  however,  only  by  his- 
torians and  chronologists,  while  in  every-day 
life  all  public  and  private  documents  were 
simply  dated  by  the  name  of  the  consul  in 
office,  and,  later  on,  by  the  year  of -the  reign 
of  the  emperor.  The  Mohammedan  era  begins 
from  the  Ilegira,  and  is  still  used  by  the 
Turks.  Arabs,   etc.     The  Israelites  had   no 


era.  In  the  Pentateuch  all  chronology  is 
bound  up  with  genealogy.  Later  on,  the 
reign  of  the  kings,  national  and  foreign,  or 
some  historical  event,  the  exodus,  the  exile, 
etc.,  were  used  as  starting-points.  When  the 
Jews  became  Syrian  subjects  they  adopted 
the  Seleucidian  era,  and  it  is  uniformly  used 
throughout  the  first  two  books  of  the  Mac- 
cabees. At  the  time  of  Christ  a  tcorld's  era, 
beginning  with  the  creation  of  the  world,  was 
often  used  among  them.  The  Christian  era, 
starting  from  the  birth  of  Christ,  is  the  inven- 
tion of  the  Roman  abbot  Dionysius,  525,  but 
it  took  nearly  500  years  to  get 'it  adopted  ;  it 
was  not  introduced  in  Russia  until  1700  by 
Peter  the  Great.  Great  inconvenience  also 
arose  at  first  from  the  circumstance  that  in 
different  places  the  year  was  begun  at  differ- 
ent dates,  in  Germany  with  Dec. "25,  in  France 
with  Easter  day.  In  England  Jan.  1  was  not 
fixed  upon  as  New  Year's  day  until  1753. 
(See  Ideler,  Lehrbuch  der  Ghronologie,  Leip- 
zig, 1831  ;  Victor  Floigl,  Die  Ghronologie  der 
Bibel  des  Manetho  und  JBeros,  Leipzig,  1880.) 

C.  P. 

E-ras'-mus,  St.,  a  Syrian  bishop,  somewhere 
in  the  patriarchate  of  Antioch,  who,  tortured 
under  Diocletian  in  Antioch  and  Sirmium,  re- 
moved to  Formcae  in  Campania,  and  there 
died,  303.  He  is  one  of  the  14  helpers  in  time 
of  need,  and  because  tradition  states  that  his 
bowels  were  torn  out  he  is  patron  saint  of  all 
who  suffer  from  colic  or  other  bowel  com- 
plaints, and  of  women  in  childbed.  Also  he 
protects  animals  against  diseases,  because 
tradition  further  says  that  once  different  kinds 
of  wild  beasts  came  into  his  cell  and  pros- 
trated themselves  at  his  feet.  The  Mediter- 
ranean sailois  call  upon  him  in  storms.  In 
Italy  and  Portugal  he  is  known  as  St.  Elmo. 
His  day  is  June  2. 

Erasmus.  Desiderius,  a  famous  humanist 
who  greatly  assisted  in  the  introduction  ^ud 
furtherance  of  the  Reformation  ;  b.  at  Rotter- 
dam, Oct.  38,  1465  (?) ;  d.  at  Basel,  July  12,1536. 
He  received  his  early  education  in  the  school  at 
Deventer,  Holland,  and  here  became  acquaint- 
ed with  the  ancient  classics,  and  acquired 
that  love  for  antiquity  which  gave  direction 
to  the  course  of  his  whole  life.  His  talents 
had  already  become  recognized,  and  the  bright- 
est prospects  of  fame  and  of  usefulness  lay  be- 
fore him  when  the  death  of  his  parents  and  the 
knavery  of  a  relative,  who  robbed  him  of  all 
his  property,  put  an  end  to  the  regular  course 
of  his  studies.  Instead  of  entering  a  univer- 
sity, as  he  should  have  done,  he  was  sent  to  a 
monastic  school,  where  he  was  deprived  of  all 
proper  mental  aliment,  and  was  finally  per- 
suaded, distasteful  as  the  step  was  to  him,  to 
enter  a  monastery  in  Steyn,  near  Gouda. 
From  (he  life  which  he  was  obliged  to  lead 
here,  his  health,  his  disposition,  and  his  mind 
all  suffered.  Still  the  studious  habit  was  al- 
ready too  fixed,  and  his  natural  tendencies 
too  strong,  to  permit  him  to  be  altogether 
drawn  off'  from  his  favorite  pursuits,  and  he 
continued  his  studies  in  the  classics,  and  ac- 
quired that  knowledge  of  the  Latin  language, 
and  that  elegant  Latin  style,  which  placed 
him  so  far  above  his  contemporaries.     His 


ERASMUS 


(271) 


ERASMUS 


attention  was  also  directed  here,  as  it  might 
not  have  otherwise  been,  to  the  connection  of 
such  studies  with  the  reformation  of  the 
church. 

Little  by  little  Erasmus  freed  himself  from 
an  association  so  distasteful  to  him  as  his 
monastic  connection  had  become.  In  1491 
the  bishop  of  Cambray  attached  him  to  his 
own  person.  Soon  the  bishop  sent  him  to 
Paris  to  continue  his  studies.  Here  he  settled 
after  a  time  as  a  private  teacher,  and  had  cer- 
tain young  Engli-shmen  among  his  pupils,  a 
fact  which  led  him  afterward  to  journey  to 
England.  He  remained  there  from  1498  to 
1500,  spending  most  of  his  time  with  Colet 
and  More  in  Oxford.  From  Uolet,  Erasmus 
learned  for  the  lirst  time  that  the  Christian 
system  was  not  to  be  identified  with  Scholas- 
ticism, with  which  he  had  already  fallen  out, 
and  that,  properly  understood,  it  was  not  in 
conflict  with,  but  rather  accorded  most  fully 
with,  that  new  classical  learning  to  which  he 
had  become  devoted.  This  new  idea  was  de- 
terminative of  his  whole  following  career. 
He  turned  now  with  great  zeal  to  the  study 
of  Greek,  and  began  to  apply  his  knowledge 
to  the  study  of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  For 
several  years  he  was  engaged  in  study  and  in 
teaching  in  France  and  in  Holland,  and  in 
file  mean  time  began  to  publish  various  works. 
In  1505  he  published  the  Annotations  of  Valla 
upon  tlie  New  Testament,  and  in  the  preface 
urged  theologians  to  found  their  systems  upon 
the  original  text  of  the  Bible,  and  set  forth 
the  principles  of  grammatical  interpretation. 
In  1506  he  was  able  to  make  a  long-desired 
journey  to  Italy.  He  was  received  with  great 
favor,  saw  many  learned  men,  was  made  doc- 
tor of  theology  in  Turin,  and  entered  into  in- 
timate associations  with  such  men  as  the  sub- 
sequent pope,  Leo  X.,  which,  however,  by 
the  limitations  they  laid  upon  him,  were 
rather  a  hindrance  to  his  usefulness  than  a 
help.  Ou  his  return  from  Italy  (1509)  he 
planned  and  in  1511  published  Ma  Praise  of 
Folly,  a  work  which  marks  the  beginning  of 
the  best  portion  of  his  career. 

He  had  returned  from  Italy  to  England,  and 
here  he  remained  for  5  years,  teaching  Greek 
a  part  of  the  time  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge. He  hoped  for  a  regular  professorial 
position  here,  but  it  was  never  given  to  him. 
From  1515  to  1531  he  was  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  here  received  a  papal  dispensation  from 
liis  duties  toward  his  monastery.  He  stood 
at  this  time  at  the  very  centre  of  the  human- 
istic efforts  of  his  timf,  and  was  indeed  him- 
self the  most  important  individual,  in  a  liter- 
ary sense,  of  the  age.  He  controlled  the  lit- 
erary world,  as  after  him  Luther,  and  then 
Calvin,  did  the  religious.  Wherever  he  went, 
the  most  flattering  reception  awaited  him. 
Princes,  scholars,  bishops,  even  the  pope, 
vied  in  doing  him  honor.  A  party  of  "  The 
Erasmians"  was  formed,  with  which  almost 
all  the  reformers  ■^'cre  in  one  way  or  another 
connected. 

The  greatest  service  of  this  time  which  Eras- 
mus rendered  to  the  cause  of  religion  was  the  ! 
issue  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament,  ' 
whi'^h    appeared    at    Basel,   with    a    revised  i 
Latia  translation  and  a  few  notes,  in  151G.  | 


It  Wiia  a  hastily  prepared  work,  and  as  a 
specimen  of  careful  editing  lacked  much. 
This  is  the  more  imfortunate,  as  its  form  was 
but  little  altered,  and  then  not  always  for  the 
better,  as  when  the  3  heavenly  witnesses  were 
reintroduced  (1  John  v.  7),  but  became  in  the 
main,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  the  standard  or 
"  received"  text.  But  it  was  the  work  which 
put  the  original  of  the  New  Testament  into 
the  hands  of  reformers  and  readers  every- 
where. The  Complutensian  Polyglot,  which 
was  issued  in  1520,  circulated  but  a  few 
copies,  while  Erasmus'  New  Testament  was 
reprinted  in  more  than  30  dilferent  editions, 
and  he  himself  issued  4  revisions.  The  .sec- 
ond edition  was  the  text  which  Luther  used 
in  translating  his  New  Testament.  In  Eng- 
land it  was  Erasmus'  Testament  which  drew 
that  attention  to  the  Word  of  God  which  in- 
formed the  minds  of  men,  and  introduced  the 
Reformation  by  the  conversion  of  the  first  re- 
formers, Bilney,  Latimer,  and  the  rest. 

Erasmus'  own  relation  to  the  Reformation 
is  a  most  interesting  one.  He  was,  on  the  one 
hand,  the  originator  of  the  most  imi)ortant 
doctrine  of  the  Reformation,  the  necessity  of 
appealing  to  the  pure  oracles  of  God,  and  not 
to  the  authority  of  men,  to  determine  what  to 
believe  and  what  to  do.  In  this,  as  well  as 
in  attacks  upon  the  superstitions  current  in 
the  church,  he  went  before  Luther.  Yet  he 
had  a  very  different  view  of  Christ  from  that 
which  filled  and  animated  the  reformers. 
While  they  viewed  him  as  Lord  and  Saviour 
from  sin,  Erasmus  viewed  him  rather  as  a 
teacher  and  an  example  of  what  is  pleasing  to 
God.  Erasmus  is  also  a  Pelagian,  while  the 
theology  of  the  reformers  is  August  inian. 
His  is  a  practical  view  of  Christianity,  to 
which  doctrine  is  more  or  less  a  matter  of  in- 
difference ;  theirs  a  view  in  which  practice  Ls 
built  upon  doctrine. 

Thus  it  could  not  be  but  that  Erasmus 
should  sooner  or  later  break  with  a  movement 
of  such  deep  religious  earnestness  as  the  Ref- 
ormation was.  For  a  time  all  went  well. 
The  reformers  knew  their  indebtedness  to 
him,  and  they  were  desirous  of  mainlaining 
good  relations  with  him.  But  his  theological 
shallowness  early  excited  the  su.spicion  of 
Luther.  The  notes,  still  existing,  which 
Luther  made  upon  the  margin  of  the  edition 
of  Erasmus'  New  Testament  which  he  used 
show  how  his  anger  was  every  now  and  then 
excited.  Yet,  in  1519,  Luther  wrote  in  a 
friendly  and  even  flattering  style  to  him,  upon 
which  Erasmus  replied  in  the  tone  of  a  school- 
master to  a  pupil,  bidding  Luther  be  more 
moderate.  More  and  more  he  determined  to 
preserve  his  neutrality  in  the  great  contest. 
He  declined  all  responsibility  for  Luther.  He 
even  drew  off  from  Hutten,  and  tried  to  put 
him  in  fault.  Finally  he  thought  it  necessary 
to  take  sides  against  Luther,  which  he  did  by 
.selecting  a  topic  in  which  he  could  pa.ss 
silently  over  most  of  the  points  in  dispute, 
and  could  also  reckon  upon  the  support  of  the 
general  opinion  outside  of  the  circle  of  llie  re- 
formers. He  wrote,  in  1524,  his  Dintribe  de 
Li'icro  Arhitrio.  He  here  took  a  ground 
which  h(!  knew  Luther  regarded  as  faNe,  for 
he  defended,  without  much  philo.sophic  depth. 


ERASTIANISM 


(272) 


the  freedom  of  tlie  will  ;  but  what  was  worse, 
he  raiugled  his  discussion  with  persoual  at- 
tacks upon  Luther.  The  latter  answered  with 
his  De  Servo  Arbitrio,  in  which  he  denied  all 
freedom  of  the  will  in  the  strongest  terms, 
though  he  did  not  mean  to  reduce  man  there- 
by to  the  condition  of  a  machine,  and  guarded 
against  a  bondage  of  coaction  ;  and  amid  the 
main  discussion,  he  answered  Erasmus  with 
so  much  of  sarcasm,  humor,  and  contempt, 
though  not  without  occasionally  employing 
expressions  of  real  kindness,  that  any  further 
connection  between  them  became  out  of  the 
question.  Erasmus'  reply  was  of  no  impor- 
tance. He  soon  broke  also  with  all  the  other 
reformers. 

And  yet,  in  this  period  of  increasing  separa- 
tion from  the  leaders  of  the  reform,  Erasmus 
did  not  cease  to  carry  on  what  he  had  taken 
for  his  life-work,  by  preparing  editions  of  the 
church  Fathers.  Thus  he  published  Hilary, 
Irenoeus,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Epiphanius, 
and  Chrysostom,  from  1523  to  1530,  and  was 
engaged  upon  Origen  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
Other  works  came  from  his  pen  of  the  high- 
est value,  as  his  Ecdcsiastes,  an  excellent 
treatise  upon  homiletics.  He  lived  also  to 
see  sentences  from  his  works  condemned  by 
the  Sorbonne  (1527). 

His  last  days  were  spent  in  Basel,  where  he 
had  before  lived  for  a  considerable  period. 
He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral. 

The  writings  of  Erasmus  were  first  col- 
lected in  1540  by  Beatus  Rhenauus,  and  again 
more  completely  by  Clericus,  Leyden,  1703-06, 
ill  10  vols,  folio.  (See  life  by  Drummond, 
Loudon,  1873,  2  vols.)  In  English  there  are 
modern  translations  of  his  Adagia  or  Proverbs 
(selections),  London,  1814,  2  vols.  ;  Ecdesi- 
astes  (see  above),  1797  ;  Enchiridion  [the  Chris- 
tian Manual]  (abridged),  1816  ;  Tract  on 
Preparation  for  Death,  1866  ;  Prayers,  1872  ; 
Pilgnmages,  2d  ed.,  1875  ;  Apophthegmes, 
1877  ;  Praise  of  Folly,  1878  ;  Colloquies,  1878, 
2  vols.  ;  Life  of  Cole't,  1883.  F.  H.  F. 

Erastianism,  the  theory  of  church  polity 
which  asserts  the  supremacy  of  the  state  over 
the  church,  attributed  to  Thomas  Erastus 
(Erastus  being  Greek  equivalent  of  Liebler  or 
Lieber),  b.  at  Auggen,  in  Baden-Durlach  (or 
at  Baden,  Switzerland),  Sept.  7,  1524  ;  d.  at 
Basel,  Dec.  31,  1583.  He  studied  theology  at 
Basel,  philosophy  and  medicine  at  Bologna 
and  Padua  ;  became  body- physician  to  the 
elector-palatine  Otto  Heinrich,  and  professor 
of  medicine  at  Heidelberg,  1558  ;  went  in 
latter  capacity  to  Basel,  1580  ;  to  his  profes- 
sorship added  that  in  ethics,  1583.  He  was  a 
stanch  Zwinglian,  and  objected  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Genevan  plan  of  church  gov- 
ernment into  the  Palatinate  on  the  ground 
that  excommunication  is  a  human  device,  not 
a  divine  ordinance,  and  that  the  church  has 
no  power  to  inflict  penalties  of  any  kind,  all 
such  jurisdiction  being  properly  left  to  the 
civil  magistrate.  When  the  Gjenevan  plan 
was  introduced  (1570)  he  was  the  first  victim, 
being  excommunicated  for  suspected  Unita- 
rianism.  He  was,  however,  restored  in  1575. 
His  views  found  advocates  in  the  Westminster 
Assembly  of  Divines,     His  posthumous  book 


on  the  subject  (Basel,  1589)  appeared  in  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1659,  n.e.  by  R.  Lee,  Tfie 
Theses  of  Erastus  Touching  Excommunication, 
Edinburgh,  1844.  (Cf.  R.  I.  Wilberforce,  A 
Sketch  of  the  History  of  Erastianism,  London, 
1851.) 

E-ras'-tus.     See  Erastianism, 

Eremite.     See  Anchorite. 

Erigena.     See  ScoTUS  Erigena. 

Er-nes-ti,  Johann  August,  D.D.  (Leipzig, 
1758),  Protestant  theologian  ;  b.  at  Tennstadt, 
15  m.  n.n.w.  of  Erfurt,  Thuringia,  Aug.  4, 
1707  ;  d.  at  Leipzig,  Sept.  11,  1781.  He  stud- 
ied theology  and  philology  at  Wittenberg  and 
Leipzig,  1726-30  ;  became  professor  extraor- 
dinary of  classical  literature  at  Leipzig,  1742  ; 
ordinary  professor  of  theology,  1758.  He  is 
the  founder  of  the  grammatico-historical  exe- 
getical  school  of  New  Testament  interpretation. 
(See  his  Principles  of  Biblical  Interpretation 
[orig.  Leipzig,  1761  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Andover, 
U.  8.,  1832  ;  London,  1832,  2  vols.].) 

Errett,  Isaac,  Disciple  ;  b.  in  New  York 
City,  Jan.  2,  1820  ;  has  been  in  the  ministry 
since  1840,  and  editor  of  The  Christian  Stand- 
ard since  1866.  He  is  the  author  of  Walks 
about  Jerusalem ;  a  Search  after  the  Land- 
marks of  Primitive  Christianity,  Cincinnati, 
1872,  5th  ed.,  1884  ;  Talks  to  Bereans,  1875, 
4th  ed.,  1884  ;  Evenings  ^cith  the  Bible,  1885- 
89,  3  vols.    D.  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  Dec.  19, 1888. 

Erskine,  Ebenezer,  founder  of  the  Scottish 
Secession  Church  ;  b.  at  Dryburgh,  Berwick- 
shire, Scotland,  June  22,  1680  ;  d.  at  Stirling, 
June  2, 1754.  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh, 
and  preached  at  Portmoak,  1703-31,  when  he 
was  translated  to  Stirling,  but  in  1740  was 
deposed  from  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  He  and  his  followers  had  previ- 
ously seceded  from  the  church  because  they 
believed  that  it  was  become  recreant  to  Refor- 
mation principles.  After  his  deposition  he 
continued  to  preach  at  Stirling,  and  as  usual 
to  large  audiences.  (See  art.  Presbyterian 
Chdrches,  also  life  by  T.  Harper,  Edin- 
burgh, 1849,  and  by  J.  Ker,  London,  1881.) 

Erskine,  John,  D.D.  (Glasgow,  1766), 
Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  1721  ; 
d.  there,  Jan.  19,  1803.  He  studied  in  that 
city  ;  became  minister  at  Kirkintilloch,  near 
Glasgow,  1744  ;  at  Colross,  1753  ;  of  New 
Greyfriars,  Edinburgh,  1758  ;  transferred  to 
Old  Greyfriars,  1767.  He  was  noted  for  his 
assiduous  cultivation  of  acquaintance,  not 
only  with  ministers  of  other  denominations  in 
Great  Britain,  but  in  the  colonies  and  on  the 
continent.  Thus  he  had  as  friends  Wesley, 
Whitefield,  and  Jonathan  Edv/ards.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  earliest  defenders  and  advo- 
cates of  foreign  missions.  Scott  introduces 
him  in  Guy  Mannering.  (See  his  life  by 
AVellwood,  Edinburgh,  1818.) 

Erskine,  Ralph,  brother  of  Ebenezer  Ers- 
kine ;  b.  at  Monilaws,  Northumberland, 
March  15,  1685  ;  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  ; 
entered  the  ministry  ;  was  deposed  with  his 
brother  ;  ministered  in  the  Secession  church 
at  Dunfermline  till  his  death,  Nov.  6,  1752. 


(273) 


ESCOBAR 


His  Gospel  Sonnets,  -wliich  are  not  sonnets,  and 
perhaps  as  little  gospel,  appeared  in  Edin- 
burgh, 1720,  35tli  ed.,  1797  ;  reprints,  e.f/., 
Glasgow,  1870.  lie  also  wrote  Sniokiiig  Spir- 
itualized, and  a  paraphrase  of  the  Canticles 
(1.738).  (See  his  Practical  Works,  Glasgow, 
1764-66,  3  vols.,  and  life  by  J.  L.  Watson, 
Loudon,  1881.) 

Erskine,  Thomas,  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Oct. 
13.  1788  ;  d.  there,  March  20,  1870.  He  was 
educated  there  and  practised  law  there  from 
1810  to  1816,  when  tlie  death  of  his  brother 
made  him  heir  of  the  family  estate  at  Lin- 
lathan,  near  Dundee,  and  thitlier  he  removed. 
He  paid  much  attention  to  theology,  held  lib- 
eral views,  inspired  J.  McLeod  Cami)beirs 
theory  of  the  Atonement,  and  was  a  rcstora- 
tiouist.  His  charming  character  and  intense 
sympathy  endeared  him  to  his  friends,  who 
were  numerous  and  influential.  Of  his  books 
may  be  mentioned  Remarks  on  the  Internal 
Emlcnce  for  the  Truth  of  lleccaled  Religion, 
Edinburgh,  1820,  10th  ed.,  1878;  Essay  on 
Faith,  1822,  5th  ed.,  1829  ;  The  Unconditional 
Fre.e.nessoftJie  Gospel,  1828,  3d  ed..  1879.  (See 
his  letters,  1800-70,  Edinburgh,  1877,  3  vols., 
4th  ed..  1884,  1  vol.) 

Esarhaddon.     See  Assyriology,  p.  58. 

E'-sau  {hairy),  twin  brother  of  Jacob,  to 
whom  he  profanely  sold  his  birthright  (Gen. 
XXV.),  a  man  of  sensual  and  self- willed  nature 
who  sacrificed  the  future  to  the  present.  He 
was  alienated  from  Jacob,  but  afterward  rec- 
onciled (Gen.  xxvii.,  xxxii.).  He  had  a  nu- 
merous posterity  (Gen.  xxxvi.).      T.  W.  C. 

Eschatol'-ogy  (Greek,  eschatos,  "last,"  and 
logos,  "discourse"),  the  doctrine  of  the  Last 
Things,  a  theological  term  for  what  the  Bible 
reveals  about  a  future  state.  The  references  to 
the  subject  in  the  Old  Testament  are  not  numer- 
ous, partly  because  in  such  a  mixed  economy, 
political  as  well  as  religious,  temporal  as  well 
as  spiritual,  present  and  material  rewards 
and  punishments  must  'of  necessity  displace 
the  higher  spiritual  sanctions  of  a  future  state, 
and  partly  because  the  design  was  to  leave  to 
the  Messiah  the  honor  of  "  bringing  life  and 
iucorruption  to  light  through  tiie  gospel  ;" 
yet  the  idea  of  a  life  to  come  was  by  no  means 
excluded.  It  was  made  known  by  the  trans- 
lation of  Enoch  and.  Elijah,  by  the  perma- 
nency of  God's  relation  to  his  people  as  their 
God,  by  viewing  death  as  being  gathered  to 
one's  people,  by  the  distinction  between  Sheol 
and  the  grave,  and  by  the  anticipation  of  ful- 
ness of  joy  at  God's  right  hand.  And  that 
the  people  at  large  knew  the  truth  appears 
from  the  existence  of  necromancers  and  otiier 
dealers  with  the  dead.  Tiie  resurrection  of 
the  body,  though  only  intimated  at  first,  be- 
came gradually'"  more  dear  until  it  founil  ex- 
plicit statement  in  Daniel  (xii.  2.  3),  and  in 
Christ's  time  was  universally  accepted. 

In  the  New  Testament  there  is  a  full  dis- 
closure— that  is,  as  full  as  our  present  condi- 
tion will  admit.  1.  The  Second  Advent  of 
our  Lord  is  stated  over  and  over,  in  every 
variety  of  phrase,  as  con.stituting  the  end  of 
the  existing  state  of  things  and  tlie  introduc- 
tion of  a  new  and  endless  dispensation,  the 
final  goal  to  which  earth  is  tending.     3.  The 


intermediate  state  between  death  and  the 
resunection  is  represented  in  the  parable  of 
Dives  and  Lazarus  (Luke  xvi.)  as  one  of 
bliss  or  misery  according  to  the  character  of 
those  who  enter  it,  but  neither  the  bliss  nor 
the  misery  is  so  great  as  it  will  be  after  the 
final  judgment.  The  opinion  of  most  Protes- 
tants is  that  "  the  souls  of  believers  are  at 
their  death  made  perfect  in  holiness  and  da 
immediately  pass  into  glory."  But  the  Ro- 
man Church  holds  that  most  Christians  being 
at  death  too  good  for  perdition,  yet  not  good 
enough  for  heaven,  they  are  in  the  middle 
state  put  through  a  disciplinary  process,  more 
or  less  severe,  by  which  their  sins  are  purged 
away,  and  that  this  process  may  be  hastened 
by  the  prayers  of  the  saints  and  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass,  a  doctrine  which  easily  led 
to  gross  abuse  and  scandals.  3.  The  resur- 
rection of  the  body.  This  is  peculiar  to  the 
Scripture,  yet  not  unreasonable.  If  man  is  to 
continue  in  another  life,  both  parts  of  his  na- 
ture, the  material  and  the  immaterial,  must 
be  preserved.  Hence  the  doctrine  that  in  the 
great  day  the  vital  force  of  the  soul  wiil  se- 
cure the  formation  of  a  body  suited  to  its  new 
necessities  and  sphere.  4.  The  final  judg- 
ment. This  is  to  vindicate  the  justice  of  God 
before  all  worlds.  The  judge  is  to  be  the  Son 
of  man.  and  the  ground  of  the  judgment  will 
be  the  deeds  done  in  the  body.  Each  man  is 
to  be  judged  by  the  light  that  he  had,  and  if 
he  knew  the  gospel,  by  the  relation  which  he 
sustains  to  Christ.  The  result  of  this  solemn 
assize  will  be  the  assigning  of  recompeu.se 
which  is  twofold  in  nature.  5.  Heaven  is  the 
abode  of  the  righteous.  It  consists  in  the  ab- 
sence of  toil,  pain,  parting,  sorrow,  and,  above 
all,  of  sin,  the  enlargement  of  men's  mental 
and  moral  faculties,  the  companionship  of 
saints  and  angels,  the  increase  of  knowledge 
and  grace,  and  the  vision  of  God  in  his  glory, 
as  seen  in  the  Lord  Je.sus,  all  to  continue  and 
grow  through  unwasting  ages.  6.  Hell  is  the 
abode  of  the  wicked.  It  consists  in  remorse 
of  conscience,  the  development  of  evil  pas- 
sions and  appetites  always  craving  and  always 
ungratitied,  separation  from  the  society  and 
influence  of  the  good,  the  presence  of  ungodly 
and  wicked  beings,  together  with  positive  in- 
flictions of  God's  wrath.  This  is  to  continue 
forever.  Such  is  the  natural  meaning  of  the 
statements  of  Scripture,  and  that  whicli  the 
historic  church  has  placed  upon  them  from 
the  beginning.  T.  W.  C. 

Forthe  eschatology  of  the  Old  Testament, 
see  Oehler.  Old  Testament  Theology,  Eng. 
tran§..  ed.  Day,  New  York,  1883  ;  of  the  New 
Testament,  see  Weiss,  Biblical  Theology  of  the 
New  Testament,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh.  1882- 
83.  2  vols.  ;  for  a  history  on  the  subject,  see 
Alger,  I)octrin4i  of  a  Future  Life,  10th  ed.,  Bos- 
ton, 1878  ;  for  modern  treatments,  see  C.  M. 
Mead,  The  Soul  Here  and  Ilercafdr,  1879  ;  Ih'r- 
neron  the  Future  State,  trans.  Newman  Smvth, 
New  York,  1SS3  ;  E.  D.  Morris,  Is  there  Sd- 
ration  after  lh<ith?  1SS7  ;  A.  Hovey,  Biblicul 
KsrhatMqy,  riiiladdpliia,  1888;  James  Fyfe, 
The  II,  ri after,  L'.ndnn,  1889. 

Escobar  y  Mendoza  (es-ko-bar'  e  men-do'- 
tha),   Antonio   de,   Roman   Catholic  ;    b.    at 


ESCORIAI. 


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ETHICS 


Valladolid,  Spain,  1589  ;  d.  there,  July  4, 
1669,  being  a  Jesuit  since  1604.  His  famous 
Moral  Theology  (Lyons,  1646)  passed  tlirough 
40  editions  in  his  lifetime,  and  has  been  sev- 
eral times  translated.  But,  according  to  Pas- 
cal {Provincial  Letters,  Nos.  5  and  6),  he  is  an 
immoral  teacher,  and  in  French  escobarder 
means  to  equivocate.  His  Moral  Theology 
Avas  burnt  by  order  of  the  parliaments  of 
Paris.  Bordeaux,  Rennes,  and  Roueu. 

Escorial  or  Escurial  (properly  San  Lorenzo 
cl  Real),  the  famous  structure  of  Philip  II., 
27  m.  n.w.  from  Madrid.  It  is  in  the  form 
of  a  gridiron,  because  St.  Lawrence,  in  dis- 
charge of  a  vow  to  honor  whom,  in  case  of 
victory,  it  was  built— it  being  on  his  day, 
Aug.  10  (15o7),  Philip  won  at  St.  Quentin  a 
notabPe  victory  over  the  French — was  roasted 
to  death  on  a  gridiron.  It  is  church,  convent 
(Hieronymite),  palace,  and  mausoleum,  all  in 
one.     It  was  building  from  1563  to  1584. 

Eadraelon.     See  Jezreel. 

Esdras.     See  Pseudepigrapha. 

Esnik,  b.  at  Kolp,  near  Mount  Ararat,  Ar- 
menia, 397  ;  was  a  pupil  of  Sahab  and  Mes- 
rob  ;  travelled  and  became  well  versed  in 
Syriac  and  Greek  ;  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Bagrewand,  and  died  as  such  in  478.  His 
work  against  various  forms  of  pagan  intidelity 
and  gnostic  heresy  was  printed  in  Armenian, 
at  Smyrna,  1762,  and  translated  into  French, 
Refutatio7i  des  differentes  sectes,  by  Le  V.aillaut 
de'Florival,  Paris,  1853. 

Ess,  van,  Roman  Catholic,  Benedictine 
monks.  1.  Karl,  b.  at  Warburg,  37  m.  s.s.e.  of 
Minden,  Sept.  25,  1770  ;  d.  as  episcopal  com- 
missary at  Iluysburg,  near  Halberstadt,  Oct. 
22,  1824.  2.  Johann  Heinrich  (better  known 
by  his  Benedictine  convent  name  of  Leandcr), 
cousin  of  preceding  ;  b.  at  Warburg,  Feb.  15, 
1772  ;  d.  at  Affolderbach,  in  the  Odenwald, 
Oct.  13,  1847.  He  became  a  Benedictine, 
1790  ;  professor  of  theology  at  Marburg, 
1812  ;  retired  to  private  life,"l822.  With  lils 
cousin  Karl  he  brought  out  a  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  at  Brunswick,  1807,  of 
which  more  than  half  a  million  copies  were 
distributed  by  a  Roman  Catholic  Bible  society, 
which wassuppressed in  1817  ;  alone  heworked 
on  the  Old  Testament,  and  finally  brought  it 
out  at  Sulzbach,  1836  ;  first  edition  of  whole 
Bible,  1840.  He  co-operated  with  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and  thereby 
brought  himself  into  bad  repute  in  his  church. 
His  library  is  now  in  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York  City. 

Essene,  a  Jewish  ascetic  sect,  living  in  re- 
tired communities,  not  mentioned  in  the  gos- 
pels because  our  Saviour  did  not  encounter 
them.  They  are  described  by  Philo  and 
Josephus.  They  lived  simply,  abjured  mar- 
riage, observed  the  law  in  some  things  but  not 
in  others,  practised  magic,  and  strove  after 
purity  of  life.  (See  Ginsburg,  The  Esscnes, 
London,  1864  ;  Lightfoot,  Colossians,  pp.  82- 
179.)  T.  W.  C. 


(Lat.,  e.'ise,  "  to  be").  That  which 
constitutes  the  particular  nature  of  a  sub- 
stance and  distinguishes  it  from  all  others. 


The  Greek  Fathers  used  essence  (onsia)  to  de- 
note what  is  common  to  all  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity,  and  hypostasis  to  denote  what  is  pecul- 
iar to  each.  T.  W.  C. 

Es'-ther,  the  Book  of,  relates  how  a  Jewish 
maiden,  Hadassah  (myrtle),  otherwise  Esther 
(star),  a  cousin  and  foster-daughter  of  Morde- 
cai,  was  chosen  by  the  Persian  king  Ahasuerus 
(Xerxes)  in  place  of  Vashti,  and  brought  about 
the  great  deliverance  commemorated  in  the 
Feast  of  Purim  (lots).  Haman,  the  prime  min- 
ister, got  a  decree  to  extirpate  the  Jews  and 
prepared  to  hang  Mordecai ;  but  the  latter,  who 
had  detected  a  conspiracy  against  the  king, 
was  raised  to  honor,  and  Haman  was  hanged  on 
the  gallows  he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai. 
The  edict  to  destroy  the  Jews  was  counter- 
acted by  another  permitting  them  everywhere 
to  destroy  their  enemies.  The  book  is  pecul- 
iar in  that  it  never  mentions  the  name  of  God, 
and  seems  to  exhibit  a  spirit  of  national  re- 
venge and  pride.  Its  canonicity  was  at  one 
time  questioned  in  the  Jewish  Church,  but 
only  for  a  time.  Many  later  writers  have 
questioned  its  authenticity,  but  without  rea- 
son. The  allusions  to  Persian  manners  and 
customs  are  minute  and  accurate.  The  lux- 
ury and  caprice  of  the  king  correspond  with 
what  history  tells  of  Xerxes.  And  the  Feast 
of  Purim  is  an  irrefutable  argument,  since  on 
no  other  hypothesis  can  its  existence  be  ex- 
plained. There  are  two  Greek  versions,  con- 
taining many  interpolations  and  additions, 
which  bear  on  their  face  the  marks  of  being 
spurious,  and  are  accordingly  relegated  to  the 
Apocrypha.  Besides  the  general  commen- 
taries, see  those  specially  on  the  book  by  the 
Lowell  Hebrew  Club,  Andover,  1885,  and  by 
Paulus  Cassell,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1888. 
T.'^W.  C. 

Eternal  Life.     See  Immortality. 

Etheridge,  John  Wesley,  Ph.D.  (hoii.  Hei- 
delberg, 1847),  Wesley^n  ;  b.  at  Youngwoods, 
near  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  Feb.  24,  1804  ; 
began  to  preach,  1826  ;  d.  at  Camborne,  13 
m.  n.e.  of  Penzance,  May  24,  1866.  Notwith- 
standing his  constant  ministerial  duties  he  ac- 
quired much  Oriental  learning,  as  displayed  in 
his  books,  Horw  Aramaicce,  London,  1843  ; 
Histoi-y,  Liturgies,  and  Literature  of  the  Syri- 
an Churches,  1846  ;  The  Apostolical  Acts  and 
Ejristles,  from  the  Peschito,  1849  ;  Jer^isalem 
and  Tiberias  .  .  .  a  Survey  of  the  Religious 
and  Scholastic  Learning  of  the  Jews,  1856  ;  The 
Targums  of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel 
071  the  Pentateuch,  etc.,  from  the  Chaldee,  1862- 
65,  2  vols.  (See  life  by  Thornley  Smith,  Lon- 
don, 1871.) 

Ethics  is  the  science  of  conduct.  Christian 
ethics  is  the  scientific  application  of  the  truths 
of  Christianity  to  the  duties  and  ideals  of  life. 
It  is  noli  a  mere  appendix  to  dogmatics,  but 
they  are,  one  the  theoretical,  the  other  the 
practical  aspect  of  the  same  thing.  In  the 
Apostolic  Fathers  the  matter  was  treated  sim- 
ply in  regard  to  individual  and  family  life. 
TertuUian  emphasized  the  opposition  between 
the  Christian  world  and  the  pagan  as  rivals, 
but  Origen  rather  represented  the  church  as  a 
spiritual  power  that    was  to  penetrate    the 


ETHICS 


(275) 


ETTWEIN 


world  and  so  regenerate  it.  Cyprian  put  the 
cliurch  in  tiie  foreground,  and  made  man's 
relation  to  it  the  chief  ethical  relation  of  his 
life.  This  was  even  more  strongly  asserted  in 
consequence  of  the  controversies  with  the 
Montanists  and  the  No\'atians,  which  made  sj 
much  depend  upon  ecclesiastical  order.  The 
progress  of  moral  science  was  hindered  by  the 
introduction  of  asceticism  with  its  monkish 
ideals,  making  a  higher  virtue  in  the  renunci- 
ation of  property,  marriage,  etc.,  and  of  course 
setting  up  a  lower  standard  for  those  not 
called  to  the  "'  angelic"  life.  As  time  passed 
on  the  ethics  of  the  mediisval  church  became 
simply  a  list  of  prohibitions  and  penalties,  as 
in  the  Canons  and  Penitential  books.  This 
•was  couuterbalanced  in  part  by  the  IVIystics, 
as  in  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  wlio  taught  that 
men  escaped  from  the  earthly  and  finite  by 
being  absorbed  in  the  divine  and  infinitu,  but 
the  ascetic  negation  of  the  world  prevented 
this  from  being  anything  more  than  a  passive, 
contemplative  life,  whereas  the  divine  should 
pervade  the  human  and  exalt  and  purify  both 
thought  and  act.  The  schoolmen,  of  whom 
Thomas  Aquinas  is  the  leader,  built  up  a  sy.s- 
tem  based  on  the  4  philosophical  virtues,  pru- 
dence, justice,  moderation,  and  fortitude,  to- 
gether with  the  3  theological  virtues,  faith, 
hope,  and  charity  ;  thus  making  the  sacred 
number  7.  This  system  became  of  canonical 
authority  after  his  death,  and  has  of  late  been 
proclaimed  from  Rome  as  that  which  is  to  save 
society. 

When  the  Reformation  came,  resting  upon 
Scripture  in  all  things,  tlie  reconstruction  was 
as  great  in  etiiics  as  in  dogmatics.  Tlie  doc- 
trine of  gratuitous  justitication  dislodged  the 
■whole  sj'stem  of  a  double  standard  of  duty 
and  all  the  refinements  of  casuistry  which 
had  been  accumulated,  and  henceforward  all 
ethics  grew  out  of  the  decalogue,  which  Lu- 
therans and  Reformed  alike  accepted  as  the 
ultimate  norm  of  human  duty.  Under  the 
several  commandments  were  arranged  all  the 
obligations  which  man  owed  to  his  Maker,  to 
his  fellows,  and  to  himself.  And  it  was  some 
timj  before  a  scientific  elaboration  of  the  sub- 
ject was  attempted.  That  appears  to  have 
begun  with  Grjtius,  who,  in  his  De  jure  pads 
et  belli,  set  forth  the  welfare  of  the  community 
as  the  highest  good  which  it  was  every  one's 
duty  to  seek.  Mosheim  (1740)  introduced  the 
happiness  principle  in  ethics,  and  was  the 
first  of  modern  writers  to  advocate  what  has 
been  called  eudjumonism  or  hedonism.  Bud- 
deus  (1711)  and  Crusius  (1772),  on  the  otiier 
hand,  made  faith  to  be  the  true  principle  of 
ethics,  and  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  be  the 
highest  good.  Kant  severed  ethics  entirely 
from  religion,  anil  based  it  upon  subjective 
individual  considerations,  in  which  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  Fichte  anrl  others,  but  Schlcier- 
macher  returned  to  the  old  idea  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven,  not  as  a  realm  beyond  the 
grave  (Buddeus),  nor,  as  the  Romanist  writers 
viewed  it,  as  the  chhrch,  but  rather  as  pro- 
duced by  the  virtuous  action  of  the  individual 
in  every  sphere  of  human  life,  church,  state, 
familv,  science,  art,  literature,  etc.  After 
Schleiermacher,  Rathe  was  tlie  most  noted 
writer  in  evangelical  ethics.     He  agreed  with 


Plegel  in  making  the  state  the  highest  good,  but 
still  considered  that  the  church  should  resolve 
itself  into  tlie  state.  Wultke  opposed  strongly 
botii  Schleiermacher  and  Rothe. 

The  course  of  ethical  thought  in  Britain  and 
America  may  be  seen  in  Mcintosh's  Dimn-in- 
tion  and  in  Sidgwick's  History  of  Ethics  (.Mac- 
millan,  188(5).  The  chief  point  upon  which 
the  various  schools  differ  from  one  another  is 
the  nature  of  virtue.  (1)  One  class  affirms 
that  it  is  absolute,  ultimate,  and  itself  the  end 
which  men  should  seek.  As  the  apostle  sus- 
tains a  command  (Eph.  vi.  1),  saying,  "For 
this  is  right,"  as  if  that  point  being  ascertained 
nothing  further  need  be  sought.  Some  of 
these  hold  that  the  moral  qualitj'  of  an  act  lies 
in  its  own  nature  apart  from  tlie  agent's  mo- 
tive, but  others  (Kant,  Hickok,  Martineau, 
Porter)  put  the  whole  stress  upon  tlie  motives 
with  which  the  act  is  performed.  (2)  The 
other  class  regard  virtue  as  mediate,  as  rela- 
tive to  a  good  beyond  itself,  and  from  which 
it  gets  its  value.  Some  of  these  say  that  it 
consists  in  such  action  as  tends  to  happiness, 
and  the  amount  of  the  happiness  measures 
the  good.  They  are  called  Utilitarians,  being 
egoistic  or  hedonists  if  it  is  their  own  happi- 
ness they  aim  at,  or  altruistic  if  it  be  the  hap- 
piness of  others.  All  the  classical  moralists 
were  in  elfect  hedonists,  as  were  also  Hobbes, 
Helvetius,  and  Palcy.  Others  definerl  virtue 
as  good-will,  a  striving  toward  a  natural  good 
which  is  ulterior  to  it.  This  was  held  more 
or  less  distinctly  by  Hutcheson,  Mackiuto.sh, 
President  Edwards,  Hopkins,  Janet. 

(See  H.  Sidgwick,  Methods  of  Ethics,  Lon- 
don, 1874,  3d  cd.,  London  and  New  York, 
1884  ;  the  same.  Outlines  of  the  lliston/  of  Eth- 
ics, 1886,  2d  ed.,  1888  ;  J.  P.  Lange,  ChrU/irh. 
Ethilc,  Heidelberg,  1878  ;  Martenseri,6'A//.'(^/Vm 
Ethics  [Eng.  trans.,  Edinburirh,  1882]  ;  Janet, 
Theory  of^Mo nils,  New  York,  1883;  Marti- 
neau, Ti/pcs  (f  Ethical  Theory  [Oxford  and  New 
York,  i885,'2d  ed.,  1886]  ;  Dorner,  System  of 
Christian  Ethics  [Eng.  trans..  New  York, 
1889]  ;  Luthardt,  History  of  Christian  Ethics 
before  tlie  Reformation,  Edinburgh,  1889  ;  H. 
Spencer,  Data  of  Ethics,  New  York,  1889.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Ethiopian  Church,  Ethiopian  Version. 
See  Abyssinian  Ciiuucii. 

Ethnarch  {ruler  of  a  nation),  a  ruler  who, 
tJiough  not  independent,  yet  governed  his 
people  according  to  their  national  laws.  The 
term  was  given  to  the  Jewish  ruler  Simon 
(1  Mace.  xiv.  47)  and  his  son  Hyrcanus  (Jose- 
phus.  Arch.  xiv.  viii.  5).  In  2  Cor.  xi.  32  the 
deputy  of  Aretas  the  king  was  called  the 
"  ethnarch,"  in  the  English  version  "  govern- 
or." T.  W.  C. 

Ettwein,  John,  a  distinguished  bishop  of 
the  -Moravian  Church  ;  b.  at  FreudenstadI  in 
Wiirtembcrg,  of  Wahlensian  ancestrv,  June 
29,  1721  ;  d.  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Jan.  2,  1S02. 
He  joined  the  Moravians,  1739  ;  was  ordained, 
1746;  came  to  America  as  a  travelling  evan- 
gelist of  the  Moravian  Church,  and  Indian 
missionary,  17.")4.  and  itinerated  in  11  of  the 
colonies  and  preached  to  12  Indian  tribes,  and 
prepared  a  Delaware  dictionary  and  jiiirase- 
book.     He  became  assistant  of  ISishop  Seidel, 


BUCHARIST 


(276) 


EUNOMIUS 


at  Betblcdiem,  Pa.,  1764,  and  was  a  friend  of 
Henry  Laurens.  When  the  general  hospital 
of  the  American  army  was  stationed  at  Bethle- 
hem in  1776  and  1777,  Ettwein  acted  as  its 
chaplain.  He  negotiated  with  Congress  in  be- 
half of  the  Christian  Indians,  and  represented 
the  Moravians  in  dealing  with  the  govern- 
ment. He  was  con.secrated  bishop,  1784,  and 
was  founder,  in  1787,  of  the  "  Society  of  the 
United  Brethren  for  Propagating  the  Gospel 
among  the  Heathen,"  which  is  still  active. 
(See  Transactions  of  the  Moravian  Historical 
Society,  Series  II,,  pp.  247-63.) 

J.  T.  Hamilton. 
Eucharist.     See  Lord's  Supper. 

Buchelaion,  in  the  Greek  Church,  is  the 
"  prayer  oil"  consecrated  by  7  priests,  used  to 
anoint  the  sick,  and  corresponds  to  the  extreme 
unction  of  the  Roman  Church,  except  that 
this  sacrament  is  not  limited  to  the  dying. 

Euchologion  {collection  of  prayers),  the  prin- 
cipal and  most  comprehensive  liturgy-book  of 
the  Greek  Church,  containing  the  liturgies  of 
Chrysostom,  Basil,  and  Gregory  the  Great, 
and  other  prayers,  and  dating  from  the  9th 
century.  Best  ed.  by  James  Goar,  Paris, 
1645;  several  times  reprinted,  e.g.,  Venice, 
1730. 

Eudasmonism.    See  Epicureanism. 

Eudes  (ud),  Jean,  Roman  Catholic,  founder 
of  the  Eudists  ;  b.  at  Mezeray,  Normandy, 
Nov.  14,  1601  ;  d.  at  Caen,  Aug.  19,  1680. 
He  became  Oratorian  priest  of  renown,  1625, 
and  was  struck  with  the  lack  of  instruction 
in  practical  work  evinced  by  the  priests.  So, 
in  1643,  he  left  the  Oratorians  and  founded  at 
Caen  a  new  order,  "  Congregation  of  Jesus 
and  Marj","  now  called  after  him,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  such  instruction,  and  for  hold- 
ing missions,  i.e.,  revivals.  It  was  a  great 
success,  but  did  not  extend  beyond  the  French 
borders.  In  the  Revolution  it  was  suppressed, 
but  revived  in  1826,  and  still  exists  in  France. 
It  enjoins  no  vow  save  that  of  obedience  to 
the  superior.  He  also  founded,  in  1641,  the 
Order  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Refuge, 
for  the  rescue  of  fallen  women,  which,  under 
a  slightly  different  name,  "  Our  Lady  of 
Charity  of  the  Good  Shepherd,"  is  still  extant 
and  has  122  houses  all  over  the  world.  Its  in- 
mates, in  1883,  numbered  1100,  and  nuns  2000. 
(See  life  of  Eudes  by  Ch.  de  Montzey,  Eng. 
traas.,  London,  1870,  2d  ed.,  1883.) 

Eudo  de  Stella.    See  Eon. 

Eugenius  is  the  name  of  4  popes.  1.  Aug. 
10,  654- June  1,  657,  a  Roman  by  birth,  was 
elected  pope  by  the  Roman  clergy  after  the 
deposition  of  Martin  I.,  and  recognized  by  the 
Byzantine  emperor  after  submitting  to  a  for- 
mula proposed  by  the  monothelite  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  according  to  which  Christ 
had  neither  one  nor  two  wills,  but  three,  a 
higher  one  commanding  the  two  lower  ones. 
(See  Bower,  History  of  the  Popes,  iii.,  70). 
2.  June,  824-Aug.,  827,  also  a  Roman  by 
birth,  accepted  the  decrees  of  the  Council  o'f 
Paris,  convened  in  825  by  King  Lothair,  con- 
cerning image-worship,  with  the  concession 
tJiat  the  wrong  views  he  had  hitherto  held 


were  due  to  ignorance.  (See  Langen,  Ge- 
scMcldc  d.  rom.  Kirche  von  Leo  I.,  his  Isikolaus 
I.,  Bonn,  1885.)  3.  Feb.  18,  1145-July  8, 
1153,  a  native  of  Pisa,  a  pupil  and  friend  of 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  was  3  times  expelled 
from  Rome  by  the  republican  party,  led  lirst 
by  the  senate,  afterward  by  Arnold  of  Brescia, 
and  which  would  not  submit  to  the  temporal 
power  of  the  pope  ;  spent  most  of  his  time 
outside  the  Eternal  City,  in  Germany  and 
France,  but  died  at  Tivoli.  The  second 
crusade  was  his  work,  but  its  miserable  fail- 
ure was  not  due  to  him.  His  letters  are  found 
in  Jaffe,  Reg.  Pont.  Rom.  ;  the  sources  of  his 
life  in  Watterich,  Pont.  Rom.  Vitce,  II.  (See 
Kugler,  Geschichte  des  ztceiten  Kreuzzuges, 
1866  ;  cf.  Hefele,  Konziliengeschichte,  vol.  v.) 
4.  March  3,  1431-Feb.  23,  1447,  Gabriele 
Condolmiere,  descended  from  a  Venetian 
merchant  family,  an  austere  monk  without 
liberal  education  or  political  experience  ;  con- 
vened the  Council  of  Basel,  1431,  but  was 
himself  deposed  by  it ;  formed  an  alliance  with 
Venice  and  Florence  against  Milan  and  Naples, 
but  was  driven  out  of  Rome  and  lived  in  exile 
at  Florence.  In  1438,  however,  he  convened 
a  council  at  Ferrara,  i-emoved  in  1439  to  Flor- 
ence, in  opposition  to  the  refractory  Council 
of  Basel,  and  the  latter  gradually  lost  its  pres- 
tige, though  the  union  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  churches  accomplished  b}'  the 
former  proved  to  be  wholly  illusory.  In 
1443  he  rather  suddenly  reversed  his  policy 
and  allied  himself  with  Naples,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  was  able  to  return  to  Rome. 
(See  Bower,  History  of  the  Popes,  vii.,  238,  and 
Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy  during  the 
Period  of  the  Reformation,  London,  1882, 
vol.  ii.)  C.  P. 

Eulalius  was  put  up  as  antipope  against 
Boniface  I.  by  the  clergy  of  Rome,  418,  but 
was  expelled  from  the  city  by  the  emperor 
Honorius  ;  abdicated  and  died  as  bishop  of 
Nepete  (Nepi),  24  m.  n.n.w.  of  Rome. 

C.  P. 

Eunomius  and  the  Eunomians.  Eunomius 
was  born  in  Dacora,  Cappadocia,  and  died 
there  after  the  year  392.  He  early  became 
the  pupil,  companion,  and  helper  of  ^tius 
(see  the  art.  Arius),  and  in  360,  through  the 
influence  of  Eudoxius,  bishop  of  Antioch, 
who  had  now  become  bishop  of  Constantino- 
ple, he  was  made  bishop  of  Cyzicum.  He 
soon  began  cautiously  to  preach  his  doctrine, 
and  was  deposed  upon  the  complaints  of  his 
people.  He  now  became  the  leader  of  a 
party,  and  even  ordained  bishops  to  be  sent 
out  in  various  directions.  His  life  was  hence- 
forward a  troubled  one.  Now  in  exile,  now 
hoping  for  favor,  he  passed  the  lime  till  (383) 
he  was  finally  obliged  to  retire  to  his  native 
village,  where  he  died  in  obscurity.  His  doc- 
trine is  extreme  Arianism.  The  essence  of 
God  is  to  be  what  he  is.  He  is  the  unbegot- 
ten,  and  cannot  himself  beget,  since  this 
would  be  to  suffer  diremption.  The  Son  is 
thus  truly  a  creature,  he  proceeds  from  noth- 
ing, comes  into  being  by  a  voluntary  ac^  of 
the  divine  will,  though  superior  to  all  other 
creatures.  The  nature  of  God,  since  it  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  "  unbegotten,"  is  know- 


EUNUCH 


(277) 


EUTYCHES 


able  by  man.  The  Eunomians,  cast  out  of 
the  church  by  the  second  G^cumenical  Council 
(881),  formed  a  party  by  themselves,  having 
some  peculiar  practices,  as  baptism  into  the 
death  of  Christ  instead  of  into  the  Trinity, 
but  were  soon  lost  in  the  stream  of  events. 
(See  Whiston's  translation  of  the  apology  of 
Eunomius  in  his  Eunominnis)aus  Redivivus, 
London,  1711  ;  Klose,  Oesch.  iind  Lehre  des 
Euwimius,  Kiel,  1833.)  F.  H.  F. 

Eunuch  {bed-keeper),  a  castrated  male, 
usually  employed  to  take  charge  of  women's 
apartments.  Sometimes  it  denotes  merely  a 
court  officer,  as  tlie  treasurer  of  Queen  Can- 
dace  (x\.cts  viii.  27).  The  voluntary  eunuchs 
(Matt.  xix.  12)  were  those  who  abstained  from 
marriaiie  in  order  more  effectually  to  labor  for 
tlie  kingdom  of  God.  T.  W.  C. 

Euphrates.     See  AssYRiOLOGy,  p.  51. 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  surnsuned  PampMli 
("  friend  of  Pamphiius"),  b.  in  Palestine,  260- 
70  ;  d.  at  CiBsarea,  340.  He  early  gave  him- 
self to  study,  and  was  formed  in  Antioch  and 
by  the  writings  of  Origen.  He  became  bishop 
of  Ctesarea  probably  in  313,  and  until  the  out- 
break of  the  Arian  controvex-sy  was  engaged 
in  various  learned  labors.  He  was  drawn 
into  this  controversy  by  Arius  himself,  and 
through  his  natural  disposition  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  circumstances  of  the  times  was 
led  to  adopt  that  intermediate  position  which 
he  maintained  with  consistency  to  the  last. 
At  the  Council  of  Nice  he  served  as  a  media- 
tor between  the  two  parties.  He  brought  out 
the  creed  of  CiBsarea,  which  was  composed 
in  so  general  phrases  as  to  be  acceptable  to 
the  Arians.  When  it  had  been  supplemented 
by  the  Alexandrians,  so  as  to  express  defi- 
nitely the  coasubstantiality  of  the  Son  with 
the  Father,  Eusebius  signed  it,  though  with 
hesitation.  He  always  remained  favorable  to 
tlie  Arians  and  Serai-Arians.  His  works  are 
numerous,  and  are  of  an  apologetical,  dog- 
matical, and  e.xegetical,  as  well  "as  historical 
ciiaracter.  His  fame  rests,  however,  upon  his 
Church  History.  Written  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  true  canons  of  historical  writing, 
marred  by  party  spirit,  or  more  properly  by 
limitations  of  horizon,  it  is  nevertheless,  on 
account  of  its  laborious  use  of  all  the  means 
at  the  writer's  command,  and  its  abundant 
quotations  of  authorities,  invaluable.  It  was 
translated  into  English  by  C.  F.  Crus6,  New 
York,  1865,  but  much  better  and  with  elabo- 
rate notes  by  A.  C.  McGiffert,  Ph.D.,  New 
York  (Christian  Literature  Company),  1890  ; 
in  same  vol.  his  Life  of  Constantine,  translated 
by  E.  C.  Richardson,' Ph.D.  A  complete  col- 
lection of  his  works  is  in  [Migne,  Pat.  Or. 
XIX.-S.:UV.  (See  his  life  bv  Stein,  Wiirz- 
burg,  1859,  and  by  V.  Hely,  Paris,  1877.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  was,  first,  bishop 
of  Bcrytus.  then  of  Nicomedia.  Applied  to 
by  Arius.  he  received  him  and  sustained  liim 
throughout  the  Council  of  Nice,  even  refusing 
to  sign  the  anathema  against  him,  for  which 
refusal  he  was  himself  deposed.  But  in  a 
short  time  he  was  restored,  and  then  promoted 
to  the  see  of  Constantinople.     His  po.-)ition 


upon  the  Arian  question  was  the  same  as  that 
of  Eusebius  of  CsBsarea,  and  the  party  of  the 
Ariaus  and  Semi-Arians  came  to  be  known  a.'i 
the  Eusebians  from  him.     He  died  in  342. 
F.  II.  F. 

Eustasius  of  Luxeuil,  b.  in  Burgundy 
about  500  ;  d.  025,  at  Luxeuil,  or  Luxen,  iii 
the  present  department  of  Ilaute-Saone, 
France.  He  belonged  to  a  distiuguishecl 
fauuly,  but  entered  the  monastery  of  Luxo- 
vium  (Luxe\ul),  founded  by  Columbauus,  and 
became  its  abbot  after  the  former's  retirement 
(610).  He  did  some  missionary  work  among  the 
Varasci  on  the  Doubs  and  the  Boii  or  Bava- 
rians on  the  Inn,  but  had  to  return  on  account 
of  a  schism  in  his  monastery  caused  by  one  of 
the  monks,  Agrestinus,  who  raised  some  very 
heavy  accusations  against  the  rules  of  Colum- 
bauus. Agrestinus  was  expelled,  but  the  dis- 
pute was  not  settled  until  the  Synod  of  Macon, 
623.  The  life  of  Eustasius,  written  by  Jonas 
of  Bobbio,  is  found  in  Act.  S.  Miirt.,  iii.,  786. 
He  was  commemorated,  according  to  some 
martyriologies,  on  March  29  ;  according  to 
others,  on  Oct.  11. 

Eustathius  of  Antioch,  d.  at  Philippi,  337, 
bi.shop  first  of  Berrhu>a  in  Syria,  then  of  Anti- 
och ;  was  a  stanch  defender  of  the  Nicene 
Creed,  but  caused  on  that  account  some 
troubles  with  the  Arians,  and  was  deposed  by 
a  synod  of  Antioch,  330,  and  banished  to 
Illyria  by  the  emperor.  His  party,  the  Eus- 
tathians,  were  still  active  in  Antioch  during 
the  Meletian  schism.  Of  his  writings,  only 
his  DiKsertatio  de  engaMrimytho  adverstis 
Originevi  is  still  extant  and  found  in  Migue, 
Pat.  Gr.  XVIII. ,  614-74. 

Eustathius,  bishop  of  Sebaste,  Armenia, 
357-80,  introduced  monasticism  in  Armenia, 
Pontus,  and  Paphlagouia,  and  formed  a  party 
of  austere  asceticism  which  was  cohdemned 
by  the  Council  of  Gangra  (about  360)  and  soon 
disappeared. 

Eustathius,  metropolitan  of  Thessalonica, 
1175-94  ;  wrote  commentaries  on  the  (ireek 
classics  which  have  become  famous,  and  theo- 
losical  works  which  are  of  considerable  inter- 
est :  Opnscida,  Frankfort,  1832  ;  Be  T/wxmlon- 
ica,  Berlin,  1839,  etc.  One  of  the  latter  has 
been  translated  into  German  by  Tafel,  Be- 
trachtuiigeii  uber  den  Monchsntarui,  Berlin, 
1847. 

Euthymius  Zigadenus,  or  Zygabenus,  a 
Byzantine  monk  ;  d.  in  1118  ;  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms,  which  is  found,  both  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Opera 
omnid  llwopliylacti, Ycxnce,  1754-63  (vol.  iv.)  ; 
a  commentary  on  the  gospels,  of  wliich  the 
Greek  text  was  edited  bj-  C.  F.  ]Matthai,  Leip- 
zig, 1792,  n.e.  1845,  wlnle  a  Latin  version  by 
J.'^Hentenius  had  long  before  (1544)  appeared 
at  Louvain  ;  a  great  dogmatical  or  polemical 
work,  Hai'OTA/a  doyuartKT)  (ed.  Gregora.s.  Ter- 
govist,  1710),  which  wius  tran.slated  into  Latin 
by  P.  F'.  Zini,  Venice,  1555,  with  tlie  excep- 
tion of  the  chapters  against  the  pope  and  the 
Italians. 

Eutyches,  Eutychianism.  The  conte»«t 
over  the  person  of  Eutyches  is  a  link  in  the 


EUTYOHIANUS 


(278) 


EVANGELIST 


chain  of  events  of  which  the  two  councils  of  431 
and  451  are  the  ends  (see  Christology). 
After  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431),  the  Au- 
tiochian  and  Alexandrian  parties  liad  formed 
and  signed  a  compromise  creed  (433),  whicli 
they  interpreted  in  different  senses.  Circum- 
stances conspired  to  keep  their  mutual  jeal- 
ousy awake.  Upon  Cyril's  death,  Diosciirus, 
a  violent  and  ambitious  man,  but  not  a  keen 
reasoner,  had  succeeded  him.  The  Autio- 
chians  now  had  the  best  of  the  argumentative 
contest.  It  only  needed  some  special  occasion 
to  cause  the  old  strife  to  break  out  again  with 
new  fury.  This  Avas  furnished  by  Eutyches. 
He  was  a  monk,  now  about  70  years  of  age, 
abbot  of  a  monastery  in  the  vicinity  of  Con- 
stantinople. Without  great  learning  or  power 
of  logical  thought,  he  was  firmly  attached  to 
the  Alexandrian  party  because  it  was  the 
party  of  monasticism.  At  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  he  had  been  a  helper  of  the  party  of 
Cyril.  He  had  mixed,  at  the  request  of  Dios- 
curus,  in  later  agitation,  and  had  written  to 
Leo  of  Rome  a  letter  in  which  he  accused  the 
Antiochians  of  concealed  Nestorianism.  Dom- 
nus  of  Antioch  replied  by  accusing  Eutyches 
to  the  emperor  of  Apollinarianism.  And  now 
Eusebius,  bishop  of  Dorylix'um  in  Phrygia, 
appeared  upon  the  stage  with  an  accusation 
against  Eutyches,  which  he  laid  before  a 
synod  assembled  at  Constantinople  in  448,  of 
blasphemous  utterances  against  the  person  of 
Christ.  Flavian,  bishop  of  Constantinople, 
foreseeing  the  trouble  that  would  arise,  tried 
to  prevent  the  matter  from  coming  to  a  trial, 
but  in  vain.  Eusebius  would  hear  of  no  de- 
lay. Eutyches  was  found  to  believe  that 
Christ  was  truly  born  with  a  body  like  ours, 
wiiich,  however,  on  account  of  its  union  with 
the  divine,  was  so  deified  that  it  no  longer 
had  anything  in  common  with  ours,  and  could 
not  be  chilled  a  human  body  except  improp- 
erly. That  Christ  is  the  personal  union  of 
two  natures  was  not  a  biblical  doctrine.  "I 
acknowledge,"  said  Eutyches,  "that  our 
Lord  before  the  union  was  of  two  natures, 
but  after  the  union  I  confess  one  nature." 
This  was  judged  to  be  Apollinarianism  and 
Valentinianism,  and  Eutyches  was  deposed 
and  excommunicated.  He  appealed,  and 
finally  an  oecumenical  council  was  called. 
This  was  the  "  Robber  Synod"  (see  Ephesus). 
Though  this  reversed  the  sentence  against 
Eutyches,  it  was  soon  itself  reversed  by  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451).  But  in  the  Mo 
nophysites  (q.v.)  the  party  of  Eutyches  lived 
on.  Eutyches'  personal  fate  is  unknown. 
F.  H.  F. 
Eutychianus,  pope,  Jan.  275  to  Dec.  283, 
is  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Church  and  is  said 
to  have  suffered  martyrdom,  but  the  sources 
know  nothing  about  it.     His  day  is  Dec.  7. 

Evagrius  Scholasticus,  b.  about  536,  at 
Epiphaiiia,  in  Coele-Syria,  practised  as  a  lawyer 
in  Antioch,  and  wrote,  in  continuation  of 
Eusebius,  an  ecclesiastical  history  from  431  to 
594,  of  which  there  is  an  edition  by  Reading, 
Canterbury,  1720,  and  an  Eng.  trans,  by  Han- 
mer,  in  Bohn's  Ecdes.  Library. 

Evangelical  Adventists.    See  Adventists. 


Evangelical  Alliance.  See  Alliakce, 
Evangelical. 

Evangelical  Association.  See  Method- 
ists. 

Evangelical  Church,  United,  of  Prussia, 
founded  through  the  influence  of  Frederick 
William  III.,  in  1817,  by  a  union  of  the  Lu- 
theran and  Reformed  bodies.  In  polity  it  is 
Presbyterian  ;  is  partially  supported  by  the 
government,  which  appoints  the  consistories 
or  provincial  boards. 

Evangelical     Church    Conference.       See 

KiRCIIENTAG. 

Evangelical  Confederation  (EvangeliseJier 
Blind),  was  founded  at  Erfurt,  Jan.  15,  1887, 
by  250  representatives  of  the  various  divisions 
of  German  Protestantism,  from  the  most  out- 
spoken Liberalists  to  the  most  decided  Confes- 
sionalists.  The  cause  of  the  movement  was  the 
general  feeling  of  the  failure  of  the  Kultur- 
Ycmnpf,  and  the  confederation  was  formed 
with  the  purpose  of  resisting,  on  one  side,  the 
encroachments  on  Protestant  interests  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and,  on  the  other 
side,  the  latent  spreading  of  indifferentisra 
and  materialism.  A  complete  organization 
was  achieved  at  the  meetings  of  Aug.  15-17, 
same  year,  at  Frankfurt  am-Main,  and  work 
was  immediately  begun.  The  number  of 
members  was  10,000'  in  1887,  and  40,000  in 
1888. 

Evjingelical     Counsels.       See      Consilia 

EVANGELICA. 

Evangelical  Party,  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, or  the  Low  Church  party,  composed  of 
those  who  emphasize  such  doctrines  as  the 
fall  and  its  consequent  inherited  total  de- 
pravity ;  election  ;  Christ's  atonement  ;  justi- 
fication by  faith  alone,  and  the  necessity  of 
repentance  and  conversion  to  salvation. 

Evangelical  Society  {Societe  ^cangeliqiie), 
was  founded  after  the  revolution  of  1830,  ia 
Geneva,  Toulouse,  and  Paris,  for  the  general 
purpose  of  working  for  the  maintenance  and 
spreading  of  Protestantism  in  France,  and 
with  the  special  aim  to  take  care  of  Protes- 
tant families  or  groups  of  families  which,  liv- 
ing amid  a  Roman  Catholic  population,  ia 
the  Cevennes  or  in  other  places  in  France, 
might  need  both  moral  and  material  support  ; 
to  provide  them  with  Bibles,  schools,  churches, 
teachers,  pastors,  etc.  The  society  has  al- 
ways kept  aloof  from  the  liberal  wing  of  Prot- 
estants, but  has  suffered  from  some  internal 
dissensions  on  questions  of  church  polity  : 
Free  Church  or  State  Church.  (See  Eecits  et 
Souvenirs,  published  in  1881  at  the  50th  anni- 
versary of  the  society.) 

Evangelical  Union,  the  religious  body 
founded,  in  1843,  by  James  Morison,  of  Kil- 
marnock, deposed  from  the  ministiy  of  the 
United  Secession  Church  of  Scotland  for  ad- 
vocating anti-Calvinistic  views.  In  theology 
it  is  Arminian,  in  polity  congregational. 

Evangelist  (I>ri?iger  of  good  tidings),  a  term 
originally  applied  to  those  who,  without  being 
attached  to  any  place,  preached  the  gospel 
wherever  they  were  led  by  the  Spirit  (Eph. 


EVANGELISTARIUM 


(279) 


EVOLUTION 


iv.  11).  Such  was  Philip  (Acts  xxi.  8),  and 
Timothy  was  exhorted  to  ' '  do  the  work  of 
an  evangelist"  (2  Tim.  iv.  5).  Subseciuently 
the  term  was  applied  to  the  writers  of  the  4 
gospels,  because  they  bring  to  men  the  glad 
tidings  contained  in  the  life  and  work  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.  T.  W.  C. 

Evangelistarium,  a  Roman  and  Greek 
Catholic  service  book,  contains  selections  of 
the  gospels. 

Evangelium  .ffiJtemum  was  not  a  book  at 
all,  but  oul}-  the  rumor  of  a  book  (see  Joachim 
OF  Flokis),  raised  by  the  Introductorius  in 
EmngeUum  utJterniun  of  Gerhardinus,  of 
which,  again,  only  a  few  fragments  have  come 
down  to  us  communicated  by  Quetif  and 
Echard,  Script.  Ord.  Fimlict.,  I.,  202-13. 

Evans,  Christmas,  Welsh  Baptist  ;  b.  at 
Ysgaerwen,  parish  of  Llandyssul,  Cardigan- 
shire, Dec.  25,  1766  ;  d.  at  Swansea,  July  19, 
18a8.  He  was  brought  up  a  Presbyterian  ; 
received  only  a  partial  education,  yet  began 
to  preach.  In  1788  he  joined  the  Baptist  con- 
gregation at  Aberduar,  and  the  next  year  was 
ordained  as  a  sort  of  missionary  to  the  scat- 
tered Baptists  on  Lleyn,  the  peninsula  of  Car- 
narvonshire ;  in  1792  he  removed  to  Llan- 
gevni,  on  the  island  of  Anglesey,  and  ruled 
that  congregation  and  all  tlie  other  Baptists 
on  the  island  with  such  arbitrariness  that  they 
resented  after  manj"  years  had  past.  This  so 
angered  him  that  he  removed  to  Caerphilly, 
in  Glamorganshire,  in  1826  ;  fresh  ditliculties 
there  caused  his  removal  to  Cardiff,  in  1828  ; 
and  again  his  autocratic  manner  forced  him 
away,  and  he  took  a  charge  at  Carnarvon, 
1832.  His  name  is  synonymous  with  elo- 
quence in  the  annals  of' Welsh  pulpit  oratory, 
and  is  the  best  known  of  all  their  preachers. 
In  early  life  he  injured  one  of  his  eyes  in  a 
strife,  and  the  eye  always  gave  him  trouble. 
(See  his  life  bv  Stephen,  London,  1847  ;  Pax- 
ton  Hood,  1881,  3d  ed.,  1888;  his  sermons, 
trans,  by  James  Cross,  Philadelphia,  1854.) 

Evarts,  Jeremiah,  Congregational  layman  ; 
b.  at  Sunderland,  Vt.,  Feb.  3,  1781  ;  d.  at 
Charleston,  S.  C,  May  10,  1831.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College,  1802  ;  practised  law  in 
New  Haven,  1806-10  ;  edited  Ths  Pamplist, 
a  religious  monthly,  at  Boston,  1810-20,  and 
T/te  ^Missio)uiry  Jlcnild  from  1820  till  his 
death.  He  Wcos  treasurer  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M., 
1812-21,  and  corresponding  secretarj-,  1821, 
till  his  death.  His  son  is  the  famous  law- 
yer, William  ^Maxwell  Evarts.  (See  his  life 
by  E.  C.  Tracy,  Boston,  1845.) 

Evidences  of  Christianity.     See   i\j»OLO- 

GETICS. 

Eve  {Uviti/J),  the  first  mother  of  our  race  and 
the  cause  of  tlie  fall.  We  are  told  in  Genesis 
(ii.  21-25)  that  while  Adam  slept  God  took 
one  of  his  ribs  and  fashioned  it  into  a  woman, 
whom  he  gave  to  Adam  as  a  helpmeet.  Adam 
recognizecl  the  method  of  her  formation  and 
indicated  it  by  the  name  given  to  her  {Ish  = 
man,  Isshah  =  woman).  She  wtis  made  both 
/(/?■  manandf^'/'him  ;  subonlinale  and  weaker, 
yet  to  be  loved  and  cherisiied  as  his  own  body. 
Thomas  Aquinas  preceded  Matthew  Henry  in 


the  well-known  remark  that  Eve  Avas  not 
made  out  of  Adam's  head,  to  top  him,  nor  out 
of  his  feet,  to  be  trampled  upon,  but  out  of  his 
side,  to  be  equal  with  him. 

Philo  regarded  this  narrative  as  allegorical, 
and  was  followed  by  the  Alexandrian  fathers. 
Others  consider  it  a  charming  idyl  in  the  poem 
of  creation,  while  some  declare  it  to  be  wholly 
mythical,  a  dramatic  personation  of  ideas. 
The  literal  view  is  not  only  clearly  implied 
in  the  oriii;inal  statement,  but  confirmed  by 
the  New  testament  (1  Cor.  xi.  7-12.  2  Cor. 
xi.  3,  1  Tim.  ii.  13).  And  the  history  of  woman 
in  all  ages  shows  a  striking  fullilment  of  the 
penalties  pronounced  upon  her  (Gen.  iii.  16) 
and  of  the  i)romises  made  to  her.   T.  W.  C. 

Everlasting    Gospel.     See    Joachim    op 
Florus. 
Everlasting  Punishment.     See  Hell. 
Evidences  of  Religion.    See  Apologetics. 
Evil.    See  Sin. 
Evil-Merodach.     See  Asstiuology. 

Evolution  denotes  a  theory  of  the  universe 
built  up  on  ascertained  facts  in  all  branches 
of  knowledge,  and  put  together  by  logically 
warranted  deductions  from  those  facts.  When 
such  a  theory  proves  itself  able  to  explain  all 
facts  ascertained,  and  proves  those  facts  in- 
capable of  any  other  explanation,  it  becomes 
a  fact  itself. 

The  principle  on  which  this  theory  of  evo- 
lution rests  is,  that  all  existence,  from  the 
stone  which  remains  stationary  for  ages  among 
other  stones  to  the  emotion  which  fiits  for  a 
second  through  the  human  heart  with  a  laugh 
or  a  cry,  involves  a  steady  and  intinite  proces- 
sion from  the  simpler  to  the  more  complex, 
though  through  intermittent  relapses.  While 
existence  is  inscrutable  in  its  essence,  this 
progress  becomes  recognizable  through  its 
phenomena  in  its  laws. 

As  such  a  principle  must  discard  the  ideas 
of  creation  and  annihilation,  though  it  gives  a 
new  meaning  to  the  ideas  of  birth  and  death, 
and  must  discard  the  ideas  of  a  fall  and  a  re- 
demption, though  it  gives  a  new  meaning  to 
the  ideas  of  sin  and  death,  etc.,  it  cannot 
avoid  coming  into  conflict  with  Christian  the- 
ology. But  there  seems  to  be  a  feeling  abroad, 
in  both  parties,  that  the  conflict  need  not  be 
deadly  to  either  of  them. 

The  official  representative  of  the  theory  of 
evolution  is  the  system  of  synthetic  philosophy 
by  Herbert  Spencer.  The  building  is  not  yc't 
finished  in  all  its  wings  and  walls,  but  enough 
has  already  been  done  to  make  the  plan  un- 
mistakable, both  of  the  whole  and  of  the  de- 
tails ;  and  in  the  mean  time  tlie  theory  and 
its  principle  liave  become  the  principal  work- 
ing tools  of  a  large  portion  of  the  science  and 
thinking  of  our  age. 

(See  J.  ¥.  Vorke,  Notes  on  Erolution  and 
Christi(init!/,  London,  1882,  New  York,  1883  ; 
A.  Wilson,"  Chdptcrs  on  Erolution,  New  York, 
1.SS2  ;  W.  W.  Smyth,  Kri>l"tion  Kj-]iluiii,d, 
London,  1883  ;  W.  F.  Kirbv,  Ernlution  and 
X<itin;il  Theology,  London.*  1883  ;  J.  B. 
Drurv,  Tniths  and  Untruths  of  EroliitV'n, 
1.SK4  ";  H.  W.  Beecher,  Erolution  and  lieliffion. 
New  York,  1885  ;  Herbert  Spencer,  Factor* 


EWALD 


(280) 


EXEGESIS 


of  Organic  Evohition,  London,  1887  ;  J.  Mc- 
Cosh,  Religious  Aspect  of  Evolution,  New  York, 
1888  ;  J.  Le  Conte,  Evolution  and  its  Relation 
to  Religious  Thought,  1888,  n.c,  1889.) 

C.  P. 
Ewald,  Georg  Heinrich  August,  German 
Orientalist  and  exegete  ;  b.  at  Gtittingen,  Nov. 
16,  1803  ;  d.  there,  May  4,  1875.  He  studied 
there,  1820-22  ;  became  repetent  in  theology, 
1824  ;  professor  extraordinary,  1827  ;  ordinary 
professor  of  philosophy  (Oriental  languages), 
1831.  Removed  from  office  for  politicarrea- 
sous  in  1837,  he  went  the  next  year  to  Tiibin- 
gen,  where  he  was  successively  professor  of 
philosophy  (1838)  and  of  theology,  1841.  But 
in  1848  lie  was  back  in  his  old  position  at 
Gottingen.  In  1867  he  was  removed  from  the 
faculty,  but  allowed  salary  and  the  privilege 
of  lecturing  ;  the  next  year  the  latter  was  with- 
drawn and  not  again  restored.  The  trouble 
was  his  furious  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  Han- 
nover against  Prussia.'  This  could  not  be 
allowed  by  Prussia  to  go  unpunished.  Since 
1869  he  represented  Hannover  first  in  the 
Landtag,  later  in  the  Reichstag.  What  the 
after-world  cherishes  in  Ewald  is  not  his  poli- 
tics, but  his  superb  biblical  scholarship.  His 
infallible  tone,  his  rationalism,  his  arrogance 
do  not  detract  from  his  j^raise  as  the  "  second 
founder  of  the  science  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage." He  gave  an  immense  impetus  to  He- 
brew study.  "Nor  was  he  destitute  of  admira- 
tion for  Israel's  heroes,  and  he  furnished  the 
materials  for  Stanley's  graceful  and  pictur- 
esque biblical  writings.  His  best  known 
works  are  Hebrew  Grammar  (orig.  German, 
Leipzig,  1827,  8th  ed.,  Gottingen,  1870,  Eng. 
trans,  of  2d  ed.,  London,  1836  ;  of  the  Syntax 
from  the  8th  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1879)  ;  Intro- 
ductory Hebrew  Grammar  (Leipzig,  1842,  Eng. 
trans,  of  3d  ed,,  London,  1870) ;  his  commen- 
taries on  the  poetical  (1835-39,  3  vols.,  3d  ed., 
1867-68,  Eng.  trans.,  1880-82,  3  vols.)  and 
prophetical  (1840-41,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1867-68, 
Eng.  trans.,  1875-81,  5  vols.)  books  of  the 
Bible  ;  the  Antiquities  of  Israel  (1848,  3d  ed., 
1866,  Eng.  trans.,  1876)  ;  his  great  History  of 
Israel  (184:5-59,  7  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1864-68,  Eng. 
trans.,  1867-87,  8  vols.,  4th  ed.,  vols,  i.,  ii., 
1883,  vol.  vi.  is  the  Life  of  Jesus  Christ,  vols. 
vii.,  viii.,  Apostolic  and  post- Apostolic  Age)  ; 
Die  LeJbre  der  Bibel  von  Gott,  oder  Theologie 
des  alten  U7id  neuen  Bundes,  1871-76,  4  vols. 
(Eng.  trans,  of  vol.  i.,  Revelation,  its  Nature 
and  Record,  Edinburgh,  1884). 

Ewing,  Finis,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  ;  b.  in  Bed- 
ford County,  Va.,  June  10,  1773  ;  d.  at  Lex- 
ington, Mo.,  July  4,  1841.  He  was  ordained 
by  the  Cumberland  (Ky.)  Presbytery,  1803, 
and  was  remarkably  successful  as  a  revivalist, 
but  his  ordination  not  being  recognized  by  the 
Synod  of  Kentucky,  nor  by  the  General  As- 
sembly on  appeal,  he  with  two  others  organ- 
ized a  new  presbytery  in  1810,  which  was  the 
parent  of  the  present  large  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterian Church.  He  removed  to  Missouri  in 
1820.  (See  art.  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
his  life  by  Cossit,  Nashville,  1853.) 

Exarch.  The  title  was  applied  (1)  to  the 
prelate  who  presided  over  one  of  the  dioceses, 


comprising  several  provinces,  formed  in  imita- 
tion of  those  made  by  Constantine  in  the  state. 
It  was  therefore  nearly  synonymous  with 
patriarch  ;  (2)  sometimes  to  metropolitans  ; 
(3)  now  to  certain  legates  sent  by  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  to  visit  monasteries,  enforce 
discipline,  and  also  collect  the  tribute  he  owed 
to  the  Turkish  Government. 

Ex  Cathedra  (lit.  "  from  the  [papal]  chair 
or  throne").  According  to  its  definition,  the 
infallibility  of  the  pope  is  limited  to  ques- 
tions of  doctrine  and  morals  and  to  decisions 
made  by  him  ex  cathedra.  Both  limitations, 
however,  are  very  vague.  The  Roman  C'hurch 
has  never  drawn  a  sharp  line  between  polity 
and  discipline  on  the  one  side  and  doctrine 
and  morals  on  the  other.  On  the  contrary,  it 
has  time  after  time  elevated  questions  of  pure 
polity  and  discipline  to  questions  of  doctrine 
and  morals,  when  it  had  no  other  means  at 
hand  by  which  to  carry  out  its  plans.  Nor  is 
it  in  any  way  more  certain  what  the  formula 
ex  cathedra  may  mean.  Some  are  inclined  to 
think  that  it  means,  when  supported  by  the 
formal  declaration  of  an  oecumenical  council, 
but  this  is  strenuously  denied  by  others. 

C.  P. 

Excommunication,  penal  separation  from 
an  ecclesiastical  society.  Among  the  Jews 
there  were  in  the  New  Testament  period  two 
kinds  of  excommunication,  one  a  temporary 
and  partial  exclusion  from  the  body,  supposed 
to  be  referred  to  in  Luke  vi.  22,  "  when  men 
shall  separate  you  from  their  company  ;"  the 
other  a  complete  excision  from  the  covenant 
people  (John  ix.  22,  xii.  42,  xvi.  2).  In  the 
Christian  Church  the  right  and  duty  to  ex- 
clude unworthy  members  is  distinctly  recog- 
nized (Matt,  xviii.  18,  1  Cor.  v.  1-13,  1  Tim. 
i.  20).  There  was  a  time  when  an  excommuni- 
cated person  was  denied  all  civil  commerce 
and  (when  the  state  concurred)  all  civil  rights. 
But  this  ended  at  the  Reformation.  The  Ro- 
man Church  still  holds  the  minor  excomnmni- 
cation,  which  is  an  ecclesiastical  censure,  de- 
priving of  the  sacraments  ;  the  major,  which 
deprives  of  all  ecclesiastical  communion,  and 
is  equivalent  in  substance  to  the  anathema, 
which  consigns  the  subject  to  endless  perdi- 
tion in  case  he  does  not  repent,  and  only 
differs  from  it  in  regard  to  the  formalities  by 
which  the  latter  is  surrounded  (Addis  and 
Arnold).  Among  Protestants  an  excommuni- 
cated person  loses  nothing  but  access  to  the 
Lord's  table,  all  other  rights  and  privileges 
being  untouched,  and  this  one  is  denied  only 
in  the  hope  that  the  sinner  may  be  brought  to 
repentance  and  then  restored  to  fellovvship. 
Discipline  of  this  kind  is  to  be  undertaken 
with  great  caution,  in  a  kindly  spirit,  and 
with  an  earnest  desire  to  reclaim  the  offender 
as  well  as  to  maintain  the  honor  of  the  Lord's 
house.  T.  W.  C. 

Exegesis,  one  of  the  4  leading  departments 
of  theology,  viz.,  that  which  is  concerned 
with  the  interpretation  of  the  Scripture.  It 
includes  Criticism,  or  the  settlement  of  the 
text  of  the  sacred  writers,  Hermeneutics,  or 
the  explanation  of  the  meaning,  and  the 
Higher  or  Literary  Criticism,  which  deter- 
mines the  date,  the  authorship,  the  genuine- 


EXEGESIS 


(281) 


EXODUS 


ness  of  the  several  books  of  Scripture  aud 
their  mutual  relations.  It  has  been  jiractised, 
with  more  or  less  success,  ever  since  the  canon 
■was  settled.  Soon  after  the  age  of  Ezra,  Jew- 
ish exegesis  began  and  was  carried  on  by  oral 
tradition.  Its  chief  work  was  comment  on 
the  Mosaic  law  and  its  application  to  all  in- 
dividual, social,  aud  ecclesiastical  relations,  or 
the  ]Midrash,  which  was  in  one  part  legal  aud 
styled  Ilahn'ha  (a  rule  l)y  which  to  walk),  and 
in  the  other  homiletical,  .styled  Ilaggadah  (opin- 
ion). It  contained  many  fantastic  interpreta- 
tions which  drowned  what  there  was  of  prac- 
tical value.  But  in  the  ]Middle  Ages  there  were 
enligliLened  rabbis,  such  as  Ibn  Ezra,  Rashi, 
Kimciii,  Abarbanel,  wlio  pursued  a  more  ra- 
tional exegesis,  and  gave  sound  results  when 
the  knowledge  of  Hebrew  had  almost  died  out 
of  the  church.  The  Hellenistic  Jews  sought 
by  allegorical  interpretation  to  make  an  ar- 
bitrary reconciliation  between  the  traditions  of 
Hebraism  and  the  results  of  Greek  philoso- 
phy. Tlie  greatest  master  of  tliis  art  was 
Philo,  who  made  a  twofold  teaching  iu  the 
Pentateuch— one  the  verbal  sense  for  the  un- 
learned, the  other  the  figurative  for  such  as 
had  insight  to  see  it.  This  method  was 
adopted  by  the  Alexandrian  school  and  car- 
ried very  far  by  Clement  and  by  Origen.  The 
latter,  the  greatest  scholar  of  his  age,  found  3 
senses  in  Scripture  corresponding  to  the  3 
parts  of  man  :  a  literal  or  bodily  sense,  a 
moral  or  psyciiic  sense,  and  au  allegorical  or 
mystic,  spiritual  sense.  Wheu  the  literal 
sense  was  offensive,  he  escaped  the  dithculty 
by  adopting  the  spiritual.  His  influence  was 
felt  iu  such  Western  teachers  as  Hilary,  Am- 
brose, and  Augustine,  but  the  school  of  An- 
tioch,  as  represented  by  Diodorus  of  Tarsus 
(d.  393),  Chrysostom  (d.  407),  Theodore  of 
Mopsucstia  (d.  429),  and  Theodoret  (d.  457), 
aimed  rather  at  a  grammatical  and  historical 
interpretation,  which,  however,  at  times  be- 
came bald  and  unspiritual.  The  profoundest 
and  most  spiritual  interpreter  among  the  Latin 
fathers  was  Augustine,  but  by  far  the  most 
learned  and  accurate  was  Jerome,  whose  im- 
proved version  of  the  Bible  remains  to  this  day 
the  standard  of  the  Roman  Church.  In  the 
mediagval  period  exegesis  became  purely  tradi- 
tional, and  was  confined  either  to  brief  glosses 
or  to  cateuiB,  i.e.,  extracts  strung  together 
from  the  writings  of  the  fathers.  The  Scrip- 
tures were  believed  to  have  4  senses  :  (1)  the 
literal,  (2)  the  spiritual,  or  what  we  are  to  be- 
lieve, (3)  the  moral,  or  what  we  are  to  do,  aud 
(4)  the  anagogical,  or  what  we  are  to  hope. 

In  the  16th  century  there  was  a  great  change 
and  men  became  emancipated  from  tradition. 
The  humanists,  such  as  Reuchlin  aud  Eras- 
mus, favored  this,  but  it  was  carried  forward 
by  the  intense  religious  experiences  of  the  Re- 
formers, Luther,  Melanchthon,  Calvin,  Beza. 
These  went  directly  to  the  original  Hebrew 
aud  Greek,  and  furnished  faithful  versions 
for  the  people,  and  their  writings  are  valuable 
to  this  day.  In  tlie  next  century  we  find  such 
scholars  as  Grotius,  Calovius,  Cocceius,  Wal- 
ton, Pool,  and  Hammond,  but  it  was  in  the 
18th  century  that  modern  exegesis  received 
its  deepest  and  must  characteristic  impulse, 
in  the  works  of  Yitriuga,   Bengel,  Ernest!, 


and  Semler.  These  L;d  the  way  to  a  more  in- 
dependent and  scientific  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  results  of  which  are  seen  in  the 
progress  made  during  the  present  century 
alike  in  Hebrew  (Gesenius,  Ewald,  llup- 
feld,  Knobel,  Dillmann,  Uelitzscli)  and  iu 
Greek  (Winer,  Meyer,  Tischeudorf.  Hort, 
Westcott,  Lightfoot,  Scrivener).  Besides, 
important  sidelights  have  been  gained  by  the 
increased  knowledge  of  ancient  Egypt  and 
Assyria  (Lenormant,  Maspero,  Schrader, 
Sayce),  and  by  more  thorough  explorations  in 
Palestine  and  the  coterminous  regions  (Robin- 
son, Stanley,  Palmer,  etc.). 

The  principal  exegetical  works  on  the 
whole  Bible  are  Lange's  Bibelicevk  (Eng. 
trans.,  New  York,  1864-80,  24  vols.  [1  vol. 
on  the  Apocrypha]) ;  Wordsworth's  GretlcNeio 
Testament,  Loudon,  1856-60,  4  pts.,  2d  ed., 
1873  ;  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Authorized 
Version,  1864-71,  6  vols.,  2ded.,  1868-72 (both 
with  notes)  ;  Cook's  The  Bible  [^Speakcr's] 
Commentary (hoivXonaiUdl^QW  York,  1871-82, 
10  vols.)  ;  Jamieson,  Fau.sset,  and  Brown, 
Com.  Crit.  Exper.  and  Prac.  (1875,  0  vols.)  ; 
On  the  Old  Testament,  Keil  and  Delitzsch 
(Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1869,  sqq.,  18  vols.)  ; 
On  the  New  Testament,  Alford  (London, 
1860,  4  vols.)  ;  Meyer  (Eng.  trans..  New  York, 
1880,  11  vols.)  ;  Bishop  Eilicott,  Com.forEnq. 
Readers  (London,  1877-84,  8  vols.)  :  Schaif, 
lllus.  Pop.  Com.  (New  York,  1879-83,  4  vols.). 
T.  W.  C. 

Exemption,  the  teclmical  ecclesiastical 
term  for  the  transfer  of  a  person  or  institu- 
tion from  the  jurisdiction  of  one  superior  olfi- 
cer  to  another.  E.g.,  many  monasteries  iu 
the  Middle  Ages  were  taken  from  under  the 
authority  of  tiie  bishops  and  put  under  that 
of  the  king.  Many  bishoprics  stand  now  in 
immediate  control  of  the  pope,  being  taken 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  archbisliops.  So  some 
priests  are  exempted  from  obedience  to  their 
immediate  superior. 

Exercises,  Spiritual,  a  term  used  by  Roman 
Catholics  to  denote  certain  practices  in  medi- 
tation and  mortification,  partly  in  the  way  of 
penance  and  partly  as  a  preparation  for  the 
eucharist  or  ordination.  The  institution  was 
developed  to  its  most  elaborate  form  by 
Loyola.  T.  \\.  C. 

Exile,  Babylonian,  The  Papal,  the  "  70 

years"  (1309-77)  spent  by  the  papal  court  at 
Avignon. 

Exodus  {going  out),  the  name  of  the  second 
book  of  the  Bible.  It  continues  the  history 
begun  in  Genesis,  which  now  assumes  a  na- 
tional rather  than  a  ])ersonal  or  family  form. 
It  was  evidently  written  by  au  eye-witness, 
and  covers  aboul  150  years,  from  the  tleath  of 
Joseph  to  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  in  the 
desert.  Its  contents  are  :  1.  The  oppression  of 
Israel  under  the  new  dynjisty  (i.).  2.  The 
birth  and  early  history  of  Moses  (ii.-vi.).  3. 
His  commission  to  rescue  the  people,  and  the 
plagues  on  Egypt  (vii.-xi.).  4.  The  Passover 
and  tiie  accomplished  deliverance  (xii.-xv.). 
5.  The  march  to  Sinai  and  delivery  of  tiie  Dec- 
alogue (xvi.-xx.).  6.  Tiie  little  "book  of  tlie 
covenant,  of  which  ch.  xxxiv.  is  a  compendium 


EXODUS 


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EYRE 


(xxi.-xxiv.).  7.  Directions  concerning  the 
tabernacle  and  the  priests'  garments  (xxv.- 
xxxi.).  8.  The  error  of  the  golden  calf 
(xxxii.-xxxiv.).  9.  The  construction  of  the 
tabernacle  and  its  furniture  (xxxv.-xl.).  The 
book  is  an  invaluable  record  and  evidently 
truthful.  The  breaks  in  the  narrative  and  the 
repetitions  lead  one  to  think  it  was  composed 
in  sections  from  time  to  time  and  subsequently 
united  in  one  vsrork.  The  route  from  Egypt  to 
Sinai  is  traced  with  the  local  coloring  and  the 
specific  accuracy  of  one  who  was  present.  The 
miracles  severally  suit  the  place,  the  time,  and 
the  circumstances  under  which  they  are  stated 
to  have  been  wrought.  The  plagues  are  es- 
sentially Eg3^ptian.  The  supply  of  Israel's 
wants  in  the  wilderness  is  in  harmony  with 
the  characteristics  of  the  country.  The  record 
Moses  gives  of  himself  is  such  as  no  later 
writer  would  have  given.  Nor  would  such  a 
writer  have  tirst  given  the  instructions  to 
make  the  tabernacle  and  then  the  detailed  ex- 
ecution of  these  instructions.  The  materials 
of  the  tabernacle  (wood,  skins,  etc.)  belong  to 
the  desert,  and  arts  (weaving,  embroidering, 
carving,  etc.)  used  in  the  construction  are 
such  as  could  have  been  learned  in  Egypt. 

The  book  shows  the  fultilment  of  the' proph- 
ecies to  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.,  xvii.),  and  illus- 
trates the  care  of  God  over  his  church  and  his 
judgments  upon  her  foes.  It  presents  many 
signal  t3^pes  of  Christ :  Moses  (Deut.  xviii. 
15),  Aaron  (Heb.  iv.  14-16,  v.  4,  5),  the  pas- 
chal lamb  (1  Cor.  v.  7,  18),  the  manna  (John 
vi.  32),  the  rock  in  Horeb  (1  Cor.  x.  4),  the 
mercy-seat  (Heb.  iv.  16),  the  tabernacle  (John 
i.  14,  "the  Word  tabernacled  among  us"). 
See  Pentateuch  for  literature.     T.  W.  C. 

Exodus  of  Israel.  This  great  event,  the 
founding  of  the  nation  and  the  turning-point 
of  biblical  history,  is  often  referred  to  in 
Scripture  narrative,  rehearsed  in  Psalms 
(cxiv.,  cxxxvi.),  and  quoted  in  prophecy  (Isa. 
li.  9,  10,  Hab.  iii.).  Its  date  is  now  generally 
agreed  upon.  Rameses  II.  (the  Sesostris  of 
the  Greeks)  was  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppres- 
sion, and  his  son,  Menephlhah  II.,  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  Exodus.  The  monuments,  of  course, 
contain  no  account  of  the  disaster,  but  other 
features  of  the  reign  of  this  monarch  have  led 
Lepsius  and  Ebers  to  conclude  that  the  Exodus 
took  place  b.c.  1317,  on  the  15th  of  the  first 
month,  Abib  or  Nisan,  our  April.  The  place 
of  the  crossing  is  still  in  dispute.  Some  put 
it  several  miles  south  of  Suez,  where  the  sea 
is  about  10  miles  broad  ;  others  near  Suez, 
where  it  is  not  half  as  wide  ;  others  still  at 
Lake  Timsah,  to  which  it  is  supposed  that 
"the  tongue  of  the  Egyptian  sea"  extended 
at  that  time,  inasmuch  as  we  know  that  a 
canal  was  once  made  from  the  Nile  to  the  sea 
at  or  near  that  point.  This  view  is  thought 
to  be  confirmed  by  the  very  recent  discovery 
of  Pithom  and  Rameses,  the  treasure  cities  of 
Egypt.  Proofs  are  said  to  abound  from  re- 
cent geological  surveys  tliat  the  sea  has  re- 
treated, owing  to  the"  elevation  of  the  land. 
The  further  progress  of  Egyptian  exploration 
will  doubtless  settle  this  point  beyond  dispute. 
The  theory  of  Brugsch,  that  the  passage  was 
through  the  Serbonian  bog  near  the  Mediter- 


ranean, has  gained  few  adherents.  The  sacred 
narrative  of  the  event  is  simple  and  natural. 
It,  of  course,  implies  a  stupendous  miracle 
that  2,000,000  of  people  with  their  cattle 
should  cross  in  one  night  without  the  loss  of 
man  or  beast,  while  the  entire  host  of  Egypt 
was  cut  off  to  a  man.  But  tlie  occasion  was 
wortlij^  of  such  an  amazing  exhibition  of  di- 
vine power  and  wisdom.  And  in  all  ages  the 
exodus  and  the  history  that  followed  has  been 
considered  a  type  and  illustralion  of  the  be- 
ginning, progress,  and  end  of  the  believer's 
salvation  and  of  the  course  of  Christ's  church 
in  its  deliverance  from  the  bondage  of  sin,  its 
passage  through  the  wilderness  of  this  world, 
and  its  safe  arrival  at  the  heavenly  Canaan. 
See  Egyptology  and  the  Bible  at  end  of 
vol.  T.  W.  C. 

Exorcism,  the  expulsion  of  evil  sjiirits  by 
conjuration  and  solemn  ceremonies,  was  in 
the  primitive  church  considered  a  charism  be- 
longing to  all  Christians.  Later  on,  the  exor- 
cist became  one  of  the  4  inferior  orders  of  the 
clergy,  and  the  members  of  the  community  to 
wiiom  he  had  to  minister  were  simply  the 
insane,  insanity  being  considered  as  a  posses- 
sion by  an  evil  spirit.  At  present,  exorcism, 
with  a  shade  of  magic  or,  at  least,  of  mystery 
about  it,  is  still  retained  by  the  Greek  and 
Roman  churches,  while  in  the  Protestant 
churches  it  has  been  forgotten  or  forbidden. 

C.  P. 

Expectancy,  in  canon  law,  denotes  a  claim 
to  a  benefice  which  has  been  granted  prospec- 
tively before  the  benefice  has  actually  fallen 
vacant.  This  custom,  which  developed  very 
early  in  the  Roman  Church,  gave  rise  to  much 
fraud  and  violence,  and  was  finally  abolished 
by  the  Council  of  'Trent. 

Extreme  Unction,  the  rite  of  anointing  the 
dying  with  oil,  is  the  fifth  sacrament  of  tlie 
liomau  Church  and  the  seventh  of  the  Greek. 
It  has  no  scriptural  foundation  and  did  not 
exist  as  an  institution,  still  less  as  a  sacrament, 
in  the  primitive  church.  It  rose  from  the 
popular  superstition  which  led  people  to  steal 
the  baptismal  water  or  the  oil  of  the  church 
lamps  for  magic  cures.  In  the  5th  century 
it  began  to  assume  the  form  of  a  definite  in- 
stitution, in  the  8tli  it  is  quite  often  spoken  of 
in  the  acts  of  the  councils,  in  the  12th  it  was 
introduced  into  the  theological  system  by 
Hugo  de  St.  Victor,  and  by  the  Council  of 
Florence,  1439,  it  was  declared  a  sacrament. 

C.  P. 

Eyre,  John,  b.  at  Bodmin,  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, 232  m.  w.s.w.  of  London,  in  Jan.,  1754  ; 
d.  at  Homerton,  near  London,  March  28  or 
29,  1803.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  clothier 
when  15  years  old,  and  began  to  preach  at 
the  same  time  ;  studied  in  Emmanuel  College, 
C'ambridge  (1778),  and  was  ordained  a  deacon 
in  1779,  and  was  in  1785  appointed  minister 
of  Homerton,  or,  as  it  was  often  called,  Ram's 
Chapel.  He  established  the  ErnngeUcal  Mag- 
azine (\1%'S),  a  joint  undertaking  of  the  Church 
of  England  and  dissenting  ministers,  and 
founded  the  London  Missionary  Society 
(1794)  and  the  Hackney  Theological  College 
(1803).  C.  P. 


EZEKIEL 


(288) 


FABER 


Ezekiel  {the  strength  of  God),  a  prophet  of 
priestly  race  wlio  was  born  and  educated  in 
Judea,  but  carried  iuto  captivity  witli  Jeiioi- 
achin,  b.c.  598,  11  years  before  tlie  city  fell, 
and  placed  with  his  fellow-exiles  by  the  river 
Chebar.  His  prophetic  ministry  began  in  the 
5th  year  of  his  captivity,  and  continued  at 
least  down  to  the  27th  year  (xxix.  17),  14 
years  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  We 
have  no  personal  details  concerning  him  save 
that  he  had  a  house  (viii.  1)  and  lost  his  wife 
by  a  sudden  stroke  (xxiv.  18).  lie  was  con- 
temporary with  Jeremiah,  but  differed  from 
him  widely,  Jeremiah  being  plaintive,  sensi- 
tive, and  tender,  while  Ezekiel  was  stern,  in- 
flexible, and  zealous  against  gainsayers. 

The  book  of  Ezekiel  is  arranged  in  chrono- 
logical order,  but  is  of  very  varied  contents, 
presenting  visions,  symbols,  parables,  and 
allegories,  as  vvell  as  direct  prophecies.  Sub- 
lime in  some  parts,  it  is  obscure  in  others. 
Noteworthy  is  the  peculiar  imagery  wliich 
seems  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  gigantic 
emblems — the  eagle-winged  lion  and  the 
human-headed  bull — that  are  now  become 
familiar  to  us  from  the  Assyrian  monuments. 
The  flrst  part  of  tlie  book  (i.-xxiv.)  contains 
matter  addressed  to  the  prophet's  country- 
men. In  the  second  part  (xxv.-xxxix.),  Jeru- 
salem having  been  destroyed,  he  turns  to  the 
nations  and  sets  forth  the  doom  of  Amnion, 
Moab,  the  Philistines,  Tyre,  Zidon,  and  Egypt 
(not  Babylon,  of  which  he  was  now  a  subject), 
after  wliich  he  comes  back  to  his  own  people 
(xxxiii.-xxxix.)  and  predicts  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  theocracy,  ending  with  the  over- 
throw of  Gog  and  Magog.  In  the  third  part 
(xl.-xlviii.)  is  a  symbolical  description  of  the 
future  church,  which,  although  hard  to  inter- 
pret in  detail,  is  in  its  general  scope  a  magnifi- 
cent vision  of  what  is  in  store  for  the  people  of 
God.  Its  imagery  is  all  drawn  from  the  struc- 
ture of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  There  are 
no  direct  quotations  from  Ezekiel  in  the  New 
Testament,  but  there  are  many  obvious  paral- 
lels and  allusions  in  the  Apocalypse.  More 
than  a  hundred  times  Ezekiel  is  called  "  son 
of  man,"  a  title  given  to  no  other  prophet  ex- 
cept Daniel,  and  to  him  only  once  (viii.  17), 
but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  had  any  especial 
signilicance.  Besides  the  general  commen- 
taries mentioned  under  Exegesis,  see  the 
special  work  of  Patrick  Fairbairn,  Edinburgh, 
1851,  4th  ed.,  I87G.  T.  W.  C. 

E  -zi-on-Ga'-ber,  or  Ge'-ber  {a  man's  back- 
bone), a  city  at  the  head  of  the  Elanitic  or  east- 
ern fork  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  was  the  last  sta- 
tion of  the  Israelites  before  entering  the  wilder- 
ness of  Zin  (Num.  xxxiii.  35,  Deut.  ii.  8),  the 
navy  station  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  ix.  26),  and 
also'  of  Jehoshaphat  (1  Kings  xxii.  48).  No 
traces  of  it  have  been  found  by  modern  ex- 
plorers. T.  W.  C. 

Ezra,  a  learned  and  pious  priest,  grandson 
of  Hilkiah,  the  liigh-priest  in  Josiah's  time. 
He  was  a  "  ready  scribe  in  the  law,"  an  able 
and  faithful  man  who  enjoyed  much  consider- 
ation at  the  Persian  court.  From  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus  he  received  letters,  money,  and 
every  needed  help,  and  went  at  the  head  of  a 
large  party  of  returning  exiles  to  Jerusalem. 


B.C.  457  (Ezra  vii.).  On  arriving  he  instituted 
inany  reforms  among  the  people,  particularly 
in  the  intermarriage  with  foreign  women  (Ezra 
viii.-x.),  and  reorganized  public  worship, 
with  the  reading  and  exposition  of  the  Scrip- 
tures (Nell.  viii.).  After  this  he  is  generally 
believed  to  have  written  the  book  which  bears 
his  name,  the  books  of  Chronicles  and  part 
of  Nehemiah,  and  to  have  collected  and  re- 
vised all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
found  in  the  present  canon.  In  his  work  he 
was  aided  by  Nehemiah,  and  probably  by 
Malachi. 

The  Book  of  Ezra,  covering  events  from 
536  to  456  B.C.,  consists  of  3  parts,  the  first  of 
which  (i.-vi.)  describes  the  return  of  the  first 
baud  of  Jews  from  exile  and  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  temple.  Then,  after  an  interval  of 
58  years,  begins  the  second  part,  which  relates 
Ezra's  expedition  to  the  Holy  City,  his  arrival, 
and  his  proceedings  there.  The  authenticity 
of  the  book  is  generally  conceded.  Portions 
of  it  (iv.  8-vi.  18  and  the  decree  of  Artaxerxes, 
vii.  12-26)  are  in  Chaldee.  The  language 
bears  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Chron- 
icles and  Daniel.  There  are  2  apocryphal 
books  ascribed  to  him  under  the  title  of  Es- 
dras,  the  Greek  form  of  his  name.  Neither 
of  them  exists  in  Hebrew  or  is  of  any  author- 
ity. From  First  Esdras  (iv.  41)  comes  the 
maxim,  "Great  is  truth,  and  mighty  above 
all  things,"  or,  as  the  Vulgate  gives  it.  Magna 
est  Veritas  et  pro'vnlet.  (See  the  general  com- 
mentaries mentioned  under  Exegests  ;  also 
A.  H.  Sayce,  Introduction,  to  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
and  Esther,  London,  1885.)  T.  AV.  C. 

F. 

Faber,  Frederick  William,  D.D.  (by  Pope 
Pius  IX.,  1854),  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Cal- 
verley,  Yorkshire,  Eng.,  6  m.  u.w.  of  Leeds, 
June  28,  1814  ;  d.  at  the  Oratory,  Brompton, 
Loudon,  Sept.  26,  1863.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  where  he  became  fellow  of  Univer- 
sity College,  1837  ;  in  1839  he  was  ordaineil 
priest  of  \he  Church  of  England  ;  in  \M'i 
accepted  the  rectory  of  Elton,  Huntingdon- 
shire ;  but  3  years  later  he  formally  abjured 
Protestantism  and  went  over  to  the  Roman 
Church— a  course  he  had  meditated  for  many 
years.  He  established  at  Birmingham  the 
community  properly  called  the  "  Brothers  of 
the  Will  of  God,"  but  generally  "the  Wil- 
fridians,"  as  he  had  taken  the  name  of 
"  Brother  Wilfrid."  In  1848  the  entire  com- 
munity went  over  to  the  oratory  of  St.  Philip 
Neri,  and  from  1849  till  his  death  he  was  the 
head  of  the  London  branch.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  hymns — e.g.,  "  Hark,  hark,  my  .soul, 
angelic  songs  are  swelling,"  "Dear  Jesus, 
ever  at  my  side,"  "  Workman  of  God.  oh, 
lose  not  heart,"  "  O  gift  of  gifts,"  "  Paradise, 
O  Paradise,"  which  are  marked  by  fervor, 
pathos,  grace,  and  simplicity.  (See  his  life 
by  Bowden,  London,  1H69.) 

Faber,  Jacobus  Stapulensis  (properly 
Jacrjues  Lefevro  d'Elaples),  b.  at  Elaples,  15 
m.  s.  of  Boulogne,  France,  about  1450  ;  d.  at 
Nerac,  in  Beam,    1536.     After  studying  in 


PABER 


(284) 


PAITH 


Paris  he  became  a  teacher  of  the  classics  there 
and  had  many  pupils.  In  1507  he  began 
to  be  intimate  with  Bisliop  Briconnet  (q.v.), 
who,  in  1523,  appointed  him  vicar-general 
at  Meaux.  But  Faber  had  made  himself  so 
obnoxious  by  his  biblical  writings— f. .9.,  that 
on  the  theme  that  Mary  Magdalene,  Mary  the 
sister  of  Lazarus,  and  the  woman  who  was  a 
sinner  (Luke  vii.  37-50)  were  3  different  per- 
sons, but  chiefly  by  his  annotated  French 
translation  of  the  Bible  (Antwerp,  1530),  that 
he  sought  and  found  a  refuge  at  the  court  of 
Margaret  of  Navarre  at  ISerac.  The  Sor- 
bonne  had  revoked  his  doctorate,  in  1535,  on 
account  of  his  alleged  Protestantism,  and  only 
flight  had  saved  him  from  arrest  and  imprison- 
ment. The  king,  Francis  I.,  was  his  patron, 
but  even  he  could  not  make  his  life  safe. 
Many  of  his  writings  were  put  upon  the  In- 
dex. Siill  he  never  left  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  hoped  on  for  a  reformation 
within  it.  (See  life  by  Graf  [in  French], 
Strassburg,  1842.) 

Faber,  Johannes  (properly  Heigerlin),  Ro- 
man Catholic,  called  the  "  Hammer  of  the 
Heretics  ;"  b.  at  Leutkirch,  near  Lake  Con- 
stance, 1478  ;  d.  at  Baden,  near  Vienna,  May 
21,  1541.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  Frei- 
burg ;  was  on  friendly  terms  witli  the  chief 
Humanists  ;  became  vicar-general  of  Con- 
stance, 1516,  and  requested  Zwingli  to  preach 
against  the  iudulgence-mongering  Samson 
(1517),  but  when  the  Reformation  took  on  the 
shape  of  a  rupture  with  Rome  he  withdrew 
fellowship  with  the  progressive  party,  and  in 
the  Zurich  Disputation  of  1523  and  afterward 
led  the  Catholic  party  in  Switzerland.  When 
become  bishop  of  Vienna  (1530)  he  persecuted 
the  Protestants  {e.g.,  Hubmeier).  He  got  his 
epithet  from  his  work,  Malleus  in  Mresiiii 
iMtheranam,  Cologne,  1524.  (See  his  col- 
lected works,  Cologne,  1537-40.) 

Faber  (Favre),  Pierre,  Roman  Catholic  ; 
b.  at  Villardet,  Savoy,  April  13,  1506  ;  studied 
at  Paris  ;  joined  Ignatius  Loyola  in  founding 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  1534,  and  worked  suc- 
cessfully in  its  interests  through  Germany, 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal  ;  d.  in  Rome, 
Aug.  1,  1546.  He  was  beatified  Sept.  5,  1872. 
(See  his  life  from  the  Italian  of  Boero  [1874], 
Loudon,  187-.) 

Fabian,  pope,  Feb..  236,  to  Jan.  20,  250. 
was  unanimously  chosen  bishop  of  Rome  be- 
cause, while  the  election  was  going  on,  a  dove 
alighted  on  his  head,  according  to  Eusebius, 
Hist.  EecL,  Yl.,  29. 

Fabricius,  Johannes  Albert,  German  Lu- 
theran ;  b.  at  Leipzig,  Nov.  11,  1668  ;  studied 
there  ;  became  assistant  pastor  at  Hamburg, 
1693  ;  profes.sor  of  rhetoric  and  moral  phi- 
losophy tliere,  1699  ;  d.  there,  April  30,  1736. 
His  bibliographical  and  litero-historical  labors 
won  him  tlie  gratitude  of  his  contemporaries, 
and  have  given  him  an  imperishable  name. 
Of  his  numerous  compilations  may  be  men- 
tioned BibliofJieca  latina,  Hamburg,  1697,  n.e.-; 
by  Ernesti,  Leipzig,  1773-74,  3  vols.  ;  Bih- 
liotheca  gnpra,  17()5-28,  14  vols.,  n.e.  of  12 
vols,  by  Harless,  1790-1812  ;  Codex  apocryphns 
N.  T.,  1703,  n.e.,  1719  ;   Codex  jJseudejngrapJi- 


icus  V.  T.,  1713  ;  Lux  cmngeUi,  1731  ;  Biblio- 
theca  latina  medim  et  infimce  mtatis,  1734-36, 
5  vols.,  n.e.  by  Mansi,  Padua,  1754,  6  vols., 
rep.  Florence,  1858-59,  3  vols. 

Faculty,  as  a  technical  term  of  canon  law, 
denotes  the  temporary  transference  of  a  cer- 
tain ecclesiastical  power  from  the  original 
holder  to  some  subordinate  officer  for  practi- 
cal purposes,  as  when,  for  instance,  the  pope 
transfers  a  certain  measure  of  his  power  to  a 
missionary  or  a  nuncio. 

Facundus,  bishop  of  Hermiana,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Byzacena,  Africa,  wrote  in  548  and 
in  defence  of  the  Three  Chapters,  Pro  dcfen- 
sione  trium  capitulorum ;  Contra  Mocianum 
scholasticum,  etc.,  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
LXVIL,  537-852,  853-868. 

Fairbairn,  Andrew  Martin,  D.D.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1878  ;  Yale,  1889),  Congregationahst  ; 
b.  near  Edinburgh,  Nov.  4.  1838  ;  studied  at 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Berlin  (under  Dor- 
ner,  1866-67) ;  became  pastor  at  Bathgate,  Scot- 
land, 1861  ;  at  Aberdeen,  1872  ;  principal  of 
Airdale  (Conirregational  theological)  College, 
Bradford,  Eng.,  1877  ;  and  of  Mansfield  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  1886.  He  is  the  author  of 
Studies  in  the  Plnlosopluj  of  Religion  and  His- 
tory, London,  1876  ;  Stvd.ies  in  the  Life  of 
Christ,  1880,  5th  ed.,  1885  ;  The  City  of  God, 
1883,  2d  ed.,  1885  ;  Beliqion  in  History  and 
in  Life  of  To-day,  1884,  2d  ed.,  1885. 

Fairbairn,  Patrick,  D.D.  (Glasgow,  185-), 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Hallyburton, 
Berwickshire,  Jan.  28,  1805  ;  d.  in  Glasgow, 
Aug.  6,  1874.  He  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  became  pastor  successively  at 
North  Ronaldshay,  Orkney  Islands,  1830 
(many  of  the  people  were  wreckers,  but  all 
were  greatly  improved  by  his  assiduous  la- 
bors) ;  Bridgeton,  Glasgow,  1836  ;  Salton,  in 
East  Lothian,  1840  ;  arid  of  the  Free  Church 
in  the  same  parish  after  the  disruption  of  1843. 
In  1853  he  became  professor  of  theology  in 
the  Free  Church  Theological  College  at  Aber- 
deen ;  in  1856  was  transferred  in  the  same 
position  to  Glasgow,  and  on  Nov.  4  of  that 
year  became  principal.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Revision  Committee  (Old  Testament  Com- 
pany). His  works  embrace  Tlie  Typology  of 
Scrij)ture,  Edinburgh,  1845-47,  2  vols.,  6th 
ed. ,  1880  ;  Ezekiel,  Exposition ;  vith  Neio 
Translation,  1851  ;  Prophecy,  1856,  2d  ed., 
1866  ;  2he  Pastoral  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  1874  ; 
Pastoral  Theology,  1875  (posthumous).  For 
biographical  sketch  see  lus  Pastoral  Theology. 
He  edited  The  Lmperial  Bible  Dictionary, 
London,  1867,  3  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1876. 

Faith  is  the  assent  of  the  understanding  to 
truth,  and  it  varies  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  truth  believed.  It  is  one  thing  to  assent 
to  an  abstract  or  an  historical  truth,  another 
to  agree  to  a  moral  truth,  and  yet  another  to 
accept  the  truth  on  tlie  testimony  of  God. 
The  last  is  religious  faith.  It  includes  (1) 
Knowledge,  for  a  true  and  intelligent  believer 
must  know  what  it  is  that  he  believes.  The 
"  implicit  faith"  of  Romanists  is  an  unmean- 
ing formula.  After  knowledge  comes  (2)  As- 
sent—z.e.,  the  acceptance  of  the  truth  proposed 
as  the  very  truth  of  God.     But  as  this  truth 


FAITH 


(285) 


FAMILIARS 


contains  an  offer  of  salvation,  there  must  be 
also  (3)  Trust— 1.<;.,  a  full  and  hearty  reliance 
upon  the  promise  thus  given.  Where  these 
are  there  is  the  faith  which  unites  to  Christ 
and  saves  the  soul.  Such  faith  is  a  grace 
wrought  in  the  heart  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  whose 
illumination  leads  to  a  cordial  embrace  of 
Christ  as  our  Saviour.  Plence  it  is  tiie  instru- 
ment of  salvation,  and  without  it  there  is  no 
forgiveness  of  sins,  whereas  he  who  believes 
in  Christ  has  already  eternal  life  (John  iii.  36). 
Faith  is  the  mainspring  of  the  Christian's 
course.  By  it  he  lives  and  walks  and  is  sanc- 
tified. By  it  he  overcomes  the  world,  the 
flesh,  and  the  devil,  and  receives  the  crown  of 
righteousness.  It  is  the  mother  of  all  graces, 
because  it  keeps  the  soul  in  union  with  Christ, 
by  whom  the  Holy  Spirit  is  given,  and  bis 
fruits  (Gal.  v.  22,  23)  are  love,  joy,  peace,  and 
every  other  moral  excellence.  It  has  always 
been  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  people  of 
God.  "  For  therein  the  elders  had  witness 
borne  to  them"  (Heb.  xi.  2),  from  righteous 
Abel  down.  By  this  the  holy  men  of  old  sub- 
dued kingdoms,  wrought  righteousness,  etc. 
(Heb.  xi.  33.  34),  and  by  this  the  godly  in  every 
age  set  their  alfections  upon  things  above,  and 
confessing  themselves  strangers  and  pilgrims 
on  earth,  look  for  the  city  which  hath  the 
foundations,  whose  builder  and  maker  is  God. 
T.  \Y.  C. 

Faith,  Acts  of.    See  Acts  op  Faith. 

Faith,  Articles  of.     See  Cueed. 

Faith,  Confession  of.     See  Creed. 

Faith,    Fundamental    Articles    of.       See 

Fl'ND.VMENTAL,   etC 

Faith,  Rule  of.  The  question  what  is  the 
standard  of  faith  and  practice  has  been  greatly 
contested  ever  since  the  Reformation.  Tli'e 
view  held  by  all  Protestants  is  that  the  Bible 
alone  is  the  rule,  and  only  its  disclosures  can 
bind  the  conscience.  It  is  inspired,  complete, 
perspicuous,  and  accessible,  and  every  man 
may  and  must  accept  whatever  this  infallible 
authority  teaches.  Romanists,  on  the  con- 
trary, maintain  that  the  Bible  is  only  a  part 
of  the  rule  of  faith  ;  that  the  oral  teaching  of 
Ciirist  and  his  apostles,  handed  down  in  the 
traditions  of  the  church,  compliitc^  it  ;  and 
that  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  the  decrees  of 
councils,  and  the  decretals  of  the  popes  are  a 
depository  of  this  teaching  not  less  certain 
than  scripture  itself,  and  of  it  the  church  is 
at  all  times  the  authoritative  expositor.  To 
this  it  is  replied  that  the  Bible  affirms  its  own 
sufficiency  over  and  over  (Ps.  xix.  7,  8,  2  Tim. 
•iii.  15-17)',  that  Christ  and  his  apostles  always 
refer  to  the  written  scripture  as  authority,  and 
to  no  other  rule  (Matt.  iv.  4.  7,  10,  Luke  xvi. 
31,  Rom.  iv.  3),  that  traditions  are  often  in- 
consistent with  each  other  or  self-contradic- 
tory, that  tlie  doctrinal  decisions  of  Rome 
need  an  infallible;  interpreter  as  much  as  the 
Bible,  and  that  Romanists  wliile  repudiating 
private  judgment  yet  address  their  arguments 
to  the  private  judgment  of  men,  "  thus  basing 
an  argument  upon  that  which  it  is  the  object 
of  tlie  argumont  to  prove  is  baseless." 

The  Engiisii  Cliurch  in  the  Laudian  period 
and  portions  of  it  since  have  been  inclined  to 


hold  the  "  consent"  of  the  fathers  as  an  au- 
thoritative interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. 
T.  W.  C. 

Fakir,  a  Mohammedan  monk.  See  Der- 
vish. 

Falashas  {exiles),  the  degenerate  Jews  of 
Abyssinia  ;  of  uncertain  origin,  possibly  de- 
scendants of  mere  proselytes  to  Judaism. 
They  came  very  early  into  Abyssinia.  They 
are  industrious,  orderly,  and  "are  noted  for 
skill  in  masonry.  Their  languige  is  Geez 
(Ethiopic),  in  which  they  have  a  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  its  Apocrypha. 
They  know  nothing  of  Hebrew.  Their  re- 
ligious practices  are  like  the  Jews',  except 
that  they  do  not  use  the  tephilin  (the  fringed 
praying-scarves),  nor  observe  the  Feast  of 
Purim  or  the  dedication  of  the  Temple.  They 
also  add  many  superstitious  rites.  The  Sab- 
bath is  deified  and  worshipped  as  the  goddess 
Sanbat.  They  offer  prayers  and  sacrifices 
for  the  dead.  They  have  monks.  Fasting  is 
obligatory  on  all  over  7  years  old,  and  is  ob- 
served every  Monday  and"  Thursday,  on  every 
new  moon,  and  at  the  Passover.  Tliev  num- 
ber about  100,000.  (See  Flad,  The  Judnn/ias 
of  Abyndnia,  JEng.  trans.,  London,  1869  ;  J. 
Halevy,  Travels  in  Abyssinia,  Eng.  tians., 
London,  1878.) 

Falk  Laws  (or  May  Laws),  certain  restric- 
tive laws  regulating  the  intluence  and  author- 
ity of  the  Roman  Catholic  Churcli,  passed  by 
the  Prussian  diet  during  1872  to  1875,  under 
the  leader-ship  of  Dr.  Falk,  the  Prussian  iMin- 
ister  of  Worship  and  Public  Instruction  and 
Sanitary  Affairs.  They  bore  verv  heavily  on 
the  Roman  Church,  but  are  now  (1890)  par- 
tially abrogated. 

Fall  of  Man  is  a  term  to  denote  the  result 
of  the  first  sin  upon  tne  race.  Adam  was  cre- 
ated holy,  in  the  image  of  God,  but  he  trans- 
gressed by  eating  the  forbidden  fruit,  and 
iience  the  apostle  says  (Rom.  v.  12),  "  Through 
one  man  sin  entered  into  the  world."  AH 
Christians  agree  that  in  Adam  the  race  fell 
from  its  original  state,  but  they  explain  the 
fact  in  different  ways,  saying  either  tliat  Adam 
fell  as  the  federal  head  of  his  posterity,  or 
that  he  was  their  natural  progenitor,  so  that 
like  produces  like,  or  that  he  set  an  example 
which  all  have  followed.  T.  W.  C. 

Fallow  Ground,  land  suitable  for  cultiva- 
tion and  ploughed,  but  not  sowed.  In  literal 
sense,  Prov.  xiii.  23,  where  it  is  rendered 
"tillage."  Figuratively  in  IIos.  x.  12,  and 
Jer.  iv.  3,  "  Break  up  your  fallow  ground." 
T.  W.  C. 

Fallow  Year,  a  name  given  to  the  seventh 
or  sabbatical  year,  when  all  agricultural  lalior 
was  suspended  and  the  land  was  allowed  to  lie 
fallow.  T.  W.  C. 

False  Decretals.    See  Canon  Law. 

Familiar  Spirit  {\jn\\n,fnmiliiiris,  a  house- 
hold servant),  a  name  denoting  the  subser- 
viency of  spirits  to  a  certain  cla.ss  of  necro- 
mancers who  had  them  at  command  to  wait 
on  them  as  servants.  T.  W.  C. 

Familiars.  1 .  Of  bishops,  those  who  are  in 
their  service  and  pay  ;  after  3  years'  continuous 


FAMILISTS 


(286) 


FARPA 


service  they  may  be  ordained.  2.  Of  a  mon- 
astery, the  lay"  members,  who  are  servants, 
mechanics,  etc.,  who  are  admitted  into  the 
community  through  certain  religious  rights. 
3.  Of  the  pope,  all  those  clergy  and  laity  who 
either  render  him  some  personal  or  domestic 
service,  or  hold  some  particular  position  at 
the  papal  court.  Tliey  fall  into  3  classes  and 
enjoy  some  privileges.  4.  Of  the  Inquisition 
(e.g.,  in  Spain),  those  who  lived  in  the  houses 
of  inquisitors  and  arrested  their  victims  and 
conveyed  them  to  prison.  They'Avere  held  in 
high  honor  and  looked  upon  themselves  as 
highly  favored. 

Familists  {Familia  caritatis,  or  Family  of 
Love),  a  mystical  sect  founded  in  Holland  and 
England  by  Heinrich  Niclaes  of  Miiuster, 
Westphalia  (b.  1502  ;  d.  after  1560),  who 
claimed  to  have  had,  in  1540,  at  Amsterdam, 
a  special  divine  call  to  be  a  prophet.  For  the 
next  20  years  he  carried  on  his  proselyting 
work  in  Holland,  then  he  went  to  England 
and  gathered  quite  a  following.  The  usual 
charges  of  immorality  were  made  against 
them,  but  groundlessly.  Their  principal  dis- 
tinctive doctrine  was  that  religion  consists 
purely  in  love,  which  unites  us  to  God.  Ni- 
claes claimed  superiority  over  Christ,  because, 
while  Moses  preached  hope  and  Christ  faith, 
he  preached  lov^e.  He  called  himself  the  chief 
bishop,  and  gave  his  followers  a  new  ecclesias- 
tical calendar  and  order  of  w^orship.  The 
sect  gradually  sank  into  insignificance  and 
disappeared  in  the  17th  centur3^  (See  Bar- 
clay, The  Inner  Life  of  the  Religious  Societies 
of  the  Commonwealth,  London,  2d  ed.,  1877, 
2  vols.) 

Family,  from  the  Latin,  familia,  which 
meant,  primarily,  the  collective  body  of  slaves, 
and,  secondarily,  the  whole  domestic  property 
of  a  paterfamilias,  but  came  to  denote  the  body 
of  people  within  a  gens  who  traced  their  de- 
scent through  males  to  a  common  ancestor. 
The  English  word  properly  represents  the 
little  group  consisting  of  a  man,  his  wife,  and 
their  children,  with  such  other  persons  as  may 
have  a  continuous  place  in  the  association. 
By  divine  ordinance  the  family  is  the  germ  of 
all  human  society.  It  is  a  very  wise  and 
efficient  arrangement  to  provide  for  the  in- 
crease, the  nurti.re,  and  the  best  development 
of  the  human  race.  In  the  plastic  period  of 
life  and  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, it  begins  to  train  men  to  be  subject  to 
legitimate  authority,  to  recognize  the  rights 
of  others,  to  sacrifice  personal  choice  for  a 
common  good,  to  exercise  kindness  and  good- 
will, and  so  to  form  the  habits  that  are  most 
requisite  for  social  order  and  harmonj-.  The 
family  is  a  little  commonwealth  under  right- 
ful government,  cemented  together  by  the 
mutual  respect  and  love  of  its  various  mem- 
bers. Hence  a  nation's  prosperity  is  best  se- 
cured by  the  influences  which  i.s.sue  from  its 
households  ;  nor  was  he  wrong  who  said, 
"  Whatever  is  most  excellent  in  the  state  must 
always  begin  at  the  fireside."  The  church 
as  well  as  the  state  is  an  aggregation  not  of 
individuals,  but  of  families.  Hence  the  stress 
laid  in  the  epistles  upon  relative  and  domestic 
duties.     Hence,  whatever  touches  the  peace 


and  welfare  of  the  family  affects  the  whole 
social  fabric.  Religion,  of  course,  begins 
with  the  individual,  but  it  does  not  end  there. 
Its  finest  field  is  the  home  which  it  guards, 
sanctifies,  and  blesses  by  the  voice  of  prayer 
and  praise,  by  holy  living  and  the  Word  of 
God.  T.  W.  C. 

Fanaticism  (from  Latin,  fanuvi,  temple), 
originally  applied  to  priests  who  pretended  to 
receive  oracles,  and  afterward  to  all  fraudu- 
lent inspiration,  it  now  denotes  the  victims  of 
an  overweening  enthusiasm,  usually  allied, 
where  religion  is  concerned,  with  malign  emo- 
tions. T.  W.  C. 

Farel,  Guillaume,  Reformer  ;  b.  at  Fa- 
reaux,  near  Gap,  S.  E.  France,  46  m.  s.e.  of 
Grenoble,  1489  ;  d.  at  Neuchatel,  Switzer- 
land, Sept.  13,  1565.  He  studied  in  Paris  un- 
der Faber  Stapulensis,  and  by  his  recommen- 
dation was  for  a  brief  period  professor  in 
Cardinal  Le  Moine's  college  in  Paris,  but 
avowing  Lutheran  views  he  left  Paris,  went 
to  Metz  (1521),  and  began  that  course  of  in- 
trepid action  on  behalf  of  the  reformed  faith 
which  he  ever  afterward  pursued.  Driven 
away  by  persecution  (1523),  he  betook  him- 
self to  Basel,  was  cordially  received  by  ffico- 
lampadius,  victoriously  defended  his  opinions 
in  a  public  debate,  Feb.  28,  1524,  on  which 
occasion  Q^^colampadius  interpreted  his  Latin 
into  German  ;  but  was  expelled  shortly  after- 
ward, under  the  instigation  of  Erasmus,  whom 
he  had  compared  to  Balaam.  For  the  next 
8  3"ears  he  carried  on  his  gospel  preaching 
through  all  S.  E.  France  and  W.  Switzerland, 
preaching  as  he  had  opportunity,  and  in  con- 
stant danger.  In  1532  he  first  preached  the 
reformed  faith  in  Geneva,  and  by  the  help  of 
Bern,  although  compelled  to  flee  twice,  suc- 
ceeded in  introducing  the  Reformation,  Aug. 
27,  1535.  In  1536  he  fairly  compelled,  imder 
divine  guidance  playing  the  part  of  a  Hebrew 
prophet,  Calvin  to  stop  at  Geneva  and  help 
him.  The  two  were  driven  out  in  1538. 
Farel  lived  thenceforward  chiefly  at  Neuchatel 
and  Metz.  He  was  very  impetuous  and  hasty, 
and  no  theologian,  but  he  was  a  j^athfinder, 
and  by  courage,  eloquence,  and  perseverance 
he  established  the  reformed  faith  in  all  French 
Switzerland.  His  writings  have  never  been 
collected,  but  there  are  reprints  of  Sommaire, 
issued  anonymously  1534  (?),  reprinted  1538, 
1542,  Geneva,  1552  ;  ed.  J.  W.  Baum,  Geneva, 
1867  ;  of  I)u  vray  usage  de  la  croix  de  Jesus 
Chrid,  Geneva,  1560  ;  ed.  pastors  of  Neu- 
chatel, 1865,  with  an  appendix  containing,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  several  of  his  other  writings  ; 
and  of  Des  Actes  de  la  dispute  de  Rive,  Geneva, 
1885.  A  monument  to  him  at  Neuchatel  was 
unveiled  May  4,  1876.  (See  his  life  by  W. 
M.  Blackburn,  Pliiladelphia,  1865,  especially 
art.  in  La  France  Proiestante,  ed.  Bordier, 
vol.  vi.,  cols.  385-415.) 

Farfa,  a  celebrated  monastery,  situated  on 
the  Farfa,  in  Central  Italy.  It  was  destroyed 
in  the  7th  century  by  the  Lombards,  and  in 
the  10th  by  the  Saracens,  but  both  times  re- 
built. The  Chronicon  Farfense,  written  by 
the  abbot  Gregory,  edited  by  Muratori,  in 
Script.  Rev.  Ital.,  II.,  belongs  to  the  11th  cen- 
tury. 


PARINDON 


(287) 


FATHERS 


Farindon,  Anthony,  Church  of  England, 
one  of  the  best  preachers  among  the  royalist 
divines  ;  b.  at  Sonning,  Berkshire  ;  baptized 
there,  Dec.  24,  1598  ;  educated  at  Oxford  ; 
preached  in  London,  1647  to  1656  ;  d.  near 
London,  Oct.  9,  1658.  His  sermons,  ed.  by 
T.  Jackson,  were  reprinted,  London,  1849, 
4  vols.     See  his  life  iu  same. 

Farmer,  Hugh,  English  Independent  ;  b. 
"  at  the  Isle  Gate  farm,  in  a  hamlet  called 
Isle,  within  the  parish  of  St.  Chad,  Shrews- 
bury," Jan.  20,  1714  ;  d.  at  Walthamstow, 
7  m.  n.n.e.  of  London,  where  he  was  pastor 
from  1737  to  1780,  Feb.  5,  1787.  From  1762 
to  1780  he  held  the  "  merchants'  lectureship" 
in  London.  He  was  a  popular  preacher,  but 
is  now  remembered  by  his  An  Inquiry  into 
tJie  Nature  ami  Design  of  Christ's  Temptation 
in  the  Wilderness  (denies  its  objectivity),  Lou- 
don. 1761,  3d  ed.,  1776,  5lh  cd.,  1822  ;  A  Dis- 
sertation on  Miracles  (denies  mediate  causes), 
1771.  3d  ed..  1810;  An  Essay  on  the  De- 
moniacs (maintains  thev  were  epileptics  or  in- 
sane), 1775,  4th  ed.,  1818.     (Cf.  Stephen,  s.v.) 

Parrar,  Venerable  Frederick  William, 
D.D.  (Cambridge,  1873),  F.li.S.,  Church  of 
England  ;  b.  iu  Bombay,  India,  Aug.  7,  1831  ; 
B.A.,  Cambridge,  18o4 ;  elected  fellow  of 
Trinity  College  ;  became  assistant  master  in 
Harrow  School,  1854  ;  head-master  of  Marl- 
borough College,  1871  ;  rector  of  St.  Mar- 
garet's, "Westminster,  London,  and  canon, 
1876 ;  archdeacon,  1883.  His  numerous 
writings  embrace,  Seekers  after  God,  London, 
1860,  2d  ed.,  1877  ;  The  Witness  of  History  to 
Christ,  1871,  3d  ed.,  1875  ;  The  Life  of  Christ, 
1874,  2  vols.,  38th  ed.,  1880  ;  Eternal  Hope, 
1878,  12th  ed.,  same  year  ;  The  Life  and  Work 
of  St.  Paul,  1879,  2  vols.,  18th  1000, 1881  ;  Mercy 
and  Judgment:  Last  Words  on  Christian 
Eschatology,  1881,  2d  ed.,  1882  ;  Early  Days 
of  Christianity,  1882,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1884  ; 
Messages  of  the  Books  :  Discourses,  and  Notes  on 
tlie  New  Testament,  1884;  The  History  of  In- 
terpretation (Bampton  lectures),  1836  ;  Every- 
day Christian  Life  (sermons),  1887  ;  Solomon, 
his  Life  and  Times,  1887  ;  Lires  of  the  Fathers, 
London  and  New  York,  1889,  2  vols.  ;  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews,  1889. 

Farthing.     See  Moxet. 

Fasting.  1.  Among  the  Hebrews  there  was 
originally  only  one  day  of  public  fasting  or- 
dained, the  day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi.  29, 
xxiii.  27,  Num.  xxix.  7),  though  it  very  early 
became  customary  to  proclaim  a  day  of  fast- 
ing and  humiliation  when  some  great  national 
calamity  overtook  the  people  (Judges  xx.  26, 
1  Sam.  vii.  6,  1  Kings  xxi.  27,  2  Chron.  xx. 
3).  During  the  Babylonian  exile  4  other  fasts 
were  regularly  observed :  tliat  of  the  4th 
month,  on  the  17th  of  Thammuz,  in  memory 
of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar ;  that  of  the  5th  month,  on  the  9th  of  Ab. 
in  memory  of  the  destruction  of  the  first  tem- 
ple ;  that  of  the  7th  month,  on  the  2d  of 
Tisliri,  the  day  of  the  death  of  Gedaliah  and 
his  as.sociates  at  ]\Iizpaii  ;  and  that  of  the  10th 
montli,  on  the  10th  of  Tchetli.  the  dav  on 
which  tlie  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar began.     At  the  time  of  Christ  the  Jews 


generally  fasted  also  on  Monday  and  Thurs- 
day every  week,  because,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, Moses  went  up  Mount  Sinai  on  a  Tiuirs- 
day  and  came  down  on  a  Monday.  The  fast 
of  the  day  of  Atonement  was  called  "  the  wliite 
fast,"  because  a  white  shroud  was  worn,  while 
the  other  fasts  were  called  "  black  fasts,"  be- 
cause mourning  was  worn.  2.  The  Christian 
Church  adopted  partially  the  Jewish  .system 
of  fasting,  though  rearranging  the  dates  and 
changing  their  signification.  Thus  the  two 
days'  weekly  fast,  the  dies  stationum,  was 
continued,  only  that  Wednesday  and  Friday 
were  selected,  instead  of  Monday  and  Thurs- 
day, in  memory  of  the  betrayal  and  crucifixion 
of  our  Lord  ;  the  former  was  soon  drojiped. 
The  4  annual  fasts  falling  in  different  months 
were  also  retained,  but  the  days  were  arrang- 
ed so  as  to  divide  the  year  into  seasons  :  qva- 
tuor  tempora,  quatemper  fasts,  Ember-days. 
When,  however,  monasticism  and  asceticism 
became  a  ruling  power  in  the  church,  speci- 
fically Christian  fasts  arose.  The  principal 
one  among  these  is  the  quadragesimal  fast 
before  Easter,  in  memory  of  our  Lord's  lying 
forty  hours  in  the  grave.  It  lasts  6  weeks, 
but  as  there  is  no  fasting  on  Sundays,  it  be- 
gins on  the  Wednesday  of  the  preceding  week, 
Ash  Wednesday.  The  Greek  Church  ob- 
serves a  quadragesimal  fast  also  before  Christ- 
mas, but  an  attempt  which  was  made  to  intro- 
duce that  custom  in  the  Roman  Church  did 
not  succeed.  On  the  whole,  the  Greek  Church 
is  stricter  than  the  Roman  in  the  observance 
of  the  fasts,  knowing  nothing  about  granting 
or  selling  indults.  As  fasting  is  nowhere  com- 
mended iu  the  New  Testament,  the  Reformed 
churches  have  generally  refrained  from  any 
compulsory  regulations  of  the  practice,  but 
their  symbolical  books  bear  evidence  that  they 
have  never  overlooked  the  importance  which 
it  may  have  as  a  means  of  self-discipline  and 
preparation  for  prayer.  C.  P. 

Fatalism,  the  doctrine  which  holds  that  all 
events  have  been  determined  by  a  blind  and 
inexorable  destiny.  This  was  held  by  the 
ancients,  who  made  it  control  both  gods  and 
men,  and  is  now  held  by  Moslems  in  much 
the  same  way.  The  Scripture  doctrine  of 
predestination  means  the  wise  and  hol}^  provi- 
dence of  God,  who  governs  the  universe  ac- 
cording to  his  eternal  purpose,  yet  without 
turning  men  into  machines  or  destroying  their 
free  agency.  T.  W.  C. 

Fathers  of  the  Church,  a  term  used  loosely 
of  all  the  early  Cliristian  writers,  but  iu  strict- 
ness limited  to  those  writers  of  the  first  8 
Christian  centuries  who  possess  the  qualities 
of  orthodoxy,  sanctity  of  life,  approval  of  the 
church,  and  high  antiquitv.  This  strict  defi- 
nition rules  out  Origen  for  his  heterodoxy, 
Tertullian  for  his  Montanism,  and  Eusebiu.s  of 
Ciesarea  for  his  Arianism.  also  Clemens  Alex- 
andrinus.  Lactantius,  Rubinus,  Cas.sian,  and 
Theodoret.  Such  writers  are  called  scriptores 
ecclesiasfici  ("  ecclesiastical  writers").  The 
list  in  the  Eastern  Church  closes  with  John  of 
l)ama.scus  (d.  754),  but  in  the  Western  with 
Gregorv  the  Great  (d.  604). 

The  "Fathers  are  divided  into  3  classes  :  1. 
The  Apostolic   (q.v.).     2.  The    Aute-Nicene 


PAUSSET 


(288) 


PBLIOISSIMUS 


(i.e.,  those  who  wrote  before  the  Council  of 
Nice,  325),  the  chief  of  whom  are  Justiu  Mar- 
tyr, Irenteus,  Hernias,  Tatian,  Athenagoras, 
Theophilus,  Minutius  Felix,  Commodian, 
Hippolytus,  Cyprian,  Caius,  Novatian,  Greg- 
ory Tiiaumaturgus,  Dionysius  the  Great, 
Julius  Africanus,  Methodius,  and  Arnobius. 
3.  The  Post-Nicene.  The  chief  are,  Athana- 
sius,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome,  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  Basil  the  Great,  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Chrysostom,  Isidore 
of  Seville.  (See  the\arts.  upon  all  the  writers 
named.)  The  writings  of  the  Apostolic,  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers  and  of  Augustine  and  Chry- 
sostom and  later  Fathers  have  been  published 
in  a  revised  Eng.  trans,  by  the  Christian  Liter- 
ature Company,  New  York.  1885,  sqq. 

Fausset,  Andrew  Robert,  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  at  Silvcrhill,  County  Fermanagh, 
Ireland,  Oct.  13,  1821  ;  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  1843  ;  became  rector  of  St. 
Cuthbert,  York,  Eng.,  1859.  His  numerous 
writings  embrace  a  translation  of  BengeVs 
Gnomon,  Edinburgh,  1857,  5  vols.,  and  of 
Vinet's  Homiletics,  London,  1858  ;  vols,  iii., 
iv.,  and  vi.  of  a  Critical,  Experimental,  and 
Practical  Commentary  (with  Jamieson  and 
Brown),  1868  ;  Ilorm  Psalmicce,  1877,  2d  ed., 
1885  ;  The  Englishman's  Critical  and  Exposi- 
tory Bible  Gydopmdia,  1879,  2d  ed.,  1887  ;  Ex- 
pository Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Judges, 
1885. 

Faustinus  (fow-stee'-nus),  a  presbyter  of 
Rome  from  the  2d  half  of  the  4th  century, 
took  part  in  the  Athanasian  controversy  and 
in  the  contest  between  Damasus  and  Ursinus. 
His  writings  are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Or. 
XIII. 

Faustus  (fowst'-us),  Reiensis  or  Regiensis, 
bishop  of  Reji  or  Regium,  the  present  Riez, 
in  the  department  of  Basses  Alpes,  France,  45 
m.  n.e.  of  Marseilles  ;  wrote  against  Lucidus, 
a  Gallic  presbyter  and  a  pupil  of  Augustine, 
first  an  Epistola  ad  Lucidiim  and  then  De 
Gratia  Dei,  in  which  he  attempts  to  maintain 
a  semi-Pelagian  standpoint,  refuting  Pelagius, 
but  also  rejecting  Augustine.  The  book  was 
very  much  read  in  Gaul,  but  strongly  opposed 
in  Byzantium  and  Carthage.  He  was  born  in 
Brittany  toward  the  close'cf  the  4th  century  ; 
became  a  monk  of  Lerins,  426  ;  abbot,  423  ; 
bishop  of  Riez,  462  (?)  ;  d.  there,  492  (?).  His 
collected  works  are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
LVIII. 

Faure    (or    Favre)   Pierre.     See    Faber, 

PlERIiE. 

Fawkes  (faiiks),  Guy,  one  of  the  conspira- 
tors wiio  proposed  to  blow  up  the  houses  of 
parliament,  London,  because  severe  laws 
against  the  Roman  Catholics  had  been  en- 
forced ;  baptized  at  York,  April  16,  1570  ; 
hanged  at  Westminster,  London,  Friday,  Jan. 
31,  1605-6.  Guy  Fawkes'  day  is  Nov.  5,  the 
day  when  the  plot  was  discovered. 

Feast  of  Asses.     See  Ass. 

Feast  of  Fools.     See  Fool. 

Feasts,  Religious.     See  Festival. 

Featley  (or  Fairclough),  Daniel,  D.D. 
(Oxford,  1617),  b.  at  Charlton-upon-Otmoor, 


Oxfordshire,  March  15,  1582  ;  d.  at  Chel  ea 
College,  near  London,  April  17,  1645.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford  ;  was  chaplain  to 
Archbishop  Abbot  ;  rector  of  Acton,  Middle- 
sex, and  for  a  time  a  member  of  the  Westmin- 
ster Assembly  of  Divines.  For  corresponding 
with  the  king  at  Oxford  he  was  imprisoned 
for  18  months,  and  only  released  to  die.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  controversialist.  The 
Church  of  Rome  was  his  commonest  object  of 
criticism,  but  he  is  best  knowm  to  posterity 
by  his  The  Biiipers  Dipt ;  or ,  the  Anabaptists 
dueled  and  plun(fd  over  head  and  eares  at  a 
Disputation  in  SoiitJitcark,  London,  1645,  4to, 
7th  ed.,  1660. 

Federal  Theology  (from  fcedxis,  a  cove- 
nant), the  system  which  makes  theology  cen- 
tre about  the  idea  of  the  covenants.  It  was 
first  advocated  by  some  English  divines  (Will- 
iam Ames,  d.  1633),  but  was  fully  elaborated 
by  Cocceius,  and  after  him  by  Witsius,  and 
soon  became  the  favorite  system  among  the 
Reformed.  It  is  adopted  in  the  Westminster 
standards.  Man  when  created  was  put  undei 
a  covenant  which  promised  him  eternal 
blessedness  on  condition  that  he  remained 
holy,  as  he  was  able  to  do.  This  was  his 
work,  and  so  the  arrangement  was  called  a 
Ccvenant  of  Works.  But  man  sinned  and 
fell,  whereupon  God,  who  is  rich  in  mercy, 
put  in  place  of  the  old  covenant  a  new  one, 
the  Co^-enant  of  Grace,  by  virtue  of  which 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  became  the  head  and 
representative  of  his  people.  As  such  he  re- 
deems them,  and  secures  that  they  are  justi- 
fied, born  again,  sanctified,  and  finally  glori- 
fied. This  covenant  was  made  before  time 
began  ;  it  is  altogether  of  grace  ;  it  is  abso- 
lute aud  unconditional  ;  it  is  perfect  and  in- 
defeasible. It  was  administered  in  the  patri- 
archal period  by  promises  and  sacrifices  ;  in 
tlie  j\Iosaic  economy,  by  these,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  the  ceremonial  law  and  a  varied  system 
of  types  ;  and  finally  under  the  gospel,  with  a 
full  disclosure  of  the  person  and  work  of  the 
Lord  Jesus.  In  all  these  the  mediator,  the 
blessing,  and  the  way  of  obtaining  an  interest 
ill  it,  viz  ,  by  faith,  are  the  same,  the  only 
difference  being  as  to  the  clearness  and  fulness 
of  the  disclosure. 

The  federal  theology  has  been  at  times 
strongly  objected  to  even  by  some  Calvinistic 
writers  (cf.  Strong's  Theology,  pp.  324-25),  but 
its  friends  consider  these  objections  to  rest 
upon  a  mistaken  view  of  what  the  system 
really  is.  (See  Hodge's  Theology,  Dabney's, 
Shedd's.)  T.  W.  C. 

Feejee.     See  Fijl 

Fehm.     See  Veiim. 

Felicissimus  was  appointed  a  deacon  in  the 
Church  of  Carthage  by  the  presbyter  Novatus, 
probably  against  the  will,  at  all  events  with- 
out the  consent,  of  Cyprian,  the  bishop.  A 
vehement  dispute  arose  and  no  oonclusion  was 
arrived  at,  when  the  Decian  iDcrsecution  broke 
out,  and  Cyprian  fled.  During  the  absence 
of  the  bishop,  the  presbyters  and  deacons  took 
care  of  the  church,  its  poor,  its  la2isi,  etc. 
But  this  Cyprian  considered  an  encroachment 
upon  his  authority,  and  when  the  persecution 


PELIOITAS 


(289) 


PENELON 


was  ended  and  he  returned  to  Carthage  (2ol), 
he  excommunicated  Felicissimus.  The  hitter, 
however,  and  his  party  turned  back  the  ex- 
communication upon  the  bisiiop,  and  Fortu- 
natus  was  elected  bishop  in  ids  stead.  But 
Cyprian  was  supported  by  the  other  African 
bishops  and  tlie  bisliop  of  Rome,  and  soon  the 
schism  was  ended  and  Fortunatus  and  Felicis- 
simus  were- heard  of  no  more. 

Felicitas,  St.  1.  A  distinguished  Roman 
widow,  martyred,  just  after  slie  had  witnessed 
tlie  slaying  of  Iter  7  sons,  under  Marcus  Au- 
relius  (1G4)  ;  lier  day  is  July  10.  2.  A  Cartlia- 
genian  slave,  martyred  under  Septimius  Sev- 
erus  (203) ;  her  day  is  March  7.  (See  Butler's 
Lices  of  the  Saints,  under  these  respective 
dates.) 

Fe'-lix  [happy),  a  manumitted  slave  who, 
by  favor  of  Claudius  C;?sar,  became  governor 
oif  Judiva,  and  resided  at  (y';esarea,  where  Paid 
was  brought  before  him  and  delivered  a  bold 
and  earnest  dis(;ourse  that  made  Felix  tremble. 
But  his  emotion  ceased,  and  to  please  the  Jews 
he  left  Paul  bound  when  lie  (a.d.  60)  was  re- 
called to  Rome  (Acts  xxiii.,  xxiv.). 

T.  W.  C. 

Felix  is  tlie  name  of  five  popes.  1.  (Jan. 
5,  2iJ9  to  Doc.  30,  274.)  A  Roman  by  birth, 
otherwise  unknown.  The  letters  ascribed 
to  him  belong  to  a  hiter  date,  and  the  perse- 
cution of  Aurelian,  during  wdiich  he  is  said 
to  have  suffered  martyrdom  after  burying 
243  martyrs  with  his  own  hands,  is  a  fable. 
2.  (355-58.)  A  deacon  in  Rome  and  was 
made  bishop  when  Liberius  was  expelled 
by  the  court,  but  was  himself  expelled  by 
L'iberius  and  died  in  obscurity.  He  was  an 
Arian,  vet  is  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Church. 
His  day  is  July  29.  3.  (March,  483,  to  Feb. 
25,  492.)  A  native  of  Rome,  elected  by  the 
influence  of  Odoacer,  which  explains  how  he 
could  dare  to  condemn  the  Hcaotikon  and  ex- 
communicate Acacius.  4.  (July  12,  526,  to 
Oct.  530.)  A  native  of  Benevent  and  an 
Arian,  elected  by  the  influence  of  Theodoric 
the  Great.  (Cf.  Duchesne,  La  successioi 
du  Pape  Felix  IV.,  Paris.  1884.)  5.  (Nov. 
5,  1439,  to  Apr.  7,  1449.)  Duke  Amadeus 
of  Savoy,  b.  1383  ;  abdicated  the  ducal  crown 
in  1434,  and  retired  to  Ripaille,  on  the  Lake 
of  Geneva,  as  head  of  the  order  of  St.  Mauri- 
tius ;  was  elected  pope  by  the  Council  of  Basel 
after  the  deposition  of  Eugenius  I\^.  ;  formed 
a  curia  at  Geneva,  but  exercised  no  influence  ; 
resigned  when  Germany  and  France  recog- 
nized Nicholas  V.  ;  retfred  again  to  Ripaille, 
and  died  there,  Jan.  7,  1451.  C,  P. 

Felix,  bisliop  of  Urgel,  a  city  of  Catalonia, 
in  a  plain  between  the  southern  spurs  of  the 
Pyrenees,  but  at  that  time  belonging  to  the 
dominion  of  Charlemagne  and  part  of  the  dio- 
cese of  Narbonne,  was  a  friend  of  Elipaudus, 
and  is  by  some  considered  the  true  originator 
of  adoptionism  ((|.v.).  But  while  Elipandus, 
as  archbishop  of  Toledo,  stood  under  ;Mo- 
hammedan  rule  and  could  easily  defy  the 
dictates  of  the  emperor  and  the  pope,  Felix 
was  repeatedly  compellerl  to  recant,  notably 
at  Aachen.  798,  and  was  kept  in  cu.stody  by 
Bishop  Leidradus,  of  Lyons,  in  which  city  he 


died  in  818.  Of  his  works,  only  his  Confessio 
Fidii  has  come  down  to  us.  (See  Histoire 
Litternire  de  France,  iv.,  428-33.) 

Fell,  John,  D.D.  (Oxford,  16G0),  Church  of 
England  ;  b.  at  Longworth,  Berkshire,  June 
23,  1625  ;  d.  at  Oxford,  July  10,  1680.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford  ;  became  dean  of 
Christ  Church  there,  1660  ;  added  to  the 
beauty  of  the  university  by  his  new  buildings 
and  restorations  ;  increased  its  disciplinary 
and  educational  standing  ;  improved  the  style 
of  jirinting,  and  in  every  way  raised  the  tone 
of  the  university.  In  1675  he  became  in  ad- 
dition bishop  of  Oxford.  His  most  remark- 
able publication  was  his  edition  of  St.  Cyprian 
(Oxford,  1682,  8  parts). 

Fel(l)tham,  Owen,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Mutford,  Suffolk,  1602  (V);  published  the 
book  of  moral  essays  by  which  he  is  remem- 
bered. Resolves,-  Divine,  Moral,  Political,  at 
London,  in  1620,  12th  ed..  1709;  modern  re- 
print, 1840  ;  d.  at  Great  Billing,  Northamp- 
tonshire, early  in  1668. 

Fenced  Cities.     See  City. 

Fencing  the  Tables,  a  term  applied  to  the 
address  delivered  l)y  the  ministers  of  Scotch 
Presbyterian  ehurch(;s  before  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper,  in  which  the  char- 
acter of  proper  recipients  is  set  forth,  and 
others  are  warned  from  partaking. 

T.  W.  C. 

Fenelon,  Fran9ois  de  Salignac  de  la 
Mothe,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  in  the  Castle  of 
Fenelon  in  ancient  Perigord,  S.  W.  France, 
Aug.  6,  1651  ;  d.  at  Cambrai,  modern  de- 
partment of  Nord,  extreme  N.  E.  France,  33 
m.  s.s.e.  of  Lille,  Jan.  7,  1715.  He  studied 
theology  in  Paris,  at  the  College  of  St.  Sul- 
pice  ;  became  priest,  1675.  He  desired  to  be 
a  missionary,  first  inclining  toward  Canada, 
then  toward  Greece,  but  his  health  forbade  it. 
The  archbishop  of  Paris,  recognizing  his  abili- 
ties as  confessor  at  St.  Sulpice,  appointed  him 
the  superior  of  the  so-called  JVouveUes  Cai/io. 
liques  ("new  Catholics'"),  an  association  of 
young  ladies  of  rank  devoted  to  the  training 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  of  girls  converted 
from  Protestantism,  1678.  Hi.s  success  in  in- 
structing such  girls  induced  Louis  XIV.  to 
believe  tliat  he  would  be  equally  successful  in 
converting  Huguenot  men  and  women,  so  he 
sent  him  (1685)  on  this  mission  to  Saintonge 
and  Aunis,  old  provinces  of  W.  France,  bor- 
dering on  the  Atlantic.  La  Rochelle  was  the 
capital  of  the  latter.  In  order  to  make  the 
work  of  conversion  easier,  he  preceded  the 
missionary  with  the  dragonnades.  Fenelon 
had  no  objectitm  to  following  such  ruflTian-s  ; 
indeed,  he  even  applied  the  torture  to  the  stub- 
born confessors  of  the  Huguenot  faith.  Re- 
turning to  Paris,  he  resumed  his  olil  position, 
but  unexpectedly  was  appointed,  in  1689, 
tutor  to  the  king's  grandson,  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  had  good  success  in  taming  that 
fiery  nature.  He  was  elected  member  of  th« 
French  Academy,  1693  ;  ajjpointed  abbot  of 
St.  Valerie,  1694,  and  finally  archbishop  of 
Cambrai,  1695.  His  sunshine  in  the  royal 
favor  did  not  last  long.  \n  16S7  he  became 
acquainted  with  Madame  Guyon  (q.v.),  and 


FERMENT  ARIANS 


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FERRY 


adopted  some  of  her  views  ou  spiritual  things. 
So  in  1697  he  publislied  a  booii  entitled  Kv- 
pUcatioii  (Us  maximes  den  Saints  sur  la  vie  iii- 
teneure  ("  Explanation  of  the  Maxims  of  the 
Saints  concerning  the  Spiritual  Life"),  in 
which  he  defended  Madame  Guy  on 's  funda- 
mental tenets.  This  book  increased  the 
breach  between  him  and  Bossuet,  who  en- 
joyed the  confidence  of  the  king,  and  who 
strongly  opposed  Guyonism.  Two  years  later 
(1699)  the  Adventures  of  I'eleninchus,  which 
Fenelon  had  written  for  the  instruction  of  his 
pupil  and  the  king's  grandson,  the  duke  of 
Burgundy,  was  surreptitiously  printed,  and 
as  portions  of  it  were  thought  to  be  satires  on 
the  court,  the  king  in  his  wrath  suppressed 
the  book.  At  the  same  time  the  pope  con- 
demned 28  sentences  in  his  Explication.  Fene- 
lon meekly  submitted.  But  Telemachits  was, 
in  the  king's  estimation,  too  great  an  insult  to 
be  forgiven,  and  Fenelon  was  banished  from 
the  court  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Henceforth 
he  lived  at  Cambiai  and  made  an  exemplary 
bishop.  His  reputation  for  piety,  godly  wis- 
dom, learning,  and  literary  ability  has  always 
been  of  the  highest.  Many  of  his  numerous 
works  have  been  translated,  e.g.,  Telemachits 
(many  edd.  ;  much  used  in  the  original  as  a 
French  reading  book),  n.e.,  London,  1888  ; 
Education  of  a  Duur/lder,  Boston,  1831,  2d  ed., 
1856  ;  Dialogues  on  Eloquence,  London,  1848  ; 
Letter  on  Erequent  Comnmnion,  1855,  n.e., 
1870  ;  Counsels  to  those  Limng  in  the  World, 
1857,  n.e.,  1885  ;  Reflections  and  Meditations, 
New  York,  1864  ;  Spiritual  Letters  to  Men, 
London,  1877,  3d  ed.,  1886  ;  Spiritual  Letters 
to  Women,  1877,  4th  ed.,  1887  ;  Spiritual 
Progress  ;  or.  Instructions  in  the  Divine  Life 
in  the  Soul,  Philadelphia,  n.e.,  1886  ;  Exist- 
ence of  God',  1888.  In  French  the  completcst 
ed.  of  his  works  is  that  by  Lebel  and  Leclerc, 
Paris,  1820-30,  34  vols.  (See  in  English  life  by 
H.  L.  Lear,  London,  1876,  3ded.,  1884  ;  for  his 
conduct  in  Aunis  and  Saintonge  see  Letelie, 
Fenelon  en  Saintonge  et  la  revocation  de  redit 
de  Nantes,  1685-88  [Archives  hist,  de  la  Sam- 
tonge,  etc.,  XIIL,  pp.  209-334],  1885.) 

Fermentarians.     See  Azymites. 

Feng-shui.  These  words  mean  wind  and 
water  in  the  CJiinese.  A  proper  regard  to 
the  Feng-shui,  which  may  be  taken  as  indi- 
cating the  aggregate  of  the  natural  conditions 
of  a  place  favorable  to  the  construction  of  a 
building  or  the  performance  of  any  other  act, 
is  regarded  by  the  Chinese  as  indispensable. 
Many  of  these  conditions  are  occult,  and  their 
determination  has  given  rise  to  a  system  of 
geomancy,  which  is  among  the  most  influen- 
tial of  Chinese  superstitions.  It  is  necessary 
to  a  favorable  spot  that  one  terrestrial  current, 
the  azure  dragon,  be  on  the  left  ;  the  other, 
the  white  tiger,  on  the  right.  It  is  necessary 
not  to  disturb  the  Feng-shui.  Railways,  tele- 
graphs, and  other  innovations  have  been  op- 
posed as  doing  this,  and  so  likely  to  produce 
calamity.  W.  li.  Maktin. 

Fermetarians  (Latin),  the  opponents  of 
Azymites  (Greek),  which  see. 

Ferrara-Florence,  Council  of.  The  sepa- 
ration of   the   Greek   and   Roman  churches. 


which  was  accompanied  with  a  feeling  of  deep 
estrangement,  would  probably  have  never 
come  even  to  an  apparent  end  had  it  not  been 
for  the  advance  of  the  Turks  toward  Constan- 
tinople, which  made  the  Greek  emperor  anx- 
ious to  obtain  the  military  assistance  of  the 
Western  nations.  For  this  he  promised  eccle- 
siastical union.  Accordingly  the  pope  trans- 
ferred the  Council  of  Basel  to  Ferrara,  to  meet 
there  upon  Jan.  8,  1438.  After  excommimi- 
cating  the  remnant  of  the  Basel  Council  which 
refused  to  obey  the  pope,  it  was  ready  on 
April  9  to  open  the  bu.sincss  of  the  union. 
About  700  Greeks  had  arrived,  the  emperor 
and  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  among 
them.  Tiie  summer  was  consumed  in  vari- 
ous discussions,  and  the  proper  business  of  the 
council  began  only  in  the  fall.  On  Feb.  26, 
1489,  the  sessions  were  transferred  to  Flor- 
ence. The  principal  topic  of  consideration 
was  the  filioque  clause  of  the  creed  of  Con- 
stantinople. After  the  Latiu  Church  had  de- 
clared tliat  by  the  addition  it  was  not  intended 
to  posit  two  principles  or  sources  of  divinity 
in  the  Godhead,  the  Greek  patriarch  put  the 
Greek  position  in  the  following  language  : 
"The  Holy  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father 
through  the  Son  eternally  and  substantially, 
as  from  one  principle  a"ud  cause,  and  the 
preposition  per  denotes  the  cause  of  the  pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Spirit."  Upon  this  basis, 
after  several  minor  things  had  been  settled,  the 
two  churches  were  declared  to  be  imited,  July 
6,  1439,  and  high  mass  was  celebrated  by  the 
pope.  The  real  cause  of  difference  between 
the  churches,  the  claims  of  the  pope  to  pri- 
macy, were  so  expressed  that  in  the  Greek 
copies  of  the  agreement  the  papal  powers 
seemed  to  be  limited  by  the  councils,  in  the 
Latin  to  be  confirmed  by  them.  Though  cele- 
brated in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  Dec.  13, 
1452.  the  union  was  solemnly  revoked  in  1472, 
and  never  existed  except  in  name.  (See 
Hefele's  Conciliengeschichte ,  vol.  vii.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Ferrara,  Renata  (Renee),  Duchess  of,  b. 
to  Louis  XII.  of  France,  at  the  castle  of  St. 
Blois,  Oct.  25,  1510  ;  married  to  the  duke  of 
Ferrara,  N.  Italy,  1527  ;  rectived  at  her  court 
such  Protestant  fugitives  as  Ochino,  Peter 
Martyr,  Calvin  (?),  whose  opinions  she  shared  ; 
d.  at  Montargis,  38  m.  c.  of  Orleans,  June  12, 
1575.  (See  Sophie  Winthrop  Weitzel,  lienee 
of  France,  New  York,  1883.) 

Ferrier,  Jeremie,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  of 
Protestant  parents  at  Milhaud,  4  m.  s.w.  of 
Nimes,  France,  about  1570  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Sept. 
26,  1026.  Pie  rose  to  the  highest  positions  of 
trust  and  honor  among  the  Protestants  (pastor 
at  Nimes,  1601-13),  and  was  looked  upon  as  one 
of  their  foremost  men,  when  he  suddenly 
came  out  as  a  Roman  Catholic  (1613),  and  at- 
tacked the  church  he  had  vigorously  defended. 
This  made  a  great  sensation. 

Ferry  Lavr,  The,  introduced  by  Jules  Ferry 
and  passed  by  the  legislative  assembly  of 
France  in  1879,  corresponds  in  its  general 
bearing  very  closely  with  the  Falk  laws  of 
Germany,  and  is  a  first  step  toward  the  secu- 
larization of  the  public  schools.  One  of  its 
articles  forbade  a  member  of  any  religious 


PESCH 


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FIOHTB 


association  not  recognized  by  the  state  to  be 
a  teaciier  in  a  public  school,  and  as  the  Jesuits 
arc  not  recognized  in  France,  27  Jesuit  col- 
leges were  closed  and  848  Jesuit  teachers  dis- 
charged. C.  P. 

Fesch  (fesh),  Joseph,  b.  at  Ajaccio,  in  the 
island  of  Corsica,  Jan.  3,  1763  ;  d.  in  Rome, 
May  13,  1889  ;  was  a  younger  step-brother  of 
Letitia,  the  mother  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  was 
originally  educated  for  the  church,  but  en- 
tered the  military  service  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution,  and  did  not  return  to  the 
church  until  after  the  establishment  of  the 
Concordat.  lie  was  made  archbishop  of 
Lyons  in  1802,  and  a  cardinal  in  1803.  _  His 
correspondence  by  Napoleon  was  published 
by  Du  Casse,  Paris,  1855,  3  'Vols.  (See  Ids  life 
by  Lyonnet,  L5^ons,  1841,  2  vols.) 

Festivals,  The  Religious,  among  the  He- 
brews, excepting  the  weekly  Sabbath,  the  7th 
day  of  the  week,  the  sabbatical  year,  every 
7th  year,  and  the  jubilee,  every  7th  sabbati- 
cal year,  fall  into  2  groups,  according  to  the 
seasons,  which  circumstance  probably  indi- 
cates something  about  their  origin,  though 
each  of  them  had  a  specific  national  and  re- 
ligious significance  independent  of  any  regard 
to  nature.  Passover  and  Pentecost  were  cele- 
brated in  spring,  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
the  Day  of  Atonement,  and  the  Feast  of 
Trumpets,  or  New  Year,  in  fall.  To  these  fes- 
tivals, instituted  by  Moses,  were  added,  after 
the  e.Kile,  the  Feast  of  Esther,  or  Purim,  and 
the  Feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple  on 
its  restoration  by  Judas  the  Maccabee.  It 
was  quite  natural  that  the  religious  festivals 
of  the  Old  Testament  should  b^i  transferred  to 
the  Christian  Church,  though  with  what  free- 
dom this  was  done  may  be  seen  fri)m  the  fact 
tliat  the  Sabbath  was  moved  from  tlu;  last  to 
tlie  first  day  of  tlie  week,  and  immediately  as- 
sumed a  somewhat  different  character,  while 
the  sabbatical  year  and  the  jubilee  were  en- 
tirely passed  by.  In  the  Christian  Church  the 
festivals  are  arranged  la  two  cycles,  Christ- 
mas and  Easter,  which  are  connected  with 
each  other,  so  that  the  year  really  consists  of 
a  festal  part,  opened  by  Christmas  and  closed 
by  Pentecost,  or,  in  the  Koman  Catholic 
Church,  by  Corpus  Christi,  and  a  part  with- 
out any  feasts.  But  in  this  respect  great 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  church  since 
the  lieforniatiou,  different  within  the  various 
denominations.  These  changes  will  be  found 
in(licate<l  in  the  description  of  each  particular 
feast  under  its  proper  head.  C.  P. 

Fes'-tus,  Porcius,  succeeded  Feli.x  (.v.d.  60) 
in  the  government  of  Judea  (Acts  xxiv.  27). 
He  gave  Paul  a  hearing,  and  would  have  re- 
leiised  him  had  not  the  apostle  appealed  to 
the  emperor  (Acts  xxvi.  32).  Josephus  speaks 
well  of  liis  administration,  which  was  brief,  as 
be  died  in  62.  T.  W.  C. 

Fetichism,  a  term  denoting  the  lowest  form 
of  religion,  the  worship  of  fetiches.  A  fetich 
is  a  vehicle  through  wiiicli  a  sujicrnatural 
power  makes  itself  felt  in  the  world.  Any 
object  whatever,  animate  or  inanimate,  arti- 
ficial or  natural,  a  pebble,  a  shell,  a  plant,  a 
stream,  or  a  tree,  ijiay  be  worshipped  as  a 


fetich,  or,  if  success  does  not  come,  may  be 
disowned  or  destroyed.  Kant  applied  the 
term  to  any  religious  system  of  which  mere 
external  observances  constituted  the  funda- 
mental part.  (See  Fritz  Schultz,  Fetichmn, 
trans,  by  J.  Fitzgerald,  Boston,  1885.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Feuerbach  (foi-er-bak),  Ludwig  Andreas, 
b.  at  Landshut,  39  m.  n.e.  of  Munich,  July 
28,  1804  ;  (L  at  Nuremberg,  Sept.  13,  1872. 
He  wrote  The  Knseiice  of  Chiidianiti/  (orig., 
Leipzig,  1841,  4th  ed.,  1883,  Eng.  trans, 
by  Marian  Evans  [George  Eliot],  London, 
1854,  2d  ed.,  1881).  "  In  this  famous  treatise 
[he]  shows  that  every  article  of  Christian  be- 
lief corresponds  to  some  instinct  or  necessity 
of  man's  nature,  from  which  he  infers  that  it 
is  the  creation  and  embodiment  of  some  wish, 
hope,  or  apprehension." — Encyc.  Brit.  (s.v.). 
(See  life  by  C.  N.  Starcke,  Stuttgart,  1885.) 

Feuillants,  originally  (1577)  a  branch  of  the 
Cistercians,  since  1589  an  independent  Roman 
Catholic  monastic  order,  derives  its  name 
from  the  abbey  of  Feuillans,  18  m.  from 
Toulouse,  France,  where  its  founder,  Jean  de 
la  Barriere  (1544-1600),  was  abbot  .since  1574. 
It  came  into  favor  owing  to  the  strictness  of 
its  discipline,  and  still  exists  in  France  and 
Italy.     There  are  also  nuns  of  this  order. 

Fiacre,  a  saint  of  Gaul,  was  a  native  of  Ire- 
land, settled  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury at  Meldae,  in  the  kingdom  of  Neustria, 
tlie  present  Meaux,  27  m.  n.e.  of  Paris  ;  built 
an  oratory  in  honor  of  the  Virgin  ;  did  much 
good  work  as  a  missionary,  and  became  very 
famous  for  the  miracles  he  performed  both 
while  alive  and  after  his  death.  When,  in 
1640,  the  first  livery-stable  was  opened  in 
Paris,  it  happened  so  that  the  image  of  St. 
Fiacre  stood  over  the  gates  of  the  house.  The 
establishment  was  called  Hotel  de  St.  Fiacre, 
and  after  a  while  the  carriages  hired  out  were 
c^WqA  fincres.  {^qq  Act.  Sanct.  Bened.,!!., 
598.) 

Fichte  (fik'-teh),  Johann  Gottlieb,  a  dis- 
tinguished German  philosopher  ;  b.  at  Ram- 
mennau  near  Bautzen,  31  m.  e.n.e.  of  Dresden, 
May  19,  1762  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Jan.  27,  1814. 
After  many  struggles  to  gain  a  livelihood,  in 
1794  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  philo.so- 
phy  at  Jena,  where  he  published  )iis  chief 
work.  The  Foundation  of  the  }\holr  Srirneeof 
KiLotrledije,  in  which  he  expounded  Ids  system 
of  transcendental  idealism,  and  in  1799  an  es- 
say On  the  Groumh  of  Our  Faith  in  a  Divine 
Government  of  the  ]Vorld,  which,  being  re- 
garded as  atheistic,  caused  his  removal  from 
office.  The  rest  of  his  life  he  spent  in  Berlin, 
where,  in  1810-12,  he  was  rector  of  the  uni- 
versity. He  is  said  to  have  led  a  stainless  life, 
and  to  have  combined  the  penetration  of  a 
philosopher  with  the  fire  of  a  prophet  and  the 
thunder  of  an  orator.  He  founded  no  school, 
but  greatly  influenced  the  subsequent  develop- 
ment of  (Grerman  philosophy,  and  indirectly 
tlu!  course  of  thought  in  Britain  and  America. 
His  "doctrine  of  the  divine  idea  of  the  uni- 
verse underlies  Carlyle's  most  impres.sive 
teachings  regarding  liuman  life  and  duty." 
Ilis  Science  (if  Knawlatf/e  and  Science  of  liighta 


FIELD 


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FINNET 


were  translated  by  A.  E.  Kroeger,  Philadel- 
phia, 1868  aud  1870,  both,  London,  1889,  and 
his  Pojmlar  Works  by  W.  Smith,  London, 
1848-49,  2  vols.  (See  R.  Adamson,  Fichte, 
London,  1881,  n.e.,  1889.)  T.  W.  C. 

Field,  Henry  Martin,  D.D.  (Williams  Col- 
lege, 1862),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Stockbridge, 
Mass.,  April  3,  1822  ;  graduated  at  Williams 
College,  1838,  and  at  East  Windsor  Hill  (now 
Hartford)  Theological  Seminary,  1841  ;  was 
pastor  in  St.  Louis,  1842-47  ;  at  West  Spring- 
tield,  Mass.,  1850-54  ;  since  1854  has  been 
editor  and  proprietor  of  The  New  York 
Evangelist.  He  is  the  author  of  the  exten- 
sively sold  books  of  travel.  Summer  Pictures 
from  Copenhagen  to  Venice,  1859  ;  From  the 
Lakes  of  Killarney  to  the  Oolden  Horn,  1876  ; 
From  Egypt  to  Japan,  1877  ;  On  the  Desert 
(Sinai),  1883  ;  Among  the  Holy  //«W«  (Palestine), 
1884  ;  The  Greek  Islands  and  T'urkey  after  the 
War,  1885  ;  Old  Spain  and  New  Sjxiin,  1888  ; 
Oibraltar,  1888. 

Field,  Richard,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1596), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Hamel  Hempstead, 
Hertfordshire,  Oct.  15,  1561  ;  d.  at  Windsor, 
Nov.  15,  1616.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  ; 
held  various  positions,  becoming  dean  of 
Gloucester,  1610.  His  fame  rests  on  his  Of 
the  Church  Five  Bookes,  London,  1606-10,  2 
vols.,  reissued  1847-52,  4  vols.,  one  of  the 
great  books  in  English  polemical  divinity. 

Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  a  set  of  republican 
and  monarchical  enthusiasts,  who,  in  1657  and 
in  1661,  believing  the  theory  of  the  personal 
reign  of  Christ  on  earth,  made  efforts  to  set  up 
in  England  the  kingdom  of  Jesus,  the  Fifth 
Universal  Monarchy  of  Daniel.  Tliey  were 
ciuickly  dispersed.  The  early  Quakers  were 
often  confounded  with  them. 

Fiji,  or  more  correctly  Viti,  Islands,  a  group 
of  250  islands,  80  inhabited,  full  of  romantic 
scenery,  lying  in  the  South  Pacilic,  between 
177°  E.  and  178°  W.  long,  and  between  15° 
40'  and  20°  S.  lat.,  were  first  seen  hj  Tasman, 
1643.  but  first  explored  by  Wilkes,  of  the 
U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,  1840.  In  1835 
the  Revs.  William  Cross  and  David  Cargill, 
Wesleyan  missionaries,  who  had  been  labor- 
ing in  the  Friendly  Isles,  introduced  Christi- 
anity into  them,  and  now  they  are  nearly  all 
Christian.  In  1874  they  came  of  their  own 
motion  into  British  possession.  The  present 
population  is  about  120,000,  including  some 
2000  whites.  The  old  heathenism  was  char- 
acterized as  usual  by  superstition,  cruelty, 
licentiousness,  and  recklessness  about  life. 
But  these  are  mostly  things  of  the  past.  (See 
the  authoritative  work,  both  for  tlie  missionary 
and  general  history,  Williams  and  Calvert, 
lyi  and  the  Fijians,  London  and  New  York, 
1858,  3d  ed.,  1870  ;  also  Miss  C,  F.  G.  Cum- 
ming.  At  Home  in  Fiji,  London  and  New 
York,  1881,  4th  ed.,  1887  ;  S.  E.  Scholes,  Fiji 
and  Friendly  Isles,  London,  1882.) 

Filioque  Controversy.  The  creed  of  Con- 
stantinople (381)  defined  the  Spirit  as  proceed- 
ing from  the  Father.  Augustine,  in  his  trea- 
tise upon  the  Trinity,  taught  that  the  Spirit 
proceeds  botli  from  the  Father  and  tlie  Son, 
quoting  John  xx.  22.     This  view  spread  in 


the  Western  Church,  but  did  not  find  expres- 
sion in  any  public  creed  till  the  Council  of 
Toledo  in  447.  Here  the  phrase  ''Jiliornie" 
("  and  from  the  Son")  was  added  to  the  text 
of  tlie  Constantinople  creed,  thus  irregularly 
embodying  in  the  univ^ersal  creed  what  had 
become  well  established  in  the  West,  though 
not  in  the  East,  by  the  authority  of  Augus- 
tine. (Tlie  "  Stowe  Missale"  of  the  Celtic 
Church,  e.g.,  docs  nothnYe the  flioqne).  The 
addition  was  not  welcomed  in  the  East.  John 
of  Damascus  (about  750)  rejected  the  pioces- 
sion  from  the  Son,  though  he  taught  the  pro- 
cession from  the  Father  through  the  Son,  thus 
approaching  the  Western  view.  The  matter 
came  to  a  discussion  at  the  Synod  of  Gentilia- 
cum  (767),  but  with  what  result  we  do  not 
know.  The  Caroline  Books  incorporated  the 
filioque  and  declared  this  to  be  the  "  universal 
faith  ;"  but,  though  Charlemagne  went  so  far 
as  to  have  the  addition  sung  in  the  public  ser- 
vices of  his  court  chapel,  Leo  III.  disapproved 
the  introduction  of  the  phrase,  and  had  (it  is 
said)  two  tablets  engraved,  in  Latin  and  Greek, 
containing  the  creed  without  the  filioque,  and 
hung  them  up  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter.  lu 
his  quarrel  with  Nicholas,  the  patriarch  Pho- 
tius  of  Constantinople  charged  Rome  with 
falsifying  the  creed  by  adding  the  filioque,  and 
declared  that  this  made  two  principles,  or 
sources  of  deity,  in  the  Godhead,  whereas  it 
was  of  the  essence  of  Christianity  to  teach 
that  there  is  but  one.  The  contest  upon  this 
point  helped  to  procure  the  separation  of  the 
churches  in  1053.  At  the  Council  of  Ferrara 
(q.v.)  the  filioque  was  a  principal  subject  of 
discussion.  Cyril  Lucar  (q.v.)  taught  in  his 
confession  the  procession  from  the  Father 
through  the  Son,  and  Mogilas,  in  the  "  ortho- 
dox" confession,  which  is  a  reply  to  Cyril, 
teaches  the  procession  from  the  Father  alone, 
and  maintains  this  from  the  doctrine  that  the 
Father  is  the  sole  "  fountain"  of  divinity,  as 
well  as  from  the  admissions  of  the  Latin 
Church,  particularly  Leo.  He  teaches  the 
mission  through  the  Son.  The  acceptance  of 
the  filioque  is  now  made  a  condition  of  admis- 
sion into  the  Latin  Church,  as  when  the  Maro- 
nites  were  received  in  1736.  F.  H.  F. 

Finney,  Charles  Grandison,  b.  at  Warren, 
Conn.,  Aug.  29,  1792  ;  d.  at  Oberlin,  O..  Aug. 
16,  1875  ;  removed  during  infancy  to  Oneida 
County,  N.  Y.  ;  studied  at  Warren  Academy, 
Conn.  ;  read  and  began  to  practise  law  in 
Adams,  Jefferson  County,  N.  Y.,  1820  ;  con- 
verted in  1821  ;  studied  theology  one  year 
with  Rev.  George  W.  Gale  ;  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  Presbytery  of  St.  Lawrence,  Dec.  30, 
1823;  ordained  by  the  same,  July  1,  1824; 
became  a  Congregationalist,  June  13,  1836  ; 
for  12  years  subsequent  to  his  conversion 
labored  in  a  remarkable  series  of  revivals,  be- 
ginning in  Jefferson  County,  N.  Y.,  extend- 
ing through  the  central  part  of  the  State  to 
Troy,  and  then  to  Philadelpliia  and  New 
York  City  ;  elected  professor  of  theology  in 
Oberlin,  O.,  1835  ;  but  continued  revival  la- 
bors for  a  portion  of  each  year,  preaching  in 
New  York  City,  Hartford,  Conn.,  Boston, 
Mass.  (4  seasons),  Rochester,  N.  Y.  (2  seasons), 
and  in  other  places,  and,  in  England  during 


FIRE 


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FISHER 


1849-50  aud  1858-59 ;  elected  president  of 
OberliQ  College  in  1853  ;  published  Lectures 
on  Revivals  of  Religion,  New  York,  1885,  13th 
ed.,  1840,  80,000  copies  issued  by  one  of  two 
rival  houses  in  England  ;  Lectures  to  Profess- 
ing Ghristians,  1835  ;  Sermons  on  Important 
Subjects,  1836  ;  Skektofis  of  a  Course  of  Theo- 
logical Lectures,  1840  ;  Systematic  Theology, 
2  vols.,  1846,  revised,  London,  1851,  u.e., 
Obcrlin,  1878  ;  Character  of  Free  Masonry, 
1869  ;  Antobinrjraphy,  1876  ;  Oospel  Themes, 
1876.  (See  life  bv  the  undersigned,  Boston 
and  New  York,  1890). 

G.  FuEDERiCK  Wright. 

Fire  is  a  common  .svnibol  of  the  divine  pres- 
ence, as  in  the  burning  bush,  tlie  pillar  of  fire, 
and  the  flame  on  Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  2,  xiii.  21, 
six.  18).  It  denoted  the  acceptance  of  a  sac- 
rifice, as  in  the  case  of  Manoah  (Judges  xiii. 
19),  of  Elijah  (I  King.s  xviii.  38).  and  at  the 
dedication  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  temple. 
The  lire  on  the  great  altar  was  to  be  carefully 
preserved  (Lev.  vi.  12,  13),  and  Nadab  and 
Abihu  were  slain  for  using  "strange  tire" 
(Lev.  X.  1)  in  burning  incense.  Fire  is  used 
to  symbolize  God's  sin-consuming  lioliness, 
his  retiniiig  of  Iiis  people,  and  the  punishment 
of  unbelievers  (Ps.  Ixvi.  12,  Ixxix.  5,  Deut. 
IV.  24,  Heb.  xii.  29).  The  Jews  were  forbid- 
den to  kindle  a  fire  on  the  Sabbath  (Ex.  xxxv. 
3),  which  doubtless  applied  only  to  cooking. 
Apartments  were  warmed  not  only  with 
hearths  and  ovens,  but  with  "  a  fire  of  coals" 
ia  a  brazier  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22,  John  xviii.  18). 
T.  W.  C. 

Fire-Worship.    See  Parseeisji. 

Firmilian,  bisliop  of  Csesarea,  in  Cappa- 
docia.  since  233,  was  a  friend  of  Origen,  took 
part  in  all  the  theological  disputes  of  his  time, 
and  died  on  a  voyage  to  Antioch  at  Tarsus, 
272.  A  letter  from  him  to  Cyprian  is  found 
in  a  Latin  version  amohg  Cyprian's  letters. 
As  it  oppo.ses  the  assumptions  of  tlie  Roman 
see  and  censures  its  contemporary  incumbent, 
Roman  Catholic  writers  have  tried,  but  in 
vain,  to  make  its  authorship  suspicious. 

C.  P. 

First-born.  The  first  male  offspring,  of  man 
or  other  animals,  was  due  to  God  as  a  recog- 
nition of  his  supreme  dominion  (Ex.  iv.  23, 
xiii.  3),  but  in  lieu  of  this  the  tribe  of  Levi 
was  set  apart  to  minister  to  him  (Num.  iii.  13, 
13).  The  first-born  received  a  double  portion 
of  tlie  estate  (Deut.  xxi.  17),  and  this  was 
what  Elisha  asked  of  Elijah  (2  Kings  ii.  9), 
viz.,  such  a  portion  of  the  spirit  as  would 
show  that  he  was  Elijah's  successor.  Tlie 
privileges  of  the  first-born  were  great,  but 
might  be  forfeited,  as  we  see  in  the  case  of 
Esau  and  Reuben.  The  title,  applied  to 
Christ  in  Col.  i.  15  and  Heb.  i.  6,  denotes  his 
divine  pre-eminence  above  every  creature. 
Tlie  •'  first-born  of  the  poor'  (Isa.  xiv.  30)  de- 
notes the  very  poorest,  aud  the  "  first-born  of 
death"  (Job  xviii.  13)  the  most  deadly  of  dis- 
Civses,  and  the  "  first-born  enrolled  in  heaven" 
(Heb.  xii.  23)  all  glorified  .saints,  since  the 
rights  of  primogeniture  belong  to  the  whole 
body  '      T.  W.  C. 

First-fruits  were  an  offering  to  God  of  part 


of  the  harvest  to  express  the  people's  depend- 
ence and  gratitude  (Ex.  xxiii.  19,  Num.  xviii. 
12).  It  was  afterward  extended  to  take  in  tho 
first  baked  bread  of  the  new  crop  (Num.  xv. 
19).  and  the  first  fleece  of  the  flock  (Deut. 
xviii.  4).  The  manner  of  making  the  ol)lation 
is  described  in  Lev.  xxiii.  10-14,  and  until  this 
was  done  the  harvest  remained  untouched. 
In  times  of  apostasy  this  duty  was  neglected, 
but  Hezekiah  called  attention  to  it  (3  (Miron. 
xxxi.  5-12),  and  Nehemiah  after  the  captivity 
resumed  the  custom  (Neh.  x.  35-37).  The 
"  first-fruits  of  the  Spirit"  (Rom.  viii.  23)  are 
the  foretaste  of  the  joy  of  heaven,  and  our 
Lord's  resurrection  as  "  the  first-fruits  of 
them  that  .'ilept"  (1  Cor.  xv.  20)  is  an  earnest 
of  the  rising  again  of  all  his  people  in  the 
great  day.  T.  W.  C. 

Fish  are  mentioned  in  Genesis  (i.  26)  and 
in  the  8tli  Psalm  as  one  of  the  chief  classes 
of  living  creatures.  Moses  said  that  all  that 
have  fins  and  scales  may  be  eaten,  others  not 
(Lev.  xi.  9-12).  The  Nile  was  celebrated  for 
its  fish,  and  hence  the  significance  of  the  plague 
that  smote  the  river  (Ex.  vii.  18-21),  and  of 
Isaiah's  prediction  (xix.  8)  that  its  fishermen 
should  mourn.  In  the  Mdlderness  Israel  mur- 
mured (Num.  xi.  5)  for  the  fish  of  their  old 
home.  It  was  a  common  article  of  food 
among  the  Jews  (Matt.  vii.  10),  but  not  a  sin- 
gle variety  is  named  in  the  Bible.  They  were 
caught  with  nets  and  hooks  (Isa.  xix.  A),  and 
spears  (Job  xii.  7).  Fish-worship  was  forbid- 
den to  the  Jews,  but  was  practised  bv  many 
heathen.  (See  D.\gon.)  The  "great  fish" 
that  swallowed  Jonah  (i.  17)  was  doubtless  of 
the  shark  genus.  The  "  fish  gate"  of  Jeru- 
salem (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  14)  shows  that  the  city 
was  well  supplied  with  this  food.  At  least  4 
of  our  Lord's  disciples  were  fishermen,  and 
he  made  them  (Matt.  iv.  19)  fishers  of  men. 
The  early  Christians  used  to  c-arve  on  monu- 
ments the  form  of  a  fish  or  its  name  (ichthys), 
because  it  is  formed  of  the  initial  letters  of 
the  confes.sion,  "Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God,  the  Saviour."  Fish  from  the  Jordan 
perished  in  the  Dead  Sea,  but  Ezekicl  (xlvii. 
1-10)  predicted  in  vision  a  great  and  blessed 
change.  T.  W.  C. 

Fisher,  John,  b.  at  Beverley.  Yorkshire, 
1459  (?)  :  executed  for  alleged  high  trea-on,  at 
Tower  Hill,  June  23,  1535.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  ;  did  much  for  that  luiiversity  ; 
became  its  fTrst  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  di- 
vinity. 1503,  and  in  i504  its  chancellor.  In  the 
same  year  he  became  bishop  of  Rochester.  _  By 
his  holy  life,  his  reception  of  the  new  learnini,', 
and  his  courage  in  unflinchingly  opposing  the 
doctrine  of  the  royal  supremacy,  and  also  the 
divorce  of  Queen  Catharine,  he  deserves  honor. 
He  was  .appointed  by  the  pope.  Paid  111.,  a 
presbvter  cardinal,  May  20,  1535,  but  unhap- 
pilv  this  sealed  his  fate  with  the  king,  Heiuy 
Vl'll.,  who  hated  him  already  for  the  stand 
he  took  in  opposing  his  wishes.  Fisher  wrote 
asrainst  Lutlur.  and  encouraged  the  impos- 
tures of  the  Maid  of  Kent  (see  Barton,  Eiiza- 
rkth).  His  life  has  been  M-ritten  bv  John 
Lewis,  London,  1H.55,  2  vols.,  ami  T.  K.  Brid- 
gett.  T>ondon  and  New  York,  188S. 

Fisher,  George  Park,  D.D.  (Brown  Uul- 


PISHER'S 


(294) 


FLAGELLANTS 


versity,  1866  ;  Edinburgh  University.  1886), 
LL.D.  (Princeton,  1879),  Congregationalist  ; 
b.  at  Wrentliam,  Mass.,  Aug.  10,  1827  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Brown  University,  1847,  and  at  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary,  1851  ;  became 
professor  of  divinity  (college  preacher)  in  Yale 
College,  1854  ;  professor  of  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. 1861.  He  is  the  author  of  Essays  on  the 
Supernatural  Origin  of  G hristianity ,  New 
York,  1865,  4th  ed.,  1887  ;  Life  of  Benjamin 
Silliinan,  1866,  2  vols.,  n.e.,  Philadelphia, 
1877,  1  vol.  ;  The  Reformation,  New  York, 
1873,  n.e.,  1883;  The  Beginnings  of  Christi- 
anity, 1877,  n.e.,  1886  ;  Faith  and  Rational- 
ism, 1879  ;  Discussions  in  History  and  Theol- 
ogy, 1880 ;  The  Christian  Religion,  1882  ; 
Orounds  of  Theistic  and  Christian  Belief, 
1883  ;  Outlines  of  Universal  History,  1885  ; 
History  of  the  Christian  Church,  1887. 

Fisher's  Ring,  The  {annulus  piscatorius), 
is  the  particular  ring  which  the  pope  v^^ears  as 
bishop  of  Rome,  and  differs  from  the  common 
episcopal  ring  in  the  design  engraved  on  it, 
St.  Peter  fishing.  From  the  13th  century  all 
papal  briefs  have  this  design  in  their  seal. 

C.  P. 

Fisk,  Miss  Fidelia,  niece  of  the  succeed- 
ing ;  b.  at  Shelburne,  Mass.,  36  m.  n.  by  -w. 
of  Springfield,  May  1,  1816  ;  d.  there,  Aug. 
9,  1864.  She  graduated  at  Mount  Holyoke 
Seminary,  1839,  and  taught  there  until  1843, 
when  slie  resigned,  and  was  until  1858  mis- 
sionary in  Persia.  (See  her  life  by  D.  T. 
Fisk  [under  title  Faith  Workiixg  by  Love], 
Boston,  1868.) 

Fisk,  Pliny,  Congregational  missionary  ; 
b.  at  Shelburne,  Mass. ,  .June  24,  J  792  ;  d.  at 
Beirut,  Syria,  Oct.  23,  1825.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Middlebury  College,  N.  H.,  1814,  and 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1818  ;  made 
a  missionary  tour  in  the  Southern  States,  col- 
lecting money  for  the  American  Board,  1818- 
19  ;  sailed  for  the  East,  1819,  and  labored  at 
Smyrna  and  on  the  island  of  Scio,  until  in 
1822  he  went  to  Egypt,  and  the  next  2  years 
was  in  Palestine.  In  May,  1825,  he  joined 
the  Beirut  mission.  (See  his  life  by  A.  Bond, 
Boston,  1828.) 

Fisk,  Wilbur,  D.D.  (Augusta  College,  Ky., 
1829  ;  Brown  University,  1835),  Methodist  ; 
b.  at  Brattleborough,  Vt.,  Aug.  31,  1792  ;  d. 
at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Feb.  22,  1839.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University,  1815  ;  studied 
law  for  a  time  ;  became  an  itinerant  preacher, 
1818  ;  removed  to  Charlestown,  Mass.,  1819, 
and  was  ordained  deacon,  1822.  He  was  pre- 
siding elder  of  the  Vermont  district,  1823-27  ; 
chaplain  of  the  Vermont  legislature,  1826  ; 
principal  of  the  Wilbraham  Academy,  Mass., 
1826-30,  and  first  president  of  the  Wesleyan 
University,  1830-39.  Both  these  institutions 
he  bore  an  active  part  in  founding,  as  also  the 
Oregon  Indian  mission,  1832.  While  in  Eu- 
rope, in  1835-36,  he  was  elected  bishop,  but 
declined.  He  was  eminent  as  a  preacher  and 
educator.  Among  his  works  are  Tlie  Calvin- 
istic  Controversy,  1837  ;  Notes  of  Travels  in 
Europe,  1838  ;  Serimms  and  Lectures  on  Uni- 
versalism,  and  Reply  to  Pierpont  on  the  Atone- 
ment.   (See  his  life  by  Professor  Joseph  Hol- 


dich.  New  York,  1842,  and  Professor  George 
Prentice,  1890.)  F.  M.  B. 

Five-Mile  Act,  passed  by  the  British  par- 
liament in  1665,  and  designed,  by  prohibiting 
Nonconformist  ministers  from  coming  within 
five  miles  of  their  former  charges,  to  deprive 
them  of  their  means  of  earning  a  livelihood  by 
preaching  or  teaching.  The  penalty  of  dis- 
obedience was  6  months'  imprisonment. 

Five  Points,  the  5  doctrines  controverted 
between  Calvinists  and  Armiuians.  See  Cal- 
vinism. T.  W.  C. 

Flacians.     See  Flacius. 

Flacius  (properly  Francowich  or  Vlacich), 
Matthias,  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Albona,  42  m.  s.e. 
of  Tricst,  Istria  (hence  his  surname  Illyricus), 
March  3,  1520  ;  d.  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
March  11,  1575.  He  studied  at  Venice,  Basel, 
Tiibingen,  and  Wittenberg,  and  in  the  latter 
university  became  professor  of  Greek,  1544. 
In  1549  he  removed  to  Magdeburg,  where  he 
was  the  beginner  and  principal  writer  upon 
the  Magdeburg  Centuries  (q.  v.),  and  where  he 
began  his  polemic  dgainst  Mclanchthon  for 
approving  of  the  Interim  and  the  Synergistic 
school.  In  1557  he  became  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Jena.  From  1561  till  his  death  he 
led  a  troubled  life,  being  expelled  from  several 
cities.  His  declaration  that  hereditary  sin  be- 
longs to  the  very  substance  of  fallen  humau 
nature  made  him  many  enemies.  He  was  a 
strict  Lutheran  of  the  narrow  and  exclusive 
type,  and  a  tierce  disputant ;  yet  he  had  un- 
questionable ability  and  great  learning.  His 
followers  were  called  Flacians.  (See  his  life 
by  W.  Preger,  Erlangen,  1859-61,"  2  vols.) 

Flagellants  {haXm,  flagellantes)  were  loose 
swarms  of  morbid  fanatics  or  maniacs  who 
held  that  daily  scourging  of  the  body  had 
the  same  virtue  as  all  the  sacraments  together, 
and  was,  indeed,  the  only  means  of  appeasing 
the  wrath  of  God  over  the  sins  of  man.  The 
first  outbreak  of  this  mental  aberration  took 
place  in  Italy  in  1261,  when  many  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Perugia,  suddenly  seized  with 
the  wildest  enthusiasm,  marched  out  of  the 
city,  2  or  3  abreast,  with  the  bodies  bared  to 
the  waist,  carrying  crosses  and  flags,  singing 
hymns,  and  all  the  while  scourging  tJicmselves 
with  leather  lashes  in  which  iron  nails  were 
inserted.  One  swarm  went  to  Rome,  another 
through  Lombardy  to  Provence.  In  many 
places  the  enthusiasm  proved  contagious  and 
became  epidemic.  New  swarms  were  formed 
on  the  Upper  Rhine,  in  Bavaria,  Saxon}^  Bo- 
hemia, and  Poland,  and  several  years  passed 
before  the  excitement  subsided.  An  outburst 
still  wilder  occurred  in  the  following  cen- 
tury, about  1349.  Germany  was  its  birth- 
place, and  thence  it  spread  to  France  and  Eng- 
land, to  Holland  and  Denmark.  The  cause 
was  the  plague  ;  it  filled  men's  hearts  with  a 
terror  which  unbalanced  or  even  unhinged 
their  minds.  Nevertheless,  this  time  there 
appeared  some  system  in  the  madness.  Some 
kind  of  organization  was  attempted,  and 
in  many  places  the  commotion  assumed  a 
very  dangerous  aspect.  The  bull  of  Oct.  20, 
1349,  however,  helped  to  put  the  secular  au- 
thorities in  activity,  and  forcible  suppression 


FLAVEL 


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FLIEDNER 


■was  emplo3^ed.  In  1399  Boniface  IX.  ordered 
some  Italian  Flagellant  leaders  to  be  beheaded 
in  Rome.  Nevertheless,  traces  of  the  singular 
fanaticism  were  still  to  be  met  with  in  the 
15111  century  ;  the  last  Flagellant  trial  in  Ger- 
many took  place  at  Anhalt,  1481.  (See  Cooper, 
Flagellation  and  the  Flagellants,  London, 
1873,  3J  cd.,  1877.)  C.  P. 

Flavel,  John,  English  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Bromsgrove,  13  m.  s.s.w.  of  Birmingham, 
1830  (?)  ;  educated  at  Oxford  ;  became  pastor 
at  Diptford,  1650  ;  at  Dartmouth,  1656  ; 
ejected,  1663  ;  returned,  1671  ;  d.  at  Exeter, 
June  36,  1691.  He  is  the  author  of  TIte  Foun- 
tain of  Life  Opened :  a  Bisplai/  of  Christ  in 
Jiis  Essential  and  Mediatorial  Glory,  London, 
1673,  and  Divine  Conduct ;  or,  the  Mynterie  of 
Providence,  1678,  and  other  formerly  very 
popular  works.  His  whole  Worku,  best  ed., 
London,  1830,  6  vols.,  is  preceded  by  a  me- 
jujir. 

Fleetwood,  John,  author  of  The  Life  of 
.  .  .  Jesun  Christ,  London,  1767,  innumerable 
editions  and  reprints,  a  book  now  entirely 
superseded,  is  unknown  to  biography.  The 
uame  is  perhaps  a  pseudonyme. 

Flesh.  In  the  Bible  this  word  has  its  or- 
dinar}^  sense  (Job  x.  4)  and  also  denotes  man- 
kind as  a  race  (Gen.  vi.  13)  ;  evcr3'thing  living 
(Gen.  vi.  17)  ;  the  body  apart  from  the  soul 
(Job  xiv.  33,  Col.  ii.  5)  ;  and  human  nature 
(John  i.  14).  In  the  New  Testament  it  is 
used  in  an  ethical  sense,  not  merely  in  refer- 
ence to  the  bodily  appetites  and  passions,  but 
the  whole  nature  as  alienated  from  God  (John 
iii.  6),  and  its  exact  opposite  then  is  spirit,  i.e., 
either  the  Holy  Ghost  or  the  human  soul  as 
influenced  by  him.  In  Col.  ii.  30-33  the  apos- 
tle refers  to"  self-imposed  ordinances  "  as  not 
of  any  value  against  tiie  indulgence  of  the 
flesh"  (R.  v.),  because,  while  seeming  to  mor- 
tify it,  they  really  gratify  the  flesh,  i.e.,  the 
siiiful  self.  T.  W.  C. 

Fletcher,  or  De  la  Flechere,  John  Will- 
iam, vicar  of  Madeley,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Nj'on,  31  m.  s.w.  of  Lausanne,  on  the 
n.w.  shore  of  Lake  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
Sept.  13,  1739  ;  d.  at  Madeley.  14  m.  c.s.e.  of 
Shrewsbury,  Aug.  14,  1785.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Geneva ;  was  providentially  pre- 
vented from  becoming  a  soUlier,  as  he  in- 
tended, and  in  1750  took  up  his  permanent 
residence  in  England.  He  was  a  layman  for 
a  while,  but  linally  took  holy  orders,  being 
induced  thereto  by  his  contact  with  the  Meth- 
odists. From  1760  till  his  death  he  was  vicar 
of  Madeley,  whose  inhabitants  were  prin- 
cipally colliers  and  ironworkers.  In  1768  he 
became  president  of  Lady  Huntingdon's  col- 
lege at  Trevecca,  in  "Wales,  but  in  1771  he  re- 
signed because  he  was  an  Arminian,  whereas 
Lady  Hiintingdon  took  the  Calvinistic  side  in 
the  controversy  which  had  then  broken  out 
among  those  who  had  labored  so  long  to- 
gether. Fletcher  is  the  saint  of  jMethodism. 
John  Wesley  bore  witness  to  his  almost  per- 
fect character.  He  was  Wesley's  designated 
successor.  He  w;us  among  tlie  earliest  to  es- 
tablish Sunday-schools.  His  ministry  at 
Madeley,  like  Baxter's  at  Kidderminster,  was 


fruitful  in  good  works.  He  was  tireless  in 
his  devotion  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
well-being  of  his  people.  His  principal  book 
is  Fire  Checks  to  Antinomianism,  London, 
1771  (a  text-book  of  Methodism).  (See  his 
works.  New  York,  18 — ,  4  vols.,  and  life  by 
Luke  Tyerman,  1883,  and  by  F.  W.  Mac- 
Donald, 'London  and  New  York,  1885.) 

Fleury  (fluliree),  Claude,  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  in  Paris,  Dec.  6,  1G40  ;  d.  there,  July 
14,  1733.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  ; 
was  a  lawyer  from  1658  to  1667,  but  from 
the  latter  date  a  theologian.  He  was  tutor  to 
the  prince  of  Conti  and  the  count  of  Verman- 
dois,  successively  ;  later  sub-preceptor  under 
Fenelou  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  Anjou, 
and  Berri.  In  1696  he  became  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy.  From  1716  to  1733  he 
was  confessor  to  Louis  XV.  His  great  work 
is  the  Histoire  ecclc'siastique,  Paris,  1691-1730, 
20  vols.,  extended  to  1414,  extended  to  1768 
in  ed.  of  1778-80,  35  vols,  (partial  trans,  of 
early  volumes  by  J.  H.  Newman,  Oxford, 
1843-44,  3  vols.).  (See  his  Opuscules,  Paris, 
1780,  5  vols.,  Koumaux  Opuscules,  1807.) 

Fleury,  a  town  of  France,  ou  the  Loire,  20 
m.  s.e.  of  Orleans,  was  the  site  of  a  very 
famous  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in  the 
first  half  of  the  7th  century.  When  Monte 
Casino  was  destroyed  by  the  Lombards,  the 
remains  of  St.  Benedict  were  brought  to 
Fleury,  and  the  miracles  wrought  by  the  relics 
spread  the  fame  of  the  place  over  all  Chris- 
tendom. In  the  9th  and  10th  centuries  its 
schools  numbered  4000  to  5000  scholars,  but 
during  the  Huguenot  wars  it  sank  into  insig- 
nificance. C.  P. 

Fliedner  (fleed-ner),  Theodor,  D.D.  (Bonn, 
1855),  the  founder  of  the  institution  of  Evan- 
gelical Deaconesses  ;  b.  at  Eppstein,  near 
Wiesbaden,  Jan.  21,  1800 ;  d.  at  Kaisers- 
werth,  on  the  Rhine,  6  m.  n.n.w.  of  Dussel- 
dorf,  Oct.  4,  1864.  He  studied  theology  at 
Gie-ssen  and  Gottingen,  and  became  pastoi  of 
a  small  Protestant  colony  at  Kaiserswerth, 
in  the  midst  of  a  Roman  Catholic  population, 
Nov.,  1821.  There  he  entered  on  his  extraor- 
dinary career  as  a  philanthropi-st.  It  was 
first  necessary  to  raise  money  for  the  benefit  of 
his  parishioners  (1832)  from  among  their  richer 
neighbors.  His  success  encouraged  him  to 
try  next  to  raise  money  for  the  endowment  of 
his  philanthropic  instifutions,  started  in  imita- 
tion of  those  he  had  seen  in  Holland  and  Eng- 
land, where  he  had  gone  on  his  begging  tour. 
In  1833  he  founded  a  refuge  for  discharged 
female  prisoners,  in  connection  with  a  -^lag- 
dalen  asylum  ;  in  1835  a  school  for  young 
(•hildren  at  Diis.seldorf,  the  first  in  Germany  ; 
in  1836  a  similar  one  at  Kai.secswtrtii,  which 
included  a  normal  school  for  tiic  instruction 
of  female  teachers  of  little  children.  In  the 
same  year,  1836,  he  founded  the  Rhenish- 
AVestpbalian  deaconesses'  union,  and  at 
Kaiserswerth  opened  on  Oct.  13  the  first  Prot- 
estant deaconess  house,  to  which  subse((iic]itly 
were  added  a  hospital,  a  training  sciiool  (1841), 
an  orphanage  for  girls  of  the  middle  rljuss 
(1842),  and  a  retreat  for  the  care  of  female 
sufferers  from  mental  (lisea,ses  (1847).  Flied- 
uer  personally  established  a  deaconess  house 


FLODOARD 


(296) 


PORMOSUS 


at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  (1849)  ;  hospitals,  in  which 
the  deaconesses  nurse,  at  Jerusalem,  Constan- 
tinople, and  Alexandria  ;  training-schools  at 
Smyrna,  Jerusalem,  and  Beirut.  He  resigned 
his  charge  in  1849  ;  travelled  in  America  in 
1849  ;  in  the  East.  1851  and  1856.  When  he 
died  there  were  32  "mother-houses,"  where 
the  training  is  given,  and  1600  deaconesses  ; 
the  figures  for  1889  are  :  57  "  mother-houses" 
and  3976  deaconesses.  The  number  has  well- 
nigh  doubled  now.  (See  his  life,  trans,  by 
Miss  "Winkworth,  London,  1867  ;  cf.  life  by 
G.  Fliedner,  Kaiserswerth,  2d  ed.,  1886.) 

Flodoard,  or  Frodoard,  b.  894,  at  Epernay, 
Champagne,  France  ;  d.  March  28,  966,  at 
Rheims,  where  he  was  canon  at  the  cathedral  ; 
wrote  Annnles,  919-66,  Historia  Eccl.  Reme,n- 
sis,  etc.,  which  were  edited  by  Le  Jeune, 
Rheims,  1854,  and  Migue,  Pat.  Lat.  CXXXV. 

C.  P. 

Flood,  The,  a  deluge  sent  upon  the  earth  for 
the  wickedness  of  lis  inhabitants,  of  whom  only 
8  were  saved  (Gen.  vi.-viii.).  After  Noah  had 
built  the  ark  and  put  into  it  the  animals  to  be 
saved,  the  flood  began.  For  5  mouths  the 
waters  increased,  vmlil  the  mountains  were 
covered  and  all  flesh  died  that  moved  upon  the 
earth.  Then  the  waters  began  to  abate  and  the 
ark  rested  on  Ararat.  Noah  sent  out  in  turn  a 
raven,  and  on  two  occasions,  a  dove.  The  sec- 
ond time  the  dove  returned  with  an  olive  leaf. 
At  length  Noah  came  forth,  reared  an  altar 
and  offered  sacrifices  to  God,  who  appointed 
the  rainbow  as  a  pledge  that  the  catastrophe 
should  not  be  repeated.  Traditions  of  this 
most  remarkable  event  are  found  among  many 
nations,  including  the  Chinese  and  the  ab- 
origines of  North  and  South  America,  but  the 
most  striking  parallel  is  that  deciphered  from 
Assyrian  tablets.  It  is  not  necessary  to  as- 
sume that  the  flood  extended  over  all  the  earth, 
though  it  destroyed  all  the  human  family. 
The  universal  expressions  of  Genesis  are  lim- 
ited by  the  use  of  similar  terms  in  regard  to 
events  only  partial  in  extent  (Gen.  xli.  57, 
Luke  ii.  1,  Acts  ii.  5).  The  New  Testament 
uses  it  to  illustrate  the  suddenness  of  Christ's 
second  coming  (Matt.  xxiv.  38),  and  the  certain- 
ty of  God's  judgments  (2  Peter  ii.  5,  iii.  5,  6). 
(See  George  Smith,  Chaldean  Account  of  Gen- 
esis, London,  1875,  n.e.,  1881  ;  Lenormant, 
Beginnings  of  History ,  Eng.  trans.,  New  York, 
1882.)  T.  W.  C. 

Flora  (Italian,  Flore),  a  monastery  in  Cala- 
bria, Italy,  belonged  originally  to  the  Cister- 
cians, but  became  under  its  abbot,  Joachim, 
1111-30  (q.v.),  the  seat  of  an  independent 
order  whose  rules  were  confirmed  bj^  Creles- 
tiue  III.,  1196.  The  order  spread  rapidly  in 
Italy,  but  in  its  rivalry  with  the  Cistercians  it 
finally  succumbed,  and  in  the  16th  century  it 
disappeared  altogether. 

Florence,   Council    of.       See  Ferrara— 

Florence. 

Florus  Magister,  not  Drepanius  Florus, 

who  is  an  unknown  person,  lived  in  the  ^th 
century  ;  was  a  deacon  in  the  church  of 
Lyons,  and  wrote  a  treatise  against  Pasciiasius 
Radbertus'  doctrine  of  transul)stai)tiiitinn,  an- 
other against  John  Scotus'  view  of  predestina- 


tion, a  number  of  sharp  letters  in  the  contro- 
versy between  Agobard  and  Amalarius, 
hvmns,  poems,  etc.  His  collected  works  are 
found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CXIX. 

Fliie,  Niklaus  von  der  (properly  Lowen- 
briigger),  generally  known  as  Bruder  Klaus ; 
b.  March  21,  1417,  at  Flueli,  near  Saxelen,  in 
the  canton  of  Unterwalden,  Switzerland  ;  d. 
March  21,  1487,  in  his  hermit's  cell  at  Ranft, 
close  by.  He  was  the  thrifty  and  prudent 
head  of  a  family  of  wife  and  10  children,  and 
an  active  and  efficient  citizen,  both  in  the  civil 
and  military  service  of  his  countrj^,  but  re- 
tired, nevertheless,  in  1467,  with  the  consent 
of  his  wife  and  famil}-,  to  a  neighboring  cave, 
devoting  himself  to  a  fife  of  seclusion  and  as- 
ceticism. He  continued,  however,  to  exercise 
a  great  influence.  His  appearance  at  the  Diet 
of  Stans,  1481,  actually  saved  the  confedera- 
tion from  civil  war.  After  his  death  he  was 
beatified.  (See  his  life  by  John  Minsr,  Luzern, 
1861-71,  3  vols.  ;  Rochholz,  1874  ;  J.  von  Ah 
[Roman  Catholic],  Einsiedeln,  1887.) 

Font,  The  Baptismal,  was  originally  a  cis- 
tern, surrounded  by  rails  and  entered  by  steps, 
in  the  centre  of  the  baptistery  ;  afterward  a 
large  vessel  of  various  form,  containing  the 
baptismal  water.  In  the  Eastern  Church 
fonts  were  generally  made  of  metal  or  wood 
and  very  plain  ;  in  the  Western  of  fine  marble 
and  often  greatly  ornamented. 

Fontevraud  (font'-eh-vro'),  The  Order  of 
{Ordo  Font  is  Ebraldi),  was  founded  in  1099 
by  Robert  of  Arbrissel,  at  the  present  Fonte- 
vrault,  in  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire, 
France,  10  m.  s.e.  of  Saumur,  and  its  consti- 
tution was  confirmed  byPaschalis  II.  in  1106. 
The  order  contained  both  monks  and  nuns, 
though  with  complete  separation  between  the 
sexes,  and  its  rules  were  very  severe  ;  per- 
petual silence,  total  abstinence  from  flesh  and 
wine,  etc.  Especially  the  female  division  of 
the  order  became  very  flourishing.  It  had 
divisions  for  sick  and  penitent  women,  and 
numbered  3000  inmates  at  the  death  of  the 
founder.  The  order  M^as  dissolved  during  the 
Revolution,  and  the  beautiful  buildings  of  the 
monastery  are  now  used  as  a  jail.  (See  the 
life  of  Robert  of  Abrissel,  in  Act.  Sanct.,  Febr. 
III.,  and  the  history  of  the  order  by  Niguet, 
Paris,  1643.) 

Foot-Washing  was  among  the  ancient  He- 
brews an  act  of  hospitality  (Gen.  xviii.  4, 
Judges  xix.  21).  With  reference  to  John  xiii. 
1-17,  foot- washing  became  a  ceremony  in  the 
primitive  Christian  Church  and  continued  so 
during  the  Middle  Ages  ;  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux  even  thought  of  making  it  a  sacrament. 
By  Luther,  however,  it  was  denounced  as  an 
hypocrisy,  and  at  present  it  exists  only  as  a 
court  ceremony  in  the  Vatican  (Rome),  the 
Kremlin  (Moscow),  and  the  Burg  (Vienna). 

C.  P. 

Formosus,  pope,  Sept.  21,  891-April  4,  896, 
probably  a  native  of  Rome  ;  crowned  Wido, 
iluke  of  Spolito,  Roman  emperor,  but  felt  dis- 
appointed with  him,  and  called  Arnulf,  king 
of  Germany,  to  Italy  and  crowned  him,  too, 
Roman  emperor.  When  Arnulf  returned  to 
Germany,  however,  Lambert,  the  son  of  Wido, 


FORMULA 


(297) 


FOXE 


entered  Rome  to  take  revenge.  Formosus 
had  died  iu  llie  mean  time,  but  his  corpse  was 
dug  out  of  the  grave,  placed  la  the  papal 
chair,  and  brought  before  a  synod  under  ac- 
cusation of  treason,  usurpation,  etc.  He  was 
found  guilty.  The  three  fingers  were  hewn 
from  his  right  liand,  the  corpse  was  thrown  in 
the  Tiber,  siiul  all  his  ordinations  and  consecra- 
tions were  cancelled.  Some  of  his  successors 
have  sided  with  him,  others  with  the  synod. 
(See  Bower,  Ilutonj  of  the  Popes.) 

Formula  of  Concord.     See  Concord. 

For-tu-na'-tus,  Venantius,  b.  at  Treviso, 
16  m.  n.  of  Venice,  Italy,  530  ;  d.  at  Poitiers, 
60  m.  s.s.w.  of  Tours,  France,  009  ;  was  made 
bishop  of  Poitiers  iu  599,  but  is  jn-incipally 
known  as  a  poet.  Plis  hymns  were  much 
used  in  the  meditpval  church  ;  two  of  them, 
translated  by  Neale,  are  found  in  Schad's 
Christ  ill  tiomj,  New  York,  1869  ;  all  his 
works  iu  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  LXXXVIII.  (See 
F.  Hamelin,  De  vita  et  operibus  Fartunati, 
Rennes,  1873.) 

Foster,  John,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Halifax,  York- 
shire, England,  Sept.  17,  1770  ;  d.  at  Staple- 
ton,  near  Bristol,  Oct.  15,  1843.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Bristol  Baptist  College,  and  offici- 
ated at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  1792  ;  Dublin, 
1792  ;  Chichester,  1797  ;  Downeud,  near  Bris- 
tol, 1800,  and  Frome,  Somersetshire.  1804-06. 
Unfitted  b}'  an  affection  of  the  throat  for  con- 
tinuous pulpit  duties,  he  retired  to  Stapleton 
and  became  eminent  as  an  essayist,  contrib- 
uting to  the  Eclectic  for  13  years.  His  chief 
works  are  Essays,  1805  (including  those  On 
Decision  of  Character,  which  speedily  attained 
fame,  and  have  lieen  frequently  reprinted)  ; 
Edls  of  Popular  Ignorance,  1818,  and  Lectures 
Delivered  at  Droadinead  Chapel,  Bristol,  1844- 
47.  (See  his  Life  and  Correspondence,  by  J. 
E.  Ryland,  London,  1846,  2  vols.,  rep.  New 
York,  1851,  and  his  Life  and  Thoughts,  by  W. 
■\V.  Everts,  New  York,  1849.)         F.  M.  B. 

Foundling  Hospitals,  for  the  reception  and 
care  of  children  abandoned  by  their  pai'ents, 
seem  to  have  had  their  rude  beginnings  soon 
after  the  establishment  of  Christianity  by  the 
Roman  emperors.  In  the  ancient  world,  il- 
legitimate, deformed,  sickly,  and  superfiuous 
infants  were  apt  to  be  destroyed  or  deserted, 
and  the  practice  still  prevails  among  Moham- 
medans and  pagans.  The  Councilof  Aries, 
475,  took  steps  to  check  infanticide  by  pro- 
viding a  receptacle  before  the  church  or  catlie- 
dral  door  (as  at  Treves),  wherein  infants 
might  be  ])laced,  to  be  thereafter  cared  for  by 
persons  aiipointed  by  the  bishop.  In  the  6tii 
century  institutions  for  this  purpose  existed 
at  Rome,  and  in  the  7th  at  Anjou.  One 
founded  by  Datheus  at  Milan,  787,  sheltered 
its  inmates"  till  the  age  of  7.  From  the  11th 
century  they  existed  on  a  larger  scale.  The 
Hotel  Dieu,  of  Lyons,  1523,  was  among  the 
first  to  educate  its  foundlings.  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  (1576-1660)  was  active  on  behalf  of 
these  unfortunates.  During  the  Itust  150  years 
this  movement  has  shared  in  the  general 
quiekenins;  of  (he  philanthropic  impulse.  The 
tonr  or  revolving  box,  whereby  a  mother  could 
deposit  her  infant  and  depart  unseen — an  ar- 


rangement which  for  some  time  prevailed 
throughout  Southern  Europe,  but  was  abol- 
ished in  France  in  1833— was  believed  to  in- 
crease greatly  the  number  of  foundlings, 
and  proportionately  to  diminish  infanticide. 
Nearly  every  large  city  in  Europe  now  has 
such  a  foundling  asylum  ;  in  France  there  are 
over  100.  In  America  they  are  less  numer- 
ous. F.  M.  B. 

Fox,  George,  founder  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  ;  b.  at  Drayton-in-the-Clay,  now 
Feimy  Drayton,  Leicestershire,  England, 
July,  1624  ;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  13,  1690. 
His  father,  a  weaver,  was  known  as  "  right- 
eous Christer  ;"  his  mother,  he  says,  was 
"  of  the  stock  of  the  martyrs."  He  himself 
w^as  serious  from  childhood",  and  early  became 
dissatisfied  with  the  religious  opinions  and 
conditions  of  his  neighbors.  Apprenticed  to 
a  shoemaker  and  grazier,  he  forsook  his  occu- 
pations in  1643,  and  gave  himself  to  solitary 
rambles  and  meditations,  during  which  he  re- 
peatedly received  divine  testimonies.  In  1648 
he  began  to  preach  in  streets  and  fields,  and 
found  many  disciples.  The  name  "  Quakers" 
was  first  applied  in  1650,  by  a  Justice  Bennet, 
after  Fox  had  bidden  the  justices  to  "  tremble 
at  the  word  of  the  Lord."  He  endured 
much  persecution,  being  incarcerated  at 
Darby,  1650  ;  Carlisle,  1653  ;  London,  1654  ; 
Launceston,  1656  ;  Lancaster,  1660  and  1663  ; 
Scarborough,  1666,  and  Worcester,  1674.  Iu 
1669  he  married  Margaret,  widow  of  Thomas 
Fell,  a  Welsh  judge  (of  Swarthmoor  Hall). 
He  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1671,  prepared  at 
Barbadoes  a  paper  showing  the  beliefs  of 
Friends,  and  spent  2  years  in  America,  attend- 
ing the  yearly  meeting  at  Newport  in  1672. 
In  1677  and  1684  he  visited  his  coreligionists 
in  Holland,  here  and  elsewhere  showing  emi- 
nent talent  as  an  organizer  and  great  power 
as  a  preacher.  His  aim  was  not  to  found  a 
sect,  but  to  proclaim  and  enforce  what  he  con- 
sidered pure  Christian  truth.  His  works,  in- 
cluding his  Journal,  1694  ;  Epistles,  Letters, 
and  Testiwoines,  1698,  and  Gospel  Truth  De- 
monstrated in  a  Collection  of  Doctrimd  Books, 
1706,  have  been  repeatedly  published.  (His 
life  has  been  written  by  Josiah  Marsh,  1847  ; 
S.  J.  Jannev,  1852,  and  J.  S.  Watson,  1860. 
See  also  Maria  Webb's  The  LYlls  of  JSicarth- 
inoor  ITall  and  their  Friends,  London,  1865  ; 
Tallack's  George  Fox,  the  Friends,  and  the 
Earhj  Baptists,  1868  ;  Ruth  S.  Murray's  Val- 
iant'for  the  Truth,  Cambridge,  U.  S.,  1880; 
F.  8.  Turner,  The  Quakers,  London,  1889.) 
Sec  FiiiENDS,  Religious  Society  of. 

F.  M.  B. 

Foxe,  John,  martyrologist  ;  b.  at  Boston. 
Lincolnshire,  in  1516*;  d.  in  London,  April  15 
(orl8),  1587.  He  entered  Bra/.cno.so  College,  (?) 
Oxford,  about  1532  ;  became  B.A..  1537,  and 
fellow  of  Magdalen,  1539  ;  resignt'd  on  relig- 
iousgrounds,  1545;  was  tutor  to  the  children  of 
Sir  William  Lucv.  and  (1548-.53)  of  the  earl  of 
Surrey  ;  was  ordained  deacon  bv  Bishop  Rid- 
ley, 1550,  and  lied  to  Switzerland,  1553.  to 
avoid  the  ^larian  persecution.  licturiiing, 
15.59,  h<!  becanie  prebendary  of  Salisi)ury  in 
1563.  His  Actes  and  }f(>uuniehts  apjw  an  d  in  a 
first  draught  at  Basel,  1554,  and  complete  in 


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Loudon,  loG3.  The  book  was  circulated  by 
order  of  Elizabeth,  appi'oved  by  three  success- 
ive archbishops,  frequently  reprinted  as  Foxe's 
Book  of  Ilartyrs,  and  exerted  wide  and  deep  in- 
fluence for  several  generations.  His  life, 
written  possibly  by  his  son,  was  prefixed  to 
some  editions,  and  one  by  George  Townsend  to 
that  of  1848,  which  was  issued  separately  and 
in  improved  form  by  Josiah  Pratt,  1870. 

F.  M.  B. 
France,  Reformed  Church  of.  The  fore- 
runner of  the  Keformatiou  in  Fiance  was 
Jacques  Lefevre,  of  Etaples,  a  scholar  of  rare 
acquirements  and  of  a  truly  evangelical  spirit, 
who  in  his  Latin  commentary  upon  the  Pau- 
line epistles,  published  in  1512,  clearly  set 
forth  the  cardinal  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith.  This  was  5  years  before  Luther  posted 
his  famous  theses  on  the  doors  of  the  church 
at  Wittenberg.  But  Lefevre  was  not  a  popu- 
lar reformer.  His  works  were  addressed  to 
the  learned,  and  his  chief  merit  is  that  his 
earnest  words  and  the  expectations  of  a  coming 
'"renovation  of  the  world,"  which  he  enkindled 
in  the  minds  of  his  pupils  at  the  Universit}^  of 
Paris,  prepared  them  to  enter  upon  a  fruitful 
mission.  In  1528  he  published  a  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  from  the  Latin  of  the 
Vulgate  into  the  French  language,  and  in 
1528  a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
immediate  results  were  encouraging.  The 
people  gladly  bought  and  read  the  Scriptures 
in  their  own  tongue,  and  in  the  diocese  of 
Meaux,  whose  bishop,  Guillaume  Bri^onnet, 
a  mystic  rather  than  a  reforming  prelate,  for 
a  time  showed  a  friendly  z.eal  for  the  move- 
ment, in  all  the  churches  both  the  epistle  and 
the  gospel  lessons  were  read  to  the  people,  on 
feast-da3-s  and  especially  on  Sundays,  in  the 
vernacular  tongue.  The  parish  priest  added 
a  word  of  exhortation  to  the  epistle  or  gospel, 
or  both,  at  his  discretion.  The  opposition  of 
the  monks  and  of  the  Sorbonne,  or  theological 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Paris,  soon  put 
an  end  to  Bri9onnet's  toleration  or  favor. 
The  reforming  teachers  were  scattered,  but 
their  teachings  were  not  lost.  A  few  persons, 
chiefly  obscure  men,  were  put  to  death  for 
their  "faith.  Francis  I.  was  not  bloodthirsty, 
and  indeed  during  his  earlier  years  interfered 
more  than  once,  at  the  instigation  of  his  sister, 
the  estimable  Margaret  of  Angouleme,  to  res- 
cue reformers  whom  he  regarded  as  perse- 
cuted rather  from  envy  than  because  of  their 
religious  un.soundness.  Twice  he  saved  the 
eminent  Louis  de  Berguin  by  interposing  the 
royal  authority,  though  the  nobleman  was  at 
last,  during  the  king's  absence,  executed  witli 
indecent  haste  by  order  of  a  parliamentary 
commission  (1529),  "lest  recourse  should  be 
had  to  the  king,  or  to  the  regent,  then  at 
Blois."  The  folly  of  an  enthusiast  who 
posted  a  placard  containing  offensive  expres- 
sions concerning  the  papal  mass  in  the  streets 
of  Paris,  and  even  upon  the  door  of  the  king's 
chamber  in  the  castle  of  Amboise,  alienated 
the  mind  of  Francis  from  the  Protestants. 
The  "  Year  of  the  Placards"  (1534)  witnessed 
a  number  of  executions  of  persons  known  as 
"Lutherans"  upon  the  "estrapade,"  which 
prolonged  the  tortures  of  the  victims,  who 
were  alternately  lowered  into  a  tire  and  drawn 


out  of  it.  Francis  even  went  to  the  length  of 
issuing  an  edict,  which,  however,  was  speedily 
recalled,  abolishing  the  art  of  printing  (Jan., 
1585).  Although  the  severity  of  the  persecu- 
tion soon  abated,  the  remaining  12  years  of  the 
reign  of  Francis  witnessed  several  seasons  of 
special  rigor.  In  1545  a  sanguinary  campaign 
was  carried  out  against  the  French  Waldenses, 
or  Vaudois,  of  Provence,  a  people  admitted 
even  by  their  enemies  to  be  of  irreproachable 
morals,  who,  upon  the  advent  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, had  discovered  that  the  doctrines  they  had 
for  generations  held  were  in  substantial  agree- 
ment with  those  professed  by  the  Protestants 
of  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Twenty-two 
towns  and  villages,  Merindol  and  Cabrieres 
being  the  most  important,  were  destroyed, 
and  their  inhabitants  butchered  with  every 
form  of  revolting  cruelty. 

In  the  earliest  period  of  the  reformatory 
movement  the  influence  of  Luther  and  the 
German  reformers,  many  of  whose  writings 
were  translated  and  had  a  wide  circulation  in 
France,  was  great,  if  not  preponderant.  In 
the  latter  part  of  tjie  reign  of  Francis  I.  this 
influence  was  supplanted  by  that  of  John  Cal- 
vin, a  native  of  Noyon,  in  Northern  France, 
who,  although  he  left  his  native  country  at 
the  age  of  27,  was  induced  by  the  stern  im- 
portunity of  William  Farel  to  take  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Geneva  and  become  the  first  profess- 
or of  the  theological  school  founded  there. 
From  this  point,  just  outside  of  the  kingdom 
of  France,  but  mo^t  conveniently  situated  for 
gaining  access  to  it,  Calvin  exercised  an  intel- 
lectual and  leligious  control  over  the  progress 
of  the  French-speaking  lands  such  as  no  other 
Protestant  has  ever  enjoyed.  His  "  Christian 
Institutes"  impressed  a  particular  type  on  the 
theology  of  the  French  and  Genevese churches  ; 
his  commentaries  upon  the  Scriptures  were 
eagerly  sought  and  read  ;  his  voluminous  cor- 
respondence testifies  to  the  avidity  with  which 
his  counsel  was  asked  for  and  his  advice  was 
followed  by  the  nascent  churches.  A  large 
part,  and  indeed  by  far  the  most  intellectual 
and  commanding  part,  of  the  Protestant  min- 
isters of  the  gospel  in  France  were  his  pupils. 
Much  of  the  scholarly  character  which  has 
always  marked  them  and  their  successors  is 
due  to  Calvin's  influence,  continued  and  cor- 
lobo rated  by  his  coadjutor  and  succes.sor  in 
the  university  and  church  of  Geneva,  Theo- 
dore Beza. 

In  1547  Henry  II.  ascended  the  throne  of 
France.  His  reign  of  12  years  is  character- 
ized not  less  by  the  steady  growth  of  Protes- 
tantism than  by  the  vigorous  efl:orts  to  sup- 
press it.  Legislation  became  more  and  more 
stringent,  and  the  execution  of  cruel  laws  was 
increasingly  resolute.  A  special  chamber, 
erected  in  the  parliament  of  Paris,  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  trying  religious  offences,  gained, 
by  reason  of  its  ferocity,  the  significant  nick- 
name of  ''la  Chumhre  ardente,"  so  many  of 
those  wiiom  it  judged  were  consigned  to  the 
flames.  Attempts  were  made  to  introduce  the 
Spanish  Inquisition,  but  a  sj'stem  so  obnoxious 
to  Frenchmen,  and  opposed  b^^  the  majority 
even  of  parliament,  could  not  efl'ect  much. 
Meanwhile  the  time  had  come  for  a  more 
orderly  ecclesiastical  constitution.     The  first 


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regularise  constituted  Reformed  church  was 
that  of  Paris.  John  le  Ma('on,  surnamed  La 
Riv^iere,  was  elected  b)'  the  people  and  or- 
dained the  first  pastor,  a  brief  form  of  govern- 
ment was  adopted,  and  a  consistory  of  elders 
and  deacons  was  established  (1555).  The  ex- 
ample of  Paris  was  copied  witlvin  2  years  by 
Meaux,  Angers,  and  at  least  8  other  places, 
where  churches  were  organized  after  the  same 
pattern  as  that  in  the  capital.  Some  of  these 
churches  grew  so  rapidly  as  almost  immedi- 
ately to  require  additional  pastors.  Angers 
half  a  corps  of  3  ministers.  The  Protestants 
multiplied  in  spite  of  persecution,  and  the;  war 
in  which  Henry  engaged  with  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  somewhat  diverted  the  attention  of  the 
government  from  them.  In  some  cases  the 
judges  grew  weary  of  inflicting  the  frightful 
penalties  affixed  to  the  crime  of  heresy  upon 
men  evidently  pious  and  upright,  and  con- 
nived at  their  escape  from  serious  punishment. 
A  proof  of  the  spread  of  popular  sympathy 
with  Protestantism  was  given  in  1558,  when 
some  one  having  started  the  tune  of  one  of 
the  French  psalms  in  metre  by  Clement  Marot 
and  Theodore  Beza  upon  the  crowded  Pre 
aux  Clercs,  a  favorite  Parisian  promenade, 
the  words  and  music  were  caught  up  by 
others,  and  soon  hundreds  of  voices  might  be 
heard  repeating  the  forbidden  melodies. 

In  May,  15ij9.  the  Reformed  churches  of 
France  held  their  first  national  synod  in  the 
city  of  Paris,  and  adopted  a  common  organi- 
zation. Their  faith  was  set  forth  in  a  con- 
fession, consisting  of  40  articles  ;  the  govern- 
ment of  the  churches,  which  was  that  known 
commonly  as  the  Presbyterian  order,  was 
regulated  in  the  document  called  the  "  eccle- 
siastical discipline. ' '  Thoroughly  democratic 
in  theory,  it  admitted  a  representation  of  the 
individual  churches,  in  the  person  of  the 
superintendents  or  elders,  by  the  side  of  the 
pastors,  in  each  of  the  successive  courts  up 
to  the  national  synod,  the  court  of  highest 
appeal. 

Two  months  later  Henry  died  of  a  wound 
received  in  a  tournament.  During  the  brief 
reign  of  a  little  over  a  year  of  his  eldest  son, 
Francis  II.,  French  Protestantism  made  great 
strides.  True,  the  duke  of  Guise  and  the 
cardinal  of  Lorraine,  who,  as  uncles  of  the 
young  queen,  jMary  of  Scots,  came  into  power, 
were  very  hostile  to  the  "  new  doctrines,"  and 
the  first  months  of  the  new  reign  witnessed 
the  trial  and  execution  of  one  of  the  purest 
judges  of  parliament,  the  famous  Anne  du 
Bourg.  But  this  very  event,  so  far  from  re- 
pressing the  spread  of  the  truth,  is  stated  by 
contemporaries  to  have  contributed  very 
greatly  to  its  progress.  Even  before  Henry's 
death  the  number  of  men  high  in  birth  and 
station  who  favored  Protestantism  had  been 
increasing  rapidly.  Now  discontent  with  the 
tyranny  exercised  by  the  Guises,  in  the  name 
of  tlieir  incompetent  nephew,  augmented  the 
body  of  those  who  would  no  longer  brook  the 
continuance  of  a  resort  to  fire  and  the  gallows 
to  silence  religious  convictions.  The  "  tunuilt 
of  Amboise,"  an  uprising  of  which  tlie  prince 
of  Cond6  was  believed  to  be  tiie  .secret  head, 
was  indeed  put  down  with  little  ditficulty  and 
remorselessly  punished,  but  the  Protestants 


and  their  allies  were  too  numerous  to  be  put 
out  of  the  way.  The  "  Huguenots" — for  such 
was  the  nickname  now  for  the  first  time  ap- 
plied to  them — had  churches  in  every  corner 
of  the  kingdoln,  and  noblemen  of  the  highest 
rank,  like  Admiral  Coligny  and  his  brother 
Andelot,  were  not  ashamed  to  espouse  their 
defence.  In  their  perplexity  the  Guises  con- 
sented to  call  an  assembly  of  notables  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  (Aug.,  1560),  at  which  a  plea  for 
toleration  was  for  the  first  time  heard  in  the 
royal  presence.  They  consented  furthermore 
to  hold  the  States-General  some  months  later, 
with  the  secret  intention  of  securing  the  con- 
demnation and  execution  of  the  prince  of 
Conde  a  few  days  before  the  opening  of  that 
body.  The  unexpected  death  of  Francis  II. 
saved  the  prince's  life  and  overtlirew  the 
power  of  the  Guises. 

With  the  accession  of  the  boy -king,  Charles 
IX.,  the  prospect  of  peace  and  toleration 
brightened.  His  mother,  the  unprincipled 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  who  had  no  other  wish 
but  to  rule  in  his  name,  wavered  in  her  judg- 
ment as  to  the  best  policy  to  pursue.  Unfor- 
tunately Antoine  of  Bourbon,  titular  king  of 
Navarre,  and  the  nearest  prince  of  the  blood, 
who  had  shown  considerable  favor  to,  if  in- 
deed he  had  not  actually  made  profession  of 
Protestantism,  was  a  weak  and  ambitious  per- 
sonage who  allowed  himself  to  be  gained  over 
to  its  enemies  by  means  of  delusive  promises 
of  a  restoration  of  his  ancestral  domains. 
Nevertheless  Protestantism  grew  rapidly.  A 
report  is  said  to  have  been  made  to  the  queen- 
mother,  in  reply  to  her  inquiries,  that  there 
were  2150  organized  churches  of  the  Reformed 
order  in  the  kingdom.  The  number  appears 
to  be  exaggerated,  even  if  it  included  out- 
stations,  etc. 

In  September,  1561,  was  held  in  the  king's 
presence  the  remarkable  colloquy  of  Poissy. 
For  the  first  time  the  Reformed  churches 
of  France  had  an  opportunity  to  set  forth 
their  creed  in  detail  and  to  clear  themselves 
of  the  calumnies  of  their  opponents.  The 
occasion  when  Theodore  Beza,  at  the  head 
of  a  band  of  12  Protestant  ministers,  ap- 
peared to  make  his  masterly  plea,  is  the 
most  picturesque  moment  in  Huguenot  his- 
tory. As  an  attempt  to  conciliate  the  op- 
pos'ing  religious  views  of  Protestants  and  Ro- 
man Catholics,  the  coUocpiy  proved  a  failure. 
But  subsequent  conferences  between  the  most 
reasonable  men  on  both  sides  led,  4  months 
later  (Jan.  17,  1562),  to  tlie  publication  of  the 
so-called  Edict  of  January,  long  considered 
by  the  Protestants  as  the  Magna  Charta  of 
tlieir  rights.  It  did  not  concede,  it  is  true, 
that  full  e(iuality  to  which  they  felt  them- 
selves entitled,  but  it  rendered  it  possible  for 
them  to  live  and  to  worship  God.  Its  cardi- 
nal provision  was  that  the  Protestants,  while 
forbidden  to  meet  for  prayer  or  jireaching 
within  the  cities  of  the  kingdom,  were  author- 
ized to  hold  their  meetings  for  religious  wor- 
shi])  outside  of  those  cities,  in  the  suburbs  or 
elsewhere,  and  in  so  doing  were  expressly 
placed  under  the  protection  of  the  royal 
ofiicers. 

Unfortunatelv  the  boon  for  which  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Reformed  communion  had  longed 


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was  no  sooner  c;ranted  than  the  attempt  was 
made  to  wrest  it  from  them.  The  massacre 
of  Vassy,  perpetrated  by  the  duke  of  Guise 
(March  "^1,  1562)  upon  an  unarmed  and  in- 
offensive band  of  Protestants  assembled  for 
the  worship  of  God  in  a  barn  situated  in  a 
village  of  Champagne,  was  the  signal  for  the 
outbreak  of  the  lirst  of  a  seMes  of  civil  wars 
that  lasted,  with  occasional  intermissions,  for 
an  entire  generation.  The  number  of  these 
wars  is  generally  reckoned  at  8,  of  which  4 
fell  within  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  and  4 
within  that  of  his  successor,  Henry  III.  It 
may  be  said,  in  general,  that  each  successive 
war  was  the  direct  consequence  of  the  failure 
of  the  monarchs,  vmder  the  influence  of  the 
Guises  and  the  ultra  Roman  Catholic  party, 
to  observe  the  engagements  entered  into  in  the 
preceding  treaty  of  pacification.  Of  the  wars 
in  the  reign  of  Charles,  the  third  exceeded  the 
others  in  the  length  and  obstinacy  of  the 
struggle,  during  the  course  of  which  the  Prot- 
estants endured  2  great  defeats,  at  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour  (1569),  but  at  the  close  secured 
the  substantial  fruits  of  victory,  thanks  to  the 
consummate  generalship  of  Gaspard  de  Co- 
ligny,  grand  admiral  of  France,  in  the  treaty 
of  St.  Germain  (1570).  Two  years  later  the 
Reformed  churches  of  France  received  a  crucd 
blow  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
day,  in  which  Admiral  Coligny  and  many  of 
the  other  most  notable  leaders,  as  well  as  a 
multitude  of  Protestants,  variously  estimated 
at  from  20,000  to  100,000  persons,  were 
treacherously  murdered.  (Cf.  art.  Barthol- 
omew's Day,  The  Massacre  of  St.)  The 
Protestants,  so  far  from  being  destroyed,  as 
Catherine  de'  Medici  had  assured  Charles  that 
they  would  be,  only  gained  the  more  resolu- 
tion. In  the  war  that  ensued  they  defended 
their  stronghold.  La  Rochelle,  aga"inst  all  the 
forces  Charles  could  bring  against  it,  and  in 
the  war  that  occupied  the  first  two  years  of 
Henry  III.'s  reign  they  maintained  them- 
selves so  well,  in  part  through  the  assistance 
of  the  malcontent  duke  of  Alen5ou,  the  j'oimg- 
est  son  of  Catherine  de'  Medici,  and  of  mer- 
cenary troops  called  in  from  Germany,  as  to 
secure  in  the  treaty  of  Beaulieu,  better  known 
as  the  "  Paix  de  Monsieur"  (May,  1576),  terms 
of  peace  too  favorable  to  have  been  given  with 
any  intention  on  the  part  of  the  king  and  his 
advisers  of  observing  them  loyally.  The  rise 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  "  Holy  League"  precipi- 
tated a  renewal  of  hostilities  within  a  year. 
The  peace  of  Poitiers  (Sept.,  1577),  though 
conceding  much  less  to  the  Protestants  than 
had  been  granted  at  Beaulieu,  established  a 
more  practicable  modus  vivendi,  and  in  fact 
served  as  the  basis  of  the  later  Edict  of 
Nantes. 

After  8  years  of  uncertain  peace,  interrupted 
only  by  the  short  and  apparently  unnecessary 
7th  civil  war  (1580),  the  Roman  Catholic 
League  and  the  Guises  compelled  the  effemi- 
nate and  altogether  worthless  king  to  issue 
the  intolerant  Edict  of  Nemours  (July  18, 
1585),  utterly  proscribing  the  Protestant  re- 
ligion and  offering  to  its  adherents  only  a 
choice  between  embracing  Roman  Catholi- 
cism within  6  months  and  leaving  the  king- 
dom.    The  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Henry 


III.  was  filled  with  war,  in  which  the  Protes- 
tant leader  was  Henry  of  Navarre,  the  nearest 
prince  of  the  blood,  a  gallant  and  intrepid 
soldier,  who  at  Coutras  (1587)  obtained  the 
first  victory  in  set  battle  ever  won  by  the 
Huguenots.  In  1589  Henry  III.  was  com- 
pelled by  the  open  rebellion  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  League  to  accept  the  help  of  Henry 
of  Navarre  and  his  followers.  Within  about 
3  months  (Aug.,  1589)  lie  was  assassinated  by 
Jacques  Clement,  a  Dominican  friar,  and  the 
Huguenot  leader  became  king  of  France  under 
the  title  of  Henry  IV. 

Although  his  claim  to  the  throne  was  un- 
questionable so  far  as  descent  was  concerned, 
the  position  of  the  new  king  was  not  an  easy 
one.  He  professed  a  faitii  held  by  a  small 
minority  of  the  people,  he  was  under  excom- 
munication by  the  pope,  the  allegiance  of  such 
Roman  Catholics  as  had  come  over  to  him  at 
the  death  of  Henry  III.  was  very  doubtful, 
and  his  enemies,  embracing  the  most  power- 
ful nobles  of  the  realm,  refused  to  recognize 
him,  alleging  that  he  had  forfeited  the  crown 
by  reason  of  his  relapse  into  "  heresy, "  which 
he  had  renounced  under  compulsion  at  the 
time  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day.  To  free  himself  from  his  difficulties, 
Henry  IV.  promised  to  submit  to  "instruc- 
tion" with  a  view  to  entering  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  finally,  after  a  pretence 
of  having  his  doubts  removed  by  a  select  com- 
pany of  prelates,  declared  himself  satisfied. 
His  formal  abjuration  took  place  at  St.  Denis, 
near  Paris  (1593).  In  taking  this  insincere 
and  therefore  immoral  step,  the  king  had 
turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  remonstrances  not 
only  of  old  and  tried  friends,  such  as  Theodore 
Beza,  Gabriel  d 'Amours,  Duplessis  Mornay, 
and  Agrippa  d'Aubign6,  but  of  his  ally, 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England.  Five 'years 
later  (1598)  he  listened  to  the  urgent  requests 
of  his  former  fellow-religionists,  and  settled 
the  relations  of  the  Protestants  to  the  state 
by  issuing,  as  a  perpetual  and  irrevocable  law, 
the  famous  Edict  of  Nantes.  This  was  by  no 
means  a  jierfect  arrangement,  but  it  secured 
to  the  Protestants  undisturbed  residence  in 
any  part  of  the  kingdom,  equal  admission 
with  their  fellow-citizens  to  trades  and  jDro- 
fessions,  to  posts  of  trust  and  honor,  to  schools 
and  hospitals  ;  it  established  special  judicial 
courts  or  chambers  for  their  protection  ;  it 
permitted  them  to  continue  to  hold  a  goodly 
number  of  strongholds,  walled  towns,  etc., 
that  had  fallen  into  their  hands  daring  the 
previous  wars,  as  "places  of  securitj^"  in 
view  of  the  existing  state  of  disquiet,  and  to 
garrison  them  with  troops,  the  cost  of  whose 
maintenance  was  to  be  defrayed  by  the  royal 
treasury  ;  it  sanctioned  Protestant  assemblies 
for  worship,  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments, the  celebration  of  marriage,  and 
preaching  not  indeed  everywhere  throughout 
the  kingdom,  but  in  so  many  places  as  to  be 
practically  within  reach  of  residents  of  every 
province.  Not  only  were  a  large  number  of 
noblemen  allowed  to  have  Protestant  worship 
on  their  own  estates,  but  public  services  were 
permitted  in  all  places  where  they  had  been 
held  on  several  occasions  in  the  \'ears  1596 
and  1597,  and  provision  was  made  for  at  least 


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two  towns  in  each  bailiwick  or  "  sen^chuussee" 
of  tlie  kingdom  where  the  Protestants  might 
freely  meet  for  the  celebration  of  their  rites. 

The  Edict  of  Nantes  remained  legally  in 
force  87  years  (1598-1685),  comprising  the 
last  12  years  of  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  the 
entire  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  the  first  42 
years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  While  there 
was  no  lack  of  infringements  upon  one  or  an- 
other of  the  rights  which  it  guaranteed,  it  was 
observed  with  a  tolerable  degTv^e  of  respect 
until  about  1660,  and  the  period  up  to  that 
date  may  justly  be  regarded  as  embracing  the 
halcyon'  days  of  the  Reformcul  Clhurch  of 
France.  There  were,  indeed,  cis'il  commo- 
tions and  open  wars  between  the  crown  and 
the  Protestants  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
kingdom  in  particular,  during  the  first  half 
of  Louis  XIII. 's  reign  ;  and  these  wars,  under- 
taken by  the  duke  of  Rohan  and  those  who 
followed  his  counsels  with  the  view  of  main- 
taining the  civil  guarantees  in  their  favor,  led 
to  the  siege  and  capture  of  La  Rochelle,  the 
Protestant  citadel,  and  the  loss  of  all  the 
"  places  of  refuge."  But  the  destruction  of 
Protestantism  as  a  party,  accomplished  by  the 
state-craft  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  did  not  seri- 
ously alfect  the  intellectual  and  religious  pros- 
perity of  the  churches.  These  numbered  800 
or  more,  witii  a  somewhat  smaller  number  of 
pastors.  Some  of  them  had  a  large  member- 
ship, and  worshipped  in  temples,  as  the  church 
edifices  were  styled,  capable  of  holding  several 
thousand  hearers.  The  temple  of  Dieppe  held 
probably  5000  ;  the  great  temple  at  Charenton, 
whither  the  Prote.stants  of  Paris  resorted,  was 
said  to  hold  nearly  3  times  that  number. 
Charenton  bacama  an  important  intellectual 
centre.  Some  of  the  greatest  preachers  that 
ever  lived  adorned  the  Protestant  pulpits — 
Pierre  Du  Moulin,  Jean  Daille,  ]\Ioise  Amy- 
raut,  Pierre  Du  Bosc,  Jacques  Saurin,  ancl, 
above  all,  Jean  Claude.  (See  A.  Vinet,  Hi.s- 
toire  de  la  Pre  lication  parmi  Ins  Rcform^s  de 
France  au  XVIF  slrdc,  Paris,  1860.)  The 
education  of  the  Protestant  youth  was  pro- 
vided for,  not  only  hy  means  of  popular 
schools  in  every  place  where  they  were  al- 
lowed to  establish  them,  but  by  about  30  col- 
leges and  8  "  acadfemies, "  or  universities.  Of 
the  latter,  Sauraur,  established  by  Duplessis 
Mornay,  Xismes,  Sedan,  and  Montauban,  ob- 
tained "the  greatest  celcbriti^'.  Many  of  their 
theological  professors  obtained  a  world-wide 
reputation — Chamier,  Cameron,  Amvraut,  La 
Place,  Du  ]Moulin,  Petit,  and  others.  The 
provincial  and  national  .synods,  though  looked 
upon  by  the  government  with  great'suspicion 
and  much  hampered  in  their  deliberations, 
were  continued  with  more  or  less  regularity. 
The  29th  national  synod  was  held  in  1659, 
just  a  century  after  the  first.  Subsequently  to 
this  no  national  Protestant  .synod  was  per- 
mitted by  the  government  to  assemble  for 
more  than  200  years. 

Tlic  Edict  of  Nantes  was  formally  revoked 
in  Oct.,  1685.  For  25  years  l)efore  this  time 
a  succession  of  laws,  explanatory  ordinances, 
decrees  of  the  royal  council,  judicial  decisions, 
etc.,  had  rendered  nugatory,  one  after  an- 
other, the  greater  part  of  the  provisions  in 
favor  of  the  Protestants.    Many  of  these  docu- 


ments were  issued  in  direct  response  to  the 
demands  of  the  clergy  of  the  estal)lished 
church  made  at  its  quinquennial  assemblies. 
The  loss  of  their  religious  privileges  and  the 
annoyances  to  which  fhey  were  subjected  led 
to  the  flight  from  the  kingdom  of  many  thou- 
sands of  Protestants.  The  fugitives  became 
nuich  more  munerbus  when  tile  practice  was 
introduced  of  quartering  dragoons  and  other 
soldiers  upon  the  Protestants  in  great  num- 
bers and  with  license  to  commit  every  act  of 
cruelty  and  outrage  short  of  rape  aiid  mur- 
der. The  atrocious  Dragonnades  drove  nuil- 
titudes  of  Protestants  to  make  an  insincere 
profession  of  Roman  Catholicism  ;  others  be- 
longing to  the  dregs  of  society  were  bought 
at  so  much  a  head.  The  Roman  C!atholic 
clergy  stimulated  and  justified  the  king's  in- 
tolerant policy  by  a  misapi)licat  ion  of  the  scrip- 
tural command,  "  Compel  them  to  come  in." 
Louis  XIV.  ba.sed  tlie  Edict  of  Revocation 
upon  the  false  plea  that  his  measures  had  al- 
ready secured  the  conversion  of  the  greater 
and  better  part  of  the  Protestants.  By  this 
law  all  exercise  of  the  "so-called  Reformed 
religion"  was  prohibited,  all  Protestant  min- 
isters were  ordered  to  leave  France  within  15 
days  on  pain  of  the  galleys  (a  few  months  after, 
the  penalty  was  changed  to  death),  all  laymen 
were  prohibited  from  leaving  it  on  pain  of  the 
galleys  for  men  and  imprisonment  for  women, 
all  children  Avere  to  be  reared  and  instructed 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  Although  the 
edict  closed  with  a  promi.se  that  all  Protes- 
tants that  refrained  from  meeting  for  religious 
worship  might  continue  to  inhabit  and  trallic 
in  France  without  molestation,  this  was  a  dis- 
honest assurance.  The  Dragonnades  cont  inued 
without  intermission,  and  no  means  were 
spared  to  compel  those  who  remained  to  go  to 
mass,  and  to  punish  those  who  luidertook  to 
flee  the  kingdom.  The  number  of  refugees, 
including  those  who  fled  before  the  formal 
revocation  and  those  who  fled  in  the  course  of 
the  next  few  vears,  has  been  estimated  as  high 
as  800,000.  this  figure  is  pr()bal)lv  •■xcessive. 
The  truth  is  perhaps  between  300,0(10  and 
500.000.  (See  the  great  work  of  E.  Beuoist, 
llistoirc  de  VEdit  de  Nantes,  5  vols..  Delft, 
1693-95.)  The  sufferings  endured  1)3'-  those 
who  succeeded  in  gaining  a  refuge  in  foreign 
lands,  and  by  their  less  fortunate  brethren  in 
prisons  and  as  galley  slaves,  were  almost  un- 
exampled. 3Iany  personal  narratives  were 
published  at  the  'time,  and  many  more  have 
seen  the  light  in  our  own  days.  'The  refugees 
wen^  hospitably  received  in  Switzerland,  Hol- 
land, Enuhind,  Brandenburg,  and  elsewhere. 
Some  goverinuents  invited  them  to  come,  and 
generous  collections  were  made  by  the  ]ieople 
to  relieve  their  necessities.  A  considerable 
number  of  the  refugees  idtimately  made  their 
way  to  America,  settling  in  Massacliusetts. 
Ne'w  York,  Virginia.  South  Carolina,  and 
elsewhere.  Everywhere  they  enriched  the 
lands  which  became  their  new  homes  with  the 
fruits  of  their  intelligent  industry.  Every- 
where their  descendants  are  among  the  most 
honored  citizens,  cherishing  the  traditions  of 
their  ancestors,  and  regarding  the  very  name 
of  "Huguenot."  originally  an  opprobrious 
designation,  as  a  badge  of  distinction. 


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For  102  years  Protestantism  was  officially 
dead  in  France  ;  no  Protestant  could  be  legally 
baptized,  married,  or  buried  without  the  in- 
tervention of  a  Roman  Catholic  priest.  The 
expulsion  of  the  ministers  and  the  consequent 
growth  of  an  ill-regulated  enthusiasm  led,  in 
the  last  years  of  the  17tli  and  the  early  years 
of  the  18th  centuries,  to  the  singular  vagaries  of 
the  "  little  prophets  of  the  Cevennes."  This 
extravagant  manifestation  disappeared  before 
the  later  regular  preaching  of  the  gospel. 

The  cruelties  practised  by  the  Roman  Catlio- 
lic  priests  upon  their  unwilling  Protestant 
parishioners  in  Eastern  Languedoc  occasioned 
the  outbreak  of  the  Camisard  war.  Its  scene 
was  chiefly  the  Cevennes  mountains  and  the 
neighborhood  of  Nismes  ;  the  most  prominent 
leaders  were  Roland,  Cavalier,  Castanet,  etc. 
The  commotion  began  in  1703  and  was  not 
finally  appeased  until  1710.  (See  the  histories 
of  Court,  Louvreleuil,  Brue3's  ;  the  memoirs 
of  Cavalier,  Bonbonnoux,  etc.;  and  arts. 
Camisards,  Cavalier.) 

The  restoration  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
France  was  first  undertaken  in  1715,  the  very 
year  Louis  XIV.  died.  There  was  scarcely 
an  ordained  Protestant  minister  in  France. 
Those  who  conducted  divine  worship  in  the 
gatherings  of  the  faithful  who  came  together, 
at  the  peril  of  their  lives,  in  unfrequented 
spots  on  the  Cevennes  mountains  or  elsewhere, 
were  pious  but  illiterate  laymen,  some  of 
whom  could  not  even  read,  but  who  had  com- 
mitted to  memory  sermons  of  Du  jMoulin, 
Drelincourt,  and  other  famous  preachers  of 
the  last  century.  Most  of  them  had  rather 
assumed  their  office  than  been  called  to  it. 
Some  were  professed  ' '  prophets. ' '  In  a  small 
gathering  of  all  the  preachers  of  the  Cevennes 
and  Lower  Languedoc,  gotten  together  in  an 
abandoned  stone  quarry  near  Mouoblet,  Aug. 
15,  1715,  by  Antoine  Court,  himself  a  boy- 
preacher  scarcely  19  years  of  age,  the  existing 
evils  were  considered  and  a  beginning  of 
church  organization  and  discipline  was  made. 
This  humble  meeting  may  be  reckoned  as  the 
first  of  the  long  series  of  the  s3'nods  of  the 
Church  of  the  Desert — a  designation  adopted 
by  the  Protestants,  in  allusion  to  such  pas- 
sages as  Isa.  xl.  3,  Matt.  iii.  3,  Rev.  xii.  6, 
and  retained  so  long  as  it  was  not  even  safe 
to  insert  in  the  minutes  of  the  proceedings 
the  place  of  assembly.  Pierre  Corteiz,  the 
first  ordained  pastor,  received  ordination  at 
Zurich.  Soon  there  were  a  number  of  churches 
organized  with  elders,  and  ministered  to  by  a 
handful  of  pastors,  who  went  from  place  to 
place  disguised  and  often  tracked  by  agents  of 
the  government.  Many  meetings  were  dis- 
covered and  fired  upon  by  soldiers  ;  many  of 
the  worshippers  either  killed  or  sent  to  the 
galleys  or  prisons  for  life.  From  time  to  time 
pastors  were  captured,  and  hung  or  broken 
upon  the  wheel.  (The  last  was  Francois 
Rochette,  in  1762.)  But  such  was  the  fruit 
of  their  persistent  and  faithful  labors,  that 
when  toleration  was  at  last  granted  there 
were  between  125  and  150  pastors  and  several 
hundred  churches.  The  Protestant  popula- 
tion was  judged  to  be  almost  as  great  as  be- 
fore the  Revocation.  Etienne  Giberl  placed  it 
as  high  as  1,500,000  souls.     (See  E.  Ungues, 


Les  Sy nodes  du  D/sert,  8  vols.,  Paris,  1885- 
86.) 

In  the  growing  tendency  to  greater  liberality 
of  views,  the  government,  especially  after  the 
accession  of  Louis  XVI.,  was  long  urged  to 
undo  the  work  of  Louis  XIV.  Voltaire  con- 
tributed much  by  his  espousal  of  the  rights  of 
the  unfortunate  family  of  Jean  Calas.  Males- 
herbes  and  Rabaut-Saint-Etienne,  more  than 
any  others,  were  instrumental  in  securing  the 
issue  of  the  Edict  of  Toleration  (1787).  This 
law,  which  was  far  from  satisfactory,  did  not 
sanction  Protestant  worship,  but  restored  the 
Protestants  to  their  civil  rights.  Thousands 
of  men  and  women  married  by  the  pastors  of 
the  Desert  flocked  to  the  public  offices  to  ob- 
tain for  their  union  and  for  the  legitimacy  of 
their  children  an  official  recognition.  But  the 
French  Revolution  was  at  hand,  and  soon  the 
rights  of  Protestants  were  more  fully  recog- 
nized, including,  at  length,  free  exercise  of  re- 
ligion. After  the  stormy  period  of  the  Reign 
of  Terror  and  the  insane  attempt  to  substi- 
tute the  worship  of  reason  for  the  worship  of 
God,  the  Christian  religion  was  once  more 
recognized.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  first 
consul,  by  the  law  of  tlie  18th  Germinal,  year 
X.  (1802),  recognized  and  gave  organic  shape 
to  both  branches  of  the  Protestant  Church, 
the  Reformed  and  the  Lutheran,  thus  bring- 
ing both  under  the  immediate  control  of  the 
government.  The  law  provided  for  one  con- 
sistorial  church,  with  one  or  more  pastors, 
for  each  6000  souls,  and  for  synods,  to  be  held 
by  permission  of  government,  each  compris- 
ing 5  consistorial  churches.  No  provision  was 
made  for  any  national  synod.  All  future 
pastors  were  to  be  elected  by  the  consistories, 
composed  of  the  existing  pastor  or  pastors  and 
6  to  12  "  notable"  laymen,  but  must  receive 
the  approval  of  the  first  consul.  (See  Le  Code 
Protestant,  in  Almanach  des  H/form/s,  etc., 
Paris,  1808.) 

This  system  has  remained  in  force,  with 
some  modifications,  down  to  the  present  time. 
The  Reformed  Church  has  enjoyed  little  or  no 
autonomy.  In  1872  the  only  national  synod 
authorized  in  more  than  2  centuries  was  as- 
sembled in  Paris  by  sanction  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  attempt  made  by  the  majorit}'  to 
formulate  a  short  but  orthodox  confession, 
declaring  adhesion  to  the  historic  views  of 
the  church,  triumphed  over  the  resistance  of 
a  "  liberal"  minority  which  resolutely  opposed 
any  legislation.  The  government  has  declined 
since  then  to  authorize  any  subsequent  synods  ; 
but  the  Protestants  have  compensated  for  this 
by  instituting  a  system  of  unofficial  synods, 
general  and  subordinate,  meeting  with  regu- 
larity and  fulfilling  almost  every  function 
which  synods  recognized  by  the  government 
coidd  discharge.  Thus  in  an  indirect  way 
the  Protestants  of  the  Reformed  faith  are  pre- 
paring themselves  for  the  advent  of  a  com- 
plete separation  of  church  and  state,  which 
cannot  be  very  far  distant. 

The  growth  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
France  in  spirituality  and  Christian  activity, 
as  well  as  in  numbers,  during  the  present  cen- 
tury, has  been  very  marked.  Many  mission- 
ary organizations  have  been  established  for 
work  abroad   (especially  in  Africa)  and  at 


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home.  The  Societe  Ceatrale  d 'Evangelisation 
is  the  most  prominent. 

The  latest  statistics  at  hand  (1889)  give  the 
number  of  ordained  ministers  as  840,  and  of 
churches  as  567.  It  must  be  noted,  however, 
that  many  of  these  churches  represent  two  or 
more  places  of  worship,  and  have  several  pas- 
tors. Thus  Paris  figures  as  but  one  church, 
but  with  the  names  of  24  pastors,  besides  30 
other  ministers,  theological  professors,  .secre- 
taries of  societies,  etc.  In  this  statement  no 
account  is  taken  of  Lutheran  churches,  nor  of 
the  Free,  Wesle^'an,  Baptist,  etc.,  churches. 
(See  Agenda  Protestant  pour  I'ann^e  1889, 
Paris,  1889.) 

LiTEUATURE. — The  original  authorities  are 
too  numerous  to  be  named.  Among  the  more 
modern  works  on  the  subject  in  English  may 
be  mentioned,  E.  Smedley,  History  of  the  Re- 
formed Religion  in  France,  London,  1832-34, 
3  vols.  (rep.  in  New  York)  ;  G.  de  Felice, 
lExtory  of  the  Protestants  of  France  (trans, 
from  the  French),  New  York,  1851  ;  H.  M. 
Baird,  History  af  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots  of 
France  (1513-74),  New  York,  1879,  2  vols.,  aud 
Th<i  Hugueiwts  and  Henry  of  Navarre  (1574- 
1610),  New  York,  1886,  3  vols.  In  German, 
W.  G.  Soldan,  Oeschichte  des  Protestantismus 
in  Frankreich  his  zum  Tode  Karl's  IX.,  Leip- 
zig, 1855,  3  vols.  ;  G.  von  Polenz,  Oeschichte 
des  franzosischen  Calvinismus,  Gotha,  1857- 
69,  5  vols.  In  French  the  recent  literature  is 
very  rich.  The  Bulletin  of  the  French  Protes- 
tant Historical  Society,  in  particular,  is  a  rich 
mine  of  fresh  information.  R.  L.  Poole,  His- 
tory of  the  Huguenots  of  the  Dispersion  at  the 
Recall  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  London,  1880, 
is  the  most  convenient  resume  of  the  general 
history  of  the  refugees.  C.  W.  Baird,  History 
of  the  Huguenot  Emigration  to  America,  New 
York,  1885,  3  vols.,  gives  the  best  account  of 
the  refugees  who  came  to  this  country. 

Henry  31.  Baird. 

Francis   of  Assisi,  and  the  Franciscans. 

Giovanni  Francesco  Bernardone,  b.  in  Assisi, 
16  ra.  s.e.  of  Perugia,  Italy,  in  1183  ;  d.  there, 
Oct.  4,  1326.  After  a  giddy  youth  he  was 
utterly  changed  in  consequence  of  a  severe 
sickness  which  he  had  in  1302.  He  turned 
zeal  )usly  to  the  practice  of  religion  as  under- 
stood in  his  time,  particularly  devoting  him- 
self to  the  care  of  the  sick.  After  a  journey 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  greatl}^  confirmed  in 
his  purposes,  .seeing  the  great  wickedness  of 
the  times,  he  determined  to  give  himself  to 
the  preaching  of  repentance,  and  assumeil  the 
garb  of  the  monk.  In  1210  he  had  11  com- 
panions, to  whom  he  now  gave  a  rule.  It 
was  distinguished  from  other  monastic  rules 
chiefly  by  a  new  interpretation  of  the  vow  of 
poverty,  whereby  not  only  individual  but  also 
communal  poverty  was  promised.  The  needs 
of  the  brotherhood  were  to  be  met  by  alms, 
or  where  a  brother  knew  a  trade,  by  labor,  only 
that  no  money  was  to  be  received.  Francis 
sought  the  approval  of  the  pope  for  this  rule, 
which  was  soon  given  orallv,  but  not  reirularlv 
till  1233.  Meantime  the  "order  had  greatly 
grown.  In  1213  their  missionary  activity  be- 
gan by  sending  out  bretliren  "two  by"  two 
throughout  Italy.     la  1310  they  determined 


to  send  them  out  to  every  land.  In  1319,  at 
the  second  general  meeting  of  the  order,  there 
were  5000  members,  as  is  said,  present  from 
Spain,  Egypt,  Greece,  England,  and  Hun- 
gary. Francis  is  said  to  have  preached  the 
gospel  even  to  the  sultan  himself. 

In  his  own  life,  Francis  formed  the  associ- 
ated female  order  of  tiie  Clares.  They  have  a 
history  parallel  to  that  of  the  male  orclers. 

The  great  reverence  felt  for  the  founder 
was  still  increased  after  his  death.  It  was  said 
that  he  had  received  miraculously  the  stigmata 
of  Christ,  and  comparisons  between  his  life 
and  that  of  the  Saviour  were  common.  It 
was  even  said  tliat  lie  had  been  prophesied  in 
the  Old  Testament.  The  popes  favored  the 
order  and  it  grew  with  great  rapidity.  In 
1344,  upon  command  of  the  pope,  the  mendi- 
cant orders,  Franciscans  and  Dominicans, 
were  admitted  to  receive  the  degrees  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  and  from  that  time  these 
two  orders  were  rivals  in  the  literary  sphere. 
At  one  time  nearly  all  the  professors  at  Paris 
were  mendicant  monks.  But  the  peculiar  dis- 
tinction of  the  order,  its  vow  of  poverty,  be- 
came the  cause  of  internal  dissensions,  wliich 
have  marked  its  whole  history.  The  very 
successor  of  Francis  as  minister-general  re- 
laxed the  rule  in  order  to  obtain  money  to 
build  a  church.  Successive  relaxations  led  to 
successive  etforts  at  reform.  In  1379  Nicolas 
III.  modified  the  rule  in  the  direction  of  per- 
mitting the  holding  of  property  and  the  pur- 
suit of  occupations  not  contomj)lated  by  Fran- 
cis. Two  parties  were  consequently  formed  : 
the  Observants,  or  stricter  party,  which  sought 
to  restore  the  exact  rule  of  Francis,  or  even 
to  make  it  more  severe,  and  which  passed 
through  quite  a  history,  and  appeared  in 
many  different  forms  ;  and  the  Conventuals, 
who  assimilated  the  rule  to  that  of  other  mo- 
nastic bodies. 

A  peculiar  feature  was  the  order  of  Ter- 
tiaries,  founded,  it  is  said,  by  Francis  himself 
(1331),  on  occasion  of  his  success  in  preaching 
in  a  certain  Italian  village,  as  a  means  of  pre- 
serving and  extending  the  religious  life.  It 
was  a  society  of  such  as  could  not  become 
regular  members  of  a  monastic  establ  shmenl, 
but  who  would  associate  themselves  under  a 
special  rule,  and  who  were  bound  to  abstain 
from  bearing  arms  (except  for  the  church  or 
native  country),  to  avoid  dances  and  similar 
occasions,  to  observe  certain  prescribed  fasts, 
hours  of  devotion,  etc.  This  institution 
finally  developed  into  a  monastic  attachment 
to  the  order.  There  were  also  female  Ter- 
tiaries. 

In  theology  the  Franciscans  were  rather  in- 
clined to  siiperstition  and  to  Pelagianism. 
Tiie  modern  ,J(;suits  are  much  like  them,  and 
have  at  certain  points  only  developed  the 
favorite  ideas  of  the  Franciscans,  as  in  the 
promotion  of  the  doctrine  of  the  inmiaculate 
conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  (See  AVad- 
ding,  Annates  Minorum,  173i-41  ;  Milman, 
Latin  Christianity.  Bk.  IX.  ;  his  life  [in  Ger- 
man] bv  C.  A.  Hiise,  Leipzig.  1856,  and  [in 
Enirlisli]  bv  Mrs.  Oliphant,  London,  1868. 
ami  Mi>JS  Lockhart  [trans,  of  St.  Bnnaven- 
ture's  life  of  St.  Francis],  1808,  3d  ed..  1890.) 
His  works  have  several  times  been  published. 


FRANCIS 


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FREE 


e.g.,  by  Burg,  Cologne,  1849  ;  Horoy,  Paris, 
1880,  Eag.  trans.,  London,  1882,  2d  ed., 
1890.  F.  H.  F. 

Francis  of  Paula,  St.,  b.  at  Paula,  Naples, 
1416  ;  d.  at  Plessis-les-Tours,  France,  April  2, 
1507  ;  entered  a  Franciscan  monastery  when 
he  was  12  years  old  ;  retired  to  a  cave  when 
he  was  14,  and  had  gathered  so  many  hermits 
around  him  when  he  was  20  that  he  could 
found  a  new  order,  which  was  confirmed  by 
Sixtus  IV.  in  1474,  and  from  Alexander  VI. 
received  the  name  of  "Minims"  (q.v.).  St. 
Francis  was  brought  to  France  in  order  to 
prolong  the  life  of  Louis  XI.  by  a  miracle, 
but  he  refused  to  try.  (See  Holland,  Histoire 
de  Saint  Francois  de  Paiile,  Paris,  1876.) 

C.  P. 

Francis  of  Sales,  St.,  b.  at  Sales,  near 
Geneva,  just  within  the  boundary  of  Savoy, 
Aug.  21,  1567  ;  d.  at  Lyons,  Dec.  28,  1622. 
He  was  descended  from  a  noble  family  ;  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1591,  and  became  bishop 
of  Geneva  in  1602.  He  took  a  very  active  and 
successful  part  in  the  "  counter-reformation," 
his  converts  from  Protestantism  numbering 
many  thousands,  and  founded  the  order  of 
Visitants  (q.v.).  He  was  canonized  April  19, 
1665,  and  his  day  set  for  Jan.  29  ;  on  June  19, 
1877,  he  was  declared  by  the  pope  one  of  the 
doctors  of  the  church.  His  collected  works, 
which  ushered  in  the  Quietist  movement,  and 
which  are  in  French,  appeared  in  Paris,  1621, 
16  vols.,  6th  ed..  1861-62,  8  vols.,  Eng.  trans, 
by  H.  B.  Mackey,  London,  1886,  sqq.  ;  most 
famous  are  his  Spiritual  Letters,  Eng.  trans., 
1851,  again,  1871,  3d  efl.,  1880,  and  Introduc- 
tion to^a  Devout  Life,  many  edd.,  e.g.,  Lon- 
don, 1889  ;  -also  On  the  Love  of  God,  1889. 
(See  his  life  by  H.  L.  Sidney  Lear,  London, 
1882.) 

Francis  Xavier.     See  Xavier. 

Francke  (frank-keli),    Augnst  Hermann, 

representative  Pietist  ;  b.  at  Liibeck,  March 
22,  1663  ;  d.  at  Halle,  June  8,  1727.  He 
studied  theology  at  Erfurt  and  Kiel  ;  began 
to  give  lectures  at  Leipzig,  1685  ;  founded 
there  (1686)  the  "  Collegium  philobiblicum," 
a  society  for  Bible  study,  whose  members 
were  called  "Pietists."  In  1687  he  went  to 
Liineburg,  where  he  was  converted  while  pre- 
paring a  sermon  on  John  xx.  31  ;  then  to 
Hamburg  and  to  Dresden,  where  he  formed  a 
firm  attachment  for  Spener,  and  shortly  after 
was  again  at  Leipzig.  There  his  lectures 
(1689)  on  the  Pauline  epistles  attracted  great 
audiences  and  awakened  much  interest.  But 
at  the  instigation  of  Carpzov  they  were  inter- 
dicted by  tlie  faculty  on  account  of  their  al- 
leged doctrinal  errors.  He  next  preached  at 
Erfurt  for  a  M'hile,  with  great  success,  but  in 
1691  the  same  charge  led  to  his  expulsion 
from  the  city  on  a  day's  notice.  He  then 
became  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  at 
Halle,  1692  ;  in  1698  his  professorship  was 
clianged  to  that  of  theology.  From  1692  to 
1715  he  was  also  pastor  at  Glaucha,  a  suburb 
of  Halle,  but  in  the  latter  year  he  became  pas- 
tor of  St.  Ulrich's,  in  the  city.  Through 
Francke's  presence  Halle  became  for  Pietists 
what  Wittenberg  is  for  Lutherans.     In  1695 


Francke  started  on  a  capital  of  four  thalers 
and  sixteen  groschen  {i.e.,  $3.86  present 
money),  the  present  of  a  pious  woman,  a 
school  for  poor  children,  and  this  gradually 
led  to  another  school  for  those  who  could  pay  ; 
and  so  step  by  step  he  came  to  the  famous 
orphan  asylum  at  Halle,  which  he  founded  in 
1698,  which  is  now  one  of  the  great  institu- 
tions of  Germany.  Francke  was  a  good 
friend  to  missions  among  the  heathen  and  to 
the  circulation  of  the  Bible,  and  the  printing- 
presses  of  tlie  orphanage  have  been  freely  at 
the  disposal  of  these  two  causes.  (See  life  by 
Guericke,  Halle,  1827,  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1837,  and  by  G.  Kramer,  Halle,  1880-82,  2 
parts  ;  cf.  R.  Brown,  A.  II.  Francke  and  the 
Orphanage  at  Halle,  Philadelphia  [Am.  S.  S. 
Union],  1884.) 

Frankfort,  The  Council  of,  was  convened 
by  Charlemagne  at  Frankfort-on-theMain, 
794,  attended  by  300  bishops  from  Germany, 
England,  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Italy,  and  con- 
demned adoptionism  and  the  canons  of  the  sec- 
ond council  of  Nicaea,  787,  concerning  image- 
worship,  though  they  had  been  accepted  by  the 
pope.     (See  Mansi,  Condi.,  XIII.) 

Frankincense  {white),  a  white  and  yellow- 
ish resin,  brittle  and  bitter,  which  burns  long 
with  a  steady  and  odoriferous  flame.  It  is 
called  "  frank,  "or  free,  because  of  thefreeness 
with  wiiich  it  burns  and  gives  forth  its  odors. 
The  best  was  obtained  from  Arabia  (Isa.  Ix. 
6,  Jer.  vi.  20).  It  was  much  used  in  Jewish 
worship  (Ex.  xxx.  7,  Lev.  ii.  1,  2,  15,  xvi.  12, 
13),  and  as  a  perfume  (Song  iii.  6,  iv.  6,  14), 
and  as  an  image  of  devotional  fervor  (Ps.  cxli. 
2,  Rev.  viii.  3).  T.  W.  C. 

Fraticelli,  or  Fratricelli,  also  called  Apos- 
tolical Brethren,  an  outgrowth  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan order  ;  separated  in  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  century  from  the  mother  institution  by 
pushing  the  vows  of  asceticism  to  the  ex- 
treme ;  entered  into  communication  with  the 
Beghards,  adopting  various  fantastic  views, 
and  ended  in  open  rebellion  against  the  papacy 
and  other  institutions  of  the  church.  In  1317 
the  pope  ordered  the  Inquisition  to  step  in, 
and  a  number  of  them  were  seized,  con- 
demned, and  burnt.  Fifty  years  latex  they 
had  completely  disappeai'ed. 

Free  Church  of  Scotland.     See  Presby- 

TEKIANISM. 

Free  Congregations,  otherwise  called 
Friends  of  Light,  Protestant  Friends,  con- 
gregations of  German  free  thinkers.  In  1840 
W.F.  Sintenis,  a  Lutheran  preacher  in  Mag- 
deburg, protested  against  the  worship  of 
Christ,  for  which  he  was  prosecuted.  This 
led  to  the  discovery  that  he  did  not  stand  alone, 
for  in  1841  16  clergymen  assembled  atGnadau, 
under  the  lead  of  Leberecht  Uhlicli,  and  or- 
ganized themselves  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Friends  of  Light."  They  denied  the  right 
of  the  Magdeburg  Consistory  to  prosecute 
Sintenis,  and  claimed  for  themselves  the  lib- 
erty of  teaching  what  they  pleased.  Another 
leader  was  Gustav  Adolf  Wislicenus.  He 
made  a  great  excitement  by  liis  Ob  Schrift,  oh 
Geist?  (Leipzig,  1st  to  4th  ed.,  1845),  which 
abrogated  the  Scriptures  for  the  "  inner  spirit" 


FREB 


(305) 


PRIENDLT 


as  the  norm  of  faith.  The  movement  met  a 
genuine  want,  for  an  increasing?  number  of 
preachers  and  laymen  joined  it,  and  there  were 
in  1888  116  congregations  belong! nir  to  the  so- 
called  "  Free  Religious  Congregations  of  Ger- 
many. ' '  (See  the  annual,  Firirel/fjiHser  Kalcii- 
ria/-, "edited  by  A.  Specht,  Gotha,  1872,  sqq.) 

Free  Spirit,  Brethren  of  the.  See  Breth- 
ren. 

Free  Thinkers,  another  name  for  rational- 
ists or  those  who  deny  a  revealed  religion. 
See  Deism. 

Free-Will  Baptists.     Sec  Baptists,  p.  82. 

Free  Will  sometimes  is  used  to  denote  free 
agency  or  the  power  of  following  one's  pre- 
vail! n!j  inclination.  This  simply  aftirnis  that 
man  is  free,  and  therefore  accountable,  %vhich 
no  Christian  disputes.  But  the  term  some- 
times is  held  to  mean  that  the  will  is  free  and 
can  contradict  or  change  its  own  preferences. 
This  is  held  by  many  Arminians,  but  by  Cal- 
vinists  is  considered  absurd  and  impassible,  as 
well  as  in  the  face  of  such  scriptures  as  "  the 
carnal  mind  is  enmity  against  God,"  "the 
natural  man  receiveth  not  the  things  of  the 
Spirit  of  God  .  .  .  neither  can  he  know  them" 
(Rom.  viii.  7,  1  Cor.  ii.  14).  T.  W.  C. 

Frolinghuysen,  Jacobus  Theodorus  (b.  in 

West  Friesland  :  d.  in  New  Jersey.  1747),  a 
clergyman  of  Holland,  who  came  to  America 
in  1719  and  performed  a  great  work  on  the 
Raritan,  IS".  J.,  in  rousing  the  churches  and 
winning  souls  for  Christ.  Both  Whitefield  and 
Edwards  recognized  the  excellence  of  his 
evangelistic  labors.  His  son,  John  (b.  at 
Three  Mile  Run,  N.  J.,  1727  ;  d.  on  Long 
Island,  Sept.,  1754),  succeeded  him  and  car- 
ried forward  his  work.  His  grandson,  Fred- 
erick (b.  in  Somerset  County,  N.  J.,  April  13, 
1753  ;  d.  April  13,  1804),  was  eminent  in  the 
Revolutionary  war  and  in  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States.  His  great-grandson,  Theo- 
dore (b.  at  Franklin,  Somerset  County,  N.  J., 
March  28,  1787  ;  d.  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
April  12,  1861),  was  eminent  as  a  Christian 
layman,  at  the  bar,  in  the  Senate,  and  as  the 
head  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York  (1839),  and  afterward  of  Rutgers  College, 
N.  J.,  1850.  (See  his  memoirs  by  T.  W. 
Chambers.  Now  York,  1863.)         T.  W.  C. 

French  Confession  of  Faith.  See  Galli- 
CAN  Confession. 

French  Prophets,  Camisards  (q.v.),  who 
came  to  England  in  1706,  and  announced  the 
speedy  coming  of  Messiali's  kingdom.  They 
made"  many  converts,  some  of  them  persons 
of  distinction,  but  their  fanatical  exce.sses 
soon  put  an  end  to  their  influence.  (See 
Uaghson,  ,1  Copious  Arconnt  of  tlie  French 
and  Engliish  Prophcti*,  London,  1814.) 

French  Versions  of  the  Bible.  See  Bible, 
p.  105. 

Freppel,  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  Emile,  Roman 
Catholic,  bi>hop  of  Anirers,  Franco  ;  b.  at 
Obernai  (Bas  Rhiu),  France,  July  1.  1827  ; 
studied  at  Strassburg  ;  was  professor  of  ssicred 
eloquence  in  the  faculty  of  Roman  Catliolic 
theology  in  Paris,  18.54-70,  when  he  became 


bishop.  He  is  distinguished  for  his  outspoken 
ultramontanism  in  the  French  Assembly.  His 
numerous  writings  embrace  Vv.v  y/('/v".v  api,i<- 
toliqucti  H  bur  t'poqae,  Paris,  1S.-)<.I,  '^d  cd., 
1870;  Ia'r  (ipolofjistcs  Chretiens  an  di  n.i i," uic 
siede,  1860,  3d  ed.,  1806;  St.  //v/,.'. ,  1S(;1  ; 
Kfii  men  critiq ae  de  lit  vie  de  Jesus  de  M.  Rend n , 
1863  (numerous  edd.)  ;  Tertullum,  1864,  2 
vols.  ;  St.  Cyprien,  1865,  3ded.,  1875;  Clc'ment 
d' Alexandrie,  1865,  2d  ed.,  1873  ;  Origeac, 
1868  ;  (Euvres  puUmiqaes,  1874,  2d  ed,  1888  ; 
Discourse  on  the  Monastic  Order,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1876  ;  A  propos  du  centenaire  de 
Luther,  Paris,  1883  ;  La  R/n>lution  fran^aise 
a  propos  du.  centenaire  de  1789,  1889. 

Friedrich,  Johann,  D.D.  (Munich,  1862), 
Old  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Poxdorf,  Upper  Fran- 
conia,  Bavaria,  May  5,  1836  ;  studied  at  Bam- 
berg and  Munich  ;  was  professor  of  theology 
in  the  latter  university,  1865-82,  and  since  has 
been  professor  of  history  in  the  philosophical 
faculty.  His  numerous  writings  embrace 
Kirchengeschichte  Deutsc/dands,  Bamberg, 
1867-69,  2  parts  ;  Tagebuch  des  vfUicnnischhi 
Concils  gefiihrt,  Nordlingen,  1871,  2d  ed., 
1873  ;  Zur  Verteidigung  ineincs  Tngebuch, 
1872 ;  Oeschichte  des  vatica)uschen  Concih, 
Bonn,  1877-87,  3  vols.  ;  Beitrdgeznr  Geschichte 
des  Jesuiten-Ordens,  ^Munich,  1881  ;  Die  Con- 
stantinische  Schenkung,  Nordlingen,  1889. 

Freylinghausen,  Johann  Anastasius,  Piet- 
ist ;  b.  at  Gandersheim,  36  m.  s.w.  of  Bruns- 
wick, Dec.  2,  1670  ;  d.  at  Halle,  Feb.  12,  1739. 
He  was  educated  at  Jena  and  Halle  ;  became 
Francke's  (q.v.)  assistant,  first  in  the  church 
at  Glaucha,  1695,  and  then  in  the  Ulrichs 
church  in  Halle,  1715  ;  his  son-in-law,  1715, 
and  his  successor  in  the  management  of  the 
Orphanage  and  in  the  pastorate  of  the  church, 
1727.  He  exerted  a  wide  and  holy  influence  ; 
edited  several  hymn-books,  and  was  himself 
an  admired  hymn- writer  (ed.  Grote,  Halle, 
1855).  ]\Iiss  VVinkworth  has  translated  sev- 
eral of  hi§  44  hymns  in  her  Lyra  Gcrmanica, 
London,  1855,  6th  ed.,  1875.  (See  his  life  bv 
A.  Walter,  Berlin,  1864.) 

Fridolin  (Fridold),  "  the  first  apostle  of  the 
Alemanni,"  the  patron  saint  of  St.  Glarus, 
Switzerland  ;  was  a  native  of  Scotland  ;  la- 
bored as  a  missionary  in  Gaul,  where  he  re- 
stored the  congregation  of  St.  Hilary  at 
Poitiers,  which  had  been  corrupted  by  Arian- 
ism,  and  in  Germany,  where  he  founded  a 
monastery  in  Siickingen,  an  island  in  the 
Rhine,  near  Basel.  He  lived  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury, and  his  biography,  written  4  centuries 
later  and  in  a  very  legendary  strain,  is  found 
in  ilone,  Quellensammlung  d.  badi.*chen  Lan- 
desgefichirhte,  Carlsruhe,  1845,  vol.  i. 

Friendly  Islands,  a  group  in  the  South 
Pacific,  numl)ering  150,  and  extending  from 
18°  5'  to  22"  2'J'  S.  lat.  and  173"  52'  to  176" 
10'  W.  long.  The  .soil  is  very  productive,  Imt 
water  is  scarce  and  bad.  The  largest  island 
is  Tonga,  which  has  an  area  of  128  .''(i.m. 
The  climate  is  debilitating,  being  damp  and 
variable.  The  people  are  intellectually  the 
leaders  of  the  Polynesian  race.  Their  govern- 
ment bore  a  curious  resemblance  to  tiiat  of 
Japan   in   that   there   were   two   rulers,    one 


FRIENDS 


(306) 


FRIENDS 


nominally  the  chief  and  greatly  revered,  but 
with  little  authority,  and  another  the  actual 
ruler.  Now  there'  is  only  one  king.  The 
islands  were  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1643, 
and  received  Iheir  name  from  Captain  Cook 
on  account  of  their  kind  treatment  of  him  on 
his  visit.  The  first  missionaries  came  in  1797, 
but  were  compelled  to  leave  in  1800.  Work 
was  again  resumed  by  the  Wesleyan  Mission- 
ary Society  in  1826  ;  in  1834  a  great  revival 
broke  out,  and  in  10  years  the  evangelization 
of  the  islands  may  be  said  to  have  been  com- 
pleted. In  1835  they  sent  missionaries  to  con- 
vert the  Fijians  !  (See  Sarah  Stock  Farmer, 
I'onga  and  the  Friendly  Islands,  with  a  Sketch 
of  their  Mission  Jlistory,  London,  1855.) 

Friends  of  God,  the  name,  derived  from 
John  XV.  15,  of  a  secret  union  of  mystics, 
clerical  and  lay,  in  Germany  and  Switzerland 
during  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  for  the 
purpose  of  spreading  among  the  people  by 
unobtrusive  means  a  true  knowledge  of  God 
and  spiritual  things  in  that  sadly  degenerate 
period.  Very  little  definite  is  known  about 
them.  The  leaders  are  supposed  to  have  been 
the  unnamed  "  Great  Friend  of  God,"  Eck- 
art,  Tauler,  John  of  Ruysbrok,  Henry  of  Suso, 
Nicholas  of  Strassburg,  Henry  of  Ncirdlingen, 
the  abbot  Conrad  of  Ivaisersheim,  the  laymen 
Henry  of  Rheinfeld  in  the  Aargau,  a  knight 
of  Landsberg,  and  Rulman  Merswin.  iVany 
Dominican  nuns  belonged  to  them.  The}' 
were  spread  over  the  Rhine  country  from 
Switzerland  to  the  Netherlands.  Basel,  Strass- 
burg, and  Cologne  are  the  cities  chiefly  men- 
tioned in  their  history.  The  lay  element  in 
the  course  of  time  ran  into  excesses,  which 
exposed  the  union  to  persecution  through  the 
Inquisition,  and  ultimately  to  practical  extinc- 
tion. 

The  mysterious  character  known  only  as 
the  "great  beloved  Friend  of  God  from  the 
Oberlaud  "  {i.e.,  from  the  canton  of  Bern 
south  of  the  Lake  of  Thun,  with  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Unterwalden  and  Uri),  and  not  to  be 
confounded  with  Nicholas  of  Basel,  was  b.  at 
Basel  in  1317,  and  d.  probably  at  Entlebuch, 
near  Luzern,  Switzerland,  about  1419,  where 
he  had  gathered  a  community  of  a  monastic 
kind  for  Bible  study  and  ascetic  practice  in 
1374.  He  exerted  a  powerful  influence  mainly 
through  his  personality.  It  was  from  him 
that  Rulman  Merswin  and  Tauler  learned 
their  spiritual  views.  (Cf.  Lutolf  in  Jahrbuch 
fur  schweizer.  Geseh.,  I.,  8,  sqq.  ;  Francis 
Beven.  Three  Friends  of  God,  London,  1887.) 
See  Mysticism. 

Friends  (Quakers),  The  Religious  Society 
of. 

History. — George  Fox  was  born  in  1624. 
His  public  ministry  began  about  1647.  At 
that  time  England  was  in  a  state  of  confusion 
which  was  no  less  religious  than  political. 
Besides  the  well-estabiished  Anglican,  Pres- 
byterian, and  Independent  bodies  there  were 
a  great  number  of  subordinate  sects,  mostly 
short-lived.  There  were  also  many  earnest, 
honest  individuals  seeking  rest  for  their  souls 
by  trying  one  connection  after  another,  and 
many  who  were  unattached.  They  had  a 
common  distrust  of  Romanism  and  of  infidel- 


ity, and  a  common  willingness  to  settle  all 
questions  by  the  obvious  meaning  of  the 
Scriptures,  when  it  could  be  ascertained. 

Into  this  seething  religious  unrest  plunged 
the  fervid  spirit  of  George  Fox.  He  was  an 
illiterate  man,  but,  like  all  the  earnest  people 
of  the  times,  he  was  a  devoted  student  of  the 
Bible.  But  above  any  assistance  he  gained 
from  this  source  he  exalted  the  knowledge  ob- 
tained by  direct  spiritual  communion  with  his 
God.  In  the  fields  and  in  his  shoemaker  shop 
he  was  conscious  of  a  Divine  Power,  which 
not  only  gave  him  personal  direction  as  to  his 
actions,  but  revealed  to  him  the  real  meaning 
of  the  Scriptures  and  gave  him  his  theologi- 
cal and  ethical  opinions.  He  does  not  appear 
to  have  studied  other  books,  and  the  clergy 
and  others  whom  he  consulted  he  found  to  be 
miserable  comforters,  and  not  until  it  was  re- 
vealed to  him  that  "  there  is  one,  even  Christ 
Jesus,  that  can  minister  to  thy  condition,"  did 
he  find  any  rest  for  his  soul.  Then,  one  by 
one,  the  truths  of  Christianity  were  revealed 
to  him,  and  he,  with  untiring  industry  and 
fearlessness,  ministered  to  whomsoever  would 
listen,  to  the  day  of  his  death  in  1690. 

The  central  fart  of  his  preaching  Avas  the 
immanence  of  the  Divine  Spirit  in  the  heart  of 
every  man.  To  this  he  felt  commissioned  to 
call  the  attention  of  all.  He  placed  it  as  su- 
perior to  the  Scriptures,  inasmuch  as  it  was 
by  its  moving  that  they  were  written,  though 
he  willingly  "admitted  they  could  not  be  con- 
tradictory. 

In  addition  to  this  central  truth  he  empha- 
sized the  spiritual  nature  of  baptism  and  the 
communion,  the  methods  of  holding  meetings, 
by  which  the  Holy  Spirit  might  have  free 
course  and  use  any  instrument  it  pleased  to 
deliver  its  messages,  the  unscriptural  char- 
acter of  all  oaths  and  of  all  war,  the  evil  of 
flattering  vanity  bj"  removing  the  hat  in  courts 
of  justice  and  elsewhere,  and  of  making  any 
distinction  among  men  by  the  use  of  the  plural 
pronoun  to  some.  He  preached  against  tithes 
and  demanded  a  free  piinistry.  He  objected 
to  the  common  names  of  the  months  and  days 
of  the  week  because  they  originated  in  the 
customs  of  honoring  heathen  deities,  and  op- 
posed the  common  amusements  of  the  daj-,  as 
tending  to  divert  the  thoughts  from  things  of 
greater  import. 

His  teaching  seemed  to  fall  on  prepared 
hearts.  Almost  immediately  men  and  women 
adopted  the  same  views,  and  every  meeting 
added  to  tlie  number.  A  convert  became  an 
apostle,  and  in  a  little  time  all  England  was 
aware  of  the  new  sect.  In  the  churches,  or 
"  steeple  houses,"  as  George  Fox  would  call 
them,  in  the  fields  and  streets,  men  flocked  to 
the  meetings  by  thousands,  and  "the  power 
of  the  Lord  was  over  all  and  many  were  con- 
vinced," as  the  record  frequently  says. 

But  the  work  did  not  go  on  without  oppo- 
sition. The  preaching  of  the  Spirit  was  con- 
strued as  degrading  the  Bible,  and  the  zeal- 
ous, strict  constructionists  of  the  day  brought 
up  many  a  charge  of  blasphemy.  The  refusal 
to  pay  tithes  struck  at  the  civil  as  well  as  the 
ecclesiastical  authority.  The  objections  to 
taking  an  oath  weie  used  to  establish  the 
charge    of    disloyalty.       The    justices    were 


FRISNDS 


(307) 


FRIENDS 


offended  at  the  refusal  to  remove  their  hats, 
and  tlie  plain-speaking  of  the  "  Friends,"  as 
they  began  to  call  themselves,  made  them 
many  enemies.  Then  began  a  career  of  per- 
secution which  lasted  through  the  civil  wars, 
the  protectorate  of  Cromwell,  and  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.,  and  to  a  less  extent  during  that 
of  James  II.,  "  insonmch  that  there  were 
seldom  less  than  1000  in  prison  for  Trutli's 
testimony,"*  and  in  1662  there  were  over 
4000  in  prison  at  one  time. 

Friends  were  immured  in  loathsome  jails 
for  months,  with  and  without  trial.  Every 
ignominy  and  degrading  punishment  which 
misguided  religious  zeal,  malice,  and  offended 
pride  could  suggest  were  heaped  upon  them. 
Tliey  bore  them  uncomplainingly,  refusing  to 
offer  any  physical  resistance,  refusing  to  take 
advantage  of  any  opportunity  to  escape,  and 
while  of  ttimes  speaking  plainly  against  hypoc- 
risy and  cruelty,  refusing  to  utter  any  ma- 
licious harshness  in  return.  In  an  address  to 
the  king  and  parliament,  in  1680,  it  was  shown 
that  243  Quakers  had  died  in  prison  since 
1660,  most  of  them  from  cruel  treatment. 

This  spectacle  had  its  effect.  The  new^  re- 
ligion was  well  advertised.  Honest  seekers 
after  truth  w^ere  drawn  to  examination,  to  re- 
spect, to  conviction  by  such  devotion,  and  the 
society  rapidly  grew  in  numbers. 

The  name  Qaalcers  was  given  to  them  in 
scorn,  in  1650,  by  a  justice  of  the  peace  at 
Derby,  a  Mr.  Bennett,  whom  George  Fox 
bade  to  tremble  at  the  name  of  the  Lord. 
The  name  spread  so  generally  that  it  was 
soon  practically  accepted  by  them,  though 
"  Friends"  appears  in  all  their  public  records 
and  their  internal  intercourse. 

There  is  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  num- 
ber of  members  in  the  17th  century.  Insitle 
of  10  years  from  the  beginning  of  George 
Fox's  preaching  there  were  60  ministers  con- 
tinually travelling  about  the  country,  except 
when  they  were  in  prison. 

The  converts  were  men  and  w^omen  from 
the  educated  and  upper  classes  as  well  as  from 
the  lower.  University  men  gave  their  talents 
and  learning  to  frame  the  theology  of  the 
church  on  the  lines  of  George  Fox.  Men  of 
gentle  birth  forsook  their  cliances  of  promo- 
tion and  incurred  the  hostility  of  their  fam- 
ilies to  join  the  persecuted  sect.  Civil  and 
military  officers  gave  up  positions  in  response 
to  the  call  of  a  Quaker  preacher  to  "mind 
the  Light  that  was  in  them."  But  whatever 
their  position  before  joining  they  grasped  each 
other's  hands  in  perfect  equality  "in  the  Friends' 
meeting. 

After  George  Fox  the  men  most  effective  in 
determining  the  development  of  the  society 
•were  Robert  Barclay,  Isjiac  Pennington,  and 
William  Penu.  Their  writings  are  Quaker 
standards. 

The  discipline  of  the  society,  which  appears 
to  have  been  largely  due  to  the  constructive 
talent  of  the  founder,  was  put  in  force  in 
1683.  In  a  body  of  which  each  member  pro- 
fessed to  be  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  was 
difficult  to  limit  the  individual  liberty  by  any 
discipline,  and  a  secession  ensued  on  tliis  ao 


Georgc  Fox'e  Journal. 


count.  Tlie  seceding  body  was  small  and 
soon  disappeared. 

On  the  accession  of  William  III.  to  the 
English  throne  the  persecutions  of  the  Qua- 
kers ceased.  In  common  with  other  dissenters 
they  suffered  somewhat  from  tiieir  refusal  to 
pay  tithes  and  from  political  disabilities,  but 
their  patient  firmness  had  concpiered  their 
enemies,  and  special  laws  were  enacted  to 
meet  their  scruples. 

The  idea  of  George  Fox  and  his  early  co- 
workers, that  they  were  not  founding  a  sect, 
but  inaugurating  a  general  revival  of  Chris- 
tianity, seems  from  this  time  on  to  be  lost 
sight  of.  Adhering  to  the  form  of  dress 
which  characterized  simple  people  of  the  early 
time,  they  soon  became  peculiar  in  dress  as 
well  as  in  language.  Their  method  of  wor- 
ship, their  separation  from  the  common  amuse- 
ments of  the  people,  tended  to  emphasize  the 
sectarian  idea._  They  lived  t]uiet  and  godly 
lives,  were  active  and  prominent  in  moral  re- 
forms and  philanthropic  work,  and  treasured 
up  the  teachings  and  methods  of  their  pred- 
ecessoi's  with  jealous  care. 

After  1700  they  probably  steadily  declined 
in  numbers  in  Great  Britain.  Converts  from 
outside  rarely  came  in.  Their  jealous  care  of 
the  flock  did  not  prevent  individual  secessions  ; 
indeed,  in  the  case  of  many  who  did  not  desire 
sucii  circumscribed  lives,  induced  them.  Mar- 
riage  with  outsiders  was  a  "  disownable"  act, 
and  was  the  occasion  of  much  loss.  The  sim- 
plicity and  honesty  of  Quaker  life  fostered  the 
acquisition  of  wealth  and  the  attainment  of 
positions  of  trust  and  profit,  and  from  being 
despised  they  became  honorable,  and  this  also 
was  probably  a  cause  of  declension.  The 
number  of  Friends  in  1700  is  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  50,000  to  100,000  in 'Great 
Britain,  though  no  census  was  taken.  In 
1880  this  was  reduced  to  about  18,000.  Of 
recent  years  Friends  in  England  have  gone 
into  widely  extended  missionary  and  evange- 
listic work  both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  a 
gain  of  membership  has  resulted.  Probably 
30,000  adults  are  now  in  the  home  mission 
schools,  many  of  whom  will  ultimately  be 
members. 

FricndH  in  Aineiica.—ln  1656  ]\Iary  Fisher 
and  Anne  Austin  arrived  in  Boston.  Tliev 
were  not  welcome.  Their  books  were  burned 
and  they  imprisoned,  examined  for  signs  of 
witchcraft,  and  sent  back  to  Barbadoes. 
Strict  laAvs  were  enacted  against  tlie  entrance 
of  Quakers  into  the  colony,  death  being  the 
penalt}'  for  continued  visits,  and  this  was  suf- 
fered by  4  Quakers.  Many  others  were  im- 
prisoned until  released  by  an  order  from 
Charles  II.  3Iany  banished  from  >Iassathu- 
setts  found  toleration  in  Rhode  Island.  "Wan- 
dering ministers  preached  Quakerism  all 
through  the  colonies  and  made  converts. 
George  Fox  and  about  12  other  Friends  came 
over  in  1671  to  the  West  Indies,  and  after- 
ward traversed  the  colonics  from  Virginia  to 
Rhode  Island.  .Alany  Friends  emigrated  and 
settled,  especially  at  this  early  day,  in  New 
Jersey.  Williain  Penn  conceived  "the  idea  of 
securing  a  liome  in  America,  where  Friends 
and  all  others  should  have  religious  lilxTty, 
and  through  his  influence  at  court  obtained 


FRIENDS 


(808) 


FRIENDS 


from  James  II.  a  grant  of  Pennsylvania,  in 
exchange  for  a  sum  of  money  which  llie  gov- 
ernment owed  Admiral  Penn,  his  father. 
Friends  then  suffering  greatly  in  England 
came  over  in  great  numbers.  The  I'eligioas 
and  political  liberty  enjoyed,  the  security 
from  Indian  massacre,  obtained  by  equitable 
dealings,  and  the  easy  terms  allowed  by  the 
proprietor  brought  in  other  religious  profes- 
sors, and  the  colony  greatly  flourished,  though 
at  the  expense  of  endless  trouble  and  dis- 
appointment to  William  Penn.  Friends  for 
70  years  maintained  an  ascendency  in  the 
management  of  the  government,  and  in  that 
time  the  peace  v.dth  tlie  Indians  was  unbroken. 
They  voluntarily  retired  rather  than  take  any 
responsibility  for  the  military  measures  which 
preceded  the  French  and  Indian  and  Revolu- 
tionary wars. 

The  growth  of  the  society  in  America  con- 
tinued longer  than  in  England,  but  for  the 
same  causes  quietism  succeeded  aggressive- 
ness, and  there  was  probably  decline  in  num- 
bers during  the  18tli  century. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Inner  Light  pressed  by 
the  early  Friends,  partly  on  account  of  its 
great  importance  in  their  eyes,  and  partly  be- 
cause largely  lost  sight  of  by  the  Christian 
Church,  became  in  tlio  minds  of  some  of  their 
successors  of  almost  exclusive  importance. 
The  divine  authority  of  the  Scriptures  and  the 
advantages  gained  by  the  crucifixion  of  Christ 
were  in  various  degrees  minimized  by  many 
Friends  in  America,  while  others  held  the 
commonly  accepted  orthodox  theology  on  the 
subject,  and  pressed  it  as  a  necessary  article 
of  faitli.  Between  the  two  stood  many  who, 
while  orthodox  themselves,  were  opposed  to 
the  imposition  of  any  creed.  These  latter 
mainly  united  with  the  non-orthodox  party, 
and  a  separation  was  precipitated  in  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Ohio,  and  In- 
diana yearly  meetings,  in  1827  and  1828,  the 
majority  of  members  in  the  tliree  former  going 
Avith  the  noii-orthodox  party.  Elias  Hicks,  a 
minister  from  Long  Island,  was  prominent 
in  the  movement,  and  gave  this  branch  its 
name  of  "  Hicksite,"  a  name  which  they  have 
never  formally  accepted.  The  others  are 
called  "  Orthodox."  In  the  yearly  meetings 
of  London,  Dublin,  New  England,  and  North 
Carolina  there  was  no  separation,  and  they 
recognized  the  Orthodox  branch  as  being  the 
true  Society  of  Friends. 

The  Hicksites  have  decreased  in  numbers 
since  tiie  separation.  Bo  have  the  Orthodox 
east  of  the  AUeghanies,  but  in  the  West,  espe- 
cially in  Indiana  and  Iowa,  there  has  been  a 
great  development,  partly  from  emigration 
and  partly  from  aggressive  preaching  of  evan- 
gelical ideas.  The  original  Quaker  doctrine 
of  the  Inner  Light  has  not  been  pressed,  and 
that  of  the  atonement  of  Christ  has  taken  its 
place.  On  account  of  this  doctrinal  change, 
and  various  innovations  in  the  manner  of  wor- 
ship, a  sm.all  secession  has  taken  place  in  some 
of  the  yearly  meetings.  Philadelphia  held  its 
membership  together  by  taking  an  indepen- 
dent position,  not  recognizing  either  side  to 
the  controversy,  but  all  the  other  main  yearly 
meetings  have  owned  the  larger  bodies. 

Missionary  work  has  greatly  increased  in 


recent  years  in  the  orthodox  branch.  They 
now  have  missions  in  Alaska,  Mexico,  Jamai- 
ca, Madagascar,  Syria,  Constantinople,  and 
among  the  Southern  negroes.  Sunday-school 
work  "has  also  had  a  great  d<;velopm(  nt. 

OrgaiiizdHo II.— The  yearly  meetings  are, 
while  professing  to  hold  to  similar  beliefs  and 
methods,  and  sending  fraternal  greetings,  in- 
dependent of  eacli  other.  There  are  now  13 
among  the  Orthodox,  viz.,  London,  Dublin, 
Canada,  New  England,  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore,  Nortli  Carolina,  Ohio,  In- 
diana, Western  Indiana,  Iowa,  and  Kansas, 
and  among  the  Hicksites,  7,  viz.,  New  York, 
Genesee,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Ohio,  In- 
diana, and  Illinois.  All  members  may  attend 
these  meetings  and  take  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings. There  is  no  presiding  officer.  A 
"  clerk"  writes  out  a  minute  when  a  conclu- 
sion is  reached  and  reads  it  to  the  meeting, 
which  modifies  it  to  suit.  No  vote  is  taken, 
the  clerk  estimating  the  spiritual  weight,  as 
well  as  the  numbers  on  each  side,  in  case  of 
a  disagreement.  In  almost  every  case  the 
minute  by  common  agreement  represents  the 
"  sense"  of  the  meeting.  The  decision  of  the 
yearly  meeting  is  conclusive  and  supreme  in 
its  own  limits.  In  each  yearly  meeting  there 
are  a  number  of  quarterly  meetings,  which 
report  annually  the  state  of  affairs  in  their 
limits  and  forward  suggestions  for  changes. 
Under  the  quarterly  meetings  are  the  monthly 
meetings,  the  real  executive  bodies  of  the  so- 
ciety. They  keep  their  lists  of  members, 
judge  on  admissions,  deal  with  offenders 
against  the  discipline,  who,  unless  by  loving- 
care  brought  to  acknowledge  their  fault,  are 
disowned. 

The  first  convert  of  George  Fox  was  a 
woman.  Many  of  the  early  ministers  were 
women.  A  Quaker  woman,  in  spite  of  many 
difficulties,  held  a  religious  service  with  the 
Sultan,  and  another  with  the  pope.  The 
first  missionaries  to  America  were  women. 
No  distinction  was  made  between  the  sexes  in 
the  church,  and  women's  business  meetings 
were  established  by  George  Fox.  At  present 
either  the  women  liave  their  separate  business 
meetings,  almost  co-ordinate  with  the  men,  or 
men  and  women  meet  in  session  together  on 
an  equal  footing.  Matters  relating  to  chari- 
table work  and  to  their  own  sex  constitute  the 
principal  business  of  women's  meetings. 

The  officers  of  the  church  are  ministers, 
ciders,  and  overseers.  The  latter  are  the 
agents  of  the  monthly  meetings  in  doing  their 
work.  Meetings  may  be  without  ministers 
and  elders,  or  they  may  have  several.  Minis- 
ters, according  to  Quaker  theory,  are  made 
by  the  Lord,  and  the  church  only  "  ac- 
knowledges" that  a  gift  in  the  ministry  has 
been  con'ferred  on  tliem.  There  is  no  special 
theological  training  for  ministers  as  distinct 
from  the  laity.  The  duty  of  the  elder  is  to 
advise  and  assist  the  minister. 

Tlie  j^early  meetings  correspond  with  one 
another.  Ministers  travel  from  one  to  an- 
other, as  "  Truth  may  open  the  way."  The 
right  of  membership  in  one  involves  the  right 
in  another,  if  the  holder  changes  his  residence. 

Immorality  of  all  kinds  is  repressed.  If 
the  party  will  not  amend  and  express  contri- 


FRIENDS 


(309) 


FRIENDS 


tion  he  is  turned  out  of  the  body.  Creditors 
are  required  to  pay  all  just  debts,  even  tiiougii 
legally  discharged  by  bankrupt  laws. 

There  is  a  set  form  for  marriages,  which  are 
recognized  as  religious  occasions,  and  no  di- 
vorce is  allowed.  Marrying  non-members  is 
no  longer  in  most  places  an  occasion  for  dis- 
ciplinary dealing. 

The  poor  in  the  meeting  are  well  provided 
for  by  a  snm  of  money  which  is  voluntarily 
contributed  and  disbursed  bj"  special  olQcers. 
Their  children  are  freely  educated. 

Tliere  are  good  schools  and  colleges  through- 
out the  societv,  which,  except  in  the  West, 
educate  the  most  of  their  children.  Besides 
various  smaller  day  schools,  there  are  the 
boarding  schools,  the  oldest  of  which  are  at 
Ackworlh,  England,  Providence,  li.  I.,  and 
Westham.  Pa.  Haverford  College,  near 
Philadelphia,  is  the  leading  orthodox  college 
for  young  men,  and  Bryn  Mawr,  near  by,  for 
young  women.  There  are  besides,  among  the 
orthodox,  Guilford  College,  North  Carolina, 
"Wilmington  College,  Oliio,  Earl  ham  College, 
Indiana,  and  Penn  College,  Iowa.  The  Hicks- 
ites  have  an  excellent  educational  system,  cul- 
minating in  Swarthmorc  College,  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Doctrines.— George  Fox  refused  to  write 
out  an  exhaustive  creed,  and  advised  his 
friends  to  conline  their  statements  of  belief  to 
the  language  of  the  Bible,  and  the  church  has 
never  bound  itself  by  the  general  adoption  of 
any  succinct  and  well-delined  statement  of 
belief. 

The  doctrine  of  a  supernatural  "  inner 
light"  or  "grace  of  God"  is  the  cardinal 
point  of  Quaker  belief.  A  sufficient  amount 
of  this  is  given  to  all  men,  even  heathen  who 
have  never  heard  of  Christ,  for  their  salva- 
tion, though  this  light  may  be  disregarded 
and  smothered.  This  Comforter  was  con- 
ferred in  greater  measure  as  a  result  of  the 
life  and  death  of  Christ.  The  divinity  of 
Christ  and  his  atonement  and  the  inspiration 
of  the  Scriptures  are  fully  recognized  by  the 
orthodox  body. 

This  Holy  Spirit  is  to  be  the  practical  guide 
in  the  exercise  of  religious  gifts  and  in  assem- 
blies for  w^orship.  Religious  meetings  are 
therefore  conducted  on  the  basis  of  silence, 
without  prearranged  services.  Any  person 
may  preach  or  pray  as  he  is  moved  thereto. 
If  there  is  no  speaking,  acceptable  worship 
may  be  performed  by  quiet  communion  with 
God.  Meetings  are  held  tsvice  a  week  in 
many  places,  where  there  is  no  speaking  for 
raontlis  ;  in  others  nearly  the  whole  time  is 
taken  up.  In  some  of  the  orthodox  meetings 
of  the  West  singing  is  recognized,  and  there 
is  a  tendency  toward  the  prcarrangement  of 
services  and  the  establishment  of  pastors, 
thougli  this  is  strenuously  objected  to  on  the 
ground  of  limiting  the  "free  course  of  the 
Divine  Spirit. 

Ministry  may  be  exercised  only  by  the  pro 
pulsion  of  the  Spirit  as  to  time,  place,  and 
substance.  Hence  there  are  no  prepared  ser- 
mons, but  each  minister  must  lay  himself 
open  before  the  Lord  and  give  out  the  mes- 
sage committed  to  him.  It  was  one  of  George 
Fox's  lirst  "  openings"  that  to  be  educated  at 


Oxford  or  Cambridge  was  not  enough  to 
make  a  man  a  minister.  Tiie  Lord  makes 
tlie  minister  and  the  church  records  its  ])elief 
of  the  fact.  A  diligent  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures rather  spiritual  than  historical  should 
be  the  duty  of  all. 

Ministers  should  not  be  paid  for  preaching. 
If  poor  and  called  to  exercise  their  gifts,  they 
and  their  families  are  supported  b}'  the  church. 
The  distinction  should  be  closely  drawn. 

As  regards  the  ordinances.  Friends  take  the 
extreme  f  nti-ritualistic  ground.  They  be- 
lieve all  forms  were  done  away  in  Christ, 
and  that  spiritual  baptism  and  communion 
only  are  required  of  Christians.  It  is  these 
which  save,  and  without  them  there  can  be  no 
salvation.  The  forms  only  give  a  false  rest, 
and  satisfy  without  giving  the  deeper  experi- 
ence. 

Nevertheless,  if  they  thought  water  bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper  were  com- 
manded in  the  New  Testament  to  be  perpet- 
ually observed,  they  would  consider  the  obli- 
gation binding.  Tliey  believe  a  closer  inspec- 
tion will  see,  in  some  of  the  passages  where 
they  are  seemingly  commanded,  a  permission 
of  Ihem,  as  in  the  cases  of  circumcision  and 
washing  of  feet,  in  deference  to  Jewish  prej- 
udices. The  baptism  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
of  fire  is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  Christ's 
dispensation,  and  Paul  tlmnks  God  he  bap 
tized  so  few.  The  command  which  estab- 
lished the  Lord's  Supper  is  given  in  one  of 
the  gospels,  "  This  do  ye,  as  oft  m  ye  drink  it, 
in  remembrance  of  me,"  and  in  others  the 
mandatory  part  is  entirely  omitted,  showing 
how  little  importance  the  writer  attached  to 
it. 

For  these  reasons,  among  others.  Friends 
discard  the  forms  alike  as  necessary  ami  as 
typical  rites,  and  as  not  required  by  the  New 
Testament. 

They  believe  in  the  absoluteness  of  the 
command  not  to  take  human  life.  Hence 
self  defence  which  involves  killing  is  unjus- 
tifiable. The  spirit  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  brought  out,  as  it  is,  in  direct  contrast 
with  the  old  dispensation,  is,  in  their  minds,  a 
positive  and  ever  present  obligation.  Hence 
they  cannot  go  to  war  or  sanction  it  by  pay- 
ing taxes  ostensibly  laid  for  war  purposes. 

Christ  and  the  Apostle  James  forbade  all 
oaths.  Friends  believe  this  prohibition  extends 
to  judicial  as  well  as  profane  swearing.  In 
Engl-and  and  America  their  affirmation  is  ac- 
cepted in  place  of  an  oath. 

They  oppose  slavery.  George  Fox  advised 
manumi.ssion  of  slaves,  and  Friends  cleared 
their  skirts  of  it,  even  in  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina,  long  before  the  civil  war.  In  the 
days  of  the  anti-slavery  agitation  they  were  in 
favor  of  peaceable  abolition. 

They  believe  in  sinqilicity  of  life  and  man- 
ners, absolute  religious  equality,  and  iilain 
speakinsj.  Most  of  them  have  abandoned  the 
peculiarities  which  these  principles  led  the 
early  Friends  into,  as  being  more  especially 
adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the  ITtli  cen- 
turv,  but  the  principles  themselves  are  .still 
vital. 

They  are  believers  in  temperance.  Nearly 
all  are  total  abstainers,  and  the  extinguish- 


FRIENDS 


(310) 


FROMENT 


meat  of  drinking  in  their  membership  is  going 
through  the  same  stages  as  the  extinguish- 
ment of  slavery. 

STATISTICS. 
Number  of  Members. 


Yearly 

Meetings. 

"Orthodox," 
"  Larger 
Bodies." 

"Orthodox," 

"  Smaller 
Bodies." 

"  Hicksite." 

London 

Dublin 

Canada     .... 
New  England . 
New  York  .... 

Genesee 

Philadelphia.  . 

Baltimore 

North  Carolina 
Ohio 

1.5,600 
2,700 
800 
4,300 
3,  TOO 

'5,m 

1,000 
5,200 
4,200 
22,000 
13,400 

io'soo 

8,500 

■  ■  650 
80 
110 

■"206 

■3,'406 

""506 

■■■506 
500 

■2,906 
1,500 

13,400 
3,000 

■■  800 
1,800 

■  i",i66 

Indiana 

Western  (Ind.). 

Illinois 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Total 

97,400 

5,940 

24,500 

The  periodicals  published  by  the  society 
are,  in  England,  IVte  Friend  (Loudon),  T/ie 
British  Friend  (Glasgow),  Friends'  Qnarterly 
Examiner  (Southampton) ;  in  America,  by 
the  orthodox  branch,  The  Friend  and  Friendft' 
i2ei7e?P  (Philadelphia),  Christian  Worker  (C\n- 
cago) ;  by  the  Hicksite  branch.  Friends'  Intel- 
ligencer and  Journal  (Philadelphia),  and  by 
the  smaller  bodies.  The  Western  Friend  (Kan- 
sas). 2Vie  Student  (Philadelphia)  is  an  educa- 
tional monthly. 

BrBLiOGRAPHY. — The  Journal  of  George 
Fox  (London,  1694,  7th  ed.  [latest],  1852),  (an 
autobiography  from  which  we  learn  his  spirit 
and  method  of  work)  ;  The  History  of  the 
Jj'^fi  ^f  Thomas  Ellwood,  1714,  rep.  in  Morley's 
Universal  Library,  1885  (an  important  auto- 
biography) ;  Robert  Barclay,  An  Apology  for 
tlie  True  {christian  Divinity,  as  the  same  is 
held  forth  and  jn-eached  by  the  People  called, 
in,  scorn,  Qnakers  (in  Latin,  Amsterdam, 
1676,  trans,  by  himself  into  English,  London, 
1678),  12th  ed.,  1855,  rep.  Philadelphia  (the 
standard  doctrinal  work  of  the  Society)  ;  the 
•writings  of  William  Pcnn  (1667  sqq.,  e.g..  No 
Gross,  no  Grown,  Philadelphia)  and  Isaac  Pen- 
ington  (1648  sqq.,  collected  ed.,  Philadel- 
phia, 4  vols.)  are  very  voluminous  ;  William 
Sewell,  of  Amsterdam,  History  of  the  Rise, 
Increase,  and  Progress  of  the  Christian  Peo- 
ple called  Quakers,  London,  1722,  rep.  ed., 
Philadelphia,  1844,  various  edd.  (the  most 
comprehensive  history  of  Early  Friends)  ; 
James  Bowden,  History  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  in  America,  London,  1850-54,  2  vols, 
(worth  consulting)  :  the  works  of'  Joseph 
John  Gurney,  London,  1819  sqq.,  e.g..  Essays 
on  the  Evidences,  Doctrines,  and  Practical 
Operations  of  Christianity,  1825,  6th  ed., 
1840  ;  A  Letter  to  a  Friend  on  the  Axitliority , 
Purpose,  and  Effects  of  Christianity,  and  espe- 
cially on  the  Doctrine  of  Redemption,  1824,  23d 
ed.,  1855  ;  Observations  on  the  Religious  Pe- 
culiarities of  the  Society  of  Fnends,  1824,  9th 
ed.,  1859  (contain  the  basis  of  the  modern 
evangelical  movement) ;  Thomas  Evans,  Ex- 


position of  the  Faith  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
Philadelphia,  1827,  later  edd.  (gives  the  or- 
thodox view  of  the  subject),  and  Samuel  M. 
Janney,  History  of  Friends  to  1828,  Philadel- 
phia, 1859-67,  4  vols,  (gives  the  Hicksite 
view)  ;  the  Books  of  Discipline  of  the  various 
yearly  meetings  summarize  the  beliefs  and 
practices  of  Friends.  Thomas  Clarkson,  A 
Portraiture  of  Quakerism.,  London,  1806,  3 
vols.,  3d  ed.,  1807  (an  outside  view  of  Quak- 
ers) ;  [J.  Maule,  Transactions  and  Changes  in 
the  Society  of  Fnends,  Philadelphia,  1884  ; 
F.  S.  Turner,  The  Quakers,  London,  1889 
(another  outside  view)]  ;  Joseph  Smith.  De- 
scriptive Catalogue  of  Friends'  Books,  London, 
1867.  Isaac  Shaiipless. 

Frith,  or  Fryth,  John,  reformer  and  mar- 
tyr ;  b.  at  Westerham,  Kent,  21  m.  s.s.e.  of 
London,  1503  ;  burnt  at  the  stake  at  Smith- 
field,  Loudon,  July  4,  1533.  He  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  B.A.,  1525 ;  became  junior 
canon  of  Cardinal  (now  Christ  Church)  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  Dec.  7,  1525  ;  imbibed  Tindal's 
views  ;  was  imprisoned  at  Oxford  in  con.se- 
quence  ;  released  on  condition  that  he  should 
go  no  more  than  10  miles  away,  he  escaped 
to  the  continent  in  1528  ;  while  abroad  he 
published,  against  the  writings  of  Bishop 
Fisher  and  Sir  Thomas  More,  a  Disputacyon 
of  Purgatory e,  Marburg,  1531,  London,  1533. 
Returning  in  1532,  he  was  confined  in  the 
Tower  for  heresy  ;  he  refused  to  recant,  and 
wrote  the  first  English  denial  of  transubstan- 
tiation,  whereon  Tie  was  tried  by  Stokesly, 
Bishop  of  London,  and  condemned  to  the 
stake.  His  life  and  works,  including  also  a 
tract  on  Baptism  and  A  Mirror  or  Glass  to 
Knoio  Thyself,  are  in  Writings  of  the  British 
Fathers,  vol.  iii.  John  Foxe  first  published 
them  along  Avith  those  of  W.  Tyndall  and 
Dr.  Barnes,  London,  1573,  n.e.,  1831. 

F.  M.  B. 

Fritzsche,  Otto  Fridolin,  Lie.  Theol.  (Halle, 
1836),  D.D.,  (hon.,  Halle,  1841),  Protestant 
theologian  ;  b.  at  Dobrilugk,  66  m.  s.s.w.  of 
Frankfort,  Sept.  23,  1812  ;  studied  at  Halle  ; 
became  privat-docent  there,  1836  ;  professor 
extraordinary  at  Zurich,  1837  ;  ordinary, 
1842,  and  in  addition  chief  librarian  of  the 
cantonal  library,  1844.  He  has  edited  the 
works  of  Laclantius  (Leipzig,  1842-44,  2 
vols.),  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia's  New  Testa- 
ment commentary  and  fragments  of  book  on 
the  Incarnation  (Ziirich,  1847,  2  vols.),  the 
LXX.  version  of  Esther  (1848),  and  Judges 
(1866),  Anselm's  Cur  Deus  Homo  (1868,  2d 
ed. ,  1886),  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  in 
Greek,  Leipzig,  1871  (the  same  in  German, 
with  Grimm,  with  a  commentary,  1851-60, 
6  parts),  and  other  works. 

Froment  (fro  mans),  Antoine,  Reformer  ; 
b.  at  Mens,  S.  E.  France,  1509  ;  d.  in  Ge- 
neva, Nov.  6,  1581.  He  assisted  Fare!  (q.v.) 
in  his  missionary  journeys,  from  1530  on, 
and  in  1532  opened  «i  school  in  Geneva, 
nominally  for  instruction  in  reading  and 
writing  French  by  a  new  and  very  expeditious 
method,  but  really  for  the  purpose  of  instill- 
ing the  reformed  faith  into  the  scholars  with- 
out suspicion.  Tlie  school  was  a  great  suc- 
cess, and  on  the  strength  of  the  impressiou  it 


FROTHINGHAM 


(311) 


FULGENTIUS 


made  he  ventured  to  preach,  but  in  1533  he 
■vvas  twice  compelled  to  leave  the  citj'.  But 
under  Bern's  powerful  protection  he  with 
Farel  and  Viret  (q.v.)  was  able  to  labor  un- 
disturbedly there  after  1534,  and  in  1537  be- 
came a  pastor  at  Thouon  ;  later  at  Massongior. 
It  soon  was  evident  that  he  had  little  fitness 
for  the  office.  In  1549  he  abandoned  his  ec- 
clesiastical career  and  assisted  Bonivard  on 
his  history  of  Geneva  ;  in  1553  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  notary,  given  a  free  citizenship  ;  in 
1559  he  was  elected  a  member  of  tlie  council 
of  the  200.  In  1561  he  married  a  second 
time  ;  was  shortly  after  tried  for  adultery, 
and  although  the  charge  was  not  proved  he 
was  imprisoned  for  three  days,  and  then  ban- 
ished as  unworthy  of  confidence.  Ilis  banish- 
ment was  spent  at  Vevey.  In  1573  he  was 
allowed  to  return,  and  in  1574  to  practise  as 
a  notary.  lie  wrote  Les  actes  et  gentes  rmrveil- 
Icnxde  la  cite  de  Geneve,  nourellement  convertir 
d  VEcangille,  first  printed,  Geneva,  1854. 

Frothingham,  Octavius  Brooks,  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Nov.  26,  1822  ;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College,  1843,  and  at  the  divinity 
school,  1846  ;  became  Unitarian  clergyman  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  1847;  Jersey  City,' N.  J., 
1855  ;  New  York  City,  1859  ;  dissolved  the 
society,  which  was  composed  of  radicals  in 
religion,  in  1879.  and  has  taken  no  charge 
since.  He  has  published,  aside  from  collected 
discourses,  biographies  of  Theodore  Parker 
(Boston,  1874),  Oerrit  Smith  (New  York, 
1878),  George  Ripley  (Boston,  1882),  and  Will- 
iam Henry  Channing  (1886)  ;  A  History  of 
J'ranxcendentalism  in  New  England  (New 
York.  1876)  ;  ihe  Cradle  of  the  Chrint,  1877. 
Boston  Unitarianism,  1890. 

Fructuosus  was  elected  archbishop  of 
Braga,  Galicia,  Spain,  in  656  ;  built  a  num- 
ber of  monasteries  in  Lusitania,  Astaria,  and 
Galicia,  and  gave  rules  for  the  monks,  con- 
taining the  strictest  regulations  of  the  most 
trivial  occurrences  (rising  from  the  seat,  turn- 
ing the  head,  etc.),  which  are  found  in  Holsten- 
Bockie,  Codex  Eegal.  Monast. ,  II. 

Frumentius.    See  Abyssinian  CnuRcn. 

Fry,  Eilizabeth,  philanthropist,  daughter  of 
John  Gurney  ;  b.  at  Norwich,  England,  May 
21,  1780  ;  d.'  at  Ramsgate,  Oct.  12,' 1845.  In 
1800  she  married  Joseph  Fry,  a  London  mer- 
chant. She  began  to  speak  in  Friends'  meet- 
ing, 1809,  and  to  visit  prisons.  1813.  These 
lai)ors,  which  commenced  at  Newgate,  dis- 
closed a  f  rigiitf  ul  state  of  inhumanity  and  im- 
l^urity,  and  led  to  extensive  reforms.  With 
her  brother,  Jcseph  John  Gurney,  .she  ex- 
tended her  tjisks  to  Scotland  and  the  North  of 
England  in  1818,  to  Ireland  in  1827,  and  in 
1839-41  to  the  continent,  going  as  far  as  Hun- 
gary. In  consequence,  societies  for  prison  re- 
form were  organized  in  Great  Britain  and 
most  countries  of  Western  Europe,  as  well  as 
one  in  1839  for  the  care  of  discharged  con- 
victs. She  was  emphatically  a  Christian,  and 
her  religion  was  the  .source  of  her  philan- 
tliropy.  Her  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in 
Newgate  prison  is  tiie  subject  of  a  famous 
picture.  She  was  equally  zealous  in  behalf 
of  sailors,   furnishing   coasting    vessels  and 


hospitals  with  books.  Aided  by  a  grant  from 
government,  her  society  had,  in  1836,  sup- 
plied 620  libraries  with  52,464  volumes.  Sir 
J.  Mackintosh  called  her  a  "female  How- 
ard." In  1828  her  husband  failed,  and  al- 
though the  business  was  continued,  her  re- 
sources thence  on  were  much  curtailed.  Her 
Memoirs  were  written  by  Thomas  Timpson, 
London,  1846,  Susanna  Corder,  1853,  and 
with  her  Letters  and  Journal  by  two  of  her 
daughters,  1847,  3  vols.,  2d  cd.,  1848. 

F.  M.  B. 

Fulbert  of  Ohartres,  b.  in  the  province 
of  Fiotou  (V)  about  950  ;  d.  at  Ohartres, 
April  10,  1029  ;  was  educated  in  the  school 
of  Rheims  ;  founded  a  famous  school  himself 
at  Chartres,  54  m.  s.e.  of  Paris,  and  was 
elected  bishop  of  that  place  in  1007.  With 
him  dialectics  is  still  subordinate  to  the  Bible 
and  the  verdicts  of  the  church,  but  with  his 
pupil,  Berenger  of  Tours,  the  relation  is  re- 
versed. His  letters  are  of  great  interest  and 
are  found  iu  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CXLI. 


Fulco  was  pastor  of  Neuilly,  just  outside 
the  walls  of  Paris,  and  died  there  iu  1203. 
He  was  the  most  stirring  and  impressive  re- 
vival preacher  of  his  time,  and  was  by  Inno- 
cent III.  charged  with  preaching  the  fourth 
crusade.  His  life,  written  by  Jacob  a  Vit- 
riaco,  is  found  in  Recueil  des  Historiens^  de  la 
France,  vol.  xviii. 

Fulda,  a  city  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  54  m.  s.e.  of  Cassel,  arose 
around  the  abbey  of  Fulda,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  institutions  of  its  kind  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  was  founded,  in  744,  by  Sturm,  a 
pupil  of  St.  Bouifacius,  who  lies  buried  in  the 
cathedral,  and  was  by  the  pope  exempted 
from  the  episcopal  authority  and  placed  im- 
mediately under  the  papal  see.  It  was  richly 
endowed  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  and  in 
the  10th  century  it  acquired  the  primacy 
among  all  the  abbeys  of  Germany  and  Gaul, 
and  its  abbot  received  the  title  of  arch-chan- 
cellor of  the  realm.  It  also  successfully  with- 
stood the  attacks  of  the  neighboring  princes, 
and  it  even  escaped  the  Reformation,  but  in 
the  Napoleonic  wars  it  lost  all  its  wealth  ;  in 
1821  it  was  laid  under  the  authority  of  the 
bishop  of  Freiburg,  and  long  before  that 
time  it  had  ceased  to  be  of  any  spiritual  im- 
portance. Under  llabauus  jMaurus  its  school 
liad  been  one  of  the  largest  and  most  famous 
educational  institutions  north  of  the  Alps, 
and  for  centuries  it  acted  as  a  centre  of  civili- 
zation in  Germany,  sending  forth  subtle  schol- 
ars, great  artists,  and  well-trained  mechanics, 
but  as  modern  times  dawned  upon  history  it 
lost  its  use  as  an  instrument  and  fell  into  de- 
cay. (See  Gegenbaur,  Das  Kloster  Fulda, 
Frankfort,  1873.)  C.  P. 

Fulgentius,  b.  in  468,  at  Teleptc,  a  city  in 
NonluTii  Africa  ;  d.  Jan.  1,  533,  at  Ruspe. 
where  lie  wsus  elected  bishop  in  50S.  Two 
years  after  his  election  he  was  bani^hed  from 
Africa  bv  the  Vandal  king,  Thrasiinund.  who 
was  an  Arian,  and  he  settled  at  Cairiiari,  Sar- 
dinia. In  523  he  was  allowed  to  rtturn.  and 
in  the  mean  time  he  had  become  one  of  the 


FULKE 


(312) 


FULLER 


most  celebrated  antagonists  of  the  Arians. 
His  works  are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
LXV. 

Fulke,  William,  D.D.  (by  royal  mandate. 
1572),  Puritan;  b.  in  London,"  1538  ;  d.  at 
Dcunington,  Suffolk,  Aug.  28,  1589.  He  en- 
tered St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  1555, 
and  became  fellow,  1564  ;  principal  lecturer, 
1565  ;  preacher  and  Hebrew  lecturer,  1567  ; 
B.D.,  1568.  He  adopted  the  Puritan  theol- 
ogy, and  was  its  ardent  defender.  He  became 
rector  of  Warley,  Essex,  1571  ;  rector  of  Den- 
nington,  Suffolk,  1573  ;  master  of  Pembroke 
Hail  and  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  in 
Cambridge,  1578,  retaining,  however,  his  liv- 
ings till  his  death.  Of  his  niimerous  publica- 
tions, chiefly  directed  against  Roman  Catholic 
errors,  the  most  important  is  Ihe  Text  of  tlie 
NeiD  Testamciii,  1580.  This  was  reprinted 
by  the  Parker  Society  in  1843,  with  a  memoir 
of  Fulke.  F.  M.  B. 

Fuller,  Andrew,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Wickeu, 
Cambridgeshire,  Eng.,  Feb.  6,  1754  ;  d.  at 
Kettering,  Northamptonshire,  65  m.  n.n.w. 
of  London,  May  7,  1815.  Converted  at  the 
age  of  16,  he  was  ^baptized  at  Soham,  6  m. 
s.s.e.  of  Ely,  and  in  1775  the  church  chose 
him  to  be  its  pastor.  In  1782  he  removed  to 
Kettering,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 
Mainly  through  Iris  instrumentality  the  Bap- 
tist Missionary  Society  was  formed  in  liis 
study,  Oct.  2,  1792,  and  he  was  appointed  its 
first  secretar3^  His  labors  for  this  cause  were 
indefatigable  ;  he  travelled  over  all  Englan|[ 
many  times  ;  five  times  he  traversed  Scotland  ; 
once  he  visited  Ireland.  He  was  tall,  massive 
of  form,  and  earnest  of  speech.  He  had  few 
of  the  graces  of  oratory,  but  his  force  of  mind 
and  spiritual  fervor  made  him  a  powerful 
preacher.  Naturally  combative,  he  engaged 
heartily  in  controversies,  in  which  his  logical 
mind  and  sledge-hammer  style  made  him  a 
formidable  adversar^^  The  paralyzing  hyper- 
Calvinism  of  Gill  found  in  him  its  most  effec- 
tive antagonist.  By  voice  and  pen  he  labored 
to  substitute  for  this  theology  doctrines  more 
consonant  with  the  Scriptures.  He  was  a 
Calvinist  of  the  moderate  type,  but  main- 
tained the  universality  of  the  Atonement  and 
the  free  agency  of  man.  His  theological 
views  had  a  great  influence  on  the  Baptists 
of  England  and  America,  nor  was  this  influ- 
ence circumscribed  by  denominational  limits. 
Mr.  Fuller  was  a  voluminous  writer.  His 
Calvinistic  and  Socinian  Systems  (1794)  gives 
no  aid  and  comfort  to  Arminianism,  while 
his  Gospel  of  Christ  Wortlty  of  All  Acceptation 
(1795)  is  a  deadly  blow  to  ifiyper-Calvinism, 
as  his  Oospcl  its  Oion  Witness  (1799)  is  to 
Deism.  The  hitter  is  pronounced  by  Robert 
Hall  to  be  Fuller's  greatest  work,  but  of  the 
three  treatises  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  they 
are  works  which  not  only  had  a  great  con- 
temporary effect,  but  are  of  permanent  value. 
They  do  not  rank  with  the  great  works,  such 
as  Calvin's  Institutes  or  Edwards'  On  the 
Will,  but  among  works  of  the  second  class 
they  will  always  have  an  honorable  place. 
Two  American  colleges  (Princeton  in  1798, 
and  Yale  in  1805)  conferred  tlie  degree  of 
D.D.  on  Mr.  Fuller,  but  he  declined  both 


honors  from  conscientious  scruples  about  the 
wearing  of  titles.  Among  the  Englisli  Bap- 
tists of  the  18th  century,  Andrew  Fuller  easily 
stands  first.  Not  the  most  learned,  he  wals 
superior  to  all  his  contemporaries  in  natural 
eloquence,  in  shrewd  common-sense,  in  the 
gifts  of  leadership,  in  capacity  to  do  the  work 
of  three  ordinary  men.  There  are  many  edi- 
tions of  Fuller's  works  ;  the  most  available  is 
published,  with  a  memoir,  by  the  American 
Baptist  Publication  Society,  Philadelphia,  no 
date.  (See  also  Ryland's  Life  of  Andrew 
Fuller,  London,  1816,  and  the  biograjihy  by 
Fuller's  grandson,  Thomas  Ekins  Fuller, 
London,  1863.)  H.  C.  Vedder. 

Fuller,  Richard,  D.D.  (Columbian  Uni- 
versity, Washington,  D.  C.  1844;  Harvard, 
1853),  Baptist;  b.  at  Beaufort,  S.  C,  April 
22,  1804  ;  d.  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  20,  1876. 
He  entered  Harvard  in  1820  and  stood  among 
the  first  of  his  class,  being  especially  profi- 
cient in  general  culture  and  debate,  but  was 
compelled  by  ill  health  to  leave  college  in  his 
Junior  year.  Pie  was,  however,  given  the 
B.A.  degree  at  liis  class's  graduation  in  1824. 
Admitted,  in  1824,  to  the  South  Carolina 
bar,  he  became  one  of  the  most  successful 
lawyers  and  orators  of  the  State.  He  was 
converted  (1831)  during  a  revival  conducted 
by  Rev.  Daniel  Barber,  an  evangelist  of  celeb- 
rity in  the  South.  Hitherto  a  member  of  the 
Episcopal  Church,  he  was  led,  by  study  of 
the  Scriptures,  to  adopt  Baptist  views,  and 
was  baptized  into  the  Baptist  Church  of  Sa- 
vannah, Ga.,  although  he  had  previously  been 
immersed  by  the  Episcopal  rector  when  he 
was  admitted  into  that  denomination.  Im- 
mediately on  his  conversion  he  felt  himself 
called  to  preach  the  gospel  ;  became  a  minis- 
ter (1832)  and  pastor  in  Beaufort,  and  at  once 
took  rank  among  the  first  preachers  of  the 
South.  From  1847  he  was  pastor  in  Balti- 
more of  the  Seventh  Baptist  Church,  and 
since  1871  of  the  Eutaw  Place  Church  (an 
offshoot).  Here  he  became  famous  as  one  of 
the  greatest  preachers  of  his  generation,  and 
probablj"  the  most  influential  leader  among 
Southern  Baptists.  He  was  tall  and  of  com- 
manding presence,  his  voice  was  rich  and 
flexible,  his  mind  was  logical,  yet  imagina- 
tive, and  his  style  was  chastened,  correct,  and 
elegant.  As  a  controversialist  he  had  no  su- 
perior. Like  most  extempore  preachers,  he 
was  unequal,  but  at  his  best  he  w\as  worthy 
to  be  numbered  among  the  few  great  pulpit 
orators  of  America.  No  man  was  more  re- 
spected and  trusted  by  Southern  Baptists,  and 
none  had  greater  influence  in  moulding  de- 
nominational policy  or  in  leading  every  good 
movement.  (See  his  life  by  J.  H.  Cuthbert, 
New  York,  1879,  and  Sermons,  1860  ;  Scrip- 
tural Baptism,  n.e.,  Philadelphia,  1883.) 

PI.  C.  Vedder. 

Fuller,  Thomas,  D.D.  (by  royal  mandate, 
1660),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Aldwincle, 
Northamptonshire,  in  June,  1608  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, Aug.  16,  1661.  He  entered  Queen's 
College,  Cambridge,  1620 ;  became  B.A., 
1624;  M.A.,  1628;  perpetual  curate  of  St. 
Benet's,  Cambridge,  1630,  and  was  a  popular 
preacher ;    prebendary    of    Salisbury,  1631 ; 


FUNDAMENTAL 


(318) 


FURST 


rector  of  Broad  Windsor,  Dorsetshire,  1634  ; 
member  of  couvocation,  1640  ;  lecturer  of  tlie 
Savoy,  London,  1641  ;  chaplain  in  the  king's 
army,  1643.  After  holding  another  London 
lectureship,  he  was  made  perpetual  curate  of 
Waltham  Abbev,  Essex,  1648,  and  rector  of 
Crawford,  Middlesex,  1658.  At  the  Restora- 
tion he  regained  his  prebeud  and  his  place  at 
the  Savo}'  ;  was  maile  a  royal  chaplain,  and 
narrowly  escaped  bishopric.  His  works  in- 
clude a  poem,  Duvid's  IZainous  Si/me,  etc., 
1631,  rep.,  1869  ;  The  History  of  the  Holy 
Wan-e,  1639,  rep.,  1840  ;  The  HoU/  State  and 
the  Profane  State,  1643,  rep.,  i841  ;  Good 
Thouqhts  in  Bad,  Tii/ws,  1645  ;  Good  Thouglds 
in  Worse  limes,  1647  ;  Mi.ct  Contemplations 
in  Better  limes,  1660,  the  three  iu  1  vol.,  1863 
(Boston)  ;  Andronicus,  1646  ;  ^1  Pisc/ah-Sight 
of  Palestine,  1650.  rep.,  1869  ;  The  Church  His- 
tory of  Britain,  1655,  rep.,  1868  ;  The  Appeal 
of  Injured  Innocence,  a  supplement  to  the  last- 
named,  1659,  rep..  1840,  and  The  History  of 
the  Worthies  of  England,  1662,  rep.,  1840. 
These  two  histories  and  several  of  his  devo- 
tional works  are  still  widely  read,  and  fa- 
mous for  wit,  quaintuess,  and  wisdom.  Cole- 
ridge inclines  to  rank  him  "  next  to  Shake- 
speare" in  exciting  "the  sense  and  emotion 
of  the  marvellous;"  "  one  eentence  out  of 
every  three  deserves  to  be  quoted  as  a  motto 
or  as  a  maxim."  Fuller's  personal  character 
stood  high;  his  memory  was  wonderful.  His 
life  has  been  best  written  by  John  Eglinton 
Eailey,  London,  1874.  F.  31.  B. 

Fundamental  Doctrines.  The  Roman 
Catholics  deny  the  distinction  implied  in  this 
phrase,  but  nearly  all  Protestants  admit  that 
some  doctrines  of  Scripture  are  of  more  im- 
portance than  others  and  may  jusll}'  be  called 
fundamental.  This  does  not  mean  that  they 
are  essential  to  salvation,  for  a  living  faith  in 
Christ  as  the  Saviour  is  enough  for  this  (Acts 
xvi.  31)  ;  nor  that  they  are  the  only  articles  a 
church  onglit  to  hold,  for  it  is  expedient  to 
hold  some  views,  e.g.,  the  apostasy  of  angels, 
the  double  procession  of  the  Spirit,  the  sacra- 
ments, which  are  not  fundamental  ;  nor  that 
they  are  those  which  distinguisii  Christianity 
froin  natural  religion,  for  some  of  the  latter 
(the  existence  of  God)  are  essential,  and  some 
of  the  former  (e.g.,  the  existence  of  Satan)  not ; 
nor  are  they  tiie  peculiar  tenets  of  any  one 
denomination,  for  tliese  may  be  true  and  use- 
ful (views  of  the  sacraments  or  of  polity),  and 
jret  by  no  means  of  radical  importance  ;  nor 
Is  the  Apostles'  Creed  a  fair  summarv  of 
them,  for  tiiat  venerable  symbol,  just  because 
of  its  antiquity,  failed  to  set  forth  all  the 
church  has  learned  from  the  Word. 

Fundamental  doctrines,  then,  may  be  fairly 
described  as  those  which  make  Christianity 
what  it  is,  and  without  which  it  could  not 
well  maintain  itself  or  discharge  the  ends  of 
its  being.  Of  course  this  dehnition  leaves 
room  for  difference  of  opinion.  Some  would 
expand  comprehension  to  latitudinariani.sm  ; 
others  would  contract  the  scale  to  a  narrow 
bigotry.  The  following  is  offered  a.s  a  tenta- 
tive li.st  :  (1)  Tlie  Scriptures  as  the  rule  of  faitii 
and  practice  ;  (•3)Tbe  Trinity  ;  (3)  The  Incar- 
nation ;  (4)  The  Atonement";  (5)  Jusliiication 


by  Faith  ;  (6)  The  General  Resurrection  ;  (7) 
Heaven  and  Hell.  The  omission  of  any  one 
of  these  would  affect  the  whole  system,  and 
yet,  on  the  other  hand,  a  churcli  (Rome)  may 
hold  them  all  and  yet  combine  with  them  such 
errors  as  to  modify  or  even  nullify  the  truth 
expressed. 

LiTERATUUE.  —  Chillingworth,  Religion  of 
Protestants  ;  Waterland,  A  Discourse  of  Fun- 
damentals ;  Tluliick,  D.  Lvth.  Lehre  v.  d. 
fiindam.  Artikdn.  T.  W.  C. 

Funeral.     See  BuitiAi,. 

Funk,  Franz  Xaver,  Ph.D.,  Lie.  Theol., 
D.D.  (all  Tiibingen,  1863,  1871,  1875,  respec- 
tively), Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Ablssrmiind, 
Wiirtemberg,  Oct.  12,  1840  ;  studied  at  Tii- 
bingen and  Roftenburg  ;  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Tubingen,  1870.  He  edited  the 
5th  ed.  of  Hefeles  Opera  patrum  apoxtolorum, 
Tiibingen,  1878-81,  2  vols.  ;  w.  supplement, 
Boctrina,  XII.  Apostolorum,  1887  ;  and  has 
written  Die  Echtheit  der  Ignatianischen  Briefe 
aufs  neue  verteidigt,  1883  ;  Leiirhuch  der 
Kirchengeschichte,  Rottenburg,  1886. 

Funk,  Isaac  Kaufmann,  D.D.  (Wittenberg 

College,  Springlield,  O.,  1882),  Lutiieran 
(General  Svnod)  ;  b.  at  Clifton,  Greene  Coun- 
ty, O.,  Sept.  10,  i839  ;  graduated  at  Witten- 
berg College,  1860  ;  entered  the  ministry, 
1861  ;  was  pastor  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  186.i- 
72  ;  associate  editor  of  the  Christian  Radical, 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  1872-73;  editor  of  the  Union 
Advocate,  New  York,  1873-75  ;  of  the  Metro- 
politan  Pulpit  (1876)  and  ComjMe  Preacher 
(1877),  combined  in  Iloinlhiir  Mn.thly  (1S7S), 
now  enlarged  and  called  HoiniUlir  Ra-i/w 
(1885).  He  is  the  head  of  the  tirm  of  Funk 
&  Wagnalls  (started  1877). 

Furness,  William  Henry,  D.D  (Harvard, 
1847),  LL.D.  (C'oluml)ia,  1887),  Unitarian  ; 
b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  20,  1802;  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  College,  1820  ;  became 
pastor  of  the  First  Unitarian  Congregational 
Church,  Philadelphia,  1825,  and  so  remained 
until  1875,  when  he  retired.  The  life  of  .Jesus 
had  always  a  great  attraction  for  him,  and  his 
published  writings  are  almost  e.Nclusively 
upon  that  theme,  and  yet  his  view  is  that  of 
the  extreme  humanitarian  school.  Of  them 
may  be  mentioned.  Remarks  on  tlie  Four  Gos- 
pels, Philadelphia,  1835  ;  Jesus  and  His  Biog. 
raphers,  1838  ;  .1  IIi.'<tory  of  Jisus.  1850,  2d 
ed.,  Boston,  1853;  Thoughts  on  the  Life  and 
Character  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  Boston,  1859  ■ 
T/ie  Veil  Partly  Lifted  and  Jesus  Becoming 
Visible,  1864  ;  The  Unconscious  Truth  of  the 
Four  Gospels,  Philadelphia,  1S68  ;  Jesus,  1871  ; 
Ihe  Power  of  Spirit  Manifsted  in  Jesus  of 
Nazareth,  1877  ;  The  Story  of  the  Re-turrect ion 
Told  Once  More,  1885.  He  also  translated 
Schenkel's  Character  of  Jesus  Portrayed,  Bos- 
ton, 1866,  2  vols. 

Fiirst,  Julius,  Hebrew  ;  b.  at  Zerkowo,  88 
m.  s.e.  of  Posen,  Mav  12,  1805  ;  d.  at  Leip- 
zig, Feb.  9,  1H73.  iHe  studied  at  Berlin, 
Posen,  and  Breslau  ;  became  prirat-dorcnt  at 
Leipzig,  1839  ;  lector  puhlicus  of  Oriental  l.ui- 
guages,  1S57  ;  nominal  professor,  1H»>4.  His 
fame  rests  upon  two  great  works,  his  Latin 
Concordance  to  the  Hebrew  Bible  (Leipzig, 


GABBATHA 


(314) 


GAIjBRIUS 


1837-40),  in  which  he  was  aided  by  Delitzscli, 
and  his  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old 
Testament  (1857-61,  3  vols.,  3d  ed.  by  Victor 
Ryssel,  1876,  Eng.  trans,  by  Samuel  David- 
son, Leipzig,  1865,  4th  ed.,  1871). 

G. 

Gab'-ba-tha  {an  elevation),  the  tessellated 
pavement  outside  the  judgment  hall,  or  prai- 
torium,  from  which  Pilate  pronounced  sen- 
tence upon  Christ  (John  xix.  16).  This  name 
indicates  its  raised  position  rather  than  its 
structure.  T.  W.  C. 

Gabler,  Johann  Philipp,  German  rational- 
ist ;  b.  at  Fraukfort-on-Main,  June  4,  1758  ; 
d.  at  Jena,  Feb.  17,  1826.  He  .studied  theol- 
ogy and  philosophy  at  Jena  ;  became  rejwtent 
at  Gottingen,  1780  ;  professor  of  pliilosophy 
and  pro-rector  in  the  chief  gymnasium  at 
Dortmund,  1783  ;  diaconvs  and  ordinary  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Altdorf,  1785  ;  the 
latter  at  Jena,  1804.  In  his  inaugural  at 
Altdorf,  On  the  Proper  Discrimination  Be- 
iiceen  Biblical  and  Boffinatic  Theology  and 
the  Limits  of  Each,  he  for  the  first  time 
made  the  distinction  and  established  the  his- 
toric character  of  the  first.  His  literary  work 
was  mainly  in  journals,  but  he  edited  the  2d 
ed.  of  Eichhorn's  Urgeschichte,  Altdorf,  1790- 
93,  2  vols.  (Cf.  life  by  W.  Schroter,  Jena, 
1827.) 

Ga'-bri-el  {a  hero  of  God),  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  angels.  He  was  sent  to  the  prophet 
Daniel  (Dan.  viii.  16,  ix.  21)  to  explain  his 
visions.  In  the  later  economy  he  was  sent  to 
Zacharias  to  announce  the  future  birth  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  6  months  later,  to  Nazareth, 
to  the  Virgin  Mary,  to  declare  the  great  honor 
to  be  conferred  on  her  (Luke  i.  11-19,  26-38). 
T.  W.  C. 

Gabriel  Sionita,  D.D.  (Paris,  1620),  Maro- 
nite  ;  b.  at  Edden,  on  Mt.  Lebanon,  Syria, 
1577  ;  d.  in  Paris,  1648.  His  fame  as  an  Ori- 
entalist rests  upon  his  share  (the  Syriac  and 
Arabic  versions)  in  Le  Jay's  Polyglot  Bible, 
Paris,  1645,  9  vols. 

Gad  (fortune).  1.  The  7th  son  of  Jacob 
and  first-born  of  Zilpah,  Leah's  handmaid 
(Gen.  XXX.  11).  2.  A  prophet  who  came  to 
David  when  he  was  in  the  cave  of  Adullam 
(1  Sam.  xxii.  5),  and  was  his  friend  and  coun- 
sellor, being  called  "David's  seer"  (2  Sam. 
xxiv.  11,  13).  He  appears  to  have  written  a 
history  of  his  reign  (1  Chron.  xxix.  29).  3. 
The  tribe  of  this  name  dwelt  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, in  a  fine  pastoral  region  north  of  Reuben, 
and  reaching  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  They 
were  warlike  (1  Chron.  xii.  8),  as  their  expo- 
sure compelled  them  to  be.  Two  famous  men 
came  from  Gad,  Barzillai  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27) 
and  Elijah  (1  Kings  xvii.  1).  T.  W.  C. 

Gad'-a-ra,  now  Um-Keis,  a  fortified  city  of 
Decapolis,  about  7  m.  s.e.  of  the  Sea"  of 
Galilee,  upon  the  level  summit  of  a  steep 
limestone  hill,  in  the  sides  of  which  are  many 
lomb-caverns,  some  of  tliem  still  inhabited  by 
Arabs.     The  country  of  the  Gadarenes  (Matt. 


viii.  28,  R.  V.)  extended  to  the  Jordan  and 
the  lake  ;  and  in  the  part  bordering  on  the 
lake  occurred  the  miracle  of  the  healing  of 
two  demoniacs.  The  precise  spot  is  supposed 
to  have  been  midway  of  the  lake,  and  near 
Gerasa,  or  the  modern  Kersa,  where  the  hills 
approach  within  40  feet  of  the  water. 

T.  W.  C. 

Galatia,  a  central  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
consisting  chiefly  of  the  high  table-land  be- 
tween the  two  rivers  Halys  and  Sangarius. 
Its  name  came  from  the  Galati  or  Gauls,  sev- 
eral tribes  of  whom  migrated  hither  about  280 
B.C.,  and  mingled  with  the  former  inhab- 
itants. Conquered  by  Rome  180  B.C.,  they  re- 
mained self-governed  till  Augustus  made 
them  a  Roman  province  with  a  propraetor. 
They  retained  much  of  the  mercurial  and  im- 
pulsive di.sposition  of  the  Gallic  race.  Paul 
visited  them  (Acts  xvi.  6),  and  again,  "went 
through  the  region  of  Galatia"  (Acts  xviii. 
23).  T.  W.  C. 

Galatians,  Epistle  to.  Written  by  Paul 
from  Corinth  "  with  his  own  hand"  (ch.  vi. 
11),  about  A.D.  57-58.  The  Galatians  had  re- 
ceived Paul  with  much  enthusiasm,  "as  an 
angel  of  God"  (iv.  14),  but  had  been  perverted 
by  Judaizing  teachers,  who  insisted  that  they 
should  ob.serve  Mosaic  rites  and  ceremonies, 
and  impeached  Paul's  authority.  He  writes 
therefore  with  great  warmth  and  earnestness, 
omitting  the  commendations  with  which  his 
epistles  usually  open.  In  chapters  1  and  2 
he  insists  upon  his  apostolic  commission  and 
claims  equal  authority  with  the  other  apos- 
tles. In  the  next  two  chapters  he  presents 
the  great  doctrine  of  Christianity,  justification 
by  faith,  appealing  (as  he  did  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans)  to  the  example  of  Abraham 
(iii.  6-29),  and  showing  that  the  works  of  the 
law  could  not  save,  using  the  allegorical  illus- 
tration of  Sarah  and  Hagar  (iv.  21-31).  In 
the  two  concluding  chapters  he  sets  forth  the 
true  liberty  of  the  sons  of  God,  and  at  the 
same  time  guards  it  against  abuse.  His  con- 
trast of  the  woi'ks  of  the  flesh  with  the  fruits 
of  the  Spirit  (v.  16-24)  is  verj^  striking.  The 
epistle  is  one  of  the  few  whose  genuineness 
has  never  been  contested. 

The  best  commentaries  are  those  of  Luther, 
Bishop  Lightfoot,  and  3Ieyer.        T.  W.  C. 

Gale,  Theophilus,  Nonconformist ;  b.  at 
King's  Teignmouth,  Devonshire,  1628  ;  d.  at 
Newington  Green,  near  Holborn,  London,  in 
March,  1678.  He  entered  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  1647;  became  B.A.,'l649;  fellow, 
1650  ;  M.A.,  1652,  and  was  eminent  for  learn- 
ing. Ejected  1661,  he  acted  as  tutor  to  Lord 
Wharton's  sons  till  1666,  and  then  as  assistant 
pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Holborn.  His 
library  was  bequeathed  to  Harvard  College. 
His  chief  work,  Ihe  Gntrt  of  the  Oentiles,  Ox- 
ford and  London,  1669-71-77,  4  parts,  2d  ed.. 
1672-82,  is  full  of  curious  erudition  and  mys- 
tical philosophy,  and  aims  to  trace  the  wisdom 
of  heathen  sages  to  a  biblical  source. 

F.  M.  B. 

Galerius,  Roman  emperor,  305-11,  was 
made  C;esar  of  the  East  by  Diocletian  in  292, 
and  was  the  real  instigator  of  that  persecution 


GALILEE 


(315) 


GALL 


which,  in  303,  suddenly  broke  loose  upon  the 
Christians  and  generally  is  marked  by  the 
name  of  Diocletian.  His  enmity  against  Chris- 
tianity was  neither  political  nor  philosoph- 
ical, but  arose  from  an  intense  moral  hatred. 
His  rough  and  violent  nature  found  full  play 
in  the  Phrygian  orgies,  in  which  he  had  been 
initiated  by  his  mother,  and  the  severe  re- 
straints demanded  by  Cliristianity  he  did  not 
understand,  though  he  understood  verj^  well 
that,  if  legitimate,  they  made  him  out  a  beast. 
The  first  edicts  of  Diocletian  can  be  traced 
directly  back  to  his  influence — twice  he  set 
fire  to  tiie  palace  in  Nicomedia,  in  order  to 
convince  (he  emperor  of  the  existence  of  a 
plot  among  the  Christians  against  his  life — 
and  after  Diocletian's  abdication,  in  305,  the 
persecution  became  only  more  cruel  and  more 
general.  But  in  310  Galerius  was  attacked  by 
a  frightful  and  incurable  disease,  and  on  May 
30,  311,  was  posted  in  Nicomedia  the  curious 
edict  which  restored  to  the  Christians  tlieir 
religious,  political,  and  social  rights,  and  also 
commanded  them  to  pray  to  their  God  for  the 
sick  emperor.     He  died  a  few  days  afterward. 

C.  P. 
Galilee  {circle),  originally  a  small  district 
around  Kedesh  Naphtali  (Josh.  xx.  7),  near 
the  northern  limits  of  Palestine,  called  by 
Isaiah  (ix.  1)  "  Galilee  of  the  nations."  In 
the  time  of  our  Lord  Galilee  was  the  most 
northern  of  the  three  provinces  into  which 
Palestine  was  divided.  It  included  the  regioii 
from  the  plain  of  Jezreel  to  the  Litany  (Le- 
ontes)  River.  It  was  famed  for  its  fertility, 
pastures,  and  forests,  and  is  said  to  have  had 
in  the  Roman  period  a  very  large  population. 
This,  ho  we  per,  was  of  a  mixed  ctiaracter, 
being  comparatively  rude  and  unpolished  and 
using  a  peculiar  dialect  and  pronunciation 
(Mark  xiv.  70).  Here  our  Saviour  resided 
till  he  was  30  years  of  age,  and  here  was  the 
scene  of  the  greater  portion  of  his  teachings 
and  miracles.  Most  of  his  disciples  were 
from  this  region  (Acts  i.  11).  (See  Selah 
Merrill,  Galilee  in  the  Time  of  Christ,  London, 
1885.)  T.  W.  C. 

Galilee,  a  popular  term,  perhaps  derived 
from  the  passage,  Mark  xvi.  70,  and  corre- 
sponding to  the  technical  term  nnrthex,  de- 
notes in  early  mediteval  church  buildings  in 
England  a  place  at  the  entrance,  either  a  sepa- 
rate chapel  or  the  deep  porch,  orotherwi.se  de- 
fined, which  was  considered  less  sacred  than 
the  rest  of  the  building,  and  therefore  u.sed  by 
penitents  and  catechumens,  or  by  the  monks 
when  they  liad  some  business  with  women,  or 
as  a  temporary  resting-place  for  dead  bodies 
awaiting  burial,  etc.  There  are  three  exam- 
ples of  such  constructions  found  among  the 
English  cathedrals,  at  Durham,  Lincoln,  and 
Ely. 

Galileo  Galilei  (gal-a-lee'-o  ga  la-l5-ca),  as- 
tronomer, matlicmatician,  and  scientist  ;  b. 
at  Pisa,  Feb.  18,  l.-)M4  ;  d.  at  Areetri,  near 
Florence,  Jan.  8,  1042.  He  was  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Pisa,  where  he  had  been  edu- 
cated. 1589-92  ;  at  Padua.  1592-1010.  and  at 
Florence,  1610  till  his  death.  In  tlie  last  city 
he  first  came  out  as  the  advocate  of  the  Coper- 
nican  system,  and  thus  fell  into  ill-favor  with 


the  Dominicans,  who  had  declared  Copernicus 
a  heretic.  In  1615  he  went  to  Rome  of  his 
own  accord  to  purge  himself  of  the  charge  of 
heresy,  and  to  endeavor  to  secure  permission, 
from  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  to  teach 
the  Copernican  theory.  But  so  far  from  ac- 
complishing his  ends,  he  was  compelled  to  re- 
nounce his  own  belief  in  it  and  promi.se  not; 
further  to  teach  the  "heresy"  that  the  earth 
moved.  In  1633  he  published  his  StjHteme  of 
the  World,  in  Vour  Dialorjues,  wherein  the  Two 
Grand  Systemcs  of  Ptolemy  and  Copernicus 
are  .  .  .  Discoursed  o/(Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1681),  and  the  next  year  he  was  sununonecl 
before  the  holy  Inquisition  in  Rome,  and  on 
June  22,  1633,  was  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment during  the  pleasure  of  the  holy  ottice, 
for  having  maintained  the  false  and  anti-scrip- 
tural doctrine;  tliat  the  sun  was  the  centre  of 
the  world  and  did  not  move  from  cast  to  west, 
while  the  earth  moved  and  was  the  centre  of 
tlie  universe.  He  was  oidy  in  prison  from 
June  21  to  June  24  ;  then  he  was  permitted 
to  live  in  a  villa  of  the  grand  duke  of  Tu.s- 
cany,  and  on  July  6  to  leave  Rome  for  Siena, 
whence,  in  December,  he  returned  to  Flor- 
ence, and  in  the  Villa  Martellini  at  Arcelri 
passed  in  retirement,  under  the  strict  surveil- 
lance of  the  holy  office,  the  remainder  of  his 
days.     In  his  last  years  he  was  blind. 

His  astronomical  discoveries  and  mechani- 
cal inventions  raise  him  to  the  highest  place 
among  famous  men  ;  while  his  treatment  by 
the  Inquisition  is  frequently  cited  as  some- 
thing disgraceful  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  he  was  con- 
demned for  teaching  doctrines  contrary  to 
Scripture,  and  thej'  really  were  to  the  inter- 
pretation generally  put  upon  Scripture.  The 
Roman  Church  believes  that  it  is  right  to 
prosecute  to  the  death  those  who  teach  con- 
trary doctrine,  and  so  in  i)ersecuting  Galileo 
was  consistent.  It  is  only  in  our  da}-  that 
Protestants  are  agreed  as  to  the  imrighteous- 
ness  of  such  a  proceeding.  Tiie  prohibition 
of  all  books  which  taught  the  mobility  of  the 
earth  and  the  immobility  of  the  sun  remained 
upon  the  Index  until  1757.  (See  Galileo's 
writings,  Florence,  1842-56,  15  vols.;  Private 
Life  of  Galileo,  London,  1870  ;  Gebler,  Galileo 
Galilei  and  the.  Roman  Cvria,  orig.,  Stuttgart, 
1876,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1879  ;  F.  R.  W. 
Prosser,  Qcdileo  and  his  Judges,  London, 
1889.) 

Gall,  St.  (German,  Sanct  Galle?i),  a  city  of 
Switzerland,  capital  of  the  canton  of  the  .same 
name,  18  m.  s.e.  of  Constance,  arose  around 
the  monastery  of  St.  Gall,  founded  in  the  first 
half  of  the  7th  century  by  an  Irish  monk, 
Gallus,  a  pupil  of  Columbanus.  In  tlie  8th 
century  the  monastery  grew  very  rapidly,  tiie 
rules  of  St.  Benedict  were  substituted  for  those 
of  St.  Columban,  a  church  was  built  in  lionor 
of  St.  Gall,  a  hospital  for  lepers  was  estab- 
lished, and  a  school  was  opened.  In  the  9th 
century  the  institution  was  made  a  free  ab- 
bey, exempted  from  the  authority  of  the  bi.shop 
of  Constance,  and  under  the  guidance  of 
Notker  Lalx^o  and  the  Ekkchardts  its  school 
readied  its  highest  celebrity.  It  had  an  ex- 
cellent library.     The  monks  of  St.  Gall  were 


GALLIC 


(316) 


GALLIUNUS 


^ 


famous  as  transcribers.  They  also  cultivated 
the  line  arts  with  success,  especially  music. 
The  Reformation  passed  lightly  over  the 
place,  but  under  the  Revolution  its  estates 
were  confiscated,  and  in  1798  its  territory  was 
formed  into  a  bishopric.  (See  Ildephons  von 
Arx,  Geschichte  des  Kant/jiis  St.  Oallen,  St. 
Gallen,  1810-13,  3  vols.  ;  Greith,  Der  heiligc 
Gallus,  1864.) 

Gal'-li-o,  Junius  Annseus,  a  brother  to 
Seneca,  the  philosopher,  and  probably  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Nero,  though  Jerome  tells 
us  that  he  committed  suicide  ;  was  Roman  pro- 
consul of  Achaia  when  Paul  first  visited  Cor- 
inth (Acts  xviii.  12). 

Gallandius,  Andreas,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b. 
at  Venice,  Dec.  7,  1709  ;  d.  there,  Jan.  12, 
1779.  He  was  an  oratorian  and  is  justly 
famed  for  his  Bibliotheca  veterum  Patruin 
antiqiiorumque  scriptorum  ecclesiasticorum, 
Venice,  1765-81,  14  vols.  fol..  noted  for  the 
accuracy  of  its  text  and  the  excellence  of  its 
dissertations. 

Gallaudetj  Thomas  Hopkins,  LL.D.  (West- 
ern Reserve  College,  1851),  pioneer  in  deaf- 
mute  instruction  ;  b.  in  Pliiladelphia,  Dec. 
10,  1787  ;  d.  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Sept.  9, 
1851.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  1805,  and  at 
Andover,  1814,  after  studying  law  and  act- 
ing as  tutor  at  Yale.  Having  examined  the 
systems  of  instruction  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
in  Europe,  1815-16,  he  began  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  April  15,  1817,  with  7  pupils  and  1  as- 
sistant. The  work  grew  abundantly,  though 
he  was  compelled  by  illness  to  resign  its 
charge  in  1830.  From  1838  he  was  chaplain 
of  the  Connecticut  Retreat  for  the  Insane.  He 
edited  Annals  of  the.  Deaf  and  Dumb,  6  vols., 
and  published  several  other  books.  Flis  life 
has  been  written  by  H.  Humphrey,  1858,  and 
by  one  of  his  sons,  1888.  F.  M.  B. 

Galilean  Confession,  prepared  by  John 
Calvin  and  his  pupil,  Antoine  de  la  Roche 
Chandieu  ;  revised  and  approved  by  the  Pari- 
sian Synod  of  1559  ;  presented  by  Beza  to 
Charles  IX.  at  the  religious  colloquy  of  Pois- 
sy  in  1561  ;  adopted,  after  further  revision, 
by  the  Synod  of  Rochelle,  in  1571,  over  which 
Beza  presided,  and  solemnly  sanctioned  by 
Henry  IV.,  who  was  present.  It  is  also  called 
the  "  Confession  of  Rochelle."  It  is  the  old- 
est of  the  official  confession?  o^  the  Reformed 
Church  of  France.  It  is  a  faithful  summarv 
of  Calvinism.  (Cf.  Schaff,  Greeds,  i.,  pp.  491 
sqq.,  iii.,  356  sqq.) 

Gallicanism,  the  general  term  for  the  body 
of  ecclesiastical  principles  whicli  governed  the 
conduct  of  the  French  Catholic  Church  to- 
ward the  papal  chair.  It  was  a  vigorous  dec- 
laration that  the  French  Church  had  certain 
"  liberties"  which  even  the  pope  must  not 
touch.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges, 
1438,  adopted  by"  the  Synod  of  Bourges  and 
confirmed  by  the  French  Parliament  on  July 
13,  1439,  is  the  foundation  of  these  claims, 
since  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Louis  IX., 
1268,  is  demonstrably  a  forgery.  It  lays 
down  the  two  great  principles  that  the  pope 
could  not  handle  the  temporalities  of  the 
French  Church,  nor  act  in  a  way  contrary  to 


the  ancient  laws  and  usages  of  that  church 
confirmed  by  its  councils.  This  Pragmatic 
Sanction  was,  of  course,  hateful  to  the  papacy, 
and  the  popes  endeavored  in  vain  to  nullify 
it.  In  1461  Louis  XL,  on  political  grounds, 
recalled  it,  and  it  was  finally  abrogated  by 
Francis  L,  in  his  concordat  with  Pope  Leo  X., 
in  exchange  for  certain  enlargements  of  kingly 
rights  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  granted  by  the 
pope. 

But  the  spirit  which  had  moved  that  Synod 
of  Bourges  was  still  alive,  and  in  1594  it 
showed  itself  in  Pithou's  Liberties  of  the  Gal- 
lican  Qiurch,  and  in  1682  in  The  Declaration 
of  the  Gallican  Clergy,  inspired  by  Bossuet. 
The  latter  expressly  asserted,  (1)  the  power  of 
the  church  is  limited  to  temporalities  ;  (2)  ac- 
cording to  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of 
Constance  (q.v.),  councils  have  supremacy 
over  the  pope  ;  (3)  the  power  of  the  pope  in 
France  is  limited  by  the  Gallican  "  liberties  ;" 
(4)  papal  decisions  'without  the  affirmation  of 
the  General  Council  cannot  be  considered  in- 
fallible. The  "liberties"  referred  to  are 
those  asserted  in  the  so-called  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion of  Louis  IX.  (1268),  now  proved  to  be  a 
forgery.  The  chief  are  as  follows  :  (1)  the 
prelates  of  the  churches  [in  France],  patrons, 
and  collators  of  benefices  shall  have  full 
rights,  and  each  shall  be  sustained  therein  ; 
(2)  cathedrals  and  other  churches  shall  have 
untrammelled  elections  and  be  guaranteed 
their  carrying  out  ;  (3)  the  entire  abolition  of 
simony  ;  (4)  promotions,  collations,  provi- 
sions, and  depositions  of  prelatures,  dignities, 
and  other  ecclesiastical  benefices  and  offices, 
whatsoever  they  may  be,  shall  be  made  accord- 
ing to  the  institutions  of  common  law,  of  the 
councils,  and  of  our  ancient  fathers  ;  (5)  the 
collection  of  the  taxes  of  the  Roman  Curia, 
except  for  extraordinary  reasons,  is  forbidden. 
The  great  advocate  of  Gallicanism  is  Bossuet 
(q.v.).  He  sent  the  Declaration,  spoken  of 
above,  to  the  pope,  with  a  commendatory  ad- 
dress. Awed  by  the  papal  opposition,  the 
twelve  signers,  by  permission  of  the  king, 
Louis  XIV.,  retracted  in  1693.  The  king, 
however,  and  Louis  XV.  still  approved  of  its 
principles,  and  in  1810  they  w^ere  made  laws 
of  the  state  under  Napoleon.  But  their  ad- 
vocacy by  De  Maistre  and  Lamennais  was  de- 
clared heretical,  and  since  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil it  is  impossible  for  a  loyal  Roman  Catholic 
to  defend  any  such  thing.  Gallicanism  is 
mere  ancient  history,  (g  36,  for  the  proofs  of 
the  forgery  of  the  so-called  "  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion of  St.  Louis,"  Scheffer-Boichorst  mMit- 
theilungen  des  Instititts  fur  oesterreicher  Ge- 
schichtsschreibung ,  1887  ;  for  the  later  history 
see  Gerin,  Recherches  JdstmHques  sur  I'assem- 
blee  du  clerge  de  France  de  1682,  Paris,  1869, 
2d  ed.,  1870  ;  in  general  cf.  W.  Henley  Jer- 
vis.  The  Gallican  Church  from  1516  to  the 
Revolution,  1872,  2  vols.  ;  do.,  The  Gallican 
Church  and  the  Revolution,  1882.  Cf.  Zoepf- 
fel's  art.  Gallicanismus,  in  Holtzmann  and 
Zoepffel's  Lexikon  filr  Theologie  u.  Kirclien- 
wesen,  2d  ed.,  the  basis  of  the  above.) 

Gallienus,  Roman  emperor,  260-68,  re- 
voked some  of  the  edicts  of  his  father,  Valeri- 
anus,  against  the  Christians,  and  is  praised  by 


GALLITZIN 


(317) 


GARDINER 


Eusebius  {Hist.  EccL,  vii.,  23),  as  if  thereby 
be  introtluced  a  new  policy,  though  the  fact 
seems  to  be  that  he  simply  fell  back  into  the 
old  Roman  tradition  of  impassivity  and  indif- 
ference, from  which  men  like  'D.;ciiis  and 
Diocletian  desperately  tried  to  break  loose. 

Oallitzin  (properly  Galizyn),  Adelheid 
Amalie,  Princess  of,"  b.  in  Berlin,  Aug.  28, 
1748,  daughter  of  the  Prussian  general  tield- 
marshal  Count  Samuel  vcm  Schmettau  ;  d.  at 
]\[anster,  April  27,  1803.  Educated  at  an 
atheistic  girls'  school  in  Berlin,  she  married 
at  Aachen,  Aug.  10,  1768,  Prince  Dimitri 
Alexejewitsch  G;illitziu,  Russian  minister  to 
the  Hague.  In  178()  she  entered  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  until  lier  death  made 
lier  house  at  Miinster,  where  she  had  lived 
since  1775),  the  centre  of  religious  influences  in 
counteraction  to  the  court.  Among  her 
guests  was  Goethe,  who  highly  esteemed  her. 
(See  her  life  by  Galland,  Cologne,  1880.) 

Gallus,  Roman  emperor,  251-54.  Under 
him  the  horrors  of  the  Decian  persecution 
ceased,  though  local  and  individual'  persecu- 
tions of  a  milder  character  still  continued. 
Thus  the  Roman  bishop,  Cornelius,  as  also 
his  successor,  Lucius,  was  expelled  from  his 
see  and  died  in  exile. 

Ga-ma'-li-el  {recompense  of  God),  the  name 
of  a  prince  of  Manasseh  in  the  desert  (Num. 
ii.  20),  and  also  of  a  distinguished  member  of 
the  Sanhedrin  in  the  generation  after  Christ 
(Acts  V.  84).  He  was  the  preceptor  of  Paul 
(Acts  xxii.  3),  and  possessed  great  influence 
among  his  countrymen.  His  vvi*e  and  pru- 
dent counsel  saved  the  apostles  from  an  ig- 
nominious death.  The  Talmudists  say  that 
ha  was  a  grandson  of  Hillel,  the  celebrated 
teacher  of  the  law.  T.  ^Y.  C. 

Games.  'There  are  a  few  references  in 
Scripture  to  the  games  for  children  and  youth 
■which  were  no  doubt  practised  among  the 
Hebrews  (Ex.  xxxii.  6,  Ps.  xix.  5.  Eccl.  ix. 
11,  Zech.  viii.  5,  Matt.  xi.  16),  but  they  had 
no  national  games  such  as  were  common 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Indeed, 
these  were  considered  disreputable.  Herod 
the  Great  introduced  them  at  Jerusalem  and 
Ciesarea,  but  greatly  to  the  displeasure  of  all 
devout  Jews.  The  Apostle  Paul  drew  fre- 
quent illustrations  from  the  Grecian  contests. 
In  1  Cor.  ix.  24-27  he  compares  the  Christian 
life  to  a  race  which  he  does  not  run  as  uncer- 
tainly (without  a  steady  aim),  and  to  a  pugil- 
istic "struggle  in  which  he  does  not  fight^as 
beating  liie  air  (striking  at  random),  and  says 
that  he  buffets  his  body  (subdues  the  old  ma"ii) 
lest  he  should  be  rejected  bv  the  umpire.  In 
2  Tim.  iv.  7  hesaj's,  "  I  have  fought  the  good 
figlit  [{inathlefir,  not  a  warlike  contest].  I'liavc 
finished  the  course  [run  the  race]."  His  words, 
'*I  fought  with  beasts  at  Ephesus"  (1  Cor. 
XV.  32),  are  best  understood  figurativel3\ 
The  statement  (1  Cor.  iv.  9).  "  God  hath  set 
forth  us  the  apostles  last  of  all,  as  men  doomed 
to  death,"  doubtless  w.as  meant  to  compare 
them  to  a  band  of  gladiators  fighting  for  life 
in  the  presence  of  a  vast  multitude. 

T.  W.  C. 


Gangra,  The  Council  of,  the  capital  of 
Papidagoiiia,  was  probably  held  in  358  and 
condemned  tiie  Eustathians,  who  held  ex- 
treme views  of  asceticism,  forbidding  mar- 
riage, the  eating  of  meat,  etc.  The  council 
recognized  marriage  as  a  Christian  institution, 
not  only  for  laymen,  but  also  for  priests. 

Gardens,  among  the  Hebrews,  were  enclo 
sures  upou  the  outskirts  of  towns,  and  were 
chiefly  devoted  to  fruit  and  shade  trees,  with 
aromatic  plants  and  herbs  (Song  iv.  12-v.  1), 
They  were  placed  beside  a  liver  or  fountain 
and  enclosed  by  walls  or  hedges,  or  else  had 
a  keeper  who  occupied  a  hut  or  booth  in  the 
centre  (Job  xxvii.  18,  Isa.  i.  8).  They  were 
u.sed  for  banqueting  (Isa.  li.  3),  for  re'ligious 
retirement  (Isa.  i.  29,  John  xviii.  1),  and  for 
burying-places  (2  Kings  xxi.  18,  John  xix. 
41).  Solomon's  gardens  (Eccl.  ii.  5,  6)  were 
in  Wady  Urtas,  south  of  i3ethlehem.  "  The 
king's  garden"  (2  Kings  xxv.  4)  was  near  the 
pool  of  Siloam.  T.  W.  C. 

Gardiner,  Frederic,  D.D.  (Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, Brunswick,  Me.,  1869),  Episcopalian  ; 
b  at  Gardiner,  Me.,  Sept.  11.  1822  ;  d.  at 
Middletown,  Conn.,  July  17,  1889.  He  grad- 
uated at  Bowdoin  College,  1842  ;  was  rector  of 
Trinity  Church,  Saco,  Me.,  184.5-47  ;  assistant 
minister  of  St.  Luke's,  Piiiladelphia,  1847-48  ; 
rector  of  Grace  Church,  Bath,  Me..  1848-53, 
and  of  Trinity  Church,  Lewiston,  Me.,  1855- 
56  ;  professor  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Theological  Seminary,  Gambler,  O.,  1865 ; 
rector  at  3Iiddletown,  Conn.,  1867,  aiid  pro- 
fessor in  the  Berkeley  (Episcojiai)  Divinity 
School  there,  1868  (first  of  Old  Testament  and 
literature,  then,  18S3,  of  New  Testament  and 
interpretation).  He  prepared  a  Harmony  of 
the  Gospels  in  Greek  (Andover,  1871,  7th  "ed., 
1884)  and  in  English  (1871,  3d  ed.,  18-)  ;  a 
Diatessaron  (1871,  2d  ed.,  18-);  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Textual  Criticism  (1S76)  :  The  Old 
and  New  Testaments  in  t/irir  Mufnid  Jiihitions 
(New  York,  1885)  ;  Commentaries  on  Jude 
(Boston,  1856),  Leviticus  (Lange  series,  New 
York,  1876),  Second  Samuel  and  p]zekiel 
(Ellicott's  Commentary,  1883  and  1884). 

Gardiner,  James,  b.  at  Carriden,  Lin- 
lithgowshire, Scotland,  Jan.  11,  1688;  killed 
at  Prestonpans,  Sept.  21,  1745.  Entering  the 
army,  he  rose  to  a  colonelcy,  and  in  1726  mar- 
ried Ladv  Frances  Erskine,  dauirhter  of  the 
earl  bf  Buchan.  His  early  life  had  been  dis- 
solute, till  he  was  converted  by  a  midiiiglit 
vision  in  July,  1719,  while  reading  'J' lie  Chris- 
tian Soldier)  thenceforth  he  was  a  nuxlel  of 
pietj--  and  virtue.  Dr.  Doddridge  wrote  a 
sermon  on  his  death  and  S<nne  Remarkable 
Passages  in  his  Life;  the  latter  has  pas.sed 
through  sundry  editions.  F.  M.  B. 

Gardiner,  Stephen,  Roman  Catholic  bish- 
op :  b.  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's,  Sufl'olk,  71  m. 
n.n.e.  of  London,  in  14S3  ;  d.  in  London, 
Nov.  12,  1555.  He  was  educateii  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  became  master  of  Trinity  Hall  and 
secretary  to  Wolsey  ;  was  employed  by  Henry 
VIII.  in  negotiating  the  divorce  with  Cathe- 
rine, and  on  various  endjassies  ;  wa^^  made  sec- 
retary of  state,  1529  ;  bishop  of  Winchester, 


GARNIER 


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GAUTAMA 


> 


1531,  aud  chancellor  of  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity, 1540.  He  defended  the  king's  suprem- 
acy in  a  tract,  Be  vera  obedientia,  1534,  but 
opposed  the  Reformation,  and  was  imprisoned 
under  Edward  VI.  Mary  restored  him  to  his 
see  and  made  him  lord  chancellor.  He  took 
some  part  in  persecuting  the  Reformers,  but 
not  so  virulently  as  Bonner.  F.  M.  E. 

Gamier  (gar'-ne-e'),  Jean,  Roman  Catholic, 
Jesuit  ;  b.  in  Paris,  1612  ;  d.  at  Bologna,  Oct. 
26,  1681,  having  been  professor  of  theology  in 
the  Jesuit  college  at  Clermont,  France,  since 
1643.  His  principal  work  was  his  edition  of 
Marii  Mercatoris  Augvstino  ceqitnMs  opera 
qucecnnque  exstant,  Paris,  1673,  2  vols.,  with 
its  7  excellent  dissertations  on  Pelagianism. 

Garucci  (ga-roo-tsee),  Raflfaele,  Roman 
Catholic  ;  b.  at  Naples,  Jan.  23,  1812  ;  d.  at 
Rome,  May  5,  1885.  He  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  1826,  gave  himself  especially  to 
the  study  of  the  catacombs  of  Rome,  and 
ranked  next  to  De  Rossi.  Of  his  numerous 
writings  upon  his  chosen  tield  may  be  men- 
tioned Les  mysteres  du  syneretisme  pJirygien 
dans  les  catacombes  romaines  de  Pretextat, 
Paris,  1854  ;  II  crocifisso  graffito  in  casa  dei 
Cesari,  1857  ;  Vetri  ornati  di  figure  in  oro, 
Rome,  1858,  2d  ed.,  1864;  Storia  dell'  arte 
Christiana  nei  primi  otto  secoli  della  chiesa, 
Prato,  1872-81,  6  vols.  ;  Inscriptiones  veteres 
Reate  quce.  exstant,  Brussels,  1884  ;  Le  monete 
deir  Italia  antica,  Rome,  1885. 

^  Gasparin  (gas-pa-ran'),  Count  Agenor 
Etienne  de,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
French  Free  Church  ;  b.  at  Orange  (Vau- 
cluse).  France,  July  12,  1810  ;  d.  at  Rivage, 
near  Geneva,  Switzerland,  May  14,  1871.  He 
was  educated  at  Paris  :  studied  law  ;  entered 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  1842  ;  retired,  1846  ; 
took  up  his  abode  in  Switzerland,  1848.  He 
took  prominent  part  in  all  the  movements  of 
French  Protestantism.  When  the  war  be- 
tween Fi'ance  and  Germany  broke  out  he  was 
much  concerned  for  his  native  country  and 
exerted  himself  in  the  care  of  the  French 
wounded,  and  died  from  a  contagious  disease 
thus  contracted.  His  numerous  writings 
were  mostly  ephemeral  productions,  but 
some,  e.g.,  Innocent  111.  (1859),  La  famille 
(1865),  Luther  et  la  Reforme  (1873),  had  a  large 
sale.  He  opposed  slavery  and  defended  the 
Union  cause  in  his  America  before  Europe 
(1862,  Eng.  trans.,  New  York,  1862,  3  edd.). 

Gataker,  Thomas,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
in  London,  Sept.  4,  1574  ;  d.  at  Rotherhithe, 
2  m.  e.  of  London,  July  27,  1654.  He  en- 
tered St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  1590  ; 
became  fellow  of  Sidney  College,  1599  ; 
preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  1601,  and  rector  of 
Rotherhithe,  Surrey,  1611.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber (according  to  Echard,  "  the  most  cele- 
brated") of  the  Assembly  of  Divines,  1643, 
but  preferred  a  moderate  <'piscopacy.  He  de- 
clined the  mastership  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, owing  to  continual  ill  health.  He 
published  Of  the  Nature  and  Use  of  Lots, 
1616  ;  A  Discussion  of  Transubstantiation, 
1624  ;  Annotations  upon  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  etc., 
1645  ;  Cinnus,  1651  ;  an  edition  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,    1652,   and    other    learned  works. 


Autobiography    in    Adversaria     Miscellanea, 
1659.  F.  M.  B. 

Gate.  In  Oriental  cities  there  are  visually 
at  the  gates  open  spaces  which  were  used  as 
market-places  and  also  for  judicial  proceed- 
ings, and,  of  course,  were  frequented  by 
idlers.  As  a  city  was  taken  when  its  gates 
were  won  (Judges  v.  8),  "gate"  came  to 
mean  power.  Hence  the  gates  of  Hades 
(Matt.  xvi.  18)  mean  its  power.  The  govern- 
ment of  Turkey  is  called  "  the  Sublime  Porte" 
(gate).  T.  W.  C. 

Gath  {toine-ptress),  one  of  the  5  cities  of  the 
Philistines,  and  the  nearest  to  Jerusalem.  It 
was  the  home  of  Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4)  ;  a 
refuge  for  David  (xxi.  15)  ;  fortilied  by  Reho- 
boam  (2  Chron.  xi.  8)  ;  dismantled  by  Uzziah. 
Its  people  were  called  Gittites  (Josh.  xiii.  3), 
and  one  of  them,  Ittai,  with  600  companions, 
faithfully  served  David  (2  Sam.  xv.  18-22). 
Its  site  has  long  been  lost.  T.  W.  C. 

Gaul,  Conversion  of.  This  is  referred  by 
tradition  to  bishops  ordained  by  St.  Peter  ; 
but  in  fact  it  is  entirely  obscure.  There  was 
a  bishopric  at  Vienne  in  118,  another  at  Au- 
xerre  in  132,  and  another  at  Lyons  in  179. 
Christianity  was  probably  introduced  from 
the  East,  and  we  early  find  the  Gallic  churches 
in  connection  with  Asia  Minor.  The  persecu- 
tion of  177  was  reported  to  the  churches  of 
Asia,  and  Irenseus,  who  was  bishop  of  Lyons 
till  202,  was  a  pupil  of  Polycarp  of  Smyrna. 
In  his  day  there  were  present  at  one  synod  at 
Lyons  13  bishops.  By  the  middle  of  the  3d 
centurj'  there  were  bishoprics  as  far  north  as 
Toul  and  Verdun  ;  and  in  the  year  303  we 
hear  of  martyrs  at  Embrun,  Agen,  Soissons, 
St.  Quentin,  Brioude,  Nantes,  Aries,  Rheims, 
Beauvais,  Agde,  and  other  places.  Under  the 
Frankish  kings,  who  were  Catholics  from  the 
time  of  Clovis'  conversion  (496),  the  church 
escaped  the  troubles  which  fell  upon  her  in 
Italy  under  the  Arian  Lombards.  (See  for 
the  literature  on  the  subject  E.  Ruelle,  BiUio- 
graphic  generate  de  la  Gaule,  Paris,  1879.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Gaussen  (go  son),  Frangois  Samuel  Robert 
Louis,  Reformed  theologian  ;  b.  in  Geneva, 
Aug.  25,  1790  ;  d.  there,  June  18,  1863.  In 
1816  he  became  pastor  at  Satigny,  near  Ge- 
neva, and  so  remained  until  1834,  when  he  was 
deposed  for  his  advocacy  of  "evangelical" 
Christianity,  and  for  founding  with  Merle 
d'Aubigue  the  "  Evangelical  Society"  and  its 
theological  seminary  in  Geneva  for  instruction 
in  sucii  views.  In  this  seminary  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  theology  from  1836  till  his  death. 
He  is  best  known"  as  the  author  of  Theopneus- 
tia  ;  the  Plenarylnspirntion  <f  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tares  (a  defence  of  verbal  insjiiration,  orig., 
Paris,  1840,  2d  ed.,  1842,  14th  ed.,  1850,  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1841,  4th  ed.,  1856);  The 
Canon  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  from  the  Double 
Point  of  View  of  Science  and  Faith  (orig.,  Lau- 
sanne, 1860,  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1862);  ihe  Prophet  Daniel  {orifr,^  1839-49.  3 
vols.,  Eng.  trans.,  1840,  again,  1873-74, 2  vols.). 

Gautama,  or  Gotama,  commonly  called 
Sakya  Muni  ("  the  Sakya  sage"),  the"  founder 
of  Buddhism.     See  India. 


GAVAZZI 


(319) 


GEILEH 


Gavazzi  (2:a-Viit'-see),  Alesaandro,  founder 
of  the  Free  Christian  Church  of  Italy  ;  b.  of 
Roman  CathoHc  parents,  at  Boloajna,  March 
21,  1809  ;  (1.  in  Konie,  Jan.  9.  1889.  In  1825 
he  entered  the  order  of  the  Barnabites  ;  be- 
came professor  of  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres  in 
Naples,  1839  ;  entered  the  priesthood  and 
preached  in  different  cities.  In  consequence 
of  his  liberal  expressions  suspected  lie  was 
transferred  to  the  states  of  the  church  as  a 
punishment,  1840.  When  Pius  IX.  came  to 
the  papal  chair,  1846,  Gavazzi,  on  the  strength 
of  the  pope's  protestations,  made  patriotic 
speeches  in  Rome,  and  took  the  field  as  chap- 
lain of  the  Republican  troops  against  Aus- 
tria, 1848.  It  was  not,  however,  long  before 
he  was  imprisoned,  for  he  was  in  advance  of 
the  hierarchy  in  his  ideas.  When  Rome  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  French,  1849,  he  volun 
tarily  exiled  him.self,  and  in  the  British  isles 
and  America  made  burning  speeches  against 
the  priestliood  and  Jesuitism.  In  1855  he 
came  out  sqiuirely  as  a  Protestant.  In  1860 
he  accompanied  Garibaldi  as  chaplain,  but 
after  the  defeat  at  Mentane  (1867)  he  with- 
drew from  politics  and  devoted  him.self  tlience- 
forth  to  establishing  the  Free  Church  of  Italy 
(1870).  In  1875  he  became  professor  of  dog- 
matics, apologetics,  and  polemics,  in  its  theo- 
logical college  in  Rome.  In  1881  he  made  his 
last  visit  to  America.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
eloquence.  (See  his  Memoirs,  London,  1851  ; 
Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes,  1859  ;  No 
Union  with  Rome,  1871  ;  The  Pi-iest  in  Abso- 
lution, 1877.) 

Gay,  Ebenezer,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1785), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Dedham,  Mass., 
Aug.  26,  1696  ;  d.  at  Hingham.  Mass.,  March 
18,  1787.  He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1714, 
and  was  pastor  at  Hingham  from  June  11, 
1718,  to  his  death.  His  sermons  were  much 
valued  in  his  day,  especiallv  one  preached  on 
his  85th  birthday,  and  called  The  Old  Man's 
Calendar.  His  Torj'  sj-mpathies  brought  him 
into  trouble  during  the  Revolution.  Dr. 
Chauncy  called  him  "  one  of  the  greatest  and 
most  valuable  men  in  the  countr3\" 

F.  M.  B. 

Ga'-za  (sironfj),  the  chief  of  the  Philistine 
cities  and  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  world,  being 
mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  19.  It  was  assigned  to 
Judah  (Josh.  xv.  47),  but  was  independent  in 
the  time  of  the  Judges.  Samson  carried  away 
its  gates,  and  afterward  perished  under  the 
ruins  of  its  temple.  It  was  subdued  by  David 
(2  Sam.  viii.  1),  but  afterward  became  inde- 
pendent. For  5  months  it  withstood  Alex- 
ander liie  Great.  It  was  taken  by  Moslems 
AD.  634,  regained  by  the  Crnsaders'.v.D.  1149, 
pluniiered  by  Saladin  a.d.  1187.  It  is  often 
referred  to  by  the  prophets  (Amos  i.  6,  7, 
Zeph.  ii.  4,  Jer.  xxv.  20,  Zech.  ix.  5),  but  is 
mentioned  only  once  in  the  New  Testament 
(Acts  viii.  26).  T.  W.  C. 

Ge'-ba  (hill),  a  Levitical  town  of  Benjamin, 
near  Ramah  and  not  far  from  the  northern 
border  of  Judah.  Here  was  the  scene  of  Jon- 
athan's exploit  (1  Sam.  xiii.  3).  It  was  6 
miles  from  Jerusalem,  and  was  separated 
from  Michmash  on  the  north  by  a  deep  valley 


(1   Sam.   xiv.  4,  5),  which  is  now  identified 
with  the  Wady  Smccinit.  T.  W.  C. 

Ge'-bal  {mountain),  a  seaport  near  Tyre, 
10  m.  n.  of  Beirut  (Kz.  xxvii.  10).  Its  inhab- 
itants Mere  called  Giljlites,  and  are  the  "  stone 
squarers"  of  1  Kings  v.  18.  It  is  now  called 
Jchail.  T.  W.  C. 

Ged-a-li'-ah  {Jehovah  is  my  greatn.ess),  son 
of  Ahikam,  appointed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
govern  Judiea.  Like  Ins  father,  he  was  a 
friend  of  Jeremiah  (Jer.  xl.  5).  He  began 
well,  but  did  not  rule  long,  for  in  2  months  he 
was  treacherously  slain  by  Ishmael  (2  King.s 
xxv.  22-26).  T.  W.  C. 

Gebhardt,  Oscar  Leopold  von,  Ph.D. 
(Tubingen,  1873),  Lie.  Theol.  (lion.,  Leipzig, 
1883),  D.D.  (hon.,  Marburg,  1883),  Lutheran  ; 
b.  at  Wesenberg,  Estland,  Russia,  June  22, 
1844;  studied  at  Dorpat,  1862-66,  Tubingen, 
Erlangen,  Gottingen,  and  Leipzig,  1867-70  ; 
was  assistant  in  the  university  library  of  Leip- 
zig, 1875-76  ;  sub-librarian  of  Halle,  1876  79  ; 
of  Gottingen,  1880-84,  and  since  1884  librarian 
of  the  Roval  Library  in  Berlin.  He  edited 
the  11th  to  14th  ed.  of  Thiele's  Greek  Testa- 
ment, Leipzig,  1875-85  ;  with  Harnack  and 
Zahn,  Patrum  apostolicontm  opera,  1875-77, 
3  vols.  ;  with  Harnack  the  gospel  codex  2. 
(1880),  and  with  the  same  Te..rte  u.  Untersuch- 
ungen.  zvr  Geschichte  der  altchristlichen  Liter- 
atiir,  1882  sqq. 

Geddes,  Janet,  or  Jenny,  an  active  Presby- 
terian (said  to  have  been  an  aged  vender  of 
herbs),  who  raised  a  riot  in  St.  Giles'  Cathe- 
dral, Edinburgh,  on  Sunday,  July  23,  1637, 
by  throwing  her  .stool  at  the  dean's  head  as  he 
was  reciting  what  she  suppo.sed  to  be  the 
Romish  mass.  The  action  had  important  re- 
ligious and  political  results,  in  suppressing 
Laud's  attempt  to  introduce  the  English  lit- 
urgy and  the  Episcopal  sy.stem  into  Scotland, 
and  turning  the  people  of  that  country  against 
Charles  I.  Some  ascribe  the  exploit  to  one 
Barbara  Hamilton.  F.  M.  B. 

Ge-ha'-zi  {valley  of  sight),  the  confidential 
servant  of  Elisha  (2  Kings  iv.  14-37.  viii.  4). 
He  by  deception  got  from  Naaman  the  gifts 
his  master  had  refused,  and  his  covetousncsB 
and  fal.sehood  were  punished  by  a  perpetual 
leprosy  (2  Kings  v.  20-27).  T.  W.  C. 

Ge-hen  -na,  the  name  of  a  valley  south  and 
west,  or  (as  Warren  and  Stanley  .say)  east  of 
Jerusalem,  a  deep  ravine,  the  wider  part  of 
which  opening  to  the  Kedron  was  called 
Tophet  (Jer.  vii.  31.  32).  where  Ahaz  and'' 
Mana.sseh  made  their  children  pa.ss  through 
the  fire  (2  Kings  xvi.  3,  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  6),  to 
end  which  Josiah  polluted  it  with  liuman 
bones  (2  Kings  xxiii.  10).  The  name  was  ap- 
plied by  tlie  later  Jews  to  the  place  of  eternal 
suffering  for  lost  angels  and  men,  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  used  in  the  New  Testament  (Matt. 
V.  22,  29.  30,  X.  28,  xxiii.  15,  Mark  ix.  43, 
Lidie  xii.  5,  James  iii.  6).  T.  W.  C. 

Geiler  (slier)  von  Kaisersberg,  Johannes, 
D.D.  (Basel,  1474),  ciiurch  orator;  b.  at 
Schaffhausen,  Switzerland,  March  16.  1445; 
d.  at  Stra.s.sburg,  March  10,  1510.  He  studied 
philosophy  at  "Freiburg  ;   began    to    lecture- 


GELASroS 


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GENEALOGY 


there  himself  in  1465  ;  about  1470  he  entered 
the  priesthood,  and  in  1471  removed  to  Basel 
as  member  of  both  the  philosophical  and  the- 
ological faculties,  but  in  1475  became  profess- 
or in  the  latter.  In  1476  he  was  recalled  to 
Freiburg  and  became  rector  of  the  university 
in  1477.  But  preaching  and  not  teaching 
was,  after  all,  his  forte,  and  his  fame  rests  upon 
this  work  as  a  preacher  in  the  Strassburg 
cathedral,  to  which  he  came  in  1478.  AU 
classes  tiocked  to  hear  him,  and  to  all,  high 
and  low  alike,  he  spoke  the  unvarnished 
truth.  He  takes  rank  with  Abraham  a  Sancta 
Clara  (q.v.)  and  Luther  (q.v.)  as  a  popular 
preacher  in  the  best  sense  of  the  term.  He 
spoke  in  German,  and  uses  homely,  colloquial 
expressions.  He  used  all  the  resources  of  his 
Tvit,  learning,  satire,  and  zeal  to  portray  the 
evils  of  the  time.  But  with  all  his  denuncia- 
tion of  the  corruptions  of  the  clergy,  monks, 
and  nuns,  it  is  doubtful  if  he  can  be  properly 
called  a  forerunner  of  the  Reformation,  since 
in  theology  he  adheres  to  the  Catholic  faith. 
Yet  he  was  put  in  the  Index,  and  when  De 
Lorenzi  issued  his  selected  edition  of  Geiler'.s 
writings  (Trier,  1881-83,  4  vols.)  he  was  com- 
pelled to  expurgate  them.  The  most  famous, 
but  from  the  Roman  Catholic  standpoint  most 
objectionable  work  of  his,  is  his  course  of  ser- 
mons on  Brant's  Ship  of  Fools.  For  editions 
of  his  works  see  Lorenzi  (above)  and  L. 
Dacheux,  Freiburg,  1883  ;  biography  by  the 
former. 

Gelasius  is  the  name  of  two  popes.  1. 
March  1,  492-Nov.  19,  496,  a  Roman  by 
birth,  was  deeply  engaged  in  the  controversy 
with  the  see  of  Constantinople  concerning  the 
primacy  of  Rome.  He  held  that  the  bishop 
of  Rome  had  the  right  to  receive  appeals  from 
other  bishops,  wliile  no  appeal  from  Rome 
was  possible,  and  the  right  to  conlirm  or  can- 
cel the  decisions  of  other  bishops,  while  his 
own  were  final.  His  Decretum  de  Ubris  re- 
cipiendis  et  non  recipiendis  is  the  first  Index 
Ubrorum  prohihitonnn,  and  among  the  authors 
forbidden  are  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, Lactantius,  and  Origen.  His  writings 
are  found  in  A.  Thiel,  Epifit.  Rom.  Pontif., 
Brunsberg,  1867.  2.  1118-Jan.  19,  1119,  John 
of  Gacta,  was  seized  by  the  Frangipani  and 
just  released  by  the  people  when^'he  had  to 
flee  to  Gaeta  for  Henry  V.  He  excommuni- 
cated the  emperor  and  the  anti-pope,  Gregory 
VIII.,  but  when  he  returned  to  Rome  he  was 
seized  a  second  time  by  the  Frangipani  and 
fled  to  France,  where  he  died  on  the  way  to 
eiugny.  His  life  in  Watterich,  Pont.  Rom. 
VitcB,  ii. 

Gellert,  Christian  Fiirchtegott,  hymnist  ; 
b.  at  Hainichen,  Saxony,  July  4,  1715  ;  d.  at 
Leipzig,  Dec.  18,  1769,  where  he  had  studied 
and  been  professor  of  poetry  and  eloquence 
since  1751.  He  wrote  comedies,  but  these  are 
forgotten  ;  fables,  which  are  immortal  ;  and 
hymns,  some  of  which  are  now  popular  in 
Gtrman,  and  one,  "Jesus  lives:  no  longer 
now,"  is  found  in  our  hymn-books.  (See 
his  works,  Leipzig,  1867,  10  vols.,  and  life 
by  Luthardt,  Leipzig,  1870  ;  Karl  Breul, 
Lessin(jft  und  Oellerts  FaHen,  with  English 
notes,  London,  1887.) 


Gem.  Mention  is  made  in  the  Bible  of 
about  20  different  precious  stones,  many  of 
which  it  is  impossible  to  identify  certainly 
with  modern  gems,  ancient  mineralogy  being 
vague  and  often  using  the  same  term  for  dif- 
ferent substances  having  some  common  prop- 
erty. Thus,  "  adamant,"  unconquerable, 
might  mean  steel  or  some  very  hard  stone, 
and  "  crystal"  (kcrach).  either  ice  (Job  vi.  16) 
or  transparent  quartz  (Ezek.  i.  22).  Precious 
stones  Avere  early  known  and  valued  (Gen.  ii. 
12).  The  12  stones  of  the  high-priest's  breast- 
plate were  engraved  with  the  names  of  the 
tribes  of  Israe^Ex.  xxviii.  21),  but  the  identi- 
fication of  some  of  these  (diamond,  sapphire, 
emerald,  ruby,  and  topaz)  is  still  in  dispute, 
because  the  art  of  engraving  the  harder  gems 
was  unknown  in  Moses'  time.  Precious 
stones  were  collected  by  David  for  the  temple 
(1  Chron.  xxix.  2).  Tyre  traded  in  them  and 
used  them  extensively  (Ezek.  xxvii.  16,  22), 
obtaining  them  from  Syria  and  Arabia  and 
India.  In  figurative  language,  precious  stones 
are  used  in  the  Bible  to  denote  peculiar  value, 
beauty,  brilliancy,  and  durability  (Sonir,  v. 
14,  Lsa.  liv.  11,  12,  Lam.  iv.  7.  Ezek.  i.  23, 
Rev.  iv.  3,  xxi.  10-20).  T.  W.  C. 

Genealogy,  a  record  of  one's  ancestors, 
either  the  line  of  natural  or  of  legal  descent, 
or  that  laid  up  in  the  public  records.  The 
Hebrews  were  particularly  careful  to  preserve 
their  genealogies,  for  on  them  rested  the  dis- 
tinction of  tribes,  the  ownership  of  lands,  and 
the  right  to  office  (1  Chron.  v.  1-17,  Ezra  ii. 
62).  Hence  their  public  tables  of  genealogies 
were  kept  secure  amid  all  vicissitudes.  They 
were  a  record  of  inherited  rights  rather  than 
of  natural  descent,  and  the  "  sons"  of  a  patri- 
arch were  not  necessarily  his  own  children  by 
birth  (Gen.  xlviii.  5,  Num.  xxvi.  41).  The 
lists  were  often  abridged  by  the  omission  of 
one  or  more  generations,  as  in  Levi's  register 
(Ex.  vi.  16-20),  David's  (Ruth  iv.  18-22), 
Ezra's  (Ezra  vii.  1-5).  And  there  were,  of 
course,  clerical  errors.  Yet  the  records  bear 
the  evidence  of  substantial  truth,  and  there  is 
no  reason  to  doubt  the  statement  of  Josephus 
that  they  were  scrupulously  preserved  down 
to  his  day.  Naturally  when  the  temple  fell 
and  the  priesthood  was  no  more  they  per- 
ished. 

The  genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ  is  the  only 
one  given  in  the  New  Testament.  There 
are  two  lists  of  his  ancestors  (Matt.  i.  1-17, 
Luke  iii.  23-38).  The  latter,  writing  for  Gen- 
tile Christians,  goes  back  to  Adam  ;  the  former 
begins  with  Abraham,  to  prove  to  Jewish 
Christians  that  Jesus  is  the  promised  Messiah 
and  show  the  connection  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment with  the  New.  Both  lists  are  incom- 
plete, and  require  some  names  to  be  supplied. 
They  coincide  till  David,  when  Matthew  takes 
the  reigning  line  through  Solomon,  but  Luke 
the  younger  and  inferior  line  through  Na- 
than. The  greatest  of  the  differences  be- 
tween the  two  is  that  Matthew  calls  Joseph 
the  son  of  Jacob,  while  Levi  calls  him  the 
son  of  Heli  (or  Eli).  He  cannot  have  been 
natnrally  the  son  of  both,  nor  is  it  likely  that 
the  two  names  denote  the  same  person.  The 
easiest  explanation  of  this  discrepancy,  and  the 


GENERAL 


(321) 


GENNADIUS 


one  accepted  by  most  modern  scholars,  is 
that  Matthew  gi^^es  the  genealogy  of  Joseph, 
Luke  that  of  Mary.  Heli  may  hav^e  been  the 
father  of  Mary  and  the  father-in-law  of 
Joseph,  and  consequent!}'  the  grandfather  of 
Jesus.  Luke  traces  the  natural  or  real  pedi 
gree  of  Jesus  through  his  mother  Mary  in  tlie 
line  of  I^athan,  while  Matthew  gives  his  Icqal 
pedigree  (which  was  always  reckoned  in  the 
male  line)  through  Joseph,  his  legal  father,  in 
the  line  of  Solomon.  This  is  supported  bj^ 
the  fact  that  in  Matthew's  history  of  the  in- 
fancy Joseph  is  most  prominent  ;  in  Luke's, 
Mary.  Jesus,  then,  was  both  legally  and 
really  (he  son  and  heir  of  David,  alike  in  law 
and  in  fact,  from  his  reputed  fatlier  and  from 
his  natural  mother.  The  Davidic  descent  of 
Jesus  is  a  mark  of  his  Messiahship  (Rom.  i. 
3,  3  Tim.  ii.  8,  Heb.  vii.  14,  John  vii.  42,  Acts 
xiii.  23).  T.  W.  C. 

General,  of  a  Roman  Catholic  order,  the 
head  of  the  order,  elected  usually  for  some 
tixed  term,  but  in  the  Society  of  Jesus  for 
life.  The  Benedictine  order  as  such  has  no 
general,  but  most  of  the  congregations  have 
which  have  sprung  from  it  or  grown  up 
within  it.  Generals  have  certain  special  pow- 
ers and  privileges,  e.g.,  power  of  absolution 
in  reserved  cases  ;  they  sit  in  general  synods 
as  judges  and  subscribe  its  decrees.  They 
are  forbidden  by  law  to  enter  without  neces- 
sity the  convents  of  nuns  subject  to  them  ; 
their  visitations  of  such  convents  are,  as  a 
rule,  to  be  made  not  oftenerthan  once  a  year  ; 
nor  can  they  hear  the  confessions  of  such 
nuns  without  the  approbation  of  the  bishop  ; 
nor  can  they,  on  pain  of  excommunication, 
grant  any  office  or  dignity,  or  remit  any  pun- 
ishment, to  one  of  their  subjects  at  the  in- 
stance of  any  person  outside  the  order,  what- 
ever the  rank  of  that  person  may  be. 

General  Assembly.     See  Puesbyterian- 

ISM. 

General  Baptists.     See  BArriSTS. 

Generation  denotes  the  averation  of  human 
life,  but  in  Scripture  means  a  genealogical 
register  (Gen.  v.  1),  or  a  family  history  (GJ-eu. 
vi.  9),  or  a  history  of  the  origin  of  things  as 
well  as  persons,  e.g.,  of  the  earth  (Gen.  ii.  4). 
T.  W.  C. 

Genesis,  the  first  book  of  the  Bible,  so 
called  from  the  Septuagint  title,  meaning 
"  the  book  of  the  generation"  (creation)  of  all 
things.  The  first  11  chapters  are  occupied 
with  an  account  of  the  creation  ;  the  primeval 
state  of  man  and  his  fall  ;  the  institution  of 
the  Sabbath  and  of  marriage  ;  the  history  of 
Adam  and  his  descendants,  with  the  progress 
of  religion  and  the  arts  ;  the  general  corrup 
tion  of  the  race  ;  the  deluge,  with  the  preserva- 
tion of  Noah  :  the  repeoplingof  the  earth  ;  the 
building  of  Babel,  tiie  confusion  of  tongues, 
and  the  dispersion  of  mankind.  In  the 
12th  chapter  general  history  gives  way  to  the 
special  history  of  Abraham",  Isaac,  Jacob,  and 
Joseph,  down  to  the  removal  into  Egypt.  It 
is  a  religious  history,  and  was  written,  like  the 
rest  of  Scripture,  "by  inspiration  of  God." 

There  is  no  sutticient  reason  for  denying  the 
Mosaic  authorship.     No  doubt  use  was  made 


of  ancient  documents  and  traditions,  but  Gen- 
esis is  certainly  no  loose  and  careless  composi- 
tion, but  a  carefully  prepared  history,  show- 
ing unity  of  plan  and  purpose  throughout. 
It  tells  us  how  this  planet  was  prepared  as  an 
abode  for  man  ;  and  the  order  of  created 
things  which  it  narrates  is  substantially  that 
of  geology  and  biology.  Both  begin  with  the 
formation  of  the  eartli  and  proceed  from  vege- 
table to  animal  life,  and  both  stop  witii  man. 
Genesis  lays  the  foundation  for  all  the  subse- 
quent books  of  the  Bible,  and  it  is  cited  .as  an 
inspired  record  83  times  in  the  course  of  the 
Scriptures.  Its  prophecies  are  the  germ  of  all 
following  predictions.  It  is  the  most  ancient 
of  human  records,  and  its  vidue  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  earth,  of  man,  and  of  religion  can- 
not be  overestimated.  Its  first  page  teaches 
a  child  more  than  all  philosophers  could  learn 
in  thousands  of  years.  For  literature  sec 
Pentateuch.  T.  W.  C. 

Genesius,  a  comedian  in  Rome,  who,  while 
representing  in  mere  mockery  a  Christian 
catechumen  at  baptism,  was  suddenly  seized 
by  terror  of  what  he  was  doing  and  c;onfessed 
himself  a  Christian.  But  his  conversion  cre- 
ated a  complete  fury  among  the  people,  and 
he  was  tortured  to  death,  as  he  would  not  ab- 
jure, Aug.  25,  285.  C.  P. 

Geneva,  beautifully  situated  on  Lake  Le- 
man,  in  sight  of  Mt.  Blanc,  the  chief  citj'  of 
Switzerland,  was  the  seat  of  Farel's,  and  later 
of  Calvin's  extraordinary  influence  on  morals 
and  religion.  The  latter  carried  out  a  rigor- 
ous reform  which  necessitated  great  changes 
in  the  conduct  of  the  people.  By  the  hearty 
welcome  he  and  his  friends  accorded  to  ref- 
ugees from  papal  tyranny,  the  Genevans  made 
their  city  endeared  to  allUie  Protestant  world. 
From  it  also  flowed  the  stream  of  Calvinistic 
teaching  Avhieh  has  had  such  mighty  influ- 
ence. But  the  modern  city  is  comparatively 
little  affected  by  Calvin,  for  the  state  church 
is  rationalistic,  and  there  is  quite  a  Roman 
Catholic  population,  also  many  Old  Catholics. 
There  is,  however,  a  Free  Church,  which  is 
evangelical.  Here  the  Genevan  version  of  the 
Bibli;  was  made  by  the  English  refugees.  See 
art.  Bible. 

Geneva  Bible,  The.     See  Bible,  p.  105. 

Genevieve  (jen  eh-ve-ev'),  St.,  b.  at  Nan- 
terre,  a  town  of  France,  7  m.  n.e.  from  Paris, 
419  ;  d.  Jan.  3,  512,  in  Paris,  who.se  patroness 
she  became  by  averting  the  attacks  of  Attila 
from  that  citv  bv  her  prayers.  (See  Butler's 
Liri's  oftlui  Snittx.  Jan.  3.) 

Gennadius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
1453-59,  accompanied  the  Emperor  Johannes 
to  the  Council  of  Florence-Ferrara,  in  143H, 
as  his  councillor,  and  worked  with  great  zeal 
for  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches,  but  afterward  became  an  ardent  op- 
ponent of  the  idea.  Mohammed  II.  installed 
Iiiin  as  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  he 
abdicated  after  a  few  years  and  retired  to  a 
monastery.  He  was  the  IsLst  representative 
of  Byzantine  learning,  and  wrote,  it  is  said, 
more  than  10(1  books.  His  confes.sion  of 
faith,  i)resi'nted  in  Turkish  translation  to  Mo- 
hammed II.,  a  dialogue  between  a  Turk  and 


GENTILES 


(322) 


GERHARDT 


a,  Christian,  etc.,  are  found  in  Migne,  Pat. 
Gr.  CLX.  (See  Sciiaff,  Creeds  of  Christen- 
dom, i.,  46.)  C.  P. 

Gentiles  {nations),  sometimes  including 
Israel  (Gen.  x.  1,  Luke  vii.  5),  but  generally 
signifying  other  nations,  with  the  implied 
idea  that  they  were  idolaters,  whereas  the 
Hebrews  were  the  chosen  people  of  God.  In 
the  New  Testament  "  Greeks"  is  often  used 
for  Gentiles  (Acts  xiv.  1,  Rom.  i.  16).  Paul 
is  called  the  "  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles"  be- 
cause of  his  special  mission  to  them  (Gal. 
ii.  8).  T.  W.  C. 

Gentilis  (jen-tee-less),  Giovanni  Valen- 
tino, b.  at  Cosenza,  in  Southern  Italy,  about 
1520  ;  d.  at  Bern,  Switzerland,  Sept.  10, 
1566  ;  fled  from  his  native  country  because  he 
had  embraced  Protestantism,  but  found  no 
safe  refuge  in  any  Protestant  country  because 
he  hekl  anli-Trinitarian  views,  and  was  finally 
seized  at  Bern,  imprisoned  for  heresy,  and  be- 
headed. (See  Trechsel,  Die  protest.  Antitnni- 
tarier,  Heidelberg,  1839-44.) 

Genuflectentes  (from  the  Latin,  ffenuflec- 
tere,  "  to  bend  the  knee"),  denotes  the  third 
class  of  catechumens  in  the  early  church,  thus 
called  because  they  were  allowed  not  only  to 
stand  and  listen  to  the  .sermon,  but  also  to 
kneel  and  pray  with  the  congregation. 

Genuflection.  Among  the  Jews  standing 
was  the  more  common  posture  in  prayer, 
though  they  also  knelt  or  prostrated  them- 
selves. Among  the  Christians  kneeling  or 
prostration,  between  which  there  originally 
was  made  no  distinction,  became  more  gen- 
eral.   See  Acts  vii.  60,  ix.  40,  xx.  86,  xxi.  5. 

Geoflfrey  (jef-ree)  of  Monmouth,  b.  at  Mon- 
mouth, England,  about  1100  ;  d.  at  Llandalf, 
Wales,  1154  ;  was  made  bishop  of  St.  Asaph, 
1152,  and  wrote  the  celebrated  Chronicon  sire 
Historia  Britonum,  first  printed  in  Paris, 
1508,  critical  edition  by  J.  A.  Giles.  London, 
1844  ;  Eng.  trans,  by  Aaron  Thompson,  Lon- 
don. 1718,  revised  and  corrected  edition  by  J. 
A.  Giles,  London,  1842. 

Georgian  Version  of  the  Bible,  The,  was 

made  in  the  6th  century  from  the  Septuagint, 
first  printed  in  Moscow,  1748,  and  widely  cir- 
culated by  the  St.  Petersburg  Bible  Society, 
but  is  of  very  little  critical  value  on  account 
of  its  corrupt  state. 

Georg  von  Polentz,  b.  in  Saxony,  1478  ; 
studied  in  Italy  ;  was  secretary  to  Julius  II.  ; 
entered  the  service  of  Maximilian  I.  ;  became 
a  friend  of  Margrave  Albrecht  of  Branden- 
burg, grand-niasler  of  the  Teutonic  Order  ; 
accompanied  him  to  Prussia,  and  was  in  1519 
made  bishop  of  Samland.  He  was  the  first 
bishop  who  actually  joined  the  Reformation. 
In  1535  he  delivered  up  tlie  whole  secular  au- 
thority belonging  to  his  seat  to  Duke  Albrecht 
and  married.  But  he  succeeded  in  thor- 
oughly organizing  the  Reformation,  not  only 
in  his  own  diocese,  but  in  the  whole  province 
of  Prussia,  before  he  died,  in  1550.  (See  his 
life  by  G.  von  Polenz,  Halle,  1858,  and  by  P. 
Tschackert,  Leipzig,  1888.) 


George,  St.,  a  native  of  Cappadocia,  a 
Christian  by  education,  and  a  soldier  by  train- 
ing, was  beheaded  at  Nicomedia,  April  23, 
303,  on  account  of  his  open  protest  against  the 
persecutions  of  Diocletian.  His  worship  as  a 
martyr  and  saint  is  very  old,  both  in  the  East- 
ern and  Western  Church,  but  his  life  in  Act. 
Saiict.,  iii.,  Apr.  100-63,  is  evidently  spuri- 
ous. After  the  battle  of  Antioch,  June  28, 
1089,  the  Normans  adopted  him  as  their  pa- 
tron, and  in  1222  a  council  of  Oxford  made 
his  day  a  festival  throughout  England.  After 
the  battle  of  Calais,  in  1349,  lie  even  came  to 
be  considered  the  patron  saint  of  the  country. 
(See  J.  Hogg,  Kotes  on  St.  George,  London, 
1862.) 

Gerah.    See  Measures,  Hebrew. 

Ge'-rar  (residence),  a  city  and  district  near 
Beersheba,  visited  by  Abraham  (Gen.  xx.  1), 
and  by  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvi.  1).  It  was  a  fertile 
region  (Gen.  xxvi.  12).  It  is  mentioned  in 
Asa's  time  (2  Chron.  xiv.  13).         T.  W.  C. 

Gerbert.     See  Sylvester  II. 

Gergerene.     See  Gadara. 

Gerhard  Groot.     See  Groot. 

Gerhard  (ger'-hart),  Johann,  b.  at  Quedlin- 
burg,  81  m.  s.w.  of  Magdeburg,  Saxonj',  Oct. 
17,  1582  ;  d.  at  Jena,"  Aug.  20,  1637.  He 
studied  at  Jena  and  became  professor  of  theol- 
ogy there,  1616.  His  advice  was  sought  in 
secular,  ecclesiastical,  and  theological  matters 
by  the  duke  of  Weimar  and  other  important 
personages  far  and  near.  "  He  was  the  most 
learned  of  the  heroes  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy, 
and  among  scholars  the  most  lovable  on  the 
side  of  his  religious  character"  (Tholuck). 
His  principal  works  are.  Divine  Meditations 
(orig.  ed.,  Latin,  Leipzig,  1606,  Eng.  trans., 
9th  ed.,  London,  1695,  3d  ed.,  Ger.  trans., 
Leipzig,  1876)  ;  Loci  communes  theologici, 
Jena,  1610-22,  9  vols.,  n.e.,  Frank,  Leipzig, 
1885,  9  vols.  ;  Confessio  catholica,  1634,  3 
parts,  2ded.,  1679  ;  Enchiridion  consolatorium 
(Ger.  trans.,  Leipziec,  1877);  PostiUe,  n.e., 
Berlin,  1869-78,  4  vols.  (See  his  life  by  C.  J. 
Bcittcher,  Leipzig,  1858.) 

Gerhard  Segarelli.    See  Apostolic  Bkoth- 


Gerhard   von  Borgo  San   Donnino.     See 

Everlasting  Gospel  ;  Franciscans. 

Gerhard  Zeibolt.     See  Zerbolt. 

Gerhardt,  Paul,  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Grafen- 
hainichen,  27  m.  n.e.  of  Halle,  Prussian  Sax- 
ony, March  12,  1607  ;  d.  at  Liibben,  on  the 
Spree,  40  m.  s.w.  of  Frankfort,  June  7,  1676. 
He  studied  at  Wittenberg  ;  became  diakonus 
in  the  Nicholas  Church,  Berlin,  1657  ;  was 
removed,  in  1666,  because  he  declined  to  sub- 
scribe the  declaration  that  he  would  withdraw 
from  all  polemics  against  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  although  restored  the  next  year, 
resigned  and  became  archdeacon  at  Liibben, 
1669.  His  181  spiritual  songs  give  him  the 
rank  of  the  greatest  evangelical  poet  of  Ger- 
many. Many  of  them  are  familiar  in  English 
translation,  e.g.,  "  O  sacred  head,  now  wound- 
ed ;"   "Jesus,  thy  boundless  love  to  me;" 


GERIZIM 


(323) 


GERSON 


"Give  to  the  winds  thy  fears;"  "All  my 
heart  this  uight  rejoices."  For  modern  edi- 
tion of  his  hymns  see  Wackernagel,  Stutt- 
gart, 1843,  n.e.,  Giitersloh,  1876,  and  Gerok, 
Stuttgart,  1878,  3d  ed.,  1883  ;  for  life  see 
Wildenhahn,  Basel,  1844,  4th  ed.,  1877,  2 
vols.,  Eng.  trans,  Philadelphia,  1881. 

Ger'-i-zim,  a  mountain  in  Ephraim,  between 
which  and  Ebal  lay  the  city  of  Shechem 
(Judges  ix.  7).  From  the  two  opposite  hill- 
sides, the  people,  6  tribes  on  each  of  them, 
responded  to  the  blessings  and  cur.ses  of  the 
law  as  they  were  read  by  Moses  (Josh.  viii. 
30-35),  a  very  solemn  scene.  No  other  sucli 
amphiiheatrc  is  found  in  all  Palestine.  A 
remnant  of  Samaritans  still  performs  the 
yearly  Paschal  sacrifice  on  the  summit. 

T.  W.  C. 

Gerlach  (ger-lak),  Karl  Friedrich  Otto 
von,  b.  in  Berlin,  April  12,  1801  ;  d.  there, 
Oct.  24,  1849  ;  was  appointed  pastor  of  the 
Elizabeth  Church  in  his  native  city  in  183o, 
andcourtpreacherin  1847.  He  was  anintimate 
friend  of  Hengstenberg  and  very  active  for  the 
inner  mission  in  Berlin.  lie  wrote  Ueber  den. 
religioseii  Zustand  der  anf/liknnischen  Kirche, 
.  .  .  tin  1842,  Potsdam,  184'),  and  translated 
Chalmers'  Charity  and  the  Cliitrch,  Die  Kircli- 
liche  Annenpjiege,  Berlin,  1847,  etc. 

German  Catholics,  the  followers  of  the 
secession  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  Germany  in  consequence  of  the  exhibition 
of  the  so-called  holy  coat  at  Treves  by  Bishop 
Arnoldi.  The  first  to  go  from  the  church  on 
this  account  was  one  Czerski,  a  priest  at 
Schneidermiihl,  on  the  border  of  Posen,  Aug., 
1844.  But  much  more  excitement  was  caused 
by  the  defection  of  Johannes  Kongo,  who,  in 
October  of  that  year,  wrote  a  letter  from  his 
parish  at  Laurahiitte,  near  the  Polish  frontier, 
to  the  bishop  of  Treves,  in  which  he  denounced 
the  exhibition  as  idolatrous.  At  once  .separate 
congregations  sprang  up  in  diiferent  parts  of 
Germany,  some  orthodox,  like  that  at  Berlin, 
under  the  lead  of  Czreski,  and  others,  like  that 
at  Hreslau,  free  thinking.  It  was  evident  at 
the  first  council  of  tlio  German  Catholics,  held 
at  Leipzig,  March,  1845,  that  the  free-thinkeis 
had  the  decided  majority.  So,  at  the  second 
council,  held  at  Berlin,  May,  1847,  and  at- 
tended by  70  delegates  representing  142  con- 
fregations,  the  orthodox  left  the  body.  In 
850  the  free-thinking  part  of  the  German 
Catholics  went  over  bodily  to  the  Free  Con- 
gregations (q.v.),  and  the  otliers  have  .since  dis- 
appeared. (See  Edwin  Bauer,  GcHchichte  dcr 
Griindun/)  und  Fortbildnnf/  der  deutuchratliol- 
iscften  KircJie,  Meissen,  1845,  and  F.  Kainpt;, 
Ge.<tch.  d.  relig.  Beircrjtriifi  d.  rmiwren  Zeit, 
Leipzig,  1852-60,  4  vols.  (vol.  iv.). 

German  Baptists.  See  B.\ptists  (Dun- 
KPnis)  :itid  -Mknnomtes. 

German  Methodists.    See  United  Buetii- 

RE.N. 

German  Reformed  Church.  See  Re- 
formed CiiuKcn  OK  the  L'.mted  St.vtes. 

Germaaus,  St.  (St.  Germain  d'Auxerre), 
was  bishop  cf  Auxerre,  about  HIO  m.  s.  of 
Paris  ;  visited  England  to  figlit  the  Pelagians. 


and  Ravenna  to  defend  the  Armoricans,  and 
died  in  the  last  place,  July  31,  448.  (See  Act. 
Sand.,  July  31.) 

Germanus,  St.  (St.  Germain  de  Paris),  was 
bishop  of  Paris,  where  he  died,  jNIay  28,  576, 
as  a  stanch  defender  of  the  church  against  the 
Merovingian  despots.  Plis  life  was  written 
by  Fortunatus  Venantius.  (See  Act.  Sanct., 
May  28.) 

Gerok,  Karl  Friedrich  von,  D.D.  (lion., 
Tiibingen,  1877),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Vaihingen, 
15  m.  n.w.  of  Stuttgart,  Wurtemberg,  Jan. 
30,  1815  ;  d.  at  Stuttgart,  Jan.  14,  1890.  lie 
studied  at  Tiibingen  ;  became  diakonus  at 
Stuttgart,  1849  ;  superintendent,  1852  ;  chief 
ecclesiastical  councillor,  chief  court  preacher 
and  prelate,  1868.  Renowned  as  a  preacher 
and  religious  poet,  his  publications,  in  prose 
and  verse,  are  very  popular.  Of  the  latter  the 
best  known  is  his  Palm  Leaves,  orig.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1st  series,  1857,  62d  ed.,  1888,  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1869,  2d  ed.,  1885  ;  2d  series, 
1882,  9th  ed.,  1885. 

Gersen,  Johannes,  reputed  author  of  the 
Lnitatio/i  of  Christ,  usually  attributed  to 
Tliomas  si  Kempis  (q.v.). 

Gerson  (zher-son),  Jean  Charlier  de,  called 
Gerson  from  his  birthplace,  a  village  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Rheims  ;  b.  Dec.  14, 1363  ;  d.  at  Lyons, 
July  12, 1429  ;  came  to  Paris  in  1377,  and  began 
the  study  of  theology  in  1382  under  D'Ailli. 
His  progress  was  such  that  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  embassy  which  the  university 
sent  to  the  pope  in  1387,  and  thus  became  ac- 
(luainted  with  the  corruptions  of  the  papal 
court.  In  1392  he  was  made  Doctor  of  The- 
ology and  Chancellor  of  tlie  University.  In 
this  ottice  he  began  the  reformation  of  aca- 
demic study,  and  particularly  of  theology.  He 
preferred  the  mystics  to  the  scholastics.  He 
was  also  engaged  from  the  first  in  attempts  to 
reform  the  external  order  and  government  of 
tlie  church.  The  papal  schism  was  a  source 
of  constant  scandal,  and  the  university,  with 
Gerson  at  its  head,  was  constantly  seeking  to 
contrive  ways  for  its  termination.  In  1407  two 
emhassies  were  sent  to  the  two  popes  to  in- 
duce them  to  come  to  an  agreement.  Theu 
Gerson  began  to  make  efforts  to  obtain  the 
calling  ofa  general  council.  When  these 
efforts  were  crowned  with  success  and  the 
Council  of  Pisa  (q.v.)  as.sembled,  1409,  Gerson 
and  D'Ailli  were  the  chief  members  of  the 
deputation  of  the  university.  Here  Gerson 
announced  the  doctrine  that  the  true  head  of 
the  church  is  the  general  council,  and  that  it 
has  authoritv  to  depose  a  pope.  After  the 
failure  of  this  council,  Gerson  was  .still  writ- 
ing upon  the  theme,  and  setting  the  church 
above  the  pope.  He  also  distinguishes  be- 
tween the  visible  and  the  invisible  churcli. 
At  Constance  (q.v.),  again,  he  was  the  .soul  of 
the  reforming  party."  After  this  council's 
close,  finding  it  unsafe  to  return  to  Paris,  he 
first  spent  some  time  in  Southern  Germany, 
and  wrote  some  of  his  most  valuable  treatises 
here.  His  final  place  of  refuge  was  Lyons. 
Here  lie  spent  10  years  in  literary  lal)or  an(i 
in  good  deeds,  for"  which  he  was  greatly  be- 
loved.    The  completest  edition  of  liis  works 


GERVASE 


(324) 


GIANT 


is  that  of  Dupin,  Antwerp,  1706,  5  vols,  folio. 
Lifo  by  Lecuy,  Paris,  1835,  and  by  Schwab, 
Wiirzburg,  1858.  F.  H.  F. 

Gervase  (jer-vase)  of  Canterbury,  b.  about 
1141  ;  d.  about  1210  ;  was  received  as  a  monk 
of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  by  Thomas 
Becket,  1163,  and  wrote  a  Chroinca,  GeMa 
Rec/um,  Actus  ArcJiiepiscoporum,  etc.,  which 
have  been  edited,  with  prefaces,  by  Bishop 
Stubbs,  London,  1879-80. 

Gervasius  and  Protasius  were  martyred 
at  Ravenna  under  Nero,  but  were  then  en- 
tirely forgotten  until  their  history  and  burial- 
place  were  revealed  to  Ambrosius  iu  a  dream. 
Their  legend,  found  in  Act.  Sn?ict.,  June  19, 
is  very  fanciful  and  has  given  rise  to  much 
adverse  criticism. 

Gesenius  (ge-za-ne-us),  (Friedrich  Hein- 
rich),  Wilhelm,  D.D.  (Gottingen  ?  1814),  Ori- 
entalist ;  b.  at  Nordhausen,  38  m.  n.n.w.  of 
Erfurt,  Feb.  3,  1786  ;  d.  at  Halle,  Oct.  23, 
1842.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  iinder  Eich- 
horn  (q.v.)  ;  became  docent  there,  1806  (and 
had  Neander  as  a  pupil)  ;  professor  at  the 
gymnasium  of  Heiligenstadt,  1809  ;  professor 
extraordinary  of  theology  at  Halle,  1810  ; 
ordinary,  1811.  He  was  rationalistic  in  the- 
ology, and  as  such  denounced  by  the  Halle 
faculty  in  1830.  From  him  and  Ewald 
(q.v.)  dates  the  new  era  in  Hebrew  study.  Of 
his  numerous  linguistic  works,  all  standards, 
the  most  important  arc,  Hebrew  Lexicon  (orig., 
Lt:ipzig,  1810-12,  2  vols.,  10th  ed.,  Miihlau 
and  Volk,  1886,  Eng.  trans.,  Christopher 
Leo.  Cambridge,  1825-28,  2  parts  ;  J.  W. 
Gibbs,  Andover.  1824,  London,  1827  ;  Ed- 
ward Robinson,  Boston,  1836,  20th  ed.,  1868  ; 
S.  T.  Tregelles,  London,  1847)  ;  Hebrew 
Orammnr  (orig.,  Leipzig,  1813,  24lh  ed., 
Kautzsch,  1885,  Eng.  trans.,  Moses  Stuart, 
Andover,  1821  ;  T.  J.  Conant,  Boston,  1839, 
London,  1840  ;  B.  Davies,  London,  1846,  ed. 
by  B.  Davidson,  1852,  3d  ed.,  1876,  4th  ed. 
by  E.  C.  Mitchell,  Andover,  1880)  ;  Tliemu- 
rus  iMlologicus  .  .  .  Heb.et  dial.  V.  7'.  (com- 
pleted by  Roediger),  Leipzig,  1829-58,  3  Tom. 

Ge'-shur  (bridge),  a  small  district  east  of 
the  Jordan  and  northeast  of  Bashan,  allotted 
to  Manasseh  (Dent.  iii.  14).  David  married  a 
daughter  of  its  king  (2  Sam.  iii.  3),  and  thither 
Absalom  tied  after  the  murder  of  Amnon 
(2  Sam.  xiii.  37).  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  part 
of  the  rocky  region  now  known  as  M  Lejali. 
T.  W.  C. 

Gesta  romanorum  [the  deeds  of  the  Romans), 
the  collection  of  moral  tales  made  by  monks 
in  the  14th  century  for  use  by  way  of  illustra- 
tion and  allusion  in  preaching.  In  it  are 
found  the  germs  of  many  famous  stories. 
(See  for  orig.  Latin  ed.,  Aesterley,  Berlin, 
1872,  Eng.  trans,  by  C.  Swan,  London,  1877.) 

Qre\h.-sem.'-2L-ne  {oil-press),  a  garden  or  olive 
grove  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Olivet,  to  Avhicli  our 
Saviour  often  resorted  and  in  which  he  en- 
dured his  agony  (Luke  xxii.  39,  44).  Tradi- 
tion places  it  on  the  lower  slope  of  the  hill, 
about  100  yards  east  of  the  Kidron.  It  is  now 
enclosed  by  a  high  wall,  and  has  7  or  8  aged 
olive-trees.     The  Latins  control  it,  and  the 


Greeks  have  set  up  a  Gethsemane  of  their 
own,  farther  up  Mt.  Olivet.     (See  G.  Philip, 
The  Garden  of  Gethsemane,  London,  1881.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Ge'-zer  {precipice),  a  royal  city  of  Canaan, 
whose  king  was  slain  by  Joshua  (Josh.  x. 
33).  It  is  noticed  in  the  wars  of  David,  and 
was  given  by  Pharaoh  to  Solomon's  EgA'ptian 
wife.  It  was  an  important  place  in  the  time 
of  the  Maccabees.  It  is  now  identified  with 
Tdl  el-Jezer,  4  miles  from  Nicopolis. 

T.  W.  C. 

Gfrorer,  August  Friedrich,  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  at  Calw,  20  m.  w.s.w.  of  Stuttgart, 
March  5,  1803  ;  d.  at  Carlsbad,  70  m.  n.n.w. 
of  Prague,  July  10,  18G1.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen,  where  he  was  repetent,  1828  ;  be- 
came state  librarian  at  Stuttgart,  1830  ;  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Freiburg,  1846  ;  declared 
himself  a  Roman  Catholic,  1853,  and  was  a 
leader  of  the  German  ultramontane  party. 
His  best  books  are,  Philo,  Stuttsrart,  1831,  2 
parts;  Gustuv  Adolph,  1835-37,''2  vols.,  4th 
ed.,  1863  ;  GeschicJite  des  Urcliristentlivvis, 
1838,  3  vols.  ;  Allgemeine  Kirchengeschiclite, 
1841-46,  4  vols,  (revealed  hisRomanistic  lean- 
ings) ;  Gesclnchte  der  ost  u.  westfrdnkischen 
Carolinger  (840-918),  Freiburg,  1848,  2  vols.  ; 
Pabst  Gregorins  VII.  iind  sein  Zeitalter ,  Schaff- 
hausen,  1859-64;  Byzantische  Geschichten, 
Graz,  1872-77,  3  vols. 

Ghetto,  or  Getto,  an  Italianized  form  of  a 
Hebrew  word  meaning  "separation"  or 
"  seclusion,"  was  the  name  of  that  quarter  of 
Rome  in  which  alone  the  Jews  were  allowed 
to  live.  The  arrangement  was  made  by  Pius 
IV.  in  1569,  and  not  abolished  until  1847  by 
Pius  IX.  See  Jews.  (Cf.  L.  Kompert, 
Scenes  from  the  Ghetto,  London,  1882.) 

Ghibellines.     See  Guelps. 

Ghiberti  (ge-ber'-tee),  Lorenzo,  b.  in  Flor- 
ence, 1378  ;  d.  there,  1455  ;  was  one  of  the 
great  sculptors  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  ; 
but  though  his  studies  were  ancient  pagaa 
art,  his  inspirations  sprung  from  Christianity, 
and  his  celebrated  bronze  doors  in  the  baptis- 
tery of  Florence,  representing  scenes  of  the 
Bible,  belong  among  the  highest  achievements 
of  Christian  art. 

Ghislain,  or  Guilain,  St.  (Gislenus),  was  a 
native  of  Athens  ;  became  a  monk  according 
to  the  rules  of  St.  Basil  ;  went  to  Rome,  and 
thence  to  Belgian  Gaul,  and  founded,  by  the 
aid  of  King  Dagobert,  a  monastery  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Haiuault,  which  he  called  Cella,  and 
M'hich  gave  rise  to  the  present  town  St.  Ghis- 
lain. When  he  died  at  Cella,  in  681,  many 
miracles  took  place  at  his  grave  ;  especially  a 
number  of  epileptics  were  cured,  and  the  dis- 
ease is  ever  after  called  St.  Ghislain's  evil  iq 
Belgium.    (See  Act.  Sanct.,  Oct.  4.) 

Ghost,  the  spirit  or  principle  of  life  in  man. 
To  "  give  up  the  ghost"  (Gen.  xxv.  8,  Luke 
xxiii.  46)  means  to  expire.  T.  W.  C. 

Giant,  a  Tnan  of  extraordinary  stature,  such 
as  the  king  of  Bashan  (Dent.  hi.  11)  and 
Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4).  The  sons  of  Anak 
are  usually  considered    giants    because   the 


GIBEAH 


(325) 


amsELER 


spies  were  "  as  grasshoppers"  iu  comparison, 
whicli.  however,  may  refer  to  strength  ratlier 
than  size.  Tliere  were  giants  before  llie  Hood 
(Gen.  vi.  4),  and  also  after  it.  See  Hepiiaim. 
Now  it  is  only  in  very  exceptional  cases  that 
men  exceed  7 "feet  in  height.  T.  W.  C. 

Gib'-e-ah  {hill).  1.  The  name  of  a  city  of 
Juduh  (Josh.  XV.  57).  2.  A  city  of  Benjamin, 
called  Gibea  of  Saul  because  it  was  his  birth- 
place (1  Sam.  X.  26).  Here  7  of  his  sons  were 
sacrificed  (2  Sam.  xxi.  6).  3.  The  place  of 
the  ark  after  its  return  by  the  Philistines  (2 
Sam.  vi.  3,  4).  T.  W.  C. 

Gibbons,  His  Eminence  James,  Cardinal, 
D.D.  (St.  Mary's  University,  Baltimore, 
1868),  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Baltimore,  Md., 
July  23,  1834  ;  graduated  at  St.  Charles'  Col 
lege,  EllicottCity,  Md.,  1857  ;  studied  philoso- 
phy and  theologv  at  St.  Mary's  Seminary  of 
St.  Siilpice,  Baltimore,  and  was  ordained  a 
priest  there,  June  30,  1801  ;  assistant  pastor 
of  St.  Patrick's  Church,  Baltimore,  1861  ; 
pastor  of  St.  Bridget's,  Canton,  1861  ;  assist- 
ant pastor  of  the  cathedral  of  Baltimore  and 
secretary  to  the  archbishop,  1865  ;  vicar  apos- 
tolic of  North  Carolina,  1866  ;  consecrated 
bisliop,  Aug.  16,  1868  ;  translated  to  the  see 
of  Richmond,  Va.,  1872  ;  coadjutor  to  the 
archbisliop  of  Baltimore,  1877,  and  archbishop 
himself,  Oct.  3,  same  year  ;  cardinal,  1886. 
He  was  present  at  the  Vatican  Council,  1869- 
70,  and  presided  as  apostolic  legate  over  tiie 
Cnincil  of  Baltimore,  1884.  He  wrote.  The 
Faith  of  Oar  Fathers,  New  York,  1874  (enor- 
mous sale) ;  Our  Christian  Heritage,  Balti- 
more, Md.,  1889. 

Gib'-e-on  (Idll  city),  a  considerable  place 
belonging  to  the  Hivitcs.  Its  people  made  a 
league  by  stratagem  with  Israel,  and  when 
attacked  were  defended  by  Joshua  (Josh,  ix., 
X.),  "  and  the  sun  stayed  in  the  midst  of 
heaven,  and  hasted  not  to  go  down  about  a 
■whole  day"  (x.  13)  Here  the  tabernacle  was 
set  up  for  many  years  (2  Chron.  i.  3,  4).  Its 
people  helped  to  "rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  iii.  7).  Its  site  is  found  in  El-Jib, 
a  small  village  6^  miles  from  Jerusalem,  on  a 
hill  below  which  are  the  remains  of  a  pool, 
possibly  the  "  pool  of  Gibeon"  (2  Sam.  ii.  13). 
T.  W.  C. 

Gichtel  (glk-tel),  Johann  Georg,  enthusiast 
and  m  vslic  ;  b.  of  prominent  i);irents  at  Itegens- 
burg.  May  14,  1638  ;  d.  at  Amsterdam,  tues- 
day,  Jan.  21,  1710.  Already  as  a  cliild  he 
showed  remarkable  linguistic  attainments,  and 
was  proficient  in  mathematics.  Later  on  he 
spoke  Hebrew  fluently.  From  the  school  of 
his  native  city  he  went  to  Strassburg  to  study 
theology,  but  not  finding  in  it  (hat  which  lie 
sought,  he  turned  to  jurisprudence,  and  after 
his  graduation  he  settled  in  Speier  as  legal 
assistant  to  an  old  lawyer.  After  the  death 
of  his  employer  he  returned  to  Regen.sburg, 
when  he  fell'  in  with  the  Thcosophists,  and 
lu-nceforth  gave  himself  up  to  theosopliv 
(1664^.  Incited  by  the  Hungarian  Bamii 
Justinian  Ernst  von  Wcltz  and  Friedrich 
Breckling,  in  1665,  he  accused  tiie  local  Lu- 
theran ministers  of  falsehood,  hypocrisy, 
and   godlessncss.      In    consequence   he   was 


thrown  into  prison  and  exiled.  He  went  to 
Vienna,  where  he  practised  law,  then  to 
Zwolle,  Holland  (1667),  where  Breckling  was, 
for  defending  whom  ho  was  the  next  year  ban- 
ished for  25  years.  Hcnciforth  he  lived  niostof 
the  time  in  Amsterdam,  wliere  he  lirst  Ijceame 
acquainted  with  Jacob  Boehme,  whose  great- 
est disciple  he  was.  He  had  visions.  He 
taught  that  man's  only  guide  is  tiie  inner 
voice,  "  God  in  us,"  and  no  one  should  care 
for  temporal  necessities.  He  laid  the  greatest 
stress  on  the  writings  of  Boehme,  and  brought 
out  the  first  collected  edition  of  them  (Amster- 
dam, 1682).  His  followers,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Ucberfeld  (d.  1732),  in  1674  formed  a 
sect,  without  his  desire  to  have  them  do  so, 
called  "  The  Angelic  Brotlurrhood,"  because 
it  strove  after  "angelic  purit3%"  and  were 
married  to  the  "  Divine  Sophia."  The  upper 
class  was  called  the  "  Melchisedec  Priest- 
hood," in  obedience  to  a  "revelation"  of 
Gichtel's.  The  members  abstained  from  mar- 
riage, renounced  labor  of  every  kind,  gave 
themselves  up  to  prayer  and  devout  medita- 
tion, and  lived  off  the'  gifts  of  the  rest.  This 
sect  was  extant  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th 
century.  It  must  be  said  about  Gichtel  that 
he  was  honest  in  regard  to  his  convictions,  and 
lived  up  to  them.  He  persistently  refused  to 
marry,  though  he  had  the  most  tcnnpting 
offers.  He  spent  much  of  his  time  in  prayer, 
and  lived  very  solitarily.  His  face  shone  with 
a  supernatural  air  of  joy,  and  his  deportment 
was  quiet  and  sober,  very  much  the  opposite 
of  most  mystics.  (See  Gichtel's  collected 
works,  ed.  J.  W.  Ueberfeld,  in  7  vols.,  under 
the  title  of  Theosophia  practica,  Leyden, 
1722  ;  G.  C.  A.  von  Harless,  J.  Bohme  und 
die  Alchymisten,  Nebat  [einou^  AnJiaag,  J.  G. 
Gichtel's  Leben  und  Irrthumer,  Berlin,  1870, 
2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1882  [pp.  117-185].) 

Gid'-e-on  {a  hewer),  the  5th  judge  of  Israel, 
B.C.  1249-1209.  Summonerl  by  the  angel  of 
the  Lord  he  destroyed  the  altar  of  Baal  and 
sacrificed  to  Jehovah  the  bullock  intended  for 
Baal  (Judges  vi.  11-33).  Afterward,  having 
secured  tokens  of  the  divine  favor  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  dew  and  the  fieece  (vv.  36-40),  he 
reduced  his  army  from  32,000  to  300,  and 
gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  foe  (Judges 
vii.).  In  soothing  the  jealousy  of  the  Ephraim- 
ites  and  in  declining  the  crown  offered  by  the 
Jews,  he  showed  admirable  qualities,  and  be- 
came a  hero  of  faith  (Heb.  xi.  32)  ;  but  in  the 
matter  of  the  golden  ephod  (Judges  viii.  27) 
he  fell  into  a  deplorable  snare.  Under  his 
rule  the  nation  enjoyed  peace  for  40  vears. 
T.'W.  C. 

Gieseler  (gee-zeh-ler).  Johann  Karl  Lud- 
wig,  Ph.D.  (Halle,  1817),  D.D.  (Bonn,  1819), 
church  historian  ;  b.  at  Petershagen,  on  the 
Weser,  7  m.  n.n.e.  of  Minden,  Westphalia, 
Prussia,  March  3.  1792  ;  d.  at  Gfitlingen. 
July  8,  1854.  He  studied  in  the  Latin  .scliool 
of  the  Orphanage  at  Halle  ;  tauglit  there  and 
elsewhere  ;  became  profes.sor  of  theology  at 
Bonn.  1819  ;  at  Gottingcn,  1831.  His  fame 
rests  upon  his  Tr.rt  book  <>f  Church  History 
(oriir.  Bonn,  1823-52,  8  parts  in  3  vols.,  4th 
ed.  of  1st  4  parts,  1844-4S.  2<1  ed.  of  5th  part, 
1849  ;  po.sthumous  ed.,  Redepenniug,  vols.  4 


GIFTS 


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GILL 


and  5,  1854-55  ;  vol.  6  is  a  history  of  doc- 
trine ;  Eng.  trans,  by  Francis  Cunningham, 
Philadelphia,  1836,  3  vols.  ;  by  Bamucl  David- 
son and  J.  W.  Hull,  Edinburgh,  1846-56,  8 
vols.  ;  by  Henry  B.  Smith,  New  York,  1855- 
80,  5  vols.  [vol.  v.  completed  by  Miss  Mary  A. 
Robinson]).  It  is  a  standard  work  of  refer- 
once,  but  quite  unreadable,  except  in  its  last 
volume,  being  a  sort  of  atoll — a  narrow  slip 
of  rocky  text  enclosing  a  great  lagoon  of 
notes.  It  is  these  notes,  however,  so  copious, 
so  exact,  so  impartial,  which  give  the  iiistory 
permanent  place.  (Cf.  sketch  of  Gieseler's 
life  by  Redepenning  in  vol.  i.  of  Smith's 
trans.) 

Gifts.  The  word  denotes  the  special  en- 
dowments bestowed  upon  the  early  disciples. 
The  gift  of  tongues  seems  to  have  been  of  a  two- 
fold nature.  One  was  the  power  of  speaking 
in  unknown  languages  for  the  benetit  of  for- 
eign hearers  (Acts  ii.  4-11).  This  both  attested 
the  divine  origin  of  the  gospel  and  facilitated 
its  diffusion.  Yet  it  does  not  seem  to  have 
continued  long.  The  other  was  an  ecstatic 
form  of  utterance,  chiefly  in  praise,  and  un- 
intelligible, save  to  those  who  had  the  gift  of 
interpretation  (Acts  x.  46, 1  Cor.  xiv.).  Hence 
Paul  advised  that  where  no  interpreter  was 
present  there  should  be  no  speaking  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  28),  otherwise  unfriendly  hearers  would 
consider  them  "mad."  The  exact  meaning 
of  this  glossolaly  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute. 
Some  (Drs.  Edward  Robinson  and  C.  Hodge) 
considered  that  this  spiritual  gift  consisted'in 
the  power  of  using  a  language  previously  un- 
known, and  that  "this  applied  to  all  the  pas- 
sages that  mention  the  gift,  while  others  (Stan- 
ley, Beet,  etc.)  hold  that  in  every  case  the  ref- 
erence is  to  ah  ecstatic  utterance. 

The  other  "spiritual  gifts"  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament  were  of  healings,  of  work- 
ings of  miracles,  of  prophecy  (or  speaking  by 
inspiration),  of  discernings  of  spirits  (1  Cor. 
xii.  4-11),  all  supernatural  endowments  pe- 
culiar to  the  apostolic  age.  T.  W.  C. 

Gi'-hon  (fountain).  1.  One  of  the  4  rivers 
of  Edeu  (Gen.  ii.  13).  2.  A  place  near  Jeru- 
salem where  Solomon  was  anointed  king  (1 
Kings  i.  39).  Hezekiah  stopped  the  upper 
watercourse  of  Gihon,  leading  it  into  the  city 
(2  Chron.  xxxii.  30).  The  precise  site  of  these 
streams  is  not  yet  determined.        T.  W.  C. 

Gilbert  (zhel-bair),  de  la  Porree,  Gilbertus 
Porretanus,  b.  at  Poitiers,  France,  1070  ;  d. 
there.  1154  ;  was  educated  in  the  school  of 
Chartres  ;  became  a  teacher  there  himself, 
and  was  elected  bishop  of  his  native  place  in 
1142.  As  a  dialectician  he  aroused  the  sus- 
picion of  the  mystics.  Walter  of  St.  Victor 
called  him,  Abelard,  Pierre  of  Poitiers,  and 
Lombard  us  the  "  four  labyrinths  of  France," 
and  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  accused  him  of 
heresy.  He  passed  unmolested,  however, 
through  the  Councils  of  Paris  and  Rheims, 
1148.  But  his  commentary  to  Boethius' i)<; 
Trinitate,  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  LXIV.,  has 
not  impressed  modern  readers. 

Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  b.  at  Sempring- 
ham,  Lincolnshire,  England,  about  1083  ;  d. 
there,  Feb.  4,  1189  :  founded  several  monas- 


teries, which  at  the  time  of  his  death  numbered 
700  male  and  1500  female  inmates,  and  which 
existed  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  The 
order  was  called  the  Gilbertines,  or  Sem- 
])ringenses,  and  he  wrote  a  set  of  rules  for 
them,  GilbertinoriimStatuta.  {^QeAct.  Sand., 
Feb.  4.) 

Gil-bo'-a  {huhbling  spring),  a  mountain 
ridge  about  10  miles  long,  running  southeast 
of  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  From  here  Saul  w  ent 
to  consult  the  witch  of  Endor  (1  Sam.  xxviii. 
4),  and  near  here  he  and  his  sons  were  slain 
(2  Sam.  i.  21).  T.  W.  C. 

Gildas,  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Ban- 
gor, Wales,  living  in  the  6th  century,  the  only 
extant  historian  of  the  ancient  Britons  ;  wrote 
a  Ilistoria-  and  an  Ejnstola  which  together 
give  an  outline  of  the  history  of  the  Britons 
under  the  Romans  and  tip  to  the  latter  part 
of  the  6th  century.  Best  edition  by  Steven- 
son, Loudon,  1838,  Eng.  trans.,  with  introduc- 
tion, by  J.  Habington,  Loudon,  1638,  and 
Giles,  London,  1841. 

Gil'-e-ad  {rock}/),  a  mountainous  region  ad- 
joining the  cast  side  of  the  Jordan  valley  and 
extending  from  Moab  to  Bashau,  about  60 
miles  long  and  20  wide.  It  furnishes  rich 
pastures  and  extensive  forests,  and  was  fa- 
mous for  its  aromatic  gums  and  spices  (Num. 
xxxii.  1,  Jer.  viii.  22,  xlvi.  11).  Jacob  fled 
toward  Gilead  (Gen.  xxxi.  21).  As  a  border 
land  it  was  somewhat  exposed  and  isolated, 
but  Jephthah  and  Elijah  were  both  Gileadites. 
Here  Ishbosheth  made  his  headquarters  (2 
Sam.  ii.  8),  and  here  David  found  refuge  (3 
Sam.  xvii.  24-26).  Now  a  Turkish  governor 
resides  at  Es-Salt,  the  Ramoth-Gilead  of 
Scripture.  T.  W.  C. 

Giles,  St.  (Greek,  Alji-dLoq,  Latin,  ^gidius, 
Italian,  Egidio,  Spanish,  Gil,  French,  Gilles), 
was  a  native  of  Greece  ;  b.  about  640  ;  came 
to  the  coast  of  Provence  about  665  ;  founded 
a  monastery  on  the  Rhone  about  673,  and  d. 
there  before  725.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of 
cripples.    His  day  is  Sept.  1. 

Gil'-gal  {rolling).  1.  The  first  station  of 
Israel  after  crossing  the  Jordan,  where  they 
were  circumcised  and  set  up  the  12  stones 
(Josh.  iv.  19,  V.  2).  Here  the  ark  remained 
till  it  was  taken  to  Shiloh  (Josh,  xviii.  1). 
Here  Samuel  judged  and  Saul  was  crowned 
(1  Sam.  vii.  16,  x.  8,  xi.  15).  2.  A  place  north 
of  Bethel  where  a  school  of  the  prophets  was 
established  which  Elijah  visited  (2  Kings  ii. 
2,  iv.  38).  It  afterward  became  a  seat  of 
idolatry  (Hos.  iv.  15,  ix.  15.  xii.  11,  Amos  iv. 
4,  V.  5).  T.  W.  C. 

Gill,  John,  D.D.  (Aberdeen,  1748),  Bap- 
tist ;  b.  at  Kettering,  Northamptonshire,  74 
m.  n.w.  of  London,  Nov.  23,  1697  ;  d.  at 
Camber  well,  Surrey,  south  of  London,  Oct. 
14,  1771.  He  was  pastor  at  Horsleydown, 
Southwark,  from  1719  till  1757,  when  he 
followed  the  congregation  to  a  chapel  near 
London  Bridge.  Though  mainly  self-edu- 
cated, he  attained  great  learning,  and  be- 
came a  prominent  defender  of  extreme  Cal- 
vinistie  doctrines.  His  ?J.rp<mtion  of,Solotnon'i 
Song,  1728,  led  to  a  similar  treatment  of  the 


GILLESPIE 


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GLOSSES 


entire  Bible  :  the  New  Testament,  1746-48, 
3  vols.;  Old  Testament,  174S-6J,  6  vols. 
Among  his  other  works  are  The  Ca  use  of  God 
and  Truth,  1735-38,  4  vols.,  and  A  Body  of 
Divinity,  1769-70,  3  vols.  His  Memoir  was 
written  by  Dr.  Rippon.  F.  M.  B. 

Gillespie,  George,  Church  of  Scotland  ; 
b.  at  Kirkcaldy,  Fifeshire,  11  m.  n.  of  Leith, 
Jan.  21,  1613  ;  d.  there,  Dec.  16,  1648.  lie 
was  educated  at  St.  Andrew's,  and  became 
pastor  at  Wemyss,  1638,  and  Edinburgh, 
1642.  He  was  the  youngest  member  of  The 
Westminster  Assembly,  1643,  but  not  the 
least  able  or  active,  and  the  only  one  (accord- 
ing to  tradition)  who  was  willing  to  define 
God  ;  moderator  of  the  Scottish  General  As- 
.sembly  in  1648.  Among  his  works  are  Eng- 
lish Popish  Ceremonies,  1637,  and  Aaron's 
Mod  Blossoming,  1646.  He  was  one  of  the 
warmest  and  strongest  champions  of  the  Scot- 
tish theology  and  ecclesiasticism.  Some  of 
his  works  were  reprinted,  1844-46,  2  vols., 
with  a  memoir  by  Dr.  W.  M.  Hetherington. 
F.  M.  B. 

Gillies,  John,  D.D.  (Glasgow  [?],  17—), 
Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Careston,  near 
Brechin,  Forfar  County,  Scotland,  in  1712  ; 
d.  at  Glasgow,  March  29,  1796.  From  1742 
he  was  minister  of  the  New  College  Church, 
Glasgow.  He  published  Uistoricid  Collections 
of  the  Success  oft/ie  Gospel.  Glasgow,  1754,  2 
vols.,  with  an  appendix,  1761,  and  a  supple- 
ment, 1786  ;  Life<f  Whitefield,  London,  1772  ; 
Essay  on  the  Prophecies  Relating  to  the  Mes- 
siah, Edinburgh,  1773  ;  an  edition  of  Para- 
dise Ijost,  withlexts,  London,  1788  ;  and  Bei-o- 
tional  Exercises  on  the  New  Testament,  1769. 
An  edition  of  the  last,  1810,  has  a  memoir  by 
Dr.  W.  Xicol.  F.  M.  B. 

Gilpin,  Bernard,  "  Apostle  of  the  Xorth  " 
b.  at  Kentmere  Hall,  Westmorelaud,  in  1517  ; 
d.  at  Houghton-le- Spring,  Diu'ham,  March  4, 
1583.  He'^  entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
1533  ;  became  M.A.  and  fellow,  1541  ;  B.D., 
1549,  and  vicar  of  Norton,  Durham,  1552. 
This  he  presentl}'  resigned,  and  during  two 
years'  residence  in  Flanders  became  fixed  in 
the  principles  of  the  reformers.  Returning  in 
1556,  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Durham 
and  rector  of  Easiugton,  posts  soon  exchanged 
for  Houghton.  Repeatedly  accused  of  heresy, 
and  for  a  time  protected  by  his  great-uncle. 
Bishop  Tonstall,  he  narrowly  escaped  martyr- 
dom when  accused  before  Bonner.  Under 
Elizabeth  he  declined  the  bishopric  of  Carlisle 
and  the  provost-ship  of  Queen's  College.  He 
founded  a  grammar  scliool,  educated  many 
poor  children,  and  was  a  model  of  justice, 
hospitality,  fearless  frankness,  and  philan- 
thropic zeal.  He  published  a  few  sermons. 
His  life  was  written  by  Bishop  Carleton,  in 
Latin,  1628,  in  English,  1629,  and  in  English 
by  William  Gilpin.  1753.  F.  M.  B. 

Giraldus  Cambrensis,  b.  at  the  castle  of 
Maenor  Pvr,  in  Wales,  about  1146  ;  d.  after 
a  verv  checkere  1  career  in  retirement  after 
1216, 'probably  1220.  He  studied  and  after- 
ward tauglit  in  Paris,  was  twice  elected  to  the 
see  of  St.  David,  etc.,  and  played  a  conspicu- 
ous part  in  the  life  of  the  church  in  England 


at  his  time.  He  was  also  a  prolific  writer. 
Best  editions  of  his  works  by  Brewer  and 
Dimock,  London,  1860-77,  7  vols.  His  Itin. 
Cambr.  was  translated  into  English  by  R.  C. 
Hoare,  London,  1806,  2  vols. 

Girdle.     See  Clotuing. 

Gir'-gash-ite,  a  tribe  of  the  Canaanitcs  who 
inhabited  a  region  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
whence  the  name  of  the  city  of  Gergesa  (Gen. 
X.  16,  XV.  21).  t.  W.  C. 

Gittite.     See  G.\Tn. 

Gladden,  Washington,  D.D.  (Roanoke  Col- 
lege, Salem,  W.  Va.,  1884),  LL.D.  (Univar- 
sity  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  1881),  Congrega- 
tionalist  ;  b.  at  Pottsgrove,  Pa.,  Feb.  11, 
1836  ;  graduated  at  Williams  College,  1856  ; 
since  1883  pastor  in  Columbus,  Q.  He  wrote, 
Workinrpnen  and  their  Employers,  Boston, 
1876,  2d  ed..  New  York,  1885";  The  Lord's 
Prayer,  1881  ;  2'he  Young  Men  and  tlie 
Churches,  1885  ;  Applied  Christianity,  1886. 

Glas,  John.     See  Sandeman,  Robert. 

Glass  was  known  to  the  Egyptians  at  the 
time  of  the  patriarchs,  as  is  proven  both  by 
actual  remains,  cujjs,  beads,  etc.,  and  by 
mural  paintings  representing  the  process  of 
glass-blowing.  As  it  also  formed  a  conspicu- 
ous article  of  Phoenician  commerce,  it  must 
have  been  familiar  to  the  Plebrews  in  Old 
Testament  times,  though  it  is  mentioned  only 
once  (Job  xxviii.  17[R."V.  ;  A.  V.  "  cry.stal"]). 
In  the  New  Testament  allusions  become  more 
frequent,  though  the  mirrors  referred  to  in 
1  Cor.  xiii.  12,  2  Cor.  iii.  18,  etc.,  were  not 
made  of  glass,  but  of  metal.  For  window- 
panes  glass  was  u.sed  among  the  Romans  as 
early  as  the  1st  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
as  the  excavation  of  Pompeii  has  abmidantly 
shown,  and  the  beads  and  flasks  and  lamps  of 
glass  of  the  early  Christians  are  found  in  the 
catacombs. 

Gloria  in  Excelsis  and  Gloria  Patri.     See 

DOXOLOGY. 

Glory,  the  distinctive  excellence  of  any 
person  or  thing,  the  glory  of  Lebanon  being 
its  forests  (Isa.  Ix.  13),  that  of  a  man  his  soul 
or  his  tongue  (Ps.  xvi.  9,  Ivii.  8).  The  glory 
of  God  is  the  sum  of  all  his  perfections.  To 
glorify  God  is  to  e.xalt  him  and  show  forth 
his  praise  by  obedience  to  his  law. 

T.  W.  C. 
Glosses.  I.  Biblical.— The  word  "  gloss," 
glossa,  was  very  eiirly  applied  by  the  gram- 
marians to  any  note  put  down  in  the  margin 
or  between  the  lines  of  a  manuscript  for  the 
purpose  of  explaining  or  illustrating  some 
word  or  phrase  of  the  text.  As  the  Bible  was 
the  most  read  book,  and  as.  on  its  wandering 
from  nation  to  nation  and  from  age  to  age,  it 
soon  also  became  the  one  which  mott  needed 
explanation,  its  leaves  became  covered  with 
glos.ses.  short  piiiloiogical,  historical,  archico- 
logical  notes  in  the  margin,  longer  notes  of 
exposition  or  interpretation  l)etween  the  lines. 

I  The  evil  hereof  was  felt  as  soon  as  tlie  glo.'s.sea 
by  the  transcriber's  carelessness  or  misappre- 
hension were  allowed  to  creep  into  IIks  text. 

I  But  the  advantage,  not  to  say  the  necessity. 


GNAT 


(328) 


GNOSTICISM 


of  having  glosses  was  still  more  palpable,  and 
already  in  the  9lh  century  a  collection  of  such 
glossm  marginales  was  made  by  Walafrid 
Strabo,  which,  under  the  name  of  Glossa  Or- 
dinaria,  became  the  exegetical  storehouse  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  A  similar  collection  of 
glosscR  iiitcrUmnrcs  was  made  by  Anselm  of 
Laon  in  the  12th  century,  and  though  the  lat- 
ter, on  account  of  the  peculiar  cliaracter  of  its 
contents,  proved  much  less  valuable  than  the 
former,  they  were  generally  found  together, 
both  in  manuscripts  and  when  printed.  In 
the  course  of  time  the  number  of  such  glos- 
saria,  to  the  Old  and  to  the  New  Testament, 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  English,  German, 
etc.,  became,  of  course,  very  great.  Glosses 
or  marginal  notes  were  inserted  in  the  Eng- 
lish version  of  Geneva  and  formed  one  reason 
why  James  I.  assented  to  the  proposal  for  a 
new  translation. 

II.  Canonical. — When  the  law  school  of 
Bologna  was  establislied  in  the  beginning  of 
the  12th  century,  and  soon  began  to  gather 
pupils  from  all  parts  of  Europe  for  the  study 
of  the  Roman  law,  it  was  quite  natural  that 
glosses  should  be  found  useful  also  in  this 
field,  both  in  the  form  of  short  explanations, 
distinetiones,  quoititiones,  etc. ,  and  in  the  form 
of  elaborate  illustrations,  historical  or  fic- 
titious, of  facts  and  relations,  casus.  The 
decretists  or  canonists  adopted  the  method 
from  the  legists.  Pupils  of  Gratian  wrote 
glosses  on  his  decretum,  and  in  1212  Johannes 
Teutonicus  gathered  all  these  notes  into  a  con- 
tinuous commentary,  the  so-called  Glossa 
Ordiiiana,  or  Apparatus.  Similar  commen- 
taries were  written  on  the  decretals  of  Greg- 
ory IX.,  the  Liber  Sixtus,  the  Clementines, 
the  Extravagantes,  and  the  decretals  of  John 
XXII.,  by  which  the  first  and  most  important 
problem  was  to  reconcile,  or  at  least  smooth 
over,  the  contradictions  between  the  various 
decretals.  On  biblical  glosses  there  is  a  rich 
literature  (Fabricius,  Harenberg,  Rosenmul- 
ler,  etc.)  illustrating  the  subject  from  various 
points  of  view.  Sec  especially  Ernesti,  Glossce 
Sacrce.,  Leipzig,  1785.  For  canonical  glosses 
see  Schulte,  Geschichte  der  Quellenvnd  Litter- 
atur  des  kanordschen  Itechts  von  Gratian  bis 
auf  die  Gegenwart,  Stuttgart,  1875.      C.  P. 

Gnat,  a  small  but  troublesome  insect,  some- 
what like  a  mosquito,  and  common  in  hot 
countries,  is  mentioned  in  Matt,  xxiii.  24, 
where  the  Revised  Version  properly  reads 
"  strain  out." 

Gnosticism  may  be  defined  as  an  eclectic 
philosophy  of  religion,  containing  elements 
derived  from  Oriental,  Jewish,  and  Greek 
sources,  seeking  to  procure  the  redemption 
of  man  from  the  defilement  produced  by  con- 
tact with  matter  by  imparting  to  him  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  universe  and  of  himself. 

When  Chiislianity  emerged  from  its  first 
obscurity  and  began  to  extend  its  influence 
throughout  the  civilized  world,  it  found  that 
world  seething  with  all  sorts  of  religious  ideas, 
and  tilled  with  indefinite  but  profound  relig- 
ious aspirations  and  desires.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances, witliin  the  circle  of  the  Christian 
Church  itself,  faith  had  to  be  defined  and  de- 
fended upon  all  the  points  raised  by  the  cur- 


rent speculations  ;  and  this  was  done  by  the 
Apologists,  who  added  the  attempt  to  make 
Christianity  intelligible  to  the  heathen  world. 
But  similar  efforts  were  put  forth  without 
the  pale  of  the  church,  and  under  the  prompt- 
ings of  the  intellectual  impulse  to  know  the 
truth  about  God  and  the  world,  there  came 
forth  the  various  forms  of  Gnosticism,  which, 
seizing  upon  Christian  and  other  religious 
systems,  and  combining  the  ideas  derived 
thence  with  those  of  the  Greek  philosophy, 
sought  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer  to  the 
religious  problems  of  the  times.  It  thus  orig- 
inated in  circles  which  were  in  a  certain  sense 
Christian,  and  it  sought  the  same  end  as  con- 
temporary Christian  speculation,  but  it  sought 
this  in  a  way  subversive  of  the  fundamental 
ideas  of  Christ  and  his  apostles. 

With  all  their  great  and  confusing  diversity, 
the  Gnostic  systems  all  have  certain  distinc- 
tive common  features.  They  all  borrow,  but 
in  different  ways,  from  the  different  systems 
of  Greek  philosophy.  In  them  all  is  to  be 
found  a  more  or  less  pronounced  dualism,  or 
the  assumption  that  there  exist  two  eternal 
principles  in  the  universe,  the  good  and  the 
evil.  The  different  forms  which  dualism 
takes  in  different  systems  range  all  the  way 
from  that  of  Plato,  where  the  "  idea  of  the 
ideas"  is  opposed  to  the  "non-existent,"  to 
the  strongest  Persian  dualism,  in  which  the 
two  principles  seem  to  have  almost  equal 
power.  The  methods  of  Greek  philosophy 
were  of  great  influence  upon  all  those  forms 
of  Gnosticism  which  come  in  any  way  in  liv- 
ing contact  with  Christianity.  Willi  this 
Greek  element  are  associated  the  cosmological 
ideas  of  the  Semitic  peoples.  Here  comes  in 
the  idea  of  emanation,  or  necessary  evolution, 
by  whicli  all  beings  are  produced  from  tlie 
original  being  by  a  process  of  development, 
generally  from  above  downward  (Oriental),  or 
from  beneath  upward  (Greek,  system  of  Ba- 
silidcs).  Another  Oriental  peculiarity  is  that 
the  Gnostics,  instead  of  expressing  the  steps 
of  the  development  by  general  concepts, 
clothe  them  in  mythological  forms  (/Eons, 
etc.).  In  all  the  systems  matter  is  associated 
with  evil.  The  first  question  is,  therefore,  how 
the  human  race  has  fallen  into  the  chains  of 
matter,  or  how  has  evil  originated.  The  an- 
swer given  by  Gnosticism  is  the  history  of 
creation.  Redemption  comes  through  the 
communication  of  the  knowledge  of  their  true 
nature  and  destiny  to  those  who  have  some 
spark  of  the  higher  being  in  them.  The  Re- 
deemer is  Christ,  but  his  historical  character 
is  little  emphasized.  The  reality  of  his  hu- 
man body  is  denied  ("  Docetism").  Since 
Christ  comes  to  bestow  the  knowledge  of  the 
true  God,  the  God  of  the  Jews,  known  before 
his  coming,  is  distinguished  from  the  liigliest 
God,  and  sometimes  made  even  antagonistic 
to  him. 

We  shall  not  attempt  to  classify  or  describe 
all  the  systems  of  Gnosticism.  The  reader 
should  consult  the  church  histories,  particu- 
larly those  of  Neander  and  Schaff.  A  good 
idea  of  their  scope  and  form  will  be  best  ob- 
tained by  the  examination  of  two  of  them, 
representing  distinct  types. 

Basilides. — We  follow  the  account  given  by 


ONOSTIOISM 


(329) 


QNOSTICISM 


Hippolytus  and  Origen,  not  thsxt  of  Irena?us 
and  Tertullitiu.  God  is  so  exalted  above  all 
earthly  forms  of  existence  that  he  is  not 
merely  above  all  our  conception  and  every 
form  of  designation,  but  he  is  non-existent. 
Here  may  be  the  Buddistic  idea  of  the  Nirvana. 
All  expressions  used  to  describe  the  activities 
of  God  labor  under  anthropomorphism,  but 
Basilides  can  say  that  God  willed  to  create  the 
world.  He  therefore  rejects  the  idea  of  the 
eternity  of  matter,  and  in  a  sense  that  of 
emanation.  God  casts  the  "  seed"  of  the  world 
down  far  beneath  himself,  from  which  the 
series  of  beings  proceeds  by  development  up- 
ward. In  this  "seed"  there  are  three  ele- 
ments, pneumatic,  i.e.,  of  similar  nature  with 
God  ;  hylic,  or  akin  to  matter  ;  antl  psychical, 
holding  an  intermediate  position.  The  most 
ethereal  of  these  wings  its  way  with  the  swift- 
ness of  thought  up  to  the  immediate  presence 
of  God,  and  tinds  its  rest  in  the  fullest  enjoy- 
ment of  him.  Here  are  the  seven  personified 
ideas  which  form  with  the  Father  the  "  Og- 
doad."  Under  these  comes  a  second  class  of 
spirit,  then  the  "  Firmament,"  then  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  office  of  which  is  to  convey  the 
divine  powers  to  the  forms  beneath.  Now 
from  the  psychical  element  in  the  "seed" 
the  Archon  of  this  world  proceeds,  and  rises 
to  the  place  next  below  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
then  forms  the  seven  Genii,  thus  constituting 
a  second  Ogdoad,  like  the  tirst,  though  he 
has  no  knowledge  of  it.  The  Archon  then 
forms  365  heavens,  in  the  lowest  of  which 
there  is  the  lower  Archon.  Both  of  these 
Archons  are  the  instruments  of  God  for  the 
redemption  of  the  third  class  of  being  from 
the  bonds  of  matter.  The  lower  Archon 
adopts  the  Jewish  people  and  reveals  himself 
to  them  in  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  divine  power  now  descends  thnmgh  these 
regions  and  makes  known  to  these  Archons 
for  the  lirst  lime  the  existence  of  the  spiritual 
world.  Coming  to  the  earth,  this  power 
operates  upon  the  Virgin  IMary,  from  whom 
Jesus  is  born.  After  his  bafjtism,  endued 
with  new  powers,  Jesus  imparts  new"  wisdom 
to  his  hearers,  till  he  is  slain  by  the  Jews. 
Upon  his  death,  the  corporeal  fell  away,  and 
was  without  further  form,  but  the  psj-chical 
ascended  to  the  heaven  of  the  Archons,  the 
divine  element  to  the  highest  Ogdoad.  After 
this  pattern,  the  separation  of  the  various  ele- 
ments of  the  world  goes  on,  and  when  all  is 
completed,  ignorance  is  shed  over  them  from 
above,  so  that  each  class  of  beings  shall  deem 
itself  the  highest  class  of  existence. 

Valentiaus  (according  to  Irenaus). — The 
great  and  original  existence  is  so  exalted 
above  all  thought  as  to  be  indescribable  by 
human  names.  The  woril  Buthos,  abyss,  is 
taken  to  represent  it,  not  as  a  name,  but  as 
indicating  immeasurable  profundity  of  being. 
Endless  ages  he  remains  in  silent  contempla- 
tion of  himself.  He  is  thus  upon  the  one  side 
"  Thought,"  and  upon  the  otiicr  "Silence." 
Abstractly  considered,  tiiis  being  contains  in 
himself  the  antitiiesis  of  the  sexes,  the  pre- 
supposition of  all  development  and  of  all 
being.  From  him  j^roceeds  by  a  necfs.sary 
process,  the  basis  of  wliich  is  a  panthei-stic 
conceplion,   a   descending  series  of    beings, 


called^^ons.  The  Christian  idea  enters  some- 
what into  the  scheme,  since  the  motive  said  to 
move  the  Father  thus  to  express  himself  is 
love.  Tlie  yEons,  or  personified  ideas,  de- 
scend in  pairs,  and  form  the  Ogdoad.  From 
different  members  of  this  proceed  two  other 
groups  of  Jions,  which  with  the  Ogdoad 
form  the  Pleroma,  beneath  which  the  highest 
being  sets  a  Limit.  These  ^-Eons  all  have  a 
desire  for  the  closest  possible  communion  with 
the  Father,  and  this  is  another  Christian  ele- 
ment in  the  scheme.  That  one  farthest  le- 
moved  from  the  divine  being,  Sophia,  filled 
with  burning  desire  for  him  (Pathos),  gives 
up  its  connection  with  its  companion  and  at- 
tempts to  regain  inmiediate  communion  with 
God.  In  this  it  is  restrained  b}"  tlieLimil, 
which  returns  it  to  its  place,  and  having  sepa- 
rated its  Pathos  from  it,  casts  the  latter  out 
of  the  pleroma  into  regions  beneath.  Here 
Pathos,  or  daughter  of  Sophia,  a  second 
Sophia,  becomes  the  mediator  of  the  creation, 
and  the  source  of  the  pneumatic  element  here, 
though  introducing  the  psychical  and  the 
hylic  also.  The  creation  is  effected  through 
the  agency  of  the  Demiurge,  which  is  of  a 
psychical  nature.  From  Sophia  proceeds  the 
lower  Ogdoad,  and  from  the  Demiurge  the 
lower  Hebdomad,  which  together  form  a 
lower  Pleroma.  The  Demiurge,  who  knows 
no  being  higher  than  himself,  selects  the 
psychical  people,  the  Jews,  as  his  own  pecu- 
liar people.  He  sees  certain  pneumatic  men 
whom  he  does  not  understand,  but  whom  he 
admires,  and  he  makes  them  his  prophets  and 
kings.  Some  of  these  prophets  are  inspired 
by  the  Sophia,  some  by  the  Demiurge,  and 
some  speak  through  the  inspiration  of  their 
own  pneumatic  nature.  (This  is  a  kind  of 
theory  of  the  Old  Testament.)  They  prophesy 
tiie  coming  of  Christ.  The  Messiah  sent  by 
the  Demiurge  can  therefore  serve  as  the  sub- 
stratum of  the  higher  Clirist,  who  takes  liis 
abode  in  him  at  his  baptism,  and  leaves  him 
at  his  crucifixion.  The  Christ  communicates 
knowledge  of  their  true  nature  to  the  disciples 
after  his  resurrection.  Pneumatic  men  aie 
sure  of  their  return  to  their  own  place  in  c^^n- 
sequence  of  their  nature,  psychical  men  attain 
it  by  asceticism.  When  the  redemption  s^liall 
have  been  accomplished,  the  Saviour  will 
carry  back  the  Sophia  to  the  Pleroma,  the 
Demiurge  and  the  p.sychical  men  will  come 
up  to  a  point  immediately  beneath  this,  and 
then  a  tire  will  break  out  of  the  Pathos,  a 
part  of  Sophia  left  behind,  and  will  consume 
itself,  all  nmtter,  and  with  itself  the  hylic 
men  and  the  psychical  trillers. 

Gnosticism  had  a  great  following,  since  it 
afforded  an  easier  way  of  salvation  (by  knowl- 
edge) than  the  humiliating  path  preseriLud  by 
the  gospel.  It  Wivs  found  in  all  ])arts  of  the 
world,  and  drew  its  followers  out  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  it.self.  But  it  Mas  thoroughly 
discussed,  its  inner  contradictions  and  insutti- 
ciency  exliihited,  and  finally  it  wa.s  driven  into 
.secret  and  concealed  forms  of  life,  in  which  it 
continued  long  to  exist.  Kindred  systems 
were  the  Manich;ean,  the  Catliari.  the  All)i- 
gensian,  etc.  In  our  own  day,  "  Christian 
Science"  presents  j)oints  of  similarity. 

The  principal  sources  of  our  information 


GOAD 


(330) 


GODET 


are  Ihe  Fathers  of  the  Ante-Nicene  period,  for 
which  see  the  Ante-Nicene  Library  of  the 
Christian  Literature  Publishing  Company. 
(See  Mansel's  Gnostic  Ileredes,  1875  ;  Hilgen- 
feld,  Ketzergeschichtedes  Urchristenthums,  Leip 
zig,  1884,  and  Harnack's  DogmenriesrMchie, 
Freiburg  im  Br.,  1886.  F.  H.  F. 

Goad.  A  pole  6  or  8  feet  long  with  a  sharp 
point  at  one  end  to  urge  and  guide  oxen,  and 
at  the  otlier  a  chisel-like  iron  to  clear  a  plough- 
share from  clods  and  earth.  A  formidable 
instrument  in  the  hands  of  a  strong  man  like 
Shamgar  (Judges  iii.  31).  It  is  still  used  in 
Palestine.  T.  W.  C. 

Goar,  St.,  a  priest  from  Aquitaine,  who  in 
the  6th  century  settled  on  the  Rhine,  near 
Oberwesel,  where  the  town  of  St.  Goar  now 
stands,  and  led  a  liolj'^  life,  but  suffered  very 
much  from  one  Rusticus,  bishop  of  Treves, 
who  was  instigated  by  the  devil.  There  was, 
however,  never  a  bishop  of  Treves  of  that 
name,  and  the  legend  (Act.  Sanct.  Julii,  vol. 
iii.)  was  written  in  the  9th  century. 

Goat.  A  clean  animal  by  the  Jewish  law 
and  one  much  used  in  sacrifices.  Its  milk 
was  valuable  for  food  (Prov.  xxvii.  27)  ;  its 
hair  for  various  manufactures  (Ex.  xxv.  4), 
and  the  skin  for  bottles  (Josh.  ix.  4).  The  he- 
goat,  leader  of  the  Hock  (Prov.  xxx.  81),  sym- 
bolized leaders  in  wickedness  (Isa.  xiv.  9, 
Zech.  X.  3).  Wild  goats  were  the  ibex  or 
beden  of  the  Arabs,  and  their  habits  are  al- 
luded to  in  Job  xxxix   1  and  Ps.  civ.  18. 

The  scapegoat  was  one  of  the  two  goats 
offered  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xvi.). 
Over  it  the  sins  of  Israel  were  confessed  and 
it  was  driven  off  into  the  wilderness.  The 
name  means  Azazel  =  removal,  and  indicates 
tiie  person  to  whom  the  sin-laden  goat  was 
sent.  This  was  doubtless  Satan,  and  the 
meaning  was  that  the  sins  of  the  people  were 
sent  where  they  belonged,  while  they  them- 
selves were  freed  from  their  penalty.  The 
two  goats  represented  but  one  point,  the  re- 
moval of  sin.  T.  W.  C. 

Gobat  (go-ba),  Samuel,  missionary  in  Abys- 
sinia and  bishop  of  Jerusalem  ;  b.  at  Cremiue, 
Canton  Bern,  Switzerland,  Jan.  26,  1799  ;  d. 
at  Jerusalem,  May  11,  1879.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  mission  house  at  Basel  ;  went 
thence  to  Paris  and  London  for  the  study  of 
Arabic,  J^^thiopic,  and  Amharic  ;  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  London  Missionary  Societ}',  labored 
in  Egypt  and  Syria,  1826-39  ;  and  in  Abys- 
sinia, 1829-33;  and,  again.  1835-36.  In  1846 
he  became  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  very 
successful  in  planting  schools  and  other  relig- 
ious institutions  in  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem, 
Jaffa,  and  elsewhere.  He  wrote  Journal  of 
Three  Years'  Residence  in  Abyssinia,  London, 
1834,  3d  ed.,  1847.  (See  his  hfe  [attributed 
to  H.  W.  J.  Thiersch],  orig.,  Basel,  1884, 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1884,  New  York,  1885.) 

Goch,  Johannes,  or  Johannes  Pupper,  b. 
at  Goch,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  IStli  century  ;  studied  at  Paris 
and  founded  tlie  priory  of  Tliabor  at  Mechlin, 
where  he  died  in  1475.  His  De  Lihertnte 
Christiana  was  not  published  until  1531,  but 
afterward  attracted  great  attention. 


God.  Tlie  name  (of  uncertain  derivation) 
given  to  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  all  things. 
The  Bible  assumes  and  asserts  his  existence, 
and  clearly  reveals  his  nature  and  perfections. 
The  names  given  him  in  Scripture  are  all  ex- 
pressive. 1.  El,  the  Mighty  One  (Gen.  xiv. 
18,  etc.).  3.  EWiim  (Gen.  i.  1).  the  plural 
form  of  Eloah  (used  in  Job  and  Daniel),  to 
express  his  majesty  as  the  Almighty  Creator. 
3.  JehomJi,  the  Self-existent  and  Ever-living 
One,  used  to  denote  him  as  the  covenant  God 
of  Israel.  Tliis  is  represented  in  the  Greek 
version  and  in  the  New  TestaTuent  by  Kurios, 
usually  translated  Lord.  4.  Elyon  (Gen.  xiv. 
33,  etc.),  the  Most  High.  5.  Shaddai  (Gen. 
xvii.  1,  etc.),  the  Almighty.  6.  Adonai,  Lord. 
This  the  Jews  substitute  for  Jehovah,  which 
they  never  pronounce.  The  meaning  of 
Jehovah  is  shown  in  Ex.  iii.  14,  where  God 
tells  Moses  his  name  as  I  Am  that  I  Am. 

The  Bible  reveals  him  as  one  God,  and  yet 
existing  in  three  persons,  the  Father,  the  Au- 
thor of  creation  ;  the  Son,  of  redemption  ; 
the  Holy  Gliost,  of  sanctification  ;  but  all  three 
concur  in  all  divine  works.  This  distinction 
of  persons  in  the  Godhead  is  fully  brought 
out  in  the  New  Testament  (Malt,  xxviii.  19, 
2  Cor.  xiii.  14),  but  it  always  existed  and  is 
distinctly  intimated  in  the  Old  Testament, 
where,  however,  the  unity  of  God  is  particu- 
larly emphasized  (Deut.  vi.  4,  2  Kings  xxiii. 
25),  in  order  to  discountenance  "the  gods 
many  and  lords  many"  of  the  heathen.  Be- 
lief in  the  one  living  and  true  God  was  always 
a  chief  feature  of  the  Jewish  religion. 

His  nature  is  represented  as  that  of  an  in- 
finite and  eternal  Being  in  whom  all  conceiv- 
able perfections  are  united.  He  is  a  spirit  and 
must  be  worsliipped  as  such  (John  iv.  34)  ; 
everywhere  present  (Ps.  cxxxix.  7-10)  ;  un- 
changeable (Mai.  iii.  6)  ;  omniscient  (Heb.  iv. 
13)  ;  invisible  (John  i.  18)  ;  incomprehensible 
(Job  xi.  7-9)  ;  righteous  (Ps.  xcii.  15)  ;  wise 
(Rom.  xi.  33)  ;  faithful  (Deut.  vii.  9)  ;  good 
(Ps.  xxxiii.  5)  ;  merciful  (Ex.  xxxiv.  6)  ;  holy 
(Isa.  vi.  3)  ;  and,  finally,  light  and  love  (1  John 
i.  5.  iv.  16). 

He  is  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  the  universe, 
working  all  things  after  the  counsel  of  his 
■will.  He  sees  the  end  from  the  beginning, 
and  his  wise  and, holy  providence  includes  all 
persons'  and  events,  controlling  alike  the  fall 
of  a  sphrrow  and  the  stars  in  their  courses. 
From  liim  cometh  down  every  good  gift  and 
every  perfect  boon,  and  at  his  bar  shall  every 
man  one  day  give  account.  True  religion 
consists  in  the  right  knowledge  of  God,  ac- 
companied with  hearty  obedience  to  his  re- 
vealed will  (John  xvii.  3). 

(Cf.,  besides  the  theologies,  Robert  Flint's 
Theism,  Edinburgh,  1877,  5th  ed.,  1886; 
Samuel  Harris,  Self-Revelation  of  God,  New 
York,  1887.)  T.  W.  C. 

Godet,  Frederic  (Louis),  D.D.  (hon., 
Basel,  1868),  Reformed  ;  b.  at  Neuchatel, 
Switzerland,  Oct.  35,  1813  ;  studied  theology 
at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  and  was  ordained  in 
1838  ;  preceptor  of  the  crown  prince  of  Prus- 
sia, afterward  Emperor  Friedrich  of  Ger- 
many, 1838-44  ;  pastor  in  Neuchatel,  1851- 
66  ;  professor  of  exegetical  and  critical  theol- 


GODFATHER 


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GOLDEN 


ogy  in  the  theological  school  of  the  national 
church  of  the  canton,  and  afterward  in  the 
independent  faculty  of  tlie  Churcli  of  Neu- 
chatel.  He  wrote  commentaries  upon  John 
(Neucliatel,  1863-65,  2  vols.,  3d  ed  ,  1881-85, 
3  vols.,  Eng.  trans,  of  3d  ed.  by  T.  D wight, 
New  York,  1886,  2  vols.),  Luke  (1871.  3d  ed., 
1888-89,  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans.,  ed.  John  Hall, 
New  York,  1881),  Romans  (1879-80,  2  vols., 
2d  ed.,  1883,  Eng.  trans.,  cd.  T.  W.  Cham- 
bers, iS'ew  York,  1883),  First  Corinthians 
(1886,  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1886- 
87,  2  vols.)  ;  Corifercnces  apologctiques  (1869, 
Eng.  trans..  Lectures  in  Defence  of  the  Chris- 
tian  Faith,  Edinburgh,  1881,  2d  ed.,  1883); 
Mudes  bibliques  (1873-74,  3d  cd.,  1876,  Eng. 
trans..  Old  Testament  Studies,  Oxford,  1875, 
4th  ed.,  1886,  iVe?o  Testament,  London,  1876, 
6th  ed.,  1S85)  ;  Studies  on  the  Epistles  (Eng. 
trans..  New  York,  1889). 

Godfather,  Godmother.     See  Sponsors. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  b.  at  Baisy,  a  town 
of  Belgium,  about  1060  ;  d.  in  Jerusalem. 
July  15,  1100  ;  took  the  cross  in  1095  ;  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  first  crusade  ;  led  an 
army  of  80,000  infantry  and  10,000  horse 
through  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  to  Jerusa- 
lem, which  he  took,  after  a  siege  of  5  weeks, 
July  15,  1099.  When  a  Christian  kingdom 
•was  founded  in  Jeru.salem,  he  was  unani- 
mously elected  to  the  throne.  The  title,  how- 
ever, he  refused  to  assume  ;  he  was  simply 
called  the  defender  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

Godhead,  the  nature  or  essential  being  of 
God  (Acts  xvii.  29,  Rom.  i.  20,  Col.  ii.  9). 
T.  W.  C. 

Godliness,  the  spirit  that  gives  to  God  the 
supreme  place  in  the  heart  and  life  (Micah  vi. 
8,  2  Peter  1.  6,  iii.  11).  In  1  Tim.  iii.  16  the 
"  mystery  of  godliness"  means  the  substance 
of  revealed  religion.  T.  W.  C. 

Godwin,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1626), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Wookey,  Somer- 
setshire, 1587  ;  d.  at  Brightwell,  Berk.shire, 
March  20,  1642.  He  entered  :Magdalen  Hall. 
Oxford,  1602  ;  became  head-master  of  the 
free  school  at  Abingdon,  1609.  and  later  rec- 
tor of  Brightwell,  Berkshire.  1016.  He  wrote 
on  Roman  and  Hebrew  antiquities,  1614-16, 
on  Latin  grammar,  and  on  election.  His 
chief  work  is  Moses  and  Anron  :  the  Civil  and 
Ecclesiastical  Jiites  vsed  by  the  Ancient  lie- 
brews,  1625.  This  went  through  many  edi- 
tions (12th,  1685)  and  was  translated  into 
Latin.  F.  M.  B. 

Goerres,  Johann  Joseph  von,  Roman  Cath- 
olic, layman  ;  b.  at  Col)lenz.  Jan.  25,  1776  ; 
d.  at  Munich,  Jan.  29,  1848.  He  was  brought 
up  a  Protestant  ;  studied  medicine  at  Bonn, 
1793-97  ;  threw  himself  with  great  >eal  into 
the  liberal  movement  among  the  Rheni.'ih 
youth  ;  established  two  (short-lived)  papers  in 
its  interest.  In  1801  he  married  Katliariiia 
von  Las.saulx,  the  most  intellectual,  beautiful, 
and  amiable  maiden  in  Coblenz,  according  to 
the  testimony  of  her  contemporaries.  His 
married  life  was  very  happy,  but  his  fortunes 
were  varied,  until,  "in  1827,  he  became  pro- 


fessor of  history  at  Munich.  By  this  time  he 
had  lost  his  political  enthu.'^iasni,  and  its  suc- 
cessor, enthusiasm  for  the  pliilosophy  of  Schel- 
ling,  and  had  become  a  Roman  CaUiolic.  be- 
cause he  believed  that  this  church's  mis.sion 
was  to  heal  the  national  troubles,  and  clothing 
her  with  every  imaginable  virtue  he  became 
one  of  the  leading  German  ultramontanists. 
His  wife  remained  true  to  the  Protestant  faith. 
He  wrote  Mytliengeschichte  dcr  asiuiischcn 
Welt,  Heidelberg,  1810  ;  Germany  and  the 
Revolution  {ong.  [Coblenz],  1819),  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1«20  ;  J)er  Ilciiige  Francixl-ns  nni 
Assisiein  Troubadour,  182G  ;  Knutnn,  I  Ktr<<l,  n- 
borg,  Strassburg,  1827  ;  Die  christlivlir  Miistik, 
Regensburg,  1836-42,  4  vols,  (from  which  has 
been  translated  The  Stigmata  :  a  History  of 
Several  Cases,  London,  1883).  (See  his  life  by 
Joseph  Galland,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1876.) 

Gog  and  Magog,  usually  spoken  of  together 
in  Scripture.  Magog  was  the  name  of  one  of 
Japheth's  sons  (Gen.  x.  2),  but  in  Ezek. 
xxxviii.  39  it  apparently  means  a  country 
north  of  the  Caucasus,  of  which  Gog  was 
king.  In  Rev.  xx.  8  they  represent  all  Christ's 
foes.  T.  W.  C. 

Gogerty,  Daniel  John,  Wesleyan  :  b.  in 
London,  Aug.,  1792  ;  d.  at  Colombo,  Cevlon, 
Sept.  6,  1862.  He  went  to  Ceylon  in  1818  ; 
took  charge  of  the  mission  press  at  Colombo, 
and  mastered  Pali,  the  sacred  language  of  the 
Buddhists.  He  wrote  a  book  on  Christian 
doctrines  and  evidences,  in  Cingalese  (1862), 
translated  large  portions  of  the  Bible  into  that 
tongue,  and  contributed  to  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Society.  F.  M.  B. 

Go'-lan  (exile),  a  Levitical  city  of  Manasseh 
and  the  most  northerly  of  the  three  cities  of 
refuge  east  of  the  Jordan  (Josh.  xx.  8).  It 
was  probably  in  Gaulonitis,  now  Jaulan,  but 
its  exact  site  is  unknown.  T.  W.  C. 

Gold.  Although  much  in  use  among  the 
Hebrews,  it  was  never  coined  till  after  David's 
time.  It  was  obtained  from  Ophir  (Job 
xxviii.  16),  Arabia  (2  Chron.  ix.  14),  Sheba 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  22).  Parts  of  the  tabernacle 
furniture  were  of  pure  gold,  and  others  over- 
laid with  the  precious  metal.  T.  W.  C. 

Golden  Calf.    See  C.\i.F. 

Golden  Legend  {legenda  avrea).  a  collec- 
tion of  legends  of  saints  by  Jacobus  de  Vora- 
gine  (q.v.),  from  the  13lh  century,  last  edition 
by  Groesse,  Dresden,  1846,  was  a  favorite 
book  during  the  ^liddle  Ages  and  of  interest 
to  the  student  of  the  mediaeval  state  of  mind. 

Golden  Nimiber,  The,  is  the  number  of  any 
given  year  in  tlie  iMefonic  cycle  of  19  years. 
It  is  found  by  adding  1  to  the  current  number 
of  the  year—for  instance,  1891 — and  dividing 
the  sum  by  19  ;  the  renuiinder  gives  the  place  of 
that  year  in  the  cycle,  its  golden  number,  and 
if  there  be  no  remainder,  the  number  is  19. 
The  golden  number  is  used  in  ecclesia-stical 
computation  of  the  starting-point  of  the  mov- 
able church  festivals  since  the  6th  century. 

Golden  Rose,  The,  is  a  rose  of  pure  gold, 
set   with  diamonds,   blessed  by  the  pope  on 


GOLGOTHA 


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GOODWIN 


Lsetare  Sunday,  the  fourth  Sunda}'  in  Lent, 
and  used  by  him  in  lilessing  the  people.  It  is 
then  often  sent  to  some  person  or  institution 
as  a  token  of  special  regard.  Pius  IX.  pre- 
sented it  to  Napoleon  lit.  and  Isabella  II. 

C.  P. 

Golgotha.    See  Jerusalem. 

Go-li'-ath  (an  exile),  a  celebrated  giant  of 
Gatli,  over  9  feet  high,  who  defied  Israel  and 
was  slain  by  David  (1  Sam.  xvii.).  Another 
of  the  same  name  "  whose  spear  was  liiie  a 
weaver's  beam,"  is  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  xxi. 
19  as  being  slain  by  Elhanan.         T.  W.  C. 

Gomarists,  followers  of  Gomarus  (q.v.). 

Gomarus,  Franciscus,  B.D.  (Cambridge, 
1584),  D.D.  (Heidelberg,  1594),  Reformed 
Church  of  Holland  ;  b.  at  Bruges,  55  m.  n.w. 
of  Brussels,  Belgium,  Jan.  30,  1503  ;  d.  at 
Groningen,  92  m.  n.e.  of  Amsterdam,  Hol- 
land, Jan.  11,  1641.  He  studied  at  Strass- 
burg,  Neustadt,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Heidelberg  ;  became  pastor  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  1587  ;  professor  of  theology  at  Ley- 
den,  1594.  At  Leyden  he  had  Arm'inius  for 
a  colleague,  but  took  opposite  sides  on  justi- 
fication, freedom  of  the  will,  and  predestina- 
tion. The  strifes  between  the  two  attracted 
widespread  interest.  Arminius  accused  Go- 
marus of  making  God  the  author  of  sin  ;  the 
strongly  supralapsarian  Gomarus  accused  Ar- 
minius of  Pelagianism.  Arminius  died  in 
1609  ;  Gomarus  resigned  in  1611  because  an 
Arminian  was  chosen  his  successor.  In  1614 
he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Saumur, 
but  in  1618  at  Groningen.  His  influence  at 
the  Synod  of  Dort  (16r8-19)  led  that  body  to 
express  itself  strongly  against  Arminianism. 
(See  his  collected  works  [Opera  theologica  om- 
nia], Amsterdam,  1645,  2ded.,  1664.) 

Gomer  {completion).  1.  A  sou  of  Japheth 
(Gen.  X.  2,  1  Chron.  i.  6),  who  is  believed  to 
liave  given  name  to  the  ancient  Cimmerians 
and  the  present  Celtic  peoples  of  Europe.  2. 
The  woman  whom  Hosea  (i.  3)  married  in 
prophetic  vision.  T.  W.  C 

Gomorrah.     See  Sodom. 

Gonesius  (Goniadzki,  Oonyza),  Petrus, 
Polish  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  Goniadz,  now  in  Rus- 
sia, 32  m.  n.w.  of  Bialystok,  on  the  Bober, 
1525  ;  d.  after  1565.  At  first  a  zealous  Ro- 
man Catholic,  on  his  journey  through  Switzer- 
land he  fell  in  with  Servetus'  writings  and 
was  greatly  influenced  by  his  views.  On  his 
return,  1556,  he  denied  the  Trinity,  but  af- 
firmed the  eternity  of  the  Logos,  which  he 
did  not  identify  with  the  Son,  but  called  "  the 
seed  of  the  Son, ' '  since  it  was  in  Mary's  womb 
converted  into  flesh.  He  rejected  all  the 
creeds  save  the  Apostles'.  Repeatedly  con- 
demned by  Polish  synods,  he  continued  to 
labor  for  his  views,  but  when  the  split  in  the 
Reformed  Church  into  Trinitarians  and  Uni- 
tarians took  place,  1565,  he  found  himself  in 
opposition  to  the  latter,  who  went  far  beyond 
him  in  denial 

Good,  in  general,  is  whatever  increases 
pleasure  or  diminishes  pain  in  us.  Moral  cjood 
is  tiie  voluntary  choice  of  what  is  best  for 
man  as  a  responsible  being. 


The  chief  good  {sumraum  bonum)  is  what 
constitutes  the  perfection  of  human  nature 
and  the  happiness  of  human  condition.  The 
searcli  after  this  was  the  aim  of  all  ancient 
religion  and  philosophy,  and  Varro  enumer- 
ated 288  modes  of  attaining  it.  The  summary 
answer  of  the  godly  is  that  the  chief  good  lies 
in  the  discharge  of  duty  (Eccles.  xii.  l3). 

T.  AV.  C. 

Goodell,  William,  D.D.  (Hamilton  College, 
1854),  Congregational  foreign  missionary  ;  b. 
at  Templeton,  JMass.,  Feb.  14,  1792  ;  d.  in 
Philadelphia,  Monday,  Feb.  18,  1867.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  1817,  and 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1820,  and 
from  1822  to  1865  he  labored  as  a  missionary 
of  the  American  Board  in  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire ;  from  1831  at  Constantinople.  He  trans- 
lated the  Bible  into  Armeno-Turkish,  New 
Testament,  1830,  Old  Testament,  1841.  His 
life  by  E.  D.  G.  Prime  (New  York,  1876)  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  of  missionaiy  biog- 
raphies. 

Good  Friday,  the  anniversary  of  the  cruci- 
fixion of  Christ,  was  observed  in  a  sombre 
way  and  with  rigorous  fast  in  the  earliest  days 
of  the  Christian  Church.  In  the  Greek  and 
Roman  churches  the  bells  of  the  towers  are 
still  silent  on  that  day,  the  candles  on  the 
altar-table  are  not  lighted,  and  the  altar  itself 
is  clad  in  mourning. 

Goodness  of  God,  as  shown  in  his  kindness 
to  all  sentient  creatures,  in  his  love  to  persons, 
in  his  compassion  to  the  miserable,  in  his 
grace  to  the  ill-deserving,  has  no  limit  outside 
his  own  perfections.  ' '  'fhis  is  as  good  a  world 
as  was  consistent  with  the  end  God  had  in 
view."  T.  W.  C. 

Goodwin,  John,  Independent ;  b.  in  Nor- 
folk, about  1594  ;  d.  in  London,  1665.  He 
entered  Queen's  College,  Cambridge  ;  became 
a  fellow,  1617,  and  vicar  of  St.  Stephen's, 
Coleman  street,  London,  1633  ;  w^as  ejected, 
1645,  for  opposition  to  the  Presbyterians,  and 
restored  by  Cromwell.  His  Right  and  Might 
Well  Met,  1648,  defended  the  doings  of  the 
army  against  the  Long  Parliament,  and  his 
Obstructors  of  Justice,  1649,  justified  the  con- 
demnation of  Charles  I.  The  latter  (with  two 
tracts  of  Milton)  was  burned  by  the  hangman, 
Aug.  27,  1660,  and  the  author  pronounced  in- 
capable of  office.  His  Treatise  of  Justifica- 
tion, 1642,  Divine  Authority  of  Scripture, 
1648,  and  Redemption  Redeemed,  1651,  have 
been  highly  valued  ;  the  latter  is  strongly  Ar- 
minian, and  provoked  answers  from  Owen 
and  others.  Wesley  abridged  his  Justifica- 
tion, vliristiaii  Theology,  selected  from  his 
works  by  S.  Dunn,  appeared  1836,  and  a  life 
of  him,  by  T.  Jackson,  1839.  He  has  been 
called  "  the  Wiclif  of  Methodism." 

F.  M.  B. 

Goodwin,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1653), 
Nonconformist  ;  b.  at  Rollesby,  Norfolk,  Oct. 
5,  1600  ;  d.  in  London.  Feb.  23,  1680.  He  en- 
tered Christ  Church  College,  Cambridge  ;  be- 
came a  fellow  of  Catharine  Hall,  1620  ;  was 
made  lecturer  of  Trinity  Church,  Cambridge, 
1628,  and  vicar  of  the  same,  1632.  He  left 
the  university  in  1634,  and  was  pastor  at  Am- 


GOOD 


(333) 


GOSPEL 


heim,  in  Holland,  1639-40.  Returning  to 
London  on  Laud's  downfall,  he  took  a  charge 
there  (1640)  and  was  one  of  the  Assembly  of 
Divines,  1643,  and  among  the  "dissenting 
brethren."  In  1650-60  he  was  president  of 
Magdalen  College.  Oxford.  Ejected  at  the 
Restoration,  he  lived  and  preached  in  Lon- 
don. Addison  is  thought  to  have  described 
him  in  the  Spectator,  "No.  494,  and  Wood 
called  him  a  "patriarch  of  Independency." 
His  works  appeared  in  5  vols,  folio,  1681- 
1704,  and  again  in  13  vols.  8vo,  1861-66,  with 
memoir  by  Robert  Hall.  He  was  a  high  Cal- 
vini.st.  F.  M.  B. 

Good  Works,  according  to  the  Scripture, 
are  such  as  are  done  according  to  God's  will 
as  the  standard  of  duty,  out  of  love  to  God  as 
an  aknowledgment  of  his  claims,  and  with  a 
desire  to  promote  his  glory.  The  obligation 
to  perform  these,  so  far  from  being  weakened 
b}^  the  doctrine  of  gratuitous  justification,  is 
rather  strengthened  by  that  cardinal  truth. 
T.  W.  C. 

Gopher-wood,  the  material  of  which  the 
ark  (Gen.  vi.  14)  was  constructed.  Many 
suppose  it  to  be  the  cypress,  while  others  con- 
sider it  a  general  nanie  for  any  resinous  tree, 
as  the  cedar,  the  fir,  and  the  pine. 

T.  W.  C. 

Gorham  Case,  important  case  affecting  the 
Established  Ciuirch  of  England,  arose  from 
refusal  of  Bishop  Philpotts,'^  of  Exeter,  to  in- 
stitute Rev.  G.  C.  Gorham  in  the  living  of 
Brampford  Speke,  Devonshire,  because  he  de- 
nied baptismal  regeneration,  which  the  bishop 
artirriicd  was  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of 
England.  The  bishop  was  sustained  by  the 
Court  of  Arches  (1849),  but  the  decision  was 
reversed  (March  8,  1850)  by  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil, whose  judgment  "  proceeded  on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  court  had  no  jurisdiction 
or  authority  to  settle  matters  of  faith,  or  to 
determine  what  ought  in  any  particular  to  be 
the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  ;  the 
duly  extends  only  to  the  consideration  of  that 
which  is  by  law  established  to  be  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  of  England,  upon  the 
true  and  legal  construction  of  her  Articles  and 
formvdaries."     Benham  (s.v.). 

Gorton,  Samuel,  founder  of  a  sect  of  "  Gor- 
tonians;'  b.  at  Gorton,  3^  m.  s.e.  of  Man- 
chester, Eng.,  about  1600  ;  d.  at  "Warwick,  R. 
I.,  between  Nov.  27  and  Dec.  10,  1677.  He 
■was  a  linen-draper  in  London,  but  emigrated 
to  Boston,  1636  ;  removed  to  Plymouth,  and 
was  expelled  from  the  colony  for  contumacy, 
in  the  winter  of  1637-38.  At  Aquidneck 
(now  Newport),  R.  I.,  he  was  whipped  for 
defaming  the  clergy  and  magistrates.  He 
look  refuge  with  Roger  "Williams  at  Provi- 
dence (1641)  ;  fell  into  difficulties  again,  and 
in  Sept..  1642,  .settled  at  Shawomet,  now  War- 
wick. Thence  he  and  seven  of  his  followers 
were  taken  to  Boston,  Oct.,  1643,  conch  mncd 
as  heretics,  and  put  in  irons.  Released  in 
Jan..  1644,  he  went  to  England,  obtained  pro- 
tection from  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  tiience- 
forlh  lived  in  peace.  His  sect,  which  held 
perfectionist  opinions,  lasted  nearly  a  century. 
His  Simplicities  Defence,  1646,  etc.,  were  re- 


printed in  Force's  Tracts,  Washington,  1836- 
46,  4  vols.;  vol.  iv.,  nos,  6,  7.  (See  liis  life 
by  J.  M.  Mackie.  in  Sparks'  Lib.  Am.  Biog., 
2d  ser.,  vol.  v.,  317-411,  1848.)       F.  M.  B. 

Goshen,  the  portion  of  Egypt  assigned  by 
Pharaoh  to  Israel  (Gen.  xlv,  5,  10).  It  was 
probably  the  tract  bordering  on  the  Tanitio 
branch  of  the  Nile,  hence  called  Zoan,  or  Tanis 
(Ps.  Ixxviii.  12).  It  was  well  suited  to  pas- 
toral life,  being  evidently  better  Avatered  and 
more  fertile  than  now.  It  contained  the  store- 
cities,  Rameses  and  Pithom.  It  was  near  the 
capital  (Gen.  xlv.  10),  and  was  the  starting- 
point  of  the  journey  to  Canaan.     T,  W.  C. 

Gospel  {(/(xnl  nctrs),  the  glad  tidings  of  re- 
demption secured  by  the  life,  death,  and  resur- 
rection of  our  Lord.  Scripture  speaks  simply 
of  "the  gospel"  (Matt.  xxvi.  13),  or  else  of 
"  the  gospel  of  the  kingdom"  (Matt.  ix.  35)  ; 
of  "  Jesus  Christ"  (Mark  i.  1);  of  "peace" 
(Rom.  X.  15)  ;  of  "God"  (1  Thess.  ii.  9)  ; 
and  of  "  the  grace  of  God"  (Acts  xx.  24).  It 
is  also  called  "glorious"  (1  Tim.  i.  11)  and 
"  everlasting"  (Rev.  xiv.  6). 

The  four  biographies  of  our  Saviour  by 
Matthew.  Mark,  Luke,  and  John  are  called 
canonical  gospels.  They  were  received  very 
early  as  authentic  narratives,  and  were  ap- 
pealed to  as  such  by  friends  and  foes.  They 
were  written  in  the'lst  century,  the  first  three 
before  the  destruction  of  .Jerusalem,  a.d.  70, 
and  were  known  in  the  church  as  "  the  Four 
Evangelists"  before  the  year  200,  if  not  before 
150.  Their  genuineness  is  supported  by  the 
testimony  of  the  writers  of  the  2d  century 
(Justin  3Iartyr,  Tatian)  ;  by  the  quotations 
found  in  the  Fathers  ;  by  'the  ancient  ver- 
sions, the  Itala  and  the  Peshilto  dating  from 
the  2d  century  ;  and  by  the  position  of  heretics 
(Basilides,  125,  Marcion,  150)  and  heathen 
opposers  (Celsus,  180),  who  admitted  the  rec- 
ords, but  denied  in  whole  or  in  part  the  credi- 
bility of  their  contents. 

They  are  independent  recitals,  and  there  is 
no  evidence  that  any  one  of  thtm  got  his  facts 
from  another.  But  the  fourth  gospel  seems 
to  have  been  composed  in  part  to  supplement 
what  was  lacking  or  only  partially  given  in 
the  other  three.  It  dwells  on  the  deity  of  our 
Lord  and  the  opposition  he  met  from  the 
Pharisees  (v.-xii.).  It  recites  the  resurrection 
of  Laz^arus  (r:i.)  and  details  the  last  discourses 
of  Christ  (xiii.-xvii.),  but  omits  the  circum- 
stances of  his  birth,  the  institution  of  baptism, 
and  the  Lord's  Supper,  most  of  the  miracks 
and  all  the  parables  found  in  the  first  three 
accounts.  There  are  dilTcreuces  in  the  narra- 
tion of  the  same  events  as  given  by  the  four 
authors,  but.  with  few  exceptions,  thoy  are 
onlv  verbal,  and  such  as  would  naturally  be 
expected  from  diflerent  writers.  Indeed, 
these  variations  argue  strongly  for  the  truth 
of  the  narrative,  for  they  show  conclusively 
tiiat  there  was  no  collusion  or  secret  agree- 
ment among  the  evangelists. 

There  is  a  number  of  spurious  accounts  of 
our  Lord's  life,  called  Apocri/phal  GoujhIk, 
which  give  puerile  accounts  of  his  parents,  of 
his  miracles  when  a  child,  and  of  liis  exi>eri- 
ence  in  Hades,  but  they  are  not  sustained  bv 
any  external  evidence,  are  legendary-,  trivial, 


GOSPEL 


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GOTTSOHALE 


and  wholly  out  of  harmony  with  the  spirit  of 
Christ's  life,  and  are  of  use  only  as  contimi- 
ing  the  authority  of  the  canonical  gospels, 
just  as  a  counterfeit  always  presupposes  the 
existence  of  the  genuine  coin.  For  the  sev- 
eral gospels,  see  their  authors'  names.  The 
best  harmony  of  the  gospels  is  Riddle's  Robin- 
son, New  York,  1885  ;  the  best  general  work 
is  by  Westcott,  London,  7th  ed.,  1888. 

T.  W.  C. 

Gospel  Side  of  the  Altar,  whence  the  gos- 
pel is  read,  is  the  north  side,  it  being  under- 
stood that  the  chancel  is  at  the  east  end  of  the 
church. 

Gospeller,  a  name  formerly  given  to  the 
followers  of  Wiclif  ;  to  evangelists  ;  to  the 
reader  of  the  gospel  during  the  communion 
service  ;  and,  in  the  16th  century,  to  those  in 
the  English  Church  who  were  given  to  Bible 
reading  and  preaching.  T.  W.  C. 

Gossner,    Johannes    Evangelista,    b.     at 

Hansen,  near  Augsburg,  Dec.  14,  1773  ;  d. 
in  Berlin,  March  20,  1858.  His  parents  were 
Roman  Catholics,  and  he  entered  the  priest- 
hood of  that  church  in  1796,  and  although, 
like  Boos  (q.v.),  permeated  with  evangelical 
truth,  remained  in  it  till  1826,  in  which  year 
he  quietly  went  over  to  Protestantism.  From 
1829  to  1840  he  was  a  Protestant  pastor  in 
Berlin  ;  from  then  till  his  death  he  devoted 
himself  to  private  labors.  He  deserves  re- 
membrance, especially  for  his  missionary  so- 
ciety. In  1806  his  attention  was  first  called 
to  the  religious  condition  of  the  heathen,  and 
from  that  time  on  it  lay  upon  his  mind.  Even 
while  a  Roman  Catholic  he  had  more  or  less 
to  do  with  establishing  the  Basel  Missionary 
Society  ;  but  when  he  became  a  Protestant 
he  was  more  actively  interested,  and  in  1836 
started  the  missionary  society  which  bears  his 
name.  It  limits  itse"lf  to  India,  labors  espe- 
cially among  the  Kols,  and  occupies  two  fields 
of  labor.  In  1886  it  reported  an  annual  in- 
come of  about  $40,000,  13  foreign  and  17  na- 
tive missionaries,  and  12,200  communicants. 
(See  Gossner's  life  by  Dalton,  Berlin,  1874, 
2d  ed.,  1878  ;  Funfzig  Jahre  Gossnerscher 
Mission,  Berlin,  1886.) 

Gotama.     See  Gautama. 

Gothic  Architecture.  See  Architec- 
TUHE,  Church. 

Goths,  Conversion  of.  The  Goths  settled, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  3d  century,  upon  the 
Lower  Danube,  whence  they  constantly 
threatened  the  Roman  Empire.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  this  century  they  made  raids  into  the 
Roman  territory,  from  which  they  brought 
back  at  various  times  Christian  prisoners. 
These  preached  the  gospel  among  their  cap- 
tors, won  their  friendly  regard  by  kind  ser- 
vices, and  were  reputed  to  work  "miracles  of 
healing.  In  the  early  part  of  the  4th  century 
there  were  many  Christians  as  the  result  of 
these  efforts,  and  a  Gotliic  bishop  appeared 
at  the  Council  of  Nice  (325).  But  the  chief 
work  of  Christianizing  these  peoples  was  done 
by  Ulpliilas  (q.v.),  who  belonged  to  one  of 
these  captive  families,  and  had  grown  up 
among  the  Goths.     In  348  he  was  made  bish- 


op, and  from  that  time  the  missions  among 
the  Goths  grew  with  great  rapidity.  The 
West  Goth  Athanaric,  however,  began  per- 
secutions, and  Ulphilas  was  obliged  to  cross 
the  Danube  into  the  Roman  territory  in  355. 
He  settled  at  Nicopolis,  in  Mcesia,  and  from 
this  point  carried  on  a  work,  by  means  of  the 
pupils  he  trained,  for  33  years.  Ulphilas 
taught  the  Arian  doctrines  wliich  were  at  that 
time  in  great  favor,  and  this  determined  the 
faith,  and  often  the  political  relations,  of  the 
Goths.  In  370  Christianity  had  got  so  firm  a 
footing  that  though  Athanaric  was  stirred 
up  to  persecute  it,  he  was  unable  to  make 
any  impression  upon  it.  The  nation  divided, 
and  Fritigern,  Athanaric's  rival,  protected 
the  Christians.  After  the  year  370  the  whole 
nation  was  open  to  missionary  labor,  and  after 
the  victory  of  378  and  the  settlement  of  the 
Goths  within  the  Roman  Empire,  they  were 
substantially  Christian,  though  Arians,  Atha- 
naric himself  having  finally  yielded  to  the 
Christian  movement  and  confessed  himself  a 
Christian.  The  conversion  of  the  West  Goths 
to  Catholic  Christianity  occurred  after  their 
occupation  of  Spain,  of  the  East  Goths  after 
their  amalgamation  with  other  nations  in 
Italy.  F.  H.  F. 

Gottschalk  (properly  Godeschalk,  servant 
of  God),  was  a  son  of  Count  Beruo  of  Saxe, 
but  educated  in  the  school  of  Fulda,  and  by 
Rhabanus  Maurus  forced  to  take  the  monastic 
vows  and  become  a  monk,  829.  While  living 
in  the  monastery  of  Arbais,  in  the  diocese  of 
Soissons,  he  found  consolation  in  the  study  of 
Augustine,  whose  ideas  he  developed  into  ex- 
tremes, assuming  a  predestination  not  only  to 
blessedness,  but  also  to  damnation.  On  a 
journey  to  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Germany 
he  was  incautious  enough  to  divulge  his  pe- 
culiar views,  and  when  within  the  reach  of 
Rhabanus  Maurus,  now  archbishop  of  May- 
ence,  he  was  seized,  placed  before  a  synod, 
848,  condemned,  whipped,  and  sent  back  to 
his  own  metropolitan,  Archbishop  Hincmar 
of  Rheims.  Here  the  condemnation  and  the 
whipping  were  repeated,  and  he  was  finally 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  and  shut 
up  in  a  dungeon  in  the  monastery  of  Haut- 
villiers.  Meanwhile,  Prudentius  of  Troyes, 
Servatus  Lupus,  Ratramnus  and  others 
espoused  his  cause,  and  in  863  even  the  pope, 
Nicholas  I. ,  took  occasion  to  call  Hincmar  to 
account  for  the  manner  in  which  he  had 
treated  the  monk.  But  a  few  years  after. 
868,  Gottschalk  died.  On  his  death-bed  the 
sacrament  was  ofi"ered  him  on  the  condition 
that  he  should  recant,  but  he  refused.  (See 
V.  Borrasch,  Dcr  Monch  Gottschalk,  Thorn, 
1868.) 

Gottschalk,  a  son  of  Uto,  ruler  of  the 
"Wends,  was  educated  in  a  monastery,  but  for- 
got everything  he  had  learned  when  he  heard 
that  his  father  had  been  killed  by  a  Saxon. 
Unable  to  accomplish  his  revenge,  he  fled  to 
King  Canute  of  Denmark,  and  with  Danish 
aid  lie  was  able,  in  1043,  to  take  possession  of 
his  paternal  heritage  and  form  a  great  Wend- 
ish  kingdom.  He  now  showed  himself  as 
zealous  for  Christianity  as  he  formerly  had 
been  for  blood-revenge,  but  by  his  missionary 


GOUGE 


(335) 


GRADUAL 


activity  he  only  exasperated  his  subjects,  who 
hated  Christianity  as  a  Saxon  institution,  and 
June  7,  1066,  tliey  rose  against  him  and  killed 
him. 

Gouge,  Thomas,  Nonconformist  ;  b.  at 
Bow,  near  Loudon,  Sept.  29,  1609  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  29,  1681.  lie  went  from  Eton  to 
King's  Colk'gB,  Cambridge,  1625,  and  became 
a  fellow,  1628  ;  rector  of  Coulsdon,  Surrey, 
about  1635,  and  of  St.  Sepulchre's,  Loudon, 
1638-62.  After  liis  ejection  he  founded 
schools  and  circulated  Bibles,  etc.,  in  Wales, 
which  he  visited  annually,  lie  said  he  had 
"  two  living,"  Wales  and  Christ's  Hospital, 
London.  Tillotson  called  him  a  "  truly  apos- 
tolical man,"  and  Cotton  jMather,  "  the  excel- 
lent Gouge — my  honored  Gouge  !"  His 
works  were  coliected  in  1706.  A  sketch  of 
his  life  hY  T.  Biujiey  is  prefixed  to  a  reprint, 
1856,  of  his ll'i^rr;;  to  h/>uu)-i<,  1672.   F.  M.  B. 

Gouge,  William,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1628), 
Puritan  ;  b.  at  Stratford  le-Bow,  Middlesex, 
Nov.  1.  1575  ;  d.  in  London.  Dec.  12,  1653. 
He  passed  from  Eton  to  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1595  ;  became  M.A.,  1602,  and  B.D., 
1611.  From  June,  1608,  he  was  minister  of 
St.  Anne's,  Blackfriars,  London,  "laborious, 
exemplary,  and  much  loved."  Though  im- 
prisoned for  9  weeks  on  suspicion  of  het- 
erodoxy in  1621,  he  came  to  be  regarded 
as  "  falhcr  of  the  London  divines,  and  the 
oracle  of  his  time."  He  sat  in  the  West- 
minster Assembly,  and  was  one  of  its  as- 
sessors from  1647  ;  was  prolocutor  of  the 
first  Provincial  Assembly  of  London,  May  3, 
1647,  and  opposed  the  execution  of  Charles  I. 
His  earlier  works  appeared  1627,  2  vols.  ;  his 
Cummcntdry  on  ITebreics,  1655,  containing  the 
substance  of  nearly  1000  sermons,  with  a  life 
by  his  son  Thomas  (q.v.),  1655,  2  vols,  folio, 
rep.,  1866,  3  vols.  F.  U.  B. 

Goulburn,  Very  Rev.  Edward  Meyrick, 
D.I).  ^Oxford,  1856),  D.C.L.  (Oxford,  1850)  ; 
b.  in  England,  1818  ;  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  studied  at  Oxford  ;  ordained  deacon  in 
1842  and  priest  in  1843  ;  curate  of  Holywell, 
Oxford,  1841-50  ;  liead-master  of  Rugby, 
1850-58  ;  one  of  her  majesty's  chaplains  and 
incumbent  of  St.  John's,  Paddington,  Lon- 
don, 1859-06;  dean  of  Norwich, "1806  ;  re- 
signed in  the  year  1889.  He  wrote  The  lies- 
vrrcctio/i  of  the  Bod//  (Bampton  Lectures  of 
1850)  :  Introduction  to  the  iJerotionnl  Study  of 
the  Iloly  Scriptures,  London,  1854,  lOtli  ed., 
1873  ;  Thourfhts  on  Personal  Religion,  1862, 
17th  ed.,  1885  ;  The  Pursuit  of  Holiness, 
1869.  0th  ed.,  1873  ;  The  Holy  Catholic 
Church,  1873,  2d  cd.,  1875  ;  llic  Adminis- 
tration of  the  Lord's  Supper,  1875,  2d  cd., 
1875  ;  ffrerla.stinr/  PinishmcjU,  1880,  2tl  cd., 
IHSO  ;  Thovf/hts  on  the  lAturrjical  Gospels  for 
the  Snndnys,  1883,  2  vols.  ;  Three  Counsels  of 
the  JHrine  Mauler  for  the  Spiritual  Life,  1888, 
2  vols. 

Gourd.  The  plant  which  shaded  Jonah 
(iv.  6)  wa.s  probably  the  castor-oil  plant  (AV- 
cinus  communis),  which  grows  rapidly  to  the 
licight  even  of  15  feet.  The  trild  ynurds  eaten 
by  the  sons  of  the  prophets  (2  Kings  iv.  39) 
were  doubtless  the  poisonous  colocynth,  still 
found  about  Gilgal.  T.  W.  C. 


Go'-zan,  the  district  of  Mesopotamia  to 
which  captive  Israel  was  carried  (2  Kings  xvii. 
6,  1  Chron.  v.  26),  and  which  was  wateied  by 
the  Habor,  the  modern  Khabour,  a  lril)titary 
of  the  Euphrates.  T.  W.  C. 

Graal,  The  Holy.  The  word  is  evidently 
a  corruption,  probably  from  gradnale  or 
gradale,  a  liturgical  collection  of  psalms  and 
scriptural  texts,  or  from  sangvts  realis,  san- 
yrenl.  In  the  mediaeval  legend,  which,  in 
England,  dates  back  to  the  12th  century,  and 
probably  had  Walter  Map  for  its  author,  the 
Holy  Graal,  or  St.  Grail,  is  the  name  of  the 
bowl  out  of  which  our  Lord  ate  the  Paschal 
lamb  on  the  night  of  his  betrayal,  and  which 
Joseph  of  Arimatliea  used  to  catch  the  blood 
from  the  wounds  of  Christ.  Joseph  carried  it 
to  Britain,  where  it  was  lost,  but  recovered 
by  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Bound 
Table.  (See  E.  Ilucher,^  Le  St.  Graal,  Le 
Mans,  1875-79,  3  vols.) 

Grabe,  Johann  Ernst,  D.D  (Oxford,  1706), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Kiinigsberg,  Prus- 
sia, July  10,  1666  ;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  13. 
1711.  He  went  to  England  in  1697  ;  became 
chaplain  of  Christ  (Umrch,  Oxford,  1700.  He 
is  famous  for  his  Spicilegiuin  SS.  Patrum  vt 
et  hmreticorum  secnli  post  Christum  nutum 
I.-IIL,  Oxford,  1698-99,  2  vols.  ;  Justini 
apologia  prima,  1700  ;  Ircnai.  adversns  ha'reses 
libriv.,  1702  ;  V.  T.juxta  LXX.,  1707-20,  4 
vols. 

Grace  (favor,  v^ercy)  is  the  undeserved 
favor  of  God  toward  sinful  men,  especially  a.s 
shown  in  the  redemption  through  Jesus  Christ, 
and  its  application  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  It 
has  been  distinguished  into  common  grace, 
which  all  men  have  in  the  light  of  nature, 
convictions  of  conscience,  and  the  ordinary 
workings  of  the  Spirit,  and  special,  which  ia 
peculiar  to  those  who  are  chosen,  renewed, 
sanctified,  and  finally  received  into  lieaven. 
It  is,  again,  discriminated  as  prevenient  (prior 
to  repentance)  ;  ojicrating  when  the  soul  is  re- 
newed ;  co-operating,  in  which  the  creature- 
will  after  its  regeneration  concurs.  Calvin- 
ists  also  speak  of  irresistible  or  cfficaciouii 
grace,  by  which  they  do  not  mean  that  the 
Spirit's  influence  is  not  resisted,  but  that, 
however  long  or  .severe  the  struggle,  finally 
grace  conquers,  and  the  sinner  freely  gives 
his  heart  to  God. 

The  means  of  grace  are  such  exercises  a» 
public  worship,  reading  the  Bible,  prayer, 
praise,  meditation,  doing  good  to  others,  etc., 
which  the  precti)ts  of  the  Word,  the  example 
of  Christ,  and  the  experience  of  all  believers 
show  to  be  essential  to  progress  in  tlie  divino 
life. 

Grace  at  meals  is  a  short  prayer,  the  pro- 
priety of  which  is  shown  by  God's  command 
(I  Cor.  X.  31,  1  Thess.  v.  18,  1  Tim.  iv.  5),  by 
the  example  of  Christ  (3Iark  viii.  6,  7),  by 
rea.son  itself,  and  even  by  the  practice  of  the 
better  heathen.  For  the  omission  of  it  by 
Christians  there  is  no  excuse.  T.  W.  C. 

Gradual  {responsorium  gradvale),  the  jxsalm 
chanted  in  the  mass  between  the  epistle  and 
the  gospel,  and  thus  calhd  because  it  was 
sung  from  the  steps  (gradus)  leading  up  1o  the 
altar. 


GRAHAM 


(336) 


GRAUL 


Graham,  Isabella,  philanthropist  ;  b.  at 
Eldersley,  Lauariishire,  Scotland,  July  29, 
1743  ;  d:  in  New  York,  July  27,  1814.  She 
was  a  daughter  of  John  Marshall,  and  mar- 
ried an  army  surgeon,  who  died  at  Antigua, 
1774.  Returning  to  Scotland,  she  taught  at 
Paisley  and  in  Edinburgh.  At  the  advice  of 
her  former  pastor,  Dr.  Witherspoon,  of 
Princeton,  she  removed  to  New  York  in  1789 
and  opened  a  successful  school.  Here  she 
joined  Dr.  Mason's  church,  was  active  in 
Bible  distribution  and  in  all  forms  of  chari- 
table work,  and  bore  a  prominent  part  in  or- 
ganizing an  Indian  missionary  society,  1796, 
■one  for  the  relief  of  widows,  1797,  the  first 
orphan  asylum,  1806,  a  Magdalen  society, 
1811,  and  others.  Her  Life  and  Writings, 
by  Rev.  Dr.  J.  M.  Mason,  N.  Y.,  1816,  was 
widely  circulated  ;  her  Letters,  N.  Y.,  1838, 
were  edited  by  her  daughter,  the  mother  of 
Rev.  Dr.  G.  W.  Bethune.  F.  M.  B. 

Grandmont,  or  Grammont,  The  Order  of, 

was  founded  in  1073  by  Stephanus,  who,  b. 
in  1046,  at  Tigerno,  the  present  Thiers,  in  the 
Department  of  Puy  de  Dome,  France,  was 
educated  by  the  bishop  of  Benevento,  and  on 
his  return  obtained  permission  of  Pope  Greg- 
ory VII.  to  form  a  French  order  after  the 
model  of  the  Calabrian  monks.  The  order 
settled  at  Grammont,  in  East  Flanders,  Bel- 
gium, 21  m.  s.  of  Ghent,  but  it  always  suf- 
fered from  internal  dissensions,  never  became 
of  importance,  and  was  finally  dissolved  un- 
der the  Revolution.  (See  Helyot,  Histoire  des 
Ordres  Monastiques,  Paris,  1714-19,  8  vols.) 

C.  P. 

Grant,  Asahel,  M.D.,  missionary  ;  b.  at 
Marshall,  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  17, 
1807  ;  d.  at  Mosul,  Asiatic  Turkey,  April  24, 
1844.  A  physician  in  Utica,  he  was  sent  by 
the  American  Board,  in  1835,  to  Persia,  where 
he  labored  successfully  among  the  Nestorians 
at  Oroomiah  and  elsewhere,  and  witnessed 
their  sufferings  during  the  Kurdish  attack  of 
1843.  His  book.  The  Nestorians,  or  the  Lost 
Tribes,  New  York,  1841,  won  much  praise. 
His  memoir  was  written  by  A.  C.  Lathrop, 
1847.  (See  also  Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nes- 
torians, Boston,  1853,  by  T.  Laurie,  his 
associate  in  the  mission.)  F.  M.  B. 

Grapes,  the  fruit  of  the  vine.  The  grapes 
of  Palestine  were  large  and  fine  (Num.  xiii. 
23),  and  still  grow  in  clusters  of  such  size  that 
a  single  man  cannot  safely  carry  tliem.  The 
best  vines  grow  in  the  environs  of  Bethlehem 
and  in  the  vale  of  Eshcol  near  Hebron.  The 
Jews  were  forbidden  to  gather  grapes  till  the 
vine  was  three  years  old  (Lev.  xix.  23),  and 
then  must  leave  the  gleanings  for  the  poor. 
A  passer-by  could  pick  some  to  eat,  but  could 
not  carry  any  away  (Deut.  xxiii.  24).  A  vine- 
yard nearly  stripped  was  a  frequent  image  of 
desolation  (Isa.  xvii.  6,  xxiv.  13).  Besides 
drying  them  into  raisins,  the  people  boiled 
grapes  down  into  a  syrup  called  dibs  (Hebrew, 
honey).  This  honey'  of  grapes  (and  not  bees' 
honey)  is  what  Jacob  sent  down  to  Egypt 
(Gen.  xliii.  11)  and  the  men  of  Tyre  traded  in 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  17).  "  Wild  grapes,"  the  fruit 
of  a  wild  vine,  never  ripen  and  are  good  only 
for  verjuice  (Isa.  v.  2).  T.  W.  C. 


Grasshopper,  a  kind  of  locust,  and  so  called 
in  2  Chron.  vii.  13.  It  was  sometimes  used 
for  food.  Their  feebleness  furnishes  a  strik- 
ing comparison  in  Num.  xiii.  33  and  Isa.  xl. 
22,  yet  when  they  come  in  great  numbers  they 
are  very  destructive  (Amos  vii.  1). 

T.  W.  C. 

Gratian,  Roman  emperor,  in  the  West  since 
375,  in  the  East  since  378  ;  d.  383.  He  stood 
under  the  influence  of  Ambrosius  and  showed 
himself  very  severe  to  all  deviations  from  the 
strictest  Catholicism.  In  876  he  forbade  all 
heretics  to  assemble  for  religious  purposes, 
confiscated  the  estates  of  their  churches,  and 
transferred  the  buildings  to  the  Catholics.  In 
377  he  exempted  all  otficers  of  the  Catholic 
Church  from  municipal  services  and  personal 
taxes.  In  381  he  chose  Theodosius  as  his  co- 
regent  and  the  imperial  severity  was  extended 
also  to  paganism.  Apostates  from  Christi- 
anity to  paganism  lost  their  right  to  make  a 
will.  All  sacerdotal  privileges  and  all  state 
support  were  withdrawn  from  paganism,  and 
the  estates  of  the  pagan  temples  were  confis- 
cated, etc. 

Gratian,  a  monk  of  the  Camaldolensian 
order,  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Felix,  Bologna, 
and  tlie  author  of  that  corpus  decretortim  or 
decreti/m  which  bears  his  name,  lived  in  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century,  and  gave  a  new 
and  powerful  impulse  to  the  study  of  canon 
law,  but  nothing  further  is  known  about  his 
life.     See  Canon  Law. 

Gratry,  Auguste  Joseph  Alphonse,  Roman 
Catholic ;  b.  at  Lille,  France,  March  30, 
1805  ;  d.  at  Montreaux,  on  Lake  Geneva,  14 
m.  s.e.  of  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  Feb.  7, 
1872.  He  studied  at  Paris  ;  entered  the  Re- 
demptorist  order  ;  became  vicar-general  to  the 
bishop  of  Orleans,  1801  ;  professor  of  moral 
theology  in  the  Sorbonne,  1863,  and  member 
of  the  French  Academy,  1868.  He  founded, 
in  Paris,  the  Oratory  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, 1851-52.  He  was  renowned  for  his 
eloquence,  and  exerted  all  his  powers  of  rhet- 
oric and  learning  in  opposition  to  the  infalli- 
bility dogma  (cf.  his  Letters  to  Mgr.  the  Bishop 
of  Orleans  and  Mgr.  the  Archbishop  of  Malines, 
orig.,  Paris,  1870,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1870), 
but  submitted  Nov.  25,  1871.  Besides  phil- 
osophical works  and  a  commentary  on  Mat- 
thew (Paris,  1863-65)  he  wrote  The  Month  of 
Mary  Conceived  without  Sin  (Eng.  trans., 
London,  1860)  ;  Jesus  Christ :  a  Kejily  to  M. 
Renan  (Paris,  1864,  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1868) ;  Henri  Perreyve  (Paris,  1866,  Eng.  trans., 
1872,  3d  ed.,  1877)  ;  La  morale  et  la  loi  dlris- 
toire,  1868,  2  vols,  (a  justification  of  the  French 
Revolution).  (See  his  life  by  B.  Chauvelot, 
Paris,  1862,  and  Perraud,  Last  Days  of  Father 
Gratry,  orig.,  Paris,  1872,  Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1872.)^ 

Graul  (growl).  Karl,  D.D.  (Leipzig??), 
Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Worlitz,  near  Dessau,  in  the 
duchy  of  Anhalt,  Prussian  Saxony,  Feb.  6, 
1814  ;  d.  at  Erlangen,  Nov.  10,  1864.  He 
studied  at  Leipzig,  1834-38  ;  became  director 
of  the  Dresden  Missionary  Society,  1844 ; 
transferred  to  Leipzig  in  1849,  where  it  now 
is  ;  resigned,  1860,  on  account  of  his  health. 


GRAVEN 


GREEK 


He  travelled  to  India  by  wa3'  of  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  1849-53,  and  published  tlie  results  of 
his  observations,  litUe  uacJh  Ontijuiien  (Leipzig, 
1854-56,  5  vols.).  He  paid  particular  attention 
to  the  Tamuls,  and  mastered  their  language. 
He  differed  from  most  missionary  directors  in 
that  he  tolerated  distinctions  of  caste  among 
the  converts,  and  aimed  at  national  rather 
than  individual  conversions  ;  hence  his  mis- 
sionaries were  instructed  to  acquaint  thcm- 
seh'es  with  the  literature  of  the  people  they 
worked  among.  One  of  his  general  works, 
Unterncheidu ncjsMiren  der  verschicdenen  christ- 
lichen  Bekenntnisfte  (a  treatise  on  denomina- 
tional differences),  had  a  large  circulation 
(Leipzig,  1845.  11th  ed.,  1884).  (See  life  by 
G.  Hermann,  Halle,  1867.) 

Graven  Image.     See  Idolatey. 

Greek  Church.  This  name  is  employed  to 
designate  all  those  churches,  though  they 
may  now  be  separated  from  one  another, 
which  are  de.scended  from  the  one  church  of 
the  Greek-speaking  East,  as  their  common 
origin.  It  thus  includes  the  Greek  Church 
which  still  centres  in  Constantinople  and  has 
a  patriarch  there  ;  the  Churcli  of  Greece,  the 
modern  nation  of  that  name  ;  and  the  Russian 
Church. 

The  gospel,  as  soon  as  it  left  Jerusalem 
upon  its  universal  mission,  came  in  contact 
with  Greek  civilization  and  began  to  use  the 
resources  of  Greek  culture.  The  language 
used  by  its  missionaries,  and  employed  to 
commit  its  sacred  truths  to  permanent  written 
form,  wiis  the  Greek,  the  universal  language 
of  the  East.  Its  first  extra-canonical  written 
productions  were  in  Greek,  and  with  the  ele- 
ments of  Greek  thought  its  apologists  were 
themselves  imbued  or  had,  in  other  direc- 
tions, to  struggle.  During  the  2d  century 
there  are  traces  here  and  there  of  those  Greek 
communities  whose  names  first  meet  us  upon 
the  pages  of  the  New  Testament.  Corinth 
appears  in  the  Epistle  of  Clement,  Ephesus, 
Smyrna,  Philippi,  Hierapolis,  Laodicea,  Sar- 
dis,  in  various  writings  or  controversies  of  the 
times.  Greek  communities  are  founded  even 
as  far  away  as  Gaul,  and  Irena?us  writes  there 
his  great  work  in  Greek.  Still,  no  schism  or 
perceptible  difference  of  feeling  seems  to  ex- 
ist between  East  and  West,  and  Irena'us  can 
speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  Rome.  After  a 
time  Alexandria  comes  into  prominence 
through  the  beginning  of  the  line  of  her  great 
teachers.  A  distinct  type  of  theology  begins 
to  be  outlined,  which  perpetuates  itself  in  a 
homogeneous  development. 

The  second  period  of  the  Greek  Church  ex- 
tends from  the  beginning  of  the  4th  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  7th  century.  This  is  the  period 
of  the  rise  of  Constantinople  and  the  forma- 
tion of  several  patriarchates,  of  which  Con- 
stantinople was  one,  and  in  .some  respects  the 
first.  The  division  in  the  empire  divided  the 
church  in  some  respects,  and  while  the  West 
tended  to  consolidate  about  its  one  patriarch- 
ate, Rome,  and  thus  the  monarchical  tendency 
was  introduced  there,  the  East  tendod  to  a 
clo.scr  ivssociation  among  the  patriarchates  as 
opposed  to  Rome,  but  no  monarchical  ten- 
dencies appeared.     The  course  of  the  theologi- 


cal controversies  helped  maintain  this  condi- 
tion of  affairs  in  the  East.  The  Arian  con- 
troversy, which  began  in  Alexandria,  had  its 
chief  discussion  in  Asia,  and  its  influence  ex- 
tended from  Syria  to  Italy.  So  the  Chris- 
tological  controversy  engaged  Alexandria  and 
Antioch  on  opposites  sides,  but  resulted  in  the 
unconditional  victory  of  neither  party.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  controversies  of  the  West 
were  little  known  to  the  East.  While  the 
Latin  writers  translated  Greek  treatises,  and 
the  results  of  the  Greek  investigations  were 
made  its  own  by  the  Latin  Church,  but  few 
Latin  works  were  rendered  into  Greek.  The 
Greeks  had  a  literature  of  their  own,  in  which 
Athanasius,  the  Gregories,  Cyril,  Chrysostom, 
and  John  of  Damascus  are  but  a  few  of  the 
noted  names,  and  they  were  content  with 
this. 

The  third  epoch  is  that  of  the  attack  of 
Islamism,  from  the  early  part  of  the  7lh  cen- 
tury to  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1458.  In 
this  period  the  separation  of  the  two  churches 
is  made,  and  it  seems  inevitable  from  the  very 
beginning.  The  ways  begin  now  to  part. 
The  controversies  of  the  one  half  of  the 
church,  as  the  controversy  upon  the  worship 
of  images  in  the  East  (726-842),  do  not  affect 
specially  the  other.  The  Greek  Church  has 
its  special  trials  after  the  Moslems  come  into 
Syria  and  Egypt,  and  thus  the  patriarchates 
of  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  and  Antioch  are 
extinguished.  Photius  (q.v.)  begins  the  doc- 
trinal separation  of  the  two  churches  (see 
Filioque)  which  is  consummated  in  1054. 
But  the  pretensions  and  claims  of  the  papacy 
form  the  great  obstacle  to  the  retention,  as 
now  to  the  renewal,  of  the  ancient  fellowship. 
The  Greek  comes  out  of  the  contest  with 
Rome  with  the  feeling  that  he  alone  repre- 
sents the  ancient  constitution  and  doctrine  of 
the  Christian  Church,  and  as  learning  decays 
under  the  trials  of  the  times,  he  grows  more 
and  more  conservative  and  rigid,  even  lifeless, 
till  his  conception  of  religion  is  embraced  in 
the  word  "  orthodoxy,"  and  his  conception  of 
orthodoxy  is  faithfulness  to  the  traditional 
doctrine.  Once  again,  in  the  time  of  the 
Latin  patriarchate  in  Constantinople  (1204- 
61),  were  the  two  churches  face  to  face,  but 
not  in  a  way  to  re-establish  affection.  At 
Ferrara-Florence  (q.v.)  but  an  apparent  union 
coidd  be  made.  In  literature  in  this  period 
there  is  little  to  mention.  The  church  had 
relinquished  the  effort  to  learn,  and  only 
sought  to  repeat  its  old  stores  of  wisdom.  It 
receives  little  stinndus  from  the  West,  only  a 
few  extracts  of  Latin  writers  being  translated 
into  Greek. 

The  fourth  period  extends  from  the  fall  of 
Constantinople  to  modern  times.  AVhile  this 
event  conferred  the  greatest  blessing  upon  the 
West,  since  it  gave  her  the  rich  materials  of 
Greek  science,  which,  receiving  and  employ- 
ing as  a  basis  for  independent  research,  she 
converted  into  the  foundation  of  the  learning 
and  i)rogress  of  modern  times,  the  East  took 
no  part  in  the  movement,  or  in  the  subsequent 
reformation  of  the  church,  and  failed  to  reap 
any  considerable  profit.  The  Reformers  were 
inclined  to  look  toward  the  East,  for  here 
was  a  church  which  had  existed  for  ages  in- 


GREEK 


(338) 


GREEN 


dependent  of  Rome.  The  original  languages 
of  tlie  Scriptures  were  also  studied  by  the  Re- 
formers, and  the  Greek  Fathers  used.  Cer- 
tain of  the  Reformers  therefore  hoped  to  see 
a  similar  movement  among  tlie  Greeks,  and 
translated  Luther's  Smaller  Catechism  into 
Greek.  But  all  was  in  vain.  Cyril  Lucar 
had,  indeed,  some  points  of  contact  witli  Cal- 
vinism ;  but  his  elforts  resulted  in  nothing. 
On  the  contrary,  the  Greek  Church  asserted 
its  scparateness  more  vigorously,  and  styled 
itself  now,  for  the  first  time,  tlie  Eastern 
Church,  making  for  itself  in  the  Confession 
of  Mogilas  (1642)  a  basis  upon  which  it  should 
stand  in  distinction  from  all  oilier  cliurches. 

The  Greek  Church  under  the  rule  of  the 
Turks  has  in  general  enjoyed  religious  liberty, 
though  greatly  oppressed  by  the  arbitrary  and 
despotic  nature  of  Ihe  government.  It  has 
scarcely  maintained  itself  through  the  cen- 
turies, but  in  recent  times  it  is  beginning  to 
show  considerable  mental  activity.  It  has 
now  two  theological  seminaries  through  which 
all  its  future  bishops  must  pass.  It  has  also 
come  into  considerable  contact  with  the 
West,  and  has  had  a  number  of  its  sons  edu- 
cated in  the  universities  of  Germany,  of  whom 
Bryennios,  the  discoverer  of  the  Didaclie,  is 
now  the  most  famous. 

TJie  Greek  Church  in  Greece,  the  so-called 
"  Orthodox  Oriental  Church  of  Greece,"  sep- 
arated itself  from  the  Greek  patriarch  in  Con- 
stantinople, July  23,  1833.  It  is  governed  by 
a  synod,  and  in  recent  times  has  also  put 
itself  in  contact  with  the  Protestant  learning 
of  tht?  West. 

The  Russian  Church  is  a  child  of  the  Greek 
in  so  far  as  its  original  impetus,  the  forms  of 
its  worship,  and  the  standards  of  its  doctrine 
are  concerned.  Tlie  chief  difference,  which, 
however,  has  been  enough  to  give  the  Russian 
Church  a  distinct  character  of  its  own,  lies  in 
the  relation  of  the  church  to  the  state,  which 
in  Russia  has  been  the  closest  conceivable 
union. 

There  are  four  periods  in  the  history  of  the 
Russian  Church,  of  which  the  first  is  that  of 
the  Foundation,  1000-1400.  There  was  a 
cathedral  church  in  Kiew  as  early  as  900. 
The  Princess  Olga  went  to  Constantinople  and 
was  baptized  in  955.  Her  grandson,  Vladi- 
mir, introduced  Christianity  into  Russia  by 
accepting  it  himself,  and  inducing  his  people, 
who  followed,  with  true  Russian  docility,  the 
lead  of  their  prince,  to  be  baptized.  This  was 
in  983.  From  this  time  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity was  rapid  and  easy.  The  Bible  liad 
already  been  translated  into  Russian.  The 
liturgy  was  also  Russian.  The  natural  in- 
clinations of  the  people,  the  influence  of  the 
princes,  and  the  broad  policy  of  the  Greek 
Church  all  helped  to  make  the  process  as  easy 
as  possible. 

The  second  period  is  that  of  consolidation, 
1400-1650.  It  is  the  period  in  which  the  Czar, 
as  a  national  deliverer  and  the  necessary  cen- 
tre of  national  unity  and  safety,  gains  that 
enthusiastic  and  instinctive  veneration  the 
relics  of  which  form  his  power  even  to-day. 
It  is  the  period  also  of  the  separation  of  the 
Russian  Church  from  Constantinople.  This 
was  effected  in  1587,  when  the  metropolitan 


of  Kiew  was  made  patriarch  in  the  place  of 
the  patriarch  of  Rome,  who  was  adjudged  to 
have  lost  his  place  by  his  schism.  This  is  the 
period  also  of  the  Tartar  invasion,  when  the 
monasteries,  particularly  the  Troitza,  saved 
the  nation  by  their  dogged  resistance.  For 
more  than  two  centuries  (1205-1472)  the  his- 
tory of  Russia  was  one  of  constant  crusades, 
as  in  Spain  against  the  Moors.  The  Poles, 
too,  invaded  the  country  from  the  West  (1606- 
13),  and  got  possession  even  of  the  city  of 
Moscow.  The  Troitza  was  again  a  seat  of  the 
resistance  and  sustained  a  siege.  This  inva- 
sion excited  the  same  hostility  to  the  Latin 
Church  that  the  former  had  to  Mohammedan- 
ism. 

The  third  period  was  one  of  transition 
(1650-1700)  and  was  followed  by  a  period  of 
reformation  (1700  to  the  present),  which  was 
begun  by  Peter  the  Great.  This  monarch, 
who  had  remained  a  faithful  son  of  his  church, 
even  when  investigating  the  condition  of  re- 
ligion at  Rome,  brought  with  him  many  ideas 
derived  from  the  West.  He  did  not  wish  to 
displace  the  Greek  Church,  but  he  was  no 
friend  of  superstition.  lie  abolished  the  pa- 
triarchate for  a  government  by  sj-nod,  which 
was  subsequently  recognized  by  the  Greek 
patriarch  as  "patriarchal."  He  introduced 
music  from  Germany,  pictures  painted  by 
Western  artists,  cutting  the  beard,  and  re- 
modelled the  calendar  to  agree  with  the  rest 
of  Europe.  Many  other  minute  changes  in 
ecclesiastical  customs  were  made,  in  all  of 
which  the  substance  and  the  errors  of  the 
Greek  Church  were  left  untouched,  and  it  is 
now  substantially  what  it  was  from  the  first. 
Yet  they  led  to  the  formati(m  of  a  dissenting 
body  (the  Rascolinks).  (See  Stanley's  History 
of  the  Eastern  Church,  1861.)  F.  II.  F. 

Greek  Language.  See  Hellenistic 
Greek. 

Greeks  in  Scripture  are  either  Greeks  by 
lineage  (Acts  xvi.  1,  xviii.  4),  or  else  Gentiles 
as  opposed  to  the  Jews  (Rom.  ii.  9,  10,  Gal. 
iii.  28).  "  Grecians"  were  simplj^  foreign- 
born  Jews  (Acts  vi.  1,  xi.  20).        T.  W.  C. 

Green,  Ashbel,  D.D.  (University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1792),  LL.D.  (University  of  North 
Carolina,  1812),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Hanover, 
N.  J.,  July  6,  1762  ;  d.  in  Philadelphia,  May 
19,  1848.  He  served  in  the  Revolutionary 
army  ;  graduated  at  Princeton,  1783  ;  was 
tutor  and  professor  of  mathematics  there  ; 
pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Philadelphia,  1787-1812  ;  chaplain  of  Con- 
gress, 1792-1800  ;  a  founder  of  the  first  Bible 
society,  1809,  and  of  Princeton  Seminary, 
1812  ;  president  of  Princeton  College,  1812- 
22  ;  editor  of  the  Christian  Advocate,  1822-34. 
He  w^as  eminent  as  a  leader  of  the  Old  School, 
and  published  several  volumes  of  sermons, 
etc.  His  life  was  completed  by  J.  H.  Jones, 
1849.  F.  M.  B. 

Green,  William  Henry,  D.D.  (College  of 
New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1857),  LL.D.  (Rut- 
gers College,  jSew  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1873), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Groveville,  N.  J.,  Jan. 
27,  1825  ;  graduated  at  Lafayette  College, 
Easton,  Pa.,  1840  ;  studied  theology  la  Prince- 


GREGORIAN 


(339) 


GREGORY 


ton  Theological  Seminary  ;  teacher  of  He- 
brew in  the  seminary,  1846-49  ;  pastor  of  the 
Central  Presb^^terian  Church,  Philadelphia, 
1849-51  ;  professor  of  Oriental  and  Old  Testa- 
ment literature  since  1351  ;  chairniau  of  the 
American  Old  Testament  Company  of  the 
Anglo-American  Bible  Revision  Committee. 
He  wrote  A  Grdmmar  of  the  Hebrew  Lan- 
guage, New  York.  1861,  rev.  ed.,  1889  ;  The 
Argument  of  the  Book  of  Job  Unfolded,  1874  ; 
Moses  and  the  Prophets,  1883  ;  The  Hebrew 
Feasts  in  their  Belation  to  Recent  Critical 
Hypotheses  Concerning  the  Pentateuch,  1885. 

Gregorian  Calendar,  The,  was,  according 
to  the  decision  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  intro- 
duced into  and  made  obligatory  upon  the  Ro- 
man Churcli  by  a  bull  of  Gregory  XIII., 
Feb.  24,  1582.  It  was  consequently  inune- 
diately  adopted  in  all  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries, but  in  Germany  and  Denmark  not  until 
1700,  and  in  England  not  until  1752  ;  Russia 
still  uses  the  Italian  calendar,  and  is  11  days 
behind  in  all  dates.  For  the  differences  be- 
tween the  Julian  and  the  Gregorian  calendars 
see  Cycle  and  Gregorian  Year. 

Gregorian  Chant.  The  Christians  were 
from  (he  very  tirst  a  singing  people,  and  the 
method  they  adopted  was  the  Grecian,  at  that 
time  current  throughout  the  civilized  world. 
It  was  fully  established  in  the  Latin  Church 
and  artistically  carried  oat  in  all  its  details  by 
Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  374-98.  But  in 
the  course  of  the  next  two  centuries  the  song 
of  the  Christian  Church  deteriorated,  prob- 
ably from  the  influence  of  the  invading  bar- 
barians. The  revival,  however,  which  cdiurch 
music  experienced  under  Gregory  I.,  590-604, 
was  not  a  simple  restoration  of  the  Ambrosiau 
order,  but  a  radical  reform  and  a  far-reaching 
development.  Gregory  was  himself  a  master 
of  the  art,  and  though  the  details  of  his  re- 
form cannot  be  made  intelligible  to  readers 
who  are  not  fully  acquainted  with  the  theory 
of  music,  their  general  character  may  be  desig- 
nated as  a  transition  from  simple  rhythm,  the 
Ambrosian  hymn,  to  real  melodj^  the  Ambro- 
sian  chant. 

Gregorian  Mass,  The,  denotes  that  liturgi- 
cal arraugenu-ut  of  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  which  was  established  by 
Gregory  I.,  590-604,  including  the  orationes 
et  prescs  which  were  to  be  inserted  as  proper 
to  a  given  day  or  object. 

Gregorian  Year,  The,  denotes  that  change 
in  Die  calendar  which  was  introduced  by 
Gregory  XIII.,  in  1582,  correcting  an  error 
in  the  Julian  calendar,  which  made  the  year 
11  minutes  too  long,  and  thus  iu  the  progress 
of  time  had  caused  the  day  of  the  vernal 
etpiinox  to  retrograde  from  the  21st  of  March 
to  the  11th. 

Gregory,  popes  of  that  name.  1.  (The 
Great)  pope  590-604.  He  was  b.  at  Rome 
between  540  and  550  ;  d.  there,  JIarch  12, 
604.  Canonized  ;  day  March  12.  Of  a  promi- 
nent Roman  family,  Gregory  was  educated  in 
rhetoiic  and  tlie  law,  and  rose  to  tlie  position 
of  a  prefect  of  Rome  (about  574).  The  pomp 
connected  with  his  office  seemed  to  create  an 
inward  conliict,  and  in  the  society  of  certain 


pious  abbots  the  purpose  matured  to  change 
his  course  of  life.  His  father  dying  and  leav- 
ing him  a  large  property,  he  employed  it  in 
establishing  6  Benedictine  monasteries  in 
Sicily,  and  a  7th  in  his  own  house  at  Rome. 
He  linally  became  a  monk  himself,  and  would 
have  killed  himself  with  asceticism  had  he 
not  been  made  deacon  by  force,  and  then  sent 
(579)  to  Constantinople  as  papal  emissary. 
He  was  recalled,  after  a  successful  career,  m 
585  ;  became  abbot  of  his  own  monastery,  and 
was  employed  in  dilbcult  missions  by  the 
pope.  About  this  time  he  saw  Anglo-Saxon 
youths  in  the  market-place  of  Rome,  and 
formed  the  purpose  of  going  upon  a  mission 
to  their  country,  which  he  attempted  in  two 
or  three  years  to  carry  out.  But  he  was  re- 
called by  the  pope,  and  in  590  elected  pope  by 
clergy  and  people.  He  resisted,  but  in  vain. 
He  immediately  began  to  improve  the  rela- 
tions with  the  Lombard  royal  family,  and 
secured  their  external  conversion  to  Catholic 
Christianity.  All  his  life  he  was  engaged  in 
various  complications  with  the  civil  powers, 
Lombards,  Greeks,  Franks,  or  Goths.  His 
own  administrative  duties  were  many,  for 
from  the  estates  of  the  church,  which  were 
found  in  all  parts  of  Italy,  and  also  in  Dal- 
matia,  Gaul,  and  North  Africa,  he  had  to 
provide  for  the  building  of  churches,  the  care 
of  the  poor  of  the  city  of  Rome,  the  bribing 
of  the  Lombards,  and  the  purchase  of  slaves 
and  prisoners.  Gregory  was  an  ardent  cham- 
pion of  the  prerogatives  of  the  papal  see.  Yet  ho 
blamed  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  for 
accepting  the  title  "universal  patriarch," 
tliougli  tliis  was  common  with  all  patriarchs, 
and  called  himself  the  "servant  of  the  ser- 
vants of  God."  He  skilfully  applied  the 
canons  of  Saidica  to  secure  an  ascendency  in 
Africa.  In  Italy  he  called  the  Abbot  Claudius 
before  his  bench  ;  and  when  he  refused, 
yielded  only  enough  to  change  the  place  of 
trial  to  Ravenna.  Of  greater  benefit  to  the 
world  was  the  establishment  of  the  mission  to 
England,  in  which  Gregor}^  took  the  greatest 
interest,  but  in  which  he  seemed  to  favor  too 
great  laxity,  as  wiun  he  recommended  the  use 
of  the  heathen  temples  and  feasts,  and  seemed 
too  little  to  insist  upon  tlie  true  conversion  of 
the  heathen  heart.  In  the  church  at  large  ho 
labored  to  better  the  condition  of  the  monas- 
teries, a,nd  sought  to  separate  them  from  the 
control  of  the  bishops,  and  subject  them  more 
immediately  to  himself.  He  also  raised  the 
condition  of  the  clergy,  and  laid  emphasis 
upon  the  oflice  of  preaching,  in  wliich  he  him- 
self set  a  good  example.  As  a  theologian,  he 
takes  his  place  among  the  four  Latin  fathers  ; 
but  though  in  general  Augustinian,  he  helped 
the  superstitious  tendencies  of  the  times  by  his 
own  emphasis  of  the  marvellous.  He"  ad- 
vanced the  do(  trine  of  purgatory,  and  taught 
that  the  services  of  the  living  benefit  the  dead. 
He  taught  that  the  eucharist  is  a  true  offering, 
and  explained  the  atonement  of  Chiist  as  a 
price  paid  to  the  devil  for  the  souls  of  men, 
in  which  God  deceived  liie  devil,  using  the 
gros.sest  images  to  bring  out  the  idea.  His 
character,  however,  forfiids  us  to  believe  tliat 
wiien  he  wrote  his  lettc  rs  of  congratulation  to 
Phocas  he  was  aware  of  the  murders  com- 


GREGORY 


(340) 


GREGORY 


mitted  by  this  tyrant,  or  that  he  knew  the 
character  of  Brunhilde,  whom  lie  so  highly 
commends.  Works  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lnt. 
LXXV.-LXXIX.  The  most  characteristic 
work  is  tlie  Magna  Moralia,  an  allegorical 
exposition  of  the  Book  of  Job.  (See  Pfahler, 
Gregor  der  Orosse  iind  seine  Zeit,  Frankfort. 
1852  ;  F.  W.  Kellett,  Gregory  the  Great  end 
Ids  Relation  to  Gaul,  London,  1889.)  2.  Pope 
May  19,  715-Fcb.  10,  731.  8.  Pope  Feb.  11, 
781-jSrov.  28,  741,  held  a  council  at  Rome, 
732,  which  sanctioned  the  practice  of  image 
worship  in  the  West.  He  also  gave  the  pal- 
lium to  Boniface,  the  missionary  to  Germany. 
4.  Pope  827-Jan.,  844.  5.  Pope  May  8,  996- 
Feb.  18,  999.  The  first  German  pope.  6. 
Pope  1044-1046.  Having  purchased  the 
papacy,  though  to  save  it,  he  was  convinced 
of  the  impropriety  of  this,  laid  aside  the  papal 
insignia,  and  retired  to  Germany,  dying  in 
1048.  Also  an  anti-pope  of  the  same  number, 
1012.  7.  Pope  June  29,  1073-May  25,  1085. 
Hildebrand,  an  Italian,  b.  in  either  Saona  or 
Rome,  was  chaplain  of  Gregory  VI.,  then  a 
monk  at  Cluny,  and  was  recalled  to  Rome  by 
Pope  Leo  IX.  His  influence  upon  papal 
affairs  began  with  the  year  1058.  At  this 
time,  in  opposition  to  the  Roman  nobility,  he 
caused  the  election  by  the  clergy  of  Nicholas 
as  pope,  and  seated  him  firmly  in  the  chair  of 
Peter,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the  influence  of 
the  laity  upon  the  papal  elections.  Nicholas 
made  him  archdeacon.  In  like  manner,  in 
1061,  he  caused  Anselm  of  Lucca  to  be  elected 
pope,  without  the  consent  of  the  imperial  au- 
tiiority,  and  even  against  the  nomination  of 
the  empress,  supported  by  the  imperial  arms, 
lu  his  own  case  also,  he  contrived  to  be  con- 
secrated without  the  imperial  approval.  Thus 
lie  wrested  the  right  of  confirming  a  pope 
from  the  hands  of  the  emperor.  But  his  great 
efforts  were  in  the  more  purely  ecclesiastical 
sphere.  He  sought  to  maintain  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy.  Previous  efforts  in  this  direc- 
tion had  been  without  any  great  result,  but 
Hildebrand,  taking  advantage  of  a  hint  de- 
rived from  the  disturbances  over  the  subject 
in  Milan,  called  the  people  to  his  help,  by  for- 
bidding them  to  receive  the  sacraments  from 
the  hands  of  married  priests,  and  stirring 
them  up  to  compel  the  priests  to  dismiss  their 
wives.  By  these  means  he  finally  conquered. 
His  great  contest  was  upon  the  subject  of  in- 
vestiture (q.v.).  In  the  spring  of  1075  he 
called  a  synod  in  the  Lateran,  and  formulated 
a  law  by  which  all  tiie  clergy  were  forbidden 
to  receive  an  otfice  from  the  hands  of  a  lay- 
man, and  all  princes  forbidden  to  bestow  any 
ecclesia.stical  oflice.  In  consequence  of  this 
Henry  IV.  came  into  collision  with  him,  and 
was  summoned  to  answer  for  his  crimes  be- 
fore an  ecclesiastical  tribunal.  Henry  an- 
swered by  deposing  Gregory  at  Worms.  Put 
therefore  under  the  ban  of  the  church,  Henry 
was  obliged  to  make  his  peace  with  Gregory 
in  order  to  retain  the  loyalty  of  his  subjects, 
and  so  humbled  himself  to  sue  three  days  in 
pi^nitential  garb  at  Canossa  for  an  audience 
with  the  pope.  But  absolved,  he  gained 
power  enough  to  attack  the  pope  in  Rome, 
and  to  drive  him  from  the  city.  The  quarrel 
really  undecided,   Gregory  died  at   Salerno. 


He  was  the  personification  of  the  claims 
of  the  papacy  to  supremacy  in  even  the  tem- 
poral sphere,  and  gave  the  key-note  to  the 
following  efforts  of  the  extreme  papalists. 
(See  life  by  Villcmaiu,  1872  ;  Langeron, 
1874  ;  Minkwitz,  1875  ;  Meltzer,  1876,  etc,  ; 
Delarc,  St.  G.  VII.  et  la  reforme  de  Veglise  au 
Xle  siecle,  vol.  i.,  1889.)  8.  (Albero)  pope 
Oct.  21-Dec.  17,  1187.  Also  an  anti-pope  of 
this  number,  named  Mauritius  Burdinus,  nom- 
inated by  Henry  V.,  March  8,  1118  ;  d.  1125. 
9.  (Ugoiino  of  Segni)  b.  in  Anagui,  pope 
March  19,  1227-Aug.  22,  1241.  Noted  for 
his  contest  with  Frederick  II.,  German  em- 
peror. For  Frederick's  return  from  a  crusade 
without  sufficient  reason,  Gregory  excom- 
municated him,  and  when,  in  1228,  he  really 
departed  for  Palestine,  and  crowned  himself 
in  Jerusalem,  the  excommunication  still  fol- 
lowed him,  so  that  he  was  deserted  by  the 
clergy  and  knights.  Returned  to  Italy,  Fred- 
erick could  not  come  to  an  understanding 
with  the  pope,  who  died  in  Rome  while  it  was 
beset  b,y  the  imperial  troops.  (See  Dr.  J. 
Marx,  Bie  Vita  Gregorii  IX.  quellenkntisch 
■untersucld,  Berlin,  1890.)  10.  (Tebaldo  de 
Visconti)  pope  Sept.  1,  1271-Jan.  10,  1276. 
11.  (Pierre  Roger  de  Beaufort)  elected  pope 
at  Avigaon,  Dec.  30,  1370  ;  entered  Rome 
Jan.  27,  1377,  and  d.  March  27,  1378.  12. 
(Angelo  de  Oorraro)  pope  Dec.  2,  1406-June 
5,  1409,  when  he  was  deposed  at  Pisa.  He 
abdicated  at  Constance,  July  4,  1415,  and 
lived  as  cardinal  bishop  of  Porto  till  his  death, 
Oct.  18,  1417.  13.  (Ugo  Buoncompagno) 
pope  May  13,  1572-April  10,  1585.  He  cele- 
brated the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
His  fame  rests  upon  his  completion  of  the 
Corpus  Juris  Canonici  and  his  reformation 
of  the  Julian  Calendar  (1582).  14.  (Niccolo 
Sfondrato)  pope  Dec.  5.  1590-Oct.  15,  1591. 
15.  (Alessandro  Ludovisi)  pope  Feb.  9, 
1621-July  8,  1623.  16.  (Bartolommeo  Al- 
berto Cappellari)  pope  Feb.  2,  1831-June  1, 
1846.  B.  Sept.  18,  1765,  he  rose  rapidly  to 
be,  in  1823,  general  of  his  order,  the  Camal- 
dullans.  In  1826  he  was  made  cardinal,  and 
soon  set  over  the  Propaganda.  In  this  posi- 
tion he  gained  that  view  of  the  general  sphere 
of  the  church  which  made  him  distinctively  a 
churchly  rather  than  an  Italian  pope.  He 
improved  the  relations  of  the  papacy  with  all 
the  European  governments,  and  founded  nu- 
merous bishoprics,  sending  out  missionaries  iu 
great  numbers.  In  the  affairs  of  the  States  of 
the  Church  he  was  not  so  successful,  for  he 
left  their  finances  in  a  condition  of  great  con- 
fusion. F.  H.  F. 

Gregory  of  Nazianzus  (a  small  town  in 
S.  W.  Cappadocia).  b.  at  Arianzus,  a  neigh- 
boring village,  about  380 ;  d.  there  389  or 
390.  His  mother,  Nonna,  was  a  pious  wom- 
an, and  was  the  means  of  the  conversion 
of  his  father,  who  afterward  became  the 
bishop  of  Nazianzus.  Gregory,  in  pursuit 
of  a  thorough  education,  travelled  widely 
and  studied  at  Alexandria  and  Athens.  In 
the  latter  city  he  was  engaged  upon  gram- 
mar and  philosophy  for  10  years.  Returned 
to  Cappadocia  in  860,  he  first  engaged  in  lit- 
erary pursuits,  but  was  drawn  into  the  active 


OREGORT 


(341) 


OREIiLET 


service  of  the  cliuich,  being  suddenly  or- 
dained priest  by  liis  father.  Though  he  at 
jfirst  fled  to  escape  the  office,  he  llnally  en- 
gaged in  its  duties,  assisted  Basil  (q.v.)  in  his 
labors,  and  promoted  his  election  to  the  bish- 
opric of  Cajsarea.  He  was  in  turn  made  bish- 
op of  Sasima  by  Basil,  but  preferring  the  re- 
tirement and  labors  of  the  scholar,  soon  fled 
again.  For  some  time  he  assisted  his  father 
in  the  bishopric  of  Naziauzus,  and  then,  upon 
the  request  of  the  hard-pressed  orthodox  in 
Constantinople  in  379,  he  went  thither  and 
began  his  career  as  preacher.  Here,  in  the 
little  church  of  the  Resurrection,  he  preached 
his  5  orations  upon  the  deity  of  Christ,  which 
have  occasioned  his  title,  the  Theologian.  In 
380  he  was  called  to  the  bisliopric  of  Con- 
stantinople by  Thcodosius,  and  in  381  ac- 
knowledged as  bishop  by  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople. But  soon  we  find  him  laying 
down  his  office,  for  reasons  not  altogether 
clear,  and  retiring  to  Nazianzus,  near  which 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Gregory 
belonged  to  the  Nicene  party.  Ilis  principal 
works  are  his  orations,  45  in  number.  For 
life  see  Ullmann,  Oregorius  ton  Nazidnz  der 
Theologc,  Darmstadt,  1825,  and  Weiss,  Die 
drei  grosscn  Kappadocier,  Braunsberg,  1872. 
Works  in  Migne,  Fat.  Or.  XXXV.- 
XXXVIII.  F.  H.  F. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa,  brother  of  Basil  the 
Great ;  b.  inCicsarea,  Cappadocia,  between  340 
and  350  ;  d.  after  394.  He  owed  his  education 
chiefly  to  his  older  brother  Basil,  but  nothing 
further  as  to  this  period  of  his  life  is  known 
to  us.  He  became  a  reader  in  the  church, 
and  then  for  a  time  turned  aside  to  the  pro- 
fession of  a  rhetorician,  but  was  recalled  by 
the  earnest  efforts  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus. 
His  talents  for  dogmatic  discussion,  so  valu- 
able at  that  time  of  theological  controversy, 
were  such  that  his  brother  Basil  got  him 
elected  bishop  of  Xj'ssa.  This  only  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Arian  party  to  him,  and 
he  was  brought  before  Demetrius,  governor 
of  Poutus,  upon  charges  of  irregular  consecra- 
tion and  of  wasting  the  property  of  the 
church.  He  was  sent  into  exile,  where  he 
suffered  much,  but  was  returned  to  his  bish- 
opric in  378.  In  381  he  was  at  the  Council 
of  Constantinople,  where  he  must  have  been 
an  important  personage.  He  was  appointed 
as  one  of  those  bishops  who,  on  account  of 
their  eminence,  were  given  a  certain  authority 
of  oversight  over  neighboring  dioceses.  In 
379  he  went  into  Arabia  upon  ecclesiastical 
business,  and  on  account  of  what  he  saw  at 
Jerusalem,  wrote  a  tract  dissuading  from  laj-- 
ing  too  great  value  upon  pilgrimages,  lu 
383  he  was  in  Constantinojile,  and  again  in 
385,  We  find  him  tluTC  for  the  last  time  at  a 
synod  in  394,  after  which  he  disappears  from 
our  sight.  As  a  dogmatic  writer  he  stands 
next  to  Athanasius.  His  works  are  in  Migne, 
Pat.  Or.  XLIV.-XLVI.  (See  Weiss,  Die 
drei  nn/iiscn  Kaimidocier,  Braunsberg,  1872.) 
F.  H.  F. 
Gregory  lUuminator,  the  apostle  of  Ar- 
menia ;  b.  about  257,  at  Valarshabad,  in  the 
province  of  Ararat,  Armenia  ;  d.  in  the  wil- 
derness of  Manyea,  in  the  province  of  Taran, 


332  ;  was  educated  in  the  Christian  faith  at 
Cajsarea,  Cappadocia,  and  succeeded,  on  his 
return,  in  converting  King  Teridates  III.  and  a 
great  number  of  his  countrymen.  In  302  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Armenia  by  the 
bishop  of  Casarca,  and  thus  Armenia  became 
the  first  kingdom  in  which  Christianity  was 
adopted  as  the  religion  of  the  state.  One 
year  before  he  died  he  retired  from  public 
life  and  lived  as  a  hermit  in  the  wilderness. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  Agathangelos 
and  by  Simeon  Metaphrastes.  The  former  is 
found  in  Victor  Langlois'  Ilistonens  dc  I'Ar- 
minie,  Paris,  1867  ;  the  latter  in  Migne,  Pat. 
Or.  CXV. 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus  (lie  who  did  won- 
derful thiiKjK),  b.  at  iS'eo-Ca'sarea  in  Pontus, 
about  210  ;  was  converted  to  Christianity  by 
Origen,  with  whom  he  lived  in  Palestine  for 
8  years,  and  became,  in  240,  bislioj)  of  his  na- 
tive city,  in  which  he  died  in  270.  His  sur- 
name he  acquired  from  the  wonderful  success 
of  his  missionary  activity.  His  writings  are 
found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  X.  ;  his  life  was 
written  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  by  Victor 
Ryssel,  Leipzig,  1880. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  b. ,  according  to  some,  in 
538,  according  to  others,  in  543,  at  Clermont, 
Auvergne,  S.  E.  France  ;  d.  at  Tours,  Nov. 
17,  594  ;  sprung  from  a  distinguished  sena- 
torial family  ;  was  educated  by  his  uncle, 
Bishop  Gallus,  of  Clermont,  and  was,  in  573, 
elected  bishop  of  Tours.  A  lofty  character 
and  a  man  of  talent  and  courage,  he  stood  fcr 
20  years  as  the  representative  of  order  and 
justice  amid  the  direst  confusion  and  violence, 
and  exercised  a  decisive  influence  throughout 
Gaul.  His  works,  the  principal  one  of  which 
is  a  history  of  the  Franks,  are  found  in 
Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  LXXI.,  and  in  Latin  and 
French,  ed.  by  H.  L.  Bordier,  Paris,  1857-G4, 
4  vols.  His  Iliatoria  ?yancorum  (best  ed.  by 
Arndt  and  Krusch,  Hannover.  1884,  2  vols.) 
is  the  first  in.stance  in  the  Latin  literature  of 
the  influence  of  the  historical  style  of  the  Old 
Testament.  (See  Lobell,  Gregor  von  Tours, 
Leipzig,  1839,  2d  ed.  1869.) 

Gregory,  Caspar  Rene,  Ph.D.  (Leipzig, 
1876),  Lie.  Theol.  (Leipzig,  1884),  Lu- 
theran; b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  6,  1846; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia,  1864,  and  at  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1870  ;  was  secretary  to  Dr. 
C.  Hodge  during  the  preparation  for  the  press 
of  his  Systematic  Theology,  1870-73  ;  bibliog- 
rapher of  Schiirer  and  Harnack's  Thcologische 
Litcraturzeitung,  1870-84  ;  jrrivat  doceid  in 
Leipzig  University,  1884-89  ;  since  professor 
extraordinary  there.  On  the  basis  of  personal 
examination  of  the  uncial  and  of  the  chief 
cursive  Mss.  of  the  Greek  Testament  he  pre- 
pared the  Proleiromcna  to  the  Slli  ed.  of  Tisch- 
endorf's  Greek  Testament,  Leipzig,  1884-89. 

Grellet,  Stephen  (Etienne  de),  b.  at  Li- 
moees,  in  the  Deiiartmcnt  of  Haute-Vienne, 
France,  Nov.  2,  1773  ;  d.  at  Burlington,  N. 
J.,  Nov.  16,  1855.  He  was  of  noble  birth  ; 
was  educated  at  the  Military  College  of  Lyons, 
and  became  one  of  the  king's  body  guard  in 
1790.      Escaping  from    the    Revolution,   he 


(342) 


GROSSETESTE 


Ciime  to  New  York  in  1795,  joined  the  Society 
of  Friends,  ministered  to  the  sufferers  by  yel- 
low fever  in  Philadelphia,  1798,  and  became 
a  New  York  merchant.  His  preaching  tours 
began  in  1800,  and  extended  through  North 
America  and  Europe,  lasting  till  1884,  and 
embracing  Pope  Pius  VII.  and  the  Czar  as  ob- 
jects of  ills  exhortations.  (See  his  memoirs 
by  B.  Seebohm,  Philadelphia.  1860,  2  vols., 
and  by  S.  W.  Guest,  New  York,  1883.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Griesbach  (greess-bak),  Johann  Jakob, 
Bible  critic  ;  b.  at  Butzbach,  11  m.  s.  of  Gies- 
sen,  Hesse,  Jan.  4,  1745  ;  d.  at  Jena,  March 
24,  1812.  He  studied  at  Tiibingen,  Halle, 
and  Leipzig  ;  was  early  interested  in  the  criti- 
cal study  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  in  1769  and  1770  made  a  scientiiic 
journey  in  its  interest  through  Germany,  Hol- 
land, England,  and  France.  He  became  pri- 
vat  docent  at  Halle,  1771  ;  professor  extraor- 
dinary of  theology,  1773  ;  ordinary  professor 
at  Jena,  1776.  His  is  one  of  the  most  honored 
names  in  the  line  of  distinguished  scholars 
who  have  brought  the  Greek  text  of  the  New 
Testament  to  its  present  excellence.  His 
Novum  Testamentum,  which  marked  "  the 
beginning  of  a  really  critical  text,  based  upon 
fixed  rules,"  appeared,  Halle,  1774-75,  subse- 
quent edd.  (See  his  life  by  Kothe,  Jena, 
1812.  Cf.  Schaff,  Companion  to  the  Greek 
Testament,  pp.  250  sqq  ) 

Griffin,  Edward  Dorr,  D.D.  (Union,  1808), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  East  Haddam,  Conn., 
Jan.  6,  1770  ;  d.  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Nov.  8, 
1837.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  1790  ;  studied 
theology  under  Dr.  Jonathan  Edwards,  Jr., 
and  was  pastor  at  "West  Hartford,  1795-1801, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  First  Presby- 
terian Church,  Newark,  as  colleague  of  Dr. 
A.  McWhorter.  After  two  years  at  Andover 
as  professor  of  pulpit  eloquence,  1809-1811, 
he  became  pastor  of  Park  Street  Church,  Bos- 
ton, and  in  1815  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church,  Newark.  From  1821-36  he  was  pres- 
ident of  Williams  College  ;  there,  as  in  his 
previous  charges,  he  was  eminent  as  a  preacher 
and  revivalist.  He  published  Lectures,  1813, 
and  Extent  of  the  AUniement,  1819.  His  Ser- 
■m/)ns,  with  a  memoir  by  Dr.  Sprague,  ap- 
peared in  2  vols.,  1838.  F.  M.  B. 

Griffis,  William  Elliot,  D.D.  (Union  Col- 
lege, Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1881),  Congrega- 
tionalist ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  17, 
1843 ;  graduated  at  Rutgers  College,  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1869  ;  was  in  the  educa- 
tional service  of  the  Japanese  Government  at 
Fukui  and  Tokio,  1871-74 ;  graduated  at 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York  City, 
1877  ;  became  pastor  of  the  First  Reformed 
Church,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1877;  of  the 
Sliawmut  Congregational  Church,  Boston, 
Mass. ,  1886.  Of  his  books  may  be  mentioned. 
The  Mikado's  Empire,  New  York,  1876,  4th 
ed.,  1886  ;  Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation,  1882, 
3d  ed. ,  1888  ;  Life  of  Commodore  Mattheio 
Calbraith  Perry,  1886,  2d  ed.,  1890 ;  TJie  Lily 
Among  Thoi-ns  (  a  study  of  Canticles),  1889. 

Grindal,  Edmund,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury ;  b.  at  Hinsingbam,  Cumberland,  about 


1519  ;  d.  at  Croydon,  Surrey,  10  m.  s.  of  Lon- 
don, July  6,  1583.  He  entered  Magdalene 
College,  Cambridge  ;  became  fellow  and  presi- 
dent of  Pembroke  Hall  ;  chaplain  to  Ridley, 
bishop  of  London,  1550,  and  to  the  king, 
1551,  with  other  preferments.  On  Mary's  ac- 
cession he  fled  to  Strassburg,  and  collected  the 
writings  and  histories  of  tbe  Protestant  mar 
tyrs.  Returning  to  England  in  1559,  he  was 
employed  upon  the  liturgy,  and  in  Dec.  made 
bishop  of  London,  whence  he  was  translated 
to  York  in  1570,  and  to  Canterbury  in  1575. 
Incurring  the  displeasure  of  Elizabeth,  he  was 
sequestered  by  the  Star  C!hamber  1577-82. 
Being  blind  and  infirm,  he  had  almost  com- 
pleted arrangements  to  resign  his  see  when  he 
died.  His  writings  were  collected  by  the 
Parker  Society,  1818;  his  life  has  been  written 
by  Strype,  17iO,  and  others.  F.  M.  B. 

Groningen  School  of  Theology,  The,  orig- 
inated from  the  philosophy  of  P.  W.  vou 
Heusde,  who  taught  in  Utrecht  from  1804  to 
1849,  and  found  many  followers  both  there 
and  in  Groningen.  The  theology  which  de- 
veloped from  that  philosophy  was  character- 
ized by  its  independence  of  the  symbolical 
books  of  the  Reformed  Church,  which  very 
soon  led  to  open  deviations  from  the  old  doc- 
trines. It  met  with  considerable  opposition  : 
the  Synod  of  1834,  the  mammoth  petition  of 
1841,  the  Haag  protest  of  1843,  etc.  Never- 
theless, under  the  wise  leadership  of  Clarissc, 
Hofstede  de  Groot,  Pareau,  etc.,  a  powerful 
middle  party  was  formed  at  Groningen  as  far 
from  the  old,  stiff  Calvinism  on  the  one  side 
as  from  the  modern  Unionism  of  Leyden  ou 
the  other. 

Groot  (grot),  Geert,  Gerhardus  Magnus, 
b.  at  Deventcr  in  the  Netherlands,  1340  ;  d. 
there  from  the  plague,  Aug.  20,  1384;  studied 
in  Paris  and  Cologne  ;  was  a  teacher  in  the 
latter  city  ;  held  several  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices, and  led  a  rather  gay  life,  when  he  sud- 
denly gave  up  his  position  with  its  pleasure."? 
and  its  emoluments,  and  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  a  life  of  asceticism,  study,  and  char- 
ity. In  1379  he  became  an  itinerant  preacher 
in  the  diocese  of  Utrecht,  and  made  a  deep 
impression  by  his  eloquence  and  enthusiasm. 
But  in  1382  he  retired  altogether  from  public 
life  and  founded  at  Deventer,  together  with 
Florentius  Radewins,  the  community  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life.  His  life  was 
Avrittcn  by  Thomas  a.  Kempis,  who  belonged 
to  it.  (See  Bonet-Maury,  Gerard  de  Qrootc, 
Paris,  1878.) 

Grosseteste  (gros-test).  or  Grosset^ta 
(Greathead),  Robert,  b.  at  Stradbrook,  Suf- 
folk, Eng.,  about  1175  ;  d.  at  Buckden,  Oct.  9, 
1253.  He  was  educated  in  the  University  of 
Oxford  ;  became  afterward  one  of  its  princi- 
pal teachers  and  its  chancellor,  and  was,  iu 
1235,  elected  bishop  of  Lincoln.  As  such  he 
instituted  a  regular  and  rigorous  visitation  of 
his  diocese,  demanded  that  the  monks  shor.ld 
lead  moral  and  pious  lives,  insisted  that  the 
ecclesiastical  institutions  should  procure  effi- 
cient spiritual  care  for  the  parishes  from 
which  they  drew  their  revenues,  deposed  cor- 
rupt or  unfit  incumbents  (7  abbots  and  4 
priors),  etc.     The  monks  tried  to  poison  him. 


GROTIUS 


(343) 


GRUNDTVIG 


and  even  his  own  chapter  rose  in  rebellion 
against  him.  He  went  in  person  to  Lyons, 
1245,  and  laid  the  case  before  Innocent  IV., 
and  he  returned  with  the  full  recognition  and 
support  of  the  pope.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  he  had  been  compelled  to  make 
considerable  concessions  himself,  and  the  papal 
exactions  soon  became  so  enormous  that  he  felt 
obliged  to  protest.  When,  in  1253,  Innocent 
appointed  one  of  his  Italian  favorites,  Frederic 
di  Lavagna,  to  a  canonry  in  the  cathedral  of 
Lincoln  simply  in  order  to  provide  for  him, 
Grossetcste  refused  to  induct  him,  and  made 
the  whole  question  of  appointing  Italitms  to 
offices  in  the  English  Church  the  subject  of 
some  very  plain  advice  to  the  pope.  Inno- 
cent was  furious,  but  the  popularity  of  Grosse- 
tcste was  so  great  that  he  dared  not  do  any- 
thing. Besides  a  great  number  of  mathemati- 
cal, philosophical,  and  theological  works, 
there  also  exists  a  series  of  letters  by  Grosse- 
tcste which  are  of  the  greatest  interest  for  the 
right  understanding  of  his  opposition  to  the 
pope,  the  king,  the  monks,  etc.  They  were 
edited  by  Luard,  London,  1861.  His  life  was 
•written  by  Perry,  London,  1871,  and  Felten, 
Leipzig,  1887. 

Grotius  (Hugo  de  Groot),  famous  states- 
man, philologian,  jurist,  and  theologian  ;  b. 
at  Delft.  Holland,  April  10,  1583  ;  d.  at  Ro- 
stock, Germany,  Aug.  28,  1645.  He  was  as  a 
child  very  precocious,  editing  Marcianus 
Ctipella  at  the  age  of  16.  About  the  same 
time  he  became  doctor  of  laws,  and  entered 
upon  his  profession,  advancing  to  high  posi- 
tions. He  was  soon  involved  in  the  controver- 
sies upon  Arminianism,  in  which  he  took  the 
side  of  tlie  Arminians.  This  led  finally  to  his 
imprisonment  upon  a  life  sentence  (1619).  In 
this  confinement  he  occupied  himself  with 
literary  labors.  Escaped  to  France,  he  was 
for  some  time  in  great  privation.  Richelieu 
wtis  opposed  to  him  and  had  him  sent  out  of 
the  countr}'.  But  in  1634  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  the  queen  of  Sweden  at  Paris,  and 
spent  the  following  10  years  in  this  employ- 
ment. He  died  while  returning  from  a  jour- 
ney to  Sweden.  Grotius'  principal  theologi- 
cal services  were  rendered  in  his  commentaries 
upon  the  Scriptures,  which  are  philological 
and  free  from  dogmatic  perversions,  though 
not  always  true  to  the  biblical  style;  of  thought. 
His  apologetic  work.  On  the  Truth  of  the 
Chrixiidii  Religion,  has  been  most  widely 
commended.  It  has  been  frequently  trans- 
lated. His  treatise  Upon  the  Satisfaction  of 
Christ  (translated  by  Fo.ster,  Andovcr,  1889) 
presents  the  governmental  theory  of  the 
Atonement  adopted  in  New  England  theology 
(q.v.).  Theological  works,  Amsterdam,  167'9. 
Life  bv  Butler,  London,  1626,  and  by  Luden, 
Berlin";  1806.  F.  11.  F. 

Grove  (Hebrew,  asherah).  The  word  thus 
translated  in  the  common  version  means  a 
wooden  image  or  idolatrous  pillar  (no  doubt 
often  set  up  in  groves),  w  hi<  li  Israel  was  com- 
manded to  destroy  (Ex.  xxxiv.  13,  Deut.  xvi. 
21),  but  often  refused  to  do  (Judges  jii.  7,  vi. 
25,  1  Kings  xv.  13).  T.  W.  C. 

Gnindemann,  Peter  Reinhold,  Ph.D. 
(Tiibingen,  1858),  D.I>.  (hou.,  Berlin,  1885), 


German  Protestant  ;  b.  at  Biirwalde,  Branden- 
burg, Prussia,  Jan.  9,  1836  ;  studied  at  Tu- 
bingen, Halle,  and  Berlin,  1854-58  ;  becamo 
preacher  at  Pouch,  1861  ;  chaplain  at  the  jails 
of  Frankfort-on-the  Oder,  1863  ;  cartograjWHT 
at  Gotha,  1865  ;  pastor  at  Miirz,  1869.  He 
visited  Greece,  1858-59  ;  Norway,  lh'60  ;  Hol- 
land, 1863,  1865,  1867;  England,  1865-67; 
United  States,  1868  ;  is  member  of  the  Berlin 
and  Jena  Geographical  Society  ;  prepared 
Allgemeiner  Missiomatlas,  Gotlia,  1867-71  ; 
Kleiner  Missionsatlas,  1883,  2d  ed.,  1886; 
edited  the  2d  ed.  of  Burckhardt's  Kleine 
MissiomMbliothek,  Bielefeld,  1876-81,  4  vols.  ; 
wrote  Die  Entwiekelunci  tier  erangelischcn 
Mission  im  letzten  Jahrzehnt,  1890. 

Grundtvig  (groont-vig),  Nicolai  Frederik 
Severin,  Danish  theologian,  scholar,  and 
poet  ;  b.  at  Udby,  Southern  Seeland,  Sept.  8, 
1783  ;  d.  in  Copenhagen,  Sept.  2,  1872.  lie 
was  educated  at  Copenhagen,  and  lived  there 
since  1813.  From  1822  to  1826  he  was  preacher 
in  the  Church  of  the  Redeemer  at  Christians- 
havn,  a  suburb  of  Copenhagen.  His  violent 
attack  upon  the  elder  Clausen,  the  head  of  the 
rationalistic  party  of  the  state  church  and  his 
avowal  of  a  desire  to  see  that  church  replaced 
by  a  people's  church,  which  had  no  other  con- 
fession than  the  Apostles'  Creed,  "  the  only 
condition  of  salvation,"  cost  him  his  position, 
but  proved  the  death-blow  to  rationalism  in 
Denmark.  Until  1831  he  lived  in  enforced 
literary  retirement,  but  in  that  year  he  began 
to  preach  on  Sunday  afternoons  to  those  who 
gathered  in  the  Frederick  Church  at  Chris- 
itianshavn,  although  he  held  no  position  re- 
specting this  independent,  s(!lf-supporling 
congregation,  and  kept  up  the  practice  for  18 
years.  From  1839  till  his  death  he  was  pas- 
tor of  the  workhouse  church  of  Vartou  Hos- 
pital in  Copenhagen.  In  1861  he  received  the 
title  of  bishop,  without  a  see,  mainly  througli 
the  inrtuence  of  the  queen  dowager,  the 
mother  of  Frederick  YII.,  who  was  one  of  liis 
converts.  He  married  three  times,  and  two 
of  his  wives  were  sisters. 

As  a  theologian  he  infiuenced  all  Scandi- 
navia ;  as  a  scholar  he  has  laid  the  learned 
world  iinder  gn^at  obligations  b}^  his  studies 
in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Norse  literature  and  lan- 
guage, and  as  a  poet  he  will  live  forever  in 
banish  hymns  and  spiritual  songs. 

The'  Grundtvigian  movement  he  started 
was  political,  social,  and  religious  in  charac- 
ter. Its  tap- root  was  the  personality  of 
Grundtvig,  vainglorious  and  headstrong.  He 
never  refused  to  be  called  the  "  Apostle  of  the 
North,"  and  encouraged  the  follies  of  his  fol- 
lowers. Politically  the  famous  preacher, 
Wilhelm  Birkedal.  "of  Ryslinge,  was  tin;  most 
extreme.  It  was  lie  that  proclaimed  loudest 
that  the  Danes  were  God's  cho.sen  people  for 
the  pronmlgation  of  a  new  civilization— a 
form  tiiat  sprung  from  Grundtvig's  mixing 
Xorse  mythology  and  religion  into  one.  The 
Grundtvigians  sided  wilh  the  National-liberal 
])arty  and  brought  about  the  war  of  1864  willi 
Germany,  which  enderl  in  the  dismember- 
ment o"f  Denmark.  Socially,  the  (Jrundt- 
vigians  deserve  much  credit  tlirougliout  the 
North.     It  is  to  them  the  Scandinavians  owe 


GRTNiBUS 


(344) 


GUIDO 


the  introduction  of  the  higli  scliools  for  tlie 
people,  wliich  have  been  of  so  much  good 
iu  purifying  uatioual  morals  and  customs  and 
raising  the  standard  of  liuowledge  among  liie 
country  people  to  that  higli  degree  it  now 
holds  —  something  entirely  unknown  else- 
wliere  in  Europe.  Religiously  the  Grundt- 
vigian  mos^ement  rests  upon  its  founder's 
assertion  that  the  Apostles'  Creed  was  taught 
the  apostles  by  the  risen  Lord  during  tlie  40 
days  he  wandered  upon  earth,  and  is  the 
foundation  of  Christianity.  It  is  generall}' 
understood  that  it  was  this  new-fangled  idea 
which  caused  Caspari  to  begin  those  remark- 
able researches  which  have  resulted  in  his 
Uiigedruckte,  unbeachtete,  uiid  wenig  heachtete 
Qiielleii  zur  GescJiichte  des  Taufsymbuls  und 
des  Qlaubens  regels  (1866-79,  4  vols.).  But 
aside  frimi  this  theory  of  Grundtvig's,  to  him 
and  his  followers  must  be  given  the  credit  of 
having  killed  rationalism,  then  rampant  in 
Denmark,  and  introducing  and  maintaining 
sound  evangelical  teachings.  To.  be  sure  they 
were  occasionally  inclined  to  use  Norse  my- 
thology in  illustrating  the  Bible,  thus  creating 
some  sad  misconceptions,  but,  on  the  whole, 
their  influence  has  been  and  still  is  good  and 
beneficent.  Tlieir  optimism  has  proved  a 
great  boon  to  the  nation  as  an  offset  against 
the  sickly  pietism  preached  by  William  Beck. 
Tlie  Grundtvigiaus  call  themselves  "  the  glad 
Christians,"  and  are  readily  recognized  in  the 
community  by  their  happy  countenances,  their 
singing,  and  somewhat  peculiar  dress. 

Other  results  of  the  Grundtvigian  movement 
have  been  :  (1)  In  1842,  the  right  to  have  one's 
children  confirmed  by  other  than  the  parish 
minister  ;  (2)  in  1849  denominational  parity 
before  the  law  ;  (8)  iu  1857,  the  abolition  of 
compulsory  baptism  ;  (4)  in  1868  and  1873, 
permission  to  20  or  more  householders  to 
gather  a  congregation  and  call  a  minister. 
(See  his  life  by  J.  Kaftan,  Basel,  1878.) 

C.  II.  A.  Bjerregaard. 

Gryneeus  (properly  Gryner),  Simon,  Re- 
formed theologian  ;  b.  at  Veringen,  bwabia, 
Prussia  (Hohenzollern),  1493  ;  d.  at  Basel, 
Switzerland,  Aug.  1,  1541.  He  formed  in 
early  life  an  intimate  friendship  with  Me- 
lauchthon,  but  embraced  the  sacramental 
views  of  Zwingli.  lie  studied  at  Vienna 
and  taught  there  ;  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  Heidelberg,  1524  ;  also  of  Latin,  1526  ;  of 
Greek,  at  Basel,  1529  (in  succession  to  Eras- 
mus), in  connection  with  professorship  ex- 
traordinary of  theology  (exegetical  lectureship 
on  the  New  Testament),  1531  ;  ordinary  pro- 
fessorship, 1536.  He  visited  England  in  1531, 
and  was  commissioned  by  Henry  VIII.  to  get 
the  opinion  of  the  Reformed  theologians  on 
the  continent  upon  his  divorce.  He  himself 
first  favored,  later  disfavored  it.  In  1534  he 
was  commissioned  by  Duke  Ulrich  of  Wiirtem- 
berg  to  reform  the  University  of  Tubingen. 
He  was  the  only  Swiss  delegate  who  partici- 
pated iu  the  Religious  Colloquy  of  Worms, 
1540.  He  was  a  scholar  of  the  first  rank,  and 
in  character  very  attractive.  (See  his  Epis- 
toloi,  ed.  Streuber,  Basel.  1847.)  His  nephew, 
Thomas  (b.  at  Veringen,  1512  ;  d.  superin- 
tendent at  Rotelen,  1564,  having  held  the  office 


since  1556)  ;  his  grand-nephew,  the  son  of 
Thomas,  Johann  Jacob  (b.  at  Bern,  Oct.  1, 
1540  ;  antistus  at  Basel,  1585  ;  d.  there,  Aug. 
13,  1617),  and  his  descendants,  Johann  (b. 
1705  ;  d.  at  Basel,  1744)  and  Simon  (b.  1725  ; 
d.  pastor  in  Basel,  1799),  rendered  the  name 
Grynaeus  illustrious  in  Switzerland  for  200 
years. 

Guardian  Angel,  the  angelic  guide  and  pro- 
tector who  is  supposed  to  be  man's  attendant 
from  birth  till  death.  The  idea  claims  scrip- 
tural support  from  Matt,  xviii.  10  and  Heb. 
i.  14. 

Guelf  (German,  Welf),  the  ducal  house  of 
Saxony,  and  GhibelUne  (German,  Waiblingen), 
the  imperial  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  desig- 
nated as  party- names  the  princes  with  their  as- 
pirations of  independence  and  tlie  emperor 
with  his  demands  of  authority.  Transplanted 
into  Italy,  many  and  very  different  ideas  were 
introduced  into  the  platforms. 

Guericke  (ger-ik-keh),  Heinrich  Ernst 
Ferdinand,  Ph.D.  and  Lie.  Thcol.  (Halle, 
1824,  1825),  D.D.  (Tubingen,  1833),  Luther- 
an ;  b.  at  Wettin,  10  m.  n.w.  of  Halle,  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  Feb.  25,  1803  ;  d.  at  Halle,  Feb. 
4,  1878.  He  studied  at  Halle  ;  became  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  theoloiry,  1829  ;  or- 
dinary, 1833  ;  was  removed  for  opposing  the 
union  of  Lutheran  and  Reformed  chuiches, 
1835  ;  restored,  1840.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  life  of  A.  H.  Francke  (orig.,  Halle,  1827, 
Eng.  trans. ,  London,  1837),  Manual  of  Clmrch 
History  (orig.,  1833,  9th  ed.,  1866-67,  3  vols., 
Eng.  trans.,  Andover,  1860-70,  2  vols.),  and 
Manual  of  the  Antiquities  of  tlie  Clmrcli  (orig. , 
1847,  2d  ed.,  1859,  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1851). 

Guibert  (ge-bair)  of  Parena  was  the  chan- 
cellor of  Henry  IV.  for  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
and  thus  by  his  very  office  placed  in  opposi- 
tion to  Hildebrand.  Nevertheless,  when  the 
latter  ascended  the  papal  throne,  in  1073,  as 
Gregory  VII. ,  and  a  reconciliation  was  effected 
between  him  and  Henry  IV.,  Guibert  was 
made  archbishop  of  Ravenna  and  all  former 
enmity  was  buried.  He  could,  however,  not 
brook  the  papal  policy  of  using  the  monks 
and  the  laity  to  enforce  authority  over  the 
clergy,  and  when  the  contest  between  Henry 
IV.  and  Gregory  VII.  broke  out  again,  he 
sided  with  the  former.  Gregory  was  deposed 
by  Henry  IV.,  and  in  1080  Guibert  was  elected 
anti-pope  by  30  bishops  assembled  at  Brixen, 
and  assumed  the  name  of  Clement  III.  In 
1084  he  was  able  to  crown  Henry  IV.  emperor 
in  Rome,  but  in  spite  of  the  support  of  the 
emperor  he  was  never  able  to  establish  his 
authority  in  Rome.  Cursed  and  condemned 
successively  by  Gregory  VII.,  Victor  Hi., 
Urban  II.,  and  Paschalis  II.,  he  died  at  Ra- 
venna in  1100,  and  after  the  death  of  Henry 
IV.,  Paschalis  II.  had  his  bones  dug  up  from 
his  grave  and  thrown  into  the  sea. 

Guido  (gwee-do,  Guy,  Wido)  de  Bres, 
Walloon,  Protestant  martyr ;  b.  at  Mons, 
Hainault,  Belgium,  1522  ;  "hanged  at  Valen- 
ciennes, France,  31  m.  s.c.  of  Lille,  Ma}'  31, 
1567,  for  dispensing  the  eucharist  in  the  Re- 
formed congregation.     He  was  brought  up  a 


GUIZOT 


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GOTZLAFF 


Roman  Catholic,  embraced  Protestantism, 
1547  ;  took  part  in  the  preparation  of  tlie 
Belgic  Confession,  1561  ;  travelled  as  anevan- 
jrelist  in  Soutiiwesteru  Belgium  and  Northern 
France.  (See  his  life  by  Rahlenbcck,  Paris, 
1878  ;  Van  Langeraad,  Amsterdam,  1S84.) 

Guizot  (ghe-so),  Frangois  Pierre  Guil- 
laume,  Reformed  Church  of  France,  layman  ; 
b.  at  Nimes,  Oct.  4.  1787  ;  d.  at  Val  Kicher, 
Normandy,  Sept.  13,  1874.  He  studied  law 
in  Paris  ;  became  professor  of  modern  history 
in  the  Sorboune,  1812  ;  secretary-general  of 
the  minister  of  justice,  1815  ;  councillor  of 
state,  1816  ;  but  his  opposition  to  M.  de  Vil- 
l^le  led  to  his  deprivation  of  his  professorship 
(1825)  and  all  other  offices.  In  1828  he  was, 
however,  restored.  Under  Louis  Philippe  he 
■was  minister  of  public  instruction,  1832-86  ; 
ambas.sador  in  London,  1840  ;  later  in  the 
same  year  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  so 
remained  until  the  Revolution  of  1848  drove 
him  into  exile,  and  he  never  again  played  any 
part  in  politics.  He  had  been  chosen,  in  1836, 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  and  to  the 
Institute  of  France  and  to  the  Reformed 
Church  he  gave  henceforth  his  time  and 
strength.  Besides  being  a  great  statesman 
and  church  leader,  he  was  a  great  writer,  and 
by  his  Hiistory  of  Civilization  in  Europe,  Edin- 
burgh, 1856,  3  vols.  ;  Hitttor}/  of  France,  Lon- 
don, 1870-81,  8  vols.  ;  Meditations  on  the  Es- 
sence of  Christianity,  London,  1864,  he  has 
won  a  high  place  in  modern  literature.  (See 
his  life  by  his  daughter,  ]\Iadame  Guizot  de 
Witt,  London,  1880^ 

Giinther  (giin-ter),  Anton,  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  at  Lindenau,  Bohemia,  Nov.  17,  1783  ; 
d.  in  VMenna,  Feb.  24,  1863.  He  studied  at 
Prague  ;  entered  the  Jesuit  order,  1820,  but 
left  it  after  a  two  years'  novitiate  and  re- 
mained ever  afterward  in  private  life,  al- 
though called  to  professorships  in  different 
places.  He  wrote  books  of  speculative  theol- 
ogy, all  of  which  were  put  upon  the  Index, 
becau.se,  in  his  attempt  to  refute  Hegel's  and 
Schelling's  pantheism,  he  taught  a  doctrine  of 
Cartesian  duali-sm.  "  He  admits  the  principle 
of  development,  enounced  by  Schclling  and 
Hegel,  as  applied  to  '  nature,'  in  which  he 
includes  the  '  soul '  as  subject  of  sensation 
and  representative  consciousness  and  framer 
of  conceptions.  But  he  distinguishes  from 
this  'soul'  the  'spirit,'  which  he  elevates 
above  it  as  an  independent  ])eing,  separable 
from  the  body,  and  in  like  manner,  and  in 
opposition  to  pantheism,  he  teaches  that  God 
is  di.stinct  from  and  superior  to  the  world, 
maintaining  that  tlie  world  was  created  by 
God,  not  by  the  way  of  emanation,  but  by 
'contraposition.'"  (Ueberweg,  Eng.  trans., 
ii.,  306.)  He  submitted  to  tlie  papal  action. 
His  books  had,  as  a  rule,  fanciful  titles.  (See 
his  life  by  Knoodt,  Vienna,  1881,  2  vols.) 

Gurney,  Joseph  John,  Quaker,  philanthro- 
pist ;  b.  at  Earlham  Hall,  near  Norwich.  Eng., 
Aug.  2,  1788  ;  d.  there,  Jan.  4,  1847.  He  be- 
came a  preaciier  of  tlie  Societv  of  Friends  in 
1818;  labored  with  his  sister,'Mrs.  Elizabeth 
Fry  (q.v.),  in  behalf  of  prison  reform,  and 
with  Clarkson.  Wilberforre,  and  Buxton,  for 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  ;  travelled  ex- 


tensively in  Europe  and  America  ;  udvocated 
the  cause  of  total  abstinence;  gave  liberally 
of  his  abundance,  and  exemplilied  in  his  life 
the  principles  he  professed.  xVmong  his 
works  are.  Notes  on  Prisons,  I^ondon,  1819  ; 
lieligiaus  Peculiarities  of  Friendx,  1824  ;  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  i827-32-34  ;  The  Sab- 
bath, 1831  ;  Sabbatical  Verses,  1837  ;  A  11  in- 
ter in  the  Wext  Indies  (in  letters  to  Henry 
Clay),  ;1840.  The  three  years  preceding  1840 
he  spent  in  the  United  States.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  modern  Orthodox  Friends,  in 
distinction  to  the  Ilicksite  party.  Memoirs  of 
him  were  written  by  J.  Alexander,  Loudon, 
1847,  J.  B.  Braithwaite,  1844,  2  vols.,  2a  cd., 
1854,  and  others.  F.  JM.  B. 

Guiy,  Jean  Pierre,  Jesuit  ;  b.  at  Mailleron- 
court,  Franche-Comte,  Eastern  France,  Jan. 
23,  1801  ;  d.  at  Mercceur  in  the  Auvergne, 
17  m.  s.e.  of  Tulle,  April  18,  1866.  He  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus,  1824  ;  became  i)ro- 
fessor  of  moral  theology  in  their  seminary  at 
Vals,  France,  1833  ;  in  the  same  capacity  was 
transferred  to  the  college  at  Rome,  1847.  His 
chief  work  is  Compendium  theologiw  moralis, 
Lyons,  1850,  ed.  Ballerini,  Rome,  1874,  6th 
ed.,  1882.  Gcr.  trans.,  Regensburg,  1857,  5th 
ed.,  1874  ;  French  trans.,  Annecy,  1875  (a 
system  of  moral  theology  for  the  guidance  of 
priests  in  absolution  and  penance  which  re- 
vived the  old  Jesuitical  casuistry  ;  on  it  cf.  A. 
Keller,  Die  Moraltheologie  des  Jesuiteii  Pater 
Gary,  Aarau,  1869,  2d  ed.,  1870;  and  D61- 
lingcr  u.  Reusch,  Oeschichte  der  Moralstreitirj- 
kei'ten  in  der  roniisch-katholischen  Kirche, 
Ntirdlingen,  1889,  2  vols.  [vol.  i.]).  (See  his 
life  [anonymous],  Le  Puy,  1867.) 

Gustavus  Adolphus  Association,  started  in 
1832  by  the  Leijizig  superintendent,  Rev.  Dr. 
Christian  Gotllob  Leberecht  Grossmann,  has 
for  its  object  the  advancement  of  Protestant 
interests  generally,  especially  the  protection 
of  Protestants  living  in  the  midst  of  Roman 
Catholic  populations,  and  therefore  exposed 
to  various  injustices.  It  has  contributed 
powerfully  to  strengthen  the  feeling  of 
brotherhood  among  Protestant  Germans.  (See 
its  history  by  von  Criegern,  Leipzig,  1882.) 

Guthrio,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1849), 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Brechin,  July 
12.  1803  ;  d.  at  St.  Leonard's,  Feb.  24,  1873. 
Educated  at  Edinburgh,  he  was  licensed  in 
ls25  ;  became  ])astor  in  Edinburgh  1837  ; 
retired  1864.  He  was  famous  for  his  success 
ill  establishing  ragged  schools.  He  was  also 
a  noted  pulpit  orator,  esjiecially  fertile  in 
illustration.  (See  his  autobiograi)hy  and 
memoirs,  London  and  New  Vork.   1875.) 

Giitzlaff,  Karl  Friedrich  August,  German 
missionarv  in  China  ;  b.  at  Pyritz,  24  m. 
s.e.  of  Stettin,  Pomerania,  Prussia,  July  8, 
1803  ;  d.  at  Hong-Kong,  China,  Aug.  9,  1851. 
He  was  trained  in  Janike's  missionary  insti- 
tute in  J5erlin(is21),andinthat  of  the  Nctlur- 
lands  Missionary  Society  in  Rotterdam  (182;;), 
and  sent  by  the  "latter  society  to  Balavia.  1^26. 
In  1828  he  severed  his  connection  with  it  and 
went  to  Singapore,  then  to  Bangkok  ;  in  ]8;;4 
heentend  the  service  of  the  Brili^h  Govtni- 
ment  as  intiTprcter  and  secntary  Id  tii<'  min- 
ister.    In  1841  he  established  at  UougKong, 


{ 


GUTON 


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HACKETT 


in  connection  with  the  American  missionary 
Roberts,  a  society  for  propagating  the  gospel 
in  China  tlirough  trained  native  preachers. 
His  extensive  journeys  through  China,  his 
great  labors  and  widespread  influence,  have 
given  him  the  title  of  "  the  Apostle  of  China." 
His  principal  works  in  English — he  wrote 
much  in  Chinese — are.  Journal  of  Three  Voy- 
ages Along  the  Coast  of  China,  London,  1834, 
3d  ed.,  1840  ;  China  Opened,  1838,  2  vols.  ; 
Life  of  Taoii-Kwang,  late  Emperor  of  China, 
1852.  (See  his  life  [anonymous],  Berlin, 
1851.) 

Guy  on  (gT-on),  Jeanne  Marie  Bouvier  de 
la  Mothe,"  Roman  Catholic  mystic  ;  b.  of 
wealthy  and  noble  parents  at  Montargis,  38 
m.  e.  of  Orleans,  France,  April  13,  1648  ;  d. 
at  Blois,  35  m.  s.w.  of  Orleans,  June  9,  1717. 
She  showed  in  her  youth  great  predilection 
for  a  contemplative  life,  which  her  conven- 
tual education  and  her  acquaintance  with  the 
writings  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  and  Madame 
de  Chantel  strengthened  so  that  she  desired  to 
become  a  nun.  But  her  parents  forced  her  to 
marry  M.  Jacques  de  la  Mothe-Guyon,  who 
was  23  years  olders  than  herself  (1664),  and 
by  him  she  had  5  children.  Her  husband  had 
no  sympathy  with  her  austerities,  and  her 
married  life  was  not  happy,  although,  after 
her  "conversion,"  July  22, 1668,  she  attained 
internal  peace.  In  her  28th  year  (1676)  she 
was  left  a  widow  with  2  sons  and  an  infant 
daughter.  By  this  time  her  tendency  to  mys- 
ticism was  fully  developed,  and  under  the  di- 
rection of  Father  Lacombe,  a  Barnabite  mystic, 
whom  she  made  her  confessor,  she  sought  in  the 
various  places  of  her  residence — Paris,  Gene- 
va, Southern  France— to  spread  that  form  of 
mysticism  known  as  Quietism  (q.  v.).  For  hold- 
ing such  opinions  she  was  confined  in  the  con- 
vent of  Ste.  Marie  in  the  Faubourg  St.  An- 
toine,  Paris,  1688  ;  when  released  by  the  influ- 
ence of  Madame  de  Maintenon  she  continued 
to  live  in  the  city.  There  she  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Fenelon,  who  commended  her 
Maximes  des  Saintes.  But  the  Quietism 
taught  by  her  in  writings  and  by  word  of 
mouth  led  to  persecution,  and  she  was  re- 
peatedly i)ut  in  confinement.  She  was  able 
to  refute  the  scandalous  charges  brought 
against  her  ;  she  recanted  the  errors  discov- 
ered in  her  writings  ;  still  she  was  banished 
from  Paris  in  1703  and  passed  the  rest  of  her 
days  in  retirement  at  her  daughter's  house 
near  Blois.  Her  complete  works,  ed.  Poiret, 
appeared  in  Paris,  1713-23,  42  vols.  ;  2d  ed., 
1767-91,  40  vols.  The  following  have  been 
translated  :  her  Autobiography  (orig.,  Paris, 
1720),  Bristol,  1772,  3  vols.,  rep.,  Philadel- 
phia, 1886  ;  A  Short  and  Ea)<y  Method  of 
Prayer  {ov'ig.,  1088),  London,  1775,  n.e.,  with 
Spiritual  Torrents,  1875  ;  Poems,  trans,  by 
W.  Cowper,  Newport  Pagnal,  1801,  4th  ed., 
London,  1811,  n.e.,  London  and  New  York, 
1887  ;  A  Short  Catechism  of  Genuine  Christi- 
anity, Glasgow,  1873 ;  Spiritual  Torrents, 
n.e.,  Philadelphia,  1886  ;  Mystical  Sense  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures  (abridged),  1886.  (See 
her  life  by  Thomas  C.  Upham.  New  York, 
1847,  3rl  ed.,  1870;  Guerrier  [in  French], 
Paris,  1881.) 


Guyse,  John,  D.D.  (Aberdeen,  17C3),  Non- 
conformist ;  b.  at  Hertford,  1680  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, Nov.  22,  1761.  He  was  pastor  at  Hert- 
ford till  1727,  when  he  succeeded  Matthew 
Clarke  in  New  Broad  Street,  London.  He 
published  sundry  sermons,  and  The  Practical 
Expositor,  a  paraphrase  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 1739-52,  3  vols.  ;  rep.,  1760, 1775,  1808, 
and  1814.  His  discourse  on  the  Hol}^  Spirit 
(1721)  was  reissued  in  1840.  F.  M.  B. 

Gyrovagi  were  vagabond  monks  who 
roamed  about  from  monastery  to  monastery, 
in  black  robes  and  with  unshorn  hair,  stopping 
at  each  place  as  long  as  they  could  enjoy  its 
hospitality,  but  leaving  rather  than  conform- 
ing to  its  rules.  They  caused  at  one  time 
considerable  scandal  and  not  a  little  trouble, 
and  were  condemned  by  the  TruUan  Synod 
of  691. 

H. 

Hab'-ak-kuk  {embrace),  one  of  the  12  minor 
prophets,  of  whose  birth  neither  the  time  nor 
the  place  is  known.  He  was  contemporary 
with  Jeremiah,  and  lived  in  the  reign  of  Jo- 
siah  or  Jehoiakim.  His  prophecy  consists  of 
three  chapters,  in  the  first  of  which  he  pre- 
dicts the  terrible  invasion  of  the  Chaldseans 
and  its  woes,  while  the  second  describes  the 
fearful  humiliation  to  fall  upon  them.  The 
third  is  a  sublime  and  beautiful  ode  in  which 
God's  mighty  deeds  of  old  are  recounted,  and 
like  succor  is  implored  for  the  present.  It  is 
unequalled  for  the  majesty  of  its  language 
and  imagery.  For  Lit.,  see  art.  Minor 
Prophets.  T.  W.  C. 

Ha-ber'-ge-on,  rendered  in  Revised  Version 
of  Neh.  iv.  16  coat-of-mail,  an  ancient  piece 
of  defensive  armor,  in  the  form  of  a  coat, 
covering  the  body  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5). 

T.  W.  C. 

Habit,  ability  acquired  by  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  action.  Man  has  been  called 
"  a  bundle  of  habits."  The  good  man  avails 
himself  of  this  great  law  of  his  nature  to 
strengthen  and  mature  his  character,  while 
the  sinner  grows  worse  and  worse  by  the 
same  law,  till  he  can  no  more  reverse  the 
process  than  the  Ethiopian  can  change  his  na- 
ture or  the  leopard  his  spots  (Jer.  xiii.  23). 
T.  W.  C. 

Hackett,  Horatio  Balch,  D.D.  (University 
of  Vermont,  1845  ;  Harvard  University,  1861), 
LL.D  (Amherst,  1802),  Baptist;  b.  at  Salisbury, 
Mass.,  Dec.  37,  1808  ;  d.  at  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
Nov.  2,  1875.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege, 1830  ;  was  tutor  there,  1830-31  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1834  ; 
became  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  Brown 
University,  1835  ;  of  Hebrew  there,  1838 ; 
professor  of  biblical  literature  in  the  Theo- 
logical Institution,  Newton,  Mass.,  1839  ;  re- 
signed in  1868,  but  continued  to  reside  at 
Newton ;  engaged  in  literary  labors  until 
1870,  when  he  became  professor  of  biblical 
literature  and  New  Testament  exegesis  in  the 
Theological  Seminary,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  He 
was  one  of  the  American  Bible  Revision  Com- 


HAD  AD 


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HAOENAU 


mittee.  New  Testament  Company.  He  edited, 
with  Ezra  Abbot,  tlie  American  reprint  of 
Smitli's  Dictioiuiry  of  the  Bible,  18tt8-70.  4 
vols.,  and  produced  a  valuable  commentary 
on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Andover,  1851, 
3d  ed.,  1877  ;  Illustrations  of  Scripture  Sug- 
gested  by  a  Tour  Throwjh  the  Holy  Land, 
Bo.ston,  1855,  3ded.,  1882,  and  other  volumes  ; 
also  translated  and  edited  Philemon  (1868) 
and  Pliilippiaus  (1870)  in  SchafT's  edition  of 
Lansje's  Commentary.  (See  life  by  G.  11. 
Whittemore,  Rochester,  1876.) 

Ha'-dad  {brave),  a  member  of  the  royal 
house  of  Edom,  who  fled  to  Egypt  when  his 
country  was  conquered  (3  Sam.  viii.  14),  and 
was  well  received  and  married  the  queen's 
sister.  After  David's  death  he  returned  to 
Edom  and  became  an  adversary  of  Solomon 
(1  Kings  xi.  14-25).  T.  W.  C. 

Ha'-dad-e'-zer  (Iladad's  help),  a  powerful 
king  of  Syria,  reigning  in  Zobali  even  to  the 
Euphrates.  He  was  thrice  d<;feated  with  im- 
mense loss  by  David,  and  his  power  over- 
thrown (3  Sam.  viii.  3,  4,  x.  6-12).  Ps.  Ix. 
commemorates  David's  first  victory. 

T.  W.  C. 

Ha'-dad-rim'-mon,  a  place  named  probably 
from  two  Syrian  deities.  It  was  in  the  valley 
of  Megiddo,  the  scene  of  the  national  lamenta- 
tion over  Josiah's  death  in  battle  (3  Kings 
xxiii.  29,  Zech.  xii.  11).  Modern  explorers 
identify  it  with  Rummaneh,  4  miles  from 
Lcjun.  T.  W.  C. 

Hadassah.    See  Esther. 

Hades  (tlie  U7iseen  world)  occurs  11  times  in 
the  Greek  New  Testament,  and  is  properly 
transferred  by  the  Revised  Version,  as  no  one 
English  word  represents  it.  The  word  is 
found  in  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  where  it  is  used  for  S7ieol.  It 
never  denotes  the  place  of  endless  punish- 
ment, and  therefore  should  not  be  translated 
?tell.  It  is  the  common  receptacle  after  death 
of  all  human  spirits,  godly  or  ungodly,  but  is 
never  spoken  of  as  the  abode  of  Satan  or  fallen 
angels.  Believers  in  Hades  are  happy,  yet 
not  as  much  so  as  they  will  be  after  the' judg- 
ment, and  unbelievers  are  unhappj'  witli  the 
same  limitation.  The  two  classes  tliere  are  dis- 
tinct and  separated  bv  an  impassable  chasm 
(Luke  xvi.  23,  26).  On  the  whole  subject  we 
know  what  Scripture  reveals  and  nothing 
more,  nor  can  the  most  acute  speculations 
add  a  particle  to  our  real  knowledge. 

t.  W.  C. 

Hadj  (Arabic,  pilgrimage),  the  name  given 
to  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  which  is  obliga- 
tory on  every  Mohammedan,  and  .so  fatal  to 
many  of  them.  Those  who  survive  bear  the 
epithet  Hadji. 

Hadrian,  Roman  emperor,  117-38,  had 
adopted  the  idea  of  Plutarcii,  that  "  there  is 
only  one  god,  though  the  conceptions  of  him 
may  vary  very  much,  Greek  or  barbarian, 
and  only  one  religion,  though  the  expression 
of  it  maybe  manifold,  Osiris  and  Apollo." 
To  Christianity  as  to  any  other  positive  relig- 
ion he  felt  indifferent.  The  so-called  perse- 
cution of  Hadrian  is  probably  a  mere  fiction, 
just  as  his  edict  of  toleration"  is  a  simple  mis- 


take. It  is  evident  that,  local  and  incidental 
persecutions  excepted,  the  Christian  Church 
enjoyed  peace  during  his  whole  reign,  though 
the  peace  of  inditference  and  contempt.  Tlic 
two  apologies,  presented  to  him  in  Athens  by 
Quadratus  and  Aristides,  are  lost.  His  tomb, 
Moles  Iladriani,  forms  the  nucleus  of  the 
present  castle  of  St.  Angelo. 

Haemstedius,  Adrianus,  Reformed  Church 
of  the  Netherlands  ;  b.  on  the  island  of 
Schouwen,  the  northernmost  of  the  pro^'ince 
of  Zealand,  about  ISSo  ;  d.  in  Friesland, 
1563.  He  became  a  Protestant  pastor  in  Ant- 
werp in  1557,  and  on  Doc.  1  of  that  year  sent 
a  Latin  letter  to  Henry  II.  imploring  his  clem- 
ency toward  the  persecuted  Huguenots,  and 
suggested  a  conference,  like  that  held  at 
Poissy  in  1563.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Re- 
formed (Dutch)  church  in  London,  1559  ; 
banished  for  Anabaptist  views  (1560)  ;  re- 
called and  again  banished  (1561).  llis  Book 
of  Martyrs,  in  Dutch,  was  the  first  published 
in  Holland  (Emden  ?  1559),  and  has  been  very 
often  republished,  e.rj.,  Lcyden,  1747. 

Hseretico  comburendo,  de,  "  an  act  passed 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  against  the  Lol- 
lards, by  which  bishops  were  allowed  to.ar- 
rest  and  imprison  all  preachers  of  heresy,  or 
owners  of  heretical  books  ;  and  a  refusal  to 
abjure,  or  a  relapse  after  abjuration,  enabled 
them  to  hand  over  the  heretic  to  the  secular 
power,  to  be  committed  to  the  flames  without 
waiting  for  the  consent  of  the  crown."  Ben- 
ham,  Diet,  of  Eclig.  (s.v.).  It  was  repealed 
under  Charles  II. 

Haetzer  (Hetzer),  Ludwig,  Anabaptist  ;  b. 
at  Bischofszell,  near  St.  Gall,  Switzerland, 
about  1500  ;  beheaded  for  bigamy  at  Con- 
stance, Feb.  3,  1539.  He  was  educated  at 
Freiburg,  in  Breisgau  ;  embraced  the  Refor- 
mation in  its  Zwinglian  form,  but  after  a  time 
joining  the  Anabaptists  lie  was  expelled  from 
the  cities  of  the  Reformed  faith.  See  art. 
AjsrAB.\PTi8Ts,  p.  29,  col.  1. 

Ha'-gar  (fight),  an  Egyptian  bondwoman 
in  the  houseliold  of  Sarah,  who  being  barren 
gave  her  to  Abraham  as  a  secondary  wife, 
but  afterward  when  she  had  borne  a  chiUl 
treated  her  harshly.  Twice  she  fled,  and  tlio 
second  time  did  not  return  (Gen.  xvi.  xxi.). 
Paul  refers  to  Hagar  (Gal.  iv.  25)  as  a  type  of 
the  law  and  its  bondage.  T.  W.  C. 

Ha'-gar-enes,  a  people  dwelling  east  of  the 
Jordan  (1  Chron.  v.  10,  19,  20,  xxvii.  31). 
They  are  usualls'  regarded  as  having  been 
named  after  Hagar.  In  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  6  they 
are  distinguished  from  the  Ishmaelites. 

T.  >V.  C. 

Hagenau  (16  m.  n.  of  Strassburg),  Confer- 
ence of  (1540),  called  by  Charles  \'.,  or  rather 
King  Ferdinand,  for  the  settlement  of  a  plan 
of  union  between  the  Roman  Catholics  and 
Protestants.  Tlie  former's  deputation  <  m- 
iiracod  the  papal  nuncio  ^lorone,  and  the  the- 
ologians Eck,  Faber,  and  Coeliliius  ;  an(l  the 
latter's  Brenz,  Capito,  O.-iiander,  Crucigcr, 
and  MycfHiius  (considerations  for  [^utlier's 
i  safety  prevented  his  attendance,  and  Mclanch- 
I  thon  was  sick).     The  conference  lasted  from 


HAGENBACH 


348) 


HAIR 


June  12  to  July  16,  and  although  in  itself 
fruitless,  it  prepared  the  way  for  the  Worms' 
colloquy,  Nov.,  1540.  (Cf.  Reinhold  Moses, 
Itelyjionsrerhnndlunrien  zu  Ilitgenaii  unci 
Wonm,  1540  u.  154i,  Jena,  1889.) 

Hagenbach,  Karl  Rudolf,  D.D.  (Basel, 
1829),  Swiss  Reformed  theologian  ;  b.  at 
Basel,  March  4,  1801  ;  d.  there,  June  7,  1874. 
He  studied  at  Basel,  Bonn,  and  Berlin  ;  be- 
came primt  decent  at  Basel,  1823  ;  professor 
extraordinary,  1824  ;  ordinary,  1829.  From 
1833  he  delivered  public  lectures  in  Basel,  and 
out  of  these  sprang  his  popular  church  history 
{Kirclieageschkhte,  Leipzig,  1869-72,  7  vols., 
n.e.  by  Nippold,  1885  sqq.),  from  the  earli- 
est times  to  the  19th  century  (partially  trans- 
lated, History  of  tM  Ri'formntion,Y.(!i\n\)\ivg\\, 
1878,  2  vols.  ;  History  of  the  Church  in  the 
Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  C'entu7-ies,irans.  by 
Bishop  Hurst,  New  York,  1839,  2  vols.),  so 
well  known  for  its  clear  narrative  and  com- 
petent learning.  From  1845  to  1868  he  edited 
D<is  Kirchenblutt  fllr  die  rcformierte  Schiceiz. 
Two  of  his  books  have  been  very  u.seful.  The- 
ological Encyclopd'i'ia  and  Methodology  (Leip- 
zig, 1833,  lith  ed.  by  Kautzsch,  1884,  Eng. 
trans,  by  Crooks  and  Hurst,  New  York,  1884) 
and  History  of  Christian  Doctrines  (1840,  6th 
ed.  by  Karl  Benrath,  1888,  Eng.  trans,  from  5th 
ed.,  Edinburgh,  1880,  3  vols.).  Many  of  his 
sermons  have  been  published  (Basel,  1858-75, 
9  vols.),  for  he  was  an  admired  preacher,  also 
poems  (2d  ed.,  1863).  (See  his  life  by  Finsler, 
Basel,  1874,  and  Eppler,  Giitersloh,  1875.) 

Hag'-ga-da,  one  of  the  two  traditional  meth- 
ods of  interpretation  that  prevailed  among  the 
Jews.  It  was  illustrative  and  practical,  and 
took  in  a  great  wealth  of  legend  and  allegory. 
It  stood  in  contrast  with  the  Halahha,  which 
was  strictly  legal,  and  introduced  innumer- 
able casuistic  distinctions  designed  to  meet 
every  conceivable  case  that  might  arise.  Dr. 
Deutsch  says,  "  If  the  Halakha  was  the  iron 
bulwark  around  the  nationality  of  Israel,  the 
Haggada  was  a  maze  of  flowery  walks  within 
those  fortress  walls."  T.  W.  C. 

Hag'-ga-i  {festive),  a  post-exilian  prophet 
of  whose  life  nothing  is  known.  He  prophe- 
sied during  the  second  year  of  Darius  H^^s- 
taspes,  B.C.  520.  The  rebuilding  of  the  tem- 
ple, begun  by  Zerubbabel  14  years  before, 
had  been  interrupted  by  a  roya'l  decree,  but 
when  a  new  monarcih  ascended  the  throne, 
the  Jews  showed  themselves  indifferent  and 
did  not  resume  the  work.  TIaggai  severely 
rebuked  them  for  their  neglect  and  roused 
them  into  activity,  whereupon  they  received 
the  promise  of  Jehovah's  presence  and  aid 
(ch.  i.  1-15).  Yet  they  became  despondent, 
and  Haggai  assured  them  that  the  latter  glory 
of  the  house  would  exceed  the  former,  and  it 
would  be  filled  with  the  desirable  things  of 
all  nations  (ii.  1-9).  Two  months  later  he  ad- 
dressed them  again,  explaining  past  calamities 
as  the  fruit  of  sin,  and  promising  heuceforlh 
a  rich  blessing  (ii.  10-19).  This  was  followed 
by  a  final  address,  predicting  an  overthrow 
of  the  surrounding  nations  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  Jndah  (ii.  20-23).  The  stvle  of  Hag- 
gai is  prosaic,  yet  occasionally  marked  by  pas- 
sages of  great  vivacity  and  impressiveness. 


Tlie  best  exposition  is  that  of  McCurdy  in 
the  Schaff-Lange  Commentary.      T.  W.  C. 

Hagiographa  {sacred  writings),  the  name 
given  by  the  Jews  to  the  third  division  of  the 
Old  Testament,  consisting  of  the  5  poetical 
books,  Ruth,  1  and  2  Clironicles,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah,  Esther,  Lamentations,  and  Daniel. 
T.  W.  C. 

Hagiolatry  {the  worship  of  saints)  is  com- 
mon alike  in  the  Roman  and  Greek  com- 
munions, but  is  properly  rejected  by  Protes- 
tants as  superstitious,  illusory,  and  derogatory 
to  the  honor  that  is  due  to  God  alone. 

T.  W.  C. 

Hague,  The,  Apologetical  Society  of 
{Haagsche  GenootscJini>  tot  \'i  rdtdiijinfi  run  den 
Christelijken  Godsdicnst),  was  founded  in 
1785  by  a  number  of  evangelical  theologians 
to  combat  current  deism  and  rationalism.  It 
has  done  good  service  and  issued  many  useful 
apologetical  works.  Prizes  are  given  for  such 
essays,  and  the  lists  are  open  to  scholars  of  all 
lauds. 

Hahiroth.    See  Pihahiroth. 

Hahn,  Johann  Michael,  b.  son  of  a  peasant 
at  Altdorf,  Wiirtemberir  (24  m.  n.e.  from 
Coastance),  Feb.  2,  1758  ;  d.  at  Sindlingen, 
Wiirtemberg,  1819.  Influenced  by  reading 
Boehme  and  Oetinger,  he  laid  emphasis  on 
sanctification  and  opposed  the  excessive  stress 
put  upon  justification  by  Lutherans  gener- 
ally. For  these  views  he  was  repeatedly  pub- 
licly rebuked  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
and  was  therefore  glad  to  leave  his  native 
town  many  years  before  his  death.  He  advo- 
cated his  views  in  books  and  addresses,  and 
they  ai-e  still  held  by  many  in  Wiirtemberg 
who  are  called  Michelians,  but  do  not  exactly 
form  a  sect,  as  they  have  not  separated  from 
the  state  church.  They  meet  among  them- 
selves, and  twice  a  year  in  convention. 

Hail,  the  vapor  of  the  upper  air  suddenly 
condensed  into  drops  and  frozen  into  irregu- 
lar spheroids,  which  fall  to  the  earth  and  are 
sometimes  very  destructive.  It  was  one  of 
the  plagues  of  Egypt  (Ex.  ix.),  and  the  more 
terrible  because  it  rarely  occurred  there.  It 
was  used  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Amorites  at 
Gibeon  (Josh,  x.),  and  is  employed  flgura- 
tivel\r  in  Rev.  xvi.  21  to  represent  awful  judg- 
ments. T.  W.  C. 

Hair.  In  Egypt  men  cut  their  hair  and 
shaved  unless  in  mourning,  and  Joseph  did 
likewise  (Gen.  xli.  14).  The  Hebrews  cut 
their  hair  moderately  short,  and  this  was  re- 
quired of  the  priests  (Lev.  xxi.  5)  ;  but  in  case 
of  a  vow  the  hair  was  unshorn  (Num.  vi.  5). 
It  was  forbidden  to  round  the  corners  (Lev. 
xix.  27),  in  imitation  of  the  heathen.  Absa- 
lom's hair,  which  weighed  20  shekels  (not  200, 
a  copyist's  error),  was  plainly  an  exception. 
The  apostle  calls  hair  a  woman's  natural  veil 
which  it  is  a  shame  to  put  off  (1  Cor.  xi.  15). 
Lepers  when  cleansed  and  Levites  on  their 
consecration  shaved  the  whole  body  (Lev. 
xiv.  8,  9,  Num.  viii.  7).  On  festive  occasions 
the  women  plaited,  perfumed,  and  decked 
their  hair  in  many  ways  (Isa.  iii.  24),  which 
led  to  the  apostoiic  rebuke  (1  Tim.  ii.  9,  1 
Peter  iii.  3).  T.  W.  C. 


HALAR 


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HALF-WAY 


Ha'-lah,  whither  the  10  tribes  were  carried 
captive,  is  uow  probably  iileutitied  witii  a 
province  in  the  northwest  of  Gaulonitis,  called 
Clialcitis  by  Ptolemy,  near  the  Khabour. 

Halakha.     Sec  Haggadah. 

Haldane,  James  Alexander,  Baptist  ;  b. 
at  Dunth'C,  July  14,  1768  ;  d.  nt  Edinbiirj^h, 
Feb.  8,  lyol.  lie  served  in  the  navy,  1785- 
93,  rising  from  midshipman  to  master,  and 
then  began  an  itinerant  ministry  and  joined 
in  the  projects  of  his  brother*  Robert.  In 
1799  he  took  charge  of  a  congregation  in 
Edinburgh,  for  which  his  brother  built  "  the 
Tabernacle,"  1801  ;  here  he  preached  till 
death.  In  1808  he  avon'ed  Baptist  opinions. 
Among  his  works  are  Man's  Eesponsibilitii , 
Edinburgh,  1842  ;  The  Ato?iement,  1847,  5hi 
ed.,  1877,  and  an  Exposition  of  Galatians, 
1848. 

Haldane,  Robert,  brother  of  James  A.  ;  b. 
in  London,  Feb.  28,  17(54  ;  d.  in  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  12,  1842.  After  three  years  in  the  navy, 
1780-83,  he  retired  to  his  estate  of  Airthrey  'in 
1786,  and  in  1793  entered  on  a  religious  life 
of  great  activity  and  beneticence.  Foiled  in 
a  plan  for  mission  work  in  India,  he  returned 
to  iScotland,  organized  in  Dec,  1797,  a  society 
for  the  propagation  of  the  gospel  at  home, 
erected  many  places  of  worship,  expending 
$350,000  before  1812,  and  educated  300  min- 
isters. In  181G,  at  Geneva,  he  influenced 
Malan,  Merle  d'Aubigne,  and  numerous 
students  ;  at  Montauban,  in  1817,  he  pursued 
a  similar  course.  He  published  Evidence  ami 
Autliority  of  Revelation,  London,  1816,  2d  ed. 
1834,  2  vols.  ;  The  Books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  Proved  to  be  Canonical  and  their 
Verbal  Inspiration  Maintained  andEstablished, 
Edinburgh,  1830,  7th  ed.  1877  ;  Exposition 
of  Romans,  1835,  2d  ed.  1874.  The  latter 
appeared  first  in  French,  1819.  (See  memoirs 
of  the  brothers  by  A.  Haldane,  1852,  2d  ed. 
1854.)  F.  M.  B. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  S.T.D.  (Harvard 

University,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1879),  Uni- 
tarian ;  b.  in  Boston,  April  3,  1822  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College,  1839  ;  studied  theol- 
ogy privately  ;  was  pastor  at  Worcester, 
1846-56,  and  since  that  time  pastor  of  the 
South  Congregational  Church,  Boston.  He 
was  chairman  of  the  National  Unitarian 
Council  of  American  Churches,  1882-84.  He 
is  a  power  in  various  philanthropic  enter- 
prises, and  by  his  Ten  2'imes  One  is  Ten  (Bos- 
ton, 1870)  started  the  "  Harry  Wordsworth" 
and  similar  organizations  for  practical  Chris- 
tianity. He  edited  the  Christian  Examiner, 
the  organ  of  his  denomination,  1857-63;  Old 
and  New,  a  .semi-theological  magazine,  1870- 
75,  and  Lend  a  Ilaml :  a  Record  of  Progress 
and  Journal  of  Organized  Charity,  since  its 
establishment  (1886).  His  writings  are  mostly 
short,  humorous  sketches,  but  two  of  them 
in  a  serious  vein,  Tlie  Man  Without  a  Country 
(Boston,  1863)  and  In  llis  Name  (1874),  are 
classical.  He  is  also  a  historical  scholar,  and 
contributed  to  Justin  Winsor's  IPistory  of 
Boston  and  Ilistoi-y  of  America  ;  his  most  am- 
bitious work  in  this  line  is  Franklin  in  IVance 
(1887-88,  2  vols.). 


Hale,  Sir  Matthew,  Lord  Chief  Justice  of 
England  (1G71);  h.  at  Alderlcy.  Gloucester- 
shire, Nov.  1,  1009  ;  d.  there,  'Dec.  25,  1670. 
Bred  in  Puritan  principles,  and  intended  for 
the  ministry,  he  was  educated  at  Magdalen 
College.  Oxford,  and  entered  Lincoln's  Inn, 
1029.  At  first  neutral  between  king  and  Par- 
liament, he  signed  the  League  and'Covenant, 
and  sat  in  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  Crom- 
well made  him  a  judge  in  1053.  and  Charles 
II.  knighted  him,  1660,  and  placed  him  at  the 
head  of  the  court  of  exchequer.  He  executed 
two  women  as  witches,  and  sent  Bunyan  to 
prison,  but  maintained  the  highest  character 
professionally  and  personally,  and  was  inti- 
mate with  Baxter.  His  Mo'ral  and  h'dir/ions 
Works,  chiefly  posthumous,  were  edited  by 
T.  Thirlwall,  London,  1805,  2  vols.,  with  a 
life  by  Bishop  Burnet.  (See  also  memoirs  by 
J.  B.  Williams,  1835.)  F.  M.  B. 

Hales,  John,  "  the  ever-memorable  ;"  b.  at 
Bath,  April  19,  1584  ;  d.  at  Oxford,  i\Lay  19. 
1050.  He  entered  Corpus  Christ  i  College,  Ox- 
ford, 1597  ;  became  a  fellow  of  Merton,  1G06, 
and  Greek  professor,  1012  ;  fellow  of  Eton, 
1613,  where  he  mostly  lived.  His  Letters  from 
the  Synod  of  Dort,  wliich  he  attended,  1618,  ex- 
plain his  change  from  Calvinism  to  Latitudi- 
narianism.  His  Tract  Conccrni/ir/  Schism  of- 
fended Laud,  who  afterward  (1039)  gave  him 
a  canonry  at  Windsor,  whence  he  was  ejected 
by  the  Puritans.  He  had  vast  learning,  but 
disliked  to  display  it.  Clarendon  called  him 
"  one  of  the  least  men  in  the  kingdom,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  scholars  in  Europe."  His 
Golden  Remains  appeared.  London,  1659, 
and  again  1673,  1688.  and  1750.  His  whole 
works  were  published,  Gla.sgow,  1765,  3  vols., 
by  Lord  Hailes,  who  modernized  the  lan- 
guage. (See  also  Tulloch's  Rational  Theol- 
ogy, 1872.)  F.  M.  B. 

Half  Communion,  the  withholding  of  the 
cup  from  the  laity  in  the  administration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper. 

Half-way  Covenant,  an  arrangement  in 
New  England,  after  the  year  1662,  by  which 
parents,  themselves  baptized,  ndglit  present 
their  children  for  baptism,  by  "owning  the 
covenant."  though  not  professing  regenera- 
tion, and  not  gaining  thereby  the  right  of  ad- 
mis.sion  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  was  the 
result  of  an  vmexpected  condition  of  lhing.s. 
The  original  principle  of  the  inmugrants  into 
New  England  had  been  that  none  should  be 
admitted  to  the  churches  who  did  not  jjrofess 
to  have  been  regenerated,  and  that  only  the 
children  of  church-members  should  be  bap- 
tized. It  was,  of  course,  expected  that  the 
succes.eive  gem  rations  would  come  forward 
and  unite  with  the  churches  and  have  their 
children  in  du(?  time  biiptized.  But  before 
the  year  1650  it  was  evident  that  there  were 
large  numbers  among  the  "  children"  of  the 
first  colonists  who  would  not  seek  admission 
to  the  churches,  and  so  the  "  grandchildren" 
were  left  without  baptism,  and  were  thus,  ac- 
cording to  the  current  view,  out  of  the  cove- 
nant, and  in  a  condition  little  betl(  r  tliaa 
pagans.  It  is  often  .said  that  the  olijei  t  nf  the 
arrangement  was  to  open  the  doors  of  church- 
membership   to    larger    numbers    that    they 


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HALL 


might  have  the  right  of  suffrage  ;  but  there 
is  no  trace  of  such  a  motive  in  tlie  discussions 
of  the  times,  nor  any  reason  for  such  an  one, 
since  in  1662,  before  the  half-way  covenant 
had  got  anv  hold  upon  the  churches,  Charles 
II.  compelled  Massachusetts  to  give  up  the 
religious  qualiticalion  for  suffrage.  It  was  a 
matter  of  the  "  covenant. "  Resistance  to  the 
proposed  practice  was  obstinate,  and  the 
progress  of  the  half-way  covenant  slow.  The 
form  used  in  the  Old  North  in  Boston  after 
1692  embraced  the  following  clause:  "You 
...  do  here  give  up  yourself  to  God  in 
Christ  ;  promising  with  his  help  to  endeavor 
a  walk  according  to  the  rules  of  that  holy  re- 
ligion all  your  days  ;  choosing  of  God  as  your 
best  good  and  your  last  end,  and  Christ  as  the 
prophet  and  priest  and  king  of  your  soul  for- 
ever."  But  this  was  taken  without  profes- 
sion of  regeneration  !  The  gradual  effect  of 
the  scheme  was  to  maintain  the  sacrament  of 
baptism,  to  be  sure,  but  to  lead  to  the  neglect 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  so  prepare  for  the 
final  extinction  of  the  churches.  Hence  Solo- 
mon Stoddard  of  Northampton  proposed  in  a 
sermon,  in  1707,  to  admit  those  confessedly 
unregenerate  to  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  hope 
of  tlieir  conversion.  Under  this  arrangement, 
which  was  extensively  adopted,  the  churches 
declined  greatly  in  piety,  till  in  1749  Edwards 
published  his  Qualtficaiions  for  Full  Commun- 
ion-. The  controversy  which  resulted  from 
his  return  from  the  position  of  Stoddard,  his 
predecessor,  to  the  old  New  England  view 
terminated  in  his  dismission  from  Northamp- 
ton ;  but  his  views,  taken  up  by  the  disciples 
of  the  "  new'.'  or  "  Edwardean"  divinity  (see 
art.  New  England  Theology)  grad'ually 
prevailed.  Hopkins  and  Bellamy  were  espe- 
cially active  in  establishing  new  churches 
upon  the  more  ancient  foundations.  Still  the 
lialf-vvay  covenant  continued  to  be  practised 
in  some  churches  till  late  in  the  present  cen- 
tury (Cambridge  till  1828),  but  was  finally, 
with  the  close  of  the  Unitarian  controversy 
(18;5!i),  universally  surrendered  by  orthodox 
Congregational  churches.  F.  H.  F. 

Hall,  (Christopher)  Newman,  LL.B.  (Lon- 
don University,  1855),  Congregationalist  ;  b. 
at  Maidstone,  Kent,  35  m.  e.s.e.  of  London, 
Eng.,  May  22,  1816  ;  educated  at  Totteridgc 
and  at  Highbury  College  ;  graduated  B.A.  at 
the  University  of  London,  1841  ;  was  minister 
of  the  Albion  Congregational  Church,  Hull, 
1842-54  ;  since  that  time  minister  of  the  Sur- 
rey Chapel  (Rowland  Hill's),  Blackfriars 
Road,  London,  which  in  1876  was  removed 
to  Christ  Church,  on  the  Westminster  Bridge 
Road.  He  is  the  author  of  the  tracts  Come  to 
Jemn  (London,  1846  ;  of  it  nearly  3,000,000 
copies  have  been  cir(;ulated  in  upward  of  20 
languages).  It  is  I  (1848,  of  the  English  ed. 
139,000  copies  up  to  1885),  Follow  Jesus  (246,- 
000  copies  of  tlie  English  ed.  up  to  1885)  ;  and 
of  tlie  volum{;s  T he  Land  of  the  Forum  and 
the  Vatiran  (travels),  1852,  n.e.,  1859  ;  Conflict 
mid  Victor)/  (biography  of  his  father  j".  V. 
Hall),  1865,  n.e.,  1874;  The  Lord's  Prayer: 
a  Practical  Meditation,  1883,  2d  ed.,  1889. 

Hall,  Gordon,  Congregationalist,  first  Am- 
erican missionary  to  Bombay  ;  b.  at  Tolland 


(then  West  Granville),  Mass.,  April  8,  1784  ; 
d.  at  Bombay,  March  20,  1826.  He  grad- 
uated at  Williams  College,  1808  ;  studied  the- 
ology at  Andover,  1810  ;  was  ordained  for 
the  foreign  work  at  Salem,  Feb.  6,  1812,  and, 
after  being  refused  permission  to  labor  at 
Calcutta,  reached  Bombay  Feb.  11,  1813. 
With  S.  Newell  he  wrote  The  Conversion 
of  the  World,  Andover,  1818.  He  had  just 
finished  revising  the  New  Testament  in 
Mahratta  when,  after  13  years'  faithful  ser- 
vice, he  was  attacked  by  cholera.  His  me- 
moir, by  H.  Bardwell,  appeared,  Andover 
and  Glasgow,  1834.  F.  M.  B. 

Hall,  John,  D.D.  (Washington  and  Jeffer- 
son College,  Washington,  Pa.,  1866),  LL.D. 
(College  o'f  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1885,  and 
Washington  and  Lee  University,  Lexington, 
Va.,  1885),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  in  County  Ar- 
magh, Ireland,  July  31,  1829  ;  graduated 
from  the  Royal  College  and  then  from  the 
General  Assembly's  Theological  College,  both 
in  Belfast  ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1849, 
and  labored  for  three  years  as  the  "  students' 
missionary"  in  the  West  of  Ireland  ;  became 
pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Armagh,  1852  ;  collegiate  pastor  of  Mary's 
Abbey,  Dublin,  1858,  and  pastor  of  Fifth 
Avenue  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York 
City,  1867.  Since  1882  he  has  also  been  chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York.  He  receives,  however,  no  salary,  and 
the  administration  is  carried  on  by  the  vice- 
chancellor,  lie  is  the  author  of  several  vol- 
umes, of  which  may  be  mentioned  God's 
Word  Through  Preacliing  (Lyman  Beecher 
lectures  at  Yale  Seminary),  New  York,  1875  ; 
A  Christian  Home,  How  to  Make  and  How  to 
Maintain  It,  1883. 

Hall,  John  Vine,  Congregationalist  lay- 
man, b.  at  Diss,  Norfolk,  19  m.  s.  of  Nor- 
wich, March  14,  1774  ;  d.  at  Maidstone, 
Kent,  34  m.  e.s.e.  of  London,  Sept.  22,  1860. 
He  zealously  advocated  total  abstinence  and 
wrote  a  tract.  The  Sinner's  Friend  (London, 
1836),  of  which  over  a  million  copies  have 
been  circulated  in  23  languages  and  290 
editions.  His  autobiography,  edited  by  his 
son,  Newman  Hall,  appeared  1865. 

F.  M.  B. 

Hall,Joseph,D.D.(Cambridge,1612),bishop 
of  Norwich  ;  b.  at  Ashby  de  la  Zouclie,  Lei- 
cestershire, 13  m.  s.  of  Derby,  July  1,  1574  ; 
d.  at  Higham,  near  Norwich,  Sept.  8,  1656. 
While  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  ho 
published  his  Satires  (London,  1597),  which 
Pope  praised  extravagantly.  He  became  rector 
of  Halsted,  Suffolk,  1601,  and  of  Waltham, 
Essex,  1612.  His  Epistles  appeared  1608-11, 
and  his  Contemplations  1612-15.  James  I., 
whom  he  flattered  grossly,  made  him  dean  of 
Worcester  in  1617,  and  the  next  year  sent 
him  as  commissioner  to  the  Synod  of  Dort. 
His  Via  Media,  1622,  exhibits  his  moderation 
and  desire  for  peace.  He  declined  the  see  of 
Gloucester,  1624,  but  accepted  that  of  Exeter, 
1627,  and  was  translated  to  Norwich,  1641. 
His  Protestantism  was  set  forth  in  The  Old 
Religion,  1628,  and  his  church  principles  in 
Episcopacy  hy  Divine  Right  Asserted,  1640. 
He  was  in  favor  neither  with  Laud  nor  with 


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HAMILTON 


the  Puritans,  and  gained  little  advantage  from 
liis  last  see,  being  imprisoned  in  lG-4'3  -uitii  10 
other  prelates,  and  his  revenues  soon  after 
sequestrated.  In  1647  he  retired  to  a  farm  at 
Higham.  His  later  books  are,  E.rj>licatioH  of 
all  the  Hard  Tex-ts,  1634  ;  Christian  Medita- 
tions, 1640,  and  Mundus  alter  et  idem,  a  Latin 
romance,  1643.  His  complete  works  have 
been  edited  in  10  vols,  by  J.  Pratt,  1808,  and 
in  12  vols,  by  his  descendant  P.  Hall,  1839. 
His  Life  and  I'iines,  by  J.  Jones,  appeared 
1826.  Bishop  Hall  is  much  valued  for  elo- 
quence, learning,  wisdom,  and  piety,  and  has 
been  compared  to  Jeremy  Taylor. 

F.  M.  B. 

Hall,  Robert,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Arnsby,  near 
Leicester,  May  2,  1764  ;  d.  at  Bristol,  Feb. 
21,  1831.  Feeble  in  body  but  precocious  in 
mind,  at  9  he  had  read  Butler's  Analogy  and 
Edwards  On  the  Will.  After  studying  at 
Northampton  and  Bristol,  and  receiving  or- 
dination at  16,  he  entered  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  and  graduated  1785.  He  was  at 
Bristol  1785-90  as  classical  tutor  and  assistant 
pastor  to  Dr.  Evans  ;  pastor  at  Cambridge, 
1790-1806  ;  at  Leicester,  1806-25,  and  thence- 
forward at  the  Broadmead  Chapel,  Bristol. 
A  disease  of  the  spine  and  kidneys,  which  in- 
flicted frequent  torture,  could  not  destroy  his 
industry  and  cheerfulness  ;  his  mental  powers, 
clouded  for  a  time  about  1805,  emerged  more 
brilliant  than  before.  At  60  he  h'arned  Italian 
in  order  to  read  Dante.  He  was  a  fascinating 
talker,  and  unsurpassed  in  the  pulpit  ;  the 
few  sermons  which  he  put  forth  from  time  to 
time  gained  him  great  reputation.  He  was 
an  orthodox  liberal,  holding  Calvinistic  opin- 
ions, but  opposed  to  close  communion,  an 
early  supporter  of  missions,  and  interested  in 
every  movement  of  the  times.  His  ])osition 
as  the  foremost  preacher  of  his  day  was  hardly 
disputed.  Dugald  Stewart  credited  him  with 
"  language  in  its  perfection,"  and  the  Quar- 
terly called  him  "  more  massive  than  Addi- 
son, more  easy  and  unconstrained  than  John- 
son, more  sober  than  Burke."  His  works 
were  collected  by  Dr.  O.  Gregory  in  6  vols., 
London,  1831-32.  Fifty  .SermoH.?,  reported  by 
T.  Grinfield,  appeared  1843.  Reminiscences, 
etc.,  of  him  have  been  published  bv  J.  Greene, 
1832  ;  J.  W.  Morris,  1848,  and  F.  Trestrail, 
1879.  (See*  also  a  life  by  £.  P.  Hood,  1881.) 
F.  M.  B. 

Hal'-lel  (praise),  the  name  of  a  part  of  the 
Jewish  hymnal  service,  viz.,  Ps.  cxiii.-cxviii., 
sometimes  called  the  Egyptian  Hallel,  because 
chanted  when  the  Paschal  lambs  were  slain 
according  to  the  ordinance  lirst  made  in 
Egypt.  "The  Great  Hallel  meant  the  response 
repeated  after  every  verse  in  Ps.  cxxxvi.  The 
"  hymn"  sung  by  our  Lord  and  his  disciples 
(Matt.  xxvi.  30)  was  doubtless  the  second  part 
of  the  Hallel.  T.  \V.  C. 

Hal-le-lu'-jah  (Praise  ye  JeJwvah)  is  a 
phrase  occurring  at  the  beginning,  or  the  end, 
or  both,  of  many  Psalm>  (civ.  35,  cvi.  1,  cxiii. 
1,  9),  and  therefore  naturally  used  as  a  for- 
mula of  praise.  It  was  sung  by  tlie  Jews  on 
solemn  days  of  rejoiciirr,  and  readily  i>a.'=s('d 
over  into  the  Christian  Clmrch  (Rev.  xix.  1, 
3,  4,  6).  T.  W.  C. 


Haller,  Berthold,  the  Reformer  of  Bern  ; 
b.  at  Aldingen.  near  Rottweil,  on  the  Neckar, 
Wiirtemberg,  1492  ;  d.  at  Bern,  Switzerland, 
Feb.  25,  1536.  He  studied  theology  at  Cologne 
(1510-12)  and  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  in 
divinity  ;  became  teacher  at  Rottweil,  1512  ; 
in  Bern,  1513  ;  there  preacher,  1519  ;  canon 
and  "people's  priest,"  1520.  In  early  life 
(1507)  he  formed  a  friendship  with  ^Mtlanch- 
thon,  and  in  1521  with  Zwingli,  and  in  1522 
he  openly  defended  the  cause  of  the  Reforma- 
tion ;  took  part  in  the  Baden  Colloquy  of 
1526,  and  in  the  Bern  Disputation  of  1528, 
and  drew  up  the  Reformation  edict  for  tlio 
latter  city,  Feb,  7,  1528.  (See  his  life  by 
Kirchhofer,  Zurich,  1828,  and  by  Pestalozzi, 
Elberfeld,  18G1.) 

Halo,  an  astronomical  term,  denoting  the 
luminous  circle  seen  around  the  sun  or  moon, 
and  thus  applied  to  the  circle  of  light,  the 
nimbus,  surrounding  the  head  of  a  saint  in 
all  mediieval  representations. 

Ham  (hot  or  multitude),  a  son  of  Noah, 
noted  for  his  irreverence  to  his  father  (Gen. 
ix.  22),  and  as  the  father  of  Cush,  Mizraim, 
Phut,  and  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  6),  who  founded 
many  nations.  Egypt  is  called  "  the  land  of 
Ham"  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  51,  cv.  27,  cvi.  22). 

T.  W.  C. 

Ha'-man  (splendid),  prime  minister  of 
Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia.  To  revenge  him- 
self on  Mordecai  he  plotted  the  externunatiou 
of  the  Jews,  but  failed  and  the  evil  fell  on 
himself,  and  he  was  executed  on  the  gallows 
prepared  for  Mordecai  (Esther  iii.-vii.).  He 
is  called  an  "  Agagite,"  and  is  suppo.sed  to 
have  been  of  the  race  of  the  Amalekites. 

T.  W.  C. 

Hamann,  Johann  Georg,  "  the  Magus  of 
the  North,"  German  Protestant  layman  ;  b. 
at  Konigsberg,  Aug.  27,  1730  ;  d.  at  MUnster, 
June  21,  1788.  He  studied  in  his  native  city  ; 
was  first  merchant,  then  editor  of  a  newspaper 
there,  and  exerted  a  wide  influence  by  reason 
of  his  pamphlets  full  of  ardent  piety.  His 
collected  writings  appeared,  Berlin,  1821-43, 
8  vols.  (See  his  life  by  Poel,  Hamburg,  1874- 
76,  2  vols.) 

Ha'-math  (fortress),  an  important  city  of 
Syria  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  founded 
by  a  son  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x.  18),  the  key  of 
Northern  Palestine.  It  is  often  noticecl  as 
Israel's  northern  boundary  (Num.  xiii.  21, 
Josh.  xiii.  5).  Independent  in  David's  time, 
it  came  under  Solomon's  control  (2  Chron. 
viii.  4).  It  became  independent  afterward, 
but  was  recovered  by  Jeroboam  II.  (2  Kings 
xiv.  28).  It  was  taken  by  the  Assyrians  (2 
Kings  xviii.  34,  Isa.  x.  9).  Amos  (vl  2)  calls 
it  "  Hamath  the  Great."  It  is  now  a  Turkish 
city,  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Orontes,  and 
has  30,000  inhabitants.  T.  W.  C. 

Hamath-Zobah,  a  city  which  Solomon  con- 
quered (2  Cliron.  viii.  3),  but  which  cannot 
now  be  identified.  T.  W.  C. 

Hamilton,  James,  D.D.,  Presbyterian  ;  b. 
at  Lonend,  Pai.slev.  Nov.  27,  1814  :  d.  in 
London,  Nov.  24,  1867.  From  1841  he  was 
minister   in  Regent's  Square,    London,  and 


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HANDKERCHIEF 


eminent  both  as  a  preacher  and  an  author. 
Of  his  Life  in  Earnest  (London,  1844)  and 
Mount  of  Olives,  the  65th  1000  appeared  1852- 
53.  His  other  books  are,  Harp  on  the  Wil- 
lows. 1843  ;  CJmrch  in  the  House,  1846  ;  Royal 
Preacher,  1851  ;  Lamp  and  Lantern,  1853  ; 
Lives  of  Bunyan,  Henry,  and  Hall,  1853  ; 
Emblems  from  Eden,  1855  ;  Happy  Home, 
1861.  His  works  were  collected  in  6  vols., 
1853.  His  life  was  written  by  William  Ar- 
not,  1870.  F.  M.  B. 

Hamilton,  Patrick,  first  martyr  of  the  Scot- 
tish Reformation  ;  b.  aboat  1504,  at  Kincavel, 
Linlithgow,  or  Stanehouse,  Lanark  (his 
father's  estates),  or,  as  some  say,  at  Glasgow  ; 
d.  at  St.  Andrews,  Feb.  29,  1528.  He  was  of 
noble  and  even  royal  descent,  his  mother 
being  a  granddaughter  of  James  II.  Two  of 
his  cousins  were  bishops  ;  he  was  intended 
for  the  same  dignity,  and  at  13  made  abbot  of 
Feme,  Rosshire.  After  studying  at  Paris, 
where  he  became  M.A.  in  1520,  and  at  Lou- 
vain,  where  he  was  influenced  by  Erasmus, 
he  entered  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's, 
1523,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Faculty  of  Arts, 
Oct.  3,  1524.  Accused  of  heresy,  he  retired 
in  1526  to  Marburg  in  Hesse,  where  his  re- 
forming views  Avere  confirmed  by  intercourse 
with  Tyndale  and  Lambert.  Imprudently  re- 
turning to  Scotland  in  1527,  he  preached 
about  Linlithgow,  and  married.  Enticed  by 
Archbishop  Beaton  to  St.  Andrew's,  under 
pretence  of  a  conference,  in  Jan.,  1528,  he  was 
for  .some  weeks  treated  courteously  and  al- 
lowed full  freedom  of  speech.  Arrested  Feb. 
28,  he  was  tried  next  day  in  the  cathedral  for 
"  detestable  opinions,"  condemned,  given  over 
to  the  secular  power,  and  at  once  burned  be- 
fore the  gate  of  St.  Salvador's  College.  His 
death  gave  a  powerful  impetus  to  the  Refor- 
mation ;  as  one  of  Beaton's  retainers  said,  his 
"  reek  infected  as  many  as  it  did  blow  upon." 
His  Patrick's  Places,  written  in  Latin,  was 
translated  by  J.  Frith,  London,  1532,  n.  e. 
1807.  His  story  has  been  told  by  Dr.  P. 
Lorimcr,  Edinburgh,  1857,  and  T.  P.  John- 
ston, London,  1882.  F.  M.  B. 

Ham-math  {Iu>t  springa),  a  fortified  city  in 
Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  35),  probably  identical 
with  the  Hammam,  or  "  warm  springs,"  about 
one  mile  south  of  Tiberias,  whose  waters  are 
used  for  l)athing  and  considered  to  have  great 
medicinal  (lualitics.  T.  W.  C. 

Hammond,  Henry,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1639), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Chertsey,  Surrey, 
20  m.  w.  by  s.  of  London,  Aug.  26  (or  18), 
1605  ;  d.  at  Westwood,  Worcestershire,  April 
25,  1G60.  He  went  in  1618  from  Eton  to 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  became  a  fel- 
low, 1625  ;  rector  of  Penshurst,  Kent,  1633  ; 
archdeacon  of  Chichester,  1643  ;  chaplain  to 
Charles  I.,  1645-47  ;  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
1645,  and  sub-dean,  1648,  but  soon  deprived, 
and  retired  to  Westwood.  His  appointment 
to  the  see  of  Worcester  was  prevented  only 
by  his  death.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning 
and  high  character.  His  Catechism  appeared, 
London,  1G44  ;  Paraphrase  and  Annotations 
upon  the  New  Testament,  1653  ;  On  the  Psalms 
1659  ;  his  works,  4  vols,  folio,  1674-84  with 
a  life  by  Bishop  John  Fell,  1661.    F.  M.  B 


Hampden,  Renn  Dickson,  D.D.  (Oxford, 
18 — ),  bishop  of  Hereford  ;  b.  in  Barbadoes, 
1793  ;  d.  in  London,  April  23,  1868.  He  en- 
tered Oriel  College,  Oxford,  1810  ;  became  a 
fellow,  1814  ;  tutor,  1828  ;  principal  of  St. 
Mary's  Hall,  1833  ;  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy, 1834  ;  regius  professor  of  divinity, 
1836,  and  bishop  of  Hereford,  1847.  His 
Bampton  lectures  on  Scholastic  Philosophy  in 
its  Relation  to  Christian  Theology,  (Oxford, 
1833,  3d  ed.  1848,  caused  his  orthodoxy  to 
be  impeached,  and  his  elevation  was  bitterly 
opposed.  Among  his  other  writings  are 
Philosophical  Evidence  of  Christianity,  Lou- 
don, 1827  ;  Sermons,  1836  ;  Fathers  of  Greek 
Philosophy,  1862,  and  contributions  to  Encyc. 
Britannica  and  Encyc.  Metrapolitana. 

F.  M.  B. 

Hampton  Court  Conference,  Saturday, 
Monday,  and  Wednesday,  Jan.  14,  16,  and  18, 
1604,  between  Prelates  and  Puritans,  under 
the  presidency  of  James  I.,  to  discuss  the 
abuses  complained  of  by  the  Puritans.  It 
had  for  its  upshot  the  revision  of  the  English 
Bible,  now  known  as  the  Authorized  Version, 
which  was  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  John  Rey- 
nolds, cordially  seconded  by  the  king.  Hamp- 
ton Court  is  a  royal  palace,  on  the  Thames, 
15  ra.  w.s.w.  of  London. 

Handel,  Georg  Friedrich,  musician,  Prot- 
estant layman  ;  b.  at  Halle,  Saxony,  Feb.  23, 
1685  ;  d.  in  London,  April  13,  1769.  In  his 
7th  year  he  was  a  skilful  player  on  the  piano 
and  organ,  and  therefore  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered that  he  turned  from  the  study  of  law 
to  that  of  nuisic.  He  rose  to  eminence  in 
Germany,  but  in  1712  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  received  more  appreciation.  In 
1751  he  became  blind.  He  is  now  chiefly  re- 
membered by  his  oratorios  of  "  Esther"  (1720), 
"  Israel  in  JEgj^pt"  (1738),  and  especially  the 
"Messiah"  (1741). 

Handicraft.  This  was  more  honorable 
among  the  Jews  than  among  the  heathen,  who 
delegated  manual  labor  to  slaves,  whereas  the 
Rabbins  said,  "  He  who  does  not  teach  his 
son  a  trade  makes  him  a  footpad."  Among 
the  craftsmen  known  to  the  Jews  were  apothe- 
caries (Ex.  XXX.  25,  Eccles.  x.  1),  or  rather 
perfumers  ;  bakers  ;  barbers  (Ezek.  v.  1)  ; 
carpenters,  using  such  tools  as  tiie  rule,  tiie 
measuring  line,  the  plane,  the  compass,  etc.  ; 
carvers  in  wood  and  stone,  employed  in  the 
tabernacle  and  the  temple  ;  dyers,  colored 
fabrics  being  often  mentioned  ;  engravers  on 
wood  and  stone  (Ex.  xxviii.  9-11);  fullers 
(Isa.  vii.  3)  ;  ma.sons,  cities  antedating  the 
flood  (Gen.  iv.  17)  ;  miners  (Job  xxviii.  1-0)  ; 
potters  (Jer.  xviii.  2-6)  ;  ship-builders,  only 
for  a  limited  period  (1  Kings  x.  22)  ;  smiths 
or  workers  in  metal,  among  whom  were  many 
skilled  artisans  in  gold  and  silver  and  bronze  ; 
tanners  and  leather-dressers,  with  one  of  whom 
Peter  lodged  when  in  Joppa  (Acts  ix.  43)  ; 
tent-makers,  to  which  class  Paul  belonged 
and  gained  his  living  by  the  art  ;  and  weavers, 
especially  women,  of  whom  frequent  mention 
is  made  (2  Kings  xxiii.  7,  1  Chron.  iv.  21, 
Prov.  xxxi.  13,  19).  T.  W.  C. 

Handkerchief.  (Acts  xix.  12.)  The  use  of 
such  articles  was  common  among  the  He- 


HANDS 


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HARE 


brews,  and  to  this  day  the  people  of  the  Orient 
carry  them  in  their  hands.  Often  tliey  are 
beautifully  wrought  with  the  needle. 

T.  W.  C. 

Hands,  Laying  on  of,  was  of  a  twofold 
nature.  In  the  Mosaic  ritual,  the  offerer  of  a 
sacrifice,  whether  an  individual  or  a  body  of 
elders,  laid  hands  on  the  head  of  the  victim 
(Lev.  iv.  4,  15,  24,  29,  etc.),  in  token  of  the 
transfer  of  their  guilt  and  penalty  to  a  divinely 
appointed  substitute.  On  the  great  day  of 
Atonement  this  was  accompanied  by  an  oral 
confession  of  all  the  sins  of  the  offerer  and 
those  whom  he  represented.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  ceremony  was  used  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  persons  to  high  and  holy  undertakings, 
as  when  Moses  (Num.  xxvii.  18,  23)  formally 
set  apart  Joshua  to  be  his  successor,  thus  giv- 
ing otlicial  recognition  of  Jehovah's  choice. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  rite  was  used  to 
indicate  the  bestowment  of  eminent  spiritual 
gifts  '(Acts  viii.  17,  19),  evidently  of  a  super- 
natural character,  and  also  to  indicate  the 
setting  apart  to  ministerial  office  (Acts  xiii.  3, 
1  Tim.  iv.  14,  2  Tim.  i.  6).  As  such  it  is  a 
formal  acknowledgment  on  the  part  of  all 
concerned  that  grace  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
duties  assumed  or  undertaken  must  come 
from  above.  T.  W.  C. 

Han'-nah  (grace),  one  of  the  wives  of  El- 
kanah,  a  Levite  of  Ramathaim-zophim,  and 
the  mother  of  Samuel,  whom  she  received  in 
answer  to  prayer,  and  for  whom  she  uttered 
an  admirable  song  of  praise.  She  was  after- 
ward blessed  with  3  sons  and  2  daughters 
(1  Sam.  i.,  ii.).     Compare  Luke  i.  46-55. 

T.  W.  C. 

Haph-ta-rah  (plural,  haphtaroth)  were  read- 
ing lessons  or  paragraphs  taken  from  the 
propJiet.t  for  use  in  the  synagogues  on  the 
Sabbath  and  feast  days,  in  connection  with 
sections  from  the  law  (Luke  iv.  17,  Acts 
xiii.  15).  T.  W.  C. 

Ha-ran,  or  Charran  (parcJi^d),  an  ancient 
city  in  Mesopotamia,  where  Abram  dwelt 
till  his  father,  Terah,  died,  and  then  moved  to 
Canaan.  Nahor  remained,  and  Haran  was 
the  early  home  of  Ilebekah  (Gen.  xii.,  xxvii.). 
It  is  generally  identified  with  Ilarmii,  the 
Roman  Carrae,  on  the  Belik,  about  50  miles 
above  its  entrance  into  the  Euphrates. 

T.  W.  C. 

Harbaugh,  Henry,  D.D.  (Union,  1860) 
(German),  Reformed  ;  b.  near  Waynesbor- 
ough,  Franklin  County,  Pa.,  Oct.  28,  1817  ; 
d.  at  Mercersburg,  Pa.,  Dec.  28,  1867.  After 
laboring  as  a  farmer,  carpenter,  and  teacher, 
he  studied  at  Marshall  College,  Mercersburg, 
1840-43  ;  became  pastor  at  Lewisburg,  1843, 
Lancaster,  1850,  and  Lebanon,  1860  ;  profes- 
sor of  theology  at  Mercersburg,  Jan..  1864. 
lie  represented  the  advanced  or  "  Mercers- 
burg IheoloL'v."  lie  edited  the  (innrdinn, 
1850-66,  and" the  Mnrfrdntrn  H.^rinr.  IhOG- 
67,  and  published  7/<vnv»,  Philadelphia,  1848  ; 
Heaveidy  Jlir/ygnition,  1851  ;  Jhdrinihf  Home, 
1853  ;  Fatliers  of  the  Reformrd  Church,  1857, 
and  other  prose  works,  besides  Poods,  1800, 
and  Hymns  and  Chants,  1861.    One  or  two  c,f 


bis  hymns  arc  rather  widely  used.  His  poems 
in  the  "  Pennsylvania  German"  dialect  were 
collected  as  Harbaugh's  Hnrfe,  1870. 

E.  :m.  b. 

Hardouin,  Jean,  Jesuit  ;  b.  at  Quimpcr,  in 
Brittany,  France,  36  m.  s.s.e.  of  Brest,  1646  ; 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  his  16th  year  ; 
devoted  himself  to  literature  in  Paris,  where 
he  d.  Sept.  3,  1729.  lie  was  very  learned, 
but  so  whimsical  that  it  has  been  w'ittily  said, 
"  he  tried  for  full  40  years  to  ruin  his  reputa- 
tion for  scholarship,  but  he  did  not  quite  suc- 
ceed." His  edition  of  the  acts  of  the  councils 
{Collectio  .  .  .  Coiiciliorum,  Paris,  1715,  13 
vols.,  2d  ed.  by  Coleto,  1728-32,  23  vols.)  is 
his  best  theological  work. 

Hardwick,  Charles,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Slingsby,  Yorkshire,  Sept.  22,  1821  ;  d. 
near  Luchon,  France,  Aug.  18.  1859.  lie  be- 
came fellow  of  St.  Catharine's  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, 18—  ;  was  ordained,  1846-47  ;  profes- 
sor of  theology  in  Queen's  College,  Birming- 
ham, 1853  ;  divinity  lecturer  in  (King's  Col- 
lege) C'ambridge,  1855,  and  archdeacon  of 
Ely,  1859.  He  was  killed  by  a  fall  in  climb- 
ing the  Pyrenees.  He  was  an  eminent  scholar 
in  history  and  divinity.  His  chief  works  are 
a  HUtorij  of  the  (39)  Articles,  Cambridge, 
1851,  3d  ed.,  1876  ;  a  History  of  the  Christian 
Chvrch  (Middle  Age,  1853,  6th  ed.,  Stubbs, 
1888;  Reformation,  1856,  9th  ed.,  Stubbs, 
1888)  ;  Christ  and  other  Masters,  1855-59,  4 
parts,  2(1  ed.,  1863,  2  vols.  F.  II.  B. 

Hardy,  Robert  Gpence,  "Wesleyan  mission- 
arv  ;  b.  at  Preston,  Lancnshire,  July  1,  180o  ; 
d."at  Headingly,  Yorkshire,  April  16,  186t'. 
He  joined  the  Wesleyan  Conference  in  1825, 
and  was  soon  after  sent  to  Ceylon,  where  he 
labored  23  years,  and  afterward  preached  in 
England.  He  published  The  British  Gotern- 
■ment  andthe  Tdnhitni  of  Ceijlon,  London,  1841  ; 
Eastern  Monorhism'.  Is5n  ;  ,1  Moinialof  Bud- 
dhism, Tr<ii>sl,i(.dfr.on.  Siiuihohse  MS8.,  1853, 
2d  ed.  18S()  ;  Leijeitds  and  Theories  of  the 
Buddhists,  1866.  He  was  among  the  best  of 
Pali  scholars,  and  his  books  bear  authority. 

F.  M.  B. 

Hare,  Augustus  William,  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  Ix  in  Rome.  Nov.  17,  1792  :  d.  in  Rome, 
Feb.  18,  1834.  He  was  a  fellow  of  New  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  from  1829  rector  of  Alton 
Barnes,  Hampshire,  where  he  won  much  re- 
pute as  a  preacher.  His  Sermons  foa  Coin.try 
Conf/rerjation  appeared  in  2  vols.,  London, 
1837,  and  reached  a  7th  ed.  in  1851.  AVilh 
his  brother,  J.  C.  Hare  (q.v.).  he  wrote  the 
first  series  of  Guesses  at  Triith^  1827.  and  U 
celebrated  in  Memonals  of  a  Qui-t  Life,  1872, 
by  his  son.  F.  M.  B. 

Hare,  Julius  Charles,  Church  of  Kngland  ; 

b.  in  tlie  valley  of  Valdagno,  aboi-.t  50  m.  w. 

of  Venice.  Ifalv.  Sept.  13.  1795  ;    d.  at  Hurst- 

monccaux,    Jan.    23,    1S55.       Milch    of    hi? 

,  youth  was  spent  abroad  ;  at  Weimar.  1804-5, 

1  ii(!   knew    Goethe   and   Schiller.       From   the 

'  Charterhouse,  Ltmdon,  he  pas.sed.  in  1812,  to 

j  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  be- 

I  came  a  fellow  and  tutor,  1818  ;  here  Maurice, 

i  Trench,  and  Sterling  were  among  his  students. 


HARLESS 


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HARMS 


) 


After  some  legal  studies  he  took  orders,  1826  ; 
■wrote  part  of  Guesses  at  Truth  (1827,  second 
series,  1848),  and  with  his  old  sclioolmate, 
Thirlwall,  translated  vols.  1.  and  ii.  of  Nie- 
buhr's  History  of  Rome,  1828-82.  During  a 
visit  to  Rome,  in  1832,  he  met  Bun,sen.  In  1884 
he  entered  upon  the  rich  family  living  of 
Ilurstmonceaux,  where  he  gathered  a  library 
of  12.000  volumes,  notably  rich  in  German 
theology  and  literature.  He  became  arch- 
deacon of  Lewes,  1840  ;  prebendary  of  Chi- 
chester,   1851,    and   chaplain    to   the   queen, 

1853.  He  was  an  evangelical  Broad  Church- 
man, who  disliked  Tractarianism  more  than 
dissent,  and  thoroughly  knew  and  loved  the 
Germans  ;  an  admirer  and  follower  of  Cole- 
ridge, and  strongly  in  sympathy  with  Dr. 
Arnold.  His  character  was  high,  and  he  was 
honored  by  a  wide  range  of  acquaintance. 
His  chief  works  are,  Victory  of  Faith,  Lon- 
don, 1840  ;  Contest  with  Borne,  1842  ;  Mission 
of  the  Comforter,  1846,  3  vols.  ;  Memoir  of 
John,  Sterling,  1848  ;    Vindication,  of  Luther, 

1854,  2d  ed.  1855  ;  and  Charges,  1856,  3 
vols.  The  last  contains  a  prefatory  essay  by 
Maurice.  His  memoir,  by  E.  H.  Plumptre, 
is  prefixed  to  the  latest  edition  of  Guesses  at 
Truth,  1871.  (See  also  Memorials  of  a  Quiet 
Life,  by  A.  J.  C.  Hare,  1872.)        F.  M.  B. 

Harless,  Gottlob  Ohristoph  Adolf  von, 
German  Lutlieran  theologian  ;  b.  at  Nurem- 
berg, Nov.  21,  1806  ;  d.  in  Munich,  Sept.  5, 
1879.  He  was  educated  at  Erlangen  and 
Halle  ;  became  professor  in  the  former  uni- 
versity, 1883  ;  in  Leipzig,  1845  ;  councillor  in 
church  affairs  at  Dresden,  1850  ;  president  of 
the  Protestant  Upper  Consistory  in  Munich, 
1852  ;  retired  on  account  of  blindness,  Jan. 
1,  1879.  He  was  a  tower  of  strength  to  the 
strict  Lutherans.  Of  his  numerous  books 
there  has  been  translated  his  System  of  Chris- 
tian Ethics  (orig.,  Stuttgart,  'l842,  7th  ed., 
1875,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1868). 

Harmer,  Thomas,  Independent  ;  b.  at  Nor- 
wich, in  1715  ;  d.  Nov.  27,  1788,  at  VVattes- 
lield,  Suffolk,  where  he  was  pastor  from  1735. 
His  fame  rests  on  Observations  on  Variovs 
Passages  of  Scripture,  Placing  Them  in  a  New 
Light,  etc.  The  first  two  volumes,  which 
appeared,  London,  1764,  were  translated  into 
German  by  J.  E.  Faber,  1772.  Gaining  much 
help  from  Chardin's  Mss.,  lent  him  by  Bishop 
Leroth,  Harmer  enlarged  his  book  in  1776, 
and  published  two  more  volumes  in  1787. 
The  edition  by  Adam  Clarke,  1808-16,  has  a 
life  of  the  autlior.  lie  also  w^rote  Outlines  of 
a  Neio  Commentary  on  Solomon's  Song,  1768. 
F.  M.  B. 

Harmonists,  a  colony  of  Germans  founded 
by  George  llapp  (b.  in  Wiirtemberg,  1770  ; 
d.  at  Economy,  Pa.,  Aug.  7,  1847),  who,  on 
the  ideaof  restoring  "  primitive  Christianity," 
gathered  followers  and  emigrated  to  Pennsyl- 
vania 11803)  and  establislied  the  village  of 
Harmony,  Butler  County  ;  moved  to  Indiana, 
and,  on  the  Wabash  ri^-er,  established  New 
Harmony  (1815)  ;  sold  out  to  Robert  Owen 
(1824),  and  rcmovpil  to  Beaver  County,  Pa., 
on  the  Oliio,  wlicre  tliey  laid  out  Economy, 
17  m.  n.w.  of  Pittsburg.     They  practise  com- 


munity of  goods  and  strict  celibacy.  They 
have  accumulated  great  wealth.  They  num- 
bered in  1890  only  30  members,  all  old. 

Harmony  of  the  Gospels.  The  narratives 
of  the  evangelists,  although  independent,  yet 
agree  in  the  main  and  not  rarely  relate  the 
same  incident  in  almost  the  same  words.  But 
they  occasionally  exhibit  what  seem  to  be 
grave  discrepancies,  whether  of  facts  or  of  cir- 
cumstances. This  difficulty  was  felt  at  an 
early  period,  as  appears  by  the  work  of  Tatian 
(2d  century),  styled  Diatessaron  (through 
four),  which  combined  the  four  accounts  into 
one  continuous  narrative.  In  the  next  cen- 
tury Ammonius  Saccas  made  a  new  work  of 
the  same  kind,  which  was  the  basis  of  the 
well-known  work  of  Eusebius,  entitled  the  Ten 
Indexes  or  Canons,  which  arranged  the  con- 
tents of  the  gospels  in  a  series  of  tables,  show- 
ing clearly  the  agreements  and  the  differences. 
The  convenience  and  utility  of  such  a  scheme 
led  in  later  times  to  many  useful  compilations, 
Roman  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant. 

It  seems  now  to  be  agreed  that  none  of  the 
evangelists  designed  to  observe  a  strict  chro- 
nological arrangement,  as  appears  from  the 
fact  that  their  notes  of  time  are  so  few  and 
so  vague,  as  "then,"  "at  that  time,"  "in 
those  days."  In  each  case  the  facts  them- 
selves, not  the  order  of  their  occurrence,  were 
the  object  of  attention.  No  one  singly  can  be 
taken  as  a  guide  or  a  standard,  but  all  are  to 
be  put  togetlier  and  selections  made  from  the 
whole,  as  the  exigencies  of  each  particular  case 
may  require.  The  4th  gospel,  which  is  so 
unlike  the  other  three,  is  of  special  value  to 
the  harmonist,  because,  by  mentioning  the 
various  Passovers  wliich  our  Lord  attended, 
it  enables  us  to  determine  the  length  of  his 
ministry,  which  was  at  least  three  years.  The 
theory  of  a  urevangeliurn,  or  primal  gospel, 
from  which  the  evangelists  drew,  is  now  pretty 
generally  given  up.  So  also  is  the  notion 
that  one  of  them  served  as  a  source  or  pattern 
to  the  others.  The  only  defensible  position 
is  that  they  drew  from  a  common  tradition, 
and  were  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit  in  accord- 
ance with  tlie  aims  they  had  in  view.  They 
Avere  therefore  strictly  independent,  being  so 
many  credible  witnesses  to  the  one  life  on 
earth  wholly  without  sin.  The  4th  gospel, 
being  supplementary,  differs  largely  from  the 
others,  but  its  contents  are  needed  to  complete 
the  picture.  In  adjusting  discrepancies,  har- 
monists are  compelled  to  assume  that  our 
Lord  repeated  the  same  saying  at  different 
times.  T.  W.  C. 

Harms,  Olaus,  evangelical  Lutheran  ;  b.  at 
Fahrstedt.  Schleswig-Holstein,  March  25, 
1778  ;  d.  in  Kiel,  Feb.  1,  1855.  After  educa- 
tion at  Kiel,  he  was  a  private  tutor  from  1802 
to  1806,  when  he  became  successively  assistant 
pastor  at  Lunden,  1806  ;  chief  assistant  in  the 
Nicolai  church  in  Kiel,  1816  ;  chief  pastor, 
1885  ;  U'fired  on  account  of  eye  troubles, 
1849.  He  was  a  pronounced  evangelical,  and 
exerted  a  ^rcat  counteracting  influence  to  the 
ration, ili-i>\  of  his  day.  Besides  sermons  may 
1'"  menlinncd  his  95'theses  to  match  Luther's 
(Kiel,  1817,  rep.  in  Bibliothek  theologischer 
Klassiker,     Golha,     1888)  ;    Pastor altheologie 


HARMS 


(355) 


(Kiel,  1830,  3  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1878,  rep.  in  Bib. 
theol.  KL,  1888,  2  vols.  See  his  autobiog- 
raphy, Kiel,  1851,  rep.  in  same  vol.  with  his 
95  th'eses,  Gotha,  1888). 

Harms  (Georg)  Ludwig  (Detler  Theodor), 
evangelical  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Walsrode,  85  in. 
n.  ofHanover,  May  5,  1808  ;  d.  at  Ilermanns- 
burg.  still  nearer  to  the  same,  Germany,  Nov. 
14,  18G5.  He  studied  at  Erlangen,  1827-30  ; 
taught  for  some  years  as  private  tutor  ;  be- 
came the  assistant  of  him  who  was  pastor  at 
Hermanusburg,  1844,  and  succeeded  him, 
1849.  He  was  not  only  a  popular  and  most 
successful  pastor  and  preacher,  but  so  deeply 
interested  in  missions  that  he  founded  the 
Hermanusburg  Evangelical  Lutheran  Mission 
in  1849  ;  organized  a  training  school  for  mis- 
sionaries at  Hermanusburg,  and  chartered  a 
ship,  in  1854,  to  convey  the  first  12  mission- 
aries and  8  colonists  to  the  stations  in  South 
Africa  among  the  Zulus  and  Basutos.  The 
society  still  exists,  and  in  1887  supported  52 
stations  in  Africa,  11  in  India,  1  in  Australia, 
and  2  in  Xew  Zealand,  and  had  70  mission- 
aries. His  missionary  journal  was  widely  cir- 
culated in  Germany.  "(See  his  life  by  Theo- 
dor Harms,  Hermannsburg,  1868,  5th  ed., 
1877.)  Theodor,  his  brother  and  successor  in 
the  church  and  in  the  direction  of  the  mis- 
sion ;  b.  in  1819  ;  d.  at  Hermannsburg,  Feb. 
16,  1885.  His  refusal  to  consider  civil  mar- 
riages as  valid  led  to  his  deposition  in  1877. 
Helhen  founded  the  Hanoverian  Free  Church. 
He  was  a  voluminous  writer  ;  some  of  his 
books  passed  througli  several  editions. 

Harnack    (Karl    Gustav),     Adolf,     Ph.D. 

(Leipzig,1873).Lic.TlieoI. (Leipzig,  1874),D.D. 
(hon.,  Marburg,  1879),  German  Protestant; 
son  of  Theodosius  H.  ;  b.  at  Dorpat,  157  m. 
n.e.  of  Riga,  Livonia,  Russia,  May  7,  1851  ; 
studied  theology  there  and  in  Germany,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  church  history  at 
Leipzig,  1876  ;  Giessen,  1879  ;  Marburjr, 
1886  ;  Berlin,  1889.  Ho  published  Zur  Qud- 
lenkritikder  Geschichte  des  Gnodizismus,  Leip- 
zig, 1873  ;  Die  Zeit  des  Ifjnatius  und  die 
ChrofKAnr/ieder  antiochenische)i  Bisclwfe,  1878  ; 
Das  Mdiichtum,  seine  Idenle  iind  Geschichte, 
Giessen,  1881,  3d  ed.,  1886;  LeJirbuch  der 
D(i[/mengeschichte,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1886-87, 
2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1888  ;  Griindriss  der  Dogmoi- 
geschichte,  1889  ;  Das  Neue  Testament  urn  das 
Jahr  200,  1889,  etc. 

Ha'-rod  (treinblinr/),  a  spring  by  wliich 
Gideon  encamped  and  where  lie  tested  liis 
men  (Judges  vii.).  Now  called  'Aia  JalM, 
on  the  northern  slope  of  Mt.  Gilboa. 

T.  W.  C. 

Ha-ro'-sheth  {icorkiiifj  in  xrond)  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, so  called  from  its  mixed  population,  a 
city  in  North  Canaan,  the  home  of  Sisera  and 
the  place  where  Jabin's  army  assembled 
(Judges  iv.  2.  13,  16).  Thomson  places  it  at 
the  base  of  Mt.  Carmel,  the  entrance  to  the 
narrow  pass  through  wliich  the  Kishon  flows 
from  the  plain  of  Esdraeion  to  the  plain  of 
Acre.  T.  W.  C. 

Harp.     See  Musical  Ixsthument.-. 

Harper,  "William  Rainey,Ph.D.  (Yale  Col- 


lege, New  Haven.  Conn.,  1875),  Baptist  lay- 
man ;  b.  at  New  Concord,  O.,  July  26,  1856  ; 
graduated  at  Muskingum  College  iii  his  native 
place,  1870  ;  was  principal  of  tiie  preparatory 
department  of  Denison  University,  Granville, 
O.,  1876-79  ;  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Chi 
cago  B-iptist  Union  Tlieological  Seminary, 
Morgan  Park,  HI.,  1879-86,  and  since  that 
time  professor  of  Semitic  languages  in  Yale 
College.  He  is  the  editor  of  Ilebraica  and  of 
tiie  Old  and  New  Testament  Student.  No  one 
has  done  as  much  as  he  to  popularize  the 
study  of  Hebrew,  and  his  inductive  method 
of  studying  that  language  (Chicago,  1882,  7th 
ed.  1886)  has  been  successfully  applied  to 
biblical  Greek  (with  Rev.  Prof.  R.  F. 
Weidner,  D.D.,  1889)  and  classical  Greek 
and  Latin  (with  J.  B.  Burgess,  1889). 

Hartmann,  Karl  Robert  Hduard  von,  b. 
in  Berlin,  Feb.  23,  1842  ;  received  a  military 
education,  but  resigned  in  1865  his  position  as 
a  lieutenant  of  artillery  on  account  of  a  knee 
trouble,  and  began,  in  1869,  with  his  Philoso- 
phy of  the  Unconscious,  9th  ed.,  1882,  £ng. 
trans,  by  W.  C.  Coupland,  1884,  an  extensive 
and  important  literary  activity.  Phoetiomenol- 
ogie  des  sittlichen  Bemistseius,  1878,  is  another 
of  his  principal  works,  giving  a  clear  and 
definite  view  of  his  standpoint.  In  his  Die 
Selbstzersetziing  des  C'hristenthums,  1874,  and 
Die  Krisis  des  Christeiithnms  in  der  modernen 
Theologie,  1880,  he  attacked  Christianity,  and 
was  met,  among  others,  by  A.  Schweitzer, 
Nach  Rechts  und  Links,  1876,  and  O.  Pfleiderer 
in  his  lieUgionsjMlosophie  aitf  geschichtlicher 
Grundluge,  1883. 

Hase,  Karl  August  von,  b.  at  Steinbach, 
Saxony,  Aug.  25,  ISOO  ;  d.  at  Jena,  Jan.  3, 
1890  ;  studied  theology  at  Leipzig  and  Er- 
langen, and  was  appointed  professor  at  Jena 
in  1830,  from  which  position  he  retired  as  pro- 
fessor emeritus  in  1883.  His  principal  works 
are,  Iluttcrus  Eedicii-us,  Leipzig.  1828,  12th 
ed.,  1883,  a  systematic  exposition  of  the  Old- 
Lutheran,  orthodox  dogmatics,  such  as  one 
of  its  representatives  from  the  16th  century 
might  have  given  it  if  he  had  had  the  19th 
century  for  his  audience,  and  consequently 
brimful  of  indirect  criticism  ;  Life  of  Jesus, 
1829,  5tli  ed.,  1S65,  Eng.  trans,  by  J.  F. 
Clarke,  Boston,  1881  ;  Ilistori/  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  1834,  11th  ed.,  1886,  Eng. 
trans,  from  the  7th  ed.  by  Wing  and  Blumen- 
thal.  New  York,  1856  ;  originally  laid  out 
on  an  entirely  new  plan,  by  which  much  new 
material,  formerly  found  only  in  special  trea- 
tises on  Chri.stian  art,  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, etc.,  was  incorporated  with  tlie  general 
historical  representation,  while  other  material 
which,  in  course  of  time,  had  become  com- 
pletely perfunctory  was  eliminated  ;  AVw« 
Prophctcn  (Maid  of  Orleans,  Savonarola,  the 
kingdom  of  the  Anabaptists),  1851  ;  Franzton 
Assisi,  1856;  MiraclePliu/sandf^acred Dramas, 
1858,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1880  ;  Ilandbnck 
der  prote«tantischen  Polemik  gegen  d.  rlhn. 
kath.  Kirclie,  1862,  4lh  ed.,  1HH6  ;  Caterina 
Ton  Siena,  1864  ;  Jiostnrolisungen  (Bar 
Kochba.  Gregorv  VII.,  Pius  II.,  Krell.  etc.), 
18S0  ;  Kirrhengexrhirhte  anf  der  Grundlag6 
akademiacher    Vorlesungen,   1885  sq.,  3  vols. 


(356) 


HAVERGAL 


Generally  his  standpoint  may  be  designated 
as  a  mild  and  conscientious  rationalism  dis- 
tin2;uished  by  moral  nobleness  and  esthetic 
refinement.  C.  P. 

Hasse,  Friedrich  Rudolf,  b.  at  Dresden, 
June  29,  1808  ;  d.  at  Bonn,  Oct.  14,  1862  ; 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  church  history  at 
Greifswald,  1836,  and  Bonn,  1841.  His  An- 
selin  von.  Canterbury,  first  volume  giving  his 
life,  Leipzig.  1843,  second  giving  an  exposi- 
tion of  his  theology,  1852,  is  considered  as  a 
model  monograph.  His  Kircheiigesclmhte,  3 
vols.,  was  published  after  his  death  by 
Kohler,  1864,  3vols.,  2d  ed.,  1872.  (See  his 
life  by  Krafft,  Bonn,  1865.)  C.  P. 

Hastings,  Thomas,  Mus.  Doc.  (University 
of  New  York,  1858),  composer  and  hymn- 
writer  ;  b.  in  Washington,  Conn.,  Oct.  15, 
1784  ;  d.  in  New  Yorii,  May  15,  1872.  His 
life  was  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  church 
music.  Beginning  to  teach  in  Oneida  County, 
N.  Y.,  1806,  he  removed  to  Troy,  1817,  Utica, 
1823,  and  New  York  City,  1832.  He  com- 
piled many  volumes  of  tunes  and  wrote  sev- 
er-d  hundred  h3"mns,  very  many  of  which 
liave  been  more  or  less  widely  used.  They  are 
found  chielly  in  his  Spiritual  Songs,  New 
York,  1831-33;  Mother's  Ilymn-Book,  1834; 
Christian  Psalmist,  1836  ;  Devotional  Hymns 
and  Poems,  1850,  and  Church  Melodies,  1858. 
His  co-editor  in  the  last-named  was  his  son. 
Rev.  Dr.  T.  S.  Hastings,  now  president  of 
Union  Theological  Seminary.  F.  M.  B. 

Hatch,- Edwin,  D.D.  (University  of  Edin- 
burgh, 1883),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Derby,  Eng.,  Sept.  4,  1835  ;  d.  at  Oxford, 
Nov.  10,  1889.  He  was  educated  at  Pem- 
broke College,  Oxford  ;  graduated  B.A., 
1857  ;  M.A.,  1867  ;  was  ordained  deacon, 
1858.  and  priest,  1859  ;  professor  of  classics 
in  Trinity  College,  Toronto,  Can. ,  1859-66  ; 
vice-principal  of  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford, 
Eng.,  1867,  and,  in  addition,  rector  of  Purleigh, 
1883  ;  secretary  to  the  boards  of  faculties, 
1884,  and  reader  in  ecclesiastical  history,  Ox- 
ford. His  extraordinary  learning  and  ability 
received  too  tardy  recognition.  He  was 
Bampton  lecturer,  1880,  Grinfield  lecturer, 
1882-84.  As  the  former  he  produced  ihe  re- 
markable volume  on  The  Organization  of  the 
Early  Christian  Churches,  London,  1881,  3d 
od.,  1888,  Ger.  trans.,  Giessen,  1883  ;  as  the 
latter,  his  Essays  in  Biblical  Greek,  1889  ;  he 
also  wrote  Tlie  Growth  of  Church  Institu- 
tions, 1887,  Ger.  trans.,  1888;  both  Ger. 
trans,  are  edited  by  Adolf  Harnack.  (See 
memorials,  edited  by  his  brother,  1890.) 

Hattemists,  a  Dutch  sect  of  distinctly  an- 
tinoinian  character,  founded  by  Pontianus 
vau  llattem,  who  was  deposed  from  his  pas- 
torate in  Zealand  in  1683  and  died  in  1706. 
He  was  a  disciple  of  Spinoza,  from  whose 
ideas  lie  developed  a  mystical  pantheism  in 
which  there  was  no  room  for  any  distinction 
between  good  and  bad.  The  sect  was  sup- 
I)ressed  by  the  Dutch  Government  in  1733. 

Hauge,  Hans   Nielsen,  b. 


farm,  Smaalenene  County,  Norway,  April  3, 
1771  ;  d.  on  the  Bredtvedt  farm,  Aker  County, 
March  29,  1824  ;  was  a  peasant's  son,  and  re- 
ceived only  a  common  peasant  education  ;  but 
from  his  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  common 
popular  religious  literature  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  he  came  to  feel  it  as  his  duty  to  try 
to  awaken  his  countrymen  from  that  spiritual 
sleep  into  which  they  had  fallen  under  the 
reign  of  rationalism.  In  1795  he  began  to 
preach,  walking  from  place  to  place,  and  pub- 
lish religious  tracts  of  a  somewhat  pietislic 
but  by  no  means  sectarian  character.  He 
made  a  deep  impression,  and  though  his  fol- 
lowers, called  "Haugians,"  or  "Readers," 
never  separated  from  the  established  church, 
Dor  even  attacked  it,  the  authorities  meant 
that  such  a  thing  as  a  preaching  peasant  could 
not  be  tolerated.  He  was  imprisoned  in 
1804,  and  kept  waiting  for  trial  10  years. 
When,  in  1814,  he  was  set  free  his  health  was 
broken.  Nevertheless,  his  influence  was  so 
wide  as  to  become  almost  a  national  feature, 
and  in  course  of  time  the  church  itself  came 
to  understand  and  acknowledge  its  mistake. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  A.  Chr.  Bang, 
Cliristiania,  1874,  and  Belsheim,  Christ  iania, 
1881.  C.  P. 

Hau'-ran  (caves),  a  country  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan and  south  of  Damascus'  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16, 
18),  the  Auranitis  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
At  the  time  of  the  conquest  it  was  subject  to 
Og,  king  of  Bashan,  and  a  large  portion  of  it 
was  allotted  to  Manasseh.  Explorations  in 
the  last  half  century  show  it  to  have  had  an 
astonishiiig  number  of  fortitied  cities,  the 
stone  buildings  of  which  are  in  a  remarkable 
state  of  preservation.  Its  population  must 
once  have  been  very  dense  and  very  prosper- 
ous. T.  W.  C. 

Havelock,  Sir  Henry,  bart.,  K.C.B.  ;  b.  at 
Bishop- Wearmouth,  near  Sunderland,  Dur- 
ham, April  5,  1795  ;  d.  at  Alum-Bagh,  near 
Lucknow,  India,  Nov.  25,  1857.  After  study- 
ing at  the  Charterhouse  and  reading  law,  he 
entered  the  army,  1815,  and  was  sent  to  India, 
1823.  His  views  changed  on  the  voyage,  and 
after  marrying,  in  1829,  a  daughter  of  the  mis- 
sionary Marshman,  he  became  a  Baptist,  gave 
religious  instruction  to  his  men,  and  was  zeal- 
ous and  blameless  in  the  devout  life.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  Burmah,  1824-26, 
and  in  the  Afghan  war,  1838-42,  of  which  he 
wrote  a  narrative.  He  was  made  adjutant- 
general,  1853,  and  brigadier,  1857,  while  com- 
manding a  division  in  Persia.  On  the  new.s 
of  the  Indian  mutiny  he  hastened  to  Calcutta, 
organized  a  movable  column,  and  won  8  vic- 
tories over  the  Sepoys.  Rc-euforced  by  Gen- 
eral Outram,  he  accomplished  the  memorable 
relief  of  Lucknow,  and  soon  after  died  of 
dysentery,  brought  on  by  the  fatigues  of  the 
campaign.  His  commission  as  major-general 
came  too  late,  but  the  baronetcy  passed  to  his 
son,  and  a  pension  of  £1000  to  his  widow.  He 
has  been  generally  accepted  as  the  model  of  a 
Christian  soldier.  His  memoirs  were  written 
by  J.  C.  Marshman,  London,  1860. 

F.  M.  B. 

Havergal,  Frances  Ridley,  b.  at  Astley, 
the  Hauge     "Worcestershire,  Dec.  14,  1836  ;  d.  at  Caswell 


HAVILAH 


(357) 


HEAD-DRESS 


Bay,  Swansea,  South  Wales,  Juno  3,  1879. 
Her  father,  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Havergal  (1793- 
1870),  was  a  well-known  musician  and  hymn- 
writer.  Educated  at  Diisseldorf,  she  was  a 
diligent  student,  and  active  through  life  in 
Sunday-school,  temperance,  hospital,  and  mis 
sionary  work.  She  began  to  write  at  7,  and 
to  publish  her  verses  in  Good  Words  about 
1860.  Among  her  books  are,  Mormng  Bells 
and  Little  Pilloios,  1875  ;  My  King,  1877  ; 
Kept  for  the  Master's  Use,  1879  ;  Swiss  Letters, 
1881  ;  and  in  verse.  Ministry  of  Song,  1871  ; 
Under  t/ie  Surface,  1874  ;  and  Under  His 
Shadow,  1879.  Some  of  her  hymns  arc 
coming  into  extensive  use.  Her  memorials, 
by  her  sister,  appeared.  London  and  New 
York,  1880  ;  abridged  later.  F.  M.  B. 

Hav-i'-lah  (rircnit),  a  region  abounding  in 
gold,  bdellium,  and  onyx-stone  (Gen.  ii.  11). 
According  to  one  theory,  it  was  at  the  south- 
east end  of  the  Black  Sea  ;  according  to  an- 
other, at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

T.  W.  C. 

Haweis,  Hugh  Reginald,  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  at  Egham,  Surres',  Eng.,  April  3, 
1838 ;  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, B.A.,  1859;  M.A.,  1864;  curate  of 
St.  Peter's,  Bethnal  Green,  1860-63  ;  of  St. 
James  the  Less,  Westminster,  1863-66  ;  of  St. 
James,  Marylebone,  since  1866.  all  in  London. 
He  has  organized  the  penny  readings  and 
hoids  Sunday  evening  services,  in  which  he 
seeks  to  impress  religious  truths  by  the  aid  of 
music,  paintings,  and  other  such  means,  so 
much  the  more  effective  because  so  very  un- 
familiar to  the  minds  of  tlte  humbler  classes. 
He  is  a  pronounced  Broad  Churchman.  Of 
his  numerous  books  may  be  mentioned  Music 
and  Morals,  London,  1871,  15th  ed.,  1888  ; 
Thoughts  for  the  Times,  1872,  14th  ed.,  1886  ; 
Poets  in  the  Pulpit,  1883  ;  Key  of  DoctHne  and 
Practice,  1884,  15th  1000,  same  year ;  Mi/ 
MuMaxl  Life,,  1884,  3:1  ed.,  1888  ;  Chi-^ist  and 
Ckristianity  (an  early  church  history),  1886 
sqq.,  5  vols. 

Hawk,  a  strong-winged  and  rapacious  bird, 
imcleau  b}' the  Levitical  law  (Lev.  xi.  16),  but 
so  sacred  among  the  Egyptians  that  to  kill 
one,  even  unwittingly,  was  a  capital  crime. 
Its  migrations  illustrate  the  wisdom  of  the 
Creator  (Job  xxxix.  26).  T.  W.  C. 

Hawks,  Francis  Lister,  D.D.  (Columbia, 
1832).  LL.D.  (University  of  North  Carolina, 
1861  ['?]),  Episcopalian  ;  b.  at  New  Berne,  N.C., 
June  10,  1792 ;  d.  in  New  York  City.  Sept. 
26,  1866.  lie  graduated  at  the  University  of 
North  Carolina,  1815  ;  attained  eminence  at 
the  bar.  published  two  legal  works,  and  sat 
iu  the  North  Carolina  legi.slature,  but  turned 
to  the  ministry,  1827.  His  principal  charges 
Averc,  St.  Thomas,  New  York.  1831-43  ;  Christ 
Cnurch.  New  Orleans.  1844-49  ;  Church  of 
the  Mediator  (afterward  Calvarv),  New  York, 
1849-61.  and  Christ  Cluirch,  Billtimore,  1862- 
65.  He  declined  three  elections  to  the  epis- 
copate— the  Southwest  (missionary).  183')  ; 
Mississippi.  1844,  and  Rhode  Island,  1854. 
As  liistoriographer  of  his  cluirch,  he  pub- 
lished Contri'iiifi'ins  to  the  /•Jrrlrsiastictil  Ili.t- 
tory  of  tfie  United  States,  New  i'ork,  18l'C-10, 


and  Documentary  History,  1863.  Among  his 
varied  activities  were  several  editorships,  the 
founding  of  St.  Thomas'  Hall  at  Flushing, 
L.  I.,  etc.  He  was  a  brilliant  pn.'achcr  and 
voluminous  writer.  His  memorial,  by  E.  A. 
Duyckinck,  appeared  1871 .  His  brother,  Rev. 
Dr.  Cicero  Stephens  Hawks  (b.  in  New  Berne. 
N.  C,  May  26,  1812  ;  d.  in  St.  Louis,  April 
19,  1868),  was  bishop  of  Missouri  from  1844. 
F.  M.  B. 

Haydn,  Joseph,  German  composer  ;  b.  at 
Rohrau,  on  the  Austro-Hungarian  frontier, 
March  31,  1732  ;  d.  at  Vienna,  May  31,  180!). 
He  sang  in  the  cathedral  choir  at  Vienna  till 
1747,  and  soon  after  became  a  pupil  of  Por- 
pora.  His  symphonies  were  composed  for 
Prince  Esterhazy,  whose  chapel-master  he 
was,  1760-90.  His  genius  was  lirst  adequately 
recognized  in  London,  1791-92  and  1794-95. 
His  oratorio,  I'lie  Creation,  was  written  in 
1797  ;  The  Seasons  came  later.  He  was  of  de- 
vout spirit  ;  each  of  his  mss.  Is  headed  "  In 
nomine  Domini"  or  "  Soli  Deo  gloria,"  and 
ends  "  Laus  Deo."  There  are  sundry  lives  of 
him  in  German,  French,  and  English. 

F.  M.  B. 

Haymo,  b.  about  778,  of  Prankish  or  Anglo- 
Saxon  descent  ;  was  a  fellow-student  and 
friend  of  Rabanus  3Iaurus,  in  Fulda  and 
Tours,  and  was,  in  840,  appointed  bishop  of 
ilalberstadt,  where  he  died  iu  853.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  several  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  on  the  epistles  of  Paul  ;  devo- 
tional tracts,  Dc  cltristianarani  rcruni  ine- 
moria  ;  and  theological  treatises,  De  corpore  et 
sanguine  Domini,  which  have  attracted  consid- 
erable attention  and  arc  found  in  Migne,  Pat. 
Lat.  CXVI.-CXVIII. 

Haz'-a-el  {God  sees),  an  officer  of  the  king 
of  Syria.  His  accession  to  the  throne  wa.s 
revealed  to  Elijah  (1  Kings  xix.  5),  and  years 
afterward  was  told  him  when  he  came  to  con- 
sult Elisha  about  his  master's  recovery  from 
sickness  (2  Kings  viii.  7-15)..  His  discom- 
posure under  the  prophet's  eye  showed  that 
he  was  already  meditating  the  crime  which 
he  committed  the  next  day.  Having  usurped 
the  throne,  he  waged  cruel  and  successful  war 
against  Israel  and  Judah,  and  reigned  4G 
years,  but  his  conquests  were  lost  during  the 
"reign,  of  his  son  and  successor,  Benhadad 
(2  kings  xiii.  25).  T.  \V.  C. 

Ha'-zor  (enclosure),  the  name  of  several 
cities,  the  chief  of  which  was  that  of  King 
Jabin.  who  was  defeated  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xi. 
1-13).  It  revived,  however,  and  oppressed 
Israel,  but  was  again  subdued  by  Barak 
(Judges  iv.),  was  fortified  by  Solomon  (1 
Kings  ix.  15),  and  remained  in  the  j)o.ssession 
of  Israel  till  the  invasion  of  Tiglatli-pileser. 
Its  site  is  suppo.sed  to  be  found  at  TiH  J/ara, 
2.V  miles  .southeast  of  Kadesh,  wiiere  are  an- 
cient ruins.  T.  W.  C. 

Head-dress,  an  occa.sional  adornment 
among  (he  Hebrews,  the  head  b -ing  usually 
uncovered.  It  was  covered  in  mourning  (2 
Sam.  XV.  30).  The  priests'  "  bonnets"  (liead 
tires,  R.  V.)  were  "  for  glorv  and  for  l)eauty" 
(Ex.  xxviii.  40).  The  diadem,  or  turban,  seems 
to  have  been  worn  only  by  eminent  persons 


HEATHEN 


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HEBREWS 


) 


or  on  festive  occasions  (Job  xxix.  14,  Tsa.  iii. 
23,  Ixii.  3).  The  mitre  was  worn  by  priests 
(Ex.  xxxix.  28),  by  women  in  full  dress  (Isa. 
iii.  20),  by  a  bridegroom  (Isa.  Ixi.  10),  and  by 
others  on  gala  days  (Isa.  Ixi.  3,  Ez.  xxiv.  17, 
23).  T.  W.  C. 

Heathen.  This  term,  derived  from  Iieath, 
originally  mc:ining  those  who  live  on  heaths 
or  in  the  woods,  is  applied  in  the  English  Bible 
to  all  the  nations  save  Israel  (Ps.  ii.  1,  Jer.  x.  2). 
It  now  denotes  all  except  Jews,  Christians,  and 
Mohammedans.  T.  W.  C. 

Heave-Oflfering,  one  that  was  lifted  np  and 
down  in  token  of  its  presentation  to  Jehovah 
(Num.  XV.  20).  T.  W.  C. 

Heaven  {/waved  up,  high),  either  the  mate- 
rial realm  above  us  or  the  abode  of  God  and 
holy  spirits.  In  both  cases  the  plural  is  often 
used.  In  the  former  sense  heaven  is  spoken 
of  as  a  broad  expanse  or  firmament  (Gen.  i.  6, 
8),  having  doors  and  windows  {Gen.  vii.  11, 
Ps.  Ixxviii.  23),  and  from  which  comes  the 
rain  (James  v.  18)  and  the  frost  (Job  xxxviii. 
29).  In  it  are  set  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars 
(Gen.  i.  14,  Deut.  iv.  19),  and  in  the  midst  of 
it  the  fowl  fly.  It  is  to  perish  with  the  earth 
(2  Ps.  iii.  10)  and  to  give  place  to  "  a  new 
heaven  and  a  new  earth"  (Rev.  xxi.  1).  In 
the  latter  sense  the  term  denotes  an  invisible 
reahn  where  God  especially  dwells  (1  Kings 
viii.  9,  Matt.  v.  4.5),  whence  Christ  descended 
(John  iii.  13)  and  whither  he  ascended  (Luke 
xxiv.  51),  the  abode  of  angels  (Matt.  xxii.  30), 
where  God's  will  is  done  (Matt.  vi.  10),  where 
Christ  intercedes  for  his  people  (Hcb.  ix.  24) 
and  has  a  place  prepared  for  them  (John  xiv. 
2).  The  believer's  heaven  is  not  merely  a 
state  but  a  place  (Eph.  i.  3). 

From  it  all  sin  and  sorrow  are  forever  ex- 
cluded. Its  blessedness  is  set  forth  by  the 
liveliest  images  man  can  conceive — gardens  of 
delight,  rivers  of  pleasure,  trees  of  life,  songs 
of  joy,  crowns  of  glory.  It  is  a  social  state, 
collecting  together  all  that  is  holy  and  crown- 
ing all  other  joys  with  that  of  a  perfect  and 
unbroken  fellowship  of  saints.  But  its  chief 
joy  is  the  presence  of  Christ,  for  his  people 
are  then  to  be  like  him  (1  John  iii.  2),  both  in 
their  spirits  and  in  the  resurrection  body  (1 
Cor.  XV.  49),  and  the  fellowship  of  believers 
with  their  Saviour  will  bring  a  joy  unspeak- 
able and  full  of  glory. 

"The  third  heaven"  (2  Cor.  xii.  2),  into 
which  Paul  was  rapt  in  a  vision,  is  probably 
only  another  expression  for  the  highest 
lieavens,  or  what  is  called  "the  heaven  of 
heavens"  (Deut.  x.  14). 

The  phra.se  in  Deuteronomy  (xi.  21),  "  as  the 
days  of  heaven  upon  the  earth,"  does  not  ex- 
press a  quality,  but  is  a  measure  of  time,  the 
sense  being  that  the  days  of  the  people  shall 
be  "  as  long  as  the  days  of  the  heavens  above 
the  earth."  T.  W.  C. 

Hebrews,  a  name  derived  either  from 
Ep.eh,  the  last  of  the  long-lived  patriarchs 
(Gen.  X.  24,  xi.  16,  17),  or  from  the  Hebrew 
verb  ABAR,  to  pass  over,  applied  by  the  Canaan- 
ites  to  Abraham  as  the  man  from  beyond  the 
Euphrates.  It  was  the  name  used  by  the 
chosen  people  themselves  in  their  relations 
with  foreigners  (Gen.  xl.  15,  Ex.  ii.  7) 


1.  The  Peopi,e. — They  were  descended 
directly  from  Abraham  through  Isaac  and 
Jacob.  Their  government  at  lirst  was  patri- 
archal, but  after  the  migration  of  Jacob  into 
Egypt,  where  they  expanded  during  400  years 
from  a  family  or  clan  into  a  nation,  they  were 
subjected  to  gross  and  cruel  oppression  (Ex. 
i.  11-14).  But  God  raised  up  a  deliverer  in 
Moses,  by  whom  they  were  led  across  the  Red 
Sea,  and  in  the  desert  received  the  Law  and  a 
complete  ritual  and  political  constitution.  A 
theocratic  government  was  established,  under 
which  they  were  led  across  the  Jordan  and 
put  in  possession  of  Canaan.  For  a  long 
period  they  were  ruled  by  judges,  the  last  of 
whom,  Samuel,  anointed  Saul  as  king,  who, 
being  disobedient,  perished,  and  the  monarchy 
was  firmly  established  in  the  person  of  David, 
under  whom  and  his  son  Solomon  the  king- 
dom attained  its  highest  prosperity.  The 
foUy  of  tlie  next  king,  Rehoboam,  led  to  the 
division  into  a  northern  kingdom,  Israel,  and 
a  southern,  Judah.  These  came  into  conflict 
with  the  surrounding  nations,  and  grew 
weaker  and  weaker  until  both  fell— the  former 
captured  and  exiled  by  the  Assyrians  b.c.  721, 
the  latter  by  the  Babylonians,  B.C.  588.  But 
under  Zeriibbabel  and  others  a  portion  came 
back  from  Babylon,  and  re-established  the 
temple  worship  under  Persian  protection. 
After  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  they 
were  controlled  in  turn  by  the  monarchs  of 
Egypt  and  of  Syria,  regained  independence 
under  the  Maccabees,  and  finally  fell,  like  the 
rest  of  the  world,  under  the  power  of  the 
Romans.  After  repeated  insurrections  they 
were  subdued  and  expatriated,  and,  though, 
never  regaining  their  own  land,  have  main- 
tained their  separate  and  distinct  existence  to 
this  day.  They  have  distinguished  them- 
selves in  all  occupations  except  agriculture 
and  manufactures,  have  furnished  many  great 
statesmen,  scholars,  and  artists,  and  have  been 
the  chief  bankers  of  the  world.  Their  num- 
bers are  variously  estimated  from  6  to  9  mill- 
ions.     See  Jews. 

2.  The  Language.— It  belongs  to  the  Se- 
mitic family,  and  occupies  a  middle  position  be- 
tween the  Aramaic  and  the  Arabic.  It  is 
written  from  right  to  left,  and  consists  of  con- 
sonants, above  or  below  which  the  vowel- 
points  are  written  ;  the  roots  of  the  language 
are  in  general  words  of  three  letters  ;  the 
verbs  have  but  two  tenses,  the  past  and  the 
future  or  the  perfect  and  the  imperfect.  Ii 
lacks  the  variety  of  forms  and  the  fulness  of 
inflections  of  the  Arabic,  as  well  as  its  abun- 
dant vocabulary,  and  yet  has  a  simplicity, 
conciseness,  and  sensuous  force  which  well 
fitted  it  for  its  purpose  as  the  tongue  of  the 
chosen  people.  Its  origin  is  lost  in  remote 
obscurity,  the  presumption  being  that  it  was 
the  language  of  Canaan  when  Abraham  first 
entered  it.  The  earliest  original  trace  of  its 
form  is  found  in  the  Moabite  stone,  which 
dates  from  the  former  part  of  the  9th  century 
B.  c.  That  there  were  differences  of  pronunci- 
ation and  expression  in  Palestine  appears 
from  the  Shibboleth  incident  (Judges  xii.  6). 
Dialectical  differences  are  mentioned  in  Neh. 
xiii.  23,  24.  The  language  must  have  under- 
gone changes  during  the  centuries  from  Abra- 


HEBREWS 


(359) 


HEFELE 


ham  to  Malaclii.  Yet  it  is  not  easy  to  trace 
tlieni,  because  the  present  Hebrew  pomts  are  of 
comparatively  late  origin,  and,  although  faith- 
ful to  an  old  tradition,  were  uniformly  applied 
to  all  portions  alike  of  the  earlier  and  the  later 
Old  Testament.  The  only  sure  note  of  time 
is  the  Aramaic  influence,  which  began  at  the 
end  of  the  7th  century  B.C.,  and  gradually  in- 
creased until,  at  the  close  of  the  exile,  it  be- 
came dominant. 

3.  The  Poetry.— Of  this  we  have  only 
such  remains  as  were  incorporated  in  the  his- 
tory or  were  used  for  worship.  It  has  neither 
rhyme  nor  rhythm,  or  if  it  had  the  latter  the 
fact  cannot  now  be  known,  as  the  ancient  He- 
brew pronunciation  is  lost.  Its  chief  feature 
is  the  parallelism— e.c,  the  placing  side  by 
side  of  similarly  constructed  clauses.  The 
symmetry  lies  iii  the  relation  of  the  expression 
to  the  thought.  The  same  idea  is  repeated 
several  times  synonomously  in  different  words, 
or  else  antithetically  by  two  opposite  sen- 
tences. The  parallelism  may  extend  to  two 
or  three  or  even  four  lines.  All  these  vary- 
ing forms  are  often  mingled  together,  and 
hinder  the  poem  from  being  monotonous.  In 
the  first  four  of  Jeremiah's  Lamentations  the 
elaborate  structure  is  best  seen.  This  feature 
of  Hebrew  poetry  is  so  inwrought  in  its  nature 
that  it  cannot  be  lost  in  translation.  As  to 
contents,  a  discrimination  has  been  made  of 
the  lyric  and  the  didactic,  although  the  two 
frequently  shade  into  each  other  {e.g.,  Ps. 
xix.,  xxiv.).  The  lyrics  are  w^ritten  in  every 
key,  and  run  the  whole  gamut  of  human  feel- 
ing. Joy  and  sorrow,  defeat  and  triumph, 
personal  and  national  experiences,  views  of 
nature  and  of  life — all  find  in  them  expression. 
T.  W.  C. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the.  The  importance 
of  this  portion  of  tlie  Kew  Testament  cannot  be 
overestimated.  It  was  designed  to  show  to 
Jewish  Christians  the  deity,  humanity,  atone- 
ment, and  intercession  of  Christ ;  his  pre  emi- 
nence over  angels  and  over  Mosos  ;  the  superi- 
ority of  the  Gospel  to  the  Law  ;  the  real  mean- 
ing and  design  of  the  Mosaic  ritual,  and  so 
to  fortify  them  against  the  danger  of  apostasy 
when  under  persecution.  It  is  a  key  to  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures  and  an  inspired 
demonstration  of  the  doctrine  of  atoning  sac- 
rifice as  imbedded  in  the  Mosaic  institutions. 

The  name  of  the  Avriter  is  nowhere  men- 
tioned, and  the  authorship  is  still  in  dispute, 
as  it  has  been  from  the  earliest  times,  Origen 
having  said,  "As  to  the  author  God  only 
knows."  The  weight  of  the  argument  and 
of  authority  is  against  its  ascription  to  Paul, 
but  as  to  whether  it  came  from  Apollos,  Luke, 
or  Barnabas,  scholars  are  hopelessly  divided. 
It  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  written 
in  Italy  about  the  years  62-64.  Recent  excel- 
lent commentaries'are  those  of  F.  W.  Farrar 
(Cambridge,  1883,  2d  ed.,  1889)  ;  F.  Kendall 
(London,  1883.  2d  cd.,  1SH8)  ;  T.  C.  Edwards 
(1888,  3d  ed.,  1889);  B.  F.  Westcott  (1889); 
C.  J.  Vaughan  (189U).  T.  W.  C. 

He-bron  {friendship),  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient cilies  in  the  world,  built  7  years  before 
Tanis  (Num.  xiii.  22)  ;  often  the  residence  of 
Abraham,   Isaac,  and   Jacob,   and  the  place 


where  they  were  buried  ;  the  seat  of  David's 
government  while  he  reigned  over  Judah 
alone.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. T.  W.  C. 

Heckewelder,   John    Gottlieb    Ernestus, 

Moravian  missionary  ;  b.  at  Bedford,  Eng., 
March  12,  1743  ;  d.  at  Bethlehem,  I'a.,  Jan. 
21,  1823.  He  came  to  Pennsylvania  in  1754, 
and  was  missionary  to  the  Indians  in  Ohio, 
1763,  and  in  Pennsylvania,  1765-71.  After 
being  assistant  of  the  missionary  Zeisberger 
for  15  years,  he  was  appointed  agent  in  Ohio 
for  the  "  Society  of  the  United  Brethren  for 
Propagating  the  Gospel,"  1788.  As  assistant 
commissioner  with  Gimeral  Rufus  Putnam, 
1792,  he  negotiated  a  treaty  with  Indians  at 
V'incennes,  Ind.  With  General  Lincoln,  Col- 
onel Pickering,  and  Beverly  Rudolph,  1793, 
he  treated  with  Indian  tribes  at  Niagara.  He 
surveyed  the  reserve  granted  to  the  Christian 
Indians  in  the  Tuscarawas  Valley,  0.,  1797, 
and  the  next  year  led  thither  the  remnant 
of  them.  In  1810  he  retired  to  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  to  devote  himself  to  literary  work.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  at  Philadelphia.  Chief  among  his 
works  are,  An  Account  of  the  Ilistiiry,  Man- 
ners, and  Customs  of  the  Indian.  Nations  vho 
once  Inhabited  I'innsi/Jnnria  and  the  Ncigfdjor- 
ing  States,  Philadelphia,  1818  ;  A  Narrative 
of  the  Missions  of  the  United  Brethren,  among 
the  Delaware  and  Mohegan  Imlians,  1822,  and 
Names  which  the  Lenni-Lenape,  or  Uelairare 
Indians,  gave  to  Rivers,  Streams,  and  Load- 
ities,  etc.,  1822.  (See  Life  of  Ileckeirclder,  by 
Rev.  Edward  Rondthaler,  Philadelphia,  1^^47.) 
J.  Taylok  Hamilton. 

Hedio,  Kaspar,  b.  at  Ettlingen,  Baden,  4} 
m.  s.  of  Carlsruhe,  1493  ;  d.  at  Strassburg, 
Oct.  17,  1552  ;  studied  theology  at  Freiburg 
and  Basel  ;  was  by  Capito  drawn  toward  the 
reformation  ;  became  court  preacher  at  ^lay- 
ence  in  1520,  and  preacher  in  the  cathedral 
of  Strassburg  in  1523.  In  this  latter  place  he 
was  very  active  for  the  introduction  of  the 
reformation  ;  married  in  1524  ;  abolislied  the 
mass  in  1529,  but  resigned  his  position  at  the 
cathedral  in  1548,  as  ho  would  not  accept  the 
Interim.  His  works  are  mostly  of  hi.vtorieal 
interest.  He  edited  (1537),  then  translated 
from  the  Latin,  and  continued  froTu  1230  to 
1543  Conrad  of  Ursberg's  Chronicon  (Stra.ss- 
burg,  1543),  and  wrote  a  Chronicon  Gcnnani- 
cum  till  1545. 

Heermann  (liar-man),  Johann,  b.  at  Rand- 
ten,  Silesia.  43  m.  n.w.  of  Breslau.  Oct.  11, 
1585  ;  d.  at  Lissa,  in  Polish  Prussia,  42  m. 
s.w.  of  Posen,  Feb.  16,  1647  ;  was  i^rotestant 
jiastor  at  Koben,  38  m.  n.w.  of  Breslau,  from 
1611  to  1634,  and  Avrote  a  great  number  of 
hymns,  which  are  .still  in  use  in  Germany,  and 
of  which  some  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish in  Jliss  "Winkworth's  Lj/ra  Gcrmanica, 
London,  ]«55,  later  edd.,  and  Schall's  Christ 
ill  S<fng,  New  York,  1869. 

Hefele(ha-feh-lih),  OarlJoseph  von,  Ph.D. 
(hon.,  Bonn.  1S6S),  D.D.  (Tubingen.  183^), 
Roman  Catliolic  bishoj.  ;  b.  at  Unterkorhcn. 
Wllrteml)er£:.  Mareli  16,  1809  ;  stufiied  tlieol- 
o"-y  at  Tubingen  and  in  the  Roltenburg  scnii- 


{ 


HEGEL 


(360) 


HELENA 


nary  ;  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1833  ;  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Tubiugen  in  1837  and 
bishop  of  Koltenburg  in  1869.  In  1868  he  was 
called  to  Home  to  help  in  making  the  neces- 
sary preparations  for  the  Vatican  Council, 
which  he  attended,  and  in  which  he  opposed 
the  dogma  of  the  infallibility  of  the  pope, 
though  after  its  ofHcial  promulgation  he  ac- 
ceptell  it.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  but  his 
principal  work  was  Ids  Condliengeschichte,  of 
which  the  tirst  volume  appeared  in  Freiburg, 
1855,  and  the  seventh,  reaching  down  to  the 
Council  of  Ferrara-Florence,  in  1874.  In 
1873  a  new  edition  was  begun,  of  which  the 
first  four  volumes  were  supervised  by  the  au- 
thor himself,  the  next  two  and  the  first  part 
of  the  third  by  his  disciple,  Dr.  Knopfler  ;  the 
rest  of  the  seventh  volume  was  edited  by  Car- 
dinal Hergenrother,  who  finished  the  work 
(1891)  in  three  more  volumes,  bringing  it  down 
to  and  including  the  Council  of  Trent.  An 
English  translation,  Ritttory  of  the  Councils  of 
theClmrch,  was  begun  in  1871  in  Edinburgh  ; 
vol.  iii.,  bringing  the  history  down  to  451,  ap- 
peared in  1882.  There  is  a  complete  French 
translation,  Paris,  1869-78,  12  vols. 

Hegel  (ha'-gel),  Georg  Wilhelm  Fried- 
rich,  b.  at  Stuttgart,  Aug.  27,  1770  ;  d.  in 
Berlin,  No7.  14,  1831  ;  was  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Jena,  1805-8  ;  president  of  the 
Aigidien  Gymnasium  at  Nuremberg,  1808- 
16  ;  again  professor  of  philosophy  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1817,  and  in  Berlin  since  1818.  In 
accordance  with  his  method  of  moving  from 
SLpoxition  through  its  negation  to  the  media- 
tion, of  this  contradiction,  Hegel  treats  the  idea 
first  as  logic,  then  as  nature,  and  finally  as 
spirit.  Then,  again,  he  treats  the  idea  as 
spirit  first  under  the  form  of  religion,  then 
under  the  form  of  art,  and  finally  under  the 
form  of  philosopJty,  religion  being  the  lowest 
and  most  imperfect  form  of  spiritual  life.  To 
this  verdict  no  objection  has  been  raised  in 
Germany  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  has  been  al- 
lowed to  establish  itself  quietly  there  in  the 
mind  of  modern  education  as  a  self-evident 
truth.  Quite  otherwise,  when,  in  his  Philoso- 
'phif  of  Religion,  Hegel  came  to  analyze  the  re- 
lation between  the  religious  idea  and  the  ac- 
tually existing  religions.  Here  the  right  wing 
of  his  pupils,  Daub,  Markeinecke,  Hotho, 
Iiothsclier,  Rosenkranz,  etc.,  declared  that  lie 
liad  demonstrated  the  existence  of  the  most 
jx'rfect  harmony  between  philosophy  and 
Christianity,  between  the  Prussian  state  and 
the  Protestant  Church,  while  the  left  wing, 
1).  F.  Strauss,  L.  Feuerbach,  Bruno  Bauer, 
Arnold  Ruge,  etc.,  protested  that  he  had  dis- 
solved the  historical  foundation  of  Christianity 
into  mythology  and  its  moral  contents  into 
delusions.  Of  course,  only  one  of  these  parties 
can  be  right,  but  they  could  be  both  wrong. 
There  is  a  collected  edition  of  Hegel's  works  in 
18  vols.,  Berlin,  1832-40  ;  English  translations 
are,  Subjeetice  Logir.,  by  Sloman  and  Wallon, 
London,  1855 ;  Philomphy  of  History,  by  Sibree, 
1857  ;  Philosophy  of  Fine  Art,  by  V>.  Bosau- 
qnet,  1886  ;  Philosophy  of  State  and  History 
by  G.  S.  Morris.  Chicasro,  1HS7,  and  selections 
in  Jn,iriml  of  Spendatire  Philo.sophi/,  by  W 
T.  Harris,  i.-v.,  St.   Louis,    1867-71.    "(See 


Edward  Caird,  Hegel,  London,  1888  ;  A.  Seth. 
Hegelianism  and  Personality ,  1887  ;  J.  M.  Stcr- 
rett,  Studies  in  Hegel's  Philosophy  of  Religion, 
New  York,  1889.)  C.  P. 

Hegesippus,  an  ecclesiastical  writer  from 
the  2d  century.  His  work  has  not  come 
down  to  us,  but  it  was  frequently  quoted, 
especially  by  Eusebius,  and  the  fragments 
thus  preserved  have  been  gathered  together 
by  Routh,  Schulthess,  and  others,  and  are  of 
interest  with  respect  to  the  true  character  of 
the  primitive  church.  Eng.  trans,  of  the  frag- 
ments in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Christian  Lit- 
erature Company  ed.,  vol.  viii.,  762-65.  (See 
H.  Dannreuther,  Hu  Tcmoiguagc  d' Hegesippe, 
Nancy,  1878.) 

Hegira  (Arabic,  "flight")  designates  the 
point  from  which  the  Mohammedan  computa- 
tion of  time  starts — namely,  the  flight  of  Mo- 
bammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  July  15,  622. 

Heidegger  (hi'-dek-er),  Johann  Heinrich, 

b.  at  Biirentschweil,  15  m.  s.e.  of  Zurich,  July 
1,  1633  ;  d.  at  Zurich,  Jan.  18,  1698  ;  studied 
at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  and  was  profes- 
sor at  Heidelberg  in  Hebrew  and  logic,  and 
since  1665  of  theology  in  Zurich.  He  pub- 
lished some  strongly  polemical  works  against 
the  Roman  Church,  but  was  very  anxious  to 
bring  about  an  agreement  between  the  various 
Protestant  churches.  (See  liis  Demonstratio 
de  AugvstancB  confessionis  cum  fide  Reforma- 
torum  consensu,  Zurich,  1664  ;  Historia  papa- 
ins, Amsterdam,  1684 ;  Manuductio  in  xiam 
concordicB  Protcstantium  ecclesiasiicm,  IGSG ; 
Corpus  theologim  christiance,  1700,  2  vols., 
etc.) 

Heidelberg  Cateclaism.  Made  by  Ursinus 
and  Olevianus  in  1563,  at  the  request  of  the 
elector,  Frederick  III.  At  first  opposed  by 
parties  outside  the  Palatinate,  it  prevailed, 
and  speedily  met  with  great  success,  being 
adopted  or  approved  by  nearly  all  the  Re- 
formed, and  translated  into  all  the  tongues  of 
Europe  and  into  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Malay,  Sin- 
galesc,  and  others.  Along  with  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism  and  the  Westminster 
Shorter,  it  makes  the  three  historic  and  most 
widely  used  catechisms  of  Protestantism.  It 
is  devout,  evangelical,  and  experimental,  fol- 
lowing the  order  of  topics  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  (1)  man's  ruin,  (2)  his  redemption, 
(3)  the  thankfulness  due  for  the  same,  and 
stating  these  as  justifying  the  answer  to  the 
question,  "  What  is  thine  only  comfort  in  life 
and  in  death?"  T.  W.  C. 

Heir.  Among  the  Hebrews  the  sons  had 
priority  of  right,  the  eldest  having  a  double 
portion  ;  but  if  there  were  no  sons  the  daugh- 
ters inherited.  Believers  in  Christ  have  for 
their  inheritance  salvation  (Heb.  i.  14)  and  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  (James  ii.  5).  As  chil- 
dren of  God  they  are  "  joint-heirs"  with 
Christ,  their  elder  Brother  (Rom.  viii.  17). 
T.  W.  C. 

Helena,  St.,  the  mother  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  Avas  repudiated  by  her  husband,  Con- 
stantius  Chlorus,  but  held  in  great  honor  by 
her  son.     Very  little  is  known  with  certainty 


HEIiIOGABALUS 


(361) 


HELVETTOS 


about  her  life,  but  a  iireat  number  of  legends 
have  clustered  around  her  name.  (See  Act. 
iSanct.,  May  21,  and  her  life  by  Lucot,  Paris, 
1876.) 

Heliogabalus.     See  Ei.agabalus. 

Hell.  In  the  English  version  of  the  Old 
Testament  this  word  is  used  31  times  to  ren- 
der SheOl,  the  realm  of  the  dead,  but  inaccu- 
rately. Sheol  at  first  simi)ly  denoted  the  coni- 
mon'subterrauean  abode  of  all  human  spirits, 
godly  and  ungodly  (Gen.  xxxvii.  35,  Num. 
xvii.  30),  but  afterward  came  to  be  viewed  as 
having  in  it  two  distinct  regions,  one  for  the 
righteous  (Ps.  xvi.  11,  xvii.  15),  the  other  for 
the  wicked  (Ps.  ix.  17,  xlix.  14).  All  the  dead 
are  alike  in  Sheol,  but  in  widely  dilfercnt  cir- 
cumstances. This  exi^lains  the  Scriptures, 
which  speak  of  it  as  a  place  of  restraint  and 
gloom,  and  one  to  be  delivered  from. 

In  the  New  Testament  the  case  is  different. 
Hell  is  used  to  translate  both  Hades  and 
Gehenna,  whereas  the  distinction  between  the 
two  is  marked.  Hades,  the  unseen  world,  is 
simply  equivalent  to  Sheol,  and  denotes  what 
that  denotes,  which  is  to  be  determined  by 
the  circumstances  in  each  case.  On  the  other 
hand,  Gehenna,  according  to  the  usage  of  the 
Jews,  denotes  the  place  of  final  and  endless 
punishment.  It  is  referred  to  by  our  Lord  in 
solemn  and  awful  tones  (Matt.  v.  22,  29,  30, 
X.  28,  Mark  ix.  43-48,  Luke  xii.  5),  and  with 
such  accompaniments  as  indicate  everlasting 
and  remediless  ruin.  Retribution  will  have 
degrees  (Matt.  x.  15)  in  character,  but  none 
in  duration. 

The  misery  of  hell  will  consist  in  the  loss 
of  God's  favor  and  exclusion  from  his  pres- 
ence, separation  from  all  sources  of  joy,  per- 
petual sin,  remorse  of  conscience,  malevolent 
passions,  the  sense  of  God's  just  auger,  and 
whatever  positive  inflictions  God's  justice  may 
require.  Many  shrink  from  so  fearful  a  state- 
ment, but  it  rests  upon  the  words  of  him  who 
was  truth  itself,  and  who  surely  would  not 
give  men  needless  alarm.  T.  W.  C. 

Hellenists.  These  were  Jews  who  had  lost 
their  exclusive  spirit  by  constant  intercourse 
with  the  Gentiles,  and  who  habitually  spoke 
Greek  and  read  the  Scriptures  in  Greek.  In 
the  A.  Y.  the  term  is  rendered  "Grecians," 
and  in  the  R.  Y.  "  Grecian  Jews"  (Acts  vi.  1, 
ix.  29,  xi.  20).  They  are  not  to  be  confoundecl 
with  the  JMlenes,  who  were  native  Greeks 
alike  in  religion  and  language.       T.  W.  C. 

Hellenistic  Greek  is  a  term  to  denote  that 
moditication  of  the  Greek  language  which  re- 
sulted from  its  u.se  to  translate  Hebrew  writ- 
ings and  express  Semitic  modes  of  thought. 
Tiie  Old  Testament  was  put  into  Greek  in 
Alexandria,  and  oftentinas  tlie  Greek  idiom 
was  entirely  sacrificed  to  the  Hebrew,  so  much 
so  a.s  to  be  unintelligible  save  to  tho,se  who 
thought  in  Hebrew.  But  gradually  there 
grew  up  a  literature  in  which  the  foreign 
modes  of  thought  and  speech  became  natural- 
ized. The  vocal)ulary  received  incessant  en- 
largement. Old  words  received  new  forms 
and  new  meanings.  And  this  change  was 
wonderfallv  increased  by  Christianity  it.self, 
for  the   fre.sh  ideas  it  introduced  and  their 


manifold  applications  demanded  appropriate 
expressions,  and  they  were  furnished.  Thus 
there  was  provided  for  the  New  Testament 
writers  a  vehicle  in  which  they  could  easily 
and  naturally  convey  the  weighty  truths  they 
had  to  communicate.  The  language  was  not 
classical,  as  some  vainly  contended  after  the 
revival  of  letters,  bat  it  was  exactly  fitted  for 
its  purposes.  It  was  a  providential  prepara- 
tion not  only  to  maintain  the  life  of  religion 
at  the  beginning,  but  to  give  it  that  combina- 
tion of  Greek  inflection  and  Hebrew  syntax, 
that  reconciliation  of  antagonistic  tendencies 
which  was  required  to  .set  forth  the  essence 
and  the  glories  of  the  Christian  system.  The 
Hellenistic  diction,  too,  is  of  no  small  weight 
as  an  apologetic  force.  It  fixes  the  lime  when 
the  New  Testament  was  produced,  because 
the  idiom  did  not  exist  long  before,  and  soon 
after  was  absorbed  in  later  dialectic  pectiliar- 
ities.  T.  W.  C. 

Helvetic  Confessions.  I.  The  first  Hel- 
vetic  confession,  (Jonfesxio  Ihicetica  I'rior,  is 
also  called  the  second  confession  of  Ba.sel, 
Confesfiio  Basiliensis  Posterior.  There  was. 
namely,  a  first  confession  of  Basel,  drawn  up 
in  1534,  but  it  had  never  been  formally  adopted 
by  the  whole  Reformed  Church  in  Su  itzer- 
liind,  and  it  was  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
such  an  instrument,  that  delegates  from  Zu- 
rich, Bern,  Basel,  Schaffhausen,  St.  Gall, 
Muhlhausen,  and  Bicl  assembled  at  Basel, 
Jan.  30,  1536.  The  moment  was  also  consid- 
ered very  favorable  for  an  attempt  to  unite 
the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  churches,  and 
Butzer  and  Capito  from  Strassburg  were  pres- 
ent, but  this  circumstance  proved  very  unfor- 
tunate. The  document  was  drawn  up  in 
Latin  and  immediately  tran.slated  into  German 
by  Leo  Judse  ;  but  though  it  was  formally 
adopted  by  all  the  delegates,  Feb.  26,  1536,  it 
never  acquired  any  authority.  People  found 
or  believed  that  they  found  in  it  an  altogether 
too  decided  leaning  toward  Luthtrani.'^m. 
II.  The  second  Helvetic  confession,  Coupssio 
Jidvetica  Posterior,  was  drawn  up  by  Bul- 
linger,  the  first  sketch  in  1562,  the  final  re- 
vision in  1564.  Jan.  14,  1566,  the  elector- 
palatine,  Friedrich  III.,  laid  it  before  the  diet 
of  Augsburg  as  expressing  his  failh,  but  al- 
ready before  that  time  it  had  been  i)ubli.vhed 
both  in  Latin  and  German.  It  gave  general 
satisfaction,  and  was  formally  adopted  in  the 
same  year  by  the  Reformed  churches  of  Zu- 
rich, Geneva,  Bern,  Schaffhausen,  :Miihlhau- 
sen,  Biel,  St.  Gallen,  the  Gri.sons,  Glarus,  Ap- 
penzell,  Thurgau.  and  Scotland  ;  1567,  in 
llungarv  ;  1571,  in  France  ;  1578,  in  I'oland, 
and  later  also  bv  the  Reformed  Cliureh  in 
Bohemia.  (See  Philip  Schuff,  Creeds uf  Chrh- 
tcndom,  i.,  390-420  ;  iii..  234-306.) 

Helvetic  Consensus.     See  Conbensls. 

Helvetius,  Claude  Adrien,  b.  in  Paris. 
Jan..  1715;  d.  there.  Dee.  26,  1771;  wasa 
farmer-general  and  very  rich  ;  since  1751 
chamberlain  to  the  queen  and  a  num  of  high 
social  standing.  He  had  a  ta.Me  for  1)1m1oso- 
phv  ;  studied  Cartcsius  and  Locke  ;  iHlonged 
to  the  circle  of  the  encvclopa-dists.  an<l  pul>- 
lished   in   Paris,    in   1758,    De   It^pnt  (Eng. 


i 


HELTOT 


(362) 


HENGSTENBERG 


trans.,  Loudon,  1807),  in  whicli  all  psychologi- 
cal phenomena  arc  explained  from  simple  me- 
chanical processes  in  Uie  body  and  all  moral- 
ity reduced  to  a  mixture  of  cynicism  and  utili- 
tarianism. The  book  was  condemned  by  the 
Parliament  of  Paris,  contiscated  and  publicly 
burned,  but  read  and  admired  by  all  France, 
nay,  by  all  Europe.  The  author  was  com- 
pelled to  recant,  and  left  France  in  disgust, 
but  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  George 
III.,  Catherine  II.,  and  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  returned  the  lion  of  the  day.  He  found 
it  advisable,  however,  not  to  publish  any  more 
books.  His  De  Vhomme,  (London,  1778,  2 
vols.,  Eng.  trans,  1777,  2  vols.)  did  not  appear 
imtil  after  his  death,  and  nobody  read  it.  (See 
his  complete  works  in  French,  London,  1776, 
4  vols.) 

Helyot  (he'-le-oO,  Pierre,  b.  in  Paris,  1C60  ; 
d.  there,  Jan.  5,  1716  ;  became  a  member  of 
the  Franciscan  order  in  1683  and  entered  the 
convent  of  Piepus,  Paris,  under  the  name  of 
Pere  Hippolyte.  He  wrote  Illstoire  des  ordres 
moiiastiques  religieux  et  militaires,  Paris, 
1714-19,  8  vols.,  which  has  been  several  times 
reprinted  (incorporated  in  Migne's  Encydo- 
fedie  theologique,  vols.  20-23),  and  of  which 
there  exist  both  an  Italian  and  a  German 
(Leipzig,  1753-56,  8  vols.)  translation. 

Hemmingsen,  Niels,  b.  on  the  island  of 
Lollaud,  Denmark,  1513  ;  d.  at  Helsingore, 
1600  ;  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  was  succes- 
sively professor  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  theol- 
ogy in  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  but,  sus- 
pected of  crypto-Calvinism  on  account  of  his 
Sytitagintt,  Iiistitutionum  Christianarum,  Co- 
penhagen, 1574,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  fanatical 
hatred  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Denmark 
to  the  Reformed  Church  ;  was  dismissed  in 
1579,  and  lived  afterward  in  humble  retire- 
ment. His  Opuscula  Theologica  appeared  at 
Strassburg,  1586,  but  his  attack  on  Andrea 
was  not  published  until  after  his  death,  1615. 

C.  P. 

Henderson,  Alexander,  Presbyterian  ;  b. 
in  tiie  parisli  of  Creich,  Fifeshire,  Scotland, 
in  1583  ;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Aug.  19,  1646. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  Andrews,  and  taught 
philosophy  and  rhetoric  there.  Presented  by 
Archbishop  Gladstanes  to  the  living  of  Leu- 
chars  in  1612,  he  met  opposition  at  first,  but 
was  soon  converted  to  the  popular  position 
by  Bruce's  preaching.  For  opposing  the 
"  five  articles"  he  was  summoned  before  the 
High  Commission  in  1619.  When  Charles  I. 
attempted  to  impose  the  Episcopal  system 
upon  Scotland  in  1636,  lie  took  a  leading  part 
iu  opposition  ;  drew  up  a  petition  for  the 
ministers,  the  bond  for  the  National  Covenant, 
which  was  eagerly  signed  by  the  people,  Feb. 
28,  1638  ;  was  moderator  o'f  the  General  As- 
sembly which  sat  in  the  Glasgow  cathedral 
(though  promptly  dissolved  by  royal  author- 
ity) from  Nov.  21  to  Dec.  20  ;  drew  up  the 
Remonstrance  of  the  Nobility,  and  took  part 
in  the  two  treaties  of  1639  and  1640.  Some- 
what against  his  will  he  was  transferred,  Jan. 
10.  1639,  from  Leuchars  to  Greyfriars,  Edin- 
burgh, which  he  exchanged  in  1642  for  the 
East  Kirk.     In  1640  he  was  made  rector  of 


the  university.  He  was  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly,  1643  ;  drafted  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  and  bore  a  leading 
share  in  the  Westminster  Assembly.  Desirous 
to  reconcile  the  king  and  Parliament,  he  took 
part  in  the  troubled  politics  of  the  time.  In 
1646  Charles  I.  sent  for  him,  and  they  had  a 
six  weeks'  discussion  at  Newcastle,  from 
which  he  went  home  to  die.  Among  the 
Scottish  leaders  he  ranks  next  to  Knox.  His 
life  was  written  by  J.  Alton,  Edinburgh, 
1836.  F.  M.  B. 

Henderson,  Ebenezer,  D.D.  (Copenhagen, 
1840),  missionary  and  linguist  ;  b.  at  Dun- 
fermline, Fife.shire,  Scotland,  Nov.  17,  1784  ; 
d.  at  Highbury,  near  London,  May  16,  1858. 
After  studying  two  years  in  Robert  Haldane's 
seminary  in  Edinburgh,  he  started  in  1806  for 
India  with  J.  Patterson,  but  paused  in  Den- 
mark, and  for  13  years  preached  and  dis- 
tributed the  Scriptures  throughout  Northern 
Europe.  Still  in  the  employ  of  the  Bible  So- 
ciety, he  travelled  in  Russia,  1818-23.  His 
later  labors  were  chiefly  scholastic,  in  training 
ministers  and  missionaries  ;  at  Hoxton,  1825- 
30,  and  from  1830  at  Highbury.  He  knew  at 
least  15  languages,  and  was  eminent  as  a  bibli- 
cal critic.  Among  his  books  are  Iceland, 
Edinburgh,  1818  ;  Biblical  Besearclies  and 
Travels  in  Russia,  London,  1826  ;  Divine  In- 
spiration, 1836  ;  Translation  of  Isaiah,  1840, 
and  of  the  other  prophets,  1845-55.  His  me- 
moir, by  T.  S.  Henderson,  appeared,  London, 
1859.  F.  M.  B. 

Hengstenberg,  Ernst  Wilhelm,  b.  at  Fron- 
deuberg  on  the  Ruhr,  Westphalia,  Oct.  20, 
1802  ;  d.  iu  Berlin,  May  28,  1869.  He  studied 
Shemitic  languages  and  theology  at  Bonn  and 
Basel  ;  became  professor  of  theology  at  Ber- 
lin, 1826  ;  and  there,  since  1827,  edited  the 
Evangelical  Church  'Times  {Evangelische  Kir- 
cJienzeitung)  in  a  most  uncompromising,  some- 
times even  in  an  intolerant  spirit.  He  be- 
longed originally  to  the  Reformed  Church, 
but  gradually  went  over  to  the  Lutheran, 
finding  iu  the  Augsburg  Confession  the  ex- 
pression of  his  personal  views.  He  gave  no 
uncertain  sound  respecting  the  prevalent  ra- 
tionalism, and  by  his  newspaper  and  his  nu- 
merous learned  and  able  works  was  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  founding  modern  Prussian  or- 
thodoxy. His  commentaries  have  exerted 
great  influence  upon  English  and  American 
Bible  study.  The  following  are  in  English, 
the  first  dates  being  those  of  original  publica- 
tion in  Berlin  ;  those  after  the  period  those  of 
the  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh  :  Commentaries  on 
the  Psalms,  1842-47,  4  vols..  2d  ed.,  1849-52  . 
1844-48,  3  vols.  ;  Revelation,  1849-51,  2d  ed., 
1862.  .  1852,  2  vols.;  ^'ccZmas^es,  1859  .1860; 
Gos2-)el  of  John,  1861-63,  8  vols.  .  1865,  2 
vols.  ;  Ezeehiel,  1867  .  1869  ;  Christology  of 
the  Old  Testament,  1829-35,  3  parts,  2d  ed., 
1854-57  .  from  2d  ed.,  1854-58,  4  vols.  ; 
i?ci7/%e,  1831-39,  3  vols.  .  (m'Eng.,  Genuine- 
ness of  the  Pentateuch,  1847,  2  vols.  ;  and 
Genuineness  of  Daniel  and  the  Integrity  of 
Zechariah,  1848)  ;  Egypt  and  the  Books  of 
Moses  (one  of  his  most  characteristic  works), 
1841  .  1843  ;  The  Lord's  Day,  1858  .  1858  ; 
Isaiah  (a  lecture),  1855  .  1855  ;  History  of  the 


HENKE 


(363) 


HENRY 


Kingdom  of  God  under  the  Old  Testament, 
1869-71,  3  parts,  ,  1871-72,  2  vols.  Hislabur 
to  establish  a  connection  between  the  Old  and 
Xew  Testament  so  direct  and  close  as  to  make 
them  one  divine  revelation  brought  decisive 
results,  though  in  details  he  neglected  the  true 
distinction,  explication  and  application,  and 
often  abandoned  himself  to  aliegorization  of 
a  somewliat  indifferent  description.  (See  his 
life  bv  Johann  Bachmanu,  Gutersloh,  1876-78, 
2  vols.)  C.  P. 

Henke  (henk'eh).  Ernst  Ludwig  Theodor, 

b.  at  Helmstiidt,  Feb.  22,  18U4  ;  d.  at  Mar- 
l>urg,  Dec.  1,  1872  ;  studied  theology  at  Gol- 
tingeu  and  Jena,  and  was  appointed  professor 
at  Jena  in  1838,  and  at  Marburg,  1839.  He 
]nade  the  first  complete  edition  of  Abelard's 
Sic  et  Non,  Marburg,  1851,  and  wrote  Georg 
Calixtus  ■und  seine  Zeit,  Halle,  1853-60,  2 
vols.,  and  a  number  of  minor  essays.  After 
his  death  appeared  his  Nenere  Kirchen- 
gesehichte,  Halle,  1874-78,  2  vols.  (See  his 
life  by  3Iangold,  Marburg,  1879.) 

Henke,  Heinrich  Philipp  Konrad,  father 
of  the  preceding  ;  b.  at  Hehlen,  Brunswick, 
July  3,  1752  ;  d.  at  Helmstadt,  May  2,  1809  ; 
studied  theology  at  Helmstadt,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  there  of  philosoph}',  1777, 
and  theology,  1780.  He  was  a  representative 
of  the  rationalism  of  his  time,  and  published 
Allqemeine  Gescldchte  de.r  christUchen  Kirche, 
Brunswick,  1799-1808,  6  vols.,  5th  ed.,  1806- 
25,  9  parts.  (See  his  life  by  Bollmann  and 
Wolff,  Helmstadt,  1816.) 

Henotheism,  a  term  used  by  Max  Miiller  to 
characterize  the  Vedic  religion.  "  A  succes- 
sive belief  in  single  supreme  gods,  in  order  to 
keep  it  distinct  from  that  phase  of  religious 
thought  which  we  commonly  call  polytheism, 
in  which  the  many  gods  are  already  subordi- 
nated to  one  supreme  god,  and  by  which 
therefore  the  craving  after  the  one  without  a 
second  has  been  more  fully  satisfied.  In  the 
Veda  one  god  after  another  is  invoked.  For 
the  time  being,  all  that  can  be  said  of  a  divine 
being  is  ascribed  to  him.  The  poet,  while  ad- 
dressing him,  seems  hardly  to  know  of  any 
other  gods.  But  in  the  same  collection  of 
liymns,  sometimes  even  in  the  same  hymn, 
other  gods  are  mentioned,  and  they  also  are 
truly  divine,  truly  independent,  or,  it  may  be, 
supreme.  The  vision  of  the  worshipper  seems 
to  change  suddenly,  and  the  same  poet  who 
at  one  moment  saw  nothing  but  the  sun,  as 
the  ruler  of  heaven  and  earth,  now  sees  heaven 
and  earth,  as  the  father  and  mother  of  the 
sun  and  of  all  the  gods."  (Max  Miiller, 
Ongin  and  Growth  of  Religion,  p.  261.)  It  is 
objected  to  this  that  piety  everywhere,  not 
merely  in  the  Kig-Veda  hymns,  raises  the  ob- 
ject of  its  homage  above  everything  and  em- 
phasizes it  exclusively.  Iso  special  phenom- 
enon justifies  a  special  name.  (Whitney, 
lievne  de  I'llistoire  des  licliginis,  1882.)  Barth 
(Fiiligion-s  of  India,  p.  26)  supports  the  view. 
Yon  Hartmann  makes  such  a  Henotheism  the 
beginning  of  the  whole  course  of  religious  de- 
velopment. Asmus  detines  it  as  the  recog- 
nition of  tlie  unity  of  the  divine  essence  in  a 
multiplicity    of    divine    persons.      PHeidtrer 


understands  by  it  the  national  or  rtlutivc 
monotheism  preparatory  to  true  nu)nolhtisiu. 
De  la  Saussaye  condenms  the  word  us  express- 
ing no  lixed  coiK-eptiou.  (Seeaiso  Dola  Saus- 
saye, Lehrbiich.  dvr  Religions  (ieschichte,  i.,  46; 
M.  ]\[iiller.  History  of  Ancient  S(nscnt  Liter- 
ature, p.  532  ;   C'/tij^s,  vol.  i.) 

W.  R.  Martin. 

Henotikon,  an  instrument  of  compromise 
or  decree  of  union,  drawn  up  by  Acacius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  i.ssued  by  the 
Emperor  Zeno  in  482,  in  order  to  put  an  end 
to  the  controversy  between  the  Monophysites 
(q.v.)  and  the  Orthodox. 

Henricians,  The,  were  the  follower."?  of 
Henry  of  Lausanne,  a  revival  preacher  of  the 
12th  century,  working  in  Southeastern  France. 
At  one  time  he  worked  together  with  Pierre 
de  Bruys,  and  after  the  death  of  the  hitter  the 
Petrobru.sians  joined  the  Henricians.  His 
activity  came  to  an  end,  however,  when  Bern- 
hard,  of  Clairvaux,  began  to  preach  against 
him.  He  was  then  taken  prisoner,  sluit  up 
in  a  dungeon,  and  died  in  1184.  After  his 
death  nothing  more  is  heard  about  his  fol- 
lowers. 

Henry  of  Ghent  (Henricus  Gandavensis), 

taught  philosophy  and  theology  in  tlie  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
13th  century,  and  died  in  1293  ;  what  else  is 
told  of  his  life  is  more  or  less  uncertain.  His 
Si/mma  and  Quodlibehi  prove  him  a  disciple 
of  Plato  and  an  opponent  of  Aristotle  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  (See  K.  Werner,  Iltin- 
rich  ton  Gent  a  Is  Repriisentant  des  cliristlichen. 
Platonismus  im  13.  Jahrhundert,  Berlin,  1878, 
and  Ehrle  in  Arckiv  fur  JAteratur-  vnd  Kir- 
chen- Gesehichte  des  Mittelalters,  1885. 

Henry,  Matthew,  commentator  ;  b.  at 
Broad  Oak,  Flintshire,  N.  Wales,  Oct.  18, 
1662  ;  d.  at  Nantwich,  June  22,  1714,  while 
on  a  journey.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Philip  Henry  (q.v.).  A  precocious  child,  he 
was  taught  at  home  and  at  Islington.  He 
studied  law  at  Gray's  Inn  till  toleration  was 
granted  to  the  Nonconformists,  then  (1687) 
took  a  charge  at  Chester,  and  in  1712  at  Hack- 
ney, near  London.  His  great  work,  h'.ijiosi- 
tion  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  was  be- 
gun 1704,  and  appeared  in  5  vols,  folio,  Lou- 
don, 1710.  He  did  not  carry  it  beyond  Acts. 
Its  value  is  not  critical  but  practical  ;  he  was 
content  "  to  draw  water  for  the  congregation 
out  of  those  wells  of  salvation."  "Whiletield 
"  read  it  through  four  times,  the  last  time  on 
his  knees."  Doddridge  wrote,  "  Henry  is 
perhaps  the  only  commentator  so  large  that 
deserves  to  be  entirely  and  attenlivdy  read 
through."  Komaine  found  "  no  comment  on 
the  Bible,  either  ancient  or  modern,  in  all  re- 
spects equal  "  to  this.  Kobert  Hall  said,  "I 
discern  new  beauties  in  Henry  every  day," 
and  thought  him  eminent  for  "  unction  of 
spirit."  Similar  testimonies  are  aliumlant, 
justifying  the  continued  popularity  of  the 
work,  which  has  gone  througii  many  editions. 
Tlie  author's  other  writings,  though  compara- 
tivelv  unimportant,  are  "enriched  and  en- 
livened bv  the  Jiahit  of  sprightly  and  apt  allu- 
sion to  Scripture  facts. ' '     They  were  collected, 


HENRY 


(364) 


HERDER 


^ 


with  life  by  W".  Tong,  in  172G,  .and  often  re- 
printed. The  editions  of  ISSO  and  1855  contain 
more  sermons  and  a  preface  by  Sir  J.  B. 
Williams.  F.  M.  B. 

Henry,  Philip,  Nonconformist  ;  b.  in 
Whitehall,  London,  Aug.  24,  1631  ;  d.  at 
Broad  Oak.  Flintshire,  June  24,  1696.  His 
father  was  "  page  of  the  back  stairs"  to  the 
Duke  of  York,  afterward  James  II.  Trained 
by  a  pious  mother,  he  entered  Westminster 
school,  1643,  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
1648,  where  he  became  M.A.,  1652.  In  1653 
he  became  curate  at  Worthenbury,  Flintshire, 
whence  he  was  ejected  in  1662,  and  retired  to 
a  farm  near  by.  He  was  a  model  of  apostolic 
purity  and  simplicity.  His  Sermons  (ed.  Will- 
iams, London,  1816)  and  Remains  (1848) 
liave  gone  through  several  editions  ;  some 
of  them  are  included,  with  a  memoir  by  his 
son,  in  the  latter's  miscellaneous  works,  1830. 
(Cf.  Diaries  and  Letters  of  Philip  Henry,  cd. 
by  M.  II.  Lee,  London,  1882.)        F.  M.  B. 

Heppe  (hep'-peh),  Heinrich  Ludwig  Julius, 

Reformed  ;  b.  at  Cassel,  March  30,  1820  ;  d.  at 
Marburg,  July  25,  1879,  where  he  studied  and 
was  extraordinary  (1850),  and  then  ordinary 
(1864)  professor  of  theology.  Of  his  numerous 
learned  historical  works,  chiefly  respecting 
the  Reformation,  may  be  mentioned,  Ge- 
schichti  des  deatschen,  Protestantismus  in  den 
Jahren  1555-1581,  Marburg,  1852-59,  4  vols.  ; 
Dogmatik  des  detctsrhen  Protestantismus  iin  16. 
JaltrhHn'Iert,  Qotiia,  1857,  3  vols.  ;  OeschicJite 
der  (piM't istischen  Mystik  in  der  Katholischen 
Klrche,  Berlin,  1875  ;  Kirchengeschichte  beider 
Jlessen,  Marburg,  1876  ;  GescMchte  des  Pietis- 
mus  und  der  Mystik  in  der  reformirten  Kirche, 
namentlich  der  Niederlande,  Leipzig,  1879 ; 
his  Reformers  of  England  and  Germany  in 
the  \Qtk  Century;  their  Intercourse  and  Cor- 
respondence, Eng.  trans.,  London,  1859;  his 
biographies  of  Melanchthon,  Marburg,  18—, 
2d  ed.,  1860,  and  of  Beza,  Elberfeld.  1861, 
and  his  edition  of  Soldan's  Geschichte  der 
Jlexenprozesse,  Stuttgart,  1880,  2  vola. 

Heracleon,  a  Gnostic,  a  pupil  and,  as  it 
would  seem,  a  close  follower  of  Valentinus, 
wrote  commentaries  on  John  and  Luke,  which 
obtain  a  special  interest  from  their  being  the 
earliest  known  commentaries  on  the  New 
Testament.  They  are  often  quoted  by  Origen 
and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  the  frag- 
ments which  thus  have  come  down  to  us  have 
been  collected  by  Grabe,  Spicilen.  ii.  (Oxford, 
169!)). 

Herb,  a  plant  with  a  soft,  not  woody  stem, 
which  if  annual  dies  entirely  in  the  dry  sea- 
son, but  if  biennial  or  perennial,  revives  again 
after  the  autumnal  rains  or  in  the  spring  (Gen. 
ii.  5,  Ps.  Ixxii.  16).  T.  W.  C. 

Herbart,  Johann  Friedrich,  b.  at  Olden- 
burg, iMuy  4,  1776  ;  d.  at  GiHtingen,  Aug.  14, 
1841  ;  studied  at  Jena  under  Fichte  ;  lived 
for  several  j-ears  in  Switzerland  as  a  tutor, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Kimigsberg  in  1809,  and  at  G5ttingen  in  1833. 
His  .system  of  philosophy  is  generally  charac- 
terized as  "  realistic"  or  "  exact,"  but  it  has 
as  yet  exercised  only  a  very  slight  influence 
on  theology  or  the  church.     The  idea  of  God 


he  considers  as  altogether  transcendental,  and 
as,  according  to  him,  philosophy  rests  upon 
experience,  the  transcendental  is  outside  its 
pale.  Philosophy  and  theology  meet  eoch 
other  only  in  the  field  of  morals,  and  here  he 
sets  forth  his  peculiar  idea  of  evil,  which  he 
defines  as  the  mere  result  of  circumstances, 
without  any  inherent  necessity,  and  conse- 
quently po.ssible  of  elimination.  His  works 
were  edited  by  Hartenstein,  Leipzig,  1850-52, 
12  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Hamburg,  1883,  sqq.  ;  by 
Kehrbach,  Leipzig  and  Langensalza,  1882, 
sqq.  C.  P. 

Herbelot  (her-be-lo),  Barthelemy  d',  b.  in 

Paris,  Dec.  4,  1625  ;  d.  there,  Dec.  8,  1695  ; 
was  tlie  author  of  the  celebrated  thesaurus  of 
Oriental  learning,  Bibliotheque  Orientule, 
edited  by  A.  Galland,  Paris,  1697,  and  often 
reprinted. 

Herbert,  George,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Montgomery  Castle,  Wales,  April'  3,  1593  ; 
d.  at  Bemerton,  near  Salisbury,  in  Feb.,  1633. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  the  earls  of  Pem- 
broke, and  a  brother  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury.  From  Westminster  school  he  passed 
to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  ;  became  a  fel- 
low, 1615,  and  orator  for  the  university,  1619. 
In  1625  he  took  orders,  was  made  prebend  of 
Layton  Ecclesia,  1626,  and  rector  of  Bemer- 
ton, 1630.  The  Temple,  Sacred  Poems,  and 
Private  Ejaculations  (Cambridge,  1633,  nu- 
merous later  edd.)  placed  him  at  the  head  of 
the  goodly  list  of  minor  sacred  poets  of  his 
century.  Genius  and  piety  shine  through  his 
quaint  conceits  ;  a  zealous  Churchman,  his 
lovely  spirit  has  won  admirers  in  every  com- 
munion. His  Priest  to  the  Temple  (prose)  ap- 
peared 1652.  His  works  were  reprinted,  1846, 
with  notes  by  Coleridge.  Izaak  Walton  wrote 
his  life,  1670.  F.  M.  B. 

Herd,  Herdsman.  Herds  and  flocks  were 
a  chief  part  of  the  valuable  possessions  of  the 
Hebrews  all  through  the  national  life.  The 
herd  supplied  material  for  many  sacrifices, 
besides  furnishing  milk,  flesh-meat,  horns, 
and  hides.  The  occupation  of  herdsmen  was 
not  inconsistent  with  high  honor,  as  in  the 
case  of  Doeg  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7),  of  David's  herd- 
masters,  who  were  among  his  chief  ofticers 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  29),  and  of  the  prophet  Amos, 
who  was  a  herdsman  of  Tekoah  (Amos  i.  1). 
T.  W.  C. 

Herder,  Johann  Gottfried,  b.  at  Mohr- 
ungen,  East  Prussia,  Aug.  25,  1744 ;  d.  at 
Weimar,  Dec.  18,  1803  ;  studied  theology,  phi- 
losophy, literature,  and  languages  at  Kouigs- 
berg,  in  rather  pinched  circumstances,  but 
under  the  friendly  influence  of  Kant  and 
Hamann,  and  was  in  1764  appointed  teacher 
in  the  cathedral  school  of  Riga,  in  the  Baltic 
provinces  of  Russia,  and  afternoon  preacher 
in  one  of  the  minor  churches.  Somehow  or 
other  life  in  Riga  did  not  satisfy  him,  though 
promotion  was  offered,  and  in  1769  he  re- 
turned to  Germany,  where  in  the  meantime 
he  had  made  himself  known  by  several  purely 
literary  writings.  In  1771  he  was  appointed 
superintendent  and  court  preacher  at  Blicke- 
burg,  and  in  1776,  through  the  intercession 
of  Goethe,  superintendent-general  and  court 


HERESY 


(  365 ) 


HERMES 


•preacher  at  Weimar.  But  his  own  letters,  as 
well  as  the  memoirs  of  his  life  written  by  his 
wife  and  his  son,  show  that  he  was  not  fully 
satisfied  in  any  of  these  positions  either.  He 
was  half  a  poet  and  half  a  liistorian.  and  in 
both  lields  he  has  left  work  of  .trreat  conse- 
quence. But  his  religion  was  Iiardly  anything 
more  than  an  influence  from  llaniann,  suffi- 
cient for  personal  wants,  but  not  a  mine  to  be 
worked.  He  contributed  very  much  to  ex- 
plain what  of  poesy  and  history  the  Bible  con- 
tains, and  to  make  it  interesting  to  a  public 
which  was  about  to  forget  the  book  altogether. 
But  whether  he  actually  reached  the  religious 
kernel  of  the  Christian  revelation  is  another 
question,  which  in  our  time  has  been  very 
differently  answered.  The  latest  and  best 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  which  appeared 
in  Berlin,  1877,  sqq.,  in  '62  vols.,  with  a  biog- 
raphy by  Diintzer  ;  the  13  first  vols,  contain 
his  religious  writings.  His  Spirit  of  Ilebrexo 
Poetvii  was  translated  by  J.  Marsh,  Burling- 
ton, Vt.,  1833.  (Cf.  Henry  Neviuson,  HercUr 
and  his  Time,  London,  1884.)  C.  P. 

Heresy  (Greek,  selection)  denotes  in  the 
New  Testament  a  party  or  school,  and  at  first 
was  u.sed  in  reference  to  schism  (1  Cor.  xi.  19, 
Gal.  V.  20).  but  afterward  came  to  imply  doc- 
trinal departures  from  revealed  truth  (Titus 
iii.  10,  2  Peter  ii.  1).  Such  departures  were 
regarded  by  the  early  church  as  very  serious, 
ami  after  the  church  became  united  with  the 
state  were  treated  with  great  severity.  The 
delusion  that  heresy  ought  to  be  repressed  by 
the  ciril  power  led  to  horrible  crimes  in  the 
name  of  religion.  These  were  committed  not 
only  by  the  Roman  Church,  but  also  by  vari- 
ous bodies  of  Protestants,  and  men  suffered 
for  their  faith  in  the  British  Isles  even  to  the 
close  of  the  17th  century.  But  painful  as  this 
retrospect  is,  it  is  undeniable  that  in  the  con- 
flict with  successive  errorists  the  church  was 
led,  step  by  step,  to  formulate  the  doctrines 
that  now  constitute  the  staple  of  the  Christian 
faith.  Nor  while  we  repudiate  all  applica- 
tions of  force  are  we  to  deny  the  value  of  the 
truth  or  to  look  with  tolerance  upon  any  error 
that  touches  the  foundations.  A  "  heresy- 
hunter"  is  deservedly  odious,  but  a  heresy 
favorer  is  not  less  so.  Truth  only  is  in  order 
to  godliness,  and  it  is  vain  to  expect  the  ex- 
pansion or  the  establishment  of  the  church 
from  any  unscriptural  views,  no  matter  how 
ably  or  eloquently  enforced.  T.  W.  C. 

Heretical  Baptism.  See  B.vptism  by  Hiouk- 
Tics,  p.  73. 

Hergenroether  (her-gen'-r5-ter),  His  Emi- 
nence Joseph,  Cardinal,  D.I).  (Munich, 
1850),  b.  at  VViirzburg,  Bavaria,  Sept.  15, 
1824  ;  studied  at  Wiirzburg  and  in  Rome, 
•where  he  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1848  ;  be- 
came successively  pricat  dorrnf,  1851  ;  pro- 
fcs.sor  extraordinary,  1852  ;  and  ordinary  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  law  and  history,  1855, 
in  the  University  of  ^Munich.  In  1868  he 
went  to  Rome  as  one  of  the  committee  to  pre- 
pare for  the  Vatican  Coimcil,  and  he  was 
from  the  beginning  a  consistent  defender  of 
the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility.  Pius  IX 
made  him  one  of  his  domestic  prelates  and 


Leo  XIII.  a  cardinal  (1879),  and  prefect  of 
the  apostolic  arcliives.  Of  his  numerous  jmb- 
lications  may  be  mentioned  P/ivtiiia,  Patrinrrh 
von  Constantinopel.  Bein  Jj;ben,  t<cine  Scfirif- 
ten,  vnd  das  f/necMscI/e  Scldsma,  Regcnsburg, 
1867-69,  3  vols,  (one  of  the  great  mono- 
graphs) ;  Anli-Janns,  Freibursr-im-Br.,  1870 
(Eng.  trans.  Dublin.  1870,  reply  to  the  Jkuvs 
of  Dollinger  and  Friedrich) ;  Ilandbitrk  der 
a llgemeincn  Ki rrh c n 'jcHch irk te,  Frei b u rg- i m- 
Br.,  1876-80,  3  vols.,' 3  I  ed.,  1884-86  ;  Catho- 
Ug  Church  and  Christian  State  (P^ng.  trans., 
London,  1876,  2  vols.)  ;  Cardinal  M<inri/, 
Wiirzburg,  1878.  (See  sketch  of  his  life  by 
Ludwig  Steiner,  Wiirzburg,  1887.) 

Hermas,  writer  of  a  book  called  The  Shep- 
herd, the  date  of  which  is  placed  by  different 
critics  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the 
2d  century.  It  is  ordinarily  divided  into 
three,  but  properly  into  two  parts,  the  first  of 
which  is  filled  with  visions  seen  \mder  the 
conduct  of  the  church,  who  in  the  second  part 
gives  way  to  an  angel.  The  object  is  to 
preach  to  the  church  the  duty  of  repentance, 
for  which  a  brief  interval  is  left.  There  have 
come  down  to  us  two  manuscripts  containing 
the  Greek  text  in  an  imperfect  condition,  and 
two  distinct  Latin  translations  in  a  number  of 
manuscripts.  The  Muratorian  Canon  men- 
tions the  work  and  refers  it  to  the  time  of 
Pius,  who  was  bishop  of  Rome  13'J  to  154  ; 
but  it  may  have  been  written  before  he  be- 
came bishop.  Best  edition,  Gebhardt  and 
Ilarnack,  Leipzig,  1877  ;  Eng.  trans.,  Antc- 
Nicene  Library,  Christian  Literature  Pub- 
lishing Company,  New  York,  1885,  vol.  ii. 
(See  T.  Baumgar'tner,  Die  Einheit  drs  Ilerman- 
Buchs,  Freiburg,  1889  ;  E.  Iliicksladt.  Lehr- 
begrifd.  Ilirtens,  Leipzig,  1889.)     F.  H.  F. 

Hermeneutics  (from  the  Greek,  to  interpret) 
is  the  science  of  interpretation,  which  lavs 
down  principles,  of  which  exegesis  is  the  ap- 
plication. Biblical  Hermeneutics  has  been 
cultivated  in  all  ages  of  the  church.  It  began 
with  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  and  the  school 
of  Origen,  who  distinguished  a  threefold  sense 
in  Scripture,  while  ('hrysostom  and  Jerome 
adhered  to  the  natural  sense.  At  present 
there  arc  three  main  forms  of  Hermeneutics. 
One.  called  Philological,  deals  with  the  letter 
of  the  text  and  all  matters  of  grammar  antl 
lexicography.  This  is  the  basis  of  all  .sound 
exegesis.  The  second  seeks  to  draw  out  the 
divine  thoughts  and  spiritual  truths  contained 
in  the  word^  and  arranges  them  according  to 
their  doctrinal  and  ethical  bearing.  This  is 
the  Theological  method.  The  third  is  Practi- 
cal and  Homiletical— ».<'.,  applies  the  text  to 
the  wants  of  the  heart,  and  tieduces  tin-  les- 
sons of  wisdom  it  conveys  for  the  conduct  of 
life.  It  belongs  properly  to  the  pulpit  and  to 
works  intended  ft)r  popular  instruction.  The 
attempt  was  made  to  unite  all  tliree  in  Lange's 
Commentary.  Bonks  on  tlic  subj.  ct  worthy 
of  recommendation  are  by  Fairbairn.  Edin- 
burgh and  Philadelphia,  1858  ;  Iminer.  Eng. 
trail's.,  Andover,  Ma.ss.,  1877;  Celleiier.  Eng. 
abridged  tran.s.,  by  Elliott  and  Harslia,  New 
York,  1881  ;  M.  b.  Terry,  1883,  2d  ed..  1S85. 
T.  W.  C. 

Hermes,    Georg,  lioiuun    Cuthulic  ;   b.   ut 


H£RMES 


(366) 


HERODIAS 


Dreyerwalde,  a  village  in  the  diocese  of  Miin- 
ster,  Westphalia,  April  22,  1775  ;  d.  at  Bonn, 
May  26,  1831.  He  studied  theology  and 
philosophy  in  the  high  school  of  Munster  ; 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1799,  and  became 
professor  of  dogmatics  at  Miinster  in  1807  and 
at  Bonn  in  1819.  By  his  writings,  Unter- 
suchaiKjen  iiber  die  iivure  Warheit  des  Chris- 
tenthiuns,  Miinster,  1805  ;  Einleitung  in  die 
chridkatholische  Tlieologie,  i.,  1819,  ii.,  1829  ; 
Christkdtholische  Dogmatik,  published  after 
his  death  in  incomplete  form,  1834,  and  still 
more  by  his  spirited  lectures  he  exercised  a 
wide  influence,  and  at  his  death  nearly  all 
places  as  teachers  in  the  Roman  Catholic  high 
schools  and  universities  of  southern  and  west- 
ern Germany  were  occupied  by  his  pupils. 
But  he  had  been  dead  hardly  one  year  before 
he  and  his  party,  the  Hermesians,  were  vehe- 
mently attacked  in  the  Zeitschriftfur  PJiiloso- 
phie  iind  katJiolische  Theologie  and  accused  of 
heresy.  A  heated  controversy  followed,  but 
was  suddenly  cut  short  by  a  papal  brief  of 
Sept.  26,  1835,  which  formally  condemned 
the  principal  propositions  of  Hermes  and  put 
liis  works  on  the  Index.  He  was  orthodox  in 
so  far  as  there  was  no  Roman  Catholic  dogma 
he  rejected,  but  the  terms  on  which  he  ac 
cepted  them  were  dangerously  heretical.  He 
wanted  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  Ro- 
man Catholic  theology  and  German  philoso- 
phy. But  starting  from  doubt  of  and  not  from 
faith  in  tradition,  and  appealing  to  the  au- 
thority of  reason  and  not  to  the  decision  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  effort  could 
not  recommend  itself  to  that  church,  and  was 
really  impossible.  As  a  party  the  Hermesian- 
ism  soon  disappeared,  but  it  can  still  be  felt 
as  an  element  of  fermentation,  especially  in 
the  upper  ranks  of  the  laity.  C.  P. 


Trismegistus  is  not  the  name  of 
any  single,  individual  writer,  but  the  general 
designation  of  a  whole  series  of  writings. 
But  though  belonging  to  different  authors,  all 
these  l)ooks  date  from  the  2d  and  3d  century, 
and  originated  in  Egypt  under  the  influence 
of  the  Neo-Platonic  school.  Tlie  name  refers 
to  Hermes  as  the  god  of  speech  and  the 
god  of  discoveries,  and  answers  pretty  well 
to  the  general  sibylline  character  of  the 
works.  The  two  most  prominent  specimens 
of  the  series  are  Pwmander  and  Asdepiiis,  the 
former  existing  only  in  a  Latin  version.  There 
is  a  complete  translation  into  French  by 
Louis  Menard,  Paris,  1867,  who  has  accom- 
panied it  with  an  interesting  introductory 
on  the  hermetic  books  in  general.  Their  ob- 
ject is  to  give  a  survey  of  the  whole  intellec- 
tual universe.  The  mforming  spirit  of  this 
survey  is  pantheism  with  a  distinct  coloring  of 
gnosticism,  and  elements  occur  of  undoubted 
Jewish  and  Christian  origin.  The  whole  ends 
in  a  passionate  defence  of  heathenism  or  rather 
in  a  pathetic  lamention  over  its  decay.  (See 
Eng.  trans,  of  the  Pamander  and  of  the  ex- 
cerpts from  Hermes  by  Stobaius,  by  J  D 
Chambers,  Edinburgh,  1882,  and  of  the  Virnin 
of  the  Warld,  by  Anna  Kingsford  and  E.  Mait- 
land,  London,  1885.)  c,  p_ 

Hermias  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  Christian 
apologists,  probably  from  the  latter  part  of 


the  2d  century,  whose  work,  written  in  Greek, - 
not  without  a  certain  adroitness  but  without 
any  scientific  value,  is  found  in  Corpus  Apol- 
oget.,  vol.  ix.,  Jena,  1872  ;  Eng.  trans,  by  J.  A. 
Giles,  Loudon,  1857. 

Hermits.    See  Anchorites. 

Her'-mon  {prominent  peak),  called  also  by 
the  Amorites  Shenir,  and  by  the  Hebrews  Sion 
(Deut.  iv.  48).  It  is  the  southern  end  of  the 
Anti-Lebanon  range,  and  its  snow-capped 
jjeak,  9000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  is  con- 
spicuous from  all  parts  of  Northern  Palestine. 
The  view  from  the  summit  is  a  very  extensive 
one  in  all  directions.  Its  copious  drenching 
dews  are  referred  to  (Ps.  cxxxiii.  5)  as  an  em- 
blem of  the  divine  blessing.  It  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament,  but  at  its  base 
is  Caesarea  Philippi,  where  Peter  made  his 
noble  confession  (Matt.  xvi.  16).  The  modern 
opinion  is  that  somewhere  on  the  side  of  this 
mountain  the  transfiguration  occurred. 

T.  W.  C. 

Her'-od.  The  remarkable  family  of  this 
name  were  all  descended  from  the  Idumsean, 
Antipater,  whom  Julius  Cajsar  made  procura- 
tor of  Judaea  in  47  B.C.  Seven  years  later  An- 
tipater's  son  M'as  made  king  and  became  Herod 
the  Great.  He  was  a  man  of  remarkable 
ability  and  ambition,  and  wholly  unscrupu- 
lous in  his  proceedings.  His  ordering  the  de- 
struction of  the  infants  of  Bethlehem  (Matt, 
ii.  16)  was  only  one  of  many  acts  of  extreme 
cruelty.  The  second  of  the  family  was  his  son, 
Herod  Philip,  the  first  liusband  of  Herodias 
(Matt.  xiv.  3),  who,  however,  never  reigned. 
The  third  was  Archelaus,  who  succeeded  his 
father  Herod  the  Great  in  part  of  his  domin- 
ions, with  the  title  of  ethnarch  (Matt.  ii.  22), 
but  after  enjoying  and  abusing  his  power  for  10 
years  was  deposed  and  banished.  The  fourth 
was  another  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  Herod 
Antipas,  who  on  his  father's  death  became 
tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  PersEa  (Luke  iii.  1), 
and  was  also  called  a  king.  He  seduced  his 
brother  Philip's  wife,  Herodias,  and  when 
rebuked  by  John  the  Baptist,  imprisoned  him, 
andfinally,  atlhe  instigationof  Herodias,  killed 
him  (Matt.  xiv.  1-12).  "When  Pilate  sent  our 
Lord  to  him,  Antipas  mocked  him  and  sent 
him  back.  The  fifth  was  Herod  Philip  H., 
also  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  who  was  tet- 
rarch of  Itura;a  and  Trachonitis  (Luke  iii.  1). 
The  sixth  was  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  a  grandson 
of  Herod  the  Great,  who  by  the  favor  of  Calig- 
ula came  to  have  a  kingdom  as  large  as  his 
grandfather's,  but  died  miserably,  a.d.  44 
(Acts  xii.  1,  20-23).  The  seventh  and  last  of 
the  name  mentioned  in  Scripture  was  Herod 
Agrippa  II.,  son  of  the  foregoing,  who  held  a 
small  kingdom  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  and 
in  A.D.  60  heard  the  Apostle  Paul's  defence 
of  himself  (Acts  xxv.,  xxvi.).  T.  W.  C. 

He-ro'-dians,  a  party  among  the  Jews  de- 
voted to  the  Herods  (Matt.  xxii.  16)  and  will- 
ing subjects  of  the  Roman  Government. 
They  were  the  court  party  of  the  time,  but 
joined  the  Pharisees  in  opposing  Christ  (Mark 
iii.  6).  T.  W.  C. 

He-ro'-di-as,  a  granddaughter  of  Herod  the 
Great  and  mother  of  Salome.     See  Herod. 


HERVET 


(367) 


HEZEEIAH 


Herzog,  Johann  Jakob,  Lie.  theol.  (Basel, 

1830).  D.D.  ( ,  18—),  Refonned  ;  b.  at  Basel, 

Sept.  12,  1805;  d  at  Erlangeii,  Sept.  30,  1882, 
where  he  was  professor  1854-77.  He  editetl 
the  standard  lie(tl-Eiicyclop(kli6  fur  protedunl- 
isrhe  Thenlogie  mid  Kirche,  Gotha,  1854-()8, 
22  vols.;  2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1877-88,  18  vols. 

Hervey,  James,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Hardingstone,  1  m.  from  Northampton,  Feb. 
26,  1714  ;  d.  at  Weston-Favel,  Dec.  25,  1758. 
He  entered  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  1731  ; 
became  iiis  father's  curate,  1736,  and  suc- 
ceeded him,  1752,  in  the  livings  of  Weston 
and  Colliugtree.  He  was  a  Calvinistic  Evan- 
gelical of  amiable  character  and  moderate  tal- 
ent ;  his  Meditations  and  Contemplations, 
1746-47,  long  enjoyed  immense  popularity, 
though  the  thoughts  were  commonplace  and 
the  style  extremely  florid.  The  first  part, 
Meditations  Among  the  l^ombs,  is  the  best 
known.  His  works,  with  a  memoir,  were 
collected  in  7  vols.,  1797.  His  self-estimate 
was  just  :  "  I  have  not  a  strong  mind  ;  I  have 
not  powers  fitted  for  arduous  researches  ;  but 
I  think  I  have  a  power  of  writing  in  some- 
what of  a  striking  manner,  so  as  to  please 
mankind  and  recommend  my  dear  Redeemer. ' ' 

Hesh'-bon  (intelligence),  a  city  taken  from 
Moab  by  Sihon  and  made  his  capital,  but  cap- 
tured by  Israel  (Num.  xxi.  25,  26).  It  was 
assigned  to  Reuben  and  made  a  Levitical  city. 
In  later  times  it  was  regained  by  Moab,  and  as 
such  denounced  by  Isaiah  (xv."  4,  xvi.  1)  and 
Jeremiah  (xlviii.  2,  xlix.  3).  Its  ruins,  now 
called  Hesban,  are  15  m.  e.  of  the  head  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  cover  the  circuit  of  a  mile. 
Near  by  is  a  vast  pool  (Cant.  vii.  4). 

Hesshusen  (hess-hoo -sen),  Tilemann,  b.  at 
Nieder-Wesel,  Rhenish  Prussia,  Nov.  3,  1527  ; 
d.  at  Helmstadt  in  the  duchy  of  Brunswick, 
Sept.  25,  1588  ;  was  successively  superinten- 
dent at  Gosslar,  professor  at  Rostock,  profes- 
sor at  Heidelberg,  preacher  in  Magdeburg, 
court  preacher  at  Neuberg,  professor  at  Jena, 
bishop  of  Samland,  and  professor  of  Helm- 
stadt, but  was  regularly  discharged,  or  dis- 
missed, or  deposed,  or  driven  out  of  the  city 
b\'  force  on  account  of  his  intolerant  and  in- 
tolerable interference  with  other  people's 
opinions.  He  has,  however,  great  historical 
interest  as  a  typical  character  of  his  age.  (See 
Helmolt,  Tilenucnn,  Ifixslvofi  n  und  seine  sicben 
Exilia,  Leipzig,  185'J  ;  Wilkens,  Tilemann 
Hesshusen,  eiii  Streittheologe  der  Luther skirehc, 
Leipzig,  1860 ) 

Hesychasts,  a  mystic  .sect  which  arose 
among  the  monks  of  Mt.  Atiios  in  the  14th 
century,  and  caused  considerable  trouble,  as 
the  question  of  their  orthodoxy  becjime  an 
issue  in  the  great  politico-religious  problem  of 
the  age — the  union  between  the  Greek  and 
Roman  churches.  Ilesycliastshad  .some  ideas 
of  a  divine  liglit,  uncreated  and  eternal,  which  j 
could  be  reached  by  mortals  tlirougli  a  pro- 
cess of  complete  seclusion  and  uninterrupted 
introspection.  At  their  head  stood  Palamas, 
afterward  archbishop  of  Tlussalonica,  but 
they  were  attacked  by  Barlaam,  a  monk  from 
Calabria.  The  latter  was  condemned  by  a 
synod  of  Coustautiuople,   1341,  and  though 


others  took  Tip  his  objections,  the  doctrines  of 
the  Hesyciiasts  were  linaily  declared  orthodox 
by  the  Eastern  Church,  1351.  C.  P. 

Hethering^on,    William    Maxwell,   D.D. 

(  ),  LL.D.  (  ).  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 

Troqueer,  near  Dumfries,  June  4,  1803  ;  d. 
in  GUisgow,  May  23,  1865.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh,  and  was  for  a  time  minister  at 
Torpichen,  but  pa.ssed  to  the  Free  Kirk,  took 
charge  of  St.  Paul's,  Edinburgh,  and  became 
professor  of  systematic  theology  and  apologet- 
ics in  the  college  of  his  denoniination  at  Glas- 
gow. His  chief  works  incjliston/  of  the  Chnrch 
cf  Scotland,  Edinburgli,  1842,  7ih  ed.,  1852,  2 
vols.,  and  History  of  the  Westminster  Axsem- 
hlii,  1843,  4th  ed.,  1878,  rep.,  New  York,  1890. 
His  lectures  on  Apologetics,  with  a  memoir  by 
Dr.  A.  Duff,  appeared,  Edinburgh,  18G7. 
F.  M.  B. 
Hetzer,  Ludwig,  b.  at  Bischofszell,  near  St. 
Gall,  Switzerland,  about  1500  ;  d.  at  Con- 
stance, Feb.  3,  1529  ;  worked  for  some  time 
in  Switzerland  in  harmony  with  Zwingli, 
(Ecolampadius,  etc.,  but  adopted  Anabaptist 
views  ;  was  expelled  from  Zurich,  Augsburg, 
StrassJDurg,  etc  ,  and  was  finally  beheaded  for 
bigamy.  Together  with  Denck,  he  translated 
the  prophets.  Worms,  1527,  which  work  was 
much  esteemed  and  widely  used. 

Heusser  (hois'ser),  Mrs.  Meta,  Protestant 
religious  poetess  ;  b.  iu  Switzerland,  Ai)ril  6, 
1797  ;  d.  at  Ilirzel,  near  Lake  Luzcrn,  Swit- 
zerland, Jan.  2,  1876.  3Iany  of  licr  poems 
have  been  translated  by  Mi.ss  Bortliwick, 
Al])in-e  Lyrics,  London,  1875. 

Heylyn,  Peter,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Burford,  near  Oxford,  Eng..  Nov.  29,  1000  ; 
d.  in  London,  May  8,  1662  ;  was  graduated 
from  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  king  in  1629,  but  wa.s 
by  the  Long  Parliament  deprived  of  all  his 
preferments,  and  felt  even  compelled  for  some 
lime  to  go  about  in  disguise  for  safety's  sake. 
His  first  public'ation  was  his  lectures  on  geog- 
raphy, 1G21,  which  reached  sevcial  editions. 
His  best  work  is  bis  Ecclesia  restaurata  ;  or, 
the  History  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Church 
of  England,  London.  1661,  3d  ed.,  1674.  He 
was  a  High  Churchman  and  extremely  bitter 
against  tlie  Puritans.  Sec  also  his  Aerins  redi- 
vivus,  v'r  History  of  the  Presbyterians,  Oxford, 
1670,  2d  ed.,  London,  1672,  and  Jlistorin 
Quinqu  Articularis,  or  a  Declaration  of  the 
Judgement  of  the  Western  Churdies,  Loudon, 
1660,  3  parts. 

Hez-e-ki'-ah  {strength  of  Jehorah),  a  pioiis 
king  of  Judah  wlio  succeeded  Ahaz  about  726 
15. c.  and  died  about  698  H.c.  He  al)olished 
idol-worsiiip,  removed  the  '•high  phices," 
and  broke  in  pieces  the  brazen  serpent  of 
.Moses  which  the  people  liad  come  to  worship 
(2  Kings  xviii.).  He  repaired  the  temple  and 
celebrated  the  Passover  witli  more  pomp  than 
had  been  .seen  since  Solomon  (2  Chron.  xxix., 
XXX.).  He  rebelled  again.st  As.syria.  and  at 
first  warded  off  invasion  by  a  tribute  (2  King.s 
xviii.  13-16),  but  on  the' .second  attack  liad 
recourse  to  I.saiah,  the  prophet,  who  assured 
him  of  divine  aid.  and  Seniiadierib's  inuncn.se 
army  was  routed  (Isa.  xxxvii.).     His  personal 


HIOKS 


(368) 


HIGH 


\ 


^ 


career  was  noted  for  the  prolongation  of  his 
life  in  answer  to  prayer,  of  which  a  miracu- 
loiis  sign  was  given  in  the  recession  of  the  de- 
grees on  the  dial  ;  and  for  the  prediction  of 
the  overthrow  by  Babylon,  occasioned  by  his 
ostentatious  show  of  his  treasures  to  the  am- 
bassadors of  Merodach-Baladan  (Isa.  xxxviii., 
xxxix.).  He  collected  some  of  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon  (Prov.  xxv.  1).  Contemporaneous 
with  him  in  part  were  the  prophets  Hosea  and 
Micah,  and  probably  Nahum.  Ps.  Ixxvi.  is 
usually  considered  to  commemorate  the  over- 
throw'of  Sennacherib.  T.  W.  C. 

Hicks,  Elias,  an  eminent  preacher  of  the 
Society  of  Friends  ;  b.  at  Hempstead.  L.  I., 
March  19,  1748  ;  d.  at  Jericho,  L.  I.,  Feb.  27, 
1830.  First  a  carpenter  and  afterward  a 
farmer,  he  began  about  1775  "  to  have  open- 
ings leading  to  the  ministry,"  and  to  be 
"  deeply  engaged  for  the  right  administration 
of  discipline  and  order  in  the  church. ' '  From 
1781  he  travelled  largely,  visiting  the  meet- 
ings and  families  of  Friends  throughout  the 
country,  always  providing  by  his  own  labor 
for  his  expenses,  and  ministering  to  the  poor. 
His  fearless  proclamation  of  his  opinions, 
which  were  supposed  to  incline  to  Unitarian- 
ism,  led  to  a  secession  in  1827  from  the  main 
body  by  the  more  liberal  Friends,  who  were 
popularly  called  Hicksites,  but  never  accepted 
the  name.  He  published  Observations  on 
Slavery,  New  York,  1811  ;  A  Doctrinal  Epis- 
tle, 1824  ;  Letters,  1824  ;  Sermons,  1825  ;  and 
Journal  of  Religions  Life  and  Labors.  Phila- 
delphia, 1828.  His  Letters  appeared  in  1834. 
V^arious  answers  to  some  of  these  and  at- 
tacks on  his  position  appeared,  1824-30.  See 
Friends,  p.  308.  F.  M.  B. 

Hid  -de-kel  {rapid  Tigris),  the  third  of  the 
ri  eers  which  issued  from  the  Garden  of  Eden 
(Gen.  ii.  14,  Dan.  x.  4).  Its  eastern  source  is 
in  Kurdestan  and  the  western  in  Armenia. 
The  two  branches  unite  at  Tilleh  and  rush 
through  a  long  and  deep  gorge  into  the  As- 
syrian plain.  At  Mosul  it  is  300  feet  wide, 
but  lower  down  averages  600  feet.  At  Kur- 
nah  it  meets  the  Euphrates,  and  they  form 
the  Shatel-Arab,  which  flows  120  miles  further 
to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its  banks,  on  which 
once  stood  Nineveh  and  other  populous  cities, 
are  now  covered  with  mounds  and  ruins. 

T.  W.  C. 

Hi'-e-rap'-o-lis  (xacredcitg),  a  city  of  Phry- 
gia,  beautifully  situated  above  the  junction  of 
the  Lycus  and  Meander,  and  not  far  from 
Laodicea  and  Colosse,  with  which  two  cities 
it  shared  the  ministrations  of  the  faithful 
Epaphras  (Col.  iv.  12,  13).  Extensive  ruins 
mark  its  site.  T.  W.  C. 

Hierarchy  (from  kpdg,  "holy"  or  "sa- 
cred," and  dpx^v,  "ruler")  denotes  a  form 
of  g.ivernment  in  which  the  authority  of  the 
ruler  or  the  whole  governing  body  rests  upon 
u  divine  injunction  and  is  transmitted  by 
some  sacrainentid  act.  At  one  stage  of  de- 
velopment all  government  partakes  more  or 
less  of  the  hierarcliical  character,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  mediiev.'d  kingship,  while  at  an- 
other it  di'^appciirs  altogether,  as,  for  instance, 
in  many  American  churches. 


Hierocles,  governor  of  Bithynia,  303  ;  Alex- 
andria, 306  ;  and  tinally  of  Syria  and  Phoe- 
nicia ;  was  one  of  the  instigators  of  the  perse- 
cution under  Diocletian,  and  wrote  a  book 
against  the  Christians,  which  is  lost,  but  was 
answered  by  Eusebius,  Contra  Hieroclem. 

Hieroglyphs  is  the  name  of  that  peculiar 
kind  of  writing  which  was  applied  by  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  on  their  monuments  or  in 
other  kinds  of  record,  the  figure  of  the  ob- 
ject—tree, bird,  sword,  etc. — standing  for  the 
word  by  which  it  is  denoted  iu  speech,  or  only 
for  a  syllable  of  a  word  expressing  an  idea, 
etc. 

Hieronymites  is  the  name  of  several  inde- 
pendent monastic  orders  which  originated  in 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy  in  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries,  and  chose  St.  Jerome  for  their 
patron  saint.  None  of  them  became  impor- 
tant, and  they  are  now  all  extinct. 

Hig-ga'-ion,  a  term  occurring  thrice  :  Ps. 
ix.  16,  Ps.  xix.  14  rendered  meditation,  and 
Ps.  xcii.  2  rendered  solemn  sound ;  probably  a 
musical  term  which  acquired  the  added  mean- 
ing of  solemn  thought.  T.  W.  C. 

High  Church  is  a  term  used  to  designate 
that  party  within  the  Anglican  Church  which 
claims  an  unbroken  connection  with  the  primi- 
tive church  through  the  unbroken  succession 
of  the  episcopacy  and  rests  the  sacerdotal 
view  of  the  sacraments  on  the  apostolic  origin 
of  orders  and  rites.  The  name  and  the  party 
originated  in  the  middle  of  Elizabeth's  reign 
from  the  controversy  with  the  Puritans.  See 
England,  Church  op. 

High-Mass  means — with  reference  to  the 
distinction  between  masses  public  and  private, 
sung  and  spoken,  most  solemn  and  less  sol- 
emn— a  mass  which  is  public  and  sung  and 
most  solemn.  The  otficiating  priest  appears 
before  the  high-altar  in  the  magnificent  mass- 
vestments,  accompanied  by  at  least  two  in- 
ferior olficials,  and  the  prayers  are  sung  by  a 
choir  accompanied  by  music. 

High  Places,  either  natural  eminences  or 
artificial  mounds,  used  for  idolatrous  worship 
by  the  Moabites  (Num.  xxii.  41)  and  the 
Canaanites  (Num.  xxxiii.  52),  as  by  other  an- 
cient nations,  as  if  the  higher  one  rose  from 
earth  the  nearer  he  came  to  God.  All  these 
places  the  Israelites  were  comnianded  to  de- 
stroy, but  they  did  not  fully  obey  the  com- 
mand (Judges  ii.  2).  The  high  places  con- 
tinued to  exist,  and  Solomon  even  increased 
them  (1  Kings  xi.  7).  Even  the  pious  kings, 
Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  etc.,  usually  made  no  at- 
tempt to  remove  the  evil,  although  the  two 
former  are  stated  (2  Chron.  xiv.  3,  xvii.  6,  xx. 
33)  to  have  done  \i—i.e.,  in  part,  or,  as  vsome 
say  those  consecrated  to  idols  and  not  those 
set  apart  for  Jehovah.  The  prophets  steadily 
denounced  the  custom  (Hosca  x.  8,  Amos  vii. 
9,  Micah  i.  5).  Plezekiah  did  remove  these 
shrines  of  idolatry,  but  his  son  Manasseh  re- 
newed them  again  (2  Kings  xviii.  4,  22.  xxi. 
3),  and  it  was  reserved  for  Josiali  to  uproot 
them  utterly  (2  Kings  xxiii.  13),  so  that  never 
again  were  they  used  for  Jehovah's  worship. 


RIGH 


(369) 


HILLEL 


They  usually  had  their  own  priests,  altars, 
and  sacrilices  (1  Kings  xii.  31,  32). 

T.  W.  C. 

High  Priest,  (he  head  of  the  Levitical 
priests,  <.listin<;-uislied  from  others  by  his  dress, 
functions,  and  mode  of  consecration.  Aaron 
first  tilled  the  office  and  his  descendants  after 
liim,  in  the  line  of  Eleazar  till  Eli  (1  Chron. 
xxi/.  3,  G),  ia  uiioni  it  passed  to  the  posterity 
of  Ithamar.  Solomon  put  it  liack  to  Eleazar's 
family  in  the  person  of  Zadok  (1  Kings  ii.  So) 
because  Abialhar  was  disloyal.  When  the 
Canon  closed  the  office  became  a  mere  tool  in 
the  hands  of  the  civil  rulers.  Herod  ap- 
pointed no  less  than  5,  and  we  read  in  the 
New  Testament  of  several  living  at  the  same 
time.     See  Annas  and  Caiaphas. 

The  consecration  of  the  high  priest  was  dis- 
tinguished by  a  peculiar  anointing  (Ex.  xxix. 
7).  His  dress  was  more  magnificent  and 
costly  than  that  of  other  priests.  Peculiar  to 
it  were  the  robe  of  the  cphod  (Ex.  xxviii.  31- 
35),  the  ephod  ■with  its  cunningly  woven  band 
(vv.  6-12),  the  breastplate  wilh'the  U rim  and 
Thummim  (v.  30),  and  the  mitre  (vv.  36,  39). 

His  most  solemn  function  was  to  officiate 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement  to  make  expiation 
for  tlie  sins  of  the  people  (Lev.  xvi.). 

Jesus  is  the  great  High  Priest,  who  once  for 
all  passed  through  the  heavens  with  his  own 
blood  into  the  presence  of  God,  and  there  ever 
lives  to  make  intercession  for  his  people  (Heb. 
iv.  14,  vii.  2.),  ix.  12).  T.  W.  C. 

Hilary,  pope,  Nov.  19,  461-Sept.  10,  467, 
a  Sardinian  by  birth  ;  did  something  for  the 
organization  of  the  hierarchy  by  maintaining 
the  establishment  of  metropolitan  sees,  and 
something  for  the  consoliflation  of  the  church 
in  general  by  supporting  the  institution  of 
annual  provincial  synods. 

Hilary,  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
an  adherent  of  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  wrote 
about  380  a  work,  Be  Ilereticu  Rebnptizandis, 
in  which  he  declared  that  baptism  by  an  Arian 
is  invalid,  but  which  now  is  lost.  He  is  also, 
though  erroneously,  mentioned  as  author  of 
the  so-called  Ambrosiaster  (q.v.). 

Hilary,  bishop  of  Aries,  429-49,  was  metro- 
politan of  the  provinces  of  Viennensis  and 
Narbonnensis.  and  this  circumstance  brought 
him  in  conflict  with  Leo  L  Supported  by 
the  emperor,  Valentinian  HL,  the  pope  made 
him  yield,  but  he  stands  in  church  history  as 
the  first  defender  of  the  rights  of  the  Galilean 
Church.     His  works  are  in  [Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 

Hilary  of  Poitiers,  b.  in  tliat  city,  the  pres- 
ent capital  of  the  Department  of  Yienne. 
France,  in  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century  : 
d.  there,  366.  He  was  of  pagan  descent,  but 
of  distinguished  .social  standing,  and  rccoived 
a  careful  education.  He  did  not  adopt  Chris- 
tianity until  he  had  become  a  full-grown  man, 
but  rose  rapidly  as  one  of  the  shining  lights 
of  the  church,  "and  Avas  elected  bishop  of  his 
native  place  in  350.  He  was  a  stanch  de- 
fender of  Die  Nicene  Creed  against  tiie  Arians, 
who,  just  at  that  time,  were  very  numerous 
in  Gaul.  He  was  even  banished  to  Phrygia 
"by  the  Arian  emperor,  Coustantius,  and  lived 


for  several  years  in  exile,  but  was  finally  al- 
lowed to  return,  and  continued  the  fifjht  by 
words  and  acts  to  his  death.  During  his  exile 
he  wrote  his  principal  work,  iJe  Trinitate, 
which  is  of  much  more  than  historical  inter- 
est. His  collected  works  were  edited  by  Eras- 
nms,  Basel,  1523,  and  are  also  found  in  Migne, 
Put.  Lat.  IX.  and  X.  His  life  was  written 
by  Reinicens,  Schaffhausen,  1864. 

Hilda,  St.,  grand-niece  of  Edwin,  king  of 
Northumbria  ;  b.  at  Elmete,  Yorkshire,  614  ; 
baptized,  627  ;  became  a  nun,  647  ;  abbess  at 
Hartlepool,  649  ;  founded  the  celebrated  mon- 
astery of  Whitby,  657  ;  exerted  wide  and 
beneficent  influence  ;  d.  at  Whitby,  Nov.  17, 
680. 

Hildebert,  b.  at  Lanardin,  near  Ycndome, 
France,  1055;  d.  at  Tours,  Di-c.  18,  1134; 
was  elected  bishop  of  Le  Mans  in  1096  and 
archbishop  of  Tours  in  1125.  He  was  a  pro- 
lific writer,  and  his  letters  (to  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux,  Anselm,  William  of  Champeaux,  etc.), 
hvmns,  moral  and  do;;matical  treatises,  etc., 
are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CLXXL  His 
life  was  written  by  Hebert-Dupeiron,  Paris, 
1858,  and  Deservillers,  1877. 

Hildebrand.    See  Gregory  YH. 

Hildegarde,  countess  vom  Sponhcim,  b.  in 
the  castle  of  Bockelheim,  near  Frankfort-on- 
the-]\[aiu,  1098  ;  d.  as  abbess  of  the  monastery 
of  Rupertsberg,  near  Maj^ence,  1178;  had 
prophetical  visions,  which  were  recognized  by 
liie  church,  though  she  was  never  canon- 
ized, and  are  found  in  Miirne,  Pat.  Lat. 
CXCYH.  Her  life  was  written  by  Richaud, 
Aix,  1876,  and  Schmelzeis,  Freiburg,  1879. 

Hill,  Rowland,  b.  at  Hawkstone,  Siiron- 
shire,  Eng.,  Aug.  23,  1744;  d.  in  London, 
April  11,  1833  ;  studied  at  Cambridge,  and 
began  while  yet  an  undergraduate  to  i)reach  in 
the  neighboring  villages  ;  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Methodists,  and  experienced 
some  difficulties  in  being  ordained,  but  ob- 
tained, in  1773,  the  parish  of  Kingston,  Som- 
ersetshire, and  built,  in  1783,  the  Surrey 
Chapel  in  London.  But  he  continued  to  his 
death  to  spend  the  summers  in  wandering  all 
over  England  as  an  itinerant  preacher,  and 
his  opefi-air  sermons  everywhere  drew  enor- 
mous audiences — no  less  by  their  drollery  and 
wit  than  by  their  fervent  eloqucn(;e.  His 
yUlafje  Dialogues  have  been  reprinted  over  and 
over  again.  His  Spiritual  CltariictnixtirH.  A 
Warning  to  Pn/frssors,  etc.,  are  satirical  and 
polemicid  pamphlets.  His  life  was  written 
l)y  Sidney,  London,  1833. 

Hillel,  one  of  the  most  prominent  rabbis 

durinu:  tlie  perio  1  immediately  preceding  fho 

advent  of  Christ.     Tiie  dates  of  his  life  are 

uncertain.      He   was   born    in    Habylon,    but 

when   he  wjus  40  years  old,   in   the  time  of 

Hyrcanus  H.,  he  moved  with  his  whole  family 

I  to"  Jerusalem  to  .study  the  Law.     lie  was  very 

j  poor,  and  sujjporled  his  family  as  a  day-lahorer, 

'  but   he  was  gifted  and  energetic,  and   in  tlie 

I  time  <>(  Herod  the  Great  he  stood   at  the  head 

of  a  i.ilibinical  .school  rivaling  that  of  Sh:i;n- 

I  mai  uud  embodying  all  the  finest  and  mildest 


HINCMAR 


(C70) 


HIRAM 


elements  of  Pharisaism.  He  was  for  many 
years  the  patriarch  of  the  Sanhedrin.  A  pru- 
dent, patient,  sweet-tempered  man,  he  was, 
no  doubt,  a  power  for  good  in  the  bad  times 
in  which  lie  lived.  The  anecdotes  about  him, 
contained  in  contemporary  Jewish  literature, 
are  quite  pleasant,  though  they  have  some- 
times a  little  touch  of  silliness.  In  history  he 
was  rarely  spoken  of  until,  in  1863,  E.  Reuan, 
in  his  J%  de  Jesus,  introduced  him  as  the 
teacher  of  Christ,  the  source  of  Christianity. 
These  utterances,  somewhat  unguarded  and 
fully  unwarranted,  induced  Abraham  Geiger, 
in  his  Das  Judenthum  und  seins  Geschichtc, 
1BG5,  to  represent  Hillel  as  the  great  reform- 
ator  of  Judaism  and  the  real  originator  of 
Christianitv.  (See  Franz  Deltizsch,VfAM«  and 
mild,  Erlangen,  1866,  Bd  ed.,  1879  ;  E. 
Schiirer,  History  of  the  New  Testament  'Times, 
Eng.  trans.)  1.  c. 

Hincmar  of  Laon  was  made  bishop  of  that 
city,  the  present  capital  of  the  Department  of 
Ai'sne,  86  m.  n.e.  of  Paris,  in  858,  but  was  de- 
posed by  the  Sj'nod  of  Donzi  in  871,  because 
he  refused  to  obey  both  his  metropolitan  and 
his  king.  He  appealed  to  the  pope,  but 
Charles  the  Bald  had  him  shut  up  in  a  dun- 
geon and  blinded.  In  liis  defence  he  referred 
to  the  Pseudo-Isidoriau  Decretals,  but  his 
metropolitan  and  uncle,  Hincmar  of  Rheims, 
declared  them  to  be  mere  fraud,  and  the  king 
protested  that  laws  which  allowed  a  subject 
to  appeal  from  Ihe  king  to  the  pope  must  be 
inspirations  of  the  devil.  Pope  John  VIII. 
gave  him  right  to  say  mass  again,  and  allowed 
him  half  of  the  revenue  of  his  bishopric.  He 
died  in  882.  A  few  letters  from  him  are 
found  among  the  letters  of  Hincmar  of 
Rheims. 

Hincmar  of  Rheims,  archbishop  :  b.  prob- 
ably ia  806  ;  d.  at  Epernay,  Dec.  21,  883.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Cliarles  the  Bald,  who  had 
him  made  bishop  of  Rheims  in  845.  The  see 
had  been  vacant  since  the  deposition  of  Ebbo 
in  885,  but,  uevertheless,  a  number  of  bishops 
had  been  unlawfully  consecrated  by  Ebbo. 
Trouble  arose  with  these,  and  with  Rothad  of 
Soissons,  in  opposition  to  whom  Hincmar  took 
up  the  case  of  a  priest.  But  the  pope  reversed 
his  decision.  In  the  contest  upon  this  sub- 
j:ct  Hincmar  did  not  take  an  essentially  dif- 
f.Tcnt  position  as  to  the  Pseudo-Isidoriau  De- 
cretals from  the  pope  (see  Canon  Law).  His 
amltition  to  become  primate  of  France  was 
frustrated  by  the  appointment  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Sens.  Hincmar  was  also  engaged 
in  the  tlioologlcal  contests  of  his  time,  as  with 
Gottschalk  upon  predestination.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  the  Synod  at  Chiersy,  in  85B, 
to  pronounce  in  favor  of  one  predestination,' 
and  of  general  atonement.  He  also  took  the 
side  of  Paschasius  Radbertus  upon  transub- 
stantiation.  (See  his  works  in  Migne,  CXXV 
CXXVI.,  and  his  life  by  Prichard,  Littlemore' 
1849,  and  l)y  Schrors,  Freiburg,  1884.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Hinduism.    Sec  India,  Religions  op. 

Hinnon.     See  Gehenna. 

Hippo  Regius,  a  city  of  Numidia,  the  pres- 
ent Bona  m  Algeria,  was  the  seat  of  several 


councils,  of  which  the  first  one,  393,  is  inter- 
esting, because  it  gave  the  first  express  delliai- 
tion  of  the  New  Testament  canou  as  it  now 
stands.  Augustine  was  bishop  there  from 
396  to  430. 

Hippolytus  appears  in  the  earliest  records 
as  a  bishop,  and  is  said  by  Prudentius  (a.d. 
400)  to  have  belonged  to  the  Novatian  party, 
and  to  have  renounced  them  at  the  time  of  his 
martyrdom,  when  he  was  drawn  apart  by 
horses.  New  and  more  trustworthy  informa- 
tion about  him  was,  however,  gathered,  first, 
by  the  discovery,  in  1551,  at  Rome  of  his  statue, 
and  then  by  the  publication,  three  centuries 
later  (1851),  of  his  work,  The  Eefutation  of 
all  Heresies  (best  ed.,  that  of  Dnncker  and 
Schneidewin,  Gottingen,  1859),  then  recently 
discovered  in  a  convent  upon  Mt.  Athos 
(1842).  This  was  at  first  referred  to  Origen, 
since  it  was  the  continuation  of  the  Philoso- 
phumena  printed  in  the  works  of  that  writer. 
But  it  has  now  been  proved  beyond  reasonable 
doubt  to  be  Hippolytus'.  It  seems  tolerably 
clear  from  this  work  that  Hippolytus  was 
bishop  of  Portus,  near  Rome.  The  method 
of  his  martyrdom  was  drowning,  and  it  took 
place  235  to  239.  His  work  seems  to  have 
been  written  after  222.  With  other  matter, 
it  is  occit|)ied  chiefly  with  the  description  and 
refutation  of  the  principal  heresies  which  had 
afflicted  the  church  from  before  the  time  of 
the  Gospel  of  John  to  that  of  Callistus.  It 
reviews  the  Ophites,  Simonists,  Basilidians, 
DocettB,  and  Ncetians.  Hippolytus  refutes 
these  by  showing  that  they  are  either  derived 
from  heathen  doctrines,  or  that  they  are  poorer 
representatives  of  tendencies  found  in  heathen- 
ism. He  has  thus* given  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  our  knowledge  of  the  Greek  philoso- 
phers, as  well  as  of  the  earliest  period  of 
Christianity.  Incidentally  he  appears  as  a 
witness  against  the  modern  doctrine  of  papal 
infallibility,  because  condemning  two  popts, 
Zephyrinus  and  Callistus,  as  heretics.  He 
was  otherwise  a  voluminous  writer.  (See 
Migne,  Pat.  Or.  X..  also  Bunsen,  Hippolytvs 
and  His  Age,  London,  1852-56  ;  DciUinger, 
Hippolytus  and  Callistus  [Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1876],  1853;  Erbes  iu  Jahrbuchern  fur 
protest.  Theologie,  1888,  and  Gwj^na  in  Her- 
inathena,  vol.  vii.,  1889.  Works  are  reprinted 
in  the  Ante-Nicene  Library  of  the  Christian 
Literature  Publishing  Company,  1886,  vol.  v.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Hi'-ram,  king  of  Tyre,  reigned  for  34  years, 
according  to  the  computation  of  Winer,  1023- 
990;  Ewald,  1033-999;  Movers,  980-947. 
He  was  a  friend  of  David  and  Solomon,  and 
aided  them  in  the  building  of  their  palaces 
and  the  temple,  by  furnishing  them  both  with 
artisans  and  materials  :  gold,  bronze,  wood, 
marble,  etc.,  for  which  he  received  in  payment 
20  towns  in  Galilee  (1  Kings  i.x.  11).  The  re- 
lations between  the  Israelites  and  the  Phoe- 
nicians were  at  that  time  very  amicable  ;  they 
made  a  joint  expedition  to  Ophir,  starting 
from  a  harbor  on  the  Red  Sea  in  possession 
of  the  Israelites,  and  maintained  always  a 
lively  commercial  exchange  with  each  other. 
Hiram  appears  to  have  been  an  Oriental  despot 
of  great  splendor    and    wisdom.      Solomon 


HIRSCHAU 


(371) 


HOBBSS 


married  one  of  his  daugliters  (Clemens  Al., 
Stroitiatn,  i.,  21),  and  between  him  and  his 
father- in-law  there  was  a  standing  intellectual 
match,  according  to  the  fashion  of  the  time 
(Jjsephus,  Coiitr.  Apon.,  i.,  17).  There  was 
a  Hiram  II. ,  king  of  l^vre,  toward  the  close 
of  the  Babylonian  supremacy,  551-533,  but 
he  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

Hirschau,  or  Hirsau,  a  Benedictine  mon- 
astery in  the  diocese  of  Spires,  Wurtemberg, 
was  "founded  in  830,  and  reached  its  highest 
point  of  importance  in  the  11th  century,  when 
its  Constitution's  Ilirsaagienses  exercised  con- 
siderable influence  on  other  German  monas- 
teries, but  it  afterward  fell  into  insignificance, 
and  after  the  Reformation  it  was  transformed 
into  a  theological  seminary.  Chronicon  H. 
was  printed  at  Basel,  1559  ;  Annales  H.  at  St. 
Gall,  1690. 

Hitchcock,  Roswell  Dwight,  D.D.  (Bow- 
doin,  1855;  Edinburgh,  1885),  LL.D.  (Will- 
iams, 1873  ;  Harvard,  1886),  Presbyterian  ; 
b.  at  East  Machias,  JVIe.,  Aug.  15,  1817  ;  d.  at 
Somerset,  Mass.,  June  16,  1'887.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Amherst,  1836  ;  studied  theology  at 
Andover  and  in  German}-,  and  after  brief 
pastorates  at  "Waterville,  Me.,  and  Exeter, 
N.  11..  became  professor  of  natural  and  re- 
vealed religion  in  Bowdoin,  1853,  whence  he 
passed,  1855.  to  the  chair  of  church  histor}''  in 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York  City, 
of  -which  he  became  president  in  1880.  He 
•went  abroad  in  1866  and  1869  ;  was  president 
of  the  American  Palestine  Exploration  Society 
(1871)  and  vice-president  of  the  American 
Geographical  Society.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  American  Theological  Review, 
New  York,  1863-70  ;  of  Hymns  and  Songs  of 
Praise,  New  York,  1875,  and  of  Carmina 
Sanctorum,  1885.  Eminent  as  a  preacher, 
scholar,  and  instructor,  he  wrote  compara- 
tively little.  A  Life  of  Edward  Jiobimon,  New 
York,  1863  ;  a  Complete  Analysis  of  the  Bible, 
1889,  and  annotations  to  a  translation  (with 
Dr.  F.  Brown)  of  Tiie  Teaching  of  the  Apostles, 
1884.  are  his  chief  works.  F.  31.  B. 

Hit'-tites,  The,  thus  called  after  Heth  or 
Cetli,  the  second  son  of  Canaan,  were  a 
Hamitic  people,  regarded  as  aliens  by  the  Is- 
raelites, but  much  intermingling  with  them. 
Abraham  bought  Hebron  from  them.  Isaac 
and  Jacob  dwelt  among  them.  They  joined 
the  other  Cauaauitj  tribes  in  the  contest  with 
the  conquering  Joshua.  After  the  conquest 
families  belonging  to  them  continued  to  live 
in  Palestine.  Solomon  married  their  daugh- 
ters, and  si)  long  enduring  was  the  vitality  of 
their  race,  that  Ezra  had  occasion  to  warn  the 
Hebrews  against  th:.in.  At  one  time  they 
formed  an  indopen  lent  empire  to  the  north- 
cast  of  Palestine,  and  their  kings  are  men- 
tioned both  in  the  A.s.syrian  inscriptions  and 
in  the  Egvptian  annals.  So  far,  however,  all 
knowledge  of  them  depends  upon  scattered 
notices,  with  no  substantial  continuity  ;  but 
in  1876  A.  H.  Sayce  discovered  Hittite 'monu- 
ments and  inscriptions,  whicii  show  that  tliey 
had  developed  an  original  civilization,  from 
which  the  Greek  probably  borrowed  as  much 
as  from  the  Phoenicians,      (Sjc  Perrot   and 


Chiperz,  History  of  Ait  in  Sardina,  Jiidaa, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  translated  by  A.  I. 
Gouing,  London  and  New  York,  1890,  which 
gives  a  fidl  representation  of  the  whole  prob- 
lem and  the  present  state  of  its  solution  ;  .John 
Campbell,  The  Hittites,  N.  Y.,  1891,  2  vols.) 
Hitzig  (hits'-ig),  Ferdinand,  Protestant  ;  b. 
at  Haningen,  Baden,  June  23.  1807  ;  d.  at 
Heidelberg,  Jan.  23.  1875,  where  he  had  been 
professor  since  1861.  He  was  li-arned  and 
truth  loving,  but  so  given  to  conjecture  and 
bold  assertions,  that  his  books  are  not  so 
weighty  as  they  otherwise  would  have  been. 
He  belonged  to  the  rationalistic  school  of 
Strauss  and  Schenkel.  His  best  work  is  his 
commentary  on  Isaiah,  Heidelberg,  1833. 

Hi'-vites,  The,  a  Canaanite  tribe  dwelling 
under  Mt.  Ilermon  (Jo.sh.  xi.  3)  and  in  Mt. 
Lebanon  (Judges  iii.  3)  ;  are  mentioned  in  the 
history  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxiv.  25)  and  Joshua 
(Josh.  xi.  3),  but  are  otherwi.se  not  of  any 
particular  interest.  C.  P. 

Hoadly,  Benjamin,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  17—), 
a  liberal  prelate  of  the  English  Church  ;  b.  at 
Westerham,  Kent,  21  m.  s.s.e.  of  London, 
Nov.  14,  1676  ;  d.  at  Winchester.  April  17, 
1761.  He  entered  Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge, 
1691  ;  became  fellow,  1697,  and  tutor  ;  lec- 
turer of  St.  3Iildred,  London,  1701  ;  rector  of 
St.  Peter-le-Poer,  London,  1704,  and  of  Streat- 
ham,  Surrey,  1710  ;  bishop  of  Bangor,  1715, 
whence  he  was  translated  to  Hereford,  1731  ; 
Salisbury,  1733,  and  Winchester,  1734.  The 
celebrated  Bangorian  controversy  Ijegan  with 
a  sermon  before  the  king  in  1717  on  "  My 
kingdom  is  not  of  this  world"  (John  xviii. 
36),"in  which  he  denied  temporal  juri.sdiction 
to  the  clergy,  and  pleaded  for  the  broadest 
toleration."  The  virulence  of  tliis  controversy 
led  to  the  .svippression,  in  1717,  of  convocation, 
which  did  not  sit  again  till  1853.  Burnet  and 
"Wake  supported  Hoadly.  Atterbury,  Law, 
and  most  of  the  clergy  were  opposed  ;  but  the 
Whigs  were  in  power,  and  he  received  further 
promotion.  He  was  engaged  in  other  contro- 
versies, as  when  he  defended  "  a  calm,  ra- 
tional, and  dispassionate  manner  of  offering 
up  our  prayers"  against  Dr.  Hare.  Hoadly 
\)\i\Ah\u;dA Litter  on.  Miracles,  London,  1703  ; 
lieasoioahkness  of  Conformity,  1703  ;  Defence 
of  Episcopal  Ordination,  1707;  Rights  of  Sub- 
jects, 1719  ;  Nature  and  End  of  the  lord's 
Sapper,  1735  ;  and  Sermons,  1754-55.  His 
works  were  collected  in  3  vols.,  1773.  Pope 
complained  of  his  long  sentences,  and  Aken- 
side  celebrated  his  virtues  in  an  ode. 

F.  M.  B. 

Ho'-bah  (Jiiding-plafc),  the  lermimis  of 
Abraham  s  pursuit  of  the  confederal  j  kings 
(Gen.  xiv.  15),  is  generally  located  at  Jobar, 
3  m.  n.  of  I^amascus,  where  the  Jews  have  a 
.synagogue  dedicated  to  Elijah. 

Hobbes,  Thomas,  b.  at  ^lalmesbury.  Wilt- 
shire 96  m.  w.  of  London,  April  5,  15SS  ;  d. 
at  Harduick  Hall,  Devonshiie,  Dec.  4.  1679. 
He  .-.ludiid  at  Magdalen  Coll.-gr.  Oxford,  and 
.spent  his  life  in  tuition  and  literary  labor.  His 
cliief  works  in  English  (complete  ed.,  London, 
1839-45.  11  vols.)  are,  Humane  Nature,  Lua- 
don,  1650  ;  Lcciat/uin,  or  the  Matter,  Forme, 


HODGE 


(373) 


HOFFMANN 


and  Power  of  a  Commonwealth,  Ecclesiasticall 
and  Civill,  IGol,  last  ed.,  1885  ;  Liberty  and 
Necesnity,  1654,  and  Behemoth,  or  An  Epitome 
of  the  Vtvil  Wars  of  England,  from  1640  to 
1660,  1679,  n.e.,  1889.  He  wrote  much  iu 
Latin,  and  translated  Thucydides  (1628),  "  to 
show  the  evils  of  popular  government,"  and 
Homer  (1074-77),  to  divert  the  attacks  of  his 
adversaries  from  his  "  more  serious  writings." 
He  was  a  great  thinker,  but  an  enemy  alike  of 
liberty  and  of  religion  ;  his  system  was  utili- 
tarian, materialistic,  and  deistical.  (Cf .  work 
on  him  by  George  Croon  Robertson,  1886.) 
F.  M.  B. 
Hodge,  Archibald  Alexander,  D.D.  (Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1862),  LL.D. 
(Wooster  University,  Wooster,  O.,  1876),  son 
of  Charles  Hodge;  b.  at  Princeton,  IS[.  J., 
July  18,  1823  ;  d.  there,  Nov.  11, 1886  ;  grad- 
uated from  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  1841, 
and  from  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
1847  ;  was  missionary  of  the  Presbyterian 
Board  at  x\.llahabad,  India,  1847-50  ;  pastor 
of  Lower  West  Nottingham,  Md.,  1851-55  ; 
Fredericksburg,  Va.,  1855-61,  and  First 
Church,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  1861-64  ;  professor 
of  didactic  and  polemic  theology  in  the  West- 
ern Theological  Seminary,  Alleghany,  Pa., 
1864-77,  and  then  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary.  He  published,  besides  a  life  of  his 
father.  New  York,  1880,  Outlines  of  Theology, 
New  York,  1860,  enlarged  ed.,  1878,  translat- 
ed into  Welsh,  New  Greek,  and  Hindustani  ; 
Presbyterian  Forms,  Philadelphia,  1868,  en- 
larged ed.,  1882,  etc. 

Hodge,'  Charles,  D.D.  (Rutgers  College, 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1834),  LL.D.  (Wash- 
ington College,  Pa.,  l8o4),  h.  in  Philadelphia, 
Dec.  18,  1797  ;  d.  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  June 
19,  1878  ;  graduated  from  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1816,  and  was  in  1823  ap- 
pointed professor  there  of  biblical  and  Oriental 
literature.  From  1826  to  1828  he  studied  in 
Europe,  and  heard  De  Sacy  in  Paris,  Tholuck 
iu  Halle,  and  Neander  la  Berlin.  In  1840  he 
was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  didactic  and 
polemical  tiieology,  but  he  retained  the  de- 
partment of  New  Testament  exegesis.  His 
principal  work  is  the  Systematic  Theology, 
New  York,  1871-73,  3  vols.,  generally  con- 
sidered the  greatest  work  of  its  kind  in  the 
English  language,  but  also  his  exegetical 
works.  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  che  Ro- 
mans, Philadelphia,  1835  ;  Ephesians,  1850  ; 
Mrst  Corinthians,  1857,  and  Second  Corin- 
thians, 1859,  enjoy  great  reputation  and  are 
extensively  used.  In  1840  he  published  Con- 
stitntional  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States;  in  1841,  Way  of  Life; 
in  1874,  What  is  Darwinism  .?— his  last  book. 
He  founded  the  Princeton  Revieio  in  1825,  and 
was  its  editor  for  40  years.  Various  selections 
of  his  contributions  to  that  review  have  ap- 
peared from  time  to  time,  Princeton  Essays, 
Hodge's  Essays  (1857),  etc.  (See  his  life  by 
his  son,  A.  A.  Hodge,  New  York,  1881.) 

Hody,  Humphrey,  Cliurch  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Odcombe,  Somersetshire,  Jan.  1  1659  •  d 
at  Oxford,  Jan.  20,  1706.  He  entered  Wad- 
ham  College,  Oxford,  1676  ;  became  a  fellow 


1684  ;  rector  of  St.  Michael's,  London,  and 
chaplain  to  Archbishop  Tillotsou,  1693  ;  re- 
gius  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford,  16£d  ; 
archdeacon  of  Oxford,  1704.  Among  his 
books  are,  his  Latin  Dissertation  against  Aris' 
teens,  Oxford,  1685  ;  liesurrection  of  the  Ihdy, 
London,  1694  ;  History  of  English  Coujicils  and 
Convocations,  1701  ;  De  bibliorum  textibus,  etc., 
1705.  The  latter  "is  the  classical  work  ou 
the  Septuagiut."  De  GrwcisillnstribuslingucB 
Grcecoi  instanritoribus,  explaining-  the  begin- 
nings of  the  Italian  renaissance,  was  published, 
1742,  by  Dr.  S.  Jebb,  with  a  life  of  Hody. 
F.  M.  B. 

Hoe  von  Hoenegg  (ho-eh  fon  ho-ehn-egg), 
Matthias,  b.  in  Vienna,  Feb.  24,  1580  ;  d.  in 
Dresden,  March  4,  1645  ;  studied  iu  Witten- 
berg, and  was  in  1613  appointed  court  preach- 
er in  Dresden,  where  he  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  the  elector,  John  George  I.  With 
his  open  declaration  that  an  alliance  with 
Rome  was  preferable  to  an  alliance  with 
Geneva,  and  his  99  points  in  which  the  Re- 
formfd  agree  with  the  Turks,  he  cuts  a  very 
characteristic  figure  in  the  religious  life  of  his 
time,  though  it  may  not  be  true  that  from 
inere  hatred  of  the  Reformed  Church  he  ac- 
tually entered  into  the  intrigues  of  the  Jesuits. 
His  Evangelisehes  Handbiichlein,  Leipzig,  1603, 
ran  through  numerous  editions,  and  was  even 
reprinted  in  Dresden  in  1871.  His  Commen- 
tnriorum  in  .  .  .  Apocalypsin,  Leipzig,  1610- 
11,  2  parts,  enjoyed  also  great  reputation. 

Hofaoker  (hof-ak-er),  Ludwig  (Gustav), 
and  Wilhelm,  two  brothers  who  did  verj^  re- 
markable service  in  the  evangelization  of  Wiir- 
temberg.  Ludwig  was  born  at  AVildbad,  April 
15, 1798  ;  stutlied  theology  at  Tiibingen,  and 
was  in  1826  appointed  pastor  of  Rielingshau- 
sen,  near  Marbach,  where  he  died,  Nov.  18, 
1828.  His  Predigten,  1837,  ran  through  many 
editions,  and  his  lite  was  written  by  Knapp, 
Heidelberg,  1830,  37lli  ed.,  1866.  Wilhelm 
was  born  at  Gartiingen,  Feb.  16, 1805  ;  .studied 
theology  at  Tubingen,  and  was  in  1835  ap- 
pointed preacher  at  the  Leonhardskirche  in 
Stuttgart,  where  he  died,  Aug.  10, 1848.  He, 
too,  has  published  a  collection  of  sermons, 
Predigten  (Stuttgart,  1828-30,  7  parts),  which 
was  and  is  very  much  read.  His  life  was 
written  by  his  son,  Ludwig  Hofacker,  Stutt- 
gart, 1872. 

Hoffmann,  Daniel,  b.  at  Hallo  about  1540  ; 
d.  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1611  ;  was  in  1576  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  at  Helmsladt, 
but  was  twice  compelled  to  leave  the  city  and 
wander  into  exile.  He  was  a  theologian  of 
the  warlike  type,  though  not  so  pronounced 
as  Hesshusen.  His  controversy  with  Caselius, 
concerning  the  true  relation  between  theology 
and  philosophy,  the  controversy  between  the 
Duj)licisien  and  Simpilicisten,  has  some  inter- 
est, however,  even  to-day.  On  it  see  G. 
Thomasius,  De  controversia  Hoffmann.  Erlau- 
gen,  1844,  and  Schlee,  Der  Streit  des  Daniel 
Hoffmann,  Marburg,  1870. 

HoflFmann,  Melchior,  b.  at  Hall,  Suabia,  in 
the  tirst  years  of  the  16th  century  ;  was  a 
wandering  journeyman  in  the  furrier  trade  ; 


HOFMANN 


(373) 


HOLY 


joined  the  enthusiastic  and  revolutionary  ele- 
ment of  the  Protestant  party  wherever  he 
went  ;  was  driven  out  of  Uorpat,  out  of  Kiel, 
etc,  and  was  finally  imprisoned  at  Strassburg 
as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Anabaptists,  after 
which  he  disappeared  ;  probably  died  in  1542. 
He  published  a  number  of  tracts  and  treatises, 
and  his  life  was  written  by  Herrmann  in 
French,  Stt-assburg,  1852,  and  by  Zur  Linden 
in  Dutch,  Leyden,"l885. 

Hofmann,  Johann  Christian  Konrad  von, 

Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Nuremberg,  Dec.  21,  1810  ; 
d.  at  Erlangen,  Dec.  20,  1877.  He  studied 
theology  and  history  at  Erlangen  and  in  Ber- 
lin, 1827-83,  and  became  teacher,  1835  ;  lec- 
turer, 1838  ;  professor  extraordinary,  1841  ; 
and  ordinary  professor  of  theology,  1845,  at 
Erlangen,  representing  a  somewhat  exclusive 
Lutheranism.  Plis  principal  theological  works 
are,  Weissncjung  und  Erfilllung,  NOrdlingcn, 
1841-44,  2  vols.  ;  Der  Schrifthewds,  1852-56, 
3  parts,  2d  ed.,  1857-60;  t<chutzschriften  fur 
eine  neue  Weise  alt&  Warheit  zu  lehren,  1856- 
59,  4  parts  ;  Die  Ileillge  Schnft  des  Neiinyi 
Testaments,  1862-86.  11  vols.  (:M  ed.,  vol.  i., 
1869  ;  vol.  ii.,  1872-77),  besides  several  posthu- 
mous works.  He  formed  a  considerable 
school  in  theologv,  wrote  several  historical 
works,  and  took  part  in  politics  as  a  national 
progressist.  (See  memoirs  on  him  by  Volck, 
1878,  and  Grau,  1879.) 

Hofstede  de  Groot  (hof  -  steh  -  deh  -  deh- 
grOI),  Petrus,  b.  at  Leer,  in  the  district  of 
East  Frieslaud,  belonging  to  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hannover,  Oct.  8,  1802  ;  d.  at 
Groningen,  in  the  Netherlands,  Dec.  7,  1886, 
Avhere  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
in  1829.  His  principal  work  is  Oproeding  der 
Memchlieid,  Groningen,  1846,  3  vols.,  3d  ed., 
vols.  i.  and  ii.,  1855,  2d  ed.,  vol.  iii.,  1885. 
Among  his  other  works,  the  following  were 
translated  into  German  :  Die  Groninger  Thco. 
logen,  Gotha,  1863  ;  Basilides,  Leipzig,  1867  ; 
Die  moderne  Theolo'gie  in  den  jS'iederlanden, 
Bonn,  1870.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Groningen  school  of  theology  (q.v.). 

Hoge,  Moses,  D.D.  (Princeton,  1810), 
Prcsbvterian  ;  b.  at  Cedar  Creek,  Va.,  Feb. 
15,  1752  ;  d.  in  Philadelphia,  July  5,  1820. 
He  became  pastor  at  Hardy,  Va.,  1782,  and 
at  Shepherdstown,  1787  ;  president  of  Hamp- 
dcn-Sidney  College,  1807.  His  Christian 
Panophj,  Philadelphia,  1799,  was  a  reply  to 
Paine's  Age  of  Reason.  His  sermons  were 
published,  Richmond,  Va.,  1821. 

F.  :.l.  B. 

Hohenlohe  -  Waldenburg  -  Schillingsfiirst, 
Alexander  Leopold  Franz  Emmerich, 
Prince  of,  b.  at  Kupfer/ell,  "Wiirtemberg, 
Aug.  17.  1794;  d.  at  Vcislau,  near  Vienna, 
Nov.  14,  1849  ;  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1816, 
and  made  a  great  sensation  in  Bavaria  by  Hie 
miraculous  cares  he  effected  at  ^lunich, 
Bamburg,  Wiirzburg,  etc.  As  the  papal 
court,  however,  maintained  a  rather  reserved 
attitude  with  respect  to  tlio.se  miracles,  and 
the  Bavarian  polite  became  more  and  more 
inquisitive,  he  left  the  country  in  1825  and 
settled  at  Peterwardein  in  Himgary,  where  he 
was  made  a  canon  at  the  cathedral  and  re- 


ceived the  title  of  bishop  of  Sardica.  His  life 
was  written  by  C.  G.  Scharold,  Wiirzburg, 
1822.  C.  V. 

Holbach  (dol-bak),  Paul  Heinrich  Dietrich, 
Baron  d',  b.  at  Heidelsheim,  in  the  Piussian 
province  of  Rheiu-IIes.sen,  1723  ;  d.  at  his  es- 
tate of  Grandval,  Jan.  21,  1789  ;  was  educated 
in  Paris,  and  lived  most  of  his  time  there  as 
the  rich,  hospitable,  and  brilliant  host  of  the 
encyclopanlist  troop.  His  most  famous  work, 
Systems  de  la  Nature,  Paris,  1770,  n.e.,  1821, 
2  vols.  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1884),  issued 
under  the  name  of  Mirabaud,  has  interest  only 
for  the  history  of  materialism.  But  his  direct 
attacks  on  Christianity,  J^e  clirixtiairisine  de- 
Toile  (Eng.  trans.,  Chrisfiaiiity  Un ceiled,  Lon- 
don, 1819),  ]j' imposture  saccrdotale,  L' esprit 
de  clerge,  etc.,  did  probably  much  harm,  the 
more  as  the  French  Church  and  the  French 
clejgy  at  that  moment  were  not  very  well  pre- 
pared to  withstand   them.  C.  P. 

Hollaz,  David,  b.  at  "VVulkow,  Pomerania, 
1648  ;  d.  in  1713  at  Jacobshagen,  also  in  Pom- 
erania, where  he  was  pastor  since  1692. 
His  Examen  theologieum  arroamaticum  uni- 
versam  theologiam  tJutiro-polcniicam  complec- 
tens,  Stargard,  1707,  and  afterward  often  re- 
printed, is  considered  the  last  expression  of 
the  strictly  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  and  was 
very  much  read,  partly  on  account  of  the 
clearness  of  its  expositions,  partly  on  account 
of  the  geniality  of  its  tone.  "         C.  P. 

Holtzmann  (holts-man),  Heinrich  Julius, 
Lie.  Theol.  (Heidelberg,  1858).  D.D.  (hon.. 
Vienna,  1862).  German  Protestant  ;  b.  at 
Carlsruhe,  Baden,  May  17,  1832  ;  studied  the- 
ology at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin  ;  became  pri- 
vat-docent  at  Heidelberg,  1858  ;  professor  ex- 
traordinary, 1861  ;  ordinary  professor,  1865  ; 
removed  to  Strassbuig  in  the  same  capacity, 
1874.  Of  his  writings  may  be  mentioned  Die 
sgnoptischen  Emngclien,  ihr  Urspning  vndgc- 
schichtlichcr  Character,  Leipzig.  1863  ;  Kritik 
der  Epheser  vnd  Colosserhriefc,  1872  ;  Die  Pas- 
toralbriefe,  1880  ;  Lehrbiich der hi.stori.srh-/,riti- 
schen  Einleitunq  in  das  Xnie  TcKtament,  Frei- 
burg-im-Br.,  1885,  2d  ed.,  1886  (one  of  the 
most  important  works  of  the  critical  school)  ; 
with  R.  O.  Zoeplfcl  he  edited  Jj-rikon  fin- 
Thrologie  vnd  Kirchenwisin,  Leipzig,  1882, 
2d  ed!^  lirunswick,  1888  sqq. 

Holy,  Holiness  of  God.  The  Hebrew 
word  rendered  holy  in  English  signifies  orig- 
inally clean,  pure,  "and  the  same  idea  attaches 
to  the  Greek  word  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. It  denotes  also  that  which  is  set  apart 
to  the  service  of  God,  as  a  holy  titensil,  etc. 
Used  of  God.  the  term  lioliness  is  one  of  sev- 
eral em]>loyed  to  designate  his  moral  attri- 
butes. It  represents lii.s  moral  perfection  in  it."* 
scparateness  from  sin  considered  as  convey- 
ing defilement.  But  tlie  term  is  also  used  to 
designate  the  divine  character  in  its  positive 
aspect  as  the  embodiment  of  all  virtue.  Tliis 
is  designated  bv  the  Apostle  John  as  love(l 
John  iv.  8).  The  holiness  of  God  U  pre- 
.scnted  as  the  reason  why  man  should  be  holy 
(1  Peter  i.  17),  and  holiness  in  man  is  reduced 
by  our  Saviour  to  supreme  love  to  God  and 
love  of  one's  neighbor  as  of  one's  .self  (?lalt. 


HOLT 


(374) 


HOLT 


xxii.  37).     The  holiness  of  God  in  its  active 
aspect  is  therefore  his  perfect  love. 

F.  H.  F. 

Holy  Alliance.    See  Alliance,  Holy. 

Holy  City.    See  Jerusalem. 

Holy  Coat  of  Treves,  The,  preserved  in 
the  cathedral  of  Treves,  is  said  to  be  tlie  seam- 
less garment  worn  by  Christ,  and  mentioned 
in  John  xix.  23.  Many  legends  cluster  around 
it,  some  grotesque  in  their  superstition,  others 
charming  by  their  naivete,  as  when  the  relic 
was  brought  into  the  city  all  the  bells  began 
tolling  by  themselves.  It  is  first  mentioned  in 
1054  ;  the  mention  in  the  Gesta  Trevirorum, 
467  or  327,  is  an  interpolation  from  the  12th 
century.  It  was  displayed  for  adoration  in 
1512,  to  which  Luther  refers  with  indignation. 
It  was  again  displayed  in  1844,  which  gave 
occasion  to  the  German  Catholic  mover^ent 
under  Ronge.  (See  V.  Sybel,  Der  lieilige 
Rock  zu  Trier,  Diisseldorf,  1844.) 

Holy  Family,  The,  often  confined  to  the 
Virgin  with  her  child,  but  often  compris- 
ing also  Joseph,  Anna,  and  Elizabeth,  and 
sometimes  including  even  John  the  Baptist, 
the  twelve  apostles  and  their  mothers,  has 
formed  one  of  the  principal  subjects  for  many 
of  tlie  greatest  painters — Raphael,  Da  Vinci, 
Correggio,  Murillo,  Hans  Holbein,  etc. 

Holy  Pire,  The,  refers  among  the  Hebrews 
to  that  fire  which  came  down  from  heaven 
tipon  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  first  sacrifice  after  the  giving  of 
the  Law  (Le^^.  ix.  24),  and  which  was  to  be 
kept  ever  burning  (Lev.  vi.  9),  and  among 
Christians  to  that  fire  which  is  kindled  every 
Holy  Saturday  by  sparks  from  a  Hint,  and  at 
wliich  are  lit  all  the  lights  and  lamps  of  the 
church  which  have  been  extinguished  on 
Good  Friday.  The  ceremony  is  still  observed 
in  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches,  and  it  is 
a  pity  that  a  symbol,  in  itself  so  beautiful 
and  so  just,  shall  give  rise  to  scandal,  as  it 
does  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in 
Jerusalem,  where  the  priests  claim  that  the 
new  fire  is  brought  miraculously  down  from 
heaven.  C.  P. 

Holy  Land,  The.     See  Canaan. 

Holy  League  is  a  name  frequently  applied 
in  tlie  10th  century  to  political  combinations 
which  sometimes  had  very  little  to  do  with 
religious  affairs,  and  certainly  never  could  lay 
any  claim  to  holiness  either  in  purpose  or  in 
means.  Thus,  in  1511,  Pope  Julius  II. 
formed  a  Holy  League  between  Spain,  Venice, 
and  himself  against  Prance.  It  was  afterward 
jomed  by  England  and  Germany,  and  served 
the  purpose  of  its  head  and  founder  quite 
well -the  extension  of  tlie  territory  of  the  pa- 
pal .states.  On  June  10,  1538,  another  Holy 
League  was  formed  at  Nuremberg  between 
Charles  V.,  his  brother  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
the  archbishops  of  :Mayence  and  Salzburg^ 
and  the  dukes  of  Bavaria,  Brunswick,  and 
bd.xony  to  maintain  the  Roman  Catholic  in- 
terest in  Germany  over  against  the  Protestant 
interest  represented  by  the  League  of  Smal- 
cald.    A  third  Holy  League  was  formed  in  1576 


between  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  pope,  the 
Guises,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing 
the  Reformation  in  France.  C.  P. 

Holy  OflSce  (sdnctum  officium),  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  spiritual  court  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  Inquisition. 

Holy  of  Holies,  or  the  Most  Holy  Place, 

formed  the  innermost  and  most  sacred  jjait  of 
the  Tabernacle  and  the  Jewish  Temple  (q.v.), 
separated  from  the  Holy  Place  by  the  Veil, 
containing  the  Ark,  and  entered  only  once  a 
year,  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  and  by  the 
high  priest  only.  The  term  is  also  sometimes 
applied  to  the  choir  of  the  Christian  Church, 
and  by  the  Nestorians  to  a  small  recess  at  the 
eastern  terminus  of  the  church  building,  con- 
taining only  a  cross  and  never  entered  by 
anybody. 

Holy  OiL    See  Chrism. 

Holy  Place  was  originally  the  name  of  that 
part  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the  Jewish  Temple 
(q.v.)  which  was  located  in  front  of  the  Holy 
of  Holies,  and  contained  the  golden  candle- 
stick, the  table  of  shewbread,  and  the  altar  of 
incense.  From  the  beginning  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury (Alexander's  journey  to  Jerusalem  falls 
in  312)  such  localities  in  Palestine  as  had  been 
the  scene  of  some  prominent  event  in  the  life 
of  Christ — his  birth,  crucifixion,  resurrection, 
etc. — began  to  be  designated  as  holy  places  and 
visited  by  pilgrims,  and  from  the  middle  of 
the  4th  century  the  name  was  also  given  to 
places  which  had  witnessed  the  sufferings  of 
the  martyrs  or  contained  their  shrines. 

Holy  Rood,  an  ancient  expression,  from 
the  Saxon  rode  or  rod,  is  synonymous  with 
Holy  Cross.  Holy  Rood  Day,  Sept.  14,  is  a 
day  of  feast  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
celebrated  in  commemoration  of  the  second 
elevation  of  the  cross  after  its  recovery  from 
the  hands  of  the  Persians  in  629,  the  first  ele- 
vation being  that  after  its  discovery  by  the 
Empress  Helena,  May  3,  326.  With  the  Ref- 
ormation the  festival  was  abolished  in  all 
Protestant  churches. 

Holy  Sepulchre,  The.  The  localities  in 
which  Christ  was  crucified  and  buried  are 
only  loosely  indicated  in  the  gospels.  From 
Matt,  xxvii.  32,  John  xix.  17,  Mark  xv.  29, 
and  Heb.  xv.  12  it  appears  that  the  place  of 
the  crucifixion  lay  outside  the  wall  ;  from 
Matt,  xxvii.  39  and  Mark  xv.  29,  that  a  pub- 
lic road  ran  by  it  ;  and  from  John  xxix.  41, 
that  there  was  a  garden  close  by  and  in  the 
garden  a  new  tomb  in  which  Christ  was  laid. 
These  indications  seem,  however,  not  to  agree 
with  the  actual  localities  pointed  out  by 
tradition,  for  they  are  situated  some  distance 
within  the  wall  ;  and,  indeed,  doubts  have 
been  felt  of  the  accuracy  of  the  tradition  since 
the  8th  century.  Robinson  rejects  it.  Biblical 
llesearcJies,  Boston,  1841,  and  Topography  ef 
Jerusalem  in  BiUiotheca  Sacra,  1846.  B ut  Sepp 
defends  it  {Jencmlem,  Munich,  1864,  2  vols., 
2d  ed.,  1873-75),  as  does  Clermont-Ganneau 
{L'Authenticitedu  Saint  Sepiilcre,  Paris,  1872). 
When  it  is  remembered,  however,  that  Jeru- 
salem was  totally  destroyed  by  Titus,  and  that 


HOLT 


(375) 


HOLT 


it  was  rebuilt  by  Hadrian  witli  the  express 
purpose  to  obliterate  every  trace  of  its  dis- 
tinctly Jewish  and  Christian  character,  it  does 
not  by  any  means  seem  impossible  that  the 
tradition  may  be  right  and  in  complete  har- 
mony with  the  gospels.  Constantine  the 
Great  built  tlie  first  church  over  the  holy 
sepulchre  in  336,  but  that  building  was  burnt 
down  by  Chosroes  II.  in  614.  Kebuilt  in  626, 
the  new  church  was  again  burnt  down  in  936 
by  the  Mohammedans.  Again  restored  in 
1048,  the  cathedral  was  utterly  destroyed  by 
the  conflagration  of  1808.  The  present  build- 
ing was  begun  in  1810,  and  was  reared  by  the 
Greeks  and  the  Arminians.     See  Jerusai^em. 

C.  P. 

Holy  Spirit,  the  third  person  of  the  Trinitj^ 
with  the  Father  and  the  Son  one  God  (see 
Tkinity).  Opinions  have  been  divided  as  to 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  may  be  summed  up  in 
two  classes,  that  which  views  him  as  merely 
the  spiritual  influence  of  God,  and  that  which 
views  him  as  truly  personal  and  divine,  con- 
substantial  with  the  Father  and  the  Son.  The 
arguments  which  have  usually  been  considered 
decisive  in  favor  of  the  latter  view  are  as  fol- 
lows :  There  are  ascribed  to  him  personal 
proparties,  understanding,  as  when  he  is  said 
to  search  the  deep  things  of  God  (1  Cor.  ii. 
10),  volition  (1  Cor.  xii.  11),  and  affections 
(Eph.  iv.  30)  ;  personal  acts,  as  when  he  is 
said  to  distinguish  between  persons  and  divide 
gifts  (1  Cor.  xii.  11),  to  speak  to  persons  (Acts 
xxi.  11),  and  through  persons  (Matt.  x.  20)  to 
guide  and  teach  (John  xvi.  13,  14),  to  com- 
mand and  forbid  (Acts  xiii.  2,  xvi.  6,  7).  He 
ma}''  be  the  object  of  personal  acts,  as  when 
blasphemed  against  (Matt.  xii.  31,  32).  The 
personal  pronouns  are  employed  of  him  (John 
xiv.  16,  17),  and  he  is  in  general  spoken  of  as 
coming  and  being  sent  (John  xiv.-xvi.),  as 
Christ  himself  is.  And  he  is  distinctly  spoken 
of  in  sharp  distinction  from  influences,  and  as 
himself  imparting  them,  when  it  is  said  that 
there  are  diversities  of  gifts,  but  the  same 
Spirit,  and  different  influences  are  then  re- 
viewed (1  Cor.  xii.  4-11).  Now,  if  he  be 
properly  viewed  as  personal,  then  there  can 
be  little  hesitation  to  view  him  as  divine,  for 
divine  attributes  are  ascribed  to  him,  as  om- 
niscience (1  Cor.  ii.  9-13).  omnipotence  (1  Cor. 
xii.  10),  omnipresence  ;  divine  works,  as  re- 
generation (John  iii.  5)  ;  divine  honors,  as 
when  blasphemy  against  him  is  said  to  be  a 
greater  sin  than  that  against  even  the  Saviour 
of  men  ;  and  he  is  joined  with  the  Father  and 
the  Son  in  the  name  of  the  one  Godhead  into 
which  the  Christian  is  baptized  (Matt,  xxviii. 
19)  aud  by  which  he  is  blessed  (2  Cor.  xii.  14). 

HisTOUY. — The  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
was  not  at  once  developed  in  the  church. 
That  his  deity  was  really  acknowledged  from 
the  tirsl  is  evident  from  Ihe  expressions  which 
occur  in  those  passages  in  the  early  writers  in 
which  it  was  sought  to  bring  together  a  sum- 
mary statement  of  the  Christian  faith,  such 
as  was  finally  made  in  what  we  call  the 
Apostles'  Creed.  Thus  Irenttus  says  the 
church  believes  in  God  the  Fatlier,  in  Je.>us 
Christ,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in  one 
passage  associates  with"  the  Father,  the  Son, 


and  the  Spirit,  separating  the  Spirit  distinctly 
from  the  other  persons  of  the  Trinity,  and  also 
from  everything  created.  Yet  in  this  early 
period  expressions  are  found  in  which  the 
Spirit  and  the  Son  are  confounded  apparently, 
showing  that  the  age  of  di.stinct  reflection  Iiad 
not  yet  set  in.  Tertullian,  who  subordinates 
the  Son  to  the  Father,  .subordinates  the  Spirit 
to  the  Son. 

With  the  Nicene  age  more  distinct  reflection 
upon  the  Holy  Spirit  b(!gan.  The  ISiccne 
Creed  of  325,  following  the  Apostles'  (Jreed 
of  the  time,  had  simply  said,  in  the  third  ar- 
ticle, "And  in  the  Holy  Ghost."  But  the 
"  triad  "  had  been  frequently  spoken  of,  and 
its  nece.s.sary  nature  had  been  an  argument  for 
the  divinity  of  the  Son.  Now  it  was  seen 
that  there  could  not  be  a  triad  in  which  the 
third  element  was  anything  but  God,  any 
more  than  one  in  which  the  second  element 
was  not  God.  The  Scriptures  were  also 
studied  in  this  connection.  The  experience  of 
the  church  was  called  upon  to  testify,  and 
from  the  divine  character  of  the  operations 
ascribed  to  the  Spirit  his  divinity  was  easily 
inferred.  Sanctification,  the  Spirit's  work, 
was  essentially  the  same  as  the  work  of  .salva- 
tion, which  had  been  seen  to  require  a  divine 
Son.  And  thus  it  was  that  by  the  time  of  the 
second  (Ecumenical  Council,  of  381,  the 
church  was  ready  to  add  tho.sc  phrases  which 
exalted  the  Spirit  to  equality  of  worship  aud 
glory  with  the  Father  and  the  Son.  From 
this  time  no  attack  has  been  made  upon  the 
divinity  of  the  Spirit  which  has  not  also  beeu 
aimed  again.st  the  divinity  of  the  Son.  Ques- 
tions of  his  relation  to  the  Father  and  the  Son 
(procession)  have  agitated  and  separated 
Christians  (see  Filioque),  but  the  forms  of 
statement  wliich  Augustine  adopted,  and 
which  place  the  Spirit  upon  the  plane  of  per- 
fect divinity  and  identity  of  sukstance  with 
the  Father  and  Son,  have'  been  accepted  iis  the 
true  faith  delivered  to  the  church. 

F.  II.  F. 

Holy  Thursday.    See  Ascension  Dav. 

Holy  Water.  The  use  of  holy  water  by 
the  Christian  Church  originated  at  once  from 
Jewish  and  pagan  customs.  The  Jew  who 
had  become  legally  unclean  was  restored  to 
communion  in  prayer  and  .sacrifice  by  bathing, 
washiilg  his  clothes,  and  being  sprinkldl  with 
the  water  of  separation.  Tlie  courts  of  tli_e 
heathen  temples  had  their  fountains  and  piiii- 
fication  ;  washing  of  the  hands  before  wor- 
shipping was  obligatory.  In  the  Christian 
Church  such  customs,  no  doubt,  received  a 
peculiar  coloring  from  the  superstitions  very 
early  connected  with  the  baptismal  water. 
The  earliest  mention  of  holv  water— that  is, 
water  exorcised  and  blessed  by  a  i)ricst  or 
bishop,  occurs  in  the  so-called  Apostolical 
Conslituti(jns,  and  the  custom  is  still  in  use 
in  the  Greek  aud  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
where  vessels  with  holy  wafer  are  always 
found  at  the  entrance  to"tho  church  building, 
and  sprinkling  with  it  forms  the  introtluction 
to  every  ordinance.  G.  P. 

Holy  Week,  The,  is  tlie  last  week  of  Lent, 
coinnunciiiir  with  I'aliii  Sunday,  and  cfinipris- 
ing  the  anniversaries  of  the  institution  of  the 


HOLZHATTER 


(376) 


HOMOLOGOUMENA 


Lord's  supper  and  of  the  passion  of  our  Sa- 
viour. 

Holzhauer,  Bartolomaeus.     See  Barthol- 

OMITES. 

Homiletics,  Homily.  Tlie  nature  of  Chris- 
tianity is  such,  resting,  as  it  does,  upon  the 
free  decision  of  man  for  God  and  Christ,  and 
calling  for  the  exercise  of  love  and  other  holy 
emotions,  that  the  communication  of  the  truth 
must  foi-m  a  large  part  of  its  public  work. 
Hence,  from  the  very  first,  with  the  service  of 
prayer  and  praise  has  been  joined  the  reading 
and  exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  ap- 
plication of  scriptural  truth  in  forms  adapted 
to  convert  the  sinner  and  edify  the  saint. 
Naturally,  the  reading  and  the  preaching  were 
originally  united,  and  the  form  which  the  ad- 
dress took  was  that  of  easy  and  conversational 
exposition.  The  Greek  term  homily  was  ap- 
plied to  such  preaching,  and  after  a  time, 
when  more  formal  preaching  became  common, 
another  term  corresponding  to  our  discourse 
was  appropriated  to  that.  The  supply  of 
capable  preachers  did  not  increase  as  fast  as 
the  necessities  of  the  Christian  congregations, 
and  hence  the  practice  was  common  of  read- 
ing the  approved  sermons  of  others.  The 
term  homily  was  finally  applied  to  a  sermon 
intended  for  this  use.  Collections  of  such 
were  emplo^'ed  in  the  early  Gallic  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  churches.  Charlemagne  had  a  book  of 
homilies  prepared  and  issued  between  776  and 
784,  which  went  through  a  number  of  edi- 
tions. Tw'o  books  of  homilies  were  issued  in 
1547  and  1563  respectively  in  England,  which 
have  acquired,  in  a  certain  sense,  symbolical 
character  in  the  l^nglish  Church. 

Homiletics,  as  a.  science,  treats  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  composition  and  delivery  of  ser- 
mons. It  is  also  an  art,  inasmuch  as  it  con- 
tains practical  instruction  in  various  methods 
by  which  the  principles  of  the  science  are  to 
be  applied.  It  is  therefore  closely  akin  to 
general  rhetoric,  and  indeed  only  differs  from 
it  in  that  it  has  to  do  with  a  particular  kind 
of  the  oral  discourse  to  the  consideration  of 
which  rhetoric  is  devoted.  The  peculiarities 
of  homiletics  are  therefore  all  dependent  upon 
the  peculiarities  of  the  sermon,  and  these  are 
all  suggested  by  the  most  marked  feature  to 
strike  the  attention  of  the  casual  observer,  the 
fact  that  it  is  founded  upon  a  text  of  the  Bi- 
ble. This  is  no  meaningless  phenomenon  or 
the  survival  of  an  historical  custom  without 
special  justification  in  our  own  day.  The 
church  is  founded  upon  the  truth  revealed  in 
Jesus  Christ  and  recorded  in  the  Bible.  Its 
mission  is  to  save  men  by  imparting  to  them 
that  knowledge  of  Jesus  Christ  which  shall 
lead  to  repentance  and  faith.  The  truth  with 
which  it  operates  is  contained  in  the  Bible. 
And  thus,  as,  in  the  beginning,  preaching 
began  with  the  exposition  of  the  Bible,  so  it 
must  now  keep  in  immediate  contact  with 
the  biblical  truth,  and  also  with  the  biblical 
forms  of  the  truth.  This  is  actually  secured 
—and  how  can  it  better  be  V— by  the  use  of  a 
text.  The  text  anchors  the  sermon  in  some 
degree  to  the  Bible.  It  has  a  tendency  to 
batiishfrom  the  discussions  of  the  pulpit  those 
subjects  which  cannot  be  easily  and  naturally 


connected  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Word  of 
God.  It  keeps  the  church  true  to  its  peculiar 
mission.  And  hence  the  treatment  which  the 
text  should  receive  in  the  sermon— another 
point  which  homiletics  has  to  treat  in  distinc- 
tion from  ordinary  rhetoric — is  clear.  As  the 
Bible  in  general  is  the  basis  of  the  preaching 
in  general,  so  the  text  chosen  is  the  basis  of 
the  sermon  which  it  precedes.  It  must  be 
treated  as  the  source  of  the  truth  to  be  devel- 
oped, as  the  authority  for  the  proposition  laid 
down,  as  the  suggestion,  or  the  germ,  or  the 
illustration  of  the  leading  idea  of  the  discourse. 
It  must  be  honestly  treated  as  a  legitimate  au- 
thority. 

Most  of  the  other  parts  of  the  sermon  are 
also  found  in  every  oral  discourse — the  prop- 
osition, the  development,  etc.— and  are  to  be 
written  upon  those  general  principles,  as  to 
proof,  illustration,  or  ornamentation,  "which 
obtain  elsewhere.  There  is,  however,  another 
peculiarity  of  preaching  which  distinguishes 
it  from  much  other  oral  discourse,  and  leads 
to  one  peculiar  portion  of  the  complete  ser- 
mon—its purpose  to  produce  an  immediate 
result,  whether  of  conviction  and  conversion 
or  of  edification.  Its  purpose,  if  addressed  to 
the  sinner,  is  to  lead  to  immediate  repentance, 
or,  with  the  saint,  it  seeks  some  new  and  im- 
mediate amendment  at  some  point,  some  in- 
tensification of  resolve,  some  enlargement  of 
horizon,  and  hence  of  activity.  Hence  the  ap- 
plication to  the  hearer  of  the  truth  presented 
in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  to  immediate  action 
is  an  integral  part  of  every  complete  sermon. 
Still,  here  also,  the  forms  by  which  the  ap- 
plication is  to  be  made  are  infinite,  and  are  to 
be  determined  by  the  general  rules  of  the 
rhetorical  art.  The  application  may  come  at 
the  end  of  the  sermon,  may  be  cumulative  in 
structure  and  elTect,  or  it  may  be  dispersed 
throughout  the  sermon,  or  may  sometimes  be 
the  sura  and  substance  of  tlie  sermon,  but  in 
some  way,  and  in  some  manner,  it  must  be 
there,  and  homiletics  has  to  provide  the  in- 
struction which  shall  guide  the  inexperienced 
preacher  in  its  effective  use. 

The  first  Christian  homiletics  was  Augus- 
tine's Ghrutian  Doctrine.  The  Middle  Age 
furnished  nothing  of  great  importance,  but 
with  the  Reformation  the  art  of  preaching  be- 
gan to  be  cultivated  anew.  Erasmus  was  fol- 
lowed by  Ilyperius,  and  he  by  a  long  series. 
The  best  minds  of  the  present  age  have  not 
failed  to  make  valuable  additions  to  this  sci- 
ence. In  America  the  best  recent  works  are 
by  Hoppin,  Phelps,  Broadus,  Beecher,  Storrs, 
and  Taylor  ;  though,  where  excellent  works 
are  so  numerous,  distinctions  seem  almost  in- 
vidious. F.  H.  F. 

Homiliarium,  a  collection  of  Jiamilim  and 
serinojirs  for  the  whole  year,  from  the  works 
of  the  fathers,  and  for  use  in  the  churches  on 
Sundays  and  holidays.  Such  collections  were 
made  already  in  the  early  middle  ages,  but 
the  mast  celebrated  is  that  one  made  by  Pau- 
lus  Diaconus,  under  the  supervision  of  Alcuin, 
after  the  order  of  Charlemagne,  776-84. 

Homily.     See  Homiletics. 
Homologoumena  {accepted)  and   Antilego- 


HOMOOUSIAN 


(377) 


HOOGHT 


mena  {disputed)  are  the  two  terms  applied  by 
Eusebiu8  to  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
with  refereuce  to  their  authorship.  Under 
the  former  head  he  ranges  the  4  Gospels,  the 
Acts,  the  14  Epistles  of  Paul,  the  first  Epistle 
of  Peter,  and  the  first  Epistle  of  John  ;  under 
the  latter  the  Epistle  of  James,  tlie  second 
Epistle  of  Peter,  the  second  and  third  Epistles 
of  John,  and  the  Epistle  of  Jude.  The 
Apocalyse,  Iiowever,  lie  gives  a  place  by  itself. 

Homo-ousian  ('^/" <7u'  8<ime  substance),  homoi- 
ousian  {of  a  nu/tilar  suljsta/ice),  aud  hetero- 
ouaian  {({f  a /iidht'i-  substance)  ([naoUi  the  three 
dillerent  standpoints  in  the  great  Chiistologi- 
cal  controversy  of  the  4th  century.  The  lirst 
term  was  employed  by  the  orthodox  Athana- 
sius,  the  second  by  the  great  middle  party, 
the  semi- Arians,  or  Eusebius,  and  the  third  by 
the  heretic  Arius,  when  defining  the  relations 
between  the  first  aud  the  Sfecoml  person  in  the 
Trinity. 

Hone,  William,  b.  at  Bath,  June  3,  1780  ; 
d.  at  Tottenham,  o  m.  n.  of  London,  Xor.  8, 
1842.  He  was  a  writer  and  bookseller,  whose 
political  satires  and  a  parody  on  the  Prayer- 
Bonk  brought  him  more  than  once  before  the 
courts.  His  most  useful  publications  were, 
the  Apocryphal  New  Testament,  London,1820  ; 
Ancient  Mysteries,  1833  ;  Ecery-day  Book, 
1826  ;  Table  Book,  1827-28,  and  Year  Bouk, 
1829.  In  his  later  years  he  often  preached  at 
Weigh-house  Chapel,  Eastcheap.  (See  The 
Conversion  of  the  late  WUHani  Hone.  With 
further  particulars  of  his  life.  London, 
1853.)  F.  M.  B. 

Honey.  Three  different  kinds  of  honey 
are  mentioned  iu  the  Old  Testament :  tlie 
natural  product  of  the  bee,  a  vegetable  honey 
exuding  from  certain  trees  which  were  very 
common  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mt.  Sinai, 
and  a  manufactured  article,  still  known  in  the 
Orient  under  the  name  of  dibs,  and  consisting 
of  grape-juice  boiled  down  to  tiie  consistency 
of  honey. 

Ho-no'-ri-us  I.,  pope  625  to  638,  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Gregory  I.,  and  sought  to  extend  the 
papal  influence.  He  is  chiefly  important  for 
the  fact  that  in  a  letter  to  Sergius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  he  coincided  in  forms  of 
expression  as  well  as  substance  of  doctrine 
witb  the  monothelitism  of  that  bishop,  and 
that  iu  a  letter  in  which  he  directed  what  Ser- 
gius should  teach.  Thus,  though  speaking <?j! 
cathedra,  he  uttered  heresy,  for  which  he  was 
condemned  by  the  Ecumenical  Council  of  G81, 
which  con  lemnalion  was  ratified  by  Pope 
Leo  n.  Thus,  though  pope,  he  was  fallible. 
(See  Diillinger,  Fables  liespccting  the  Popes, 
Eng.  trans,  bv  H.  B.  Smith,  New  York, 
1872,  pp.  223-50  ;  Willis,  Pope  Ilonorius  and 
tlie  New  RoiiKin  Poijina,  London,  1879.)  IL, 
anti-pope  (Cadalus)  lUGl  to  lOfU.  il.,  pope 
1124  to  113IJ.  HI.  (Cencius  Savelli)  pope 
1216  t.)  1227.  He  succeedrd  Innocent  III., 
and  took  up  his  struggle  with  Frederick  II., 
which  he  did  not  wage  with  great  success. 
He  confirmed  flic  Dominican  and  Franciscan 
orders.  IV.  (Jacobus  Savelli)  pope  12S5  to 
1287.  F.  H.  F. 


Honorius,  Roman  emperor  395-423,  ordered 
in  399  all  pagan  temples  to  be  destroyed, 
which  was  impossible  ;  then,  in  409,  he  placed 
the  pagans  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Chris- 
tians in  religious  as  well  as  political  aud  social 
respect  ;  finally,  in  416,  he  excluded  them 
from  all  offices  in  the  army  and  in  the  admin- 
istration. More  consistent  was  his  treatment 
of  the  Donatists,  whom  he  persecuted  during 
his  whole  reign  relentlessly. 

Hontheim  (hont-hime),  Johann  Nikolaus 
von,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Treves,  Rhenish 
Prussia,  Jan.  27,  1701  ;  d.  there,  Sept.  2, 
1790  :  studied  history  aud  canon  law  at  Lou- 
vain  aud  Leyden.  and  iu  Rome  ;  entered  the 
service  of  the  church  in  1728,  and  was  in  1748 
made  suffragan  bishop  of  Treves.  His  con- 
tributions to  historical  literature  are  still  con- 
sidered very  valuable,  but  the  work  which 
made  his  name  famous  was  Justini  Febronii 
Icti  de  statu  ccclesioi  et  leyitima  potestate  Ro- 
viani  Pontificis  liber  fsiru/ularis,  ad  renniendos 
dissidentcs  in  religioiie  Vhristianos  compositus, 
Frankfort,  1763.  Although  published  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Febronius,  everybody  knew 
that  it  was  written  by  Hontheim,  and  he  never 
denied  it  ;  and  though  the  title  sets  forth  as 
the  purpose  of  the  work,  to  reunite  all  the 
various  Christian  denominations  into  one 
community,  the  book  is  in  reality  a  direct 
attack  on  the  papal  authority',  such  as  it  has 
developed  on  the  basis  of  fhePseudo-Isidorian 
Decretals.  The  positive  standpoint  from 
which  this  attack  was  made,  the  so-called 
Frebouianism,  was  simply  the  episcopal  in- 
dependence of  the  Curia  or  Gallicanisra,  and 
was  immediately  met  with  wide  and  deep 
sympathy.  The  book  was  translated  into 
German,  Italian,  and  French,  aud  ran  through 
many  editions.  Clement  XIII.  characterized 
it  as  pestilential  and  put  it  on  the  Index,  but 
for  some  time  the  author  remained  unmolest- 
ed. Nevertheless,  when  those  negotiations 
began  which  finally  led  to  the  Ems  Puncta- 
tions  (q.v.),  Pius  VI.  became  alarmed,  and 
Hontheim  was  compelled — by  physical  force, 
it  is  said— to  recant.  (See  O.  3Iejer,  Febro- 
nius, Tiibingen,  1880.)  C.  P. 

Hood,  Edward  Paxton,  English  Congre- 
gationali.~t  ;  b.  in  A\  estmiuster,  London,  Dec. 
18,  1820  ;  d.  in  Paris,  June  12, 18S5.  He  was 
educated  privately  ;  began  his  ministry  in 
1852,  and  was  pastor  of  Falcon  Square  Inde- 
pendent Chapel  in  London  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  was  editor  of  the  Eclectic  liecicw 
and  of  The  Preacher's  Lantern  from  1871-75, 
and  lectured  on  social,  literary,  and  religious 
subjects  in  Great  Britain,  anil,  in  1881,  also 
in  the  United  States.  His  best  known  book 
is  Lamps,  Pitchers,  and  Trumpets  (London, 
1867),  an  interesting  historical  and  anecdotal 
work  on  preaching.  He  was  a  voluminous 
author  of  probably  ephemeral  books.  (Sec 
list  in  Eacyclopmiia  of  Liviuf/  Divines  [now 
called  vol.  iv.  of  the  Schaff-IIerzor/  Encyclo- 
jxrdia]  ;  of  them  mav  be  mentioned  his  biog- 
raphies of  Robert  Hall  [1881],  and  Christmas 
Evans  [1881].) 

Hooght  (hogt),  Eberhard  van  der,  a  Re- 
formed pastor  at  Nieuwendam,  in  the  Nether- 


HOOGSTRATEN 


(378) 


HOOPER 


lands  ;  d.  1716  ;  published  in  1705,  at  Am- 
sterdam and  Utreclit,  a  Biblia  Ilebraica,  with 
annotations  of  the  various  readings,  which 
has  been  often  reprinted,  London,  1838  ; 
Leipzig,  183.1  C.  P. 

Hoogstratea  (liog-stra'-ten),  Jakob  van,  b. 
at  Hoogstraten,  near  Antwerp,  1454  ;  d.  at  Co- 
logne, Jan.  21,  1527  ;  studied  at  Louvaiu  ; 
entered  tlie  Dominican  order  ;  became  profes- 
sor of  theology  at  Cologne,  and  was  made  in- 
quisitor of  the  provinces  of  Ma^^ence,  Treves, 
and  Cologne.  As  such  he  played  an  unenvi- 
able figure  in  the  lives  of  Reuchlin,  Erasmus, 
Luther,  etc.  The  Humanists  called  him  Pes- 
tis  Gcrmanim,  and  he  is  said  to  have  died  from 
rage  after  reading  Epist.  Obsc.  Vir.  (q.  v.) 

Hook,  Walter  Farquhar,  D.D.  (Oxford, 
1837),  F.R.S.  (1863),  Church  of  England;  b. 
in  Loadou,  March  13,  1798  ;  d.  at  Chichester, 
Sussex,  Oct.  20,  1875.  His  father  was  Dr. 
James  Hook,  dean  of  Worcester.  He  was 
educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford,  graduat- 
ing 1821,  and  became  chaplain  to  the  king, 
1827;  vicar  of  Leeds,  1837,  and  dean  of 
Chichester,  1859.  He  was  a  conservative 
High  Churchman,  extremely  active  both  in 
clerical  and  in  literary  work.  At  Leeds  he 
erected  21  churches,  30  parsonages,  and  60 
schools.  Besides  minor  publications,  he  wrote 
or  compiled  a  CJnirch  Dictionary,  London, 
1841,  12th  ed.,  1872  ;  Ecclesiastical  Biography, 
1845-52,  8  vols.,  and  Lires  of  the  Archhishops 
of  Canterbuni,  1860-76,  12  vols.  (See  his  life 
by  W.  R.  W.  Stephens,  1878.)         F.  M.  B. 

Hooker,  Richard,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Heavy-free,  near  Exeter,  1553  or  1554  ;  d. 
at  Bishopsbourne,  Kent,  JSTov.  2,  IGOO.  Bish- 
op Jewel  sent  him  to  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  became  fellow,  1577,  and 
Hebrew  lecturer,  1579.  He  took  orders  1581, 
and  was  soon' after  appointed  to  preach  at  St. 
Paul's  Cross,  in  London.  Guileless  in  world- 
ly matters,  he  committed  to  a  casual  acquaint- 
ance the  choice  of  a  wife,  who  proved,  says 
Wood,  "  a  clownish,  silly  woman,  and  withal 
a  mere  Xantippe."  In  1584  he  became  rector 
of  Drayton-Beauchamp,  Buckinghamshire  ; 
visited  here  by  two  of  his  pupils,  Sandys  and 
Cranmer,  he  was  found  tending  sheep,  and 
was  presently  called  from  their  company  to 
rock  the  cradle.  Sandys*  report  induced  his 
father,  the  archbishop,  to  make  Hooker  mas- 
ter of  tlie  Temple,  London,  in  1585.  But  he 
was  happier  with  the  pen  than  in  the  pulpit, 
and  he  iiad  for  a  colleague  Walter  Travers,  a 
Puritan  ;  so  tiiat  "  the  forenoon  sermon  spake 
Canterbury,  and  the  afternoon  Geneva,"  and 
"  the  congregation  ebbed  in  the  forenoon  and 
flowed  in  the  afternoon."  Travers  was  si- 
lenced, and  put  forth  a  memorial  ;  Plooker's 
answer  to  this  was  in  some  sense  the  germ  of 
his  great  work.  Tired  of  the  strife  of  tongue  s 
and  the  noise  of  London,  he  asked  Archbishop 
Wiutgift  to  remove  him  "into  some  quiet 
parsonage,"  where  he  might  continue  and 
complete  the  "treatise"  ho  had  begun,  and 
was  in  1591  made  rector  of  Boscomb  in  Wilt- 
f^hire,  and  prebendary  and  sub-dean  of  Sarum. 
In  1595  the  (pieen  transferred  him  to  Bishops- 
bourne.     In  the  seclusion  of  these  rural  par- 


ishes he  pursued  his  studies  with  happy  results 
to  his  fame.  Pour  books  Of  the  Lawes  of  Ec- 
clesiastical Politie  were  entered  at  Stationers' 
Hall,  London,  March  9,  1592,  and  published 
1594  ;  a  fifth  followed  in  1597.  Of  the  rest 
only  rough  drafts  wx^re  found  after  Hooker's 
death,  and  his  widow  was  suspected  of  having 
burned  his  completed  manuscripts.  The 
sixth  and  eighth  books  appeared  in  1648  the 
seventh  in  1617  ;  some  doubt  attends  their  au- 
thorship, especially  that  of  the  sixth  ;  but  the 
whole  have  been  repeatedly  reprinted  as  his. 
His  works,  including  several  sermons,  were 
edited  with  a  life  by  Bishop  Gauden,  1662, 
and  by  J.  Keble,  1836.  The  life  by  Isaak 
Walton,  1665,  is  well  known.  The  Laics 
aimed  to  defend  Episcopacy  against  the  at- 
tacks of  Puritanism  ;  but  the  spirit  rises  from 
the  realm  of  official  and  partisan  divinity  to 
that  of  philosophic  thought  ;  "  the  judicious 
Hooker"  was  too  temperate  for  a  mere  polemic. 
Macaulay  assigns  liim  "  a  middle  place  be- 
tween the  school  of  Cranmer  and  the  school 
of  Laud,"  and  Green  (the  historian)  "the 
highest  rank  among  English  prose- writers." 
Few  theologians  have  known  so  well  at  once 
how  to  delve  deep  and  soar  liigh.  A  master 
of  language  as  of  thought,  Hallam  calls  him 
"  the  finest  writer  of  the  Elizabethan  period," 
and  says,  "  he  not  only  opened  the  mine,  but 
explored  the  depths  of  our  native  eloquence. " 
F.  M.  B.     • 

Hooper,  John,  reformer  and  martyr  ;  b.  in 
Somersetshire,  1495  ;  d.  at  the  stake,  Glou- 
cester, Feb.  9,  1555.  He  entered  Merton  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  1514  ;  was  admitted B. A.,  1518, 
and  became  a  Cistercian  monk,  but  afterward 
returned  to  Oxford  and  embraced  the  doc- 
trines of  Geneva.  He  fled  to  France  in  1539, 
returned,  and  was  obliged  to  escape  in  dis- 
guise ;  married  a  Burgundian  lady,  and  spent 
some  time  in  Zurich  with  Bullinger.  In  1549 
he  preached  daily  to  crowds  in  London. 
Nominated  in  1550  to  the  see  of  Gloucester, 
he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  consecration  till 
Edward  VI.  removed  the  clause  referring  to 
the  saints,  and  further  resisted  because  of  his 
deep  distaste  for  vestments.  This  involved  him 
in  vehement  controversy  with  Cranmer  and 
Ridley,  and  caused  his  im'Trisonment  in  the 
Fleet.  Submitting  at  length  to  the  arguments 
of  Bucer  and  Peter  Martyr,  he  was  consecrat- 
ed, March  8,  1551,  and  continued  his  evan- 
gcdical  labors  with  such  vigor  as  to  call  forth 
from  Bullinger  and  Gathers  friendly  warnings 
to  exercise  prudence.'  He  was  made  bishop 
of  Worcester  in  coriomendam,  May  20,  1552, 
and  showed  "  double  diligence  in  his  double 
diocese."  On  Mary's  accession  he  refused  to 
escape,  saying,  "  Once  I  fled  ;  now  I  will  con- 
tinue to  live  and  die  with  my  sheep. "  He  was 
brought  to  London  in  Aug.,  1553,  kept  in 
piison  16  months,  often  examined,  urged 
vainly  to  recant,  and  tried,  Jan.  21,  1555,  by 
Bonner  and  Gardiner,  on  the  three  charges  of 
marrying,  allowing  divorce  and  second  mar- 
riage (where  sanctioned  by  our  Lord),  and 
denying  the  bodily  presence  in  the  eucharist. 
Brought  up  the  next  day,  he  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  pope  as  licad  of  the  church. 
Jan.  29  he  was  condemned  and  degraded  with 


HOPKINS 


(379) 


HORNE 


John  Kogers.  Sent  back  to  Gloucester  to 
suffer,  he  told  the  magistrates  that  "he  was 
not  come  there  as  one  compelled  to  die,  but  as 
one  willing  to  give  his  life  for  the  truth." 
Tlie  stake  was  set  near  his  own  cathedral  ; 
some  7000  persons  were  present,  but  he  was 
forbidden  to  address  them.  A  pardon  was 
offered  if  he  would  recant  ;  he  cried,  "  If  you 
love  my  soul,  away  with  it."  The  fagots 
were  green,  and  the  wind  blew  the  smoke 
away  from  him  ;  but  he  bore  long  torments 
with  saintly  constancy.  Foxe  gives  a  full  ac- 
count of  his  life  and  death  in  the  Book  of 
Martyra.  His  writings  were  edited  by  S. 
C'arr,  Cambridge,  1843,  ISoS,  2  vols. 

F.  M.  B. 

Hopkins,  Mark,  D.D.  (Dartmouth.  1837, 
Harvard,  1841),  LL.D.  (University  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  1857,  Harvard,  188(5),  Congre- 
gationalist  ;  b.  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  Feb.  4, 
1803  ;  d.  at  Williamstown.  Mass.,  June  17, 
1887.  He  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
1824;  was  professor  of  philosophy  there  from 
1830  till  his  death,  and  was  president  1836-72  ; 
pastor  of  the  college  church  1836-83;  presi- 
dent of  the  A.  B.  C.^F.  M.  1857  till  death.  He 
was  a  gifted  and  beloved  teacher.  His  best 
known  books  are  Eeidences  of  (JJirittianity, 
Boston,  1846,  3d  ed.,  1875  ;  The  Laic  of  Lovn 
and  Love  tis  a  Law,  IS'ew  York,  1869,  new  ed., 
IS-il  ;  All  Outline  Study  of  Man,  1873, 
new  ed.,  1876  ;  The  JSci-iptural  Idea  of  Man, 
18S3. 

Hopkins,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Brown,  1790),  b. 
in  Waterbury,  Coan.,  Sept.  17,  1721  ;  d.  in 
Newport,  K.  I.,  Dec.  20,  1803.  He  entered 
Yale  College  in  1737,  and  was  educated  here 
in  the  Divinity,  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
logic,  which  constituted  the  regular  course  of 
instruction.  His  conversion  was  prepared  by 
hearing  Whitetield  and  Tennent,  but  David 
Brainerd  was  the  principal  instrument  in 
effecting  it.  He  studied  theology  a  short  time 
(8  months)  with  Jonathan  Edwards,  and  was 
settled  at  Great  Barrington,  Mass.,  Dec.  28, 
1743.  He  was  by  nature  a  teacher  rather  than 
a  preacher.  His  parish  labors  and  ministra- 
tions to  the  Indians  were  accompanied  by 
deep  studies  in  dirinity  in  connection  with 
Edwards  and  Bellamy.  '  Di.smi.ssed  in  1709,  he 
was  installed  at  Newport,  in  1770.  During 
the  Revolutionary  War  his  flock  was  scattered 
and  Hopkins  himself  away,  but  he  returned 
and  clung  to  his  post.  Here  his  literary  labors 
were  performed,  and  lie  made  efforts  in  behalf 
of  the  slave,  and  the  Christianization  of  Africa 
by  means  of  its  colonization.  His  principal 
theological  works  are  that  upon  Holiness  and 
his  Systciiiof  Theolofiy  (179".).  Best  edition  of 
his  works, "Boston.  1852,  with  memoir  (om- 
bodving  the  Autobiography,  1805)  bv  Profes- 
sor "Park,  3  vols.  F."  H.  F. 

Hopkinsianism.     Sec  New  Exgl.\nd  The- 

oi.ot;v. 

Hor,  Mt.jis  the  highest  and  most  conspicu- 
ous mountain  of  the  sandstone  range  stretch- 
ing from  tiie  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead 
Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Akabah.  "  It  is  situated 
about  midway  between  those  two  points,  and 
rises  4800  feet  above   the  level  of  the  sea. 


Here  died  Aaron  (Num.  xx.  24-29),  and  over 
his  tomb  the  Mohammedans  have  erected  a 
memorial  building.  Another  Mt.  Horeb  is 
mentioned  (Num.  xxxiv.  7),  but  has  not  been 
identified. 

Horae  Canonicae.     See  Canonicai.,  Houks. 

Horeb.     See  Sinai. 

Hor'-mah  {a  desolate  place),  a  Canaanitish 
cit}',  was  first  known  as  Zephath,  "  a  watch- 
tower,"  but  had  its  name  changed  after  its 
destruction  by  the  Israelites  (Num.  xxi.  1-3, 
Judges  i.  17).  Subsequently  it  was  rebuilt  (1 
Sam.  XXX.  30).  The  explorers  do  not  agree 
with  respect  to  its  location.  The  most  prob- 
able view,  however,  seems  that  of  Palmer, 
who  identifies  it  with  the  present  Sebaiteh. 

Horn,  The,  was  used  by  the  Israelites  as  a 
vessel  for  liquids,  oil,  wine,  etc.  (1  Sam.  xvi. 
1),  and  as  a  trumpet  (.Josh.  vi.  4-5).  Being 
the  chief  means  of  attack  and  defence  with 
many  animals,  and  making  an  impression  of 
strength,  when  well  developed,  it  has  fur- 
nished material  for  much  figurative  speech 
also  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  for  instance, 
"to  exalt  the  horn"  (Deut.  xxxiii.  17),  "to 
cut  off  the  horn"  (Jer.  xlviii.  25),  "to  defile 
the  horn  in  the  dust"  (Job  xvi.  15). 

Home,  George,  D.D.  (Oxford,  17G4), 
Churcli  of  England  ;  b.  at  Olham,  near  Maid- 
•stone,  Kent,  Nov.  1,  1730  ;  d.  at  Bath,  Jan. 
17,  1792.  He  entered  University  College,  Ox- 
ford, 1746  ;  became  fellow  of  Magdalen,  1749, 
and  president,  1768  ;  chaplain  to  the  king, 
1771  ;  vice  chancellor  of  the  university.  1776  ; 
dean  of  Canterbury,  1781  ;  bishop  of  Nor- 
wich, 1790.  He  adopted  the  views  of  John 
Hutchinson  (((.v.),  and  wrote  much  in  defence 
of  these  doctrines  and  against  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton (1751-52),  Shuckford  (1754),  Kennicott 
(1756-60),  Hume  (Letter  to  Adam  Smith,  1777, 
and  Letters  on  Infidelity,  1784),  and  Priestley 
(1787).  His  Commentary  on  the  Pnalms,  1776, 
has  been  much  valued  as  a  devotional  book. 
His  collected  works,  with  life  by  W.  Jones  of 
Nayland,  appeared  in  London,  1795-99,  6 
vols,  and  1831,  4  vols.  F.  M.  B. 

Home,  Thomas  Hartwell,  D.D.  (Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  1^41),  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  in  London,  Oct.  20,  1780  ;  d.  there, 
Jan.  27,  1862.  He  attended  Christ's  Hospital, 
1789-95,  and  as  a  barrister's  clerk  diligently 
improved  his  leisure  by  private  study.  His 
JS'ecesxity  and  Truth  of  the  Christ ia n  lievela- 
tion,  written  at  18,  appeared  isou.  He  en- 
tered the  Surrey  Institution,  1809,  as  sub- 
librarian ;  became  librarian,  1814,  and  in 
1818  published,  in  London,  An  Introduction 
to  the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  3  toIs.  This  work  (revised  and 
enlarged  in  5  vols.,  1846,  and  again  1856)  is 
the  most  extensive  and  successful  of  its  kind 
in  the  language,  and  has  long  borne  an  indis- 
pen.sable  part  in  theological  education.  Bishop 
Howley  considered  it  a  suflicient  title  to  holy- 
orders,  which  the  author  received  181 9.  Aber- 
deen made  him  ^LA.,  1818,  anl  Cambridge 
B.D.,  1829.  He  Iw-came  senior  assistant  libra- 
rian iu  the  British  Museum,  1824  ;  prebendary 


HORSES 


HOSIUS 


of  St.  Paul's,  1831  ;  and  lector  of  St.  Ed- 
mund-the-King  and  St.  Nicolas  Aeons,  Lon- 
don, 1833.  His  minor  publications  are  very 
numerous.  F.  M.  B. 

Horses,  The  Use  of,  among  the  Hebrews, 
though  not  absolutely  prohibited,  was  never- 
theless discouraged  (Deut.  xvii.  16)  ;  their 
beasts  of  burden  were  the  ox  and  the  ass,  and 
when  finally  the  horse  was  introduced,  in  the 
time  of  David  and  Solomon,  it  was  solely  for 
warlike  purpose,  not  in  agriculture  or  for 
pleasure. 

Horse-leech,  occurring  only  once  (Prov. 
XXX.  15),  is  a  kind  of  worm  very  common  in 
stagnant  waters  in  Palestine,  which  fastens 
itself  within  the  nostrils  or  mouth  of  animals 
while  they  drink,  and  sucks  their  blood  until 
its  own  body  is  completely  tilled,  giving  at  the 
same  time  much  pain. 

Horsley,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  ), 

LL.D.  (  ),  F.R.S.  (1767-84),  Church 

of  England  ;  b.  in  London,  1733  ;  d.  at  Brigh- 
ton, Oct.  4,  1806.  He  passed  from  Westmin- 
ster School  to  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge  ;  grad- 
uated, 1758  ;  became  rector  of  Newington 
Butts,  Surrey,  1759  ;  of  Aldbury,  Surrey, 
1774 ;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  London, 
1777  ;  archdeacon  of  St.  Alban's,  1780  ;  rec- 
tor of  Southweald,  Essex,  1782  ;  prebendary 
of  Gloucester,  1787  ;  bishop  of  St.  David's, 
1788  ;  bishop  of  Rochester  and  dean  of  West- 
minster, 1793  ;  bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  1803. 
His  first  see  was  a  reward  for  vanquishing 
Dr.  Priestley  in  a  contest  that  grew  out  of  the 
latter's  Corruptions  of  Chi-istianity.  He  edit- 
ed Newton's  works,  1779-85,  5  vols.,  and 
wrote  on  a  variety  of  topics.  Some  of  his 
books  were  posthumous,  as  Charges,  Dundee, 
1813  ;  Tito  Book  of  Psalms  Translated,  Lon- 
don, 1815  ;  Biblical  Criticism,  London,  1820. 
His  Theological  Works  were  collected  in  9 
vols.,  1830,  and  6  vols.,  1845.  Though  acri- 
monious in  controversy,  he  was  an  eminent 
scholar,  a  brilliant  preacher,  a  conscientious 
prelate,  and  a  kind-hearted  man.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  Royal  Society,  1773-84. 

F.  M.  B. 

Hort,  Fenton  John  Anthony,  D.D.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1875),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  in 
Dublin,  April  23,  1828  ;  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  B.A.,  1850  ;  M.A.,  1853  ; 
B.D.,  1875  ;  was  ordained  deacon  in  1854, 
and  priest  in  1856  ;  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
1852-57,  and  of  Emmanuel  College  since  1872  ; 
divinity  lecturer  of  Emmanual  College,  1872- 
78,  and  Hulsean  professor  of  divinity  in  1878. 
He  was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the 
New  Testament  Company  of  the  Anglo- 
American  Bible  Revision  Committee.  His 
great  and  enduring  fame  rests  on  his  joint 
editorship  with  Bishop  Westcott  of  Tfie  Neio 
Testament  in  the  Original  Greek  :  A  Revised 
Text,  with  Introduction  and  Appendix  (Lon- 
don, 1881,  2  vols.,  smaller  edition  of  text, 
1885),  the  product  of  examination  and  colla- 
tion of  un(;ial  and  cursive  manuscripts  from 
1853  to  1881,  and  the  most  important  work  in 
the  department  since  Tischendorf  ;  the  second 
volume  is  by  Hort,  and  is  an  exhaustive  trea- 
tise on  textual  criticism. 


Hosanna  (save,  tee  beseech),  an  exclamation 
taken  from  Ps.  cxviii.  and  well  known  to  all 
Israelites,  because  it  formed  part  of  the  great 
Hallel  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  was  the 
cry  with  which  the  multitude  greeted  Christ 
at'his  last  entry  into  Jerusalem  (Matt.  xxi.  9). 

Ho'-se-a  {help),  the  son  of  Beeri,  one  of  the 
minor  prophets.  According  to  the  inscription 
of  his  book,  he  prophesied  during  the  reign  of 
Jeroboam  IL,  king  of  Israel,  and  the  reigns 
of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah, 
kings  of  Judah.  But  irrespective  of  the  su- 
perscription, all  the  salient  points  of  the  book 
itself  indicate  the  Northern  Kingdom  as  the 
place  and  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  (9th  cen- 
tury B.C.)  as  the  time  of  the  activity  of  the 
autlior.  The  description  of  Jehovah's  love 
for  Israel,  so  often  insulted,  yet  always  un- 
changed, and  the  exhortation  to  trust  in  this 
love  and  take  refuce  in  it  form  the  two  cen- 
tres around  which  his  prophetic  visions  move, 
and  from  him  originated  the  comparison  of 
the  covenant  between  Jehovah  and  Israel  to  a 
marriage,  the  designation  of  the  falling  away 
of  Israel  as  adultery,  etc.  The  marriage  of  the 
prophet  and  the  subsequent  issue  hadi  best  be 
understood  figuratively  (chap.  1).  For  lit., 
see  Minor  Prophets. 

Ho-she'-a  {God  is  help),  last  king  of  Israel. 
He  conspired  against  Pekah,  slew  him,  and 
seized  the  throne  (2  Kings  xv.  80),  and  ruled 
well,  but  could  not  save  the  declining  king- 
dom. He  paid  tribute  to  Assyria,  yet  was 
invaded  in  his  9th  year  by  that  power  because 
he  had  made  an  Egyptian  alliance  ;  his  capi- 
tal, Samaria,  was  taken  after  a  3  years'  siege, 
and  many  of  his  people  carried  away  captive 
(xvii.). 

Ho'-si-u3,  bishop  of  Corduba,  Spain  ;  b. 
256  ;  d.  357  or  359  ;  was  elected  bishop  in  296, 
and  appeared  shortly  after  the  accession  of 
Constant ine  the  Great  at  the  imperial  court  as 
a  man  of  great  influence.  He  was  instrumen- 
tal in  convening  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  325, 
and  presided  over  it.  Under  C.onstantius, 
however,  who  was  an  Arian,  his  position  be- 
came quite  different.  As  he  not  only  refused 
to  condemn  Athanasius,  but  also  to  have  any 
intercourse  with  the  Arians,  he  was  banished 
to  Sirmium.  He  signed,  however,  the  second 
Sirmian  formula,  which  established  inter- 
course with  the  Arians,  but  did  not  demand 
the  condemnation  of  Athanasius.  None  of 
his  writings  has  come  down  to  us.  (See 
Gams,  Kirchengeschiclite  von  Spanien,  Inns- 
bruck, 1862-76,  4  vols.,  1.  c.) 

Hosius,  Stanislaus,  b.  at  Cracow,  at  that 
time  the  capital  of  Poland,  May  5,  1504  ;  d. 
at  Capranica,  near  Rome,  Aug.  5,  1579  ; 
studied  law  at  Padua  and  Bologna,  and  be- 
came secretary  to  King  Sigismund  I.,  of  Po- 
land ;  entered  the  service  of  the  church,  and 
was  made  bishop  of  Culm  in  1549,  and  of 
Ermland  in  1551  ;  acted  as  papal  legate  to  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  spent  the  last  years  of 
his  life  at  the  papal  court.  He  was  a  fanatical 
opponent  of  tlie  Reformation  ;  founded  the 
college  of  Jesuits  at  Braunsberg  ;  enforced 
with  a  high  hand  the  statutes  of  Trent  in 


HOSPIOES 


(381) 


HOURS 


Poland,  and  admitted  without  a  blush  that  he 
wanted  Poland,  too,  to  have  its  Massacre  of 
St.  Bartlioleiueu-.  His  works  were  published 
at  Cologne,  1584,  3  vols.  ;  his  life  was  written 
by  Eichhorn,  Mayence,  1855,  2  vols. 

Hospices  were  originally  founded  in  the 
passes  of  the  Alps  by  monks  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  shelter  and  aid  to  pilgrims  on  their 
journey  to  Kome.  The  best  known  is  that  of 
the  Great  St.  Bernard. 

Hospinian  (hospe-ne  an),  Rudolph,  Re- 
formed theologian  ;  b.  at  Altorf ,  in  the  canton 
of  Zurich.  Switzerland,  Nov.  7,  1547  ;  d.  in 
the  city  of  Zurich,  March  11,  1G26  ;  studied 
theology  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  and 
was  appointed  director  of  the  gymnasium, 
afterward  also  preacher  at  Zurich,  lie  was  a 
polemical  writer,  both  with  spirit  and  with 
knowledge,  and  wrote  much  against  the  Ro- 
man Church,  Historia  Sacramcntaria,  Ilistona 
Jesuit ica,  etc.,  which  was  answered  by  Bel- 
larmin  and  Gretser,  and  against  the  Lutherans, 
Conwrdia  Dincors,  which  was  answered  by 
Hutter.  His  collected  works  appeared  at 
Geneva,  1C81,  in  7  folio  vols. 

Hospitallers,  or  Hospital  Brethren,  were 
associations  of  laymen,  knights,  canons,  and 
monks,  devoting 'themselves  to  the  nursing  of 
the  sick  and  poor  in  the  hospitals,  and  gener- 
ally observing  certain  monastic  rules,  though 
only  a  few  of  them  took  the  regular  monastic 
vows.  They  originated  in  Italy  in  the  9th 
century,  and  increased  immensely  in  number 
and  activity  in  the  time  of  the  crusades.  The 
larger  ones  had  generals  of  their  own,  the 
smaller  ones  only  a  superior  or  major.  Gen- 
erally they  stood  under  the  authority  of  the 
bishop,  but  some  of  them  ranged  immediately 
under  the  pope.  Since  the  12th  century  there 
■were  also  Hospital  Sisters,  who  connected  the 
education  of  young  girls  and  the  rescuing  of 
fallen  women  with  the  common  duties  of  the 
hospitals,  and  did  a  great  amount  of  good. 
See  Helj'ot,  Histcnre  d.  Ord.  Mon.,  Paris, 
1714-19,  8  vols.  ;  Herve-Bazin,  Les  Grands 
Ordres  de  Femmes,  1889.) 

Hospitals,  as  institutions  in  human  society 
for  the  nursing  of  the  sick  and  the  support  of 
tlie  poor,  are  a  direct  outgrowth  of  that  radi- 
cal change  in  the  feeling  of  human  fellowship 
which  Christianity  produced,  and  as  soon  as 
the  Christian  Church  became  tolerated  by  the 
government  of  the  pagan  state,  it  founded  its 
hospitals.  Jerome,  840-420,  built  one  at 
Betlilehem  and  Fabiola,  a  convert  of  his, 
founded  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  in 
Rome.  Basilius  the  Great,  330-79,  built  an- 
other in  Csesarea,  which  was  a  most  complete 
establishment,  having  also  a  division  for 
lepers.  The  first  hospitals  in  Gaul  date  from 
the  5th  century,  in  Germany  from  the  8th. 
Tiiey  were  generally  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  u.sed  the  dove  as  their  symbol. 
The  principal  hospital  in  Rome  is  still  desig- 
nated in  this  way.  and  in  Denmark  there  exist 
several  old,  rich  institutions  of  the  name, 
"  D.ive  Brethren  Hospitals,"  in  which  worthy 
old  people  are  supported.  C.  P. 

Host  (from  the  Latin  hostia,  a  "  sacrifice"), 


means  the  bread  or  oblate  or  wafer  used  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  unleavened, 
thin,  fiat,  circular,  and  stamped  with  a  cross, 
I  H.  S.,  tiie  figure  of  the  crucified  Christ,  or  the 
Agnus  Dei.  According  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  Christ  is  present  in 
the  host  both  as  God  and  man,  while  the  sub- 
stance of  bread  has  ceased  to  exist  after  the 
consecration.     See  Transubstaxtiation. 


Hot  Cross  Buns,  buns  with  the  figure  of 
the  cross  impressed  upon  them,  are  a  common 
English  breakfast  dish  on  Good  Friday,  prob- 
ably derived  from  the  time  Avhen  the  conse- 
crated bread,  marked  with  a  cross,  was  sent 
or  brought  home  to  those  who  by  sickness  or 
otherwise  were  hindered  from  partaking  in  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  church. 

Hottinger  (hot-ting-er)  is  the  name  of  two 
Swiss  theologians,  father  and  son.  Johann 
Heinrich,  b.  at  Zurich,  March  10,  1G20  ;  d. 
there  as  professor  of  theology,  Jvuie  5,  1G67  ; 
wrote  Ilixtoria  Eccles.,  Zurich,  1G55-67,  9 
vols.  Johan  Jacob,  b.  at  Zurich,  Dec.  1, 
1653  ;  d.  there  as  professor  of  theology,  Dec. 
18,  1735  ;  wrote  Ilelvetische  Kirchengeschiclde, 
Zurich,  1G98-1729,  4  vols. 

Houbigant(hoo-be-gon),  Charles  Fran9ois, 
b.  in  Paris,  1G86  ;  d.  there,  1783  ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Oratory,  and  published  a  Biblia 
Uebraica  with  Latin  translations,  Samaritan 
variations,  and  critical  notes,  and  Edcines  He- 
braiques  (Paris,  1732)  in  mnemonic  verses. 

Hours.  The  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks, 
and  Romans  divided  the  day,  reckoned  from 
one  sunrise  to  another,  just  as  we  do,  into  24 
hours.  But  as  they  divided  the  day  and  the 
night  each  separatel}"  into  12  hours,  and  as 
they  reckoned  the  day  from  sunrise  to  sunset 
and  the  night  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  it  follows 
that  an  hour  of  one  day  always  became  with 
them  a  little  longer  or  a  little'shorter  than  an 
hour  of  the  following  day,  and  that  an  hour 
of  the  day  and  an  hour  of  the  night  only  twice 
a  year  became  equally  long.  Hence  the 
phrases  the  long  summer  hours,  the  short 
winter  hours,  etc.,  where  we  say  the  long 
summer  days,  the  short  winter  days,  etc. 
More  comrrion  than  the  division  of  the  day 
and  the  night  each  into  13  hours  was,  in 
everydaj"  use,  the  division  into  4  quarters, 
watches,  each  of  3  hours  and  each  denominat- 
ed after  the  last  hour,  so  that  the  third  hour 
generally  meant  the  first  quarter,  the  first  3 
hours  of  the  day,  and  the  sixth  hour  the  sec- 
ond quarter,  the  3  hours  from  the  fourth  to 
the  sixth,  both  inclusive.  Among  the  Ro- 
mans, however,  also  another  division  was  in 
use,  time  being  computed  from  midnight  to 
midday  and  the  quarters  being  designated  by 
the  first,  not  by  tlie  last  hour.  Probably  this 
latter  method  was  employed  in  the  gospel  ac- 
cording to  St.  John,  and  if  so.  the  sixth  hour, 
the  time  of  the  trial  of  our  Lord  (John  xix. 
14),  was  not  an  hour  near,  though  before  noon, 
but  an  hour  near,  though  after  G  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  which  brings  the  narrative  of 


HOUSS 


(382) 


HOWE 


the  fourth  gospel  into  perfect  harmony  with 
that  of  the  three  others.  C.  P. 

House.  The  patriarchs  dwelt  in  tents ; 
hence  their  "house"  meant  not  their  abode, 
but  tlieir  "  family."  When  the  Hebrews  be- 
came an  ai^ricultural  people,  the  tent  disap- 
peared and  gave  place  to  the  permanent 
structure,  which,  of  course,  in  time  ran 
through  the  whole  scale  of  buildings  from  the 
hut  to  the  palace.  The  common  Hebrew 
honse  was  that  met  with  everywhere  in  the 
Orient,  built  of  sun-dried  or  baked  brick,  en- 
tered through  a  large  gate  with  wooden  posts 
adorned  with  proverbs  written  on  scraps  of 
parchment  and  with  doors  shut  by  wooden 
Ijars,  with  latticed  windows  set  high  iipin  the 
wall,  with  beams  and  roofing  of  sycamore  or 
cedar,  with  a  13at  roof,  the  housetop,  reached 
by  stairs  both  from  the  interior  and  from  the 
street,  and  used  for  various  purposes— recrea- 
tion, sleep,  lonely  meditations  or  religious 
exercises,  etc.  The  larger  and  richer  houses 
were  built  of  hewn  stone,  in  quadrangular 
form,  enclosing  a  courtyard,  and  often  two  or 
three  stories  high.  AH  the  rooms  of  the 
house,  also  those  belonging  to  the  women  of 
the  household,  and  which  occupied  the  rear 
of  the  building,  opened  into  this  courtyard, 
which  was  paved,  contained  the  well,  might 
be  very  roomy,  and  sometimes  was  reached 
through  a  front  court.  And  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  sach  a  house  offered  ample  opportunity 
for  columns,  arches,  balconies,  and  fountains  ; 
for  marble,  bronze,  gold,  and  magnificent 
hangings — in  short,  for  all  the  elegance  and 
luxury  which  Oriental  taste  would  desire  and 
national  wealth  could  acquire.  See  Archi- 
tecture, Hebrew. 

Hovey  (hiiv-e),  Alvah,  D.D.  (Brown  Uni- 
versity, Providence,  11.  I.,  1856),  LL.D. 
(Denison  University,  Granville,  O.,  and  Rich- 
mond [Va.],  College,  187G),  Baptist  ;  b.  at 
Greene,  Chenango  County,  N.  Y.,  March  5, 
1820 ;  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College, 
Hanover,  N.  H.,  1844,  and  from  Newton 
Theological  Institution,  Newton  Centre, 
Mass.,  1848  ;  has  been  connected  ever  since 
with  the  latter  institution  as  assistant  teacher 
of  Hebrew,  1849-55  ;  professor  of  church 
liistory,  1853-55  ;  proff«,or  of  theology  and 
Christian  ethics  since  1855  ;  president  since 
1868.  He  was  member  of  the  Executive 
Committee  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union,  1868-83.  Of  his  works  may  be  men- 
tioned Life  of  Rev.  Isaac  Backus,  Boston, 
1858  ;  Manual  of  Systematic  Tlieolocjy  and 
Christian  Ethics,  1877,  Philadelphia,  1880; 
Biblical  Eschatology,  Philadelphia,  1888  ;  he 
edited  The  Complete  Commentary  on  the  New 
Testament,  1881-90,  7  vols. 

Howard,  John,  F.R.S.  (1756),  prison  re- 
former ;  b.  at  Hackney,  a  suburb  of  London, 
Sept.  2,  1726  ;  d.  at  Cherson  in  Southern  Rus- 
sia, Jan.  20,  1790.  He  was  the  son  of  a  well- 
to-do  tradesman,  who  sent  him  to  private 
schools,  and  then  apprenticed  him  to  a  grocer. 
Losing  his  father  at  19,  he  purchased  his  free- 
dom and  began  to  travel.  On  a  voyage  to 
Lisbon,  in  1756,  he  was  taken  by  a  French 
privateer,  and  in  Brest  and  Morlaix  had  his 
first  experience  of  prisons.     In  1758  he  settled 


at  Cardington,  Bedfordshire,  where  he  built 
schools  and  model  cottages  for  his  tenants. 
Elected  sheriff  of  the  county,  1773,  his  duties 
led  him  to  visit  the  jails,  where  he  "beheld 
scenes  of  calamity  which  [he]  grew  daily 
more  and  more  anxious  to  alleviate."  By  a 
strange  perversion  of  justice  the  jailers  were 
then  dependent  on  fees  extorted  from  their 
prisoners,  whom  they  were  authorized  to  de- 
tain till  the  accounts  were  settled.  Desiring 
to  mitigate  these  abuses,  Howard  in  1774 
offered  a  report  to  the  House  of  Commons, 
which  passed  two  reform  bills  in  consequence. 
His  researches,  already  carried  beyond  the 
county,  were  now  extended  to  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  disclosing  a  frightful  state  of  affairs- 
underground  cells,  damp  and  filthy,  straw  for 
bedding,  miserable  food,  jail-fever  and  small- 
pox prevalent.  In  1775-76  he  travelled  in 
France,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Belgium,  and 
Holland,  finding  prison  accommodations  no 
better,  except  in  the  two  last.  In  1777  he 
published,  at  Warrington,  The  State  of  the 
Prisons  in  England  and  Wales,  with  Prelimi- 
nary Observations,  and  an  Account  of  Some  Fo7'- 
elgn  Prisons;  this  received  an  appendix  in  1780, 
4th  ed.,  1792.  Continuing  his  labors,  he  jour- 
neyed through  Northern,  Central,  and  East- 
ern Europe,  bearing  his  testimony  before  kings 
and  parliaments,  and  collecting  the  data  on 
which  the  science  of  prison  reform  is  founded. 
About  1785  his  attention  was  turned  to  an- 
other field  of  human  misery.  Visiting  Italian 
and  Oriental  hospitals,  and  travelling  on 
plague-infected  vessels,  he  studied  the  nature 
of  this  terrible  disease,  the  methods  of  its 
treatment,  and  the  quarantine  regulations  re- 
specting it,  with  a  view  to  checking  or  miti- 
gating its  ravages — for  he  had  some  knowl- 
edge of  medicine.  When  last  at  home,  in 
1789,  he  published,  at  Warrington,  An  Ac- 
count of  the  Principal  Lazarettos  in  Europe. 
He  died  of  the  plague,  taken  on  the  shores  of 
the  Black  Sea  from  one  to  whom  he  was  min- 
istering. His  monument  was  erected  in  St. 
Paul's  cathedral.  "Not  all  the  blood  of  all 
the  Howards"  has  so  ennobled  that  illustrious 
name  as  the  devoted  labors  of  this  man  of 
humble  birth,  limited  education,  and  no  brill- 
iant intellectual  abilities.  His  motive-power 
was  "  religious  principle,  developed  in  simple 
and  unostentatious,  almost  puritanical 
forms  ; "  he  was  a  Baptist.  Some  of  our  most 
famous  later  philanthropists,  IVlrs.  Fry,  Flor- 
ence Nightingale,  and  the  penologists  have 
chiefly  worked  on  his  foundation.  Lives  of 
him  have  been  written  by  Dr.  J.  Aikin,  Lon- 
don, 1792  ;  J.  B.  Brown,  1818  ;  T.  Taylor, 
1836  ;  W.  H.  Dixon,  1849  ;  Dr.  Stoughton, 
1853  ;  and  J.  Field,  1850,  who  also  edited  his 
Correspondence,  1855.  F.  M.  B. 

Howe,  John,  Puritan ;  b.  at  Loughbor- 
ough, 11  m.  n.  of  Leicester,  ]May  17,  1630  ; 
d.  in  London,  April  2,  1705.  His  father  was 
ejected  by  Laud  in  1635.  and  after  some  years 
in  Ireland  settled  in  Lancashire.  The  son 
studied  at  Christ  Church,  Cambridge  ;  be- 
came a  fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
and  about  1652  pastor  at  Torrington,  Devon- 
shire. Here  his  morning  service  consisted  of 
three  prayers,  together  lasting  about  an  hour 


HOWSON 


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HUET 


and  a  half,  with  a  sermon  and  exposition  of 
equal  length  ;  then,  after  15  minutes'  sing- 
ing, "  during  which  he  retired  and  took  a 
little  refreshment, "  he  "  prayed  an  hour  more, 
preached  another  hour,"  and  dismissed  the  con- 
gregation after  a  sliort  prayer  of  half  an  hour. 
In  1654  Cromwell,  noticing  him  in  the  chapel 
at  Whitehall,  seized  upon  him  for  a  chaplain  ; 
in  this  post  he  displayed  a  gentle  and  tolerant 
spirit,  and  exerted  himself  to  befriend  clergy 
of  the  other  party.  He  returned  to  Torring 
ton  in  1659,  and  was  depriTOd  under  the  Act 
of  Conformity,  1662.  Flis  friend  Ward,  row 
bishop  of  Exeter,  and  others  in  vain  urged 
him  to  accept  Episcopal  ordination.  His 
Blessedness  of  the  Uinldeous  (London,  1668) 
won  the  favor  of  Lonl  Massarene  and  a  chap- 
laincy at  Antrim  Castle,  Ireland,  1671.  1675- 
85  he  preached  under  the  king's  indulgence 
to  a  London  congregation.  After  two  years 
spent  abroad,  chieHy  at  Utrecht,  he  returned 
to  his  Hack,  when  James  IL  put  forth  his  dec- 
laration for  liberty  of  conscience.  In  1688  he 
headed  the  deputation  of  dissenting  clergy 
who  addressed  William  III.  Eminent  for 
learning,  piety,  and  moderation,  he  enjoyed 
general  respect.  Among  his  chief  writings 
are,  Deliqhtinq  in  God,  1674  ;  The  Oood  Man 
the  Liniuj  temple  of  God,  1676-1702  ;  The 
Redeemer's  Tears,  1684  ;  and  Tlie  Reconcilable- 
ness  of  God's  Prescience  of  the  Sins  of  Men  with 
the  Wisdom  and  Sincerity  of  his  Counsels,  Ex- 
hortntions,  etc.,  1677.  The  last-named  Rob- 
ert Ilall  (who  had  "  learned  far  more  from 
John  Ilovrc  than  from  any  other  author") 
considered  "the  best  thing  he  ever  wrote." 
Howe's  complete  works  were  edited  by  E. 
Calamv,  1724,  2  vols,  folio,  and  by  J.  Hunt, 
1810-22,  8  vols.,  and  by  H.  Rogers,  1862-G3, 
6  vols.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Calamv, 
1724,  and  by  H.  Rogers,  1836.        F.  M.  B. ' 

Howson,  John  Saul,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
1861),  Cliurch  of  England  ;  b.  at  Giggiesvvick, 
Yorkshire,  May  5,  1816  ;  d.  at  Bournemouth, 
Hampshire,  Dec.  15,  1885.  He  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  1837  ;  took  orders,  1845,  and  be- 
came senior  classical  master  in  the  Liver- 
pool Collegiate  Institute,  1845  ;  principal  of 
same,  1849  ;  vicar  of  "Wisbeach,  Cambridge- 
shire, 1865  ;  dean  of  Chester,  1867.  Here  he 
collected  £40  000  for  the  restoration  of  the 
cathedral,  completed  1872.  With  Rev.  W.  J. 
Convbeare  he  published  The  Life  and  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul,  London,  18-50-52,  2  vols,  (many 
subsequent  editions  and  reprints),  furnishing 
the  historical  and  geographical  portions. 
Among  his  other  works  are  those  on  the 
C/uiracter  (1864),  Metaphors  (1868).  and  Cotn- 
panions  of  St.  Paul  (1871).  F.  M.  B. 

Hubert,  St.,  a  son  of  Duke  Bertrand  of 
Guienne,  and  high  in  office  under  King  Theo- 
doric  of  the  Franks,  was  a  passionate  and  gay 
sportsman,  but  was  converted  by  one  day 
meeting  a  stag  which  bore  a  glittering  cross 
on  his  antlers  and  entreated  him  to  enter  the 
church.  He  became  bishop  of  Liege  in  708 
and  died  in  727.  His  relics  were  transferred 
to  the  convent  of  Andain  in  the  Ardennes, 
and  are  prayed  to  by  those  suffering  from 
hydrophobia"  His  day  is  Nov.  3,  the  end  of 
the  hunting  season. 


Hubmaier  (hoob-my-er),  or  Hubmor,  Bal- 
thazar, b.  in  1480  at  Friedberg,  near  Augs- 
burg, whence  he  also  called  himself  Frled- 
bcrger  or  Pacimontanus  ;  d.  in  Vienna,  ]\Iarch 
10,  1528  ;  studied  at  Freiburg  under  Eck,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Ingol- 
stadt  in  1512,  and  preacher  of  the  cathedral 
of  Ratisbon  in  1516,  where  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews,  1519. 
Attracted  by  Luther's  doctrines,  he  began  to 
feel  untasy  at  Ratisbon,  and  in  1522  he  moved 
to  Wald-shut  on  the  Rhine,  near  Ba.'^el,  as 
pastor  of  the  parish.  There  he  became  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  Swiss  reformators, 
and  took  part  in  the  Disputation  of  Zurich, 
1523.  But  he  also  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Thomas  Mlinz-er,  and  suddenly  he  appeared  as 
a  full-Hedged  Anabaptist ;  was  rebaptized  him- 
.self,  wrote  a  book,  Von  dem  2'ouff  der  Glau- 
hUjcn.  Zurich,  1525,  began  to  preach  com- 
munistic and  social  democratic  doctrines,  and 
is  even  said  to  have  been  connected  with  the 
12  articles  of  the  peasant  revolt's  platform. 
In  1525  he  had  to  flee  before  the  Austrians, 
and  took  refuge  in  Zurich,  where,  after  a 
public  di.sputation  with  Zwingli,  he  recanted. 
But  he  repented  of  his  recantation,  went  to 
Constance,  and  thence  to  Nikolsburg,  Mo- 
ravia, where,  under  the  protection  of  Prince 
Lichtenstein,  he  propagated  his  ideas  by  word 
and  pen,  and  in  short'  time  made  the"  whole 
district  Anabaptistic.  At  the  death,  however, 
of  King  Lewis  of  Hungary,  in  1527,  Moravia 
fell  to  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  Hubmaier 
was  carried  to  Vienna  and  burned  at  the  stake  ; 
his  wife  was  drowned.  A  number  of  his 
writings  arc  found  in  Schelhorn's  Archiv  ;  his 
life  was  written  in  Czeck  by  Hosek,  Biunu, 
1867.  C.  P. 

Hue  (hiic),  Evariste  Regis,  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  at  Toulouse,  France,  Aug.  1,  1813  ;  d. 
in  Paris,  March  31,  1860  ;  entered  the  Con- 
gregation of  St.  Lazare  ;  went  as  a  missionary 
to  China  in  1839  ;  returned  in  1849,  and  pub- 
lished T'ravels  in  Tartary,  Thibet,  and  China 
During  the  Years  1844-45-46,  Paris,  1850,  2 
vols.,  Eng.  trans  ,  London,  and  New  York, 
1852,  2  vols.  ;  The  Chinese  Empire,  Paris, 
18.54,  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans.,  London  and  New 
York,  1855,  2  vols.  ;  Christianity  in  China, 
Tartary,  and  Thibet,  Paris,  1857-58,  3  vols., 
Eng.  trans.,  London  and  New  York,  1857-58, 
3  vols. 

Huet  (hu'-ef),  FranQois,  Roman  Catholic  ; 
b.  at  Villeau,  in  the  Department  of  Eure-ct- 
Loire,  France,  Dec.  26,  1814  ;  d.  in  I'aris, 
3\\\y  1,  1869  ;  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Ghent,  afterward  tutor  to  Prince  Milan  of 
Servia,  and  published  Le  Cartesianisme,  Paris, 
1843,  2  vols.  ;  La  revolution  religietise  an  Idm* 
siecle,  1866,  etc. 

Huet,  Pierre  Daniel,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b. 
at  Caen,  France,  Fob.  8,  1630  ;  d.  in  Paris, 
Jan.  26,  1721  ;  was  tutor  to  the  dauphin, 
afterward  bishop  of  Avranches,  1689-!)9,  and 
published  an  edition  with  Latin  translation  of 
Origen's  biblical  commentaries,  Paris,  1668, 
2  vols,  folio  ;  Demonstratio  evangelica,  1679, 
6th  ed.,  Frankfort,  1722  ;  Censura  philosopliio} 
Cartesiana^,  1689,  4th  ed..  1694,  a  very  sharp 
piece  of  criticism  ;  his  autobiography,   Com- 


HUG 


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HUMANISTS 


mentarhis  ds  rehiis  ad  eum  'pertinentibus,  Am- 
sterdam, 1718  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1810,  2 
vols.),  very  interesting  notes  on  tlie  spiritual 
life  in  France  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV., 
etc.  (See  Bartholmess,  Huet,  on  le  scepticisme 
theologique,  Paris,  1850.) 

Hug  (hoog),  Johann  Leonard,  Roman 
Catholic  ;  b.  "at  Constance,  June  1,  1765  ;  d. 
March  11,  1846,  at  Freiburg,  in  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Baden,  where  he  had  been  profes- 
sor of  theology  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faculty 
since  1791.  He  published  Einleitunfj  in  die 
Schriften  des  neuen  Testaments,  Stuttgart, 
1808,  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans,  by  Wait,  London, 
1827,  and  by  Fosdick,  with  notes  by  Moses 
Stuart,  Andover,  1836  ;  Das  Ilohe  Lied  in  einer 
nodi  unversuchten  Deutung,  Freiburg,  1813  ; 
some  polemical  writings  against  Paulus  and 
Strauss,  etc.  (See  memorial  address  by  Ad. 
Maier,  Frieburg,  1847.) 

Hughes,  John,  D.D.  (Rome  1841?),  Ro- 
man Catholic  archbishop  of  New  York  ;  b.  at 
Annalogham,  County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  June 
24,  1797  ;  d.  in  New  York  City,  Jan.  3,  1864. 
He  came  to  America,  1817  ;  entered  Mt.  St. 
Mary's  College,  Emmetsburg,  Md.,  1820  ;  was 
ordained,  1855-26,  and  placed  in  Philadel- 
phia, where  he  founded  St.  John's  Asylum, 
1829,  (?)  and  The  Catliolic  Herald,  1833.  He 
■was  consecrated,  Jan.  7,  1838,  coadjutor- 
bishop  of  New  York  ;  and  in  1842  succeeded 
to  the  diocese,  which  was  raised  to  metropoli- 
tan rank,  1850.  Here  he  won  great  repute 
and  influence.  He  vehemently  opposed  the 
public  school  system,  and  procured  its  modifi- 
cation :  abolished  lay  trusteeship  of  church 
property  ;  organized  the  college  and  seminary 
at  Fortlham,  1841,  and  began  the  cathedral 
on  Fifth  Avenue,  1855.  He  held  disputations 
with  Dr.  J.  Breckinridge,  1833-35  ;  Dr.  N. 
Murray,  1847-48,  and  others,  and  preached 
before  Congress,  1847.  During  the  war  he 
rendered  eminent  patriotic  services.  His 
works  were  collected.  New  York,  1864-65, 
2  vols.,  and  his  life  written  by  J.  R.  G.  Has- 
sard,  1866.  F.  M.  B. 

Hugo  of  Breteuil,  d.  in  1051  ;  was  elected 
bishop  of  Langres,  in  the  present  Department 
of  Haute-Marac,  France,  in  1031  ;  excom- 
municated in  1049  by  Leo  IX.,  and  canonized 
in  1124  by  Honorius  II.  He  wrote  in  1048 
De  corpore  et  sanguine  Christi  contra  Beren- 
garium,  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CXLII. 

Hugo  of  Lincoln,  b.  at  Avalon,  Burgundy, 
about  1135  ;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  19,  1200  ; 
entered  the  monastery  of  Grande  Chartreuse, 
and  was  by  Henry  II.  invited  to  England, 
where  lie  founded  the  first  Carthusian  mon- 
astery at  Witham,  and  was  made  archbishop 
of  Lincoln  in  1186.  He  was  canonized  in 
1206.  (See  Magna  VitaS.  IIugonis,ed.  Dimock, 
London,  1864,  and  Perry,  Life  of  St.  Ilvqli, 
1879.)  :/        J     J  y  ' 

Hugo  of  St.  Cher  {a  Sancto  Card),  b.  at  St. 
Cher,  a  suburb  of  Vienne,  France  ;  d.  at  Or- 
vieto,  Italy,  in  1263  ;  entered  the  Dominican 
order  in  1224  as  monk  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Jacob,  Paris,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  in 


1254.  Pie  was  a  learned  man  and  a  prolific 
writer.  His  Sacrorum  Bibliorum  t'oncor- 
dantim,  also  called  Concordantice  St.  Jacobi, 
or  Anglicana:,  because  many  of  the  monks  re- 
siding in  the  convent  of  8t.  Jacob  and  par- 
taking in  the  work  were  from  England,  was 
often  reprinted  and  imitated.  C.  P. 

Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  b.  about  1097,  accord- 
ing to  some  in  Flanders,  according  to  others 
in  Lower  Saxony  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Feb.  11,  1141  ; 
was  educated  iu  the  monastery  of  Hamers- 
leben,  near  Halberstadl,  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Saxony,  and  finished  his  studies 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Victor  in  Paris,  where 
he  soon  became  a  teacher  and  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  devout  meditations  and  literary 
studies.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Ber- 
nard of  Clairveaux,  but,  nevertheless,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  influenced  by  Abelard.  As  a  theo- 
logian he  ranks  beside  Anselm  of  Canterbury, 
his  characteristics  being  the  marvellous  depth 
of  his  feelings  over  against  the  intellectual 
loftiness  of  Anselm.  He  was  a  mystic,  and 
he  stands  iu  the  history  of  theology  as  one  of 
the  founders  of  mediaeval  mysticism.  But 
there  was  nothing  oracular  or  paradoxical 
about  him,  nothing  of  that  brooding  obscurity, 
with  its  almost  blinding  flashes,  w4iicli  other- 
wise forms  the  natural  and  necessary  comple- 
ment to  the  subtleties  of  scholasticism.  With 
him  everything  is  calm  and  steady  and  radiant, 
like  the  midnight  lamp  of  his  cell.  His  prin 
cipal  work  is  De  Sacramentis,  which  in  a  sys- 
tematic exposition  collects  and  sums  up  what 
he  has  given  more  extensively,  but  also  more 
sporadically  in  a  number  of  special  treatises, 
De  area  Noe  mystica,  De  area  Noe  vioraU,  De 
arrJia  anirnt?,  De  vanitati  viundi,  etc.  His 
commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  Kings, 
Psalms,  Lamentations,  etc.,  aim  principally 
at  practical  edification  and  contain  nothing  of 
striking  originality.  His  Eruditio  didascalo- 
rum  is  an  encyclopedia  of  all  knowledge  then 
existing,  and  probably  intended  for  a  hand- 
book. The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that 
of  Rouen,  1648,  3  vols.,  reprinted  in  Migner 
Pat.  Lat.  CLXXV.-CLXXVII.  (See  his  life 
by  Liebner,  Leipzig,  1862.)  C.  P. 

Huguenots.  See  France,  Reformed 
Chuhcii  of. 

Hul-dah  {weasel),  wife  of  Shallum,  the 
prophetess,  whom  Josiah  consulted  when  the 
book  of  the  Law  was  discovered  (2  Kings 
xxii.  15-20). 

Hulse,  John,  b.  at  Middlewich,  Cheshire, 
1708  ;  d.  there,  Dec.  14,  1790.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  became 
rector  of  Elworth  (?),  and  left  his  property 
to  the  university  to  found  two  divinity  scholar- 
ships, a  prize  essa}",  the  oflice  of  Christian  ad- 
vocate (changed  in  1860  to  the  Hulsean  pro- 
fessorship of  divinit}-),  and  that  of  Christian 
preacher  or  Hulsean  lecturer.  The  first  course 
of  lectures  was  delivered,  1820  ;  the  number 
was  reduced,  in  1830  to  8,  and  afterward  to 
4.  The  subjects  are  Christian  evidences  or 
Scripture  difficulties.  F.  M.  B. 

Humanists,  The,  represented  a  movement 
w'liich  made  many  useful  and  some  necessary 


HUMANISTS 


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HUME 


preparations  for  tlie  Iloformation.  But  tliey 
were  uot  reformers  themselves.  Most  of  tliein 
kept  on  very  good  terms  with  the  Roman 
Church,  and  many  of  them  were  her  devoted 
servants.  Their  motive-power  was  a  literary, 
artistic,  scientitic  enthusiasm,  and  it  bore 
brilliant  fruits  in  its  own  tields.  But  it  was 
often  connected  with  religious  indifference, 
and  it  sometimes  got  lost  in  licentious  heathen- 
ism. In  the  field  of  religion  the  Humanists 
worked  only  as  critics,  and  in  the  great  re- 
ligious contest  their  critical  sword  cut  on  both 
sides.  Of  creative  and  constructive  powers 
they  had  none. 

The  movement  started  from  an  enthusiasm 
for  the  Latin  language,  and  with  the  set  pur- 
poses of  rescuing  it  from  the  miserable  state 
into  which  the  crudeness  of  the  barbarians 
and  the  ignorance  of  the  monks  had  brought 
it,  and  niaking  it  the  lofty  and  magnificent 
vehicle  of  universal  spiritual  comnumication. 
Dante  (1365-1331),  Petrarch  (1304-74),  Boc- 
caccio (1313-75),  were  true  Humanists,  and  it 
is  well  known  that  Petrarch  considered  his 
sonnets  as  ephemeral  productions  which  soon 
would  lose  their  charm  because  written  in 
Italian,  while  he  hoped  that  the  Latin  lan- 
guage should  carry  his  Africa  down  to  the 
end  of  time.  But  the  revival  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage depended  iipon  the  restoration  of  the 
Latin  authors,  and  it  became  the  business  of 
the  Humanists  to  hunt  up  and  preserve  and 
multiply  the  manuscripts  of  Latin  literature. 
Without  a  Francesco  Poggio  (1380-1459),  a 
Battista  Guarino(1370-14GU),  a  Pope  Kicholas 
v.  (1447-55)  the  Latin  literature  would  to-day 
be  a  collection  of  fragments  instead  of  an  his- 
torical monument  of  supreme  grandeur.  Pog- 
gio discovered  the  first  manuscripts  of  Taci- 
tus. Lucretius,  Quintilian,  and  Ammianus 
Marcellinus  ;  Guarino  was  the  schoolmaster 
of  his  time,  and  had,  according  to  ^neas  Sil- 
vio, afterward  Cardinal  Piccolomini,  finally 
Pope  Pius  II.  (1458-64),  taught  Latin  to  all 
who  then  knew  it ;  Nicholas  V.  founded  the 
Vatican  library — for  libraries  were  founded 
everywhere.  The  book-case  became  an  ele- 
ment of  splendor  as  necessary  to  a  great  lord 
as  his  panoply.  It  is  quite  touching  to  notice 
the  an.xiety  with  which  Cardinal  Bessarion 
(1390-1473)  watched  over  his  books,  not  be- 
cause they  were  his,  but  because  they  were  a 
treasury.  "With  the  restoration  of  tlie  Latin 
writers  followed  the  resurrection  of  their 
ideiis.  It  was  soon  understood,  however,  that 
the  Latin  literature  had  its  sources,  its  models, 
its  final  explanations  in  the  Greek  literature, 
and  from  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  it 
became  quite  common  among  the  Humanists 
to  know  both  languages  and  study  both  liter- 
atures. The  Council  of  Ferrara-Florence, 
1438-43,  brought  a  number  of  the  greatest 
Greek  scholars  to  Italy,  and  some  of  them  re- 
mained there— Gemisthos  Plethon  (1355-1450), 
Bessarion,  etc.  Their  influence  was  enor- 
mous. The  study  of  Greek  philosophy  be- 
came not  only  a  fashion,  but  the  rage  of  the 
time.  The  Platonic  -  Academy  of  Florence, 
under  the  patronage  of  Cosimo  of  ]\Iedici 
(1389-1464)  and  his  son,  Lorenzo  the  Magnifi- 
cent (1448-93),  and  with  3Iarsilius  Ficinus 
(1433-99)  at  its  head,  grew   rapidly  from  a 


social  entertainment  of  peculiar  refinement 
to  a  public  institution  of  signal  intluence. 
Platonism  became  a  kind  of  higher  Chris- 
tianity, and  when  the  Humanists  had  had 
an  opportunity  to  compare  the  real  Aris- 
totle with  his  namesake  in  the  scholastic 
theology,  they  turned  with  indignation  upon 
the  schoolmen,  and  made  them  their  laughing- 
stock. 

By  their  influence  on  the  school  and  the 
university,  on  literature  and  science,  on  the 
whole  atmosphere  of  educated  and  refined 
life,  the  Humanists  undoubtedly  opened  men's 
minds  for  new  ideas  and  made  them  more 
eager  after  truth,  and,  moreover,  furnished  the 
reformers  with  the  necessary  instruments  by 
which  to  uncover  and  demonstrate  the  frauds 
and  the  falsity  in  the  development  of  the  papal 
church.  There,  however,  they  stopped  ;  fee 
application  of  those  instruments  was  nc.t  their 
business.  Some  of  them  occupied  the  papal 
throne— Pius  II.,  Sixtus  IV.  (1471-84),  Leo 
X.  (1513-21) — probably  without  ever  suspect- 
ing that  they  could  be  looked  upon  as  mon- 
sters. Others,  who  evidently  were  deeply  im- 
pressed by  the  rottenness  of  the  curia  and  the 
whole  papal  administration — Erasmus  (1465- 
1536),  Ileuchlin  (1455-1532)— felt  much  afraid 
of  Luther  and  the  movement  which  brought 
along  the  peasants'  war  and  the  Anabaptist 
excitement.  (See  Geiger,  Eenaissance  und 
JIumanismus,  Berlin,  1883.)  C.  P. 

Humanitarianism  is  a  general  term  applied 
to  the  doctrine  held  by  Unitarians,  Socinians, 
and  other  anti-Trinitarians,  that  Christ  was 
merely  a  man  and  his  nature  purely  human, 
not  divine  ;  to  the  doctrine  held  by  various 
parties  professing  a  "  religion  of  humanity," 
that  human  nature  is  capable  of  infinite  per- 
fectibility through  spontaneous  evolution 
without  the  aid  of  divine  grace  ;  and  finally 
to  the  doctrine,  also  called  Utilitarianism, 
that  the  root  of  all  morals  is  a  regard  to  the 
welfare  of  the  human  race  and  not  the  rela- 
tion between  God  and  man.  C.  P. 

Hume,  David,  skeptical  philosopher  and 
historian  ;  b.  at  Edinburgh,  April  2o,  1711  ; 
d.  there,  Aug.  26,  1776.  He  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  at  15,  and  after  brief  ex- 
periments with  law  and  business  retired  to 
France,  in  1734,  and  turned  to  literary  and 
philosophic  studies.  His  Treatise  of  Human, 
Nature,  London,  1738,  "  fell  dead-born  from 
the  press,"  though  it  contained  the  germ  of 
his  whole  system,  and  made  necessary  a  new 
metaphysics.  His  Esmys,  Moral  and  Politi- 
cal, 1741,  were  more  successful  ;  but  his  repu- 
tation as  a  .skeptic  prevented  his  obtaining  the 
chair  of  moral  philosophy  at  Edinburgh  in 
1745,  and  that  of  logic  at  Glasgow  in  1751. 
His  Inquiry  Concerning  Human  Umhrstand- 
ing,  1748,  was  followed  by  one  on  llie  J^in- 
ciples  of  Moralu,  1751,  and  Political  Dis- 
courses, '[1T\2.  Dialogues  Concerning  Xatural 
Religion  were  written  by  this  time,  but  the 
objections  of  friends  delayed  their  publica- 
tion. Meantime  he  had  held  several  tem- 
porary positions,  and  in  1753  he  was  made 
keeper  of  the  Advocates'  Library  at  Edin- 
burgii.  Here  his  History  of  England  was 
mainly  written  ;   it  appeared  in  three  instal- 


HUMILIATI 


(386) 


HURTER 


merits :  Edinburgh,  1754-57,  2  vols,  (the 
House  of  Stuart)  ;  London,  1759,  2  vols. 
(House  of  Tudor) ;  1762,  2  vols,  (from  Julius 
Cajsar),  and  establisiied  his  fame  and  fortune. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  embassy  at  Paris, 
1763-65,  and  tmder-secretary  of  state,  1766- 
67.  In  1769  he  "returned  to  Edinburgh, 
very  opulent."  He  had  published  in  1757 
Four  JJissertations,  including  The  Natural 
History  of  Religion  ;  but  those  on  Suicide  and 
The  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  like  his  Dia- 
logues, were  left  to  appear  postliumously.  He 
was  of  an  even  and  placid  temper,  and  his 
life  and  death  w^ere  not  at  variance  with  his 
philosophy.  Thii  developed  the  empirical 
principles  of  Locke,  traced  all  mental  opera- 
tions to  the  senses,  and  denied  the  abstract  or 
universal  character  of  ideas  by  making  them 
mere  images  of  impressions  received  from 
without.  His  ethics,  of  course,  are  purely 
utilitarian.  His  famous  argument  against 
miracles,  designed  1736  against  a  French 
Jesuit,  is  that  a  deviation  from  the  imiformity 
of  nature  is  less  probable  tJiau  a  mistake  or 
falsehood  in  human  testimony,  since  experi- 
ence is  abundantly  acquainted  with  the  latter 
and  not  at  all  with  the  former.  Hume's  posi 
tioQs  have  been  opposed  by  Reid,  1763-64  ; 
Kant.  1781,  and  manj'  others.  His  Philo- 
sophical Works  were  edited  in  4  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1826,  and  again,  London,  1875-78. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  himself,  Tvondon, 
1777 ;  T.  E.  Ritchie,  1807  ;  J.  H.  Burton, 
1846  ;  T.  H.  Huxley,  1879  ;  and  W.  Knight, 
1886.  His  correspondence  appeared,  London, 
1820  ;  Edinburgh,  1841,  1846,  1888. 

F.  M.  B. 

Humiliati  is  the  name  of  an  unimportant 
religious  order,  confirmed  by  lunocent  IIL  in 
1201,  which  became  very  degenerated,  but  re- 
sisted all  Cardinal  Borromeo's  attempts  of  re- 
form with  such  obstinacy  that  they  finally 
attempted  to  assassinate  him,  1569,  after 
which  Pius  V.  dissolved  the  order  in  1571. 


Hungarian  Confession,  The,  or  Oonfessio 
Czengerina,  was  prepared  by  the  Synod  of 
Czenger,  1557  or  1558,  and  adopted  by  the 
Reformed  Church  in  Hungary.  It  argues 
very  strongly  against  the  Anti-Trinitarians 
who  had  spread  in  Transylvania,  against  the 
Roman  and  Lutheran  doctrines  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  against  the  Anabaptist  view  of 
baptism.  But  it  was  practically  superseded 
by  the  Second  Helvetic  Confession  at  the 
Synod  of  Debreczin,  1567.  (See  SchafE, 
Creeds  of  Christendom,  1.,  591  sq.) 

Hunting  as  a  sport  was  not  practised  by 
the  Israelites,  not  because  it  was  forbidden, 
but  because  it  seems  to  have  had  no  charm 
for  them.  They  hunted  only  in  self-defence 
and  for  food,  and,  quite  characteristically, 
they  used  their  cunning  not  their  courage  in 
the  affair.  The  larger  animals,  lions,  bears, 
roebucks,  fallow-deer,  etc.,  they  caught  in 
pitfalls  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20),  traps  (Job  xviii. 
10),  or  nets  (Isa.  li.  20)  ;  birds  in  traps  (Ps. 
Ixix.  22),  snares  (Ps.  cxl.  5),  nets  (Prov.  i.  17), 
or  by  decoys  (Jer.  v,  26,  27),  but  they  did  not 
use  weapons. 


Huntingdon,    Selina,   Countess    of,   b.    at 

Stanton-liarold,  Leicestershire,  Avig.  24, 
1707  ;  d.  in  Loudon,  June  17,  1791.  Slie  was 
a  daughter  of  Shirley,  Earl  Ferrers,  and  in 
1728  married  Hastings,  earl  of  Huntingdon. 
After  his  death,  in  1746,  she  devoted  herself 
to  the  advancement  of  religion,  opening  her 
house  for  sermons  and  services,  building 
chapels,  and  founding,  in  1768,  a  school  of 
the  prophets  at  Trevecca  in  Wales,  afterward 
transferred  to  Cheshunt,  Hertfordshire. 
Whitefield  was  her  chaplain  and  adviser.  She 
withdrew  from  the  Church  of  England  iu 
1779,  for  the  better  protection  of  her  minis- 
ters. In  1791  her  "  connection"  included  64 
chapels,  of  which  34  still  survive.  These  con- 
gregations used  the  Prayer  Book,  but  other- 
wise were  Calvinistic  Independents.  Her  life 
has  been  written  by  A.  H.  New,  London, 
1857,  and  others.  F.  M.  B. 

Hupfeld  (hoop-felt),  Hermann  (Christian 
Carl  Friedrich),  b.  at  Marburg,  in  the  Prus- 
sian province  of  Hesse,  March  31,  1796  ;  d. 
at  Halle,  April  24,  1866  ;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Marburg  in  1825,  and  at 
Halle  in  1843.  He  published  Die  Quellen  der 
Genesis,  Berlin,  1853  ;  Die  Psalmen,  Gotha, 
1855-61,  4  vols,  (translation  and  commentary), 
2d  ed.  by  Riehm,  1867-71,  3d  ed.  by  Nowack, 
1888,  2  vols,  (this  is  his  greatest  w'ork  and  one 
of  the  most  valuable  German  commentaries). 
(See  his  life  by  Riehm,  Halle,  1867.) 

Hur  is  mentioned  Ex.  xvii.  10-12  and  Ex. 
xxiv.  14,  both  times  in  connection  with  Aaron. 
He  was,  no  doubt,  a  man  of  repute  and  weight 
among  the  Israelites,  and  Jewish  tradition  has 
made  him  the  husband  of  Miriam  and  the 
grandfather  of  Bezaleel,  the  chief  constructor 
of  the  Tabernacle. 

Hurd,  Richard,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Congreve,  Staffordshire,  Eng.,  Jan.  13,  1720  ; 
d.  at  Worcester,  May  28,  1808  ;  graduated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1739  ;  was 
elected  a  fellow  in  1742  ;  became  bishop  of 
Lichfield  in  1774,  and  of  Worcester  in  1781. 
He  edited  Warburton's  works  and  wrote  a 
biography  of  him  as  introduction.  He  also 
published  a  volume  of  anti-Romanist ic  Ser- 
mons,  London,  1772,  6th  ed.,  1839,  and  Moral 
and  Political  Dialogues,  1759,  6th  ed.,  1788, 
3  vols.,  and  a  Commentary  on  Horace's  Ars 
Poetica,  1749,  3d  ed.,  1776.  (See  his  works, 
London,  1811,  8  vols.) 

Hurter  (hoor-ter),  Friedrich  Emanuel 
von,  Roman  Catholic  convert  ;  b.  at  Schaff- 
hausen,  Switzerland,  March  19,  1787  ;  d.  at 
Graz,  in  the  Austrian  province  of  Styria,  Aug. 
27.  1865  ;  studied  theology  at  Gottingcn,  and 
was  pastor  in  his  native  town,  when  in  1844 
he  entered  the  Church  of  Rome  and  settled  in 
Vienna  as  imperial  historiographer.  Besides 
some  controversial  and  minor  liistorical  works, 
he  published  Innocenz  III.  tind  seine  Zcitgenos- 
sen,  Hamburg,  1834-42,  4  vols.,  a  famous 
book,  and  Geburt  vnd  Wiedergeburt,  Schaff- 
hausen,  1845,  4  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1867,  2  vols., 
an  account  of  his  conversion,  which  also  at- 
tracted much  attention.  His  life  was  written 
by  his  son,  Graz,  1876,  2  vols. 


HURST 


(387) 


RUS 


Hurst,  John  Fletcher,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (Dick- 
inson College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  ISGG  and  1877), 
Methodist  ;  b.  at  ISalem,  Md.,  Aug.  17,  1834  ; 
graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  1854  ;  studied 
theology  at  Ilalle  and  Heidelberg,  1850-o7  ; 
was  pastor  in  Xew  Jersey  and  on  Staten 
Island,  N.  Y.,  1858-66  ;  professor  of  theology 
in  the  Mission  Institute  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  at  Bremen,  1866-69,  and  in  the 
Martin  Mission  Institute  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  1869-71  ;  professor  of  historical  theol- 
ogy in  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  Madison, 
N.  Y.,  1871-80,  and  prt'sident  from  1873  ;  be- 
came bishop,  1880.  Of  his  works  may  be 
mentioned  Jlistori/  of  lintioiudixm,  New  York, 
1866  ;  Life  and  JAtcrature  in  the  Fatlierland, 
1876  ;  Short  Historij  of  the  li\fonaatio)i,  1884  ; 
with  Professor  Dr.  G.  R.  Crooks,  Theological 
Eiicyclopmdia  and  Methodology  (based  on 
Hagenbach),  1884. 

Hus,  John,  Bohemian  scholar,  reformer, 
and  martyr  ;  b.  at  Hussiuecz,  in  southern 
Bohemia,  near  the  Bavarian  frontier,  July  6, 
1369  ;  martyred  at  Constance,  July  6,  1415. 
His  family  name  is  not  known,  his  parents 
belonging  to  the  common  people,  but  being  in 
good  circumstances.  Receiving  a  good  ele- 
mentary education  at  Prachaticz,  he  entered 
the  University  of  Prague,  where,  after  taking 
the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  theology  and  master 
of  arts,  1396,  he  was  called  to  a  professorship, 
1398.  In  1401  he  was  elected  dean  of  the 
philosophicaUf acuity,  and  from  Oct.,  1402,  to 
April,  1403,  was  rector  of  the  university.  As 
a  philosophical  lecturer  IIus  enthusiastically 
expounded  the  tenets  of  the  Realists,  and  was 
a  most  popular  teacher.  Wiclif's  work  on 
the  Reality  of  General  Ideas  was  his  text-book. 

In  1391  the  Bethlehem  Chapel  had  been 
erected  at  the  expense  of  John  de  Milheim,  a 
citizen  of  Prague,  for  the  preaching  of  the 
gospel  in  the  vernacular.  It  could  seat  3000 
hearers.  Of  this  Hus  was  installed  as  in- 
cumbent on  March  4,  1403,  after  his  ordina- 
tion to  the  priesthood.  He  proved  to  be  emi- 
nently fitted  for  the  position.  His  personal 
researches  in  the  Scriptures,  in  order  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  people,  led  him  mto  closer 
sympathy  with  "Wiclif's  theology  ;  and  as  a 
preacher  his  influence  upon  persons  of  all 
ranks  was  extraordinary,  multitudes  flocking 
to  hear  him,  among  the  rest  Queen  Sophia, 
who  chose  him  as  her  confessor.  la  1403  he 
Avas  appointed  synodical  preacher.  On  May 
28  of  this  year  a'  disputation  was  held  in  the 
University  about  the  doctrines  of  Wiclif .  which 
resulted  in  the  condemnation  of  45  articles  re- 
puted to  be  held  by  the  reformer.  But  this 
did  not  deter  Hus  from  setting  forth,  in  his 
Bethlehem  Chapel,  the  difference  between  the 
essential  doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith  in 
their  biblical  form  and  that  in  which  they 
were  traditionally  represented  ;  nor  from  lay- 
ing bare  the  immorality  of  the  clergy  and  the 
anti-scriptural  usages  of  the  church.  In  1407 
Hus  was  deprived  of  his  oflice  of  synodical 
preacher  for  his  plain  language,  and'  in  1408 
the  clergy  of  Prague  laid  formal  charges  of 
heresy  against  him  before  the  arcJibishop. 
The  temporary  triumph  of  Hus  in  securing 
i^t  the  national  influence  a  preijoudcrance  of 


votes  in  the  University  as  opposed  to  the  ultra- 
montane, and  which  led  to  the  withdrawal  of 
several  thou  and  foreign  students,  though  it 
demonstrates  his  popularity  at  the  court  and 
in  the  community,  earned  for  him  general 
antipathy  on  the  part  of  the  clergy  of  other 
lands  and  the  hate  of  the  Germans.  It  se- 
cured him  re-election  as  rector  of  the  Univer- 
sity, Oct.,  1409,  but  resulted  also  in  the  press- 
ing anew  of  the  charges  of  heresy.  Appeals 
and  counter  appeals  to  Pope  Alexander  V. 
followed.  He  published  a  bull  requiring  the 
abjuration  of  the  heresies  of  Wiclif  and  the 
surrender  of  his  writings,  as  well  as  the  cessa- 
tion of  preaching  in  the  vernacular  except  in 
places  where  it  had  the  sanction  of  long  es- 
tablished usage.  On  July  16,  1410,  accord- 
ingly, Archbishop  Zybnck  burnt  more  than 
200  volumes  of  the  English  reformer's  works, 
forbade  Hus  to  preach,  and  put  him  under 
the  ban,  in  spite  of  his  appeal  to  the  new  pope, 
John  XXIII.  The  last  named  cited  Hus  to 
appear  before  him,  which  he  did  in  the  per- 
sons of  five  advocates  who  went  to  Bologna 
to  plead  his  cause.  King  Wcnzel  having  ap- 
pointed tuo  of  them  after  being  won  to  the 
cause  of  Hus  by  an  attempt  of  the  archbishcp 
to  lay  Prague  under  the  interdict.  In  the 
summer  of  l4ll  a  temporary  reconciliation  of 
the  chief  parties  to  the  conflict  threatened  the 
Bohemian  reformation  with  a  natural  death. 
But  Zybnek  died  a  few  months  afterward, 
and  soon  the  contest  assumed  a  new  phase. 

In  May,  1412,  Wenzel  Tiem  and  Pace  de 
Bononia  reached  Prague  with  a  papal  bull 
proclaiming  a  crusade  against  Ladi-slaus  of 
Xaples,  and  offering  indulgences  to  all  who 
should  participate  in  it  on  terms  similar  to 
those  enjoyed  by  champions  of  the  cro&s 
against  the  Moslems.  Hus  had  hitherto 
avoided  personal  conflict  with  the  pope,  whom 
he  had  recognized  as  the  head  of  the  Church. 
Xow,  however,  he  preached  from  his  pulpit 
and  disputed  in  the  University  against  the 
papal  bull  as  contrary  to  the  Scriptures.  This 
cost  him  a  number  of  friends,  among  the  rest 
Stephen  Paletz,  who  became  later  one  of  his 
chief  foes.  "When  three  young  men  openly 
protested  in  the  churches  against  the  sale  of 
indulgences,  and  were  in  consequence  exe- 
cuted in  June,  IIus,  who  had  interceded  for 
them  in  vain,  eulogized  them  as  martyrs  in 
his  funeral  discourse.  His  enemies  secured  a 
renewal  of  the  excommunication  against  him 
and  of  the  interdict  on  all  places  which  should 
give  him  shelter.  Xor  would  the  Bethlehem 
Chapel  have  escaped  destruction  had  not  King 
Wenzel  interposed.  B\'  the  express  ■wish  or 
the  king  Hus  voluntarily  withdrew  from  the 
capital,  and  now  spent  a  year  and  seven 
months  in  exile,  his  retreats  being  the  castles 
of  Kozi  llradek  and  Krakowitz,  ollered  him 
by  sympathizing  noblemen. 

During  this  period  he  devoted  himself  to 
open-air  preaching  and  literary  labors.  He 
did  for  the  Bohemian  language  what  Luther 
did  for  the  German. 

Meantime  the  holding  of  a  general  council 
at  Constance  had  been  agreed  upon  between 
the  Emperor  SigisnuuKl  and  Pope  John 
XXIII.  The  former  had  invited  Has  to  at- 
tend, and  had  promised  to  gi\'e  him  a  safe- 


HUSHAI 


(388) 


HUSSITEJ 


conduct.  This  document,  delivered  to  him 
after  his  arrival  at  Constance,  on  Nov.  3, 1414, 
guaranteed  him  permission  freely  to  make  the 
journey,  stop,  stay,  and  return  {"  \ii  ei  tran- 
sire,  stare  morari,  redire  libere  permittatis"). 
Yet  in  spite  of  it  and  the  protests  of  several 
powerful  Bohemian  friends  (John  of  Chlum, 
Wenzel  of  Dauba,  and  Henry  of  Chlum)  the 
violence  of  Stephen  Paletz  and  other  foes 
secured  his  arbitrary  arrest  and  imprisonment, 
Nov.  38.  On  Dec.  4  the  pope  appointed  a 
commission  of  three  bisliops  to  investigate  his 
case  ;  and  he  was  placed  in  the  dungeon  of  the 
Dominican  monastery,  Dec.  6,  where  the 
damp,  foul  air  brought  on  serious  illness. 
After  the  flight  of  the  pope,  on  March  22, 
1415,  Hus  Avas  given  into  the  keeping  of  the 
bishop  of  Constance,  who  conveyed  him  to 
the  neighboring  castle  of  Gottlieben,  where 
he  was  kept  confined  amid  circumstances  cf 
terrible  cruelty,  until  June.  At  last  he  was 
given  three  hearings  before  the  council,  on 
June  5,  7,  and  8.  Yet  he  was  not  even  now 
permitted  to  defend  his  doctrines  by  argu- 
ment. Refusing  to  recant,  he  Avas  sentenced 
as  a  heretic  and  degraded  from  the  priest- 
hood, in  the  cathedral,  on  July  6.  Having 
been  turned  over  to  the  secular  arm,  he  was 
burnt  at  the  stake  in  a  meadow  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  city,  as  Erasmus  said,  "con- 
sumed, not  convicted"  {exitstus,  non  convic- 
tiis),  his  ashes  being  cast  into  the  Rhine. 

While  Hus,  althougli  grasping  the  doctrine 
of  justification  by  faith,  taught  it  differently 
from  the  Reformers,  and  while  he  recognized 
seven  sacraments,  to  which,  however,  he  did 
not  ascribe  efficacy  as  an  opus  operatum  in  the 
Romish  sense,  and  while  he  had  not  emerged 
from  a  belief  in  purgatory,  nevertheless  he 
deserves  credit  for  his  attaching  primary  im- 
portance to  the  Scriptures,  regarding  them  as 
the  only  infallible  norm  in  questions  of  life 
and  faith.  Thus  he  served  as  an  intermediary 
between  Wiclif  and  Luther.  Throughout  he 
insisted  more  upon  a  reformation  of  life  rather 
than  of  dogma. 

His  works,  polemical,  homiletical,  exegeti- 
cal,  and  epistolary,  exercised  considerable  in- 
fluence in  the  theological  world  of  his  times 
and  in  the  development  of  the  Bohemian 
tongue.  Most  important  was  his  Tractatus 
de  Ecdesia,  based  on  Wiclif 's  work  of  similar 
title,  from  which  his  foes  drew  their  accusa- 
tions. Tlie  earliest  collection  of  his  Latin 
writings  was  the  Historiaet  3fonumenta  Joli. 
Huss  ntque  Ilieron.  Pragensis,  published  at 
Nuremberg  1558,  reprinted  in  more  complete 
form  in  1715.  His  Bohemian  works  were 
edited  at  Prague  in  1866  by  K.  J.  Erben. 
Some  of  his  sermons  appeared  in  German  at 
Goerlitz,  in  1855,  and  an  Eng.-  trans,  of  his 
letters  was  issued  at  Edinburgh  in  1859. 

(See  Gillett,  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss, 
Boston,  1861,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1870  ;  Loserth, 
Hus  and  Wiclif,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1885  ; 
De  Schweinitz,  History  of  the  Unit, is  Fnitnnn, 
Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1885  ;  and  especially  l^ilacky, 
Documenta  Mag.  J.  Hus,  vitam,  doctriuuia,  etc. , 
Prague,  1869.)     John  Taylor  Hamilton. 

Hu'-shai,  the  Archite,  was  a  friend  of  David 
and  one  of  the  principal  actors  during  the 


difficulties  caused  by  the  rebellion  of  Absa- 
lom (2  Sam.  XV.,  xvi.,  xvii.).  "Why  he  is  called 
"the  Archite"  is  not  known,  but  the  desig- 
nation "  may  have  a  reference  to  the  districts 
of  Erech  which  lay  on  the  frontier  of  Eph- 
raim." 

Husks,  in  Luke  xv.  16,  does  not  mean  the 
outward  covering  of  the  ears  of  Indian  corn, 
but  the  fruit  of  the  carob-tree,  w^hich  is  very 
common  in  Palestine,  and  whose  long,  crooked 
pods,  filled  with  seeds,  are  used  to  fatten  cat- 
tle and  swine,  and  also  for  food  by  poor  peo- 
ple. These  pods  are  often  called  "  St.  John's 
Bread,"  and  since  the  carob  belongs  to  the 
same  family  as  the  locust,  it  has  been  sup- 
posed that  they  M-ere  the  "  locusts"  on  which 
John  the  Baptist  subsisted. 

Hussites,  The.  Great  excitement  was 
aroused  in  Bolieniia  and  Moravia  by  the  ar- 
bitrary arrest  and  cruel  imprisonment  and 
martyrdom  of  Hus.  And  the  burning  of 
Jerome  of  Prague  at  Constance  in  May, 
1416,  brought  it  to  a  chmax.  At  a  diet  in 
Prague,  Sept.,  1415,  a  solemn  protest  against 
the  treatment  of  Hus  had  been  drawn  up,  and 
was  ultimately  signed  by  452  nobles,  while 
the  populace  had  oiiered  mob  violence  to  a 
number  of  the  clergy,  including  Archbishop 
Albicus.  On  Oct.  1  the  Catholic  nobles  had 
formed  a  counter-league.  In  Feb.,  1416,  the 
452  had  been  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
council,  while  their  opponents  were  instructed 
to  prepare  for  a  crusade  against  flieir  heretical 
fellow-countrymen.  In  Feb.,  1418,  the  new 
pope,  Martin  V.,  promulgated  a  bull  against 
the  followers  of  Hus,  and  directed  the  powers 
of  church  and  state  to  proceed  against  them. 
King  Wenzel  weakly  submitting  to  the  papal 
authority,  under  the  lead  of  Nicholas  of  Hus- 
sinecz  and  John  Ziska  the  Hussites  gathered 
in  self-defence  and  published  an  answer  to 
the  bull. 

A  special  feature  of  the  Hussite  movement 
was  the  preaching  of  itinerant  evangelists  and 
the  enjoyment  of  the  communion  under  both 
kinds.  A  favorite  gathering-place  for  their 
open-air  services  was  a  hill  near  Austi,  about 
65  m.  s.  of  Prague,  named  Tabor,  afterward 
fortified  by  Ziska. 

On  July  BO,  1419,  an  insult  having  been 
offered  to  a  religious  procession  of  Hussites 
while  passing  the  Rathhaus  in  Prague,  a 
tumult  ensued,  and  seven  councillors  were 
thrown  out  of  an  upper  window  onto  the 
pikes  of  the  mob  below.  The  news  of  this 
induced  an  attack  of  apoplexy  for  Wenzel, 
v/ho  died  Aug.  16.  Sigismund  should  have 
succeeded  him,  according  to  the  compact  of 
1411  ;  but  he  at  first  appointed  Queen  Sophia 
his  regent,  and  instigated  the  proclamation  of 
a  crusade  against  the  Hussites  on  the  part  of 
the  pope.  The  Avar  wliich  followed  may  be 
divided  into  two  periods  :  The  first,  which 
lasted  till  1425,  being  defensive  on  the  part  of 
the  Hussites  ;  the  second,  which  began  Avith 
Procopius'  invasion  of  Germany  in  1727,  con- 
tinued till  his  defeat  and  death  in  1484. 

At  an  early  date  the  Hussites  set  forth  their 
demands  in  a  fourfolil  form  :  1.  Free  preach- 
ing of  the  Word  of  God  throughout  Bohemia  ; 
2.  The  administration  of  the  Eucharist  under 


HUTCHINSON 


(389) 


HUTTEN 


both  kiuds  to  all  believers  not  morally  dis- 
qualified ;  3.  Deprivation  of  the  cleri^y  of 
secular  lordship  and  of  the  property  which 
they  had  acquired  to  the  prejudice  of  the  civil 
powers  ;  4.  Repressiou  and  punishment  of 
mortal  sins  in  tiie  clergy  and  laity  alike.  But 
soon  they  began  to  differ  in  respect  to  the  ex- 
tent to  wliicii  these  principles  should  be  car- 
ried out.  The  conservative  wing,  the  Calix- 
tiaes  or  Utraquists,  hoped  for  ultimate  recon- 
ciliation with  the  church,  and  held  to  all  Rom- 
ish doctrines  and  usag(!S  which  were  not  at 
variance  with  tlie  Four  Articles.  Hence  their 
policy  vacillated.  The  radical  wing,  the 
Taborites,  rejected  purgatory,  the  interces- 
sions of  the  saints,  penances,  images,  the 
mass  in  a  foreign  tongue,  denied  the  right  of 
priests  guilty  of  mortal  sin  to  administer  the 
Eucharist,  and  claimed  that  pious  laymen, 
even  women,  might  preach,  and  that  divine 
■worship  might  be  held  in  any  building.  To 
the  latter  belong  Ziska  and  Procopius.  TJie 
higher  nobles  and  the  university  held  to  the 
former. 

Both  parties  united  to  resist  the  Catholic 
invaders.  Ziska,  their  general,  routed  the 
imperialists  on  the  Witkowberg,  near  Prague, 
July  14,  1420,  took  Prague  next  year,  and 
■was  victorious  at  Deutschbrod,  Jan.  18,  1422, 
and  again  in  the  same  year  at  Aussig,  but  died 
of  the  plague,  Oct.  14,  1424.  After  his  death 
a  third  faction,  called  Orphans,  became  promi- 
nent. They  had  been  his  immediate  followers, 
and  now  occupied  a  middle  position  between 
the  Taborites  and  the  Calixtines. 

Under  Procopius  "  the  Great"  the  Hussites 
invaded  Germany,  and  spread  the  terror  of 
their  name  tlirough  Saxony,  Brandenburg, 
Pranconia,  Bavaria,  Austria,  etc.  They  re- 
pulsed the  sixth  invasion  of  Bohemia  by  the 
crusaders  at  Tauss,  Aug.  14,  1431.  But  the 
Calixtines  having  made  peace  with  Sigismund 
and  the  church  through  the  "  Compactata  of 
Basel."  Nov.,  1433,  the  Taborites  and  the 
Orphans  were  disastrously  defeated  near 
Boehmischbrod,  May  30,  1434,  Procopius 
"  the  Great"  and  his  namesake,  the  leader  of 
the  Orphans,  both  falling.  One  by  one  their 
strongholds  were  taken.  As  a  political  power 
they  disappeared.  But  from  their  remnant 
emerged  the  Unitas  Fratrum,  the  Church  of 
the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren,  in 
14.j7,  the  lleformed  Church  of  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  prior  to  the  German  Reformation, 
which  after  being  almost  blotted  out  of  exist- 
ence by  the  Thirty  Vears'  War,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  Count  Zinzendorf  was  re- 
newed in  1732,  to  give  an  impulse  to  mis- 
sionary activity  and  Protestant  Christendom. 
See  MoKAviAN  CnuRcn. 

Si$i  Palacky,  Urkundliche  Bcitrncf/e  zur 
Geschichte  d.  llusitcnkrieyes,  Prag,  1872-74  ; 
Gillett.  John  JIiiss,  New  York.  1863  ;  Gin- 
dely,  Geschirhti;  d.  BoehmiKcheii  Brucd^r,  Prag, 
1857  ;  De  Schweinitz,  History  of  the  Unitas 
Fratrum,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1885;  Patera  in 
Sitzunrjitberichti'ii  d.  k.  BiJh.  GeHcllschnft  dir 
Wisiieritirhtiftfn,  1888  ;  Van  dcr  Haegen,  Jean 
JIuss,  AlenVon,  1888. 

John  Tayi.oii  Hamilton. 

Hutchinson,     Anne,    b.     in    Liucolnsliire, 


Eng.,  about  1590  ;  d.  near  Stamford,  Conn., 
in  Sept.,  1G43.  She  was  a  daughter  of  the 
Rev.  Francis  Marbury  ;  married  about  1G12 
William  Hutchinson,  of  Alford,  Lincolnshire, 
and  had  15  children.  In  1G34  the  family 
emigrated  to  JNIassachusetts.  In  Boston  she 
began  preaching  her  "  two  dangerous  errors," 
that  the  person  of  the  Holy  Ghost  dwells  in  a 
justified  person  ;  and  that  no  sanctitication  can 
help  to  evidence  to  us  our  justification.  She 
caused  much  excitement,  and  was  finallj^  ban- 
ished for  heresy  and  sedition  She  went  to 
Rhode  Island,  where,  with  her  followers,  who 
were  called  "  Antinomians,"  slie  founded 
Portsmouth.  On  the  death  of  her  husband, 
in  1642,  she  removed  to  the  west  of  Stamford, 
Conn.,  and  there  was  murdered  by  the  Ind- 
ians. 

Hutchinson,  John,  Church  of  England, 
layman  ;  b.  at  SpenuitJiorne,  Yorkshire,  in 
the  year  1674  ;  was  in  the  employ  of  the  duke 
of  Somerset  as  steward,  but  being  put  in  pos- 
session of  a  sinecure  position  under  the  gov- 
ernment worth  £200  per  annum,  he  left  his 
service  and  devoted  lumself  to  study  tmtil  his 
death,  Aug.  28,  1737.  Besides  a  knowledge 
of  natural  history  he  acquired  great  familiarity 
■with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  He  held  that 
the  Old  Testament  should  be  interpreted 
typicallj',  and  that  it  contains  a  complete  sy.s- 
tem  of  natural  history,  theology,  and  religion. 
He  defended  these  views  in  a  series  of  now 
forgotten  volumes,  and  made  many  converts, 
who  were  called  Hutchinsonians,  among 
whom  were  such  distinguished  men  as  Bishop 
Home  and  Mr.  Romaine.  (See  his  Pldlosophi- 
cal  and  Theolorjical  Works,  London,  3d  cd., 
1748-49,  12  vols.,  suppl.,  1765,  with  life  by 
R.  Spearman.) 

Hutten  (hoot-ten),  Ulrich  von,  b.  at  Steckel- 
berg,  Ilesse-Cassel.  April  21,  1488  ;  d.  Sept.  1, 
1523,  on  the  island  of  L'fnau,  in  Lake  Zurich  ; 
■u^as  the  knight-errant  among  the  Humanists 
and  a  man  of  great  and  varied  talents,  but 
also  of  many  and  doubtful  adventures.  He 
first  came  into  notice  by  his  satirical  pam- 
phlets against  the  duke  of  Wurtemberg.  For 
some  time  he  worked  side  by  side  with  the 
reformers  against  the  Roman  curia  ;  parts  of 
the  famous  fJpistohv  obscuroruni  virornm  were 
written  by  him.  But  he  took  more  interest 
in  social  than  in  religious  reform,  aiid  he 
finally  joined  Franz  von  Sickingen  in  his  feud 
against  the  elector  of  Treves.  But  the  nnder- 
takipg  failed  completely,  and  he  fled  to  Swit- 
zerland. Erasmus  refused  to  sec  liira,  but 
Zwingli  took  pity  on  him.  Tliere  is  a  col- 
lected edition  of  his  works  by  Bocking, 
Leipzig,  1859-61,  5  vols.,  and  2  supplementary 
vols,  containing  liis  letters,  1864-70.  His  life 
was  written' by  Strauss,  1858-60,  3  vols.,  4th 
ed.,  1878, 1  vol.,  Eng.  abridged  trans..  London, 
1871.  (See  also  Rade,  Ulrich  ton  Hutten  luid 
Franz  ton  Sickinr/en  in  ihrcm  Aiithdl  an  der 
Reformation,  Barmen,  1887  ;  Werckshagen, 
Jjuther  It nd Hutten,  Wittenberg,  1888  ;  Boden, 
Der  dcutsche  Patriot,  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  Leip- 
zig, 1888  ;  A.  Lange,  Der  deutschc  Patriot, 
Ulrich  von  Hutten,  GiUersloh,  1888  ;  Chr. 
Clever,  Ulrich  von  Hutten  und  Franz  von 
Sickingen,  Ansbach,  1889.)  C.  P. 


HUTTER 


(390) 


HYMNOLOGY 


Hutter    (hoot-ter),    Leonhard,  b.   at  Nel- 

lingen,  near  Ulm,  Wurtemberg,  in  Jan.,  1563  ; 
d.  at  Wittenberg,  Oct.  23,  1616,  where  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  1596.  He 
was  a  typical  representative  of  the  old  gen- 
uine Lutheran  orthodoxy  both  in  its  dogmati- 
cal and  in  its  polemical  form,  and  his  Com- 
pendium locornm  theologicorum,  Wittenberg, 
1610,  completely  superseded  Melanchthon's 
Loci,  as  it  was  designed  to  do,  and  was  often 
reprinted,  e.g.,  Berlin,  1863,  Eng.  trans,  by 
H.  E.  Jacobs,  Con:,pend  of  Lutheran,  Theology, 
Philadelphia,  1867,  4th  ed.,  1882. 

Huz'-zab,  in  Nahum  ii.  7,  has  been  ex- 
plained as  the  name  of  a  queen  of  Nineveh, 
as  a  geographical  term  denoting  the  country 
of  Zab,  and  as  a  set  phrase  meaning  "  it  is 
decreed." 

Hyacinthe  (e-asant).  Father  (Charles 
Jean  Marie  Augustine  Hyacinthe  Loyson), 
b.  at  Orleans,  France,  March  10,  1827  ;  was 
educated  in  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice, 
Paris  ;  ordained  a  priest,  1851  ;  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  the  seminary  of  Avig- 
non, 1851  ;  then  of  dogmatics  in  the  seminary 
of  Nantes,  1854  ;  and  curate  of  St.  Sulpice, 
Paris,  in  1856.  In  1858  he  entered  the  Do- 
minican order  as  reformed  by  Lacordaine,  but 
preferring  a  more  austere  order,  he,  in  1862, 
exchanged  it  for  that  of  the  Barefooted  Car- 
melites. In  1864  he  began  his  celebrated  Con- 
ferences in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  in 
Paris,  which  continued  to  attract  immense 
audiences  in  spite  of  the  jealousy  and  chican- 
eries of  the  Jesuits;  but" in  1869,  during  the 
preparations  for  the  Vatican  Council,  he  left 
his  order,  resigned  his  position  as  preacher  at 
Notre  Dame, "publicly  protested  against  the 
intrigues  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Ultramon- 
tanes,  and  finally  left  Paris  for  a  short  visit 
to  New  York.  After  the  promulgation  of  the 
dogma  of  papal  infallibility  he  definitely  sepa- 
rated from  the  Roman  Church,  joined  the  Old 
Catholics  in  Munich,  married  (1872),  and 
settled  at  Geneva  as  pastor  of  tlie  Christ  Catho- 
lic congregation.  In  1877  and  1878  he  again 
held  Conferences  in  Paris,  in  the  Cirque 
d'Hiver,  and  in  1879  he  founded  there  the 
Catholic-Gallican  Church,  which  is  in  com- 
munion with  the  Old  Catholic  Church  and 
the  Anglican  Church,  but  most  of  his  time  he 
spent  as  a  travelling  preacher  on  Catholic  re- 
form. Of  his  numerous  publications.  Confe- 
rences mt  Cirque  d'lliver  were  translated  into 
English,  London,  1879,  as  also  De  la  Reforme 
Catholique,  with  an  introduction  by  Dean 
Stanley,  London,  1874.  C.  P. 

Hyde,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1682),  Ori- 
entalist ;  b.  at  Billingsley,  Shropshire,  June 
29,  1636  ;  d.  at  Oxford,  Feb.  18.  1703.  He 
began  to  study  Eastern  tongues  under  his 
fatlier,  and  at  17  helped  Walton  in  preparing 
his  Polyglot  Bible.  Entering  Cambridge, 
1652,  he  passed  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
1658  ;  became  Hebrew  reader  there,  and  next 
year  underkeeper  of  the  Bodleian,  of  which 
he  was  librarian,  1665-1701,  and  published  a 
catalogue,  1674.  He  was  made  prebendary 
of  Salisbury,  1660  ;  archdeacon  of  Gloucester, 
1678  ;    Laudian  professor  of  Arabic,   1691  ; 


regius  professor  of  Hebrew,  and  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  1697.  Among  his  works  are 
the  Gospels  and  Acts  in  Malay,  London,  1677, 
and  Veterum  Persarum  et  Parthoruvi  et  Medo- 
rum  Religionis  Historia,  Oxford,  1700,  2d  ed., 
1760.  His  Syntagma  Dissertationnm  v^aa  "pub- 
lished by  Dr.  G.  Sharpe,  Oxford,  1767,  2  vols., 
with  a  life.  F.  M.  B. 

Hyena,  The  Striped,  3  feet  high  at  the 
shoulders,  with  dat-k  stripes  upon  the  sides 
and  limbs,  and  a  mane  of  bristly  hair  along 
the  back.  Its  proper  food  is  carrion,  and  only 
when  driven  by  hunger  it  attacks  live  ani- 
mals. It  is  as  cowardly  as  it  is  strong,  and  as 
ferocious  as  disgusting.  When  it  occurs  in 
packs  it  becomes  extremely  dangerous,  and 
attacks  man.  It  is  mentioned  1  Sam.  xiii. 
18  and  Neh.  xi.  34.  The  "speckled  bird" 
in  Jer.  xii.  9  should,  according  to  some,  be 
translated  hyena, 

Hy-gi'-nus,  bishop  of  Rome  from  137  to 
141  or  from  138  to  142,  the  successor  of  Tcl- 
esphorus. 

Hylozoism  (from  v?^tj,  matter,  and  C<J7. 
life)  is  the  name  of  the  doctrine  that  all  mat- 
ter, even  in  its  lowest,  atomistic  form,  is  en- 
dowed with  life,  and  that  consequently  all  life, 
even  in  its  highest  spiritual  form,  is  a  spon- 
taneous evolution  of  matter. 

Hymenseus  (him-e-nee'-us),  bishop  of  Jeru- 
salem, 266-98,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Synod  of  Antioch,  269,  on  Paul  of  Samosata, 
and  may  have  been  that  bishop  of  Jerusalem 
to  whom  the  conversion  of  the  Theban  legion 
was  due. 

Hynmology.  Hymns,  in  times  of  pagan- 
ism, were  usually  poems  in  honor  of  gods  or 
heroes.  Something  of  the  same  width  and 
looseness  of  definition  still  prevails.  In  ordi- 
nary modern  usage,  the  word  signifies  the 
lyrical  expression  of  religious  praise,  prayer, 
meditation,  instruction,  or  exhortation.  St. 
Augustine  confined  its  meaning  to  praise  to 
God  in  the  form  of  song.  Extending  this  de- 
scription to  include  prayer,  a  hymn  in  the 
strict  sense  is  an  address  to  Deity,  in  shape 
adapted  to  be  sung.  But  this  limitation  is 
rarely  observed,  and  our  hymn-books  include 
(besides  chants)  all  manner  of  lyrics  supposed 
to  be  devout  and  edifying. 

The  ancient  heathen  hymns  were  usually 
poems  of  some  length  ;  they  are  paralleled  or 
imitated  in  Spenser's  four  (1590)  in  honor  of 
Love  and  Beauty,  and  Milton's  (1629)  on  the 
Nativity,  the  Passion,  etc.  Those  of  the 
Greeks  which  approach  nearest  to  our  modern 
forms  are  Cleanthes'  Hymn  to  Zeus,  and  a  frag- 
ment of  Callistratus  in  honor  of  Harmadius 
and  Aristogeiton  ;  the  latter,  in  Mr.  Palgrave's 
translation,  closely  resembles  some  of  the 
mediaeval  hymns  for  festivals  of  saints.  Those 
called  Homer's  are  much  earlier,  and  the 
"  Orphic  hymns"  probably  later.  The  Ro- 
mans had  not  the  term,  and  seldom  the  thing. 

The  Jews  had  much  more  to  do  with  hymns, 
in  our  sense  of  the  word,  than  the  Gentiles. 
The  early  Christian  hynms  found  their  prec- 
edents in  those  of  the' Old  Testament,  cliiefly 
the  Psalms.     The  "  hymn"  sung  by  our  Lord 


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and  his  disciples  after  tlie  Last  Supper  (Matt. 
xxvi.  30,  Mark  xiv.  26)  was  doubtless  Ps. 
cxv^.-cxviii.  The  distinction  between  "  psalms 
and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs"  (Eph.  v.  19, 
Col.  iii.  16)  is  either  arbitrary  or  imperfectly 
understood.  Several  passages  in  the  Pauline 
Epistles  are  supposed  to  quote  or  refer  to 
Christian  hymns  already  in  use  ;  and  a  few 
portions  of  the  New  Testament,  as  Acts  iv. 
23-30,  are  essentially  hymnic  in  structure. 

The  Therapeutaj  about  Alexandria,  who 
■were  either  Essenes  or  Christians,  were  said 
by  Philo  to  sing  at  their  festivals  hymns  of 
their  own  composition.  The  famous  letter  of 
Pliny  to  Trajan,  106  or  107  a.d.,  says  that 
the  Bithynian  Christians  were  accustomed 
"  to  come  together  on  a  fixed  day  before  light, 
and  to  say  by  turns  (secitm  invicem)  a  hymn 
to  Christ  as  God."  Eusebius  preserves  a 
fragment  of  Caius  (2d  century),  referring  to 
"  all  the  hymns  and  odes  written  by  faithful 
brethren  from  the  beginning  "  as  "  hymning 
Christ,  the  Word  of  God,  as  God."  Tertul- 
lian  describes  alternate  and  voluntary  singing, 
from  Scripture  or  original  compositions,  at 
the  Agapie  in  Africa.  The  hymn  ascribed 
lo  Clement  of  Alexandria,  b.'cause  appended 
to  his  Predagogus  ("  Shepherd  of  tender 
youth"),  was  supposed  by  Bishop  Bull  to  be 
one  of  these  productions.  The  "Gloria  in  Ex- 
celsis,  said  to  have  been  introduced  at  Rome 
by  Telesphorus,  was  expanded  from  an  early 
Greek  morning  hymn.  The  "  Lamp-lighting 
hymn,"  ^wc  'Aapuv,  often  translated,  is  not 
much  later.  One  of  the  grounds  assigned  for 
the  deposition  of  Paul  of  Samosata  was  his 
prohibition  of  hymns  to  Christ.  The  use  of 
these  private  compositions  in  public  worship 
■was  forbidden  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea, 
about  370  ;  but  in  Jerome's  time  they  were 
sung  everywhere,  by  the  ploughman  in  his 
field  and  the  workman  at  his  bench. 

In  the  ages  of  controversy  hymns  were 
freely  employed  for  their  own  purposes  by  all 
parties.  Bardesanes  of  Edessa,  about  200, 
and  his  son  Harmonius,  furthered  their  Gnos- 
tic doctrines  with  effective  words^  and  music. 
To  counteract  these  heresies,  Ephraem  Syrus 
wrote  orthodox  lyrics  and  set  them  to  the 
same  melodies.  Some  of  his  hymns  are  pre- 
served in  Daniel's  Thcsaurns,  vol.  3,  and 
Hahn's  Syriac  ChrestoiiKdhy,  1825,  and  have 
been  translated  by  H.  Burgess,  18r)3.  Arius 
used  the  same  means  of  advancing  his  views  ; 
the  alleged  light  nature  of  his  hymns  was  re- 
buked by  Athanasius,  and  the  antiphonal 
singing  and  nightly  processions  of  his  fol- 
lowers at  Constantinople  opposed  by  similar 
proceedings  directed  by  Chrysostom  ;  the  re- 
sults were  bloodj^  riots,  and  an  edict  suppress- 
ing the  Arian  songs  in  public. 

Among  the  earlier  Greek  hymnists  were 
Methodius  of  Tyre,  Gregory  ISazianzen,  and 
Synesius  of  Ptolemais.  (See  3Irs.  Brown- 
ing's Greek  Chnstinn  Poets,  1842  ;  Mrs. 
Charles'  Vok<}  of  Christian  Life  in  Song, 
1851  ;  and  Mr.  Allen  Chattield's  Songs  and 
JTymns  of  Earliest  Greek  Christian  Poets, 
1876.)  Their  successors,  the  "  melodists" — 
Anatolius,  Cosmas,  .lolui  of  Damascus,   Stc- 

Ehen  the  Sabaite.  Joseph  and  Theodore  of  the 
tudium,  etc.— were  little  known  to  moderns 


imtil  the  appearance  of  Dr.  Neale's  exquisite 
Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church,  1862,  contain- 
ing not  a  few  of  the  loveliest  of  Christian 
lyrics.  These,  however,  are  mostly  free  para- 
phrases, and  sometimes  (as  "  Art  thou 
weary  ?")  rather  original  poems  suggested  by 
the  Greek  than  translations.  Certainly  no 
one  else  has  been  able  to  extract  such  treasures 
from  the  Greek  mediaeval  mines. 

The  ecclesiastical  use  of  Latin  hymns,  and 
mainly  the  hymns  themselves,  were  intro- 
duced in  the  West  by  Hilary  of  Poitiers  and 
Ambrose  of  Milan,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
4th  century.  The  Te  Deum  is  doubtfully  but 
not  improbably  ascribed  to  Ambrose,  who 
produced  10  or  more  (according  to  Thomasius, 
20)  of  the  hymns  called  Ambrosian.  These 
are  marked  by  brevity,  simplicity,  solidity, 
purity,  and  dignity  ;  they  are  useful  as  a 
counterpoise  to  the  subjective  and  often  senti- 
mental character  of  so  many  popular  modern 
lyrics.  Prudcntius  was  of  the  same  era ; 
Gregory  the  Great,  Venantius  Fortunatus,  and 
Bedc  came  two  or  three  centuries  later. 

The  mediajval  hymns  take  k  wider  range, 
and  offer  a  rich  field  to  the  student  and  trans- 
lator. St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  and  Adam 
of  St.  Victor  (both  of  the  12th  century)  were 
the  greatest  writers  of  this  period  ;  Peter 
Damiani,  Hildebert,  Notker,  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas, and  many  others  produced  lyrics  of  en- 
during value.  The  Dies  IrcB  and  Stabat  Mater 
are  the  most  famous  of  Latin  hymns  ;  the 
Veni  Creator  and  Veni  Sancte  Spiritus,  both 
of  earlier  and  uncertain  origin,  are  among  the 
most  valuable.  Charlemagne's  alleged  ^con- 
nection with  Veni  Creator  is  most  improbable, 
and  the  late  Rev.  S.  W.  Duffield  (whose  strik- 
ing papers  on  Latin  hymns  were  posthumously 
edited  by  R.  E.  Thompson,  Latin  Ilymn- 
icriters  and  their  Hymns,  New  York,  1890) 
claimed  to  have  demolished  the  attribution  of 
Veni  Sancte  to  Robert  II.  of  France  in  favor 
of  Hermannus  Contractus.  The  extraordinary 
poem  of  Bernard  de  Morlaix,  monk  of  Cluny, 
De  Contemptio  Miindi,  was  brought  to  light 
within  the  last  half  century,  and  has  gone 
round  the  world  in  the  splendid  fragments 
("Jerusalem  the  golden,"  etc.)  taken  from 
the  version  of  Dr.  Neale.  Many  fine  Latin 
hymns  are  anonymous,  and  some,  as  those  of 
C.  and  J.  B.  Santeuil  and  Charles  Coffin, 
were  written  within  the  last  200  years. 

Latin  hymns  were  seldom  rendered  into 
English  (Crashaw  and  Drummond  of  Ilaw- 
thoruden  in  the  17th  century,  and  G.  W. 
Doane  in  1824,  are  exceptions^  and  very 
rarely  ufeed,  until  the  Oxford  movement  began, 
some  56  years  ago.  J.  H.  Newman  appended 
a  few  versions  (reprinted  with  others  in  his 
Verses)  to  one  of  the  Tracts  for  the  Times,  and 
I.  Williams  printed  a  number  in  the  Jhitish 
Magazine.  The  earliest  volumes  of  transla- 
tions were  those  of  Bishop  Mant  and  John 
C^handlcr,  London,  1837.  and  Isaac  Williams, 
1839.  They  were  followed  by  \\\  T.  Cope- 
land,  1847  ;  Edward  Caswall  (/.?//•«  Catholica), 
1849  :  J.  :M.  Neale.  1851  ;  J.  D.  Chambers, 
1852-57  ;  D.  T.  Morgan.  1871.  and  others. 
The  best  translators  are  Caswall,  Neale,  and 
Chandler  ;  through  them  and  their  competi- 
tors every  hymnal  is  now  enriched  with  more 


i 


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HYMNOLOGY 


or  less  numerous  and  meritorious  versions 
from  the  Latin.  Tlie  originals  may  be  found 
in  the  Roman,  Parisian,  and  other  breviaries, 
in  Daniel's  Thesaurus  Hymiwlogicus,  and  in 
Mone's  Ilymni  Latini  medii  uEvi.  (See  also 
Trench's  Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  Neale's  Ecclesi- 
astical Latin  Poetry  [in  Thompson's  History 
of  Roman  Literature,  Encyclopedia  Metropoli- 
tana],  and  other  essays  of  Neale.) 

German  hymns  began  with  Luther  and  the 
Bohemian  Brethren.  The  .great  reformer 
mightily  helped  his  cause  by  composing  near 
40,  12  of  which  were  from  the  Latin  ;  of  these 
vigorous  strains  the  most  famous  was  the 
Protestant  war  song,  Ein'  feste  Burg.  His 
colleagues  in  this  work  were  Michael  Weiss, 
Paul  Eber,  J.  Walther,  N.  Decius,  and  others. 
Later  in  the  same  century  came  Selnecker,  N. 
Hermann,  Hans  Sachs,  B.  Ringwaldt,  and  P. 
Nicolai ;  and  in  the  next,  Rinckart,  Meyfart, 
Weissel,  Neumarck,  Louisa  Henrietta  of 
Brandenburg,  Anton  Ulrich  of  Brunswick, 
J.  Rist,  J.  fieerman,  P.  Gerhardt,  J.  Franck, 
and  J.  Scheffler,  or  "  Angelus  Silesius."  Of 
the  Pietistic  school  were  P.  J.  Spener,  its 
,  head,  A.  H.  Francke,  A.  Freylinghausen,  J. 
Neander,  J.  Schiitz,  B.  Schmolke,  who  pro- 
duced 1188  sacred  poems,  Desslcr,  Hiller, 
Arnold,  Tersteegen,  and  Count  Zinzendorf. 
Of  later  date  are  Gellert,  Klopsfock,  Von 
Hardenberg  ("  Novalis"),  Fouque,  Arndt, 
Krummacher,  and  Spitta.  These  and  many 
more  are  elaborately  classified  and  described 
in  Kubler's  Historical  Notes  to  Lyi'a  Germani- 
ca,  1865.  (See  also  Miss  Wink  worth's  Chris- 
tian} Singers  of  Germany,  1869  ;  and  for  the 
originals,  Knapp's  Liederschntz,  containing 
3000  lyrics,  Koch's  GeschicMe des  Kirclienlieds, 
and  similar  works  by  F.  A.  Cunz  and  Baron 
Bunseu.)  Of  all  these  singers  Paul  Gerhardt 
[1606-76],  though  not  the  most  voluminous, 
is  considered  the  greatest. 

English  translations  of  German  hymns  be- 
gan in  substance  with  J.  C.  Jacobi,  whose 
Psalmodia  Germanica  (1722-25-32)  was  pat- 
ronized by  Queen  Caroline.  To  this  J.  Haber- 
korn  added  a  supplement  in  1765.  Many 
more  appeared  in  the  early  Moravian  collec- 
tions, especially  the  great  one  of  1754.  Far 
superior  to  these  were  some  30  or  40  free 
paraphrases  by  John  Wesley,  1737-42.  After 
a  long  interval  the  work  of  translating  was 
efliciently  resumed  by  Miss  Frances  E.  Cox, 
1841,  and  pursued  by  A.  T.  Russell.  1851  ; 
Jane  Borthwick  and  Mrs.  Findlater,  1854 
{Hymns  from  the  Land  of  Luther)  ;  R.  Massie, 
1854,  whose  two  volumes  of  Ljyra  Domestica 
are  chiefly  from  Spitta ;  and  others  of  less 
note.  But  the  ablest  worker  in  this  field  is 
Catherine  Winkworth,  whose  Lyra  Germani- 
ca, 1855-58,  and  Chorale  Book  for  England, 
1862,  are  books  of  great  value,  though  the 
publishers'  requirement  of  a  fee  for  each 
adoption  of  any  of  their  contents  has  restricted 
their  use  in  England. 

Modern  hymns  other  than  German  and 
English  arc  little  known  to  Anglo-Saxon 
readers  and  worshippers.  In  France  and 
Italy  the  weakness  of  Protestantism  has  lim- 
ited the  supply.  Mme.  Guion's  mystical 
songs  were  translated  by  Cowper  (1782),  and 
the  later  hymns  of  Dr.   C.   Malan  by  other 


hands  ;  one  or  two  of  these  are  sometimes 
used.  The  Scandinavian  lauds,  and  in  some 
degree  Holland,  have  a  provision  of  their 
own.  (See  G.  Tait's  Hymns  of  Denmark,  J. 
Sheppard's  Foreign  Sacred  Lyre,  and  a  few 
other  English  works  of  small  merit.) 

The  German  hymnody,  long  unrivalled,  has 
within  the  last  century  or  two  been  probably 
outstripped  in  quantity,  and  equalled  or  ap- 
proached in  quality,  by  that  of  England. 
Coverdale's  40  Ghostly  Psalmes  and  Spirituall 
Songcs,  partly  from  the  German,  153-,  was 
the  first  crude  attempt.  For  full  150  years 
after  the  establishment  of  the  Reformation 
our  ancestors  sang  in  their  devotions  nothing, 
or  next  to  nothing,  except  metrical  renderings 
of  the  Psalms.  That  of  Thomas  Sternhold 
first  appeared  in  1549,  and  was  completed  by 
John  Hopkins  and  others  in  1562  ;  though  its 
use  in  the  Established  Church  continued  here 
and  there  until  the  present  century,  its  con- 
tents, with  two  or  three  exceptions,  possess  no 
more  than  an  antiquarian  interest.  Less  nota- 
ble results  were  obtained  by  the  version  of 
King  James  I.  and  Sir  W.  Alexander,  1631, 
though  attempted  to  be  enforced  in  Scotland, 
and  by  that  of  W.  Barton,  which  strove  for 
the  sanction  of  the  Long  Parliament  with 
that  of  Francis  Rous.  The  latter  was  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Westminster  Assembly,  pub- 
lished by  order  of  the  Commons,  16*46,  and 
after  liberal  revision  by  a  Scottish  Committee 
adopted,  1650,  by  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
which  has  used  it  ever  since.  The  less  vigor- 
ous but  more  graceful  "  New  Version"  of 
Tate  and  Brady,  1696,  sometimes  rising  tow- 
ard real  poetry,  was  sanctioned  by  William 
in.  and  Anne,  and  very  gradually  displaced 
its  antiquated  rival.  No  other  complete  ver- 
sions of  the  Psalms  ever  obtained  high  au- 
thority in  the  British  isles,  though  those  of 
Sandys,  1636  ;  Merrick,  1765  ;  Goode,  1811, 
and  others  contributed  many  Ij-rics  to  the 
collections.  (See  HoWund' a  British  Psalmists, 
1848.) 

Counting  out  John  Wedderburu  (before 
1560),  the  Scottish  Gude  and  Godlie  Ballades, 
and  a  few  other  now  forgotten  efforts,  with  the 
well-remembered  Jerusalem  songs  of  F.  B.  P. 
and  David  Dickson,  the  first  British  maker  of 
hymns  as  apart  from  psalm-versions  was 
George  Wither  ;  certainly  he  was  the  first 
English  poet  of  repute  who  made  a  business  of 
hymn-writing.  His  Hymns  and  Songs  of  the 
CliurcJi,  1622,  received  the  royal  patent,  but 
otherwise  no  more  recognition  than  his  more 
extensive  Hallelujah,  1641.  The  merit  of 
these  books  did  not  save  them  from  oblivion  ; 
their  fame  is  almost  wholly  recent.  Other 
devout  poets  of  that  age,  as  Quarles  and  Her- 
bert, wrote  for  readers,  not  for  singers  ;  but 
a  few  hymns,  by  jDrofession  or  in  substance, 
■were  produced  by  J.  Cosin,  1627  ;  Jeremy 
Taylor,  1654  ;  Henry  More,  1647  ;  S.  Cross- 
man,  1664  ;  T.  Flatman,  1670  ;  and  Richard 
Baxter,  1681.  John  Austin,  a  Romanist, 
printed  in  1668  some  30  hymns,  several  of 
tliem  of  great  beauty,  and  the  Songs  of  Praise 
of  John  Slason,  1683,  were  full  of  originality, 
fervor,  and  sweetness.  He  was  followed 
closely  in  time,  but  at  some  distance  other- 
wise, by  T.  Shepherd  and  Joseph  Stennett. 


HYMNOLOGY 


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Bishop  Ken's  three  hymns  and  Drydeu's 
Veni  Creator  appeared  at  the  close  of  the  17th 
century. 

Hitherto  most  of  the  Trriters  were  English 
Churchmen  ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  dissent 
and  the  18th  century  to  initiate  the  era  of 
hymn-writing  and  liymn-singiug.  The  church 
as  such  took  no  part  in  the  movement.  8onie 
of  her  meuibers  might  contribute  casually,  as 
Addison  and  Byrom.  or  y.ealously  and  largely, 
as  the  Wesleys,  Toplady,  Newton,  and  Cow- 
per  ;  but  in  her  places  of  worsiiip  nothing 
metrical  was  sung  except  the  "  Old"  and 
"  New"  Versions,  and  nearly  all  her  people 
till  about  1750,  and  most  of  them  long  after, 
seem  to  have  been  content  with  this  meagre 
provision. 

Dr.  Watts  was  "  the  father  of  Englisli 
hymnod}'  ;"  the  appearance  of  his  Ifymns,  in 
1707,  effected  a  silent  revolution.  Reinforced 
by  his  Jlora'  Lyriae,  in  1705-9,  his  Psalms  in 
1719,  and  some  minor  worlis,  they  offered  a 
body  of  about  800  singable  pieces,  such  as 
Englishmen  had  never  seen  before.  Their 
very  limitations  contributed  to  their  success  ; 
they  were  not  above  the  popular  taste,  and 
their  influence  was  rapid,  widespread,  and 
enormous.  For  a  full  century  Watts  sup- 
plied most  of  the  lyrics  sung  by  the  chief  Cal- 
vinistic  bodies  of  England  and  America  ;  as 
late  as  1836  the  Congre'gational  Union  put  forth 
a  "  Supplement"  to  his  Psalms  and  Hymns. 
The  greater  part  of  his  verses  is  now  as  com- 
pletely superseded  as  those  of  Tate  and 
Brady  ;  but  some  of  them  maintain  a  place  in 
universal  use  and  among  the  finest.  What 
he  was  to  his  own  generation  and  to  tliose 
succeeding  we  can  but  faintly  imagine  ;  few 
authors  of  any  sort  and  in  any  age  were  ever 
so  completely"  popular  and  so  widely  useful. 
After  the  Scriptures,  and  possibly  *the  cate- 
chisms, his  Psalms  and  Ili/mits  probably  did 
more  to  educate  the  English-speaking  public 
from  1725  to  1825  tlian  any  other  book.  As 
au  educator  in  taste,  their  effect  was  not  the 
happiest. 

Watts  was  closely  followed  by  Simon 
Browne,  1720,  and  Ralph  Erskine,  whoso 
Gospel  Sonnets,  1733,  attained  a  popularity 
now  diflicult  to  understand,  and  gave  far 
more  attention  to  Scottish  theology  than  to 
poetry.  Later  came  Dr.  DoddVidge,  the 
greatest  of  this  school  after  its  head  ;  the 
Scotch  Paraphrasers,  who  drew  largely  on 
Watts,  but  included  in  their  latest  committee 
John  Morrison  and  Logan,  who  used  as  his 
own  the  manuscripts  of  ^lichael  Bruce  ;  Anne 
Steele,  a  graceful  but  feeble  writer  ;  Elizabeth 
Scott,  Dr.  Gibbons,  Ncedham,  Beddome, 
Fawcett,  S.  Stonnett,  and  many  more.  These 
were  Independents  or  Baptists  ;  they  used 
iambic  measures  with  few  exceptions,  and 
wrote  in  a  plain  and  sober  style.  Thomas 
Scott,  Mrs.  Barbauld,  and  several  of  less  note 
toward  tiie  end  of  the  century,  eitlier  inclined 
to  Arian  opinions  or  professed  Unitarianism. 

Charles  Wesley  (17(lS-8Si)  founded  a  totally 
new  school,  composed  almost  wliolh^  of  liim- 
self.  He  was  and  is  the  poet  of  Jletliodism, 
of  experience,  of  the  religious  emotions.  En- 
dowed witli  every  gift  except  tliose  of  com- 
pression and  self-restraint,  he  is  probably  the 


most  voluminous  lyric  poet  of  any  age ; 
throughout  4000  or  5000  "  hymns,"  some  of 
them  mere  pious  epigrams,  others  of  great 
length,  he  maintained  a  standard  far  higher 
than  could  be  expected.  From  1737  till  near 
his  death  he  poured  forth  a  wonderful  series  of 
books  and  tracts  in  verse,  reprinted,  1S6H-72, 
in  13  volumes  of  nearly  6000  pages.  A  num- 
ber of  these  publications  bore  the  names  of 
botli  brothers,  and  their  work  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished with  absolute  certainty  ;  but  John 
Wesley,  whose  poetic  talent  was  hardly  in- 
ferior to  that  of  Charles,  is  supposed  to  liave 
written  little  except  the  comparatively  fev/ 
translations.  His  brother'.s  hymns  were  often 
benefited  by  his  revision  ;  his  Collection  cf 
1779,  the  basis  of  every  subsequent  collection, 
remains  a  landmark  in  the  history  of  religious 
literature,  and  a  magnificent  memorial  of  the 
peculiar  views,  brilliant  rhetorical  talents,  and 
fervid  devotion  of  two  great  men. 

C.  Wesley  was  far  less  easy  to  imitate  than 
Watts,  and  had  far  fewer  imitatoi.s.  Chief 
among  these  were  Cennick,  1742-45,  and 
Hammond,  1745,  who  became  ^loravians  ; 
Seagrave,  1742  ;  Olivers,  Bakewell,  and 
Robinson,  who  each  wrote  but  one  or  two 
strong  hymns  ;  and  Topladj',  forever  mem- 
orable as  the  author  of  "  Rock  of  Ages,"  a  man 
of  temperament,  culture,  and  ability  close 
akin  to  the  Wesleys,  but  divided  from  them 
by  a  gulf  of  angry  controversy.  Joseph  Hart, 
a  remarkable  Nonconformist,  in  views  and 
vehemence  allied  to  Toplady,  but  of  vastly 
less  refinement,  stands  by  himself  ;  hi.s  rude 
hymns  were  long  dear  to  advanced  Calvinists. 

It  was  possible  in  that  age  to  escape  the  in- 
fluence of  Wesley,  but  not  of  Watts  ;  and  the 
persons  last  named  wrote  under  the  combined 
sway  of  both  masters.  The  chief  members  of 
this  composite  school  were  Newton  and  Covv- 
per,  in  whose  Olney  Hymns  (1779)  a  stern  the- 
ology is  not  more  pronounced  than  an  ex- 
quisite humanitj".  The  tender  friendship  of 
two  lovable  characters  breathes  from  every 
page,  along  with  their  profound  earnestness, 
strong  subjectivity,  and  utter  consecration. 
John  Newton  was  far  less  a  poet  than  his 
friend,  but  his  humble  gifts  produced  an  emi- 
nent result.  The  book  was  almost  a  manual 
for  the  Evangelical  party,  and  has  still  a 
singular  and  subtle  charm  of  its  own.  In 
that  age  the  distinction  between  clmrch  and 
dissent  (in  hymnic  matters,  at  least)  was  cf 
much  less  consequence  than  that  between 
Arminian  and  Calvinist.  The  first  notable 
collections,  other  than  Weslevan,  were  those 
of  Whitefield.  about  1753,  and  Madan.  1760. 
Afterward  W.  Williams  in  Wales,  Ryland, 
3Iedley,  Swain,  and  Burnham  among  the 
Baptis'ts,  and  Berridge,  Rowland  Hill,  and 
Haweis  in  the  Establishment,  wrote  in  tlie 
same  interest.  Several  of  these  names  lap 
over  into  the  present  century. 

The  field  now  began  to  be  crowded  and  con- 
fused. James  Montgomery  was  writing  or 
publishing  hymns  of  great  merit  from  1797 
till  Ins  deatli  in  1858.  Thomas  Kelly,  an 
Irishman,  covered  almost  the  same  dates,  and 
produced  over  800,  many  of  which  are  still 
widely  used  ;  he  was  strongest  in  trochaic 
measures  (chiefly  8,  7,  and  4)  and  in  dealing 


HYMNOIiOGY 


(394) 


HYMNOIiO&Y 


with  Christ's  exaltation  and  with  missions. 
Both  these  were  of  earnest  evangelical  spirit 
and  moderate  in  doctrine  ;  their  productions 
from  the  beginning  were  warmly  and  exten- 
sively welcomed.  Josiah  Couder,  an  accom- 
plislied  Congregationalist,  did  much  good 
work  ;  James  Edmeston  and  Sir  John  Bow- 
ring  were  voluminous  writers.  W.  Hurn, 
Andrew  Reed,  W.  B.  Collyer,  and  T.  Raffles 
wrote  and  compiled.  So  did  Thomas  Cotter- 
ill  within  tlie  church  ;  the  few  hymns  of  Gis- 
borne,  Bowdler,  Cavvood,  and  G.  T.  Noel 
aspired  to  a  higher  literary  standard  than  had 
been  commonly  maintained,  but  were  sur- 
passed in  tliis  respect  by  those  of  Sir  Robert 
Grant  and  Bishop  Heber.  The  year  1827  is 
memorable  for  the  appearance  of  Heber 's 
posthumous  volume  (including  also  Milman's 
hymns),  of  Keble's  Ghnstiaii  Year,  and  of 
Harriet  Auber's  Spirit  of  the  Psalms.  H.  F. 
Lyte  took  the  .same  title  in  1834,  but  "  Abide 
with  me"  was  not  written  till  1847.  Char- 
lotte Elliott,  Bathurst,  Mant,  Osier,  J.  H. 
GuTney,  Dean  Alford,  and  many  others  were 
writing  hj'rans  before  1840.  Lyra  Apostolica, 
1836,  while  most  of  its  contents  were  not 
strictly  hymnic,  was  a  literary  and  theological 
landmark,  and  contained  ''  Lead,  kindly 
Light,"  and  many  other  notable  pieces  by  Dr. 
(now  Cardinal)  J.  H.  Newman. 

By  this  time  the  Church  of  England  was 
awaking  to  a  duty  and  privilege  strangely  and 
long  neglected.  The  free  competition  and  use 
of  hymnals  was  established  after  some  opposi- 
tion, and  greatly  stimulated  activity  in  writ- 
ing and  compiling.  Translations  from  the 
Latin  (mentioned  above)  stirred  much  inter- 
est, and  zealous  students  investigated  every 
point  pertaining  to  public  worship.  Among 
the  multitude  of  writers  who  have  enriched 
our  hymnody  within  the  last  50  years,  the 
greatest  was  Dr.  John  Mason  Neale,  eminent 
alike  for  talents,  learning,  devotion,  labors,  and 
sufferings  in  the  cause  of  what  he  deemed 
truth  and  duty.  His  views  were  extreme,  his 
preferment  despicable  ;  he  was  throughout 
life  the  object  of  suspicion  and  hatred  such  as 
John  Wesley  outlived  a  century  before  ;  but 
he  was  richly  blessed  in  his  work  ;  some  of  his 
strains  of  faith  and  hope  are  sung  throughout 
the  world  as  often  as  any  of  Watts  or  Wesley, 
and  have  brought  comfort  unspeakable  to  the 
afflicted,  the  sick,  the  djdng.  His  original 
hymns,  less  numerous  and  famous  than  his 
translations,  are  yet  sulflcient  for  repute  and 
usefulness. 

Other  notable  and  efficient  hymnists  are 
Bishops  C.   Wordsworth,   W.  W.  How,  and 

E.  H.  Bickersteth,  EUerton,  Thring,  Monsell, 
Sir  H.  W.  Baker,  W.  C.  Dix,  Dean  Stanley, 

F.  T.  Palgrave,  Mrs.  C.  F.  Alexander,  Miss 
F.  R.  Havergal.  Among  recent  Noncon- 
formists by  far  the  most  distinguished  is  Dr. 
H.  Bonar,  whose  lyrics  are  everywhere  used 
and  valued.  Others  are  Mrs.  Adams,  G. 
Rawson,  Sir  E.  Denny,  J.  G.  Deck,  A.  Mid- 
lane.  T.  T.  Lynch,  and  T.  H.  Gill.  Faber, 
Caswall,  and  Bridges  wrote  after  secession  to 
Rome.  Never  before  in  England,  nor  prob- 
ably elsewhere,  was  so  great  productiveness 
combined  with  so  high  a  standard  of  literary 
merit,  or  at  least  of  refinement.     If  the  old 


simple  strength  is  sometimes  lacking,  if  too 
much  sensuous  and  sentimental  matter  is  pro- 
duced, we  may  trust  that  the  sifting  process 
of  future  ages  will  find  much  to  retain.  Final 
judgment  cannot  be  pronounced  on  the  work 
of  our  own  era  ;  but  surely  truer  hymns  of 
the  heart  were  never  written  than  "  Sun  of 
my  soul,"  "Lead,  kindly  Light,"  "Abide 
with  me,"  "Jerusalem  the  golden,"  and 
"  Art  thou  weary?"  As  to  externals,  never 
anywhere  were  hymns  more  widely  sung  ; 
and  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  any  hymnal,  in 
any  country,  has  attained  such  a  circulation 
as  has  Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern  (1861), 
which,  notwithstanding  scores  of  competi- 
tors, sold  for  some  time  at  the  rate  of  2,000,000 
copies  a  year. 

In  America  comparatively  little  has  been 
done  in  the  way  of  production,  for  we  had 
the  vast  English  resources  to  drawn  on.  The 
"  Bay  Psalm  Book"  (though  that  was  not  its 
title)  was  used  in  New  England  from  1640, 
and  reprinted  as  late  as  1762.  Before  that  it 
was  being  displaced  by  Tate  and  Brady,  with 
a  supplement  from  Walls  ;  the  use  of  Watts 
entire  came  in  elsewhere  or  later,  but  con- 
tinued long.  S.  Davies  of  Princeton  (1723- 
61)  was  our  first  original  writer  of  note.  Bar- 
low in  1785  and  Dwight  in  1800  versified 
such  psalms  as  Watts  had  omitted.  Toward 
1800  a  flood  of  rude  but  often  vigorous  effu- 
sions, now  mainly  forgdtten,  attended  the  re- 
vival movement.  Nettleton's  Village  Hymns, 
1824,  brought  out  W.  B.  Tappan,  Mrs.  Sigour- 
ney,  Mrs.  Hyde,  and  Mrs.  P.  H.  Brown.  The 
Episcopal  collection  of  1827  made  known  the 
two  best  hymns  of  G.  W.  Doane  ("  Thou  art 
the  way"  and  "  Softly  now  the  light  of  day"), 
and  those  of  Muhlenberg  and  Onderdonk. 
Before  this  Norton,  Ware,  Bryant,  Pierpont, 
and  Peabody  had  written  for  the  Unitarians  ; 
Furness,  Bulfinch,  Mrs.  Miles,  Frothiugham, 
J.  F.  Clarke,  Jones  Very,  the  Longfellows, 
S.  Johnson,  Dr.  Holmes,  and  others  came 
later.  The  two  noble  Christmas  songs  of 
E.  H.  Sears  are  known  everywhere  ;  W.  H. 
Burleigh's  hymns  have  attained  more  favor 
of  late  in  England  than  in  America. 

The  three  most  eminent  American  writers,  T. 
Hastings,  S.  F.  Smith,  and  Ray  Palmer,  began 
at  the  same  time,  about  1830.  The  former  is  the 
most  voluminous,  the  latter  the  strongest  and 
most  widely  approved  ;  his  "  My  faith  looks 
up  to  thee"  is  probably  the  favorite  among 
native  hymns;  one  of  his  translations,  "Jesus, 
thou  joy  of  loving  hearts,"  is  very  highly 
esteemed  in  England.  Drs.  Bethune,  Bacon, 
Alexander,  Summers,  Harbaugh,  Wolcolt, 
Bishop  Coxe,  and  a  host  of  others  have  writ- 
ten more  or  less.  The  most  successful  un- 
official compilations  are  probably  those  of  Dr. 
C.  S.  Robinson.  The  Gospel  Hymns  of  Moody 
and  Sankey  have  been  and  are  very  widely 
used  in  mission  work  and  evangelistic  ser- 
vices. 

America  can  claim  the  earliest  hymnologist 
of  note,  Mr.  David  Creamer,  a  Methodist 
(1848),  and  the  best  annotated  edition  of  a 
hymnal,  that  of  Mr.  C.  S.  Nutter,  for  the  same 
body  ;  also  the  two  best  denominational 
works  of  this  sort — Dr.  Putnam's  Singers 
and  Songs  of  the  Liberal  Faith,  1874,  and  Dr. 


HYPATIA 


(395) 


IBAS 


Burragu's  Baptist  Hymns  and  Hymn-  Writern, 
1888.  Behind  ever}'  student  in  this  field  was 
the  humble  Daniel  Sedgwick  of  London, 
whose  little  shop  in  Sun  street,  Bishopsgate, 
was  long  the  resort  of  all  Avho  sought  the 
rare  early  hymn-books,  or  information  about 
hymns  and  who  Avrote  them.  Nobody  has 
taken  his  place,  but  his  work  was  not  in  vain  ; 
his  catalogue,  his  reprints,  his  Index  of  Names, 
did  much  to  dispel  our  darkness.  So  did  Sir 
II.  Palmer's  Book  of  Praise,  1862,  with  its  true 
texts  and  dates,  which  came  from  Sedgwick. 
Up  to  date  Josiah  ]\Iiller's  Singers  and  Songs 
of  the  Church,  London,  1869,  is  our  best  book 
on  hymnology  at  large.  Dr.  Belcher's  pre- 
vious work  is  slight  and  anecdotic,  and  so  arc 
several  later  English  treatises.  The  recent 
American  volumes  of  Dr.  Hatfield  and  S.  W. 
Duffield  cover  less  ground  than  Miller,  and 
contain  too  many  errors.  The  long-awaited 
Dictionary  ef  Hymnology ,  written  by  sundry 
hands,  edited  by  J.  Julian,  and  to  be  pub- 
lished in  London,  by  Murray,  will  be  such  a 
thesaurus  of  information  on  this  topic  as  has 
never  yet  been  seen.       Fuedekic  M.  Bird. 

Hypatia  (hy-pa'-she-a),  the  daughter  of  the 
philosopher  Theon,  was  lecturer  in  the  Pla- 
tonic school  of  Alexandria  founded  by  Plo- 
tinus,  and  was  reverenced  and  admired  not 
only  by  the  students  of  philosophy,  who  came 
from  all  countries  to  hear  her,  but  also  by  the 
magistrates  and  citizens  of  the  city,  to  w-hich 
she  was  a  brilliant  ornament.  She  was  known 
to  be  a  friend  of  Orestes,  the  prefect,  and  sus- 
pected of  being  the  cause  of  the  strained  rela- 
tion between  him  and  Cyril,  the  bishop. 
Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  one  day,  when  re- 
turning home  from  a  journey,  she  was  at- 
tacked by  a  mob  of  Christian  fanatics,  dragged 
from  her  chariot  into  their  church,  killed, 
torn  to  pieces,  and  burned,  March,  41.'5.  Soc- 
rates, the  Christian  church  historian  who 
first  tells  this  story  and  who  was  contemporary 
with  the  event,  adds  that  "this  deed  occa- 
sioned no  small  blame  to  Cyril  and  the  church 
of  Alexandria."  For  brilliant  pictures  of 
Hypatia  and  her  surroundings,  see  Kingsley's 
novel,  Hypatia,  London,  1853,  numerous  later 
edd. 

Hyper-Calvinists  is  the  name  of  that  wing 
of  Calvin's  following  which  carries  his  views 
to  their  last  logical  consequences,  holding  the 
doctrines  of  a  double  predestination,  of  limited 
atonement,  etc.,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Strict  Calvinists,  who  cling  to  his  personal 
views,  and  the  Moderate  Calvini-sts,  who  modi- 
fy them  by  mitigating  them. 

Hyperdulia.     See  Adoration. 

Hypocrisy  is  the  feigninj^  of  piety  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  some  impious  aim,  the 
covering  of  secular  and  selfish  .schemes  with 
the  cloak  of  religion,  the  laying  of  stress  upon 
signs  and  ceremonies,  Avhen  the  life  is  wanting. 
The  Pharisees  seem  to  have  given  examples 
of  all  kinds  and  forms  of  hypocrisy,  from  the 
half-unconscious  assumption  to  the  deliberate 
lie. 

Hyponoia  (from  t~6,  "  under, "  and  vof/'v, 
"to   Ihiuk  ")  means  in  theology  a  supposed 


hidden  meaning  underlying  a  certain  passage 
of  Holy  Writ. 

Hypoijtasis  is  a  term  much  bandied  about 
in  the  Trinitarian  controversies  of  the  4lh  and 
5th  centuries.  In  the  Greek  language,  where 
the  word  is  indigenous,  it  remained  a  vain 
grasping  at  something,  which  nobody  can 
comprehend,  and  when  transferred  to  a  for- 
eign language  it  remains  a  ticket  which  gives 
admission  nowhere.  The  controversies  came 
naturally  and  had  their  use,  but  their  dialec- 
tics look  now  almost  like  trifling. 

Hypostatical  Union  means  the  union  of 
the  divine  and  human  nature  in  Christ  into 
one  person,  a  hypobtasis. 

Hypothetical,    or    Conditional    Baptism, 

using  the  formula,  "  If  thou  art  not  bajjlized, 
I  baptize,  ..."  is  administered  iu  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  the  Anglican  Church  in  cases  in 
which  it  is  doubtful  whether  or  not  a  person 
has  been  baptized,  or  whether  or  not  his  pre- 
vious baptism  is  valid. 

Hypsistarians,  a  sect  of  the  4th  century, 
which  lived  in  Cappadocia  and  was  character- 
ijed  by  a  peculiar  mixture  of  paganism,  Juda- 
ism, and  Christianity.  Gregory  Nazianzen 
belonged  to  it  before  he  was  converted  to 
Christianit}-. 

Hyr-ca'-nus  I.,  a  son  of  Simon  ^laccabaeus, 
was  king  and  high-priest  of  the  Jews  135-105 
B.C.  During  his  reign,  which  "  was  the  most 
glorious  Israel  had  seen  since  the  days  of  Solo- 
mon," the  party  division  between  the  Phari- 
sees and  Sadducees  began  to  show.  Hyrca- 
nus  n.,  a  grandson  of  the  former,  was  made 
high- priest  by  Pompey  in  63  B.C.  and  con- 
firmed by  Cccsar  in  47,  "but  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Parlhians  and  carried  into  exile  in  40. 
He  returned  to  Jerusalem  in  36  and  was  put 
to  death  in  30  B.C.  by  Herod,  who  had  mar- 
ried his  daughter,  Mariamne.  (See  Schiirer's 
XeiD  Testament  Times,  1.  c.) 

Hyssop,  a  plant  which  is  often  mentioned 
in  Scripture  (Ex.  xii.  22,  Heb.  ix.  19,  John 
xix.  29),  but  w^hich  has  not  been  identified. 

Hys-tas-pes,  or  Hy-das-pes,  the  fictitious 
author  of  one  of  those  spurious  compositions 
which  were  so  frequent  in  the  first  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era,  and  of  which  the  "  Sibyl- 
line Books"  is  the  most  notorious  instance. 
The  Vaticinia  Hystaspis  has  not  come  down 
to  u?,  but  is  mentioned  by  Justin,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  and  Laetantius  as  an  old  Persiiin 
or  ^ledian  king's  prophecies  of  Christ  and  his 
kingdom. 


Iba.s,  bishop  of  Edessa  since  435  ;  d.  Oct. 
28,  457  ;  translated  the  works  of  Theodore  of 
.Mopsuestia  into  Syriac  and  wrote  a  letter  in 
his  defence  to  Mares  of  Beth-Hardashir  (Seleu- 
cia).  On  this  account  he  was  suspected  of 
Ncstorianism  and  condemned  by  the  Bobber 
Synod  of  Ephesus,  449,  but  reinstated  by  the 
Synod  of  Chalccdon,  451.     The  question  of 


IBN 


(396) 


IGNATIUS 


liis  orthodoxy  was  taken  up  ouce  more,  how- 
ever, during  the  Three  Chapters  controversy 
(q.v.),  and  he  was  finally  condemned  by  the 
Synod  of  Constantinople,  553.  A  Greek 
translation  of  his  letter  to  Mares  is  found  in 
Mansi,  Condi.,  vii.  (See  Assemani,  Bib. 
Orient,,  1.,  p.  200  ;  Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte, 
vol.  ii.) 

rbn  Ezra.     See  Aben  Ezra. 

Ichthys  (ik'-this,  Greek,  ix'^vq),  the  acros- 
tic of  the  sentence  'Ir/aovg  Xpiardq,  Qeov  Yibc, 
^uTtjq,  "Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  Saviour," 
means  a  fish,  and  hence  the  fish  became  one 
of  the  earliest  Christian  symbols.  The  first 
who  in  speaking  of  the  symbol  also  mentions 
its  origin  is  TertuUian,  De  Baptismo,  chap.  i. 
{Aiite-^Mcene  Fathers,  Chris.  Lit.  Co.  ed.,  iii., 
669.) 

I-co'-ni-um,  the  present  Koniyeh,  a  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Tau- 
rus, was  in  New  Testament  times  the  capital 
of  Lycaonia,  and  in  the  12th  century  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Seljuk  sultans,  and  it  is  remark- 
able for  its  mosques,  colleges,  fortifications, 
and  manufactures.  It  was  visited  three  times 
by  Paul  (Acts  xiii.  51,  xiv.  1,  19,  21,  xvi.  2). 

Iconoclast  {image-hreaker)  and  Iconodulist 
{image-server)  are  the  Greek  names  of  the  two 
opposite  parties  in  the  controversy  concerning 
image-worship  (q.v.). 

Iconostasis  is  the  name  of  a  solid  screen 
which  in  the  Eastern  Church  was  built  around 
the  altar,  while  the  Western  Church  used 
only  an  open  railing,  and  which  since  the  8th 
century  was  carried  so  high  that  it  entirely 
concealed  the  altar  and  formed  a  holiest  with- 
in the  holy.  Its  name  it  received  from  its 
being  always  ornamented  with  icons  ("im- 
ages") of  our  Lord  and  the  Virgin. 

Idealism.  A  term  comprising  all  those  sys- 
tems which  consider  the  idea  either  as  the 
principle  of  knowledge  or  as  the  principle 
both  of  knowledge  and  of  being.  Its  earliest 
modern  form'is  in  Malebrauche,  according  to 
whom  the  ideas  of  things  are  caused  in  us  by 
God.  It  was  taken  up  by  Berkeley,  who  de- 
nied the  existence  of  all  being  except  spirit, 
and  ascribed  our  ideas  of  matter  to  the  im- 
mediate operation  upon  us  of  the  divine 
Spirit.  With  Kant  idealism  took  upon  itself 
a  new  phase.  Setting  out  to  solve  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  mind  contributes  anything 
to  our  knowledge  which  it  does  not  derive 
from  sense,  he  deduced  the  h  priori  prin- 
ciples, which  he  taught  were  made  for  ex- 
perience, and  so  did  not  apply  beyond  it. 
Hence  the  idea  is  the  principle  of  knowledge, 
but  we  know  nothing  of  reality.  Even  God 
we  know  only  as  a  postulate  of  the  "  practi- 
cal" reason.  Fichte  undertook  to  lay  the 
positive  foundation  of  the  Kantian  system  by 
exhibiting  how  from  the  universal  ego  the 
categories  are  developed.  His  system  was 
that  of  subjective  idealism.  Schelling  under- 
took to  develop  the  perfect  identity  of  the 
subjective  idealism  with  the  objective  science 
of  nature.  Hegel  closed  the  list  of  the  great 
idealists  with  a  system  which  developed  every- 


thing from  the  most  fundamental  idea,  that 
of  nothing,  by  the  necessary  operations  of  aa 
objective  logical  law— absolute  idealism. 
The  residue  of  truth  in  these  systems  is  the 
fundamental  presupposition  of  ail  philosophy, 
that  correct  thinking  corresponds  to  real 
being.     See  also  Immanence.  F.  II.  F. 

Idol  and  Idolatry.  The  idea  of  idols  and 
idolatry  is  of  Jewish  origin.  Greek  civiliza- 
tion never  reached  so  far  as  to  make  a  definite 
distinction  between  art  and  religion.  Its  his- 
tory is  the  artistic  realization  of  its  religious 
contents  ;  that  done,  it  stopped.  The  Greeks 
made  their  dduAa  as  beautiful  as  they  could, 
but  the  question  whether  the  gods  thus  repre- 
sented were  true  or  false,  and  the  question 
whether  the  images,  symbolical  or  imitative, 
pictorial  or  sculptural,  should  bo  worshipped 
or  not,  never  arose  among  them.  The  Jews 
were  as  rude  as  the  Greeks  were  nai've,  but  in 
the  opposite  direction.  They  had  no  feeling 
for  art.  An  image  of  God  they  would  wor- 
ship as  if  it  were  itself  a  god,  and  hence  they 
were  forbidden  to  make  any  images  at  all, 
even  of  the  true  God.  Thus,  when  the  Old 
Testament  was  translated  into  Greek,  the 
word  el6ulov,  which  in  classical  Greek  has  no 
moral  reference  except  thiough  the  beauty  or 
baseness  of  the  thing  it  denotes,  came  to 
signify  something  execrable,  an  abomination, 
a  crime  ;  and  it  retained  this  meaning  in  the 
language  of  the  Christian  Church,  though 
with  a  little  difference  in  shading.  As  the 
Jews  had  ceased  long  ago  to  worship  images, 
and  the  images  worshipped  by  the  pagans 
were  abominable  to  the  Christians,  principally 
because  they  represented  false  gods,  the  defini- 
tion of  idol  and  idolatry— etc^t^/larpe/a  is  a 
word  of  Christian  origin,  first  occurring  in 
the  New  Testament — naturally  came  to  lay  a 
strong  emphasis  on  this  element.  The  other 
element,  however,  involving  the  ciuestion  of 
the  righteousness  of  any  such  worship,  had  to 
be  taken  up  again,  when  symbols  and  images 
of  Christ  and  the  martyrs  began  to  invade  the 
church.     See  Image- WoEsniP.  C.  P. 

I'-du-mae-a.     See  Edom. 

Ignatius  of  Antioch,  bishop  of  that  city, 
who  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  (110)  was  appre- 
hended, condemned  as  a  Christian,  and  trans- 
ported to  Kome,  where  he  died  as  a  martyr. 
Little  or  nothing  is  known  of  him  except  what 
is  contained  in  the  epistles  which  are  ascribed 
to  him.  The  tradition  that  he  was  the  child 
set  in  the  midst  hj  Jesus  (Matt,  xviii.  2)  has 
no  foundation  ;  and  the  martyrdoms  are  not 
authentic  sources  of  history.  Tlie  letters 
themselves  have  been  much  questioned.  We 
possess  15  of  these  in  all,  existing  in  3  forms. 
The  entire  15  arc  found  in  a  lona,-  recension 
(12  Greek,  3  only  Latin)  ;  7  of  them  (Ephe- 
sians,  Magnesians,  Tralliaus,  Romans,  Phila- 
delphians,  Smyrnians,  Polycarp)  in  2  forms, 
a  longer  and  a  shorter  Greek  recension  ;  and 
finally  3  (Ephesians,  Smyrniaus,  Polycarp)  in 
a  still  shorter  recension,  in  Syriac.  In  such  a 
condition  of  things,  the  unavoidable  question 
is.  What  have  we  that  really  belongs  to  Ig- 
natius ?  The  attempts  to  answer  this  question 
are  divided  by  the  decisive  points  in  the  his- 


IGNATIUS 


(397) 


Z.  H.  S. 


tory  of  our  knowledge  of  the  texts.  The 
shorter  form  of  the  7  epistles  was  published 
in  Latin  by  Ussher  in  1644,  and  in  Greek  by 
Vossius  in  1646.  The  result  of  criticism  up 
to  this  time  had  been  the  rejection  of  the 
Latin  longer  epistles  by  nearly  all,  and  of  all 
the  epistles  by  the  Protestants.  But  now  the 
longer  Greek  rescension  was  seen  to  be  an 
interpolated  expansion  of  the  shorter,  and  the 
character  of  genuineness  was  ascribed  gener- 
ally to  these  alone.  Baur,  against  whose  the- 
ory of  the  origin  of  the  church  the  epistles 
militated,  with  some  others,  rejected  them 
entirely.  In^  1845  Cureton  published  from 
manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum,  and  then 
recently  brought  from  the  Xitrian  Desert,  the 
short,  Syriac  form.  These  were  heralded  by 
their  editor  as  the  genuine  Ignatian  epistles. 
But  continued  study  has  led  to  the  generally 
accepted  result  that  the  Curetonian  edition  is 
an  -xbstract  of  the  shorter  Greek  ;  and  in  1880, 
Uhlhorn  wrote  in  Ilerzog's  llealencyklopckUe, 
"  Eitiuir  the  epistles  of  the  Vossian  recension 
are  tlio  genuine  epistles  of  the  Antiochian 
bishop,  essentially  uucorrupt,  or  we  have  no 
such  epistles  at  all,  and  are  only  dealing  with 
a  later  lictiou  ;"  and  in  1885  Lightfoot  pro- 
nounced, in  what  is  upon  the  whole  the  best 
edition  of  Ignatius  yet  published,  decidedly 
for  the  genuineness  of  the  shorter  recension. 
The  principal  grounds  urged  against  the  gen- 
uineness of  these  epistles  are  :  (1)  The  fact 
that  Ignatius  was  martyred  is  unhistorical. 
But  the  grounds  for  this"  disappear  when  the 
epistles,  and  not  the  martyrologies,  are  taken 
as  the  source  of  the  account.  (2)  The  per- 
sonality of  Ignatius  seems  like  a  product  of 
fancy.  (3)  The  heresies  combated  are  of  a 
later  date.  (4)  The  church  government  fa- 
vored belongs  also  to  a  later  date.  These  ob- 
jections all  lose  their  force  in  the  light  of 
more  careful  study  of  the  epistles  ;  a'nd  the 
express  testimony  of  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp 
(which  is  undoubted  except  as  some  question 
it  beamse  it  testilics  to  Ignatius),  in  favor  of 
the  epistles,  is  conclusive  for  their  genuineness. 
Best  editions  are  Gcbhardt,  Harnack,  and 
Zahn,  Leipzig,  1876,  2d  cd.,  1883,  and  Light- 
foot,  London,  1885,  2d  ed.,  1889.  (See  also 
Mignc,  I.)  F.  n.  F. 

Ignatius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  ;  b. 
790  or  796  ;  d.  878  ;  was  a  son  of  the  Em 
peror  ^Michael  I.,  but  was  mutilated  and  shut 
up  in  a  monastery  by  the  usurper,  Leo  the 
Armenian.  In  the  church  he  gradually  rose, 
and  in  847  he  was  made  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, but  he  could  not  agree  with  Michael 
III.,  who  deposed  him  (858),  sent  him  into 
exile,  and  put  Photius  in  liis  place  in  spite  of 
the  protest  of  Pope  Nicholas  I.  After  the 
death  of  Michael  III.  Basilius  IMacedo  ex- 
pelled Pliotius  and  recalled  Ignatius  (867). 
The  good  relations  with  the  pope  of  Rome 
were  soon  disturbed,  however,  both  bishops- 
Ignatius  and  Adrian  II. — claiming  authority 
over  Bulgaria.  (See  ^lansi.  Con.  Coll.,  xvii.', 
and  the  article  PiioTirs.) 

Ignatius   Loyola   (Don    Inigo   Lopez    de 
Recalde),  b.   at  Loyola,   in  the  iiroviuce  of  j 
Guipuzcoa,    a  few   miles   from  the  Bay    of  ' 
Biscay,  Spain,   1401  ;  d.   in  Rome,  July  31,  ] 


1556  ;  was  educated  at  the  court  of  Ferdi- 
nand the  Catholic,  but  received,  in  1521,  a 
very  severe  wound  at  the  siege  of  Pamp- 
lona, and  was  for  a  long  time  stretched  on  a 
sick-bed.  He  rose  an  altered  man  ;  the  read- 
ing of  legends  had  transformed  the  romantic 
knight  into  a  religious  enthusiast.  He  gave 
up  his  fortune  and  position  and  retired  to  a 
cavern  at  Mauresa,  devoting  himself  to  con- 
templation and  asceticism.  In  1523  he  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  on  his  return 
he  began  to  study  at  Alcala  and  Salamanca. 
But  he  began  also  to  preach  and  to  inculcate 
his  Exercitm  Sjnntualki,  and  the  Inquisition 
suspected  him  for  belonging  to  the  Alom- 
brados.  He  was  not  convicted,  but  he  was 
ordered  not  to  speak  on  any  theological  sub- 
ject for  four  years.  In  1528  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  there,  on  Aug.  15,  1534,  in  the  church  of 
Montmartre,  the  association  was  formed  which 
became  the  nucleus  of  the  famous  Jesuit  or- 
der. The  basis  of  the  association  was,  besides 
the  common  monastical  vows,  the  Exercitia 
Spirituulia,  and  its  purpose  was  to  become  a 
sword  in  the  hand  of  the  pope.  But  it  con- 
sisted at  that  moment  only  of  Loyola,  Pierre 
Favre,  Simon  Rodriguez,  Francis  Xavier, 
Alphons  Salmerou,  Jacob  Lainez,  and  JSTico- 
laus  Bobadilla.  In  1537  the  members  met 
again  at  Venice,  and  thence  they  repaired  to 
Rome,  where,  on  March  14,  1543,  Paul  III. 
confirmed  the  association  under  the  name  of 
Societas  Jem.  Loyola  was  elected  its  first 
general,  and  when  he  died  the  order  counted 
13  provinces  in  France,  Germany,  Italv,  and 
Spain.  On  March  13,  1623,  Gregory  XV.  de- 
clared him  a  saint.  He  left  onl\'  two  literary 
documents,  the  rules  of  the  order,  whose  in- 
forming spirit  is  absolute  obedience,  and 
the  Exercitia,  Spiritualia,  which  give  the 
means  of  reducing  a  human  soul  to  the  state 
of  impassivity  without  impairing  its  energy. 
(See  Jesuits  and  his  life  by  Isaac  Taylor, 
London  and  Kew  York,  1849  ;  Drussel,  Mu- 
nich, 1879  ;  Spuller,  Paris,  1876.)        C.  P. 

Ignorantines  (fratres  ignoraniice,  Freres 
ignornntins),  a  lay  order,  closely  related  to  the 
.Jesuits  and  always  supported  by  them,  founded 
in  France  b}'  La  Salle  (q.v.),  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  free  instruction  to  tiie  lower 
classes,  and  thereby  preventing  any  idea  in- 
imical to  the  Church  of  Rome  from  getting  a 
footliold  among  them.  They  had  121  schools  in 
France  when,  in  1790,  they  were  expelled.  In 
1806  they  were  allowed  to  return  by  Xapo- 
leon,  .and  in  1878,  when  they  were  expelled 
for  tlie  second  time,  they  numbered  9818, 
teaching  1449  schools. 

I.  H.  S.,  an  inscription  frequently  occurring 
in  the  earliest  days  of  the  Christian  Church, 
but  variously  explained  :  \.  In  Hoc  Sifjno, 
scilicet,  vinccs,  "by  this  token  thou  shall 
conquer,"  the  words  accompanying  the  vis- 
ion of  the  radiant  cross  appearing  to  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  ;  2.  Jesus  Jlunriiuo/i  Seilva- 
tor,  "  Jesus  the  Saviour  of  mankind,"  which 
the  Jesuits  have  adopted  for  their  device  ;  3. 
An  abbreviation  of  the  Greek  I1I20T2, 
"Jesus."  Tims  III2  became  L  II.  S.  This 
iis  the  most  probable  explanation. 


lUDEFONSUS 


(398) 


IMAGE-WORSHIP 


Ildefonsus,  St.,  b.  at  Toledo,  Spain,  607  ; 
d.  there,  Jaa.  23,  667  ;  became  a  monk  in  the 
monastery  of  Agli  ;  afterward  its  abbot,  and 
finally  archbishop  of  his  native  city  (657).  He 
was  a  very  prolific  writer.  His  Liber  de  Vir- 
ginitate  S.  Marim  is  one  of  those  controversial 
treatises  against  the  Jews  so  common  among 
Hispano-Gothic  churchmen,  and  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  the  fantastic  Mariolatry  in 
Spain.  His  Liber  de  cognitione  baptismi  seems 
to  be  only  a  remodelling  of  a  book  by  Justin- 
ian of  Valencia.  He  continued  Isidore's  De 
viris  illmtribus.  His  life  was  written  by  his 
successor,  Julian,  and  a  century  later  by 
Cixilia  ;  the  latter  is  very  legendary,  but  be- 
came much  read.  (See  Migne,  Bibl.  Pair. 
XCVI.) 

Illuminati  was  a  name  of  a  secret  society 
which  made  some  noise  in  parts  of  Germany 
during  the  last  quarter  of  the  18th  century, 
but  achieved  nothing  and  left  no  trace  of  any 
influence.  It  was  founded  at  lugolstadt,  Ba- 
varia, May  1,  1776,  by  Adam  Weishaupt, 
professor  in  the  university,  who  seemed  to 
have  derived  his  whole  wisdom  from  the 
Jesuits.  But  it  received  its  proper  organiza- 
tion from  Adolf  von  Knigge,  who  became  a 
member  in  1780,  and  brouglit  it  into  communi- 
cation with  the  Free  Masons.  In  1785,  how- 
ever, it  came  in  conflict  with  the  Elector  Carl 
Tlieodor  of  Bavaria,  who  suppressed  it  with 
considerable  violence.  (See  Weishaupt,  Voll- 
staiidige  GescJdchte  der  Verfolgung  der  lUunri- 
naten,  Frankfort  and  Leipzig,  1786  ;  Apologie 
der  lUwminaten,  Frankfort  and  Leipzig,  1787, 
etc.) 

Il-lyr'-i-cum,  a  province  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, stretching  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Adriatic  from  the  boundary  of  Italy  in  the 
north  to  Epirus  in  the  south,  and  correspond- 
ing nearly  to  the  present  Dalmatia.  Paul 
preached  there  (Rom.  xv.  19)  and  Titus  visited 
the  country  (2  Tim.  iv.  10). 

Image  of  God  (Gen.  i.  27,  Col.  i.  15)  de- 
notes the  exact  likeness  to  God  in  moral, 
spiritual,  and  intellectual  nature,  in  which 
man  was  created,  but  which  he  lost  through 
the  fall. 

Image  of  Jealousy  (Eze.  viii.  3,  5),  an  ideal 
concentration  of  all  idolatrous  practices. 

Image-Breakers.    See  Iconoclasts. 

Image-Worship.  The  primitive  Christian 
Church  was  utterly  averse  to  anything  like  im- 
age-worship. Its  early  connection  with  image- 
Jiating  Judaism  and  its  bitter  contest  with  an 
image-loving  paganism  made  its  attitude  clear 
and  unequivocal,  and  its  manifold  use  of  such 
symbols  as  the  cross,  the  lamb,  the  fish,  the 
dove,  etc.,  involved  nothing  contradictory. 
There  was,  however,  an  inherent  tendency 
toward  image-worship  in  the  Gnosticism  of 
the  2i  and  'SI  centuries,  and  images  challeng- 
ing the  worship  of  the  faithful  sprang  up 
everywhere.  Edessa  pretended  to  possess  an 
authentic  portrait  of  Christ  ;  similar  pictures 
of  the  Virgin  were  found  in  many  places  ; 
the  sufferings  of  the  martyrs  were  painted, 
and  the  paintings  looked  upon  with  an  admi- 
ration and  awe  which  had  nothing  to  do  with 


their  artistic  merits.  Although  the  Synod  of 
Elvira,  306,  forbade  the  introduction  of  im- 
ages in  the  churches,  they  crept  in  neverthe- 
less, and  when  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries 
the  great  uneducated  mass  of  the  people  was 
admitted  into  the  Christian  community,  the 
images  were  retained  and  defended  as  a  means 
of  teaching  that  kind  of  people  who  needed 
teaching  the  most  and  could  not  read.  In  the 
6th  century  the  worship  was  fully  developed. 
It  became  common  use  to  kneel  down  or  pros- 
trate one's  self  before  the  images,  to  kiss 
them,  to  light  tapers  and  burn  incense  in  front 
of  them,  to  deck  them  out  with  costly  cloth- 
ings and  ornaments  of  jewelry — nay,  it  even 
became  customary  to  make  pilgrimages  to 
certain  famous  images  which  were  considered 
to  be  jjeculiarly  etticacious.  Thus,  between 
Judaism  on  one  side  and  Mohammedanism  on 
the  other,  image-worship  gradually  assumed 
the  aspect  of  being  a  characteristic  and  essen- 
tial element  of  Christianity,  and  the  charge  of 
idolatry  w^as  raised  from  both  sides.  In  the 
Eastern  Church  this  occasioned  a  long  and 
bloody  contest.  The  Byzantine  emperor  and 
the  army  were  iconoclasts  ;  the  Byzantine 
empress  and  the  monks  were  iconodoulists. 
Leo  the  Isaurian,  717-41,  Constantine  Co- 
.pronymus,  741-75,  and  Leo  Chazarus,  775-80, 
tried  to  stamp  out  the  baneful  custom,  and 
the  attempts  were  repeated  with  still  greater 
violence  by  Leo  the  Armenian,  813-20,  and 
Theophilus,  829-42,  but  in  vain.  Under 
Irene  a  synod  of  Nicfea,  787,  condemned  the 
iconoclasts,  and  decreed  what  kind  of  honor 
and  veneration  was  due  to  the  images  of 
Christ,  the  Virgin,  the  angels,  the  martyrs, 
etc.;  and  under  Theodora  a  synod  of  (Con- 
stantinople, 842,  made  image-worship  an  or- 
thodox dogma  of  the  Eastern  Church.  In  the 
Western  Church  the  policy  of  the  popes  with 
respect  to  this  question  was  very  curious  and 
very  characteristic  :  they  rejected  the  prin- 
ciple, but  they  conceded  the  practice.  Adrian 
I.  accepted  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Nica?a, 
which  legitimatized  not  only  the  use,  but  also 
the  worship  of  images.  The  Frankish  Church, 
however,  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  intro- 
duction of  images,  and  the  decrees  of  the 
synod  and  the  decision  of  the  pope  were  first 
refuted  in  the  Libri  CaroUni,  and  then  for- 
mally condemned  by  the  Synod  of  Frankfort^ 
794.  Nevertheless,  although  the  condemna- 
tion was  repeated  by  the  Synod  of  Paris,  825, 
the  popes  succeeded  iu  making  image- worship 
first  a  general  practice  in  the  Western  Church 
and  then,  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  also  a 
recognized  princijile.  In  a  carefully  worded 
chapter  (Sess.  xxv.,  cf.  Schafl:,  Creeds,  p.  201 
sq.),  the  present  doctrine  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  upon  the  point  is  thus  clearly 
stated  :  "  The  images  of  Christ,  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mother  of  God,  and  of  the  other  saints,  are 
to  be  had  and  retained  particularly  in  temples, 
and  that  due  honor  and  veneration  are  to  be 
given  them  ;  not  that  any  divinity  or  virtue  is 
believed  to  be  in  them,  on  account  of  which 
they  are  worshipped  ;  or  that  anything  is  to  be 
asked  of  them  ;  or  that  trust  is  to  be  reposed 
in  images,  as  was  of  old  done  by  the  Gentiles, 
who  placed  their  hope  in  idols  ;  but  because 
the  honor  which  is  shown  them  is  referred  to 


IMAM 


(399) 


INABILITY 


the  prototypes  vvliich  tliose  images  represent  ; 
in  such  wise  that  by  the  images  we  kiss,  aud 
before  which  we  uncover  the  head  and  pros- 
trate ourselves,  we  adore  Christ  and  we  vener- 
ate the  saints  whose  similitude  they  bear." 
It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  the  unlettered 
people,  for  whose  particular  benefit  images 
are  enjoined,  do  not  always  make  the  fine  dis- 
tinctions of  their  theologians,  but  wrongly  at- 
tribute to  the  image  the  properties  of  the 
saint  and  worship  it  just  as  the  Gentiles  did 
their  idols.  C.  P. 

Imam,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  "  leader," 
means  in  everyday  parlance  the  leader  of  tlie 
mosque— as  we  say  the  minister  of  the  church, 
but  it  is  also  the  title  of  the  rightful  successor 
of  Mahomet,  the  true  fountain  of  all  .secular 
and  religious  jurisdiction,  and  in  this  sense 
the  caliphs  called  themselves  imams. 

Immaculate  Conception.  Pius  IX.,  in  a 
decree  publisiu'd  Dec.  8,  1854,  defined  this  as 
follows  :  "  Lhider  his  inspiration  [tlie  Holy 
Ghost's]  wc  pronounce,  declare,  and  define 
.  .  .  thiit  the  doctrine  wliich  holds  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary  to  have  been  from  the  first  in- 
stant of  her  conception,  by  a  singular  grace 
and  privilege  of  Almighty  God,  in  view  of 
the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  the  Saviour  of  man- 
kind, preserved  free  from  all  stain  of  original 
sin,  was  revealed  by  God,  and  is,  therefore,  to 
be  firmly  and  constantly  believed  by  all  the 
faithful."  But  it  is,  on  the  contrar}^  histori- 
cally evident  that  the  doctrine  is  the  culmina- 
tion of  a  steady  growth.  The  ancient  writers 
of  the  church  freely  spoke  of  Mary  as  a  sin- 
ner. Augustine  implied  that  the  honor  due 
to  Christ  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  she 
was  without  actual  sin,  but  he  said  nothing 
about  original  sin.  For  eight  centuries  the 
idea  was  not  broached  in  the  church.  When 
it  began  to  find  favor  in  the  12th  century, 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux  pronounced  against  it 
as  an  innovation.  Thomas  Aquinas  was 
against  it  ;  Duns  Scotus  for  it.  The  Domini- 
cans denied,  the  Franciscans  affirmed  it.  The 
French  popes  of  the  schism  were  for,  the  Ro- 
man against  it.  Sixtus  IV.  (1471-84)  com- 
manded peace  to  the  contestants  over  it,  say- 
ing liiat  it  was  a  doctrine  not  decided  by  the 
church.  But  the  Jesuits,  having  taken  it 
from  the  Franciscans,  have  carried  it  on  to 
victorv.  Cf.  Schaflf,  Creeds,  i.,  108-128.  ii.. 
211,  212.  F.  H.  F. 

Immanence,  applied  to  God,  is  the  doctrine 
that  tlie  worhl  is  in  such  organic  connection 
with  the.  Creator  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  in 
God.     It  is  essentially  a  pantheistic  idea. 

Immanuel  ( God  iriih  ns),  a  name  given  to 
Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  i.  23). 

Immer,  Albert  Heiniich,  Reformed  ;  b.  at 
Unterseen,  Switzerland,  Aug.  10,  1804  ;  d.  at 
Bern,  March  24,  1884,  where  he  had  been  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  (1850)  and  ordinary 
(1850)  of  New  Testament  exegesis  and  dog- 
matias  ;  retired  1881.  He  is  best  known 
among  us  by  his  Ilermeneiitics  of  the  Xeto 
Testament,  Eng.  trans,  Andover,  Mass.,  1877, 
and  Theologie  dcs  Neiien  Testaments,  Bern, 
1877. 


Immersion,  a  form  of  baptism,  by  dipping 
or  plunging  the  whole  body  into  water.  The 
Baptists  claim  that  it  is  the  baptism  know^i  to 
the  New  Testament,  and  as  such  of  binding 
force  upon  all  branches  of  the  church.  As 
performed  in  city  churches,  the  candidate  en- 
ters a  metal  or  marble  tank  in  the  pulpit  plat- 
form, containing  a  quantity  of  water  heated 
by  steam,  and  is  received  by  the  pastor,  who, 
standing  himself  in  the  tank,  completely 
clothed  in  rubber  garments,  bends  him  back- 
ward in  the  water  while  pronouncing  the  bap- 
tismal formula. 

Immortality.     See  Soul. 

Immunity.  Canon  law  distinguishes  be- 
tween iinmunitasecclesice,  which  simply  means 
a  right  of  asylum  formerly  enjoyed  by  the 
church,  and  immunitas  ecclesiastica,  which 
comprises  exemptioff  from  taxation,  drafting, 
quartering,  the  common  courts,  etc.,  and 
makes  the  church  a  state  in  or  over  the  state. 
As  the  modern  idea  of  a  state  developed,  con- 
flicts arose  between  it  and  the  ideal  of  the 
church,  and  the  latter  has  now  entirely 
changed  ground,  or  almost  so. 

Impanation  (from  the  Latin,  fcinis, 
"  bread  ")  denotes  a  modification  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  real  presence  of  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  propounded 
by  Ruprecht  of  Deutz,  d.  1135.  The  word 
itself,  however,  was  formed  by  Alger  of 
Liege,  d.  1131,  who  wrote  against  him. 

Imposition  of  Hands  occurs  in  Scripture 
under  three  dilferent  aspects— as  the  solemn 
sign  of  benediction,  transmitting  the  blessing 
of  one  generation  to  another  ;  as  a  legal  form 
at  the  investiture  with  an  olfice  ;  and  as  the 
vehicle  of  miraculous  healing.  In  tiie  Chris- 
tian Church,  as  part  of  its  ceremonial,  it  has 
always  the  character  of  a  benediction  and 
sometimes  also  that  of  a  legal  form,  as,  for 
instance,  in  absolution,  ordination  to  the 
higher  orders,  etc. 

Impostoribus,  De  Tribus,  namely  IMoses, 
.Tesus,  and  ^Mohammed,  is  a  phrase  which  Greg- 
ory IX.,  in  his  encyclica  of  May  21  and  July 
1,  1239,  accused  Frederic  II.  of  having  used. 
In  the  16th  century  it  became  the  title  of  an 
anti- religious  book,  edited  by  E.  Weller  ia 
1846  and  again  in  1876. 

Imprecatory  Psalms.     See  Ps.\lms. 

Imputation  means  theologically  that  Ad- 
am's •  sin  aud  Christ's  righteousness  may 
be  imputed— that  is,  put  to  the  charge  of 
man,  who  looked  at  by  himself  has  done 
nothing  to  actjuire  either,  yet  who  is  consid- 
ered as  if  he  had.  and  so  for  Adam's  sin  is^ 
punished,  while  for  Christ's  righteousness  he 
may  be  saved.  The  doctrine  of  mediate  im- 
putation is  that  the  con.se(juences,  and  not  the 
guilt  of  Adam's  sin  are  attributed  to  him.. 

Inability,  want  of  power  to  obey  God's 
law  ;  may  be  either  moral,  which  is  the  re- 
sultant of  a  perverted  will  ;  or  naturnl,  which 
comes  from  lack  of  capacity  to  obey.  Ability 
is  in  the  latter  case  a  divine,  gracious  endow- 
ment. 


INCARNATION 


(400) 


INDIA 


Incarnation.     See  Ciikistology,  p.  160. 

Incense.  Although  the  burning  of  incense 
formed  a  conspicuous  part  of  tlie  religious 
rituals  not  only  of  Grseco-Roman  paganism 
but  also  of  Judaism  (see  Frankincense),  it 
was  not  adopted  by  the  primitive  Christian 
Church.  On  the  contrar}^,  it  was  at  first 
formally  rejected  and  vehemently  opposed  as 
smacking  of  idolatry,  which  may  be  proven 
by  numerous  passages  from  Athenagoras, 
Tertullian,  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Arnobius, 
Lactautius,  Augustine,  etc.  Of  course,  there 
was  incense  used  in  the  churches,  but  only 
for  the  purpose  of  purifying  the  air.  "  If  the 
smell  of  any  place  offend  me,"  says  Tertul- 
lian, "  I  burn  something  of  Arabia,  but  not 
with  the  same  rite,  nor  the  same  dress,  nor 
the  same  application  with  which  it  is  done 
before  idols."  It  wasfnot  until  the  6th  or 
7th  century  that  people  began  to  look  at  the 
burning  of  incense  in  the  church  as  a  symboli- 
cal act  and  the  officials  began  to  make  it  a 
part  of  the  ritual.  As  such  it  is  first  men- 
tioned by  Pseudo-Dionysius  from  the  6th  and 
then  in  the  oldest  known  Ordo  Bomanvs  from 
the  7th  century.  The.  Missa,  lllyrici  explains 
its  symbolism  :  "  The  thurible  denotes  the 
body  of  Christ,  in  which  is  fire,  to  wit,  the 
Holy  Spirit,  from  whom  proceeds  a  good 
odor,  which  every  one  of  the  elect  wishes  to 
snatch  to  himself,"  etc.  (Martene,  De  Eccl. 
Ant.  Bit.,  i.,  4).  lu  the  East  the  custom  was 
eagerly  adopted  and  spread  rapidly  ;  the  West 
followed  more  slowly.  A  formula  used  by 
the  blessing  of  incense  in  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne, and  also  given  by  Martene,  speaks  of 
it  just  as  did  Tertullian.  C.  P. 

In  Ooena  Domini  {at  the  Supper  of  the 
Lord),  a  papal  bull,  thus  named— as  papal 
bulls  always  are — from  its  opening  words,  and 
beginning  with  those  words,  because  origi- 
nally it  was  destined  to  be  read  in  the  churches 
on  Maundy  Thursday,  the  day  on  which  the 
sacrament  was  instituted.  It  dates  back  to 
Boniface  VIII.,  1294-1303,  but  was  amended 
and  expanded  by  various  popes  until  it  re- 
ceived its  final  form  from  Urban  VIII.,  1627. 
It  contains  a  curse  on  all  heretics,  the  prin- 
cipal heresies  being  duly  enumerated,  and  an 
enumeration  of  all  the  rights  and  powers  to 
which  the  Church  of  Rome  lays  claim,  fol- 
lowed by  a  curse  on  any  one  who  should  dare 
to  doubt  or  deny  or  infringe  those  privileges. 
This  document  was  read  once  every  year  in 
every  Roman  Catholic  church,  originally  on 
Maundy  Thursday,  afterward  on  Easter 
Monday,  until  the  scandal  became  too  flagrant 
and  the  remonstrations  too  urgent.  In  1770 
Clement  XIV.  suppressed  it.  C.  P. 

Independents.     See  Congregationalists. 

Index  Librorum  Prohibitorum,  a  list  of 
books  which  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  for- 
bids its  members  to  read  under  penalty  of  ex- 
communication, was  started  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury as  a  consequence  of  the  Reformation  and 
the  printing-press,  though  the  practice  of  for- 
bidding the  rwxding  of  certain  books  is  much 
older.  The  first  Index  was  published  in  1564 
by  Pius  IV.  (See  the  exhaustive  work  by 
Rftusch,  Der  Index  der  verbotenen  Backer, 
Bonn,  1883-85,  2  vols.) 


India,  Religions  of.  The  earliest  monu-, 
ment  of  the  religions  of  India  is  the  Rig- 
Veda.  (Sec  Veda.)  Edited  under  Brah- 
manical  influences,  and  largely  Brahmanized, 
its  hymns  j^et  furnish  a  clear  view  of  the  re- 
ligion of  a  pre-Brahmanic  period,  from  which 
the  comparative  study  of  religions  tries  to 
reach  back  to  an  Indo-Iranian  or  Aryan  and 
an  Indo-Germanic.  This  pre  Brahmanic  re- 
ligion was  in  essence  a  very  comprehensive 
nature  worship,  expressed  in  songs  of  adora- 
tion and  invocation  addressed  to  the  great 
powers  of  nature  and  to  objects  supposed 
capable  cf  affecting  man,  and  in  sacrifices  of 
melted  butter,  curdled  milk,  rice,  broths, 
cakes,  soma,  and  animals.  Personality  is  as- 
cribed to  all  kinds  of  forces  or  objects  sup- 
posed capable  of  exerting  force,  and  the  proc- 
ess of  development  is  marked  by  which  such 
personifications  come  to  be  clothed  with 
moral  attributes.  The  divinities  of  such  a  re- 
ligion must  of  necessity  be  very  numerous, 
presenting  every  stage  of  transition  from  sim- 
ple force  to  fully  developed  personality. 

Agni  and  Soma  are  the  two  divinitie's  of  the 
first  rank  which  have  best  preserved  their 
phj^sical  character.  Agni,  ' '  ignis, ' '  is  the  god 
of  fire.  Ilis  hymns  are  most  numerous. 
Soma,  "  extract,"  was  the  fermented  drink- 
able juice  of  a  plant  so  named.  The  beverage 
was  intoxicating,  and  was  offered  in  libation 
to  the  gods,  especially  to  Indra,  whose  strength 
it  maintained  in  the  conflict  with  the  demons. 
"The  simple-minded  Aryan  people,  whose 
whole  religion  was  a  M^orship  of  the  wonder- 
ful powers  and  phenomena  of  nature,  had  no 
sooner  perceived  that  this  liquid  had  power 
to  elevate  the  spirits  and  produce  a  temporary 
frenzy,  under  the  influence  of  which  the  in- 
dividual was  prompted  to  and  capable  of 
deeds  beyond  his  natural  powers,  than  they 
found  in  it  something  divine  ;  it  was  to  their 
apprehension  a  god,  endowing  those  into 
whom  it  entered  with  godlike  powers  ;  the 
plant  which  afforded  it  became  to  them  the 
king  of  plants  ;  the  process  of  preparing  it 
was  a  holy  sacrifice  ;  the  instruments  used 
therefore  were  sacred."  (Whitney,  0.  and 
L.  Studies,  i.,  p.  10.)  The  114  hymns  of  the 
ninth  book  of  the  Rig- Veda  are  all  addressed 
to  Soma.  The  chants  of  the  Saraa-Veda  were 
used  in  the  Soma  ritual.   ' 

In  the  other  divinities  the  physical  charac- 
ter is  less  distinct.  The  most  prominent  of 
these,  ludra,  is  the  god  of  the  clear,  blue  sky. 
He  fights  great  battles  in  the  heavens  for  the 
deliverance  of  the  waters,  the  cows,  kept  cap- 
tive by  the  demons.  Intoxicated  with  the 
soma,  he  strikes  down  with  his  thunderbolt 
Vritra,  "  the  enveloper,"  Ahi,  "  the  dragon," 
Oushna,  "  the  witherer,"  and  many  others. 
He  thus  releases  the  waters  and  restores  the 
sun.  Around  Indra  are  grouped  the  Maruts, 
"  the  bright  ones,"  gods  of  storm  and  light- 
ning. Their  father  is  Rudra,  god  of  the  tem- 
pest. In  the  Rig- Veda  he  is  still  beneficent. 
He  is  nearly  related  to  Vayu  or  Vata,  the 
wind,  and  Parjanya,  the  rain-storm.  Varuna 
is  the  god  of  the  vast  luminous  heaven,  viewed 
as  embracing  all  things.  The  name  ovpnvSc  is 
the  same.  While  Indra  represents  the  active, 
militant  aspect  of  heaven,  Varuna  represents 


INDIA 


(401) 


INDIA 


its  immutable  majesty.  To  Varuna  and  to 
the  Adityas  are  attached  remarkable,  almost 
Cliristiaa  ideas  respecting  right  and  wrong, 
transgression  and  punishment.  liotli  has 
shown  that  the  Adityas  were  originally  identi- 
cal with  the  Persian  Amshaspands  and  Varuna 
with  Ahuramazda.  The  Rig-Veda  is  gener- 
ally believed  to  show  the  rank  of  Varuna  as 
gradually  yielding  to  that  of  Indra.  Varuna 
becomes  later  a  mere  god  of  the  waters. 
Barth  {Religions  of  India,  p.  18)  disputes  the 
view  that  Varuna  is  in  a  state  of  decadence  in 
the  Rig- Veda,  and  considers  that  the  sense  of 
the  divine  majesty  expressed  in  the  Varuna 
hymns  proves  that  his  divinity  stood  intact, 
notwithstanding  their  fewness.  To  the  three 
liymus  quoted  in  proof  of  the  triumph  of  In- 
dra over  Varuna  he  gives  explanations  accord- 
ant with  his  belief. 

Varuna  is  the  first  of  a  group  :  Mitra, 
"  the  friend  ;"  Aryaman,  "  the  bosom  fri end  ;" 
Bhaga,  "  share  ;"  Daksha,  "  insight  ;"  An9a, 
"  portion."  These  are  a  splitting  up  and  re- 
flex of  himself.  Their  mother  is  Aditi,^"  im- 
mensity," from  whom  they  are  named  Adity- 
as, "  sons  of  Aditi."  She  represents  the  con- 
fuied^  notion  of  a  substratum  of  all  existence. 
The  Adityas  all  tend  to  maintain  the  part  of 
solar  divinities.  The  transition  to  them  is 
imperceptible.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  Surya,  the  sun,  conceived  as  a  deity  ; 
Savitar,  "  the  quickener, "  the  sun  as  an  en- 
livening power;  Vishnu,  "the  active,"  the 
sun  in  his  three  stations  of  rise,  zenith,  and 
setting;  Pushan,  "the  nourisher,"  the  pro- 
tector of  the  tlocks.  Ushas,  Aurora,  is  a  very 
transparent  personification.  The  two  A9vins, 
"  horsemen,"  are  more  enigmatic.  They  are 
deities  of  the  morning,  sons  of  the  Sun  and 
the  betrothed  of  Qshas,  Their  maternal 
grandfather  is  Tvashtar,  "  the  fashioner," 
who  fashions  Indra's  thunderbolt,  the  cup  of 
sacrifice,  and  offspring  in  the  womb.  lie  is 
closely  related  to  Agui  of  whom  he  is  some- 
times the  father.  Other  children  are  Saranyu, 
the  hurrying  cloud;  V^igvariipa,  "  the  many- 
fashioned,"  a  three-headed  monster,  who  per- 
sonifies the  storm.  As  workman  he  has  as 
rivals  the  Ribhus,  genii,  ordinarily  three,  who 
by  their  works  attain  immortality. 

A  solar  hero  rules  the  dead,  Yama,  son  of 
Vivasvat,  the  sun.  He  might  have  lived  as 
an  immortal,  but  he  chose  to  die.  The  later 
idea  of  transmigration  has  no  place  in  the 
Rig-Veda.  There  is  a  simple  faith  that  after 
death  man  goes  to  an  abode  of  happiness. 
Yaraa  traced  the  road  thither  for  future  gen- 
erations, of  whom  he  is  the  chief  and  ruler. 
They  are  conveyed  to  him  b}^  Agni  and  guided 
by  Pilshau.  Made  to  drink  of  the  heavenly 
soma,  they  become  immortal  and  enjoy  end- 
less felicfty-  They  become  gods,  and  are 
a/lored  on  earth  as  Pitris,  "  fathers."  There 
is  slight  mention  of  the  destiny  of  the  wicked. 
They  either  perish  or  go  under  the  earth  into 
deep  and  dismal  pits.  The  Atharva-Veda 
speaks  of  an  infernal  world,  but  there  is  no 
description  of  hell.  The  other  very  numer- 
ous figures  are  either  abstract  personifications 
or  deified  object.s.  Among  the  great  number 
there  is  no  definite  hierarchy.  The  fact  that 
one  seems  now  pre-eminent  and  at  another 


time  another  has  led  Max  Midler  to  his  theory 
of  henotheism.  (See  Henotheism.)  One 
god  is  often  identified  with  several  others. 
Barth  regards  the  theology  of  the  Rig- Veda 
as  hovering  between  polytheism  pure  and  / 
simple  and  a  species  of  monotheism  with  sev-  ^ — 
eral  titularies.  In  the  struggle  toward  mono- 
theism arose  Prajapati,  "the  lord  of  crea- 
tures ;"  Vi9vakarman,  "  the  fabricator  of  the 
universe;"  Svayambhu,  "the  self -existent, " 
and  other  designations. 

"  The  connection  between  man  and  the 
gods  is  a  very  close  one.  They  are  masters 
close  at  hand,  who  exact  tasks  of  him  and  to 
whom  he  owes  constant  homage.  He  knows 
that  they  in  turn  do  not  deceive,  and  that  they 
have  a  right  to  require  his  affection  and  con- 
fidence as  a  friend,  a  brother,  a  father.  With- 
out faith  offerings  and  prayers  are  vain." 
(Barth,  p.  33.) 

The  geographical  references  and  suggestions 
of  the  Rig-Veda  place  the  authors  of  the 
hymns  in  the  Punjab.  The  immigrant 
Aryans  gradually  fought  their  way  eastward 
and  southward.  In  the  Brahmanas  they  cen- 
tre about  the  region  between  the  Jumna  and 
the  Ganges.  During  their  advance  the  three 
Aryan  castes— Brahmans  or  priests,  Kshatriyas 
or  warriors,  and  Vaipyas  or  settlers— became 
rigidly  defined,  and  the  Brahmans,  originally 
only  singers  of  the  sacred  songs,  attained  their 
dominance.  The  language  of  the  hymns,  no 
longer  intelligible  to  the  people,  and  sometimes 
obscure  even  to  the  priests,  became  a  sacred 
language.  The  religion  became  stereotyped. 
Additions  to  the  literature  were  exposito'ry. 

The  theology  of  the  Atharva-Veda. "  the 
Yajur-Veda,  and  the  Brahmanas  as  compared 
witlx  that  of  the  Rig- Veda  and  Sama  Veda 
shows  the  addition  of  certain  subordinate  fig- 
ures, Soma-Candramas,  the  moon,  the  Xak- 
shatras  or  constellations,  and  the  Chandas  or 
Vedic  metres,  many  allegorical  personifica- 
tions, spirits,  and  demons,  while  certain  old 
mythic  representations  retire.  Prajapati  is 
the  acknowledged  head  of  the  great  divinities, 
and  the  triad  Agni,  Vayu  and  SGrya  sums  up 
the  divine  enei-gies.  The  gods  are  multiplied 
through  the  personification  of  attributes. 
Soma  is  confounded  with  the  moon,  regarded 
as  the  drop  in  the  sky.  He  is  the  husband  of 
the  Nakshatras,  the  constellations  of  the  lunar 
zodiac.  Yama  loses  his  prominence.  The 
pious  man  goes  to  Svarga,  the  heaven  of  Indra 
and  the  gods  in  general  ;  the  wicked  go  to 
definite  tortures,  or  are  born  again  into  misery. 
The  idea  of  expiation  gives  rise  to  metern- 
psychosis.  The  Asuras  are^  demons.  Adili 
is  identified  with  the^  earth,  Aditya  is  a  name 
for  the  sun,  and  the  Adityas,  now  13,  are  solar 
impersonations.  Varuna  becomes  a  god  of 
night,  to  become  still  later  a  god  of  the  waters. 
The  gods  tend  to  assume  the  form  of  the  epic. 
There  are  greater  changes  in  organization  and 
spirit.  The  ofiices  of  the  priesthood  are  dis- 
tinct professions,  in  a  great  measure  heredi- 
tary. The  Brahman  is  a  member  of  a  caste 
and  has  appropriated  almost  all  worship. 
Tlie  cxremonial  expands  and  grows  more 
c  )mplex.  There  are  schools  and  a  protracted 
novitiate.  In  these  schools  arose  the  Vedic 
cjllections  and  finally  the  Brahmanas.     (See 


INDIA 


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INDIA 


Veda.)  The  only  subject  of  the  Brahmanas 
is  the  ritual.  The  rites  become  the  real  deities, 
almost  holding  the  place  of  destiny  in  other 
systems.  It  is  a  commonplace  that  sacrifice 
conditions  the  course  of  things.  The  efficacy 
of  the  rite  is  due  to  a  magic  in  the  rite  itself. 
The  least  error  in  form  may  be  fatal.  It  is 
required  of  the  believer  only  that  he  be  per- 
suaded of  the  efficacy  of  the  rite  and  that  he 
be  legally  pure.  This  ritual  is  the  most  stu- 
l^endous  ever  developed.  There  is  no  public 
cultus.  Each  rite  is  performed  for  a  special 
person,  who  defrays  its  expense.  Certain  rites 
are,  however,  classed  as  domestic.  They  may 
be  considered  as  the  smallest  number  incum- 
bent on  a  chief  of  respectability  or  Brahman. 
These  are  almost  the  only  ones  which  the 
Brahmans  still  observe.  (Earth's  Religions  of 
India,  p.  51  if.,  enumerates  them.) 

By  the  side  of  the  ritual  grew  up  philoso- 
phy. As  the  gods  tended  to  fade  away  be- 
hind ritualistic,  so  did  they  before  philosophic 
conceptions.  The  Upanishads  (see  Veda)  are 
the  repository  of  the  philosophy.  The  doc- 
trines are  not  homogeneous.  With  profound 
views  are  mingled  allegories  and  mystic  rev- 
cries.  By  sorting  and  classifying  the  incon- 
gruous elements  six  systems  are  formulated  : 
1.  The  Nyaya  ;  2.  The  Vai^eshika  ;  3.  The 
Sankhya  ;  4.  The  Yoga  ;  5.  The  Mimansa  ; 
6.  The  Vedanta.  (Monier  Williams,  in  an 
appendix  to  his  Hiadumn,  pp.  187-227,  gives 
a  concise  account  of  these  systems.  See  also 
H.  T.  Colebrooko's  Miscell.  Essays,  London, 
1873  ;  A.  E.  Gough,  The  Philosophy  of  the 
Upanishads,  London,  1882.  The  principal 
Upanishads  are  translated  by  Max  Miiller  in 
the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vols.  i.  and  xv.) 
Tiie  first  is  a  system  of  logic  and  criticism, 
the  second  a  physical  theory  of  the  universe, 
the  fourth  a  sort  of  manual  of  mystic  exer- 
cises, the  fifth  a  critical  examination  of  the 
ritual  literature.  The  Mlmao.sa  is  opposed 
to  speculation,  and  recognizes  the  gods  only 
as  specially  mentioned  in  the  liturgies.  The 
Sankhya  and  VedSnta  systems  are  important 
in  their  relation  to  the  following  development. 

<rj.ie  Sankhya  school  derives  its  name  from 
the  enumeration  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples, of  which  it  accepts  not  less  than  25. 

J  Perception,  inference,  and  right  affirmation 
are  the  three  waj's  to  truth.  The  object  of  its 
recognition  is  to  put  an  end  to  sufferings. 
This  is  reached  by  learning  to  distinguish  the 
23  principles  which  fall  under  the  domain  of 
the  senses  from  tlie  two  others,  the  unknow- 
able and  the  soul.  The  first  principle,  un- 
knowable, but  to  be  recognized  from  its  effects, 
has  not  come  into  being,  but  is  the  ground  of 
all  becoming,  it  is  nature,  "  prakrili,"  the  con- 
dition of  all  sensuous  existence  as  it  unfolds 
itself  in  the  23  following  principles.  The 
last  principle  is  the  soul,  purusha.  It  has 
neither  come  into  existence  nor  produces.  By 
purusha  are  meant  individual  souls.  There 
is  no  mention  of  a  highest  or  general  soul. 
Tiie  Sankhya  system  has  therefore  been  re- 
proached w"ith  atheism.  The  object  is  the 
dissolution  of  the  bond  between  the  soul  and 
matter.  This  happens  not  through  virtue, 
but  through  the  recognition  by  the  soul  of  its 
true  nature  as  distinguished  from  prakriti. 


Then  transmigration  ceases.  The  fundamen- 
tal idea  of  the  Vedanta  is  the  identity  of  the 
Brahman  (neuter,  the  Absolute)  with  the  soul. 
^Ttre  soul  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the 
indivisible  Brahman,  but  as  the  whole,  un- 
changeable Brahman  itself,  that  includes  all 
■within  itself.  The  salvation  of  the  soul  con- 
sists of  the  true  perception  of  its  own  nature 
as  identical  with  Brahman.  There  are,  how- 
ever, degrees  in  this  recognition— an  exoteric 
and  an  esoteric.  The  exoteric  paj's  homage 
to  the  soul  whether  viewed  as  world-soul,  in- 
dividual-soul, or  as  the  highest  divinity,  and 
so  distinguishes  it  as  object  from  itself.  This 
soul  is  subject  to  limitations,  relations.  The 
sovereign  Brahman  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
without  any  limitation  or  quality.  Only  ia 
the  recognition  of  its  identity  with  this  Brah- 
man does  the  soul  become  free  from  its  limita- 
tions, free  from  the  body,  from  the  world, 
from  the  causality  of  works,  and  is  absorbed 
in  the  Brahman.  This  Brahman  is  properly 
unknowable.  For  the  saved  there  is  no  re- 
turn. Coming  out  of  the  stream  of  being,  of 
renewed  existences,  they  have  attained  to  rest. 
Perhaps  none  of  the  Upanishads  is  of  a  date 
anterior  to  Buddhism,  though  they  embody  a 
much  more  ancient  tradition.  They  are  the 
most  trustworthy  source  of  information  as  to 
the  conditions  from  which  Buddhism  sprang. 
From  one  point  of  view  this  is  an  offshoot 
from  the  old  Brahmanic  stock,  from  another 
the  work  of  Buddha,  as  Islam  is  that  of  Ma- 
homet. From  three  newly-discovered  inscrip- 
tions of  the  Emperor  A9oka  it  follows  that 
the  37th  year  of  his  reign  was  reckoned  as  the 
257th  from  the  death  of  Buddha.  Hence  it  is 
inferred  that  Buddha  died  between  482  and 
472  B.C.  It  being  agreed  that  he  lived  to  be 
80,  he  was  born  between  562  and  552  b.c. 
The  Buddhist  narratives  of  his  life  are  over- 
grown with  legend  and  myth.  Emile  Senart 
(Essai  sur  la  legende  du  Buddha,  Paris,  1875) 
.seeks  to  trace,  step  by  step,  in  his  biographies 
the  history  cf  the  sun-hero.  "Like  the  sun 
from  the  clouds  of  night,  he  issues  from  the 
dark  womb  of  Maya  ;  a  flash  of  light  pierces 
through  all  the  world  when  he  is  born  ;  Maya 
dies,  like  the  morning-cloud  which  vanishes 
before  the  sun's  rays.  Like  the  sun-hero  con- 
quering the  thunder-den:^n,  Buddha  van- 
quished Mara,  the  Tempter,  in  dire  combat, 
under  the  sacred  tree  ;  the  tree  is  the  dark 
cloud-tree  in  heaven,  round  which  the  battle 
of  thunderstorm  rages.  When  the  victory  is 
won  Buddha  proceeds  to  preach  his  evan- 
gelium  to  all  worlds,  '  to  set  in  motion  the 
wheel  of  the  Law  ;'  this  is  the  sun-god  who 
sends  his  illuminating  wheel  revolving  across 
the  firmament.  At  last  the  life  of  Buddha 
draws  to  a  close  ;  he  witnesses  the  terrible 
destruction  of  his  whole  house,  the  Sakya 
race,  which  is  annihilated  by  enemies,  as 'at 
sunset  the  powers  of  light  die  away  in  the 
bloodred  tints  of  the  evening  clouds.  Ills 
own  end  has  now  arrived  ;  the  fiames  of  the 
funeral  pile  on  which  Buddha's  corpse  is 
burned  are  extinguished  by  streams  of  water, 
which  come  pouring  down  from,  heaven  just 
as  the  sun-hero  dies  in  the  sea  of  fire  kindled 
by  his  own  rays,  and  the  last  flames  of  his 
divine  obsequies  die  out  on  the  horizon  ia  the 


INDIA 


(403) 


INDIA 


i^ 


moisture  of  the  evening  mist.  In  Scnart's 
opinion  Buddha  did  exist,  but  beyond  this 
bare  reality  tliere  is  nothing  substantial.  The 
fancy  of  his  followers  attached  to  his  person* 
the  great  allegorical  ballad  of  the  life  of  the 
sun- god  in  human  guise  ;  the  life  of  the  man 
Buddha  had  been  forgotten."  (Oldenberg's 
BaddlM,  p.  73.)  While  conceding  the  exist- 
ence of  very  much  that  is  mythical  in  the  ac- 
counts, Oldenberg  finds  in  the  most  ancient 
traditions — those  of  Ceylon— at  least  definite 
historical  outlines.  He  objects  that  Senart's 
criticism  is  based  almost  wholly  on  the  later 
legendary  biography,  the  Lalita-Vistara,  cur- 
rent among  the  northern  Buddhists  of  Nepal, 
Thibet,  and  China.  Siddhartha,  as  Buddha 
was  called  before  entering  upon  his  great 
mission,  was  born  in  the  country  and  tribe  of 
the  yakhyas,  at  the  foot  of  the  Nepalese  Hima- 
layas. His  father,  yuddhodana,  was  rather  a 
great  and  wealthy  landowner  than  a  king. 
His  m.)ther,  Maya,  also  of  the  (,'akhya  stock, 
died  7  days  after  his  birth,  and  he  was  reared 
by  his  aunt  Maiiaprajapati,  another  wife  of 
Cuddhodana.  He  passed  his  youth  in  opu- 
lence and  ease  at  Kapilavastu,  the  ^akhya 
capital.  He  was  married  and  had  a  son 
Kahula,  who  became  a  member  of  his  order. 
At  the  age  of  29  he  left  parents,  wife,  and 
only  son  for  the  meditation  and  spiritual 
struggle  of  a  recluse.  After  7  years  he  be- 
lieved himself  possessed  of  perfect  truth,  and 
assumed  the  title  of  Buddha,  "  the  enlight- 
ened." He  is  represented  as  having  received 
a  sudden  illumination  as  he  sat  under  the 
Bo-tree,  or  "  tree  of  knowledge,"  at  Buddha 
Gaya.  For  28,  or,  as  later  narratives  give  it, 
49  days  he  is  variously  tempted  by  Mara,  and 
struggles  with  the  demons.  One  of  his  doubts 
is  Avhether  to  keep  for  himself  the  knowledge 
he  has  won  or  to  share  it  with  a  suffering 
world.  Love  for  his  fellow-men  triumphs, 
and  he  begins  to  preach.  Benares  is  regarded 
as  the  town  in  which  the  gospel  of  the  de- 
liverance was  first  proclaimed.  The  Maha- 
vagga  contains  a  sermon  by  which  tradition 
represents  Buddha  as  having  "  set  in  motion 
the  wheel  of  the  law."  The  discourse  may 
not  be  historic,  but  it  contains  at  least  a  very 
definite  expression  of  the  ideas  which  the  an- 
cient Buddhist  Church  viewed  as  the  essential-,  ^( 
in  their  master's  teaching.  It  was  spoken 
to  5  ascetics  Avho  had  abandoned  Buddha 
when  he  renounced  asceticism.  These  are 
abridged  pa.ssages  from  it  :  "  There  are  two 
extremes  from  which  he  who  leads  a  religious 
life  must  abstain.  One  is  a  life  of  pleasure, 
devoted  to  desire  and  enjoyment  —that  is  base, 
ignoble,  unspiritual,  unworthy,  unreal.  The 
other  is  a  life  of  mortification— it  is  gloomy, 
unworthy,  unreal.  The  Perfect  One  [Buddha 
himself]  is  removed  from  both  these  extremes, 
and  has  discovered  the  middle  way,  which  en- 
lightens the  eyes,  enlightens  the  mind  ;  which 
leads  to  rest,  to  knowledge,  to  enlightenment, 
to  Nirvana.  It  is  this  sacred  eightfold  path  : 
Right  Faith,  Riuht  Resolve,  Right  Speech, 
Right  Action,  Right  Living.  Right  Effort, 
Right  Thought,  Right  Self-concentration. 
This,  O  monks,  is  the  sacred  truth  of  suffer- 
ing. Birth  is  suffering  ;  old  age,  sickness, 
death,  to  bo  united  with  the  unloved,  to  be 


separated  from  the  loved,  not  to  obtain  what 
one  desires  is  suffering— in  short,  the  fivefold 
clinging  (to  the  earthly)  is  suffering.  This  is 
the  sacred  truth  of  the  origin  of  suffering  :  It 
is  the  thirst  (for  being)  which  leads  from  birth 
to  birth,  together  with  lust  and  desire,  the 
thirst  for  pleasures,  the  thirst  for  power. 

"  This  is  the  sacred  truth  of  the  extinction 
of  suffering  :  The  extinction  of  this  thirst  by 
complete  annihilation  of  desire,  letting  it  go, 
expelling  it,  separating  one's  self  from  it,  giv- 
ing it  no  room.  This  is  the  sacred  truth  of  the 
path  which  leads  to  the  extinction  of  suffer- 
ing. It  is  this  sacred,  eightfold  path.  This 
is  the  sacred  truth  of  suffering.  Thus  my 
eye,  O  monks,  was  opened  to  these  concep- 
tions, which  no  one  had  comprehended  be- 
fore, and  my  judgment,  cognition,  intuition, 
and  vision  were  opened.  And  as  long,  O 
monks,  as  I  did  not  possess  in  perfect  clear- 
ness tins  triple,  twelve-part,  trustworthy 
knowledge  and  understanding  of  these  four 
sacred  truths,  so  long,  O  monks,  I  knew  that 
I  had  not  yet  attained  the  supreme  Buddha- 
hood  in  this  world  and  the  worlds  of  gods,  of 
Mara  and  of  Brahma,  among  all  beings,  as- 
cetics and  Brahmans.  gods  and  men ;  but 
since  I  have  come  to  possess  in  perfect  clear- 
ness this  knowledge,  since  then  I  know  that 
I  have  attained  the  supreme  Buddhahood,  and 
I  have  seen  and  know  this.  The  deliverance 
of  my  soul  is  secured.  This  is  my  last  birth. 
Henceforth  there  is  for  me  no  new  birth." 

For  44  years  Buddha  preached  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Benares  and  Behar.  Primitive  Buddh- 
ism is  only  to  be  gathered  by  inference  from 
the  memorials  of  a  later  time,  but  it  was  cer- 
tainly marked  by  the  absence  of  every  theo- 
logical element  and  an  aversion  to  speculation. 
Buddha  did  not  array  himself  against  the  old 
religion.  He  simply  disregarded  it.  His 
doctrine  was  atheistic,  his  metaphysics  nega- 
tive. His  especial  concern  was  salvation  from 
sorrow,  and  so  from  existence.  There  are 
"  four  noble  truths"  :  1st.  Existence  is  suffer- 
ing ;  2d.  The  cause  of  pain  is  desire  ;  3d.  Ces- 
sation of  pain  is  possible  through  the  suppres- 
sion of  desire  ;  4th.  The  way  to  this  is  the 
knowdedge  and  observance  of  the  "  good 
aw"  of  Buddha.  The  end  is  Nirvana,  the 
cessation  of  existence.  The  being  undergoing 
existence  is  a  composite  resulting  from  the 
skandhas  or  aggregates.  These  exhaust  all 
the  properties  and  attributes  of  the  individual. 
Apart  from  these  nothing  exists— no  fixed 
principle  or  soul  or  permanent  substance. 
They  undergo  incessant  modification  and  dis- 
solve at  death.  The  individual,  therefore, 
perishes,  but  the  inlluence  of  its  karmau,  its 
acts,  survives,  and  through  this  a  new  group 
of  skandhas  is  formed.  The  Buddhist  does 
not  himself  revive,  but  another  who  is  to  be 
the  heir  of  his  karman.  In  order  to  avert 
from  him  the  pains  of  existence  he  aspires  to 
Nirvana.  Tiiis  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Pali 
books  of  the  Southern  Buddhists.  The  San- 
skrit books  of  the  North  appear,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  concede  that  .something  permanent 
passes  from  one  existence  to  another,  but  this 
is  a  very  vaguely  apprehended  ego. 

The  "  way"  practically  conducts  to  total 
extinction,  and  perfection  consists  in  ceasing 


INDIA 


(404) 


INDIA 


to  exist.  Two  centuries  and  a  half  after 
Buddha's  death  A9oka  became  the  Buddhist 
Constantiue.  The  rcHgion  was  dominant  in 
the  wliole  region  north  of  the  Vindhya  Moun- 
tains, and  had  taken  root  at  many  points  to 
the  soutli  of  them  and  in  Ceylon.  This  prog- 
ress was  not  owing  especially  to  its  superior 
morality  or  its  special  dogmas.  As  regards 
the  latter,  however,  its  system  was  happily 
elastic.  Few  Buddhists  have  ever  hoped  or 
striven  to  reach  the  happiness  of  non-exist- 
ence, but  every  meritorious  act,  however 
slight,  has  its  effect  on  the  chain  of  future 
existences,  and  the  degree  of  beatitude  is  left 
largely  to  the  choice  and  power  of  the  indi- 
vidual. For  the  ascetic  striving  for  Nirvana 
it  was  a  hard  religion  ;  for  the  laity,  more  mod- 
est in  aspiration,  the  easiest  possible.  There 
■was  no  immediate  and  violent  break  with 
Brahmanism  and  its  corner-stone,  the  institu- 
tion of  caste,  and  it  was  only  gradually  that 
Buddhism  came  to  show  its  sweet  kindliness 
and  universal  philanthropy  ;  but  these  were 
powerful  aids  as  the  religion  extended  itself 
among  other  peoples  than  those  among  wdiom 
it  originated.  The  living  memory  of  Buddha 
himself,  with  his  charity  and  love,  was  a  great 
power. 

Buddhism  was  preached  in  the  vulgar 
tongue.  It  had  a  popular  literature,  an  elabo- 
rately organized  monastic  and  missionary  sys- 
tem. The  great  monarchies  rising  on  the 
ruins  of  the  small  states  found  in  it  a  power- 
ful auxiliary.  Such  monarchies  opened  the 
way  for  it  into  Afghanistan,  Bactriana,  China, 
and  Thibet.  It  was  not  as  the  result  of  Brah- 
man persecution  that  it  passed  away  m  India. 
Among  the  causes  of  its  downfall  were  the 
disrelish  of  Buddha  for  the  supernatural,  the 
too  abstract  nature  of  his  ideas,  a  too  morbid 
way  of  looking  at  the  problem  of  life,  the  in- 
fluence of  quietism  and  a  relaxed  discipline 
upon  the  monks,  the  disappearance  of  all 
boldness,  originality  of  thought  and  conquer- 
ing zeal,  and  finally  the  fact  tliat  the  new  re- 
ligions of  (j'iva  and  Vishnu  used  many  of  its 
own  weapons  more  effectively.  They  ap- 
pealed to  the  affections  with  figures  as  per- 
sonal in  Mahadeva,  Krishna,  and  Rama  ;  they 
appealed  as  well  to  the  senses  by  splendid 
temples  and  grand  festivals  ;  they  had  at  their 
head  the  Brahman,  the  popular  poetry  w^as 
theirs,  and  their  beliefs  were  one  with  the 
national  legend. 

An  interesting  brief  account  is  Titcomb's 
Short  Chapters  on  Buddhism  (Religious  Tract 
Society,  London,  1883).  See  also  t.  W.  Rhys 
Davids'  Buddhism  (Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Christian  Kuowledire,  1877)  and  his  Hib- 
bert  Lectures,  1882  ;  Oldenberg,  Buddha :  His 
Life,  his  Doctrine,  his  Orde?'  (London,  1882) ; 
Edkins,  Chinese  Buddhism  (London,  1880), 
and  liis  lieligion  in  China  (London,  1878). 
Buddhist  writings  are  contained  in  the  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East,  vols,  x.,  xi.,  xiil.,  xvii., 
xix.,  XX.,  xxi.  The  Liqht  of  Asia  and  the 
Linht  of  the  World,  by  S.  H.  Kellogg,  D.D. 
(Macmillan  &  Co.,  London,  1885),  is  an  elabo- 
rate comparison  of  Buddhism  and  Christianity, 
suggested  by  Edwin  Arnold's  Light  of  Asia, 
1879. 

As  the  Bauddhas  from  Buddha,  the  Jainas 


are  named  from  Jiua,  "the  victorious."  A 
Jina  is  a  sage  who  has  reached  omniscience 
and  who  comes  to  re-establish  the  law.  The 
last  included,  there  have  been  24.  These,  like 
the  Buddhas,  became  objects  of  worship. 
They  have  at  their  side  the  (,'asanadevls,  god- 
desses who  execute  their  commands.  Next  to 
the  Jinas  rank  the  Ganadharas,  their  immedi- 
ate disciples  (who  receive  homage  as  guardian 
saints),  and  a  number  of  gods  taken  from  the 
Hindu  pantheon.  The  worship  is  akin  to 
that  of  the  Buddhists.  The  use  of  little  bells 
is  common.  Women  enjoy  the  same  rights 
as  men.  Confession  and  pilgrimages  are 
practised.  Four  months  in  the  year  are  espe- 
cially given  up  to  religious  exercises.  The 
Jainas  reject  the  Brahmanic  Veda  and  substi- 
tute their  own  Angas.  There  is  no  priestly 
caste,  but  they  observe  the  rules  of  caste 
among  themselves  as  well  as  toward  dissent- 
ers, though  without  giving  them  a  religious 
significance.  They  stand  closer  to  the  Hindu 
religions  than  the  Buddhists— indeed,  profess- 
ingto  be  Hindus.  They  have  contributed  effec- 
tively to  astronomy,  grammar,  and  romantic 
literature.  They  are  divided  into  clergy  and 
laity— ^■.f.,  into  Yat  is,  or  ascetics,  and  yravakas. 
or  hearers  ;  but  the  monastic  system  was  less 
developed.  The  Yatis  are  divided  into  two 
principal  sects,  the  yvetSrabaras,  or  white 
gowns,  and  the  Digambaras,  or  "those  who 
are  clothed  in  air,"  who  go  naked.  Like  the 
Buddhist  sects  of  the  Great  and  Little  Vehicle, 
they  are  rather  rivals  than  enemies.  As 
among  the  Buddhists,  there  is  also  a  division 
into  Northern  and  into  Southern  Jainas,  a 
division,  at  first  merely  geographical,  which 
has  extended  to  the  doctrines,  canon,  and  en- 
tire body  of  traditions.  The  Digambaras  prac- 
tise nudity  now  only  during  their  meals,  but 
were  more  rigid  formerly.  At  first  a  leading 
difference  between  Jainas  and  Buddhists  was 
that  the  former  were  more  ascetic.  No  Hindu 
sect  has  carried  farther  ahinsa,  or  abstinence 
from  injuring  anything  that  has  life.  Re- 
ligious suicide  was,  however,  common  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  essential  doctrines  of 
Buddhists  and  Jainas  are  the  same.  They 
are  atheists.  The  world  is  eternal.  They 
deny  the  possibility  of  a  perfect  being  from 
all  eternity.  The  Jina  became  perfect.  Still 
there  is  a  return  to  a  sort  of  deism  in  Jinapati, 
a  supreme  Jina.  Beings  are  animate  or  in- 
animate. Animate  beings  are  composed  of 
soul  and  body,  and  their  souls  are  radically 
distinct  from  matter  and  eternal.  This  is  an 
essential  difference  from  Buddhism  and  agree- 
ment with  the  Sankhya  philosophy.  With 
the  latter  it  holds  that  the  soul  is  pure  intelli- 
gence, but  a  prey  to  illusion,  and  so  condemned 
to  the  yoke  of  matter  through  an  endless 
series  of  existences.  Not  existence  itself  is  to 
them  bad,  but  life.  Nirvana  is  therefore  not 
annihilation,  but  deliverance  from  life  and  an 
entry  into  endless  blessedness.  The  Triratna, 
the  "  three  jewels,"  the  perfect  faith,  faith  in 
the  Jina,  perfect  science  or  knowledge  of  his 
doctrine,  and  perfect  conduct  or  observance 
of  his  precepts  constitute  the  way  to  Nirvana. 
Tills  is  essentially  the  Triratna  of  the  Buddh- 
ists, Buddha,  the  Law.  and  the  Sangha,  or 
Order.      The  moral  teaching  and  discipline 


INDIA 


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INDIA 


are  essentiall}^  alike,  though  the  nomenclature 
and  arrangement  are  often  different.  Tlie 
^eetarabaras  differ  from  the  Digambaras  in 
teaching  that  women  arc  capable  of  attaining 
to  Nirvana.  The  extraordinary  parallelism 
la  the  traditions  of  Buddhism  and  Jainism 
has  led  some  scholars  to  think  them  essen- 
tially identical  and  to  regard  VardhamSna,  or 
Maliavlra,  the  Jina  of  the  present  age,  as  the 
same  with  Gautama ;  but  Buhlef  thinks  he 
has  proved  that  Mahavira  was  a  distinct  per- 
sonage, whose  real  name  was  Nirgrantha 
Jfiatiputra,  the  ascetic  of  the  Jiiatis.  Still, 
in  the  light  of  the  afliliation  of  the  doctrines, 
Jainism  must  be  viewed  as  a  sect  springing 
from  Buddhism.  The  origin  of  its  literature 
would  fall  at  the  beginning  of  our  era  if  the 
character  of  the  language  be  considered.  In 
the  5th  century  the  Jainas  occupied  fixed 
settlements  at  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula 
of  Grujciat.  In  the  7th  they  were  the  domi- 
nant sect  in  the  Dekhan.  At  present  they 
number  about  500,000,  and  as  a  church  are  in 
a  decadent  state,  though  many  individual  ad- 
herents are  extremely  prosperous  as  merchants 
or  bankers  in  Bombay,  Calcutta,  and  other 
large  towns.  In  the  south  they  practise  agri- 
culture. {2'Jie  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol. 
xxii.,  contains  a  translation  of  a  part  of  the 
Jaina  Sutras.) 

The  neo-Brahmauic  religions  are  embraced 
under  the  name  Hinduism,  in  default  of  the 
possibility  of  a  more  precise  designation. 
They  include  about  180,000,000  of  adherents 
ill  India,  Nepal,  Ceylon,  Indo-China,  the 
Siinda  Islands,  Mauritius,  and  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  abstractions  of  Brahmani- 
cal  theology  were  too  subtle  to  affect  the 
masses,  hence  the  rise  of  Buddhism  and  Hin- 
duism ;  but  the  systems  and  countless  sects  in- 
cluded under  the  latter  name  claimed  to.  be  a 
continuation  of  the  old  Brahmauism.  They 
were,  in  fact,  largely  the  creation  of  the  Brah- 
mans  in  their  struggle  with  Buddhism.  The 
Brahmans  were  in  a  great  degree  the  authors 
of  their  literature,  their  theologians,  and  the 
ministers  of  their  rites.  The  Brahmans 
thought  it  wise  to  adopt  and  direct  an  impulse 
originally  foreign  to  them. 

A  common  characteristic  of  the  majority 
of  the  new  religions  is  the  worship  of  new 
divinities,  of  which  the  conception  is  intensely 
concrete  and  personal.  These  arc  identified 
either  with  f^yya,  who  is  connected  with  the 
Vedic  lludra,  or  with  Vishnu.  According  as 
one  or  the  otlier  is  viewed  as  supreme,  the  re- 
ligious are  called  ^ivaite  or  Vishnuite. 

Apart  from  the  Brahmanic  and  side  b}^  side 
with  it  sprang  up  a  mythology  and  cultus  dis- 
tinctly popular.  Hence  the 'development  of 
lludra  into  a  deity  in  cK)se  relation  with 
every  phase  of  the  troubled  life  of  India.  He 
and  his  troops  protect  house,  field,  herd,  and 
road.  He  is  a  crafty  merchant,  the  patron  of 
artisans,  tlie  head  of  armies,  the  god  of  the 
soldier,  the  bandit,  the  beggar.  Though  om- 
nipresent, he  dwells  especially  in  forests,  soli- 
tudes, and  moiuitains.  Into  this  figure  the 
Brahmans  infused  their  theology  and  meta- 
physics to  make  the  great  god  iJIahadeva. 
This  adoption  took  place  several  centuries 
before  our  era. 


Vishnu  U  an  ancient  personification  of  the 
sun.  His  later  supremacy  is  due  to  a  fusion 
with  the  popular  god  Krishna  (see  Barth's 
Ikligions  of  India,  p.  167),  who  was  probably 
at  first  the  ethnic  god  of  a  powerful  confeder- 
ation of  Rajput  clans.  Once  supreme,  es- 
tranged from  his  solar  character,  he  sits  en- 
throned in  Vaikuntha,  his  paradise,  with  his 
wife  yri,  or  Lakshml,  the  goddess  of  beauty, 
pleasure,  and  victory.  According  as  he  sits 
awake  or  sinks  into  slumber,  he  gives  birth  to 
creation  or  draws  it  back  again  into  himself. 
He  assumes  the  functions  which  formerly  be- 
longed to  Brahma.  He  interposes  in  the 
world,  especially  by  means  of  his  incarna- 
tions, Avataras,  "descents."  The  theory  of 
these  is  a  new  phase  in  the  religious  develop- 
ment. By  permitting  the  worship  of  the 
deity  in  numerous  incarnations,  a  certain 
monotheism  was  reconciled  with  the  tendency 
to  polytheism.  ' '  An  AvatSra  is  the  presence 
at  once  mystic  and  real  of  the  supreme  being 
in  a  human  individual,  who  is  both  truly  god 
and  truly  man,  and  this  intimate  union  of  the 
two  natures  is  conceived  of  as  surviving  the 
death  of  the  individual  in  whom  it  was  re- 
alized." (Barth,  p.  170.)  Through  the  the- 
ory of  the  Avataras  a  good  part  of  the  ancient 
fable  was  connected  with  Vishnu.  These  de- 
scents are  reckoned  as  10,  12,  22,  24,  28,  and 
soon  are  declared  to  exceed  all  estimate. 
They  are  distinguished  as  complete  incarna- 
tions, in  which  the  deity  is  entirely  present 
and  partial,  in  which  appears  only  a  part  of 
his  being.  From  Vishnu  this  power  of  incar- 
nation passed  to  other  gods.  The  Avataras 
of  Krishna  and  of  Rama  compose  two  vast 
cycles,  in  which  Vishuuism  found  its  true 
divinities.  In  Krishna  mingle  myths  of  fire, 
lightning,  and  storm,  of  heaven  and  the  sun. 
A  majonty  of  these  singularly  appear  in  the 
legendary  biography  of  Buddha.  In  the  epic 
Krishna  is  a  hero  invincible  in  war  and  love 
and  as  crafty  as  he  is  brave.  The  son  of 
Vasudeva  and  DevakI,  he  was  born  at  MathuiS, 
on  the  Yamuna,  between  Delhi  and  Agra, 
among  the  Yadavas,  a  powerful  Rajput  tribe. 
Like  many  solar  heroes,  his  first  appearance 
was  beset  by  many  perils.  On  the  niglit  of 
his  birth  his  parents  had  to  remove  him  be- 
yond the  reach  of  his  uncle  Kansa,  who  had 
ijeen  warned  that  the  eighth  son  of  DevakI 
would  put  him  to  death.  Taken  across  the 
Yamuna,  he  was  reared  as  the  son  of  the 
shepherd  Nanda  and  his  wife  Ya9oda,  in  the 
woods  of  Vrindavana  with  his  brother  Bala- 
rama.  The  two  brotliers  grew  up  among  the 
shepherds,  slaying  monsters  and  demons  and 
sporting  with' the  female  cowherds  of  Vrin- 
davana. This  id}  1  of  Vrindavana  became  the 
essential  portion  "of  the  legend  of  Kri.shna. 
The  places  which  were  its  scene  are  now  the 
centres  of  his  worship.  When  grown,  the 
brothers  killed  Kansa,  and  Krishna  became 
king  of  the  Yadavas.  He  warred  against 
monsters  and  impious  kings,  took  part  in  the 
struggle  described  in  the  3Iahabharata  be- 
tween the  .sons  of  Pandu  and  those  of  Dhrila- 
rishtra,  transferred  his  capital  to  Dvaraka, 
since  localized  in  the  peninsida  of  Gujarat. 
Tliere  he  witnessed  the  death  of  liis  brotiier 
and  saw  the  Yadavas  kill  one  'mother  to  the 


INDIA 


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INDIA 


last  man,  ■when  he  himself  perished,  wounded 
in  tlie  heel  by  the  arrow  of  a  hunter. 

The  cycle  connected  -with  Rama  has  been 
preserved  chiefly  in  the  Eamayana.  His 
mythical  import  is  more  indistinct  and  his 
worship  more  recent  and  less  widely  diffused. 
He  is  a  hero,  but  also  the  finished  type  of  sub- 
mission to  duty,  nobility  of  character,  and 
generosity.  The  eldest  son  and  heir  of  Da9a- 
ratha,  king  of  Ayodhya,  he  declined  the  throne 
out  of  respect  for  a  promise  made  by  his 
father  to  his  stepmother,  and  remained  an  ex- 
ile in  the  forest  14  years.  In  the  great  forests 
of  the  south  his  wife  Sitawas  carried  away  to 
Ceylon  by  Ra  vana,  king  of  the  demons.  Ally- 
ing himself  with  Sugrlva,  king  of  the  mon- 
keys (perhaps  an  Aryan  mode  of  character- 
izing the  alien  populations  of  the  south), 
among  which  Hanumat,  "  with  the  strong 
jaws."  the  god-monkey,  who  is  to  this  day 
widely  worshipped  in  India,  is  distinguished, 
Rama  constructed  a  dyke,  the  ruins  of  which 
are  seen  in  the  reefs  connecting  Ceylon  with 
the  mainland,  invaded  the  island,  slew  Ravana 
and  recovered  Sila,  who  returned  to  reign 
with  her  husband  in  Ayodhya.  After  long 
years  there  was  a  second  separation,  due  to 
unjust  suspicions  of  Rama  himself.  This  was 
followed  by  a  second  reconciliation,  after 
which  Slia  returned  to  the  earth  from  which 
she  had  sprung. 

The  tendency  of  these  divinities  was  not  to 
an  abstract  pantheism,  but  to  a  certain  mono- 
theism or  to  an  organized  polytheism  under  a 
supreme  god.  To  this  tendency  is  due  the 
Hindu  Trinity,  in  which  (^'iva  and  Vishnu  are 
associated  with  Brahma  into  a  threefold  im- 
personation of  the  supreme  Brahman.  This 
is  an  attempt  to  reconcile  the  ancient  ortho- 
doxy and  the  new  religions.  The  Brahman, 
the  Absolute,  manifests  himself  in  three  per- 
sons—Brahma, the  creator  ;  Vishnu,  the  pre- 
server ;  and  yiva,  the  destroyer.  Each  of 
these  persons  is  represented  by  one  of  the 
three  letters  a,  u,  m,  which  together  in  one 
form  the  symbol  of  the  Absolute.  The  sig- 
nificance of  this  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  has 
been  much  exaggerated.  In  its  orthodox 
form  Brahma  is  the  first  of  three  equal  per- 
sons. Ordinarily  either  ^i^a  or  Vishnu  is 
identified  with  the  supreme  being,  and  the 
other  two,  Brahma  especially,  are  reduced  to 
act  a  subordinate  part.  As  a  general  rule  a 
Hindu  pays  homage  to  a  favorite  deity — most 
frequently  one  of  the  forms  of  Vishnu,  ^iva, 
or  Devi— but  with  this  leading  deity  he  is 
ready  to  connect  an  indefinite  number  of 
others.  The  devotion  of  his  choice  is  often 
added  to  some  local  superstition  or  hereditary 
cultus,  and  if  the  devotee  is  disposed  to  phi- 
losophy considerable  abstract  unitarian  mysti- 
cism may  be  joined,  ^ivaites  may  Avorship 
Vishnuite  divinities  and  Vishnuites  ^ivaite. 
This  eclecticism  is  favored  by  the  speculative 
mysticism  which  has  percolated  through  all 
layers  of  society.  An  adept  in  the  VedSnta 
or  the  Yoga  could  see  the  only  Being  in  both 
'fiva  and  Vishnu.  Some  sects  have  associated 
the  two  gods  in  a  common  cultus.  Alongside 
of  the  god  who  is  three  and  one  is  a  god  who 
is  two  and  one,  Harihara— that  is,  Vishnu — 
yiva,  though  pure  ^ivaites  interpret  the  name 


as  9iva  (the  master)  of  Vishnu.  Here  a  sim- 
ple mystical  formula  has  become  a  concrete 
figure.  Harihara  is  a  deity  especially  popular 
in  the  Tamil  country. 

The  different  ways  of  combining  the  per- 
sons of  the  gods  are  really  a  subordinate  point 
in  the  theology  of  the  numerous  sects.  The 
real  data  for  their  history  consist  of  the  doc- 
trinal conceptions  formed  of  the  principal 
gods  and  ia  the  practical  consequences  there- 
from deduced.  Half  of  this  history  is  ob- 
scure. The  great  epic,  the  Mahabharata,  is 
in  the  main  the  most  ancient  source  of  knowl- 
edge as  to  the  modern  religions,  but  it  has 
been  of  slow  growth,  extending  through  ages, 
and  is  essentially  an  encyclopaedia  of  myth 
and  legend,  without  chronological  data.  The 
Ramayana  and  the  18  chief  Puranas  are  like- 
wise without  determinable  dates.  There  is 
the  .same  absence  of  chronology  in  the  secta- 
rian Upanishads,  the  Bhakti  Sutras,  and  the 
Narada  Pancaratra,  important  as  to  Vishnu- 
ism  and  the  doctrine  of  faith,  and  the  Sutras, 
Agamas,  and  Tantras  which  contain  the  dog- 
ma and  ritual  of  the  ^aivas,  especially  with 
regard  to  the  ^aktis,  the  female  divinities. 
To  the  14th  century  belongs  Sayana's  resvme 
of  yivaite  metaphysics  in  liis  General  Synopsis 
of  the  Systems.  Positive  history  hardly  com- 
mences till  we  come  upon  the  heads  of  the 
schools  of  the  12th  century. 

The  Hindu  sects  obliged  to  repeat  the  theo- 
logical principles  furnished  by  the  ancient 
Brahmanic  speculations  appropriated  the 
forrauhe  as  they  were  or  in  modified  forms. 
The  Vedanta  had  to  recognize  a  god  distinct 
from  the  world,  and  so  was  compelled  to  de- 
velop to  the  utmost  the  theory  of  illusion  or 
Maya  or  renounce  its  fundamental  principle  of 
Advaita  or  non-duality.  The ,  Sankhya  hold- 
ing to  nature,  fertile  but  blind,  had  to  become 
deistic.  These  solutions  have  a  twofold  expres- 
sion in  technical  and  in  other  literary  and  poetic 
writings.  The  precision  of  the  first  is  often 
only  apparent,  the  second  show  endless  confu- 
sion, but  often  a  sublime  mysticism.  This  sub- 
limity is  a  characteristic  of  the  Bhagavad-gllS, 
"TheSongof  the  Most  High,"  the  oldest  dog- 
matic exposition  of  Vishnuism.  In  this  poem, 
which  is  an  interpolation  into  the  Mahabha- 
rata, Krishna,  who  is  identical  with  the  su- 
preme being,  reveals  the  mystery  of  his  na- 
ture. The  doctrine  is  essentially  Vedantic. 
Krishna  is  the  absolute  being  in  human  form, 
immutable  and  alone;  the  world  and  himself 
in  mortal  form  are  the  production  of  his 
Maya,  his  deceptive  magic  ;  he  alone  is  real, 
and  those  who  are  conscious  of  unity  with 
him  have  peace  and  safety.  In  less,  purity 
this  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Vishnuite  Upani- 
shads. It  is  the  docti-ine  of  ^ankara,  the 
great  champion  of  the  orthodox  Advaita  ;  of 
the  Tamil  songs  of  Tiruvalluvar  and  Auvai- 
yai-,  the  Bhagavata  Purana,  and  is  found  ia 
much  of  the  popular  poetry,  as  in  Bengal  in 
the  Kirtans  of  the  Caitanyas,  among  the 
Mahrattas  in  the  sangs  of  Tukarama  and  in 
the  Punjab  in  the  Adigranth  of  the  Sikhs. 
The  tenet  was,  however,  variously  modified. 
The  Pancaratras,  or  Bhagavatas,  regarded  the 
world  and  the  soul,  the  jlva,  as  emana- 
tions from  the  Supreme  Being,  destined  to  be 


INDIA 


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INDIA 


reabsorbed,  and  meanwhile  real  and  distinct 
from  God.  In  the  12th  century  KamSnuja, 
a  Brahman  of  Madras,  arguing  against  the 
absolute  non-duality  of  ^'ankara,  maintained 
the  separate  but  liuite  reality  of  individual 
beings  and  rejected  the  theory  of  Maya.  To 
his  followers  Kama  represents  the  Supreme 
Being.  Their  branches  are  very  numerous  in 
the  South.  In  the  14th  century  Kamananda, 
one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  sect,  settled  in  (Jude 
and  at  Benares.  His  followers,  the  Kania- 
naudls,  differ  only  in  their  practices.  The  au- 
thor of  the  Hindi  Ramayana,  Tulasldasa,  who 
lived  in  the  16th  century,  was  a  Kamanandi. 
Ilamanuja  broke  with  caste,  but  kept  to  the 
Sanskrit  as  the  sacred  language  and  valued 
highly  religious  practices  and  legal  purity. 
Ramananda  adopted  the  vulgar  dialects  and 
taught  the  vanity  of  external  observances. 

At  nearly  the  same  time  as  Ramanuja,  Anan- 
datlrtha,  of  KalySna  on  the  Malabar  coast, 
taught  that  matter,  individual  souls,  and  God 
are  irreducible  and  eternally  distinct  sub- 
stances. The  members  of  the  congregation,  the 
Mildhvas,  called  from  a  surname  of  Anandatlr- 
tha,  are  Brahmans,  Anandatlrtha  having  been  a 
strict  observer  of  caste,  but  the  doctrine  of 
Dvaita,  or  duality,  is  spread  among  the  masses 
and  extolled  in  the  songs  of  the  Dasas,  of 
whom  many  are  of  low  caste.  9^^'"^isrn 
adopted  mainly  the  formulae  of  the  deistic 
Sankhya.  The  soul  is  distinguished  both 
from  rnatter  and  from  God.  Matter,  the 
prakriti,  is  the  eternal,  blind  medium  in 
winch  the  ]\Ia\  a  and  the  modes  of  the  divine 
energy  work,  and  in  connection  with  which 
the  soul  suffers  the  consecjuences  of  its  acts. 
Union  to  matter  is  the  separation  of  the  soul 
from  God.  All  efforts  must  be  directed  to 
breaking  this  bond.  God,  9'^'*.  is  a  pure 
spirit,  but  to  be  perceptible  and  conceivable 
assumes  a  body  composed  not  of  matter  but 
force.  He  is  the  etficient  and  absolute  cause 
of  things,  the  omnipotent  also,  but  leaves  to 
the  soul  a  certain  freedom.  The  problem  of 
liberty,  encountered  also  among  the  Vaisli- 
navas,  received  a  twofold  solution.  The 
Pa^upatas  adhered  to  predestination,  the  Cai- 
vadar9anas  left  to  man  the  initiative  in  salva- 
tion. Inferior  manifestations  of  the  deity 
were  admitted.  A  distinction  was  made  be 
tween  ^iva  and  the  modes  of  his  energy,  his 
9akfi.  This  is  the  instrumental  cause,  his 
Maya,  and  is  per.sonitied  in  his  wife  Devi  or 
MahadevI,  "the  great  goddess,"  imder  a 
thousand  names  and  a  thousand  forms.  The 
personification  of  the  ^akti  is  not  peculiar  to 
^ivaism,  but  has  found  in  ^i^'^is'i^  the  soil 
most  favorable  to  expansion,  and  has  there 
been  monstrously  distorted.  Half  of  the  ^i^a- 
ite  religions  are  marked  by  the  worship  of  an 
androgynous  or  female  divinity.  The  ^'akti 
of  these  systems  has  its  roots  in  a  sexual  dual- 
ism as  old  as  India  itself.  This  early  became 
complicated  with  horrible  or  obscene  ritual 
observances.  The  cultus  of  the  ^^ilitis  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  ordinary  homage 
paid  by  all  sects  to  the  wives  of  tiio  gods.  It 
IS  a  special  religion,  that  of  the  f'aktas,  which 
is  subdivided  into  .several  branchfs.  At  the 
summit  and  sovirce  of  things  is  ^lahadevl,  in 
whoso  character  the  Maya  and   prakriti  arc 


blended.  Below  her  are  arrayed  her  emana- 
tions. 

In  combination  with  the  male  divinities 
these  yaktis  are  the  most  outrageous  divinities 
ever  conceived.  Mahamaya,  "  the  Great  Illu- 
sion," is  invested  with  an  infinite  variety  of 
forms.  These  correspond  to  one  or  the  other 
of  her  two  aspects,  black  or  white,  benevolent 
or  cruel,  creative  or  destructive.  To  both  a 
twofold  cultus  is  addressed,  the  public  Dakshi- 
naeara,  or  "  cultus  of  the  right  hand,"  and  the 
more  or  less  secret  V^amacara,  or  "  cultus  of 
the  left  hand."  Many  of  the  strange  cere- 
monies of  the  latter  aim  at  acquiring  the  sidd- 
his,  or  supernatural  powers.  The  Yoga  phi- 
losophy is  directed  toward  the  explanation  of 
these  practices.  Human  sacrifices  have  often 
been  offered  to  these  gloomy  goddesses  Durga, 
Kali,  Candika,  and  Camunda.  This  may 
have  come  from  the  bloody  rites  of  the  ab- 
original tribes.  The  English  police  have  put 
an  end  to  human  sacrifices,  but  not  to  the  ob- 
scene observances  of  the  secret  cults  which 
are  minutely  expounded  in  the  Tanlras.  In 
Hindustan  the  great  mass  of  the  (,'ivaitcs  are 
Dakshina9aktas.  In  Bengal  the  entire  popu- 
lation takes  part  in  the  Durgapuja,  the  great 
festival  in  honor  of  their  goddess,  though  the 
stricter  Hindus  reprobate  the  public  indecen- 
cies of  the  occasion.  Another  system,  which 
is  inspired  by  the  idealism  of  the  Vedanta  and 
maintains  the  essential  unity  of  the  world, 
the  soul  and  God  is  that  of  the  Tridaudiris, 
"the  bearers  of  the  triple  baton" — that  is. 
those  who  exercise  a  threefold  sovereignty 
over  their  words,  their  thoughts,  and  their  ac- 
tions, and  carry  as  a  symbol  a  stick  with  three 
knots,  and  that  of  the  Smartas,  adherents  of 
the  Smriti  or  orthodox  tradition.  This  Ve- 
dantizing  branch  of  the  C/ivaite  theosophy  re- 
ceived its  final  form  in  Kashmir  between  the 
9th  and  11th  centuries  in  the  works  of  the 
school  of  Somananda  and  Abhinavagupta. 
Here  God  is  the  only  substance,  objects  his 
ideas,  and  as  he  is  identical  with  ourselves 
these  objects  are  really  in  us.  The  individual 
reperceives  in  itself  the  ideals  of  the  tran- 
scendental ego.  Cognition  is  a  recognition  ; 
hence  the  name  of  the  system,  Pratyabhijfia, 
"  recognition." 

There  is  a  vast  gulf  between  such  idealism 
and  such  gross  superstition  as  is  seen  in  the 
Lingayits,  though  these  appear  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  idealistic  forn\  of  ^ivaism. 
The  Jangamas.  "vagrants,"  form  their  as- 
cetic order.  Their  founder,  Basava,  was  a 
Brahman  born  in  the  west  of  the  Dtkhan  in 
the  first  half  of  the  12th  century,  and  con- 
tended against  the  orthodox,  the  Vishnuites, 
and  the  Jainas.  He  preached  ^i^'^i*™  ^'^d 
the  abolition  of  sacrifice  and  caste.  He  com- 
mitted suicide  to  escape  vengeance  for  pro- 
curing the  assassination  of  his  son-in-law, 
Bijjala,  then  king  in  the  Dekhan.  Basava's 
followers  are  dominant  in  the  Nizam's  do- 
minions and  in  Mysore,  and  are  numerous  in 
the  extreme  south,  while  itinerant  monks  are 
found  everywhere.  They  worship  (,"iva  as  a 
procreative  power. 

Aside  from  tlu;  .systems  enumerattd  there 
is  a  crowd  of  obscure  sects  composed  prin- 
cipally of   professional    devotees,   commonly 


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INDIA 


called  jogins,  "  possessors  of  the  yoga,"  who 
represent  every  grade  from  saint  to  cliarlatau. 

(^iva  has  more  sanctuaries  than  any  otlier 
god,  but  except  in  Kashmir  and  NeprU  aud  at 
Benares,  its  holy  city,  ^ivaism  has  been  losing 
ground  in  Hindustan.  To  the  north  of  the 
Vindhya  ]Mountains  the  majority  belong  to 
Vishnuite  religions.  In  the  Dekhan  the  two 
religions  are  more  equally  balanced. 

Ail  the  sects,  both  Vaishnava  and  ^aiva,  aim 
at  salvation.  To  obtain  it  they  prescribe  a 
simpler  or  more  elaborate  cultus  and  above 
it  the  jnana,  the  knowledge  of  the  mysteries 
of  God,  a  mystic  interpretation.  A  new  de- 
parture is  the  subordination  of  this  knowledge 
to  bhakti,  "devotion,  love  for  God,  faith." 
(This  doctrine  led  to  the  hypothesis  of  Chris- 
tian influence,  and  Weber  especially  has  tried 
to  demonstrate  the  dependence  of  the  legend 
of  Krishna  upon  the  story  of  Christ  for  many 
astonishing  resemblances.  Barth,  however, 
views  the  features  in  question  as  a  natural 
Hindu  development.  [See  Barth,  pp.  219- 
23.]  As  regards  the  counter-thesis  of  the  in- 
debtedness of  western  religions  to  India,  Barth 
finds  it  to  consist  only  iu'a  few  legends— the 
use  of  the  bell  at  services,  which  is  Buddhist, 
and  the  use  of  the  rosary,  which  is  ^ivaite  or 
Brahmanic.)  There  were  diiferent  degrees  of 
bhakti,  as  9anti,  "repose,  contemplative 
piety  ;"  dasatva,  "  the  slave  state,"  surrender 
of  the  whole  will  to  God  ;  sakhya,  "  friend- 
ship ;"  vatsalya,  "  filial  affection,"  and  mad- 
hurya,  "ecstatic  susceptibility."  The  doc- 
trine of  bhakti  led  to  speculations  on  grace 
and  the  divine  omnipotence  and  omnipresence 
and  discussions  strangely  like  those  of  Ar- 
minians  and  Gomarists.  It  had  also  develop- 
ments corresponding  to  many  Christian  her- 
esies ;  for  instance,  that  the  man  who  has 
once  experienced  the  effects  of  grace,  the 
bhakta,  can  sin  no  longer,  that  his  acts  are 
indifferent.  From  ascribing  surprising  re- 
sults to  a  minimum  of  intention,  they  came 
not  to  require  any  at  all.  A  single  act  of 
faith  cancels  a  life  of  iniquity.  Hence  the 
importance  of  the  last  tliought,  whence  the 
practice  of  throwing  one's  self  in  the  fire  or 
drowning  one's  self  in  a  sacred  river  while  in 
a  state  of  grace.  Another  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  Hinduism  is  the  deification  of  the  guru, 
or  founder,  which  almost  always  involves  the 
duty  of  absolute  devotion  to  the  existing 
gurus,  the  heirs  of  his  powers  through  blood 
or  consecration.  Authority  came  to  reside 
merely  in  the  word  of  the  guru. 

Owing  to  the  importance  assigned  to  bhakti, 
Vishnuism  became  at  length  an  erotic  religion, 
a  tendency  shown  in  several  Puranas,  espe- 
cially the  Bhagavata,  with  its  popular  adapta- 
tion, the  PremsSgar,  the  "Ocean  of  Love," 
and  the  lyric  drama  of  the  Bengalese  poet 
Jayadeva  in  the  12tli  century,  the  Gitagovinda, 
or  the  "Song  of  the  Shepherd,"  Govinda, 
"shepherd,"  being  an  epithet  of  Krishna. 
In  the  last  work  lewdness  of  imagination 
struggles  with  devout  frenzy.  Erotic  mysti- 
cism infects  nearly  all  branches  of  Vishnu- 
ism, but  is  seen  especially  in  the  Caitanyas 
and  the  Gokulastha  Gosains.  The  first  sect 
was  founded  by  Caitanya,  a  Brahman  vision- 
ary of  Nadiya,  in  Bengal,  in  the  16th  cen- 


tury. He  proclaimed  himself  and  is  wor- 
shipped as  an  incarnation  of  Krishna.  His 
principal  disciples  and  their  descendants,  the 
gosains,  are  all  viewed  as  having  the  same 
sacred  character.  The  Caitanyas  revere  espe- 
cially the  sanctuary  of  Jagannatha,  in  Orissa, 
and  those  of  Mathura,"the  birthplace  of 
Krishna.  The  essential  act  of  their  worship 
is  the  kirtan,  "glorification,"  consisting  of 
litanies  and  dancing,  sometimes  followed  by 
a  kind  of  love-feast.  Vallabhacarya,  a  Brali- 
man  of  Camparan,  on  the  borders  of  Nepal, 
who  lived  likewise  in  the  16th  century, 
founded  the  Gokulastha  Gosains,  or  "Saints 
of  Gokula."  After  long  travels  he  settled  at 
Gokula,  on  the  Jumna,  whence  the  name. 
He  had  48  disciples.  His  followers  are  mott 
numerous  in  Hindustan  and  Bombay.  Half 
the  rich  merchants  of  Bombay  belong  to  this, 
sect.  Its  gosains,  or  doctors,  are  often  them- 
selves merchants.  Vallabhacarya  taught  that 
to  renounce  well-being  was  to  insult  the  deity, 
and  that  worship  should  be  celebrated  with 
expressions  of  joy.  Like  the  Caitanyas,  his 
sect  worships  the  Shepherd  of  Vrindavan. 
They  represent  him  as  a  child.  The  worship 
is  extremely  licentious.  No  sect  has  carried 
the  worship  of  the  guru  so  far.  All  the  de- 
scendants of  the  founder  receive  homage  as 
gods.  In  1861  there  were  about  70  of  these 
men-gods  in  Bombay.  These  sects  are  again 
subdivided  into  many  smaller  ones,  some  of 
them  reformatory. 

The  most  perfect  representative  of  the  re- 
forming movement  was  Kabir.  So  little  is 
known  of  him  that  Wilson  has  doubted  his 
existence,  but  he  is  believed  to  have  been  born 
of  the  weaver  caste  in  Benares  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  15th  century.  He  left  no  writ- 
ings, but  those  in  Hindi  ascribed  to  his  dis- 
ciples give  his  teachings.  He  rejected  the 
^astras  and  Puranas,  condemned  the  arrogance 
and  hypocrisy  of  the  Brahmans,  and  every 
malevolent  distinction  of  cast  and  sect— all 
who  love  God  are  brothers.  He  rejects  all 
idolatry— the  temple  should  be  only  a  house 
of  prayer.  He  tolerates  no  too  demonstrative 
worship  nor  singularities  of  costume  and 
recommends  conformity  in  indifferent  mat- 
ters. He  demands  renunciation,  a  contem- 
plative life,  but  above  all  moral  puritj'.  All 
authority  in  faith  and  morals  belongs  to  the 
guru,  but  a  reservation  is  made  of  the  rights 
of  conscience  of  the  believer.  This  system, 
as  a  whole,  recalls  Moslem  quietism.  The 
Mohammedans  claim  Kablr  as  one  of  them. 
Many  Hindus  represent  him  as  a  converted 
Mussulman.  Kablr's  aim  was  to  found  a  re- 
ligion that  should  unite  Hindu  and  Mussul- 
man, but  he  had  slight  knowledge  of  Mussul- 
man theology  ;  and  though  professing  mono- 
theism admitted,  or  his  followers  admitted, 
most  of  the  personifications  of  Hinduism. 
The  Kablrpanthis  have  their  centre  at  Benares, 
but  are  found  in  Bengal,  Central  India,  and 
Gujarat.  The  infiuence  of  Kablr  is  recog- 
nized by  many  reforming  sects,  and  is  seen  in 
all  ;  but  the  most  remarkable  of  the  sects  more 
or  less  connected  with  Kablr  is  that  of  the 
Sikhs  or  "disciples."  This  took  shape  as  a 
national  religion,  or  gave  birth  to  a  nation. 
Nanak,  the  founder,  was  born  in  1469  in  tho 


INDIA 


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INDIA 


Punjali,  near  Lahore,  ia  the  commercial  caste 
of  tlie  Khalris.  In  his  wanderings  he  possibly 
became  acquainted  with  the  disciples  of  Kabir. 
He  sought  to  found,  Hke  Kablr,  a  unitary  re- 
ligion, based  on  monotheism  and  moral  purity. 
A  Hindu  at  bottom,  tliough  rejecting  the 
Vedas,  ^'astras,  and  Puianas,  as  well  as  the 
Koran,  he  retained  most  of  the  samskaras,  or 
private  ceremonies,  wiiich  were  abolislicd 
much  later.  He  tolerated  caste  as  a  civil  in- 
stitution. The  Bible  of  the  Sikhs  is  the  Adi- 
granth  (translated  by  Trumpp,  1877).  This 
proves  the  profound  influence  of  Islam,  but 
breathes  the  mystic  pantlieism  of  the  Vedanta 
re-enforced  by"  the  doctrines  of  bhakli  and  of 
absolute  devotion  to  the  guru.  Though  there 
is  in  it  at  times  a  sort  of  return  to  the  Hindu 
deities,  the  Siklis  practically  came  to  worship 
one  God.  Their  religion  is  deism  tinctured 
with  superstition.  From  the  j\iohammedans 
the  Sikhs  borrowed  their  military  fanaticism 
and  the  dogma  of  the  holy  war.  The  Adi- 
granth,  "  the  fundamental  book,"  was  com- 
piled by  Xanak's  fiftli  successor,  Guru  Arjun 
(1584-1606).  It  contains  poetical  pieces  of 
Nanak,  the  next  three  gurus,  and  Arjun,  with 
sentences  and  fragments  of  liamananda, 
Kablr,  IS'amdiSv,  and  others.  The  tenth  and 
last  guru,  Govind,  made  some  additions  (1675- 
1708)  and  composed  a  second  Granth,  "  The 
Granth  of  the  Tenth  Kcign."  The  language 
is  an  ancient  Punjabi,  called  Gurmukhl,  "  that 
which  comes  from  the  moutli  of  the  guru." 
There  are  aside  from  the  Granths  biographies 
of  the  gurus  and  saints  and  some  directions 
as  to  ritual  and  discipline. 

For  a  century  the  Sikhs  were  a  purely  re- 
ligious community  composed  of  industrious 
husbandmen  or  merchants.  Recruiting  from 
Mussulman  and  Hindu  and  forbidding  infan- 
ticide, they  became  numerous.  The  authority 
of  the  gum  was  absolute.  Transmitted  as  far 
as  the  tifth  guru  by  consecration.  Guru  Arjun 
made  it  hereditary.  He  assumed  the  marks 
of  royalty  and  began  to  play  a  political  part. 
He  prayed  for  Khusro,  tlie  rebel  son  of  the 
Emperor  Jahangir,  and  died  in  prison  at 
Lahore  in  the  same  year  (1606).  The  Sikhs 
now  rapitlly  became  a  military  theocracy,  with 
a  fanatical  soldiery  drawn  from  the  Jats. 
Struggling  with  Aurangzeb,  Teg  Bahadur 
was  beheaded  at  Delhi  in  1675.  His  son, 
Govind  Singh,  surrounded  the  sect  with  regu- 
lations wliieh  made  it  a  people  by  itself  de- 
voted to  triumph  or  extermination.  His  pon- 
tificate was  a  .succession  of  battles.  Social 
inetiuality  was  abolished.  Every  member  of 
the  Khal.^a,  "  the  portion"  (of  God),  received 
the  surname  of  Singh,  in  Sanskrit  sinha, 
"lion."  Costume  was  uniform.  Though 
Govind  even  went  so  far  as  to  sacrifice  a  fol- 
lower to  Durga,  every  usage  of  Hinduism 
was  proscribed  save  the  respect  paid  to  cows. 
No  connection  was  to  be  tolerated  with  the 
unbeliever,  one  not  admitted  to  the  Khalsa  by 
having  live  of  the  initiated  drink  witii  him 
the  sherbet  of  the  Pahul.  A  Sikh  could  not 
return  the  .salutation  of  a  Hindu.  He  was 
bound  to  kill  a  ^Inssulman  at  the  moment  of 
meeting  him.  The  lioly  war  wns  Iiis  perma- 
nent occupation.  The  Sikh  soldier  addressed 
his  prayer  to  his   sword,   wliich   became  a 


sort  of  fetish.  In  the  struggle  against 
the  Moguls  Govind  Singh  after  80  j'ears 
succumbed.  Accepting  a  command  in  the 
imperial  armies,  he  fell  by  an  Afghan  assassin 
in  1708.  He  appointed  no  successor,  abolish- 
ing the  dignity  and  declaring  tlie  Granth  to 
be  the  future  guru.  After  his  death  an  as- 
cetic named  Banda  directed  the  Khalsa.  After 
three  fearful  irruptions  into  the  lower  country 
the  Sikhs  were  nearly  anniliilated  by  the  gen- 
erals of  Farokhshlr.  Banda  was  captured 
and  sent  to  Delhi.  Seven  consecutive  days 
he  was  compelled  to  witness  the  torture  of  740 
companions,  of  whom  no  one  winced,  and  the 
butchery  of  ]ii|  own  son,  when  he  was  him- 
self tortured  to  death  by  rcd-liot  pincers, 
meanwhile  praising  God  for  choosing  him  to 
be  the  instrument  of  his  vengeance  upon  the 
wicked.  After  his  death,  in  1716,  the  Akalls, 
"the  faithful  of  the  eternal,"  set  themselves 
up  as  the  defenders  of  orthodoxy  and  the 
guardians  of  the  sanctuary  of  Amritsar,  where 
the  Granth  of  Guru  Arjun  was  kept.  The 
Gurmata,  "  Council  of  the  Guru,"  held  su- 
preme, temporal,  and  spiritual  authority,  and 
prevented  new  divisions,  thus  ending  the  re- 
ligious history  of  the  Sikhs.  Their  political 
history  continues  until  1848,  when,  after  a 
violent  struggle,  the  English  armies  annexed 
the  Punjab.  They  now  supply  an  admirable 
contingent  to  the  Anglo-Indian  army,  and  their 
fanaticism  has  almost  entirely  ceased.  (On 
the  Sikhs  see  The  Adi-Granth,  or  the  Holy 
Scriptures  of  the  Sikhs,  translated  from  the 
original,  Gurmukhl,  with  introductory  essays 
by  E.  Trumpp,  London,  1877,  4to.) 

Tlie  sects  enumerated  are  by  no  means  all 
that  have  sprung  up.  New  religious  bodies 
are  continually  forming  around  pretended  in- 
carnations, the  forms  of  worship  are  even 
more  diversified  tlian  tlie  systems  of  doctrine. 
The  neo-Bralimanic  religions  are  essentially 
idolatrous.  Sacred  symbols  also  play  a  great 
part  Sacred  plants,  trees,  and  animals  receive 
worship.  There  are  many  private  religious 
observances  and  mystic  formulae  and  litanies, 
great  festivals  and  places  of  pilgrimage. 
Benares  is  the  holy  city,  the  Jerusalem  of  all 
the  sects,  ancient  and  modern.  It  has  2000 
sanctuaries  and  500,000  idols,  and  is  visited  by 
thousands  of  pilgrims.  (On  Benares  see  A. 
Slierring,  The  Sacred  City  of  the  Hindus;  an 
Account  of  Benares,  Ancient  and  Modern,  Lon- 
don, 1868  ;  on  the  festivals,  Monier  Will- 
iams, Hinduism,  p.  181  ;  on  the  centres  of 
pilgrimage,  the  same  Avork,  p.  177  ;  on  Jagan- 
natli  in  particular,  Barth,  lieligions  of  India, 
p.  281  ;  Hunter's  Orissa,  London,  1870-72, 
2  vols.  ;  Bajendralala  ^litra,  Tlte  Antiquities 
of  Orissa,  Calcutta,  1879-80.) 

A  complete  treatment  would  also  require  a 
discussion  of  the  religions  of  the  al)original 
and  dravidian  peoples.  The  ^lohammedans, 
Parsees,  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  and  mod- 
ern Christian  missions  are  treated  under 
other  heads.  On  the  northern  and  eastern 
frontier,  among  the  Vindhyas,  in  the  most 
inhospitable  regions  of  the  Dekhan,  in  the 
recesses  of  the  Ghats  and  Nilglurrios,  are 
tribes  connected  with  Thibetan  or  Dravidian 
races,  who  liave  remained  distinct  and  liave 
preserved  their  national  customs  and  religious. 


( 


INDIANS 


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INDIANS 


Tliey  have  no  literature,  and  the  accounts  of 
observers  are  still  very  incomplete.  The 
greater  Dravidian  peoples  have  adopted  lliu- 
duisrn,  but  the  tribes  that  have  remained  dis- 
tinct, so  far  as  they  retain  primitive  usages, 
worship  divinities  representing  the  elementary 
powers  and  the  earth,  mostly  female  and 
malignant,  ghosts  and  evil  spirits,  which  they 
appease  by  bloody  sacrifices  and  orgiastic  rites 
like  those  of  the  Shamans  of  Nortliern  Asia. 

The  remarkable  reform  movement  of  the 
Brahmo-somaj  has  already  been  mentioned. 
(See  Brahmosomaj.) 

(On  the  general  subject  of  the  Indian  re- 
ligions, see  A.  Barth,  Religions  of  India,  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1882  [of  wfiose  work  this 
article  is  largely  an  abridgment]  ;  the  works 
of  H.  H.  Wilson,  12  vols.,  London,  1862-71, 
especially  vols.  i.  and  ii.  ;  Monier  Williams, 
Hinduism  [London,  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge].)        W.  R.  Martin. 

Indians  was  the  name  given  by  Columbus 
to  the  native  race  of  America,  and  tliough  it 
originated  from  a  mistake,  it  has  been  re- 
tained. Without  entering  upon  any  charac- 
terization of  that  race,  historically  or  other- 
wise, a  rapid  survey  shall  here  be  given  of  its 
relation  to  Cliristiauity  throughout  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  tlie  continent. 

I.  The  Dominion  of  Canada  contains  110,- 
505  Indians  (188^),  occupying  various  stages 
of  civilization  in  the  various  provinces,  often 
even  in  tlie  same  province.  In  Quebec  they 
number  11,071,  and  are  Roman  Catholic,  with 
a  sprinkling  of  Wesleyans.  At  Oka,  in  the 
county  of  Two  Mountains,  near  Montreal, 
547  Iroquoi.-!  were  settled  as  agriculturists,  and 
they  prospered.  But  they  were  to  such  a  de- 
gree annoyed  by  the  land-grabbing  propensi- 
ties of  the  Jesuits,  that  in  1869  they  left  the 
Roman  Church  in  a  body  and  became  Wes- 
leyans. They  built  a  church,  which,  of 
course,  was  destroyed  in  1875  by  the  French 
Catholics,  and  rebuilt  in  1876  by  the  English 
Protsstants.  Their  own  chief  has  translated 
the  New  Testament  for  them.  In  Ontario 
16,000  Indians  are  settled  on  the  reserves. 
Some  of  them  are  heathens,  some  Roman 
Catholics,  but  the  Methodists,  Anglicans, 
Presbyterians,  etc.,  have  very  successful  mis- 
sions among  them.  The  Methodists  alone 
have  4383  Indian  communicants.  In  New 
Brunswick  there  are  1433  Indians,  and  in 
New  Scotland  2200,  mostly  Micmacs  and  Ro- 
man Catholics.  Of  the  40,000  Indians  in 
Manitoba,  about  one  half  are  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Christianity.  The  Anglican  Churcli 
has  established  6  episcopal  sees  here  :  Win- 
nipeg, Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan,  Moosoonee, 
Athabasca,  and  Mackenzie,  and  the  Method- 
ists have  several  flourishing  stations  :  Nor- 
way House,  Edmonton,  etc.  Among  the 
35,000  Indians  in  British  Columbia  the  Angli- 
can Church  maintains  3  episcopal  sees — Cale- 
donia, Columbia,  and  New  Westminster — and 
there  are  several  Methodist  stations. 

II.  The  United  States  of  North  America 
contains  265,000  Indinns,  of  whom  100,000 
are  Christians,  140,000  are  dressed,  and  66,407 
are  settled  as  citizens,  paving  taxes  and  send- 
ing 7000  children  to  the  "public  schools.     The 


first  society  for  missions  to  the  Indians  was 
formed  in  Boston,  1787.  In  1817  the  Ameri- 
can Board  and  the  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
took  up  the  work,  in  1819  the  Methodists,  in 
1833  the  Presbyterians,  etc.  After  the  re- 
moval in  1838  of  the  Indians  beyond  the  Mis- 
sissippi, which  proved  a  great  disturbance  to 
the  missionary  work  so  well  begun,  the  two 
largest  bodies  of  Indians  in  the  United  States 
are  found  in  the  Indian  Territory  and  in 
California.  In  the  Indian  Territory  there 
live  63,000  "  civilized"  and  24,000  "  savage" 
Indians,  belonging  to  the  Five  Nations : 
Cherokees,  Choctaws.  Creeks,  Chickasaws, 
and  Seminoles,  or  remnants  of  Quapaws, 
Modocs,  Wiandottes,  Pawnees,  etc.  Among 
the  Cherokees  the  Baptists  have  6000  mem- 
bers, 45  churches,  2  high  schools,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament.  Among  the 
Seminoles  the  Baptists  and  tiie  Presbyterians 
have  3000  members,  who  contribute  $2500  a 
year  to  the  maintenance  of  a  high  school. 
"in  1869  President  Grant  left  the  appointment 
of  Indian  agents  to  the  missionary  societies 
and  church  corporations  among  them,  but  in 
1880  this  was  changed.  The  Indians  of  Cali- 
fornia, numbering  about  35,000,  are  divided 
into  13  different  nations,  with  13  different  lan- 
guages. Franciscan  missionaries  worked  at 
one  time  among  them,  but  with  indifferent 
success.  Since  1873  the  Metliodists,  the 
United  Presbyterians,  and  the  Quakers  have 
taken  care  of  "them. 

III.  Central  America  and  Mexico  present  a 
somewhat  different  aspect.  Two  decades 
after  the  landing  of  the  Spaniards,  in  1492, 
the  aboriginal  population  of  the  West  Indian 
Islands  was  so  utterly  used  up  or  so  nearly 
destroyed,  that  Charles  V.,  in  1517,  saw  fit  to 
sanction  an  annual  importation  of  4000  ne- 
groes from  Africa,  and  now  almost  every 
trace  of  Indian  blood  has  disappeared.  On 
the  continent,  in  Guatemala,  San  Salvador, 
Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  the 
main  bulk  of  the  population  consists  of  Ind- 
ians and  half-breeds.  The  former  are  often 
savages,  the  latter  always  Roman  Catholics. 
The  only  evangelical  church  in  the  whole  re- 
gion stands  at  San  Jose,  Costa  Rica.  An  ag- 
gressive evangelical  mission  has,  however, 
been  begun  among  the  Indians  :  on  the  Mos- 
quito Coast  by  the  Moravian  Brethren,  who 
have  flourishing  stations  at  Bluefields,  Rama, 
Bethania  (Tasbapuui),  Magdula,  etc.,  and 
have  translated  parts  of  the  Bible  into  Mos- 
quito ;  and  in  British  Honduras  by  the  Wes- 
lej-ans  and  other  denominations,  which  have 
their  stations  at  Belize.  A  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Maya  has  been  begun  by  the  Bap- 
tist, Kelly,  and  the  Methodist,  Fletcher. 

In  Mexico  the  chief  stock  of  the  population 
is  also  composed  of  lialf  savage  Indians  and 
Roman  Catholic  half-breeds.  For  centuries 
the  Jesuits  have  domineered  over  the  church 
in  jMexico,  and  rigidly  excluded  an}^  and 
every  evangelical  influence.  But  President 
Juarez,  himself  an  Indian,  expelled  them 
from  the  country,  established  freedom  of  re- 
ligion, and  laid  "the  first  foundation  to  a  sys- 
tem of  popular  education  ;  and  during  the  last 
two  decades  14  different  mission  societies  in  the 
United  States,  such  as  the  American  Board, 


INDIOTION 


(411) 


INFALLIBILITY 


the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  Iho  Presbyte- 
rian South,  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians, 
the  Baptists,  the  Quakers,  have  formed  264 
evangelical  congregations  in  the  country, 
with  99  ordained  ministers,  11  printing- 
presses,  13  periodicals,  and  16,500  church 
members.  How  far  this  is  a  mission  to  the 
Indians  and  how  far  it  is  a  mission  to  the 
Iloman  Catholics,  it  would  perhaps  be  impos- 
sible to  ascertain. 

IV.  In  South  America  the  aboriginal  Ind- 
ian population  is  still  larger  than  in  Central 
America.  In  Brazil  alone  there  live  more 
than  one  million  savage  Indians,  and  in  all 
the  Spanish  states  the  Indian  element  has  in- 
creased very  considerably  since  tlie  war  of 
independence,  1809-24,  and  proved  a  most 
valuable,  if  not  a  very  easy,  material  for  civ- 
ilization. As  a  significant  trait,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  in  two  cases  have  Indian  lan- 
guages— the  Guarani,  in  Paraguay,  and  the 
Chetjua,  in  Peru— been  very  widely  adopted 
also  by  the  white  men  as  a  means  of  com- 
munication. The  Christianization  of  these 
peoples  was  performed  chietly  by  the  Jesuits, 
but  in  a  very  superlicial  way.  An  active 
evangelical  mission  is  carried  on  in  Guiana, 
and  has  also  been  started  in  Patagonia. 

In  Dutch  Guiana  the  Moravinn  Brethren 
have  won  one  of  their  greatest  victories.  In 
those  unhealthy,  wood-covered,  fever-stricken 
swamps  the  Indians  could  be  approached 
only  by  canoe.  At  Bambey,  on  the  upper 
Surinam,  9  missionaries  were  buried  in  rapid 
succession.  Still,  in  1859,  the  station  of 
Paramaribo  had  charge  of  27,000  souls.  Ind- 
ians and  negroes.  In  British  Guiana, 
which  in  1881  comprised  79,900  Indians,  the 
missionary  work  is  done  by  English  soci- 
eties—the S.  P.  G.,  the  Wesleyans,  etc.  A 
just  idea  of  the  character  of  the  population  in 
this  country  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact, 
that  though  there  are  in  all  only  254,000  in- 
habitants, there  immigrated,  from  1835  to 
1866,  or  were  imported.  55,795  Hindoos, 
12,631  Chinese,  13,355  negroes  from  Africa, 
27.076  Portuguese  froni  Madeira,  20,533 
white-black-yellow-red  persons  fr.->m  the 
AVest  Indies,  etc.,  and  these  have  to  be  taken 
care  of,  each  in  his  own  language  and  in  his 
own  way,  by  the  societies.  Among  the  Ind- 
ians, liowever,  the  work  is  generally  started 
by  an  independent  missionary. 

At  the  southern  extremity  of  America  inde- 
pendent missionaries  have  formed  a  Christian 
village  of  330  Jahgans  on  the  main  island  of 
Terra  del  Fuego,  and  starting  points  have 
also  been  fixed  in  Patagonia,  at  Carmen,  and 
Patagones,  and  at  Lota,  in  Southern  Chili. 

C.  P. 

Indiction  is  a  method  of  noting  time, 
which  came  in  general  use  throughout  the 
Koman  Empire  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th 
century,  and  originated  from  the  system  of 
taxation  established  by  Constantine  the  Great. 
He  ordered  that  for  fiscal  purposes  a  valua- 
tion of  property  should  be  made  every  15th 
year,  the  year  beginning  on  Sept.  1,  and  that 
the  a.«sessment  should  be  fixed  according  to 
that  valuation  for  the  next  15  years.  Thus 
was  formed  a  cycle  in  which  it  was  very  easy 


to  distinguish  each  single  year  by  its  number, 
and  as  the  cycle  revolved  regularly,  a  con- 
venient method  of  noting  time  in  general  was 
obtained  by  adding  the  numt)er  of  the  cycle, 
beginning  from  Sept.  1,  312,  the  year  in 
which  Constantine,  after  the  defeat  of  Max- 
entius,  came  in  undisputed  possession  of  the 
whole  empire.  When  the  revolution  became 
uncertain  on  account  of  the  disturbed  state 
of  the  empire,  the  indiction  became,  of  course, 
useless,  but  there  are  traces  of  it  even  so  far 
down  as  the  9th  century.  The  Eastern  cus- 
tom of  placing  New  Year's  Day  on  Sept.  1 
originated  from  this  method  of  reckoning 
time. 

Induction  is  the  ceremony  by  which,  in  the 
Anglican  Church,  the  temporalities  of  a  bene- 
fice is  conferred  upon  the  clergyman  ap- 
pointed. It  is  generally  performed  by  the 
deacon,  who  leads  the  appointed  minister  to 
the  door  of  the  parish  church,  reads  the  epis- 
copal mandate,  and  gives  him  the  key,  after 
which  the  minister  opens  the  door  and  signi- 
fies his  taking  possession  of  the  church  by 
tolling  a  bell. 

Indulgences  (Latin,  indiilfjcntia).  The  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  does  not  pretend  to  pos- 
sess any  power  with  respect  to  the  natural 
consequences  of  sin,  such  as  disease,  infamv, 
etc.,  but  she  does  claim  that,  with  respect  to 
those  punishments  which  God  inflicts  on  sin- 
ners, either  in  this  M'orld  or  in  purgatory,  ab- 
solute jurisdiction  has  been  conferred  upon 
her  through  Peter  by  Christ  with  the  power 
of  the  keys  ;  and  on  basis  of  this  claim  she 
grants  complete  or  partial,  general  or  particu- 
lar, indulgences.  The  theology  of  this  doc- 
trine, with  its  opera  operata  and  thesanrus 
operum  supcrerogationis,  is  as  crude  as  it  is 
fantastic,  and  when  it  seduced  the  pope  to 
set  up  a  shop  and  actually  sell  indulgences, 
people  were  scandalized  beyond  measure,  and 
the  Reformation  began.  Still,  the  Council  of 
Trent,  sess.  25,  anathematized  all  opposition 
to  that  theology.  (See  Decreta  aiithentica 
.  .  .  .  1668-1882',  edited  by  the  order  of  L(o 
XIIL,  Rome,  1883;  P.  A.  3Iaurcl,  Die  Ab- 
Idsse,  Paderborn,  1862,  8th  ed.,  1884.) 

C.  P. 

Infallibility.  This  doctrine  of  the  Roman 
Churcli,  first  defined  by  the  Vatican  Council 
in  1870,  had  been  held  in  a  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct form  from  the  earliest  times,  but  with 
no  general  agreement  upon  the  nature  or  or- 
gan of  infallibility.  The  Roman  ideal  of  the 
church  naturally  tends  in  the  direction  of  the 
doctrine.  The  church  is  identified  with  the 
visible  church,  which  is  the  agent  which 
brings  the  soul  to  God  and  salvation.  "When 
it  teaches,  it  must  therefore  teach  the  infalli- 
ble truth,  or,  since  there  is  nothing  else  upon 
which  the  soul  can  rely,  no  inner  communion 
with  God  apart  from  the  church,  there  will 
be  no  possibility  of  certainty  as  to  salvation, 
and  men  will  be  as  though  they  had  no  re\  e- 
lation  and  salvation  whatever.  Yet  with  this 
dogmatic  tendency  was  early  joined  the  in- 
fluence of  certain  facts  which  assisted  the  de- 
velopment of  the  idea  of  iiifallihility.  The 
first  general  councils  gradually  attained  the 
character  of  infallibility  by  the  natural  proc- 


INFANT 


(412) 


INFANT 


ess  by  which  the  ancient  was  and  still  is  re- 
vered, as  such.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  doc- 
trine of  infallibility  was  sometimes  reduced 
to  the  form  that  the  church  can  never  be 
without  the  truth,  though  it  exist  only  in  the 
mind  of  a  single  person.  During  the  papal 
schism  (1378-1409)  the  doctrine  was  broached, 
under  the  lead  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
that  a  general  council  cannot  err,  and  is  the 
ri<2;htful  judge  of  popes.  The  Council  of 
Trent,  though  not  claimin^^  infallibility,  acted 
upon  the  assumption  that  it  possessed  it. 

The  Vatican  Council  made  the  pope  the 
organ  of  the  church's  infallibility,  and  de- 
fined the  doctrine  in  the  following  words  : 
"  We  teach  and  define  that  it  is  a  dogma  di- 
vinely revealed  :  that  the  Roman  pontiff, 
when  he  speaks  e.v  cathedra — that  is,  when  in 
discharge  of  the  office  of  pastor  and  doctor 
of  all  Christians,  by  virtue  of  his  supreme, 
apostolic  authority,  he  defines  a  doctrine  re- 
garding faith  or  morals  to  be  held  by  the  uni- 
versal church,  by  the  divine  assistance  prom- 
ised to  him  in  blessed  Peter,  is  possessed  of 
that  infallibility  with  which  the  divine  Re- 
deemer willed  that  his  church  should  be  en- 
dowed for  defining  doctrine  regarding  faith 
or  morals  ;  and  that,  therefore,  such  defini- 
tions of  the  Roman  pontiff  are  irreformable 
of  themselves  and  not  from  the  consent  of 
the  church."  According  to  Heiurich,  pro- 
fessor in  the  Archiepiscopal  Seminary  in 
Mainz  {Dogmatik,  ii.,  246  ff.),  the  following 
points  must  be  carefully  noted  :  (1)  The  de- 
cision must  affect  faith  or  morals.  Discipli- 
nary regulations  do  not  come  under  this  head. 
(2)  It  must  be  a  decision,  and  not  a  mere  tem- 
porary regulation.  (3)  It  must  be  ex  cathedra, 
which  involves  the  following  points  :  («)  It 
must  be  the  purpose  of  the  pope  to  issue  such 
a  decision,  {b)  He  must  act,  in  virtue  of  his 
official  character,  as  highest  teacher  of  the 
church.  (c)He  must  purpose  to  litter  a  doc- 
trine which  is  to  bind  the  church  as  an  un- 
changeable law.  (d)  He  must  do  this  in  per- 
fect freedom.  But  (4)  it  is  not  necessary  that 
any  particular  form  should  be  followed. 
Everything  depends  upon  the  will  of  the 
pope.  (See  Hase,  Handbuch  der  protestant- 
ischen  Polemik  gegen  die  Rdmisch-Katholisclie 
Kirche,  Leipzig,  4th  ed.,  1878;  and  the  dis- 
cussions of  Hefele  and  DoUinger  before  and 
after  the  Vatican  Council,  for  whose  Dogma- 
tic Decree  "  Concerning  the  Infallible  Teach- 
ing of  the  Roman  Pontiff,"  see  Schaff,  Creeds 
ii.,  266-271.)  F.  H.  F. 

Infant  Oommunion,  the  administering  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  to  infants.  The  custom 
has  been  traced  back  as  far  as  Cyprian  in  the 
3d  century,  and  seems  from  that  time  to  have 
become  well-nigh  universal.  Augustine  con- 
sidered the  sacrament  generally  necessary  to 
the  salvation  of  infants.  The  Council  of 
Trent,  while  not  condemning  the  practice  of 
the  ancient  church,  yet  held  that  it  was  not  of 
obligation,  and  so  it  has  died  out  of  the  Ro- 
man Church.  It  is  still  in  use  in  the  Greek 
Church,  and  among  the  Nestorians,  Jacobites, 
Armenians,  and  Maronites.  All  Protestants 
disown  it,  because  it  is  without  scripture 
authority,   and  infants  are  not    able  to  ex- 


amine themselves  and  so  discern  the   Lord's 
body.  T.  W.  C. 

Infant  Membership.  All  Psedobaptists 
consider  that  the  children  of  believers  are  by 
their  birth  members  of  the  church,  a  fact  of 
which  baptism  is  the  formal  recognition  (see 
Subjects  of  Baptism,  p.  73).  They  rest  this 
view-  upon  the  oneness  of  the  church  in  the 
Old  Dispensation  and  the  New,  the  scripture 
idea  of  the  family,  and  the  blessed  results 
that  follow  when  the  relation  is  properly  re- 
garded. Baptists,  on  the  contrary,  maintain 
that  the  church  consists  only  of  believers. 
T.  W.  C. 

Infant  Regeneration.  The  possibility  of 
this  is  denied  by  none  but  a  few  sectaries,  and 
is  proven  by  the  case  of  John  the  Baptist,  who 
(Luke  i.  15)  was  "  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost 
from  his  mother's  womb."  The  Roman 
Church  and  some  Protestants  hold  that 
regeneration  is  wrought  whenever  baptism 
is  rightly  administered,  but  the  Reformed 
churches  in  general  consider  that,  while  this 
wondrous  change  may  take  place  in  connec- 
tion with  the  ordinance  and  should  be  ear- 
nestly prayed  for,  j-ct  it  does  not  follow  of 
necessity.  T.  W.  C. 

Infant  Salvation,  or  the  fate  of  those  who 
die  in  infancy.  The  ancient  church  from  the 
4th  century  held  that  infants  dying  unbaptized 
were  not  saved.  Augustine  taught  the  same 
thing  more  vigorously,  yet  held  that  their 
sufferings,  though  eternal,  were  yet  bearable. 
The  Roman  Church  assigned  them  a  separate 
place  in  hell  called  Urnbiis  infantum,  and 
there  was  much  dispute  whether  their  pain 
was  positive  {j)cena  sensus)  or  negative  (pana 
damni),  the  loss  of  the  vision  of  God,  a  point 
which  the  Council  of  Trent  refused  to  de- 
cide. At  present  the  prevailing  view  of  Ro- 
manists is  that  they  suffer  only  the  lack  of 
the  beatific  vision.  In  agreenient  with  this 
the  Rev.  J.  H.  Blunt,  representing  some  at 
least  of  the  Church  of  England,  said,  "It 
can  hardly  be  doubted  tha^  they  sustain  a 
loss  of  whatever  kind."  Zwingli  maintained 
that  all  Miio  died  in  infancy  were  elect,  and 
therefore  were  saved.  Calvin  and  the  Re- 
formed in  general  held  that  while  thei'e  was 
no  reason  to  doubt  the  safety  of  the  infants 
of  godly  parents,  there  was  reason  to  fear 
concerning  others.  And  this  view  prevailed 
in  New  England  in  the  17th  century,  but 
with  exceptions.  Arminians,  in  accordance 
with  their  doctrine  that  original  sin  is  not 
punishable  apart  from  actual  transgression, 
taught  the  general  salvation  of  infants.  At 
the  present  time  this  view  is  dominant  through 
the  Protestant  world,  not  on  the  ground  of 
the  innocence  of  infants  (for  if  this  were  the 
case,  why  should  they  suffer  and  die  ?),  but 
because  of  God's  gracious  election  and  Christ's 
ample  atonement.  It  is  true  that  this  is  not 
formulated  in  creeds  or  confessions,  because 
it  is  not  necessary  that  those  standards  should 
contain  anything  but  what  is  plainly  stated 
in  Scripture.  And  this  doctrine  is  not  so 
stated,  although  it  may  fairly  be  inferred 
from  several  broad  utterances,' as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  assurance  that  "  where  sin  abounded 
grace  did  much  more  abound  ' '  (Rom.  v.  20), 


INFERIOR 


(413) 


INFINITY 


or  our  Lord's  remark  in  regard  to  the  babes 
brought  for  his  blessing,  "'  Of  such  is  the 
kingdom  of  God  "  (Luke  xviii.  16).  Not  a 
few  of  those  who  hold  the  belief  very  firmly 
are  yet  persuaded  that  there  are  good  reasons 
why  a  more  explicit  statement  of  its  grounds 
was  not  made  in  the  letter  of  Scripture.  (See 
C.  P.  Kraulli,  Infant  iSalvatinn  lit,  the  Calvin- 
istic  Siisteiii,  Pliiladelphia.   1874.)  T.  W.  C. 

Inferior  Clergy,  The,  of  the  early  cliurch 
comprised  the  readers,  sub  deacons,  exorcists, 
ostiurii's,  acolytes,  singers,  etc.,  and  denoted 
an  intermediary  position  between  the  holy 
orders  of  the  bishop,  the  priest,  and  the  dea- 
con on  the  one  side,  and  the  laymen  on  the 
other.  As  church  officials  they  received 
"  orders,"  but  not  at  the  altar  nor  in  ecclesi- 
astical form,  and  only  by  the  priest.  They 
were  therefore  excluded  from  all  sacerdotal 
functions,  and  even  forbidden  to  enter  the 
sanctuary  proper  or  touch  the  sacred  vessels. 

Infidelity  is  a  general  term,  but  usually  de- 
notes the  position  of  those  who  deny  the 
claims  of  Christianity  as  a  revelation  from 
God.  The  list  of  its  advocates  is  a  long  one. 
Among  the  earliest  was  Celsus  toward  the 
end  of  the  2d  century,  of  whose  work  we 
know  only  from  Origen's  reply.  In  the  next 
century  appeared  Porphyry,  an  abler  man 
and  a  "Neo-Platonist,  who  was  answered  by 
Eus(ebius.  but  only  s(;anty  fragments  of  Por- 
phyry's work  remain.  Hierocles  (a.d.  305), 
a  Roman  proconsul,  sought  to  prove  Christ 
inferior  to  Apollonius  of'Tyana,  but  was  re- 
futed by  Eusebius.  The  Emperor  Julian 
(36"2)  wrote  against  the  Christians,  and  was 
well  answered  by  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  in 
who^e  pages  alone  arc  preserved  any  portions 
of  Julian's  treatise.  After  the  fall  of  pagan- 
ism literary  controversy  ceased  until  a  cen- 
tury after 'the  Reformation,  when  infidelity 
asserted  itself  in  the  school  of  the  English 
Deists,  from  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury 
(1581-1648)  through  Blount  (1695),  Toland 
(1696),  Lord  Shaftesburv(1711),  Collins  (1713), 
AVoolston  (1737),  JMatthew  Tindal  (1730), 
Chubb  (1736),  Morgan  (1737),  to  Lord  Boling- 
broke  (1754),  a  school  which  contained  many 
writers  of  learning  and  acumen,  whose  per- 
manent influence,  however,  was  less  in  their 
own  country  than  on  the  continent,  where 
tiieir  views  were  reproduced  in  the  form  of 
Rationalism.  Intermediate  between  these  was 
the  "  Encyclopaedism"*  of  France.  The  way 
for  this  was  prepared  by  tlie  pantheistic 
views  of  Spinoza  (163'^77)  and  the  sceptical 
notions  set  forth  by  Bayle  in  his  Dictionary 
(1697),  and  still  more  by  the  hideous  corrup- 
tions of  church  and  state,  and  the  decay  of  a 
living  piety  in  both  Romanists  and  Protes- 
tants. Voltaire,  Diderot,  Condorcet,  and 
D'Alembert  were  heads  of  the  movement, 
which  was  characterized  more  by  wit,  verbal 
dexterity  and  sarcasm  than  by  solid  logic  and 
extensive  learning.  Their  influence  was  very 
great,  and  contributed  much  to  the  French 
Revolution,  with  its  temporary  obscuration  of 
Christianity,  but  it  was  powerful  only  for  dc- 


•  So  callod  from  the  fiimoug  Encyclopidie  (1751-1765) 
of  which  Diderot  was  chief  editor. 


struction.  They  were  in  familiar  intercourse 
with  David  Hume  (1711-76),  but  the  atheism 
in  which  most  of  them  gloried  was  repulsive 
to  him,  since  he  professed  to  be  only  a  sceptic 
as  to  the  possibility  of  proving  miracles  or 
the  supernatural.  The  best  answer  to  Hume 
was  by  Campbell,  On  Mimdes  (1762).  The 
German  Rationalism,  although  largely  de- 
rived from  French  and  especially  English 
sources,  was  greatly  aided  by  the  decline  of 
Christian  life  and  faith  among  the  people,  a 
decline  which  the  Pietistic  movement  of 
Spener  and  Francke  in  the  beginning  of  the 
century  had  failed  to  arrest.  This  took  two 
forms,  one  the  critical,  which,  as  set  forth  by 
Semler,  Eichhorn,  and  Paulus,  advanced  so 
far  as  to  deny  any  special  inspiration  in  the 
sacred  books,  and  to  cast  aside  their  distinctive 
doctrines,  while  exalting  Christ  as  a  teacher 
and  example.  Even  this  remnant  was  given 
up  by  Reimarus,  whose  posthumovis  Wolfen- 
hilttel  Fragments  were  published  by  Lessing 
(1774-78).  The  other  form,  the  ethical,  is 
represented  by  Kant  and  his  followers.  The 
Konigsberg  philosopher,  by  making  the  in- 
finite and  the  absolute  mere  regulative  ideas 
not  to  be  grasped  by  the  finite,  removed  the 
incarnation  from  its  true  place,  and  left  no 
room  for  redemption  and  grace  in  the  ordi- 
nary Christian  sense  of  those  terms.  Hence 
it  was  left  for  Schleiermachcr  to  overturn 
this  mere  naturalism  and  restore  historical 
Christianity  to  its  true  place. 

In  the  present  century  the  two  great  advo- 
cates of  infidelity  have  been  Dr.  D.  F.  Strauss, 
who,  in  his  successive  writings,  gradually  ad- 
vanced from  a  respectful  rationalism  to  a 
complete  atheistic  evolutionism,  and  Ernest 
Renan,  a  learned  scholar  and  fascinating 
writer,  who  builds  his  view  of  the  universe 
upon  the  mixture  of  good  and  evil,  and  holds 
the  so-called  miracles  of  Jesus  to  have  been 
indispensable  to  his  success.  Opposers  of 
the  Scriptures  now  usually  call  themselves 
Agnostics,  and  their  chief  argument  is  the 
impossibility  of  proving  the  supernatural. 
The  great  difficulty  in  their  way  is  the  person 
and  character  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  as  set 
forth  in  the  Gospels.  His  miraculous  works 
are  so  interwoven  with  all  the  details  of  his 
life  that  they  cannot  be  separated  without 
extremest  violence,  and  even  after  this  sepa- 
ration what  remains  is  not  to  be.  accounted 
for  on  any  rationalistic  basis.  If  Jesus  has  a 
transcendent  place  in  history  and  is  the  ideal 
representative  and  guide  of  humanity,  he 
must  be  accepted  as  a  teacher  of  truth,  and  if 
so,  no  room  is  left  for  infidelity.  Helpful  in 
the  study  of  the  general  Rubject  will  be  found 
lit.  under  Deism,  to  which  add  :  Hagenbach, 
German  Rationalism,  Edinburgh,  1865  ; 
Ilurst,  Uistory  of  Rationalism,  New  York, 
1866  ;  John  Hunt,  Rdif/ious  Thovght  in  Eng- 
land, London,  1870-73,  3  vols.  ;  Leslie 
Stephen,  Historic  of  English  Thmigltt  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  1876,  2  vols..  2d  ed., 
1880  ;  Lichtenberger,  History  of  German 
Theology  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  London, 
1890.  t.  W.  C. 

Infinity  (inandfnitum,  unlimited,  or  rather 
limitless).     This  word  has  been  the  source  of 


INPRALAPSARIAN 


(414) 


INHERITANCE 


much  controversy.  Some  maintain  tliat  the 
word  is  a  name  for  a  mere  negation,  and 
therefore  we  can  have  no  knowledge  of  what 
it  means  or  contains.  Thus  Boethius  (c.  500) 
is  quoted  as  saying,  Infinitorum  nulla  cog- 
nitio  est.  Locke  held  much  tlie  same  view. 
It  was  held  also  by  John  Stuart  Mill.  And 
Sir  William  Hamilton  goes  so  far  as  to  say 
that  "  the  infinite  and  the  absolute  are  only 
the  names  for  two  counter-imbecilities  of  the 
human  mind  transmitted  into  properties  of 
the  nature  of  things — of  two  subjective  nega- 
tives converted  into  objective  negatives"  (Dis- 
cussions, p.  21).  The  gist  of  the  argument  is 
that  infinity,  as  that  which  is  free  from  all 
possible  limitation,  must  include  the  sum 
total  of  all  things,  evil  and  good ;  that  it 
cannot  be  an  object  of  knowledge,  for  to 
know  is  both  to  limit  and  to  bring  into  rela- 
tion to  one  knowing  ;  and  that  it  cannot  be  a 
person,  for  personal  consciousness  implies 
limitation  and  change.  But  to  this  it  is  an- 
swered that  the  infinity  of  God  does  not  in- 
volve his  identity  with  the  sum  of  existence, 
but  implies  simply  that  he  does  not  exist  in 
any  necessary  relation  to  finite  things  or 
beings,  and  that  whatever  limitation  of  the 
divine  nature  results  from  their  existence  is, 
on  the  part  of  God,  a  self-limitation.  And  as 
to  our  knowing  him,  as  Cudworth  says, 
"  truth  is  bigger  than  our  minds,"  and  while 
we  cannot  comprehend  the  infinite,  we  may 
and  do  apprehend  it  in  contrast  with  the 
finite.  And  as  to  God's  personality,  that  fol- 
lows from  the  recognition  of  our  own  per- 
sonality as  having  the  power  of  self-con- 
sciousness and  self-determination.  The  no- 
tion that  he  is  infinite  does  not  rise  from  an 
impotence  of  thought,  but  is  an  intuitive  con- 
viction which  constitutes  the  basis  of  all 
other  knowledge.  The  logical  bewilderment 
on  this  subject  has  been  justly  attributed  to 
the  fact  that"  philosoplicrs  have  started  from 
the  false  premiss  of  an  abstract  notional  "  in- 
finite," and  have  substituted  their  definition 
of  this  notion  in  the  place  of  the  true  Infinite 
Person  revealed  in  Scripture  and  in  conscious- 
ness as  the  first  cause  of  all  things.  When 
we  say  that  God  is  infinite  in  his  being  or 
his  knowledge  or  his  power,  we  mean  that 
liis  essence  and  its  active  properties  have  no 
limitations  that  involve  imperfections  of  any 
kind  whatsoever.  He  transcends  all  the 
limitations  of  time  and  space  ;  he  knows  all 
things  in  an  absolutely  perfect  manner. 

T.  W.  C. 

Infralapsarian,  the  same  as  suUapsarian. 
The  term  has  respect  to  the  order  of  the  di- 
vine decrees  of  election  and  reprobation  or 
praiterition— that  is,  whether  they  preceded 
or  wT-re  based  upon  the  fall  (lapsus)  of  man. 
Supralapsarians  consider  that  God  for  his 
own  glory  determined  the  destinies  of  men  at 
or  before  their  creation  ;  but  infra  or  sub- 
lapsarians  hold  that  the  Most  High  having 
decreed  to  permit  the  fall  of  man,  then,  in  the 
view  of  this  deplorable  result,  did  choose  an 
innumerable  multitude  to  be  vessels  of  mercy, 
while  he  left  others  to  the  just  punishment 
of  their  sins.  T.  W.  C. 

Infula  was,  in  classical  language,  the  name 


of  a  band  of  red  and  white  stripes  which 
adorned  the  brow  of  the  sacrificing  priest,  as 
also  that  of  the  victim.  Thence  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  head-covering  of  the  Christian 
priest,  though  it  also  seems  to  have  been  ap- 
plied to  other  ecclesiastical  vestments,  as,  for 
instance,  the  casula  or  plaulta,  the  chasuble, 
probably  because  the  latter  in  some  forms  was 
provided  with  a  hood. 

Ingham,  Benjamin,  "  the  Yorkshire  evan- 
gelist," and  founder  of  the  Inghamites  ;  b.  at 
Osset,  near  Wakefield,  in  the  West  Riding  of 
York,  June  11,  1712  ;  d.  at  Aberford,  inthe 
same  region,  in  1772.  At  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  he  was  one  of  the  "  Holy  Club"  or 
Methodists.  Ordained  in  1735,  he  went  with 
John  Wesley  to  Georgia,  and  in  1738  to  Herrn- 
hut,  both  having  joined  tlie  Moravians.  Ex- 
cluded from  church  pulpits,  he  pursued  an 
itinerant  ministry,  and  soon  had  organized 
50  societies.  In  1741  he  married  Lady  Mar- 
garet Hastings,  sister  of  the  earl  of  Hunting- 
don, and  removed  from  his  birthplace  to 
Aberford.  In  1753  he  left  the  Moravians  and 
formed  a  sect  of  his  own,  of  which  he  be- 
came overseer  or  bishop.  Members  were  ad- 
mitted by  laying  on  of  hands  ;  they  celebrated 
the  communion  and  love-feast  monthly,  and 
had  a  curious  hymn-book  of  their  own. 
Without  formally  joining  Wesley,  Ingham 
was  in  fellowship  with  him,  and  attended  his 
conference  in  1755.  In  1759  he  accepted  the 
tenets  of  Glas  and  Sandeman  ;  in  consequence 
of  this  but  13  of  his  80  societies  adhered  to 
him,  many  of  them  becoming  Dakites — a 
Scotch  sect  holding  moderate  Sandemanian 
opinions.  In  1873  six  of  the  Inghamite  soci- 
eties survived.  Ingham  was  a  man  of  consis- 
tent life  and  unflagging  zeal.  His  views  were 
set  forth  in  A  Discourse  on  the  Faith  and  Hope 
of  the  Gospel,  Leeds,  1763,  4th  ed.,  1822. 
(See  Tyerman's  Oxford  Methodists,  London, 
1873.)  F.  M.  B. 

Ingulphus,  b.  in  London  about  1030  ;  d.  at 
Crowland,  Lincolnshire.  Dec.  16,  1109  ;  be- 
came secretary  to  William  of  Normandy  in 
1051,  and  was  by  him  made  abbot  of  Crow- 
land  in  1076.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  au- 
thor of  the  Ilistoria  Monasterii  Croylandensis 
(650-1091),  but  after  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  had 
shown.  Quarterly  lievieic,  Sept.,  1826,  to 
what  extent  this  book  has  been  interpolated, 
it  lost  its  prestige  as  a  historical  document. 
It  was  continued  by  Peter  of  Blois,  and 
then  by  three  others  down  to  1486.  For 
text  see  vol.  ii.  of  Hardy's  Rev.  Brit,  medii 
o'ci  Script.  II.  (London,  1865),  Eng.  trans.,  in 
Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library,  by  H.  T.  Riley 
(London,  1854). 

Inheritance  among  the  Hebre-ws.  In 
cases  in  which  there  were  no  children,  the 
brother,  the  paternal  uncle,  or  the  nearest 
kinsman  inherited  (Num.  xxvii.  9).  If  there 
were  no  sons,  daughters  inherited,  but  other- 
wise not,  and  then  they  had  to  marry  in  their 
own  tribe  (Num.  xxvii.  1-11,  86).  Of  the 
sons  the  firstborn  received  a  double  portion 
(Deut.  xxi.  15-17),  but  the  right  of  primo- 
geniture might  be  forfeited  (Gen.  xxv.  31, 
xlviii.  17,  xlix.  3).  The  sons  of  concubines 
received  only  presents    (Gen.   xxv.   5),   and 


INIQUITY 


(415) 


INNOCENT 


those  of  harlots  nothing  (Judges  xi.  2).  As 
Jehovah  was  considered  the  true  owner  of 
the  land  of  Israel,  the  right  to  dispose  tiually 
of  property  in  real  estate  belonged  to  him  and 
not  to  the  incidental  person  who  for  the  mo- 
ment held  it.  Every  jubilee  year,  conse- 
quently, that  kind  of  property  returned  to  the 
heirs  of  the  person  to  whom  it  was  given  by 
the  original  distribution  of  the  land  among 
the  12  tribes. 

Iniquity.     See  SiN. 

Inn,  The,  of  the  Old  Testament  was  simply 
the  halting-place  of  the  caravan,  selected  be- 
cause it  offered  water  and  pasture.  Of  build- 
ings there  were  none  ;  if  the  traveller  chose 
to  stop  there  ibr  the  night,  he  had  to  unpack 
and  pitch  his  tent.  In  New  Testament  times 
khans  or  caravansaries  had  come  into  exist- 
ence, but  they  were  not  business  enterprises, 
like  the  modern  hotel  ;  they  were  erected  by 
benevolent  persons  and  offered  nothing  but 
shelter  and  water.  They  consisted  of  a  large 
square  building,  constructed  around  an  open 
courtyard  with  a  fountain  in  the  centre. 
There  was  a  host,  but  he  was  a  public  official 
rather  than  a  caterer.  In  Luke  x.  34  is  men- 
tioned an  inn,  however,  in  which  the  traveller 
could  have  food  and  other  accommodations. 


Inner  Mission.  The  name  given  in  Ger- 
many to  a  vigorous  effort  to  reach  tlie  classes 
that  have  fallen  away  from  the  Christian 
faith  and  life,  by  preacl'iing  the  gospel  and  by 
various  other  agencies  of  a  religious  or  chari- 
table kind.  The  effort  began  with  Fliedncr 
in  his  institutions  at  Kaiserswerth,  but  was 
farther  developed  by  Wichern,  who  gave  the 
name  to  the  enterprise  at  the  Kirchentng  held 
at  Wittenberg  in  1848.  Then  was  formed 
the  Central  Committee  of  the  Inner  Mission 
of  the  German  Protestant  Church.  The 
movement  met  witii  much  opposition,  but 
gradually  won  the  sympathy  of  Christians  of 
all  classes.  It  includes  schools  for  cripples, 
houses  of  refuge,  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
poor,  Sunday-schools,  young  men's  associa- 
tions, the  training  of  servants,  promotion  of 
Sunday  observance,  and  other  forms  of  Chris- 
tian work.  It  is  in  no  respect  under  state 
control,  and  all  its  enterprises  are  sustained 
by  voluntary  contribution.  It  is  not  so  much 
an  organization  as  an  impulse  working  itself 
out  in  various  channels  for  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion. There  are  in  different  parts  of  the 
land  committees  under  whose  guidance  evan- 
gelists, colporteurs,  and  other  officers  are  edu- 
cated and  trained,  but  these  committees  are 
not  dependent  upon  any  central  power.  (Sec 
Zezschwitz,  In mre  Minion,  Frankfort,  18G4  ; 
Beck,  In.  Mix.,  Augsburg,  1874.)  T.  W.  C. 

Innocent  is  the  name  of  13  popes.  1.  402- 
March  12,  417,  was,  according  to  Jerome,  a 
son  of  his  predecessor,  Anastasius  I.  The 
leading  principle  of  his  policy  was  the  exten- 
sion and  consolidation  of  the  power  of  the 
bishop  of  Home  as  the  head  of  the  whole 
Christendom,  but  the  authority  he  thus 
claimed  and  assumed  he  used  with  justice 
and  discrimination.  lie  defended  Clirysos- 
tom  against  Theophilus,  Jerome  against  tela- 


gius,  etc.  The  siege  and  capture  of  Rome 
by  Alaric,  one  of  the  horrors  of  history,  oc- 
curred in  410,  but  the  anecdote  told  by  Zosi- 
mus  that,  when  the  plague  and  the  famine 
were  at  their  worst  in  the  beleaguered  city, 
Innocent  allowed  the  inhabitants  to  try  to  ap- 
pease the  wrath  of  the  pagan  gods  by  sacri- 
lices  and  prayers,  is  an  impossibility.  See  hia 
letters  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat,  XX.  ;  Langen,  Oe- 
scJuchte  d.  ram.  Kirche  bis  Leo  1.  Bonn,  1881. 
2.  (Gregorio  de'  Papi  or  Papareschi)  Feb. 
14,  1130-Scpt.  23,  1143.  His  election  was  ac- 
companied with  some  irregularities,  and  when 
an  anti-pope,  Anacletus  11.,  was  elected  and 
established  in  Rome,  he  was  compelled  to 
flee.  France,  however,  and  England  and 
Germany  declared  in  his  favor.  Lothaire  made 
two  campaigns  to  Italy,  and  Bernard  of 
Clairvcaux  preached  against  the  anti-pope  in 
Milan  and  even  in  Rome.  Nevertheless  the 
schism  was  not  healed  until  the  death  of  Ana- 
cletus, 1138.  Then  followed  a  series  of  un- 
seemly political  squabbles  with  Tivoli,  Roger 
II.  of  Sicily,  Louis  VII.  of  France,  etc. 
Abelard  and  Arnold  of  Brescia  were  con- 
demned. His  letters  are  found  in  ]\Iigne, 
Pat.  Lat.  CLXXIX.  3.  (Landus  of  Sezza) 
Sept.  29,  1179,  was  the  4th  anti-pope  set  up 
against  Alexander  III.,  but  was  sold  to  him 
by  his  own  supporters  and  shut  up  in  the 
monastery  La  Cava.  1180.  3.  (Iictario) 
Feb.  22,  1198-July  16,  1216,  a  son  of  Count 
Trasimund  of  Segni,  and  a  Roman  lady, 
Claricia,  of  the  family  of  the  Scotli,  was  born 
iu  1160  and  made  a  cardinal  in  1190  by  his 
uncle,  Clement  III.,  but  lived  in  literary  re- 
tirement under  the  papacy  of  Ccelestiue 'ill., 
who  belonged  to  the  rival  family  of  the  Or- 
sini.  Immediately  on  his  elevation  to  the 
papal  throne  he  subdued,  with  eminent  suc- 
cess, all  the  unruly  elements  in  the  city  of 
Rome  and  the  papal  states  ;  conquered  Spo- 
leto  and  Perugia  ;  was  appointed  regent  of 
the  kingdom  of  Sicily  during  the  minority  of 
P'rederick  by  the  will  of  his  mother,  Con- 
stance, the  widow  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI. 
(d.  Nov.  27,  1198),.and  stood  forth  as  the  ac- 
knowledged leader  of  the  national  party  in 
Italy.  In  the  contest  between  Philip  of 
Suabia  and  Otto  IV.  in  Germany,  he  sided 
first  with  one  and  then  with  the  other,  just  as 
either  of  them  proved  more  subservient  to  his. 
purposes,  and  when  Otto,  after  being  crowned 
emperor,  tried  to  evade  his  obligations,  Inno- 
cent put  him  under  the  ban  and  had  Frederick 
of  Sicily  elected  in  his  place,  and  after  the- 
battle  of  Bouvines,  July  27,  1214,  duly  pro- 
claimed emperor.  Still  more  highliandcd 
and  no  less  successful  was  his  interference  in 
English  affairs.  Tlie  quarrel  with  John 
Lackland  was  occasioned  by  the  appointment 
of  Stephen  Langton  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Canterbury,  and  the  king  was  finally  com- 
pelled literally  to  throw  himself  in  the  dust 
before  the  archbishop  and  to  surrender  his 
kingdom  to  the  pope,  1213,  only  receiving  it 
l)ack  as  a  lief  for  which  he  bound  himself  to. 
pay  an  annual  tribute.  Innocent  was  a  mas- 
ter in  liandling  the  terrible  weapons  of  the 
ban  and  the  interdict  ;  he  never  once  missed 
his  aim.  Philippe  Augiiste  of  France  he 
thoroughly  himiiliated  and  compelled  to-  re- 


INNOCENT 


(416) 


INQUISITION 


ceive  back  his  wife,  Ingeborg,  -wlioin  he  had 
repudiated  ■without  cause,  and  Alfonso  IX. 
of  Castile  and  Peter  of  Aragon  fared  no  better. 
The  latter,  as  well  as  Sancho  of  Portugal,  de- 
clared himself  a  vassal  of  the  pope.  When 
Innocent  called  himself  the  vicar  of  Christ  he 
meant  it  literally  ;  he  was  in  full  earnest 
when  he  applied  to  himself  the  words,  "All 
power  is  given  unto  me  in  heaven  and  earth," 
and  he  acted  up  to  them.  Ke  was  scandal- 
ized when  the  fourth  crusade  turned  out  a 
campaign  against  Constantinople,  but  when  a 
Latin  empire  was  established  and  he  had  an 
opportunity  to  appoint  a  patriarch  in  Con- 
stantinople, he  changed  his  mind,  and  soon 
he  also  changed  the  direction  of  the  crusades, 
which  were  now  sent  to  Livonia  and  Esthonia 
or  against  the  Albigenses  and  Waldensians. 
In  tlie  last  year  before  his  death,  1215,  he 
summoned  the  fourth  Council  of  theLateran. 
Fifteen  hundred  ecclesiastics,  among  whom 
two  Oriental  patriarchs,  400  archbishops  and 
bishops,  etc.,  besides  representatives  of  kings 
and  princes,  were  present,  but  the  proceedings 
were  very  simple  ;  the  dicta  of  the  pope  were 
read  and  then  the  audience  subscribed  ;  it 
was  an  expression  of  the  closest  concentra- 
tion of  power  into  the  hands  of  the  pope 
which  history  has  seen.  His  writings  are 
found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CCXIV.-CCXYII.; 
his  life  was  written  by  Hurler,  Hamburg, 
1841-43,  4  vols.  ;  Delitzsch,  Breslau,  1876, 
and  Breschar,  Freiburg,  1883.  4.  (Sinibald 
de'  Fieschi)  June  25.  1243-Dec.  7.  1254, 
a  native  of  Genoa,  fought  desperately  but 
without  success  against  the  Hohenstaufens. 
He  vvas  an  excellent  jurist,  and  his  Appa- 
ratus ill  quinque  Libros  Becretalium  is  con- 
sidered an  authority  on  canon  law,  and  has 
often  been  printed.  5.  (Peter  of  Tarantasia) 
Jan.  21-June  22, 1276,  a  native  of  Burgundy. 
France,  was  a  learned  man  and  a  volumi- 
nous writer  on  theology  and  philosophy.  His 
collected  works  appeared  at  Tolosa,  1651, 
4  vols.  (See  E.  Pascalien,  Origins  du  //i?zo- 
ceftiJ  K,  Annecy.  1889.)  6.  (Stephan  Aubert) 
Dec.  18,  1352-Sept.  12,  1S63,  b.  at  Mons,  in 
the  diocese  of  Limoges,  Belgium,  %vas  ono 
of  the  best  popes  of  the  Avignon  period,  and 
introduced  many  reforms  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  church.  He  sent  Cola  di  Rienzi 
to  Rome  to  pacify  the  city  and  negotiated  the 
peace  of  Bretigny  between  England  and 
France,  but  lost  influence  in  Germany  by  the 
issue  of  the  Golden  Bull  by  Charles  IV.  in 
1356,  which  regulated  the  election  of  the  Ger- 
man king  so  as  to  prevent  the  pope  from  in- 
terfering. (See  Wernusky,  Oeschichte  Karls 
IV.,  Vienna,  1883.  7.  (Cosimo  de  Miglior- 
ati)  Oct.  17,  1404-Nov.  6,  1406,  a  Neapolitan 
by  birth,  was  pope  in  Rome,  while  Benedict 
XIII.  was  pope  at  Avignon.  8.  (Giovanni 
Battista  Cibo)  Aug.  24,  1484-July  25,  1492, 
a  native  of  Genoa,  called  the  "Father  of 
Rome,"  celebrated  the  nuptials  of  his  chil- 
dren and  grandchildren  with  orgies  in  the 
Vatican  ;  received  an  annual  pension  of 
40,000  ducats  from  the  Sultan,  Bajazet  II., 
for  keeping  his  brother,  Djem,  safely  shut  up 
in  a  Roman  dungeon,  supported  by  his  bulls 
Sprenger,  in  his  hunt  after  witches  in  Ger- 
many, and  Torquemada,  in  his  perfection  of 


the  Inquisition  in  Spain,  and  tried  to  prolong 
his  life  by  a  drink  prepared  by  a  Jewish  phy- 
sician from  the  blood  of  three  young  boys 
bought  for  the  purpose.  (See  Creighton,  Uif^t- 
ory  of  the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of  the  Re- 
formation, London  and  Boston,  1882  sq..  I.e.) 
9.  (Giovanni  Antonio  Facchinetti)  Oct.  27- 
Dec.  30,  1591,  a  native  of  Bologna,  took  the 
side  of  Philip  II.  against  Henry  IV.  10. 
(Giovanni  Battista  Pamphili)  Sept.  15,  1644- 
Jan.  5,  1655,  a  Roman  by  birth,  stood  com- 
pletely under  the  command  of  his  sister-in- 
law.  Donna  Olympia  Maidalchina,  and  was, 
like  her,  principally  engaged  in  getting  as 
much  monej'  as  possible  out  of  the  situation. 
While  she  sold  offices  on  small  monthly  pay- 
ments, his  sale  of  pardons  to  criminals  con- 
victed by  the  courts  of  Rome  brought  him  in 
more  than  a  million.  He  protested  against 
the  peace  of  Westphalia  and  condemned  Jan- 
sen's  book  on  Augustine.  (See  Archibald 
Bower,  History  of  the  Popes,  London,  1748-66, 
7  vols.-— 1.  c.)  11.  (Benedetto  Odeschalchi) 
Sept.  21,  1676-Aug.  12,  1689,  b.  at  Como  in 
Northern  Italy.  He  condemned  65  proposi- 
tions of  the  Jesuit  morals,  hesitated  for  a  long 
time  to  confirm  the  Inquisition's  condemna- 
tion of  68  propositions  by  Molino,  and  took  a 
great  interest  in  Spinola's  plans  for  a  recon- 
ciliation between  Protestantism  and  Catholi- 
cism. His  orthodoxy  was  consequently  sus- 
pected by  the  Ultramoutanists.  For  his 
opposition  to  the  Galilean  "liberties,"'  see 
article  Gallicanism,  and  Michaud,  Louis 
XIV.  et Innocent  XI.  12.  (Antonio  Pignatelli) 
July  12,  1691-Sept.  27,  1700,  a  Neapolitan  hy 
birth,  was  a  disciple  of  Innocent  XI. :  introduc- 
ed many  excellent  reforms  in  the  administration 
of  the  church,  and  brought  the  controversy 
wdth  the  Galilean  Church  to  a  satisfactory 
issue.  In  the  controversy  between  Bossuet 
and  Fenelon  concerning  quietism,  he  decided 
in  favor  of  the  former.  (See  Libouroux,  Cou' 
troverse  entre  Bossuet  et  Fenelon,  Paris,  1876. 
(13.  Michel  Angelo  Coceti)  Jlay  8, 1721-March 
7,  1724,  a  Roman,  was  a  decided  adversary 
of  the  Jesuits  and  forbade  them  to  receive 
new  members  into  the  order.  C.  P. 

Innocents'  Day,  a  church  festival  in  com- 
memoration of  the  massacre  of  the  innocent 
at  Bethlehem  (Matt.  ii.  16),  who  are  considered 
as  the  first  Christian  martyrs.  It  falls  on 
Dec.  28  and  is  celebrated  in  the  Roman, 
Anglican,  and  Episcopal  churches.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Irena?us  and  Cyprian. 

In  partibus  infidelium,  "  in  heathen  coun- 
tries," is  an  ecclesiastical  term  corresponding 
to  titularis.  As  the  Roman  Church  never  in 
principle  gives  up  a  place  of  which  it  once 
has  come  into  possession,  it  continues  to  ap- 
point bishops  to  sees  which  have  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  "infidels,"  ^■.e.,  generally  Mo- 
hammedans, and  have  no  more  a  Christian 
congregation,  and  these  titular  bishops,  or 
bishops  ill  jxirtibvs  infideliiim,  are  generally 
sent  out  to  assist  bishops  who  find  it  difficult 
to  take  proper  care  of  their  dioceses. 

Inquisition.  The  Roman  Church  claims 
for  herself  the  office  of  sole  authoritative 
teacher  of  mankind  in  religious  things,  and 
derives  the  same  from  the  divine  institution. 


INQUISITION 


(417) 


INQUISITION 


All  men  are  bound  in  duty  to  hear  her,  and 
sha  has  the  right  and  duty  to  compel  them  to 
hear  when  they  will  not.  Under  the  intlu- 
ence  of  this  idea,  the  original  discipline  of 
the  church,  whereby  the  erring  were  led  back 
to  the  confession  and  voluntary  abandonment 
of  tlieir  errors,  has  developed  into  an  inquisi- 
torial system,  incorporated  in  a  special  organ- 
ization known  as  the  Holy  Olflce,  or  the  In- 
quisition {Inquisitio  Tiereimz  pravitatis).  It 
has  the  duty  of  discovering  and  of  punishing 
such  as  shall  stray  from  the  doctrines  of  the 
Ilomxn  Church. 

Tlij  first  officers  who  were  appointed  to 
deal  especially  with  heresy  were  appointed 
upon  occjision  of  the  Novatiau  controversies 
in  the  3d  centiiry.  Thcodosius  (:i82)  was  the 
first  to  make  death  the  penalty  of  a  heresy, 
but  (his  was  against  the  judgment  of  the 
principal  church  teachers.  Leo  I.  approved 
the  death  sentence.  After  this  time,  discip- 
line grew  lax,  and  the  Council  of  Terragona 
(51G)  and  the  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne 
commanded  the  courts  to  interfere.  The 
Cathari  in  the  south  of  France,  and  like 
movements  in  lVA\y,  called  out  the  activity  of 
the  church  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  ; 
and  under  Innocent  III.  the  bishops  were 
specially  charged  with  the  duty  of  searching 
out  and  punishing  heretics.  The  whole  popu- 
lation of  a  diocese  might,  if  necessarj^  be  put 
under  oath  to  deliver  up  heretics. 

In  1229  the  Council  of  Toulouse  created 
Innocent's  arrangements  into  a  regular  in- 
quisitorial system.  Archbishops  and  bishops 
should  appoint  two  or  three  special  priests, 
and  if  necessary  additional  laymen,  to  search 
out  heretics,  and  to  imprison  them  and  their 
defenders.  To  conceal  a  heretic  was  to  for- 
feit all  property.  The  house  in  which  a 
heretic  was  found  was  to  be  destroyed. 
Heretics  who  should  voluntarily  repent  were 
to  be  set  free,  though  obliged  to  leave  tlieir 
homes  and  to  wear  a  distinctive  dress.  In- 
voluntary recantations  were  punished  by  im- 
pri.sonraent.  Absence  from  the  yearly  obliga- 
tory confession  was  a  proper  ground  for  sus- 
picion of  heresy. 

Under  this  system  great  zeal  was  displayed, 
but  the  results  did  not  correspond  to  the 
papal  desires.  In  1232  Gregory  IX.  put  the 
Dominicans  in  charge  of  the  Inquisition  in 
Germany,  Aragon,  and  Austria,  and  they 
were  largely  identified  with  the  in.stitution 
thereafter.  St.  Louis,  the  French  king,  made 
it  the  special  duty  of  the  secular  magistrates 
to  punish  those  'condemned  by  the  spiritual 
tribunal  without  delay.  In  1235  it  was  made 
ecclesiastical  law  tha't  the  names  of  the  wit- 
nesses against  an  accused  person  should  not 
be  made  known  to  him.  This  was  confirmed 
by  Innocent  IV.  in  1254.  Other  heretics  and 
criminals  might  be  witnesses.  Confessions 
might  be  extorted  by  torture.  But  limits  had 
soon  to  be  put  to  the  course  of  the  inciuisitors 
under  these  rules  by  kings  and  popes  The 
definition  of  heresy  was  "enlarged  to  include 
disrespect  to  the  cross  and  to  the  clergy,  nnd 
many  other  offences,  such  as  witrhcruft. 
The  punishments,  besides  death,  included  the 
galleys,  imprisonment,  loss  of  civil  rights, 
etc.     The   property   of   the   condemned   was 


couliscated,  and  to  stimulate  the  activity  of 
the  Inquisition,  Innocent  IV.  (1252)  gave  two 
thirds  of  it  to  the  Inquisition  itself,  and  later 
it  was  all  given  to  the  same.  So  hateful  did 
the  Holy  Otfice  become  at  last  to  the  people, 
that  under  the  unfavorable  circumstances  of 
the  14lh  and  15th  centuries,  schism  and  coun- 
cils, it  disappeared,  to  be  renewed  by  Paul 
IV.  in  1557. 

The  Inquisition  appeared  in  Germany  first 
about  1231.  It  played  no  great  part  in  public 
events,  effected  something  in  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  and  was  finally  put  to  an  end 
by  Maria  Theresa.  Its  greatest  field  of  activ- 
ity was  found  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  It  was 
set  up  in  Spain  in  the  13th  century.  It  was 
employed  first  in  Aragon,  and  there  especially 
against  the  Moors  and  the  Jews.  Various 
efforts  have  been  made  by  Catholics  to  save 
their  church  from  the  odium  of  the  evil  deeds 
of  the  Inquisition  in  this  country,  as  by 
Ilefele,  who  said  it  was  more  a  civil  than  an 
ecclesiastical  institution.  But  the  Spanish 
nation  found  the  Inquisition  already  in  exist- 
ence, it  did  not  create  it  ;  and  the  peculiar 
features  of  its  proceedings  which  made  it  so 
infamous  were  all  sanctioned  by  papal  au- 
thority. The  numbers  of  those  who  suffered 
under  its  cruelty  may  have  been  exaggerated, 
as,  for  example,  in  ascribing  2000  executions 
to  Torquemada  during  the  first  year  of  his 
incumbency,  but  the  pleas  for  its  relative  hu- 
manity seem  like  a  bitter  sneer.  Eymericus 
was  44  years  general  inquisitor  in  Aragon 
(d.  1399).  After  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  had 
come  to  the  throne  of  combined  Castile  and 
Aragon,  the  Inquisition  was  established 
anew,  and  Morillo  and  San  Martino  were  put 
at  its  head.  Torquemada  soon  became  in- 
quisitor-general, and  his  cruelty  spread  terror 
on  every  side.  But  the  king  sustained  him 
and  made  use  of  the  system  to  extend  his 
power.  Torquemada  compelled  all  Jews 
who  would  not  become  Christians  to  emigrate 
in  1492.  Diego  Deza  (inquisitor  1499-1506) 
executed  the  same  sentence  upon  the  floors. 
Ximenez  was  inquisitor  from  1507  to  1517. 
Under  him,  according  to  Llorente,  2536  died, 
1368  were  burned  in  cffig}-,  and  47,263  pun- 
ished in  other  ways.  The  whole  process  pro- 
ceeded upon  the  supposition  that  if  a  man 
was  accused,  he  must  be  guilty.  Torture 
was  freely  employed.  If  an  accused  person 
died  of  his  sufferings,  he  was  burned  in 
effigy.  The  secular  arm  performed  the  exe- 
cution in  an  auto  dafe  (act  of  faith),  which 
was  made  a  festal  occasion.  The  Reforma- 
tion, which  gained  some  infiuence  in  Spain, 
furnished  the  In(j[uisition  v.ith  new  victims. 
Under  I'hilip  II.  the  Iiujuisition  had  every- 
thing its  own  wa3'.  This  king  renewed  the 
provision  which  rewarded  an  informer  from 
the  property  of  the  accused.  In  1588  the 
Index  librorum  prohibitorum  was  bcerun. 
The  years  1559  and  1560  were  the  height  of 
this  anti-Reformation  activit}-.  From  that 
time  the  Inquisition  Nvas  of  less  importance, 
but  was  not  finally  suspended  till  1834. 
Meantime  it  had  been  a  principal  means  of 
driving  some  of  the  best  classes  of  its  inhab- 
itants from  the  country,  of  crippling  its  liter- 
ary and  scientific  life, 'and  helping  to  reduce 


INSPIRATION 


(418) 


INTENTION 


it  to  tlie  insignificant  position  it  now  holds  in 
Europe. 

In  Portugal  the  Inquisition  had  a  similar 
history,  and  was  suppressed  by  John  VI. 
(1818-26).  It  was  introduced  into  Italy  in 
the  time  of  Gregory  IX.  (1370-78),  suppressed 
the  tendencies  to  Protestantism  with  bloody 
hand,  and  endures  formallj^  to  this  day. 
The  chief  branch  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition 
was  that  in  the  Netlierlauds,  where  under 
Margaret  of  Parma,  but  especially  under  the 
Duke  of  Alva,  thousands  of  men  were  slaugh- 
tered. The  result  was  the  independence  of 
Holland  purchased  with  incredible  toils,  and 
the  complete  Catholicizafion  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands.  The  Inquisition  was  also  ac- 
tive in  America,  for  it  was  early  introduced 
from  Spain,  and  converted  Mexico,  Cartha- 
gena,  and  Lima  into  regions  of  terror.  (See 
H.  C.  Lea,  History  of  the  Inquisition,  New 
York,  1889,  3  vols.  Cf.  Paul  Forster,  Der 
Mnfluss  der  Inquisition  aitf  das  qeistige  Leben 
und  die  Litteratur  der  Spanien,  Berlin.  1890.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Inspiration  and  Revelation.  These  two 
things,  although  often  confounded,  are  radi- 
cally distinct.  Revelation  means  the  com- 
munication of  truth  from  heaven,  while  in- 
spiration refers  to  the  infallible  record  of  such 
revelations.  Abraham  had  many  visions,  but 
was  not  inspired  to  record  any  of  them,  and 
Matthew  had  no  revelations,  yet  was  inspired 
to  write  his  memoir  of  Christ. 

The  early  fathers  presupposed  the  fact  of 
inspiration,  though  they  described  it  in  vari- 
ous Avays,  but  the  doctrine  was  not  well 
defined  until  after  the  Reformation.  Luther 
and  his  compeers  emphasized  the  authority 
of  Scripture,  which  all  Protestants  admitted, 
without  discussing  the  character  of  its  in- 
spiration, but  in  the  following  centuries  the 
theme  was  greatly  agitated,  and  the  Formula 
Consensus  Helvetica  (1675),  very  different  from 
the  creeds  of  the  16th  century,  none  of  which 
defined  the  subject,  pushed  the  doctrine  to 
its  furthest  limits,  and  claimed  that  even  the 
vowel-points  were  insjnred — an  extreme  to 
which  very  few  now  are  willing  to  go. 

Theories  :  1.  The  Mechanical,  held  by  Calo- 
vius  and  Quenstedt,  and  even  by  the  judicious 
Hooker,  who  said  of  the  penmen  of  Scripture, 
"  They  neither  spoke  nor  wrote  any  words  of 
their  own,  but  uttered,  syllable  by  syllable, 
as  the  Spirit  put  it  into  their  mouths."  But 
this  makes  no  allowance  for  the  idiosyncrasies 
of  the  human  authors,  and  leaves  their  differ- 
ences  of  tone,  manner,  and  style  wdioUy  unex- 
plained. 2.  The  Partial,  which  confines  the 
inspiration  to  the  doctrines  taught  or  to  the 
things  naturally  unknown  to  the  writers.  So 
Grotius,  Clericus,  Dr.  Ladd,  and  others.  If 
this  be  true  we  should  need  divine  help  to 
draw  the  line  between  what  is  inspired  and 
what  is  not.  3.  The  Varied,  which  supposes 
degrees  of  inspiration,  stretching  from  mere 
superintendence  up  to  immediate  oUggestion 
(Bishop  Wilson,  Dick,  Henderson,  and  others), 
a  theory  liable  to  the  difficulty  just  suggested, 
and  one  that  sadly  diminishes'  the  authority 
of  the  Word.  ^  4.  The  Illumination  view, 
which  supposes  in  the  sacred  writers  only  an 


extraordinary  degree  of  the  spiritual  influence 
common  to  all  believers,  the  difference  being 
one  of  quantity,  not  quality  (Coleridge,  Ar- 
nold, F.  W.  Robertson),  whereas  the  familiar 
cases  of  Caiaphas  and  Balaam  show  that  men 
can  speak  under  divine  influence,  yet  not 
only  without  eminent  grace,  but  without  any 
degree  of  it  at  all.  5.  Plenary,  -which  insists 
that  the  Bible  as  a  whole  is  the  Word  of  God, 
and  in  every  part  of  it  is  of  divine  authority. 
One  portion  is  just  as  much  inspired  as  an- 
other, although  these  portions  may  differ  very 
much  in  intrinsic  importance  and  practical 
usefulness.  The  men  who  wrote  were  not 
perfect  men,  neither  were  they  masters  of  all 
knowledge,  but  for  the  work  given  them  to 
do  they  were  divinely  influenced  so  as  to 
make  no  mistake.  How  this  influence  was 
exerted  no  one  knows.  It  did  not  make  them 
machines,  nor  did  it  obliterate  their  human 
characteristics,  but  it  so  guided  them  that 
their  work  was  unerring  and  authoritative. 
Thus  the  divine  and  the  human  were  united 
in  the  composition  of  Holy  Writ  just  as  they 
were  in  the  person  of  our  Lord. 

The  proof  of  the  doctrine  is  found  in  the 
Scripture  itself,  the  claims  it  makes,  the  in- 
cessant appeal  of  its  writers  to  a  "  Thus  saith 
the  Lord,"  the  sanction  given  by  our  Lord  in 
various  ways  and  times  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  emphatic  claims  made  by  the  Apos- 
tles Paul  (2  Tim.  iii.  16,  17)  and  Peter  (2  Epis. 
i.  21),  the  promises  made  by  our  Lord  to  his 
disciples  (John  xiv.,  xv.,  xvi.),  and  the  asser- 
tions they  made  as  to  their  authority  (1  Cor. 
ii.  1-16,  xiv.  37,  2  Peter  iii.  1,  2).  It  is  true 
that  objections  have  been  raised  against  this 
view  on  moral,  critical,  or  scientific  grounds, 
on  alleged  discrepancies  or  mistakes,  and  on 
the  insignificance  of  some  details,  but  these 
have  all  been  answered  and  shown  to  rest 
upon  misapprehension  of  the  true  doctrine. 
The  Bible  is  the  historical  record  of  a  pro- 
gressive revelation  ;  it  records  many  opinions 
which  it  does  not  sanction  and  many  actions 
which  it  does  not  approve  ;  its  aim  was  not 
to  teach  science,  but  religion  ;  and  its  char- 
acter required  the  mention  of  many  things 
trivial  in  themselves,  but  of  importance  in 
their  relations.  "  Every  Scripture  inspired 
of  God  is  also  profitable  for  teaching,  for  re- 
proof, for  correction,  for  instruction  in  right- 
eousness" (2  Tim.  iii.  16,  R.  V.).  (See  Hen- 
derson, Divine  Inspiration.  London,  1836, 
4th  ed.,  1852  ;  Gaussen,  Theopneusty,  Eng. 
trans.,  New  York,  1842  ;  Elliott,  Inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  Edinburgh,  1877.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Installation  is  the  ceremony  by  which,  in 
the  Anglican  Church,  the  temporalities  of  a 
benefice  are  conferred  upon  a  canon  or  preb- 
endary, and  corresponds  to  the  induction  of 
the  pastor  and  the  enthronization  of  the  bish- 
op.    See  Induction. 

Institution  is  the  act  by  which,  in  the 
Anglican  Church,  the  bishop  commits  the 
spiritual  care  of  a  certain  parish  to  a  certain 
pastor,  and  it  is  this  specification  which  dis- 
tinguishes institution  from  ordination  (q.v  ). 

Intention.    According  to  Roman  Catholic 


INTERCESSION 


(419) 


INTERMEDIATE 


dogmatics,  the  efficucj  of  the  sacraments  de- 
pends not  only  on  the  "  intention"  with 
which  they  are  received,  but  also  on  the  "  in- 
tention" with  which  they  are  offered.  This 
dogma,  which  actually  makes  not  the  sacra- 
ment but  the  officiating  priest  the  true  sub- 
ject of  faith,  is  distinctly  and  emphatically 
set  forth  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  1545,  in  its 
11th  canon  "  On  the  Sacraments  in  General" 
(Sess.  vii.,  cf.  Schaff,  Creeds,  ii.,  121). 

Intercessioa  of  Christ.  This  is  one  of  our 
Lord's  functions  as  high-priest.  lie  appears 
in  tlie  presence  of  God  for  his  people  (Heb. 
ix.  24),  makes  intercession  for  them  (Rom. 
viii.  34),  and  hence  is  called  their  advocate 
(1  John  ii.  1).  lie  pleads  the  merits  of  his 
blood,  and  obtains  for  his  people  whatever 
they  need.  This  intercession  has  justly  been 
described  as  authoritative  (John  xvii.  24), 
wise  (John  ii.  25),  compassionate  (Ileb.  ii.  17, 
V.  8),  unique  (1  Tim.  ii.  5),  perpetual  (Heb. 
vii.  25),  and  efficacious  (1  John  ii.  1,  2).  It  is 
an  essential  part  of  the  Saviour's  office  as 
mediator,  because  it  was  necessary  not  merely 
to  open  a  way  of  possible  deliverance  from 
sin  and  guilt,  but  actually  to  accomplish  the 
salvation  of  his  people  and  give  them  access 
to  the  Father  (Rom.  v.  2,  Eph.  ii.  18,  iii. 
12).  Our  Lord  exercised  tins  function  on 
earth  (Luke  xxiii.  34,  xxii.  32,  John  xvii., 
Heb.  V.  7),  but  the  principal  scene  of  its  exer- 
cise is  in  heaven.  T.  W.  C. 

Intercession  of   the  Holy  Ghost.      The 

same  function  is  ascribed  in  Scripture  to  the 
second  person  of  the  Trinity  and  to  the  third, 
but  not  in  the  same  sense.  The  former  inter- 
cedes with  the  Father  for  his  people  ;  the  lat- 
ter intercedes  in  the  hearts  of  believers  M-ith 
groanings  that  cannot  be  uttered.  One  inter- 
cession is  objective  and  carried  on  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  persons  for  whom  it  is  made  ; 
the  other  is  subjective  and  presupposes  their 
presence.  The  blessed  Paraclete  revives 
faith,  zeal,  and  love,  and  stimulates  the  soul 
to  unspeakable  exercises  o1  holiness.  The 
Christian  lives  and  grows  by  this  gracious, 
inward  intercession.  T.  W.  C. 

Intercession  of  Saints.  In  the  Roman  and 
Greek  churches  it  is  held  that  the  saints  in 
glory  can  and  do  intercede  for  believers  on 
earth,  and  may  properly  be  solicited  to  per- 
form this  kind  ofhce.  But  by  Protestants  this 
is  rejected  as  unscriptural,  and  therefore  su- 
perstitious, as  derogatory  to  Christ,  since  it 
implies  his  insufficiency  for  llie  purpose  as 
practically  idolatrous,  since  it  diverts  prayer 
from  the  Creator  to  his  creatures,  and  de- 
grading, since  it  substitutes  an  arm  of  llcsh 
for  the  living  God.  T.  W.  C. 

Intercalary  Month.     See  Cycle. 

Interdict,  an  ecclesiastical  decree,  issued 
by  the  pope,  a  council,  or  a  bishop,  forbid- 
ding the  celebration  of  service,  tlie  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments,  the  performance  of 
ecclesiastical  burial,  etc.,  within  a  certain 
area,  developed  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  an  ex- 
tension of  tlie  excommunication,  and  was 
from  llic  middle  of  tlie  11th  to  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  century  llie  most  efficacious  weap- 


on in  the  hands  of  the  Roman  Church  by 
which  to  enforce  her  opinions. 

Interim  is  the  name  of  a  provisional  estab- 
lishment imposed  upon  Germany  by  Charles 
v.,  until  a  national  council  could  meet  and 
decide  upon  the  various  points  of  disagree- 
ment between  Protestants  and  Roman  Catho- 
lics. There  were  issued  three  such  interims  : 
at  Ralisbon,  1541  ;  Augsburg,  May  15,  1548  ; 
and  Leipzig,  Dec.  22,  1548,  Ijut  none  of  them 
was  successful. 

Intermediate  State,  that  is,  the  state  of 
soids  between  the  liour  of  death  and  the  gen- 
eral resurrection.  There  has  been  much  spec- 
ulation on  this  branch  of  eschatology  from 
the  beginning,  men  seeking  to  fill  out  and 
complete  from  reason  and  imagination  the 
scanty  details  which  Scripture  furnishes. 
Tlie  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  Purgatory 
(q.v.)  is  the  result  of  an  endeavor  to  sup- 
plement the  Bible.  The  place  of  departed 
souls  was  called  in  the  Old  Testament  Sheol 
and  in  the  Isew  Hades,  terms  which  in  them- 
selves have  no  ethical  meaning,  since  the 
souls  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked  are 
both  in  the  unseen  world  or  middle  state,  yet 
in  the  course  of  time  they  seem  to  have  ac- 
quired an  imfavorable  tinge  as  denoting  an 
unhappy  condition.  However  that  may  be, 
it  is  abundantly  clear  that  while  the  linal  des- 
tiny of  men  is  not  announced  until  the  judg- 
ment day,  nor  do  they  until  then  receive  the 
full  recompense  of  their  deeds,  yet  in  the  in- 
tervening period  they  are  happy  or  miserable 
according  to  their  character.  Thus  the  rich 
man  who  died  and  was  buried,  we  are  told 
(Luke  xvi.  23),  "  in  Hades  lifted  up  his  eyes, 
being  in  torments,"  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
Paul  expected  as  soon  as  he  left  this  world  to 
be  with  Christ  (Phil.  i.  23),  which  was  "  very 
far  better"  than  having  Christ  with  him  in 
this  world.  All  the  language  of  Scripture 
respecting  what  follows  death  indicaies  that 
state  as  final.  There  are  teachers  in  our  own 
day  who  prolong  sanctilication  into  the  un- 
seen world  and  undertake  to  tell  us  of  its 
progress  there,  but  this  is  pure  speculation 
without  any  biblical  basis  whatever.  All 
that  Me  know  is  that  death  puts  the  seal  upon 
the  believer's  salvation  and  upon  the  unbe- 
liever's perdition.  Each  has  a  foretaste  of 
what  is  to  follow  the  decisions  of  the  great 
day,  but  there  is  no  possibility  of  either  cross- 
ing the  "  great  gulf  fixed"  between  them. 

Some  have  held  that  soids  in  the  middle 
state  are  in  a  condition  of  sleep  or  suspended 
life  until  the  moment  of  the  resurrection. 
This  doctrine  was  held  by  some  Arabian  her- 
etics in  the  time  of  Origen  who  were  called 
Thuetopsychites  ;  it  was  revived  by  some 
theologians  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries, 
but  was  condemned  by  the  Universily  of 
Paris,  in  1240,  and  by  Pope  Benedict  Xll.,  in 
1366  ;  at  the  Reformation  it  was  set  forth  by 
some  Anabaptist  sectaries,  and  refuted  by 
Calvin  in  his  treatise  called  Psychopannychia  ; 
and  in  the  last  generation  was  advocated  as 
probable  by  Archbishop  'VVhately.  But  it 
has  never  been  lield  by  any  church  or  perma- 
nent school  of  theologians!  It  is  alike  against 
reason,  against  probabilit}-,   and  against  the 


INTERNUNCIO 


(420) 


INVOCATION 


letter  and  the  spirit  of  the  Inspired  Word. 
See  Heaven,  Hell,  and  lit.  under  Escha- 
TOLOGY.  T.  W.  C. 

Internuncio.     See  Legates. 

Interpretation.     See  Hermeneutics. 

Intinction,  the  peculiar  mode  of  administer- 
ing the  eucharist  to  tlie  laity  in  the  Greek 
Church,  viz.,  breaking  the  bread  into  the 
wine  and  administering  both  elements  to- 
gether in  a  spoon.     It  never  gained  foothold 


in  the  Vv'est. 


T.  W.  C. 


Intolerance  is  the  imposing  of  creeds  or 
modes  of  worship  upon  men  against  their 
will.  It  is  a  natural  consequence  of  the  union 
of  church  and  state,  and  has  been  the  source 
of  grievous  and  innumerable  evils  wherever 
practised.  It  is  wholly  alien  to  the  spirit  of 
the  gospel,  wliich  abhors  alike  force  and  fraud, 
and  appeals  only  to  reason  and  conscience. 
A  faith  that  is  constrained  ab  extra  is  worth- 
less in  the  sitcht  of  God  and  man. 

T.  W.  C. 

Introduction,  Biblical,  the  theological  dis- 
cipline, also  called  l)y  the  Greek  equivalent 
Isagogics,  which  handles  the  several  topics 
introductory  to  the  detailed  study  of  the 
Bible.  It  i"s  in  two  parts.  General  Introduc- 
tion treats  of  the  origin,  history,  and  peculiar 
character  of  the  Bible  taken  as  a  whole,  its 
original  languages,  the  formation  of  the 
canon  ;  the  history  of  the  text  and  of  the 
different  translations  (versions).  Special  In- 
troduction treats  of  the  avithenticity  and  gen- 
uineness, the  age  and  occasion  of  the  several 
hooks.  In  short,  to  it  the  Bible  is  literature, 
and  it  applies  the  canons  of  history  and  criti- 
cism to  the  solution  of  the  various  literary 
problems  it  presents.  It  is  emphatically  the 
product  of  a  critical  age,  and  is  specially  at- 
tractive rather  to  critical  minds.  Yet  its  re- 
sults are  precious  and  enduring.  The  dissec- 
tion of  the  Bible,  according  to  the  principles 
of  the  literary,  so-called  "  higher,"  criticism, 
has  brought  into  plainer  light  its  divine 
origin. 

The  scientific  term  Isagogics,  by  which  the 
discipline  is  known,  comes  from  the  Greek 
treatise  of  Adrian  in  the  5th  century  called 
Eisagogd  ;  but  Santes  Pagninus  Lucensis,  by 
his  hagogm  ad  sacras  Uteras,  Lynn,  1536,  first 
put  it  on  its  present  basis.  It  is  to  Rich- 
ard Simon,  however,  by  his  critical  histories 
of  the  Old  Testament  (Paris,  1678)  and  the 
New  Testament  (Rotterdam,  1689-93),  that 
the  distinction  of  being  the  "father"  of 
Biblical  Introduction  belongs.  The  Germans 
have  done  most  in  this  department,  and  thus 
have  been  the  teachers  of  other  nations.  Such 
names  as  Scmler  (1771),  Eichhorn  (1808),  De 
Wette  (1817-36),  Bleek  (1860),  and  Reuss 
(1881)  are  honored  names. 

In  English,  aside  from  translations  from 
the  German,  we  have  the  monumental  work 
of  T.  H.  Home  (London,  1818.  3  vols.,  14th 
ed.  by  John  Ayre  and  S.  P.  Tregelles,  1877, 
4  vols.),  and  the  meritorious  work  of  H.  M. 
Harman  (New  York,  1878,  4(h  ed.,  1884). 
In  New  Testament  introduction  the  chief 
English  work  lately  produced  is  G.  Salmon, 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament  (London, 


1885,  4th  ed.,  1890).  The  chief  work  from 
the  critical  standpoint  in  German  is  Holtz- 
mann's  Lehrbuch  dcr  Jdstorisch-krit  isclien 
Einleitung  in  das  jS'eue  Testament,  Freiburg, 
1885,  2ded.,  1886,  while  that  from  the  Ger- 
man conservative  standpoint  is  Bernard 
Weiss's  Introduction  to  the  Ncio  Testament, 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1887-88,  2  vols. 

Introit,  the  name  of  the  anthem  sung  at 
the  beginning  of  the  communion  service.  Its 
orio:in  is  obscure,  but  is  generally  attributed 
to  Pope  Celestiue  in  423.  T.  W.  C. 

Invention  of  the  Cross,  The,  i§  the  some- 
what awkward  phrase  by  which  is  designated 
the  alleged  discovery  of  the  true  cross  by  the 
Empress  Helena,  326.  In  the  Vita  Constantini, 
by  Eusebius,  the  event  is  not  mentioned.  It 
is  first  alluded  to  some  20  years  later  by  Cyril, 
of  Jerusalem,  but  some  20  years  still  later  the 
legends  are  in  full  bloom.  (Sec  W.  C.  Prime, 
lioly  Cross,  New  York,  1877  ;  E.  Nestle,  De 
sanctacrucc,  Berlin,  1889.)  C.  P. 

Investiture  is  the  act  of  conferring  a  bene- 
fice on  any  one.  In  France  and  Germany  it 
was  held  that  the  civil  ruler  alone  could  put 
a  bishop  or  abbot  in  possession  of  the  tempo- 
ralities of  the  fief,  and  he  did  this  by  invest- 
ing the  new  official  with  the  pastoral  staff  and 
the  ring,  and  receiving  his  homage  or  oath  of 
fealty.  The  cause  of  this  was  the  fact  that 
bishops  and  abbots  were  not  merely  ecclesi- 
astics, but  also  secular  rulers  with  rights  of 
coinage,  toll,  jurisdiction,  etc.  But  in  the 
11th  century  the  Roman  curia  began  to  at- 
tack this  custom  as  leading  to  simony,  since 
the  bishops  and  abbots  used  to  offer  large 
gifts  to  the  king  on  their  investiture.  In 
i068  a  clash  occurred  at  Milan,  where  the 
king  appointed  a  bishop  in  the  usual  way, 
and  the  people,  instigated  from  Rome,  ob- 
jected. The  king  not  giving  w^ay,  in  1075 
Gregory  VII.  officially  denied  the  right  of  in- 
vestiture, and  admonished  the  people  to  op- 
pose all  who  obtained  their  ofiice  in  this  man- 
ner. This  led  to  a  long  and  very  bitter  con- 
test, which  at  times  was  doubtful  as  to  its 
issue.  A  settlement,  however,  was  reached 
by  the  Concordat  of  Worms  (1152)  in  the 
pope's  favor,  whicli  continued  in  operation 
until  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  in  1806. 
By  this  the  emperor  gave  up  the  right  of  in- 
vestiture with  the  ring  and  staff  and  substi- 
tuted for  these  the  touch  of  his  sceptre.  Elec- 
tions were  to  be  made  in  his  presence,  but 
without  his  interference.  The  contest  was 
most  severe  in  Germany,  because  there  the 
question  affected  the  political  constitution 
most  deeply.  But  in  France  and  in  England 
the  same  result  was  obtained.  In  the  former 
the  king  alone  could  permit  an  election,  and 
he  alone  confirm  it  when  made  ;  in  the  latter 
the  king  retained  the  right  of  nomination  and 
of  demanding  an  oath  of  fealty,  which,  how- 
ever, Stephen  (1135-54)  relinquished,  as  did 
John  also  in  1215.  Yet  the  English  chap- 
ters never  obtained  freedom  in  their  elections, 
nor  do  they  enjoy  it  now.  (See  W.  Klemm, 
Der  engliscJie  Investiturstrcit,  Leipzig,  1880  ; 
Peiser,  Der  deutsche  Investiturstreit,  Berlin, 
1883.)  T.  W.  C. 

Invocation     of     Angels.       This     custom. 


I  INVOCATION 


(431) 


IRENICS 


though  largely  practised,  aud  especially  sanc- 
tioned in  the  (Jatechismus  Rnnanus,  is  con- 
trary to  the  language  of  Scripture  (Rev.  xix. 
10)  and  to  the  constant  usage  of  the  godly  in 
the  Old  Testament  and  the  New.  Angels, 
though  holy  and  elect,  are  creatures,  and 
therefore  not  proper  objects  of  worship  by 
their  fellow  creatures  ;  nor  can  they  know 
the  prayers  offered  to  them  unless  informed 
by  the  Most  High  ;  and  hence  to  invoke  them 
instead  of  going  directly  to  Him,  is  "  a  super- 
fluity of  naughtiness."  T.  W.  C. 

Invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  is 
every  ^vay  scriptural,  reasonable,  and  wise. 
It  is  the  special  otllce  of  the  Comforter  to 
apply  the  redemption  obtained  by  the  Son  of 
God,  and  to  work  in  the  hearts  of  believers 
all  the  appropriate  graces  of  the  Christian 
character.  Hence  he  is  to  be  invoked  inces- 
santly, earnestly,  and  believingl}".  He  being 
divine  is  able  to  hear  our  supplications,  and 
to  answer  them  "even  above  all  we  ask  or 
think."  The  disciple,  however  active  and 
laborious,  is  to  feel  his  dependence,  aud  lead 
a  life  of  prayer  so  as  to  be  truly  a  spiritual 
man.  T.  W.  C. 

Invocation  of  Saints.  This  is  liable  to  the 
same  objections  as  the  appeal  to  angels,  and 
is  even  more  unreasonable,  since  they  are  hu- 
man, and  so  sharers  in  the  general  apostasy,  and 
saved  only  by  grace,  while  the  elect  angels 
have  never  fallen.  The  practice,  besides,  can 
hardly  fail  to  end  in  a  mischievous  and  de- 
gnuling  idolatry.  T.  W.  C. 

lona,  or  Hi,  a  small  island  off  the  west  coast 
of  Scotland,  the  scat  of  early  missionary 
labors  in  Scotland  and  England  (see  the  art. 
Celtic  Church).  At  present  the  ruins  of 
the  cathedral  church  of  St.  Mary's  may  be 
seen  there,  the  church  dating  from  the  lllh 
century.  The  nunnery,  some  small  chapels, 
and  a  number  of  ancient  tombs  are  still  to  be 
traced.  (Duke  of  Argyle,  lonn,  London, 
1870  ;  J.  Drummond,  Monuments  in  L^na, 
Edinburgh,  1880  )  F.  II.  F. 

Irenaeus  of  Lyons  was  born  probably 
about  the  year  115  in  the  province  of  Asia, 
and  died  as  bishop  of  Lyons,  France,  some- 
what, but  not  long,  after  the  year  190.  Of 
his  life  only  the  most  meagre  outlines  can 
now  be  had.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Polycarp 
and  other  sub-apostolic  men  in  Asia.  It  is 
probable  that  he  accompanied  his  beloved 
teacher,  Polycarp,  to  Rome  not  long  before 
his  martyrdom  (155),  and  that  he  remained 
here  for  some  time  engaged  as  a  teacher,  but 
not  later  than  166.  He  tlms  gained  the  inti 
mate  actpiaintance  with  Roman  affairs  which 
he  exhibits.  AVhy  he  went  to  Gaul  we  are 
not  informed.  We  lir.st  meet  him  again  when 
acting  as  a  messenger  in  the  year  177  to  bring 
from  tlie  imprisoned  Cliristians  iu  Lyons  a 
letter  to  the  bishop,  Eleutherus,  of  Rome,  re- 
specting tlie  montanistic  movement.  He  had 
already  met  with  some  persecution,  and  it 
may  ha  tiiat  he  was  sent  off  by  the  church 
upon  this  errand  to  Rome  to  put  him  out  of 
harm's  way.  He  soon  returned,  and  tliere  is 
no  resison  to  doubt  the  common  account  that 
he  was  made  (178)  bishop  of  the  churcJi  in  the 


place  of  Pothinus,  who  had  died  during  the 
persecution.  As  bishop,  he  wrote  to  Victor 
of  Rome  about  the  year  100  in  respect  to  his 
excommunication  of  the  East  for  differences 
in  the  observance  of  Easter.  All  further  in- 
formation as  to  his  life,  or  the  manner  of  his 
death,  is  wanting. 

Ircnanis  wrote  several  smaller  works,  of 
which  fragments  have  been  preserved.  His 
chief  work  was  that  commonly  called  Against 
Ilcrcdcs.  It  is  in  five  books,  of  whicli  the 
first  two  set  forth  the  doctrines  of  heretical 
sects,  specially  the  Gnostics,  and  the  last  three 
present  the  doctrines  of  pure  Christianity 
(see  art.  Gnosticism).  In  opposition  to  the 
Gnostics,  Irenajus  holds  fast  to  historic  Chris- 
tianity and  to  the  church  as  its  embodiment. 
His  theological  system  revolves  about  the 
person  of  Christ,  against  whicli  the  Gnostic 
attack  was  the  strongest.  He  is  the  first  theo- 
logian who  made  the  work  of  Christ  central 
in  his  s^'stem,  aud  this  is  his  great  service  to 
t!ie  church.  He  also  defined  the  person  of 
Christ  more  clearly  than  had  been  done  be- 
fore him.  The  work  of  Christ  he  conceives 
under  the  form  of  a  "  recapitulation,"  by 
which  is  meant  that  Christ  came  to  sum  up 
in  himself  all  that  Adam  was  or  should  have 
been,  and  thus  to  restore  man  to  the  immor- 
tality and  holiness  for  which  he  was  de- 
signed. Thus  Christ  is  born  of  the  virgin  as 
Adam  w^as  formed  of  the  earth  ;  the  incarna- 
tion recapitulates  the  flesh  of  Adam  ;  Christ 
was  tempted  in  the  wilderness  as  Adam  was 
in  Eden  ;  and  Christ's  obedience  recapitulates 
the  disobedience  of  Adam,  etc.  Christ  in  all 
these  ways  perfectly  exhibits  in  himsLlf  the 
ideal  of  humanity,  and  thus  brings  man  back 
to  this  ideal.  More  specifically,  he  does  this 
by  his  work  in  the  narrower  sense,  or  by  the 
obedience  and  death  which  establish  the 
ground  of  our  salvation.  How  this  is  effected, 
Irena>us  does  not  exactly  say.  He  has  no 
clear  theory  of  the  Atonement,  but  in  general 
his  thought  is  that  the  Devil  has  man'bound 
in  the  chains  of  deceit  ;  that  Christ  gains  the 
victory  over  him,  and  thus  exhibits  to  man 
the  possibility  of  victory  ;  unmasks  the 
Devil  ;  inspires  the  struggling  sufferer  with 
new  courage  ;  and  thus  delivers  him.  (Sec 
Harvey's  edition  of  Ireuajus'  works,  Cam- 
bridge, Eng.,  1857  ;  Migne,  Pnt.  Gi:  V.  ; 
and  vol.  i.  of  the  "  Ante-Nicene  Fathers," 
published  by  the  Christian  Literature  Com- 
pany of  New"  York,  for  an  excellent  translation; 
Gouilloud,  St.  Ire  nee  et  son  tonps,  1876  ; 
Moiitet,  La  Leqende  d'Jrenee,  1880  ;  also 
Freppel,  St.  Irenec,  Paris,  1861.)     F.  II.  F. 

Irene,  b.  at  Athens  about  752  ;  d.  in  the 
island  of  Lesbos,  803  ;  was  married  in  769  to 
the  Byzantine  emperor,  Leo  IV.,  and  became 
regent  after  his  deatli  in  780,  during  the  mi- 
nority of  her  son,  Constantine  VI.,  whom  she 
had  blinded  in  order  to  maintain  herself  in 
power,  but  was  orerthrown  and  l)anis]ied  by 
Xicephorus  in  802.  She  is  a  saint  of  the 
Greek  Cliurch,  as  she  helped  image-worship 
to  a  signal,  though  transient  triumph. 

Irenics  (from  eiprp>ri,  peace)  is  the  opposite 
of  polemics,  and  proposes  to  itself  the  pleas- 


raoN 


(422) 


ISAAC 


ing  task  of  showing  how  conflicting  views 
may  be  reconciled,  and  how  large  is  the 
ground  common  to  all  Christians.  The  true 
irenical  temper  is  to  be  carefully  distin- 
guished from  its  counterfeit  which  springs 
from  indifferencu.  Real  charity  never  sacri- 
fices truth.  The  present  age  has  shown  a 
gratifying  advance  in  irenical  feeling ;  wit- 
ness the  EvangeUcal  Alliance,  the  German 
Kirchentag,  the  Pan-Anglican  Synod,  the 
Alliance  of  the  Reformed  churches,  etc.  Con- 
troversies when  they  occur  are  conducted  in 
a  milder  spirit,  with  less  acrimony  and  with 
fewer  personalities,  and  the  various  Chris- 
tian churches  have  pleasure  rather  than  pain 
in  seeing  llie  prosperity  of  one  another.  Tlie 
fine  maxim  of  Rupertus  Meldenius  seems  to 
find  universal  acceptance,  "  In  necessary 
things,  unity  ;  in  unnecessary,  liberty ;  in  both 
things,  charity."  Nor  can  any  good  reason 
be  given  why  our  Roman  Catholic  brethren 
should  not  have  the  benefit  of  this  axim  so 
far  as  it  applies  to  them  as  Christians.  (Cf . 
H.  G.  Hasse,  Grundlinien  christlicher  Irenik, 
Leipzig,  1882.)  T.  W.  C. 

Iron,  The  use  of,  was  known  very  early 
among  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  iv.  22).  In  Deut. 
iii.  11,  xxvii.  5,  iron  is  mentioned  as  material 
for  tools  and  implements.  A  preceding 
bronze  epoch,  however,  is  discernible  here  as 
everywhere.  The  weapons  of  Goliath  and 
Samson  were  made  of  bronze  (Judges  xvi. 
21,  1  Sam.  xvii.  5).  "Northern  iron"  (Jer. 
XV.  12)  came  probably  from  the  region  of  the 
Euxine  Sea,  and  the  "  land  whose  stones  are 
iron"  (Deut.  viii.  9)  meant  the  northern 
part  of  Palestine,  where  recent  explorations 
have  discovered  iron  ore  in  great  abundance. 

Irregnlcirity,  in  canon  law,  denotes  such  a 
defect  as  incapacitates  one  from  admission  to 
orders.  There  were  two  classes  of  such  de- 
fects, one  ex  defectu,  the  other  ex  delicto.  To 
the  former  belonged  illegitimate  birth,  physi- 
cal deformity,  lack  of  education,  etc.  ;  to  the 
latter  all  crimes  that  have  become  public,  and 
some,  such  as  heresy  and  apostasy,  that  have 
not  become  public.  From  these,  however,  a 
dispensation  could  be  obtained  from  the  pope, 
and  in  some  cases  from  the  bishop. 

T.  W.  C. 

Irresistible  Grace  is  a  term  in  general  use 
to  denote  the  grace  that  issues  in  conversion. 
Commonly  there  are  struggles  and  at  times  a 
severe  conflict  in  the  soul,  but  in  the  end  the 
Spirit  prevails.  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander 
used  to  say  that  it  was  not  worth  while  for 
Calvinists  to  insist  upon  the  employment  of 
this  term,  since  all  that  was  meant  was  the 
fact  that  such  grace  is  not  effectually  resisted 
by  the  converted  sinner.  T.  W.  C. 

Irving,  Ed.'ward,  b.  at  Annan,  Dumfries- 
shire, Scotland,  Aug.  4,  1793  ;  d.  at  Glas- 
gow, Dec.  4,  1834  ;  was  the  real  founder  of 
the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church.  lie  entered 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1805,  at  the 
age  of  13,  and  graduated  M.A.  in  1809.  The 
following  year  he  became  master  of  the  acade- 
my of  Haddington,  in  1812  of  that  of  Kir- 
kaldy,  and  there  he  remained  until  1818.     In 


1815  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  for  some 
time  he  thought  of  going  to  foreign  parts  as 
a  missionary.  His  ideal  of  Christianity  w^as 
entirely  derived  from  the  primitive  church, 
and  he  felt  not  prompted  to  make  any  changes 
in  it  on  account  of  vhe  changed  conditions  of 
the  world.  The  miraculous  power  was  to 
him  a  natural  and  indispensable  accessory  of 
the  church,  though  at  present  kept  in  abey- 
ance, and  the  "  reign  of  Satan,"  now  at  full 
power,  made  the  second  coming  of  Christ 
only  the  more  necessary  and  sure.  These 
ideas,  kept  aloft  by  a  high-strung  feeling,  he 
set  forth  with  great  power  of  imagination  and 
subtle  application.  In  1819  he  was  appointed 
assistant  to  Dr.  Chalmers  in  St.  John's  par- 
ish, Glasgow,  and  there  he  remained  till  1822. 
His  sermons  did  not  make  any  great  impres- 
sion, but  his  missionary  work  among  the  poor 
and  the  sick  brought  wonderful  results.  He 
was  again  thinking  of  going  out  among  the 
heathens,  when,  in  1822,  he  was  called  to 
London  as  pastor  of  the  Caledonian  church. 
There  his  preaching  made  a  great  sensation. 
The  old  church  became  too  small ;  a  larger 
one  was  built,  and  lie  filled  that  too.  But  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years  it  became  evident 
that  the  impression  he  had  made  was  nothing 
more  than  a  sensation,  and  when  his  ideas 
began  to  develop  and  take  definite  .shape,  his 
congregation  thinned  out.  He  met  Coleridge, 
whose  influence  upon  him  strengthened  the 
transcendental  bent  of  his  mind,  and  he 
began  to  wander  into  obscurities  where  every 
practical  aim  w\as  lost  sight  of.  He  fell  in 
with  the  Venida  del  Mesias  en  Gloria  y 
Magestad,  by  Juan  Josafat  Ebn  Ezra  (the 
Spanish  Jesuit  Lacunza),  Cadiz,  1812,  which 
he  translated,  1827,  and  wrote  a  preface  to, 
thereby  committing  himself  definitely  to 
millenarianism.  In  1830  the  speaking  with 
tongues  began  in  Scotland,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  it  reached  London.  To  Irving 
this  appeared  as  the  beginning  of  the  fulfil- 
ment. He  joined  the  movement,  modestly 
taking  his  place  in  the  second  rank,  and 
though  his  most  intimate  friends  forsook 
him,  and  though,  in  1883,  he  was  deposed 
from  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
he  remained  true  to  his  conviction  to  the  last, 
and  died  wasted  and  worn  out,  but  still  with 
unshaken  confidence  in  his  divine  call.  His 
collected  works,  in  5  vols.,  contain  For  the 
Oracles  of  God,  1823  ;  For  Judgment  to  Come, 
1823 ;  Babylon  and  Infidelity  Foredoomed, 
1826  ;  Sermons,  1828,  3  vols.  ;  Exposition  of 
the  Book  of  Revelation,  1831,  etc.  His  life 
was  written  by  Mrs.  Oliphant,  London,  1862, 
3d  ed.,  1865.  (See  also  Carlyle,  Miscellanies 
and  Reminiscences,  and  G.  Seesemann,  Die 
Lehre  der  Irvingianer,  Mitau,  1881.)    C.  P. 

Irvingites.  See  Catholic  Ajpostolig 
CHCRcn. 

Isaac,  the  second  of  the  Hebrew  patri- 
archs, the  son  which  Sarah  bore  to  Abraham 
when  he  was  100  years  old,  and  who  himself 
became  180  (Gen.  xxxv.  28).  His  name 
means  "laughter"  or  "mocking"  (Gen. 
xvii.  17,  xviii.  12.  xxvi.  6).  Tlie  principal 
scenes  of  his  life  are  the  sacrifice  (Gen.  xxii. 
1-13)   and  his  marriage    (Gen.   xxiv.-xxv.). 


ISAAC 


(423) 


ISHMAEIi 


Iq  the  troubles  between  Jacob  and  Esau  his 
figure  is  somewuat  dim. 

Isaac  of  Antioch,  d.  about  460,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Amid,  Mesopotamia,  and  priest  at 
Antioch,  Syria.  He  lias  written  many  works 
in  Syriac:  treatises  against  Nestorians  and 
Eutychians,  and  poems  on  the  sack  of  Rome 
by  Alaric,  410,  on  the  overthrow  of  Antioch 
by  an  earthquake,  459,  etc.  Of  the  edition 
by  G.  Bickell,  there  have  appeared  vol.  i.  in 
1873,  vol.  ii.  in  1877,  Giessen  ;  G.  Bickell, 
Ausgctciihlte  OciUchte  der  xi/i-ischen  Kirchen- 
mter,  Kempten,  1873  {Bibliothck  der  Kirchen- 
tiiter  44). 

Isagogics.    See  Introduction. 

Isaiah  {Jchoi'dJi's  snlvation),  the  son  of 
Amoz,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  prophets. 
He  began  his  official  career  toward  the  close 
of  Uzziah's  reign  (Isa.  vi.  1),  and  continued 
it  under  the  three  following  monarchs,  Jo- 
tham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  thus  covering  the 
long  period  from  760  to  698  B.C.  Little  is 
known  of  his  personal  history  save  that  he 
was  married  and  had  children  (vii.  3),  and 
was  held  in  high  esteem  (.vxxvii.  2).  Jewish 
tradition  states  that  when  90  years  old  he  was 
sawn  asunder  in  a  hollow  carob-tree  in  Manas- 
seh's  reign. 

Prophecy  of.  This  obviously  consists  of 
two  parts.  The  first  (chs.  i.-.xxxix.)  contains 
a  variety  of  separate  predictions  and  narra- 
tives belonging  to  the  period  of  his  active  ex- 
ertions in  reference  to  the  public  concerns  of 
the  rulers  and  the  people,  while  the  second 
(xl.-lxvi.)  is  one  continuous  strain  directed  to 
the  future.  The  first  12  chapters  of  the  book 
are  occupied  with  Judah.  Isaiah  rebukes 
the  idolatry  and  the  social  vices  that  prevailed 
with  great  severity,  yet  relieved  the  harsh- 
ness of  his  tone  by  references  to  the  great  De- 
liverer to  come  (vii.  14,  ix.  6,  7,  xi.  1-9)  and 
by  occasional  promises.  Then  (chs.  xiii.- 
xxiii.)  he  turns  to  foreign  nations  and  fore- 
tells the  calamities  to  come  upon  Babylon, 
Philistia,  Moab,  Damascus,  Ethiopia,  Egypt, 
Arabia,  and  Tyre,  interposing  before  the  last 
an  oracle  against  Jerusalem.  Chs.  xxiv.- 
xxvi.  contain  a  great  apocalypse  of  the  end 
of  the  world,  al'ter  which  "the  prophet  re- 
sumes his  rebukes  and  warnings  of  his  coun- 
trymen in  relation  to  Assyria,  concluding 
with  the  doom  of  Edom  (xxxiv.)  and  a  vivid 
picture  of  Israel's  redemption  (xxxv.).  The 
next  4  cliapters  are  historical  and  run  parallel 
with  the  records  in  2  Kings.  The  second 
part  hardly  admits  of  division,  save  that  the 
recurrence  of  the  same  refrain,  "  There  is  no 
peace  to  the  wicked  !"  at  the  close  of  chs. 
xlviii.  and  Ivii.  has  suggested  to  many  that 
here  was  a  transition  to  a  new  part  of  the 
general  theme,  which  is  the  deliverance  of 
Israel  from  exile  as  a  type  of  the  greater  de- 
liverance set  forth  in  the  gospels.  In  this  are 
remarkable  descriptions  of  a  suffering  and  of 
a  triumpiiant  ]\Iessiah,  and,  as  a  whole,  it  an- 
swers well  to  its  opening  strain,  "  Comfort 
ye,  comfort  ye,  my  people." 

it  is  the  prevailinc:  opinion  among  conti- 
nental scholars  that  the  second  portion  of  tiiis 
book  was  not  written  by  Isaiah,  but  by  some 


very  able  writer  whose  name  we  do  not 
know,  but  who  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the 
captivity,  and  some  very  plausible  arguments 
are  presented  in  favor  of  this  view,  arising 
from  the  obvious  contrast  between  the  earlier 
and  the  later  prophecies.  But  this  is  of  little 
moment,  for  the  same  critics  take  out  from 
the  earlier  prophecies  chs.  xiii.-xiv.  23,  xxiv.- 
xxvii.,  and  xxxiv.-xxxv.,  which  they  consider 
interpolations  from  the  pen  of  a  later  writer. 
Tlie  reason  is  (hat  all  these  portions  recognize 
Babylon  as  the  great  enemy,  and  deliverance 
from  Babylon  as  the  great  Messianic  blessing, 
whereas  Isaiah  is  the  great  prophet  of  the 
Assyrian  pc^riod,  and  we  have  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  he  prophesied  of  what  was  to 
come  two  centuries  afterward.  But  the  vice 
of  this  reasoning  is  that  it  does  not  consider 
the  divine  foresight  which  lay  back  of  the 
prophet  and  guided  his  utterances,  and  en- 
abled him  to  set  forth  what  was  to  come  ages 
afterward.  He  did  know  of  Babylon  (as  we 
are  told  in  ch.  xxxix.),  and  had  a  sufficient 
reason  for  putting  on  record  tlie  divine  will 
in  relation  to  Israel  and  this  new  enemy. 
His  prophecy  did  its  work  at  the  time  of  its 
utterance,  and  ever  since  for  more  than  20 
centuries  it  has  been  a  mine  of  instruction 
and  comfort  to  the  people  of  God,  none  of 
whom  ever  dreamed  that  it  was  a  poem  of 
much  later  date  surreptitiously  smuggled 
into  the  canon  and  adorned  with  the  great 
name  of  Isaiah.  The  chief  argument  has 
been  supplemented  by  others  based  on  lan- 
guage, style,  and  sentiment,  but  these  are 
not  sustained  by  critical  investigation.  And 
there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  con- 
sentient faith  of  Jews  and  Christians  from 
the  beginning  as  to  the  authorship  of  Isaiah 
rests  upon  a  solid  basis. 

Out  of  the  rich  literature  on  this  prophet 
may  be  singled  out  as  specially  h(  Ipful  the 
commentaries  of  J.  A.  Alexander,  New 
York.  1846-47,  2  vols.,  n.e.  by  Eadie,  1875  ; 
Nagelsbach  (in  Lange,  1878) ;  T.  K.  Cheyne, 
London,  1880-81,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1884;  C. 
Orelli,  Edinburgh,  1890.  (Cf.  Driver  and 
Neubauer,  The  Fifty-third  Chapter  of  Isaiah 
according  to  the  Jewish  Interpreters,  Oxford 
and  London,  1876-77,  2  parts  ;  J.  Forbes, 
llie  Servant  of  the  Lord  in  Isaiah  xl.-lxvi^ 
Reclaimed  to  Isaiah  as  the  Author,  from 
Argument,  Structure  and  Date,  Edinburgh, 
1890  ;  A.  H.  Sayce,  Times  of  Isaiah ,  London, 
1889.)  T.  W.  C. 

Ish-bo'-sheth  {man  of  sJiame),  the  son  of 
Saul,  assumed  the  government  at  JIanhanaim, 
while  David  reigned  at  Hebron,  and  was  ac- 
knowledged as  king  by  all  Israel,  except 
Judah,  but  was  utterly  defeated  in  the  battle 
at  Gibeon  and  assassinated,  after  a  reign  of 
two  j'cars  (2  Sam.  ii.  4). 

Ish'-ma-el  {irhom  God  hearx),  the  son  of 
Abraham  by  Hagar,  was  expelled  from  the 
house,  together  with  his  mother,  on  Sarah's  re- 
quest, and  went  off  into  the  wilderness  of  Beer- 
sheba,  where  he  became  a  hunter  (Gen.  xxi. 
13-20),  married  an  Egyptian  woman,  and 
was  the  progenitor  of  the  Lshmaelites  (Gm. 
xxxvii.  25),  who  at  this  very  dav  are  repre- 
sented by  numerous  Bedouin  tribes  roaming 


{ 


ISIDORE 


(424) 


JABESH-GILEAD 


about  in  the  very  same  places  and  living  prin- 
cipally by  robbery. 

Isidore  Mercator  is  not  the  name  of  any 
real  person,  but  simply  a  mistake  caused  by 
combining  together  one  quotation  from  Isi- 
dore of  Seville  and  one  from  Marius  Mercator, 
both  occurring  in  the  introduction  to  the 
Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals,  and  ascribing  the 
combination  to  one  author,  Isidore  Mercator. 

Isidore  of  Pelusium,  b.  before  370  ;  d. 
after  431  ;  was  archimandrite  of  a  monastery 
at  Pelusium  in  Lov?er  Egypt.  Two  thousand 
and  twelve  letters  by  him,  of  great  interest 
for  the  history  of  his  time,  have  come  down 
to  us,  and  are  found  in  Migne  Pat.  Gr. 
LVIII. 

Isidore  of  Seville,  b.  at  Carthagena,  560, 
of  Roman  and  Christian  parents  ;  was  edu- 
cated by  his  brother,  Leander,  who  was 
bishop  of  Seville  and  active  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Goths,  and  succeeded  him  in  600  ; 
d.  636.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer  and  bo- 
came  one  of  the  most  used  and  best-liked 
teachers  during  the  dark  ages.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  Etymologm  sive  Origines,  a 
kind  of  theological  encyclopcedia,  still  of 
value;  Sententiarum  Libri  III.,  treating  of 
dogmatics  and  ethics  ;  CJironicon,  a  history 
of  the  world  ;  Historm  Gotliorum,  Yandalo- 
rum  et  Suerorum,  etc.  He  had,  however, 
nothing  to  do  with  the  so-called  Isidorian 
Decretals.  The  best  collected  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  by  Faustinus  Arevalus,  Rome, 
1797-1803.  (See  Gams,  Kirchengeschichte 
Spaniens,  Leipzig,  1874,  I.e.) 

Islam.     See  Mohamjiedanism. 

Israel  {t?ie  prince  that  prevails  with  God),  is 
the  surname  given  to  Jacob  after  his  wrestle 
■with  the  angel  at  Manhanaim  (Gen.  xxxii. 
28).  Hence  it  naturally  came  to  signify  the 
whole  body  of  his  descendants,  the  Israelites 
(Ex.  iii.  16),  and  later  on,  by  an  equally  nat- 
ural, metaphorical  turn,  the  chosen  flock  of 
true  believers  (Rom.  ix.  6).  But  it  has,  be- 
sides, a  specific  historical  signification.  That 
kingdom  which,  after  the  death  of  Solomon 
and  the  revolt  under  Rehoboam  (1  Kings  xii. 
20),  was  formed  in  975  B.C.  out  of  the  10 
northern  tribes,  was  generally  called  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  which  consisted  of  the 
two  tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah  settled  in 
the  southern  part  of  Palestine,  with  Jerusa- 
lem as  capital.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  com- 
prised about  9000  square  miles,  with  between 
three  and  four  millions  of  inhabitants.  Sa- 
maria was  its  capital,  built  by  Omri.  Jero- 
boam II.  was  its  most  powerful  king.  It 
lasted  to  731  B.C.,  when  Hoshea  and  the  rem- 
nants of  his  people  were  carried  into  captivity 
to  Assyria  by  Shalmaneser. 

Israelites.  See  Hebrews,  Israel,  and 
Jews. 

Issachar.     See  Tribes. 

Italian  Band  (Acts  x.  1),  means  the  Roman 
cohort  to  which  Cornelius  belonged.    C.  P. 

Itala,  the  name  of  the  oldest  Latin  trans- 


lation of  the  Bible.     See  Bible,  p.  104,  col. 

2 

Itinerancy.  The  method  adopted  by  the 
Methodists  for  their  ministers,  who  are  as- 
signed by  the  bishops  to  churches,  but  are 
not  allowed  to  hold  the  same  charge  more 
than  5  consecutive  years.  On  the  frontier  the 
circuit  system  prevails,  by  which  a  number 
of  preaching  stations  are  served  by  the  same 
set  of  ministers  in  rotation.  The 'itinerancy 
has  been  of  immense  value  in  the  past,  but 
whether  it  is  still  as  useful  is  a  question 
greatly  debated  among  the  Methodists  tliem- 
selves.  The  tendency  during  this  century 
has  been  to  enlarge  the  time  for  holding  the 
same  charge.  T.  W.C. 

It'-tai,  a  chieftain  in  the  army  of  David  dur- 
ing the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  and  sincerely 
devoted  to  him  (2  Sam.  xv.  19-22). 

It-u-rae'-a,  a  small  province,  17  m.  by  20, 
of  Northeastern  Syria,  comprising  an  ele- 
vated plain  of  considerable  fertility  at  the 
base  of  Mt.  Hermon.  It  received  its  name 
from  Itur  or  Jetur,  one  of  Ishmael's  sons, 
and  belonged  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh. 
At  the  time  of  Christ  it  formed  part  of  the 
tetrarchy  of  Philip  (Luke  iii.  1).  The  present 
Jedur  is  almost  desolate. 

Ivo  of  Chartres,  Yvo  Carnotensis,  b.  about 
1040  ;  d.  Dec.  23,  1116  ;  was  educated,  to- 
gether with  Anselm,  in  the  monastery  of  Bec- 
by  Lanfranc,  and  was  made  bishop  of  Char- 
tres, 54  m.  s.w.  of  Paris,  in  1090.  In  the 
great  contest  then  going  on  between  state  and 
church,  and  which  had  come  to  a  pointed 
issue  in  the  question  about  the  right  of  inves- 
titure, he  held  very  moderate  and  fair  views, 
but  he  maintained  them  with  unwonted 
energy  and  independence,  alternately  attack- 
ing and  defending  the  papal  measures  as  he 
agreed  or  disagreed  with  them.  His  works, 
among  which  especially  his  letters  are  of 
great  interest,  are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
CLVII.-CLXI.  Lives  by  Dombrowski,  Bres- 
lau,  1881,  and  Sieber,  Leipzig,  1885. 

Ivory  was  very  well  known  and  highly  ap- 
preciated by  the  Hebrews.  Tliey  obtained  it 
both  by  caravan  and  by  vessel,  and,  as  the 
Hebrew  name  proves,  they  knew  that  it  was 
a  tooth,  not  a  horn.  Solomon's  throne  was 
made  of  ivory  and  gold  (1  Kings  x.  18)  ;  beds 
inlaid  with  ivory  were  in  use  (Amos  vi.  4)  ; 
the  ivory  house  of  Ahab  (1  Kings  xxii.  39) 
was  probably  a  palace  whose  walls  were  pan- 
elled with  ivory,  like  the  palace  of  Menelaus, 
described  in  the  Odyssey. 


Jab'-bok  {pouring  ovt),  a  torrent  near  Mt. 
Gilead,  flowing  for  60  m.  s.w.  and  falling  into 
the  Jordan,  midway  between  the  Sea  of  Gali- 
lee and  the  Dead  Sea.  Over  this  stream 
Jacob  passed  (Gen.  xxxii.  22)  by  a  ford,  now 
pointed  out  at  Kalaat  Zerka,  on  the  great  road 
from  Damascus.  T.  W.  C. 

Ja'-besh-Gil'-e-ad  (dry  Gilead),  the  chief 
city  of  Manasseh,  cast  of  the  Jordan.     It  was 


JAOHIN 


(425) 


JACOB 


sacked  by  the  Israelites  (Judges  xxi.  8-14)  ; 
afterward  delivered  by  Saul  from  the  Am- 
monites (1  Sam.  xi.  l-il),  in  return  for  which 
its  people  rescued  the  bodies  of  him  and  his 
sons  from  the  Philistines  (2  Sam.  ii.  5)  and 
interred  them.  Its  ruins  are  on  or  near  VVady 
Yabes,  southeast  of  Pella.  T.  W.  C. 

Ja'-chin  and  Bo'-az  (firm  and  liveli/),  the 
two  pillars  set  up  in  tlie  entrance  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  (1  Kings  vii.  21),  about  35  feet 
high.  They  were  probably  named  after  the 
givers.  T.  W.  C. 

Jablonski,  Daniel  Ernst,  D.D.  (Oxford, 
1706),  a  bisliop  of  the  Unitus  Fmtruin,  or 
Moravian  Cliurch  ;  son  of  Bishop  Peter  Figu- 
lus,  who  had  changed  the  old  name,  and 
grandson  of  Amos  Comenius  ;  b.  at  Nasseu- 
Imben,  West  Prussia,  Nov.  2fi,  1660  ;  d.  at 
Berlin,  May  27,  1741.  After  being  educated 
at  Lissa  and  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  he  went  to 
Oxfofd,  1680  ;  became  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
church  at  Magdeburg,  168:3,  and  rector  of  the 
college  of  the  Moravian  church  at  Lissa, 
1686.  He  was  appointed  court  preacher  at 
Koenigsberg,  1691  ;  at  Berlin,  1693  ;  and 
consecrated  a  bisiiop  of  the  Uiiitas  Fratrum 
at  Lissa,  1699.  In  1703  became  the  actual 
head  of  the  remnant  of  this  old  Protestant 
church  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  and  pro- 
moted its  interests  in  Poland,  Hungary,  and 
Prussia.  He  was  created,  in  turn,  a  councillor 
of  the  consistory,  a  church  councillor,  and 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  Berlin.  The  efforts  which  he  made,  at  the 
request  of  King  Frederick  I.,  and  in  connec- 
tion with  Leibnitz,  to  bring  about  a  union  be- 
tween the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches 
were  unsuccessful.  In  1735  he  consecrated 
David  Nitschmaun,  the  first  bishop  of  the 
Renewed  Moravian  Church,  and  in  1737  con- 
secrated Count  Zinzendorf  in  like  manner. 
His  chief  works  were  an  edition  of  the  He- 
brew Bible  (1699),  a  treatise  setting  forth  the 
rights  of  Polish  Protestants,  Jura,  et  Liber- 
tates  Dinxidcnfium  in  Religione  Ghrintiana  in 
Jie.fjno  Polonirv,  etc.  (1708),  an  edition  of  the 
Talmud  (1715-21),  Historia  ConMnsus  Seu- 
domiriensis,  etc.  (Berlin,  1731),  and  a  collec- 
tion of  sermons  in  5  volumes.  (See  Kappe, 
Sammhtnr)  vertraiiter  Briefe  Leihnitzens  und 
J.,  Leipzig,  1747  ;  De  Schweinitz.  Hintorif  of 
the  Unitas  Fratrum,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1885.) 

J.  T.  ILWIILTON. 
Ja'-cob  (heel-holder,  supplanter),  the  son  of 
Isaac,  born  after  his  twin-brother  Esau,  and 
named  from  what  occurred  at  his  birth  (Gen. 
XXV.  26).  He  took  advantage  of  I>au's  weak- 
ness to  buy  Ins  birthright  for  a  mess  of  meat 
(Gen.  XXV.  34,  Ileb.  xii.  16),  and  afterward, 
■\vith  his  mother's  help,  deceived  his  aged 
father  and  obtained  the  patriarchal  blessing 
(Gen.  xxvii.).  To  avoid  his  brother's  wrath 
he  tied  to  Mesopotamia.  On  the  way  he  had 
a  glorious  vision  at  Bethel  and  a  blessed  prom- 
ise. He  reached  the  home  of  Laban,  with 
whom  he  spent  20  years,  and  married  two 
of  his  daugliters,  Leah  and  liachcl.  Laban 
treated  liim  harshly,  but  God  prospered  him, 
and  he  rftvinicd  to  Canaan.  On  the  border 
the  angels  of  God  met  him,  and  the  God  of 
angels  "wrest  led  with  him  at  Penucl  (Gen. 


xxxii.),  and  he  had  a  peaceful  meeting  with 
Esau.  He  then  settled  at  Shechem.  but 
further  trials  awaited  him.  Dinah,  Simeon, 
Levi,  and  Reuben  caused  him  shame,  his 
mother  and  Rachel  were  removed  by  death, 
he  lost  Joseph  and  was  threatened  with  the 
loss  of  Benjamin,  but  finally  he  went  to  Egypt 
and  there  died,  and  was  buried  in  the  cave  of 
Machpelah.  He  had  many  weaknesses,  but, 
vmder  the  divine  discipline,  grew  steadfastly 
in  grace  and  left  an  example  of  patient  per- 
severance. His  name  is  used  in  the  New 
Testament  to  illustrate  the  sovereignty  of 
God  (Rom.  ix.  13)  and  the  power  of  faith 
(Heb.  xi.  9,  21).  T.  W.  C. 

Jacob's  Well,  excavated  by  him  when  he 

settled  in  Shechem,  memorable  as  the  scene 
of  our  Lord's  conversation  with  the  woman 
of  Samaria  (John  iv.  5,  6).  It  is  a  mile  from 
Nablus,  and  on  the  edge  of  the  plain  El 
Mukhna,  about  75  feet  deep  and  lined  with 
masonrv.  T.  W.  C. 

Jacob  Baradaeus  (from  the  Syriac,  Bara- 
dai,  a  "  liorse  blanket,"  his  garment);  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Nisibis,  in  543,  by 
the  monophysite  patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
Theodosius,  and  from  that  day  till  his  death, 
July  30,  578,  he  spent  his  life  in  wandering 
all  through  the  regions  between  the  boundaries 
of  Egypt  and  the  border  of  the  Euphrates, 
preaching,  consecrating  bishops  and  priests, 
and  trying  to  organize  and  expand  the  scat- 
tered monophysite  communities,  which  after 
him  were  called  Jacobites.  (See  Kleyn, 
Jacob  Baradaus,  Leyden,  1882.) 

Jacob  of  Edessa,  b.  in  the  middle  of  the 
7th  century,  near  Antioch  ;  d.  708  near  Edes- 
sa ;  was  educated  in  Alexandria,  and  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Edessa  in  687,  but  resigned 
hi 5  see  in  688  on  account  of  disagreement 
with  his  clergy,  and  lived  since  in  literary 
retirement,  tfanslating  works  by  Aristotle, 
Porphyry,  the  two  Gregories,  and  others,  into 
Syriac,  most  of  which  have  come  down  to  us 
and  are  found  in  manuscript  in  the  libraries 
of  London,  Paris,  Florence,  and  Rome. 

Jacob  of  Misa,  b.  at  Misa,  Bohemia,  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century  ;  d.  in 
Prague,  Aug.  9,  1429  ;  was  appointed  pastor 
first  at  Tina,  afterward  of  St.  ^lichael  in 
Prague  ;  began  in  1414  to  administer  the  cup 
to  his  parishioners  in  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  wrote  a  DemonMratio  and 
an  Apologia  in  defence  of  the  practice  he  liad 
adopted,  and  which  he  continued  in  spite  of 
the  remonstrances  of  his  ecclesiastical  su- 
periors. 

Jacob  of  Todi,  Jacopone  da  Todi,  was  a 
lawyer  in  his  nativ(;  town,  situated  24  m.  s. 
of  Perugia,  Italy,  but  entered  the  Franciscan 
order  in  1268;' became  famous  as  a  hymn- 
writer,  and  died  in  1306.  His  most  celebrated 
hymn  is  S/abat  mater  dolorosa,  which  still  is 
niuch  used  in  the  Roman  Catholif;  service, 
and  which  has  been  set  to  music  by  Pales- 
trina,  Pergolese,  Haydn,  Rossini,  and  others. 
(See  Ozanani,  Les  poeten  Franciscains  en  Italic 
au  liime  sieclc,  Paris,  1852.) 

Jacob  of  Viragfjio,  Jacobus  de  Voragine, 


{ 

i 
i 


JACOBS 


(426) 


JAMES 


\ 


b.  in  1230  ;  d.  in  1298  ;  was  in  1292  made 
archbishop  of  Geneva.  He  is  tlie  authoi-  of 
the  so-called  Legemla  aurea,  or  Legenda 
Sanctorum,  sometimes  also  called  Historia 
Longobardica,  on  account  of  the  short  Lom- 
bard chronicle  attached  to  the  life  of  Pope 
Pelagius.  The  legends  are  gathered  partly 
from  books  and  partly  from  oral  tradition, 
but  the  coiupilation  is  crude  and  clumsy,  and 
has  interest  only  for  the  study  of  mediaeval 
superstition  ;  for  it  became  one  of  the  most 
read  and  best  appreciated  folk-books  of  tlie 
Middle  Ages,  often  transcribed,  immediate!}^ 
printed  after  the  invention  of  the  printing- 
press,  and  translated  into  all  languages  in 
which  people  read.  There  is  an  English 
translation  by  William  Caxton  from  the  15th 
century,  often  reprinted  ;  latest  edition  by 
Th.  Graesse,  Vratislavia  (Breslau),  1890. 

Jacobi,  Friedrich  Keinrich,  b.  at  Diissel- 
dorf,  Jan.  25,  1748  ;  d.  in  Munich,  March 
10,  1819  ;  received  a  business  education  ; 
took  charge  of  a  large  mercantile  concern 
after  his  father's  death  in  1763  ;  was  in  1770 
made  a  member  of  the  administration  of 
Jiilich  and  Berg  ;  lived  in  Holstein  during 
the  disturbances  of  the  French  Revolution, 
1793-1804,  and  settled  then  in  Munich  as 
president  of  the  newly  established  academy. 
By  his  essays  on  Spinoza,  Hume,  the  critical 
philosophy,  etc.,  he  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  German  philosophy,  and  still 
more  on  German  civilization  in  general,  by  his 
philosophical  novels,  Allwill  and  Woldemnr. 
He  is  called  the  philosopher  of  faith,  and  the 
appellation  illustrates  his  standpoint  quite 
well.  Many  and  very  various  religious  move- 
ments received  an  impulse  from  him  or  found 
its  main  support  with  him.  His  collected 
works  appeared  at  Leipzig,  1312-25,  6  vols., 
and  his  life. by  Zierngiebl,  Leipzig,  1867. 

Jacobites  is  the  name  adopted  by  the  Mo- 
nophysites  (q.v.)  of  Syria  in  the  middle  of  the 
6th  century,  when  Jacob  Baradaeus(q  v.)  was 
consecrated  their  bishop,  and  succeeded  in 
reorganizing  them  in  definite  congregations. 
They  are  now  spread  over  Syria,  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  Babylonia,  and  are  intimately 
connected  with  the  Thomas  Christians  of  In- 
dia. Their  number  is  estimated  at  60,000 
families.  They  recognize  only  the  first  three 
oecumenical  councils  and  the  so-called  Kobber 
Synod  of  Ephesus,  449.  But  they  respect 
the  Synod  of  Chalcedon,  451,  and  condemn 
Eutyches.  Their  patriarch  resides  at  Mar- 
din.  Since  the  14th  century  he  is  always 
called  Ignatius,  just  as  the  Maronite  patri- 
arch is  called  Peter,  the  Chaldean  Joseph, 
and  the  Nestorian  Simon  or  Elijah.  In  1874 
he  went  to  England  to  seek  help  from  the 
Anglican  Church  against  the  violent  obtru- 
siveness  of  the  lioman  Catholic  Church,  espe- 
cially the  Jesuits,  and  since  that  time  the  An- 
glican Church  maintains  an  active  mission 
among  the  Jacobites.  (See  Khayyath,  *S>m 
Orientales,  Rome,  1867.) 

Jacobs,  Henry  Eyster,  D.D.  (Thiel  Col- 
lege, Carthage,  111..  1877),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at 
Gettysburg,  Pa.,  Nov.  10,  1844  ;  graduated 
at  Pennsylvania  College,    Gettysburg,    1863, 


and  Gettysburg  Theological  Seminary,  1865  ; 
tutor  in  Pennsylvania  College,  1864-67  ; 
home  missionary  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  1867-68; 
pastor  and  principal  of  Thiel  Hall,  Philips- 
burg,  Pa.,  now  Thiel  College,  Greenville, Pa., 
1868-70  ;  professor  in  Pennsylvania  College, 
1870-83  ;  professor  of  systematic  theology  in 
the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Seminary,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  since  1883.  He  has  translated 
Hatter's  Compend  of  Lutheran  Theology  (with 
G.  F.  Spieker),  Philadelphia,  1867,  4th  ed., 
1882  ;  Schmidts  Doctrinal  Theologg  of  the 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  (with  C.  A. 
Hay),  1875  ;  TJie  Book  of  Concord  (annotated), 
1882-83,  2  vols. 

Jacobus,     Melancthon     Williams,     D.D. 

(Jefferson.  1852),  LL.D.  (Princeton,  1867), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Sept.  19, 
1816  ;  d.  at  Allegheny,  Pa.,  Oct.  2G,  1876.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton,  1834,  and  in  theology, 
1838  ;  was  pastor  in  Brooklyn,  1839-50.  and 
then  professor  of  Oriental  and  biblical  litera- 
ture in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary. 
He  published  Notes  on  the  New  Testament, 
1848-59  [Matt.-Acts],  New  York.  4  vols., 
and  on  Genesis,  1864-65,  2  vols.      F.  M.  B. 

Ja'-el  {icild  goat),  wife  of  Heber  the  Ke- 
nite.  Having  invited  Sisera,  the  defeated  gen- 
eral, into  her  tent,  she  treacherously  slew 
him  while  sleeping.  Deborah's  song  (Judges 
v.  24)  appears  to  praise  her,  but  it  is  only  the 
deed,  not  the  accompanyine;  circumstances. 
T.  W.  C. 

Jaffe,  Pbilipp,  b.  at  Schwerzenz,  6  m.  e. 
of  Posen,  Feb.  17,  1819  ;  d.  in  Wittenberge, 
April  3,  1870.  He  studied  first  medicine,  af- 
terward history  ;  was  the  assistant  of  Pertz  iu 
the  publication  of  the  Mon.  Oerm.,  1851-63, 
and  became  professor  extraordinary  of  history 
in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1862.  Besides 
several  works  on  German  history,  he  pub- 
lished Regesta  Pontifcum  Romanorum,  Ber- 
lin, 1851. _  2d  ed.,  1881,  a  book  of  great  im- 
portance in  church  history.  He  was  a  Jew. 
In  1869  he  was  converted,  and  in  1870  he  com- 
mitted suicide. 

Jahn,  Johann,  b.  at  Tasswitz,  Moravia, 
June  18,  1750  ;  d.  in  Vienna,  Aug.  16,  1816  ; 
entered  the  order  of  the  Premonstratenses  iu 
1774,  and  was  in  1789  appointed  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  in  the  University  of  Vien- 
na, but  was  removed  from  his  chair  in  1805, 
and  several  of  his  books  were  even  put  on  the 
Index.  His  Biblical  Archeology  was  trans- 
lated into  English,  Andover,  1823,  5th  ed.. 
New  York,  1849,  and  also  his  LListory  of  the 
Ilebreic  Commonwealth,  Andover,  1828,  2 
vols.,  3d  ed.  rev.,  Oxford,  1840. 

Jainism.     See  India,  p.  404. 

Ja'-ir  {Jehovah  enlightens).  1.  A  man  of 
Judah  who,  under  Moses,  made  great  con- 
quests in  the  trans-Jordanic  region  (Num. 
xxxii.  41).  2.  A  Gil  ,adite  of  Manasseh  who 
judged  Israel  22  years  (Judges  x.  3-5),  and 
liad  30  sons,  who  ruled  30  cities.     T.  W.  C. 

James  Cthe  same  as  Jacob,  sup2')lanter). 
1.  James  the  Elder,  son  of  Zebedee  and  Sa- 
lome, and  a  brother  of  John  the  apostle  (Matt. 
iv.  21,  xxvii.  56).     With  Peter  and  John  he 


JAMSS 


(427) 


JANSEN 


witnessed  the  transfiijuration,  the  raisin^?  of 
Jairus'  daughter,  and  the  agony  in  Gethseni- 
ane.  His  apostolic  hibors  dill  not  extend 
beyond  Judsea.  Beheaded  by  Herod  Agrippa 
(a.d.  44),  he  became  the  lir.st  martyr  among 
the  apostles  (Acts  xii.  2).  2.  Another  apos- 
tle, son  of  Alphueus  or  Clopas  (Matt.  x. 
3.  John  xix.  25)  and  Mary,  called  James 
the  Less  (Mark  xv.  40),  to' distinguish  him 
from  the  son  of  Zebedee.  lie  is  supposed 
to  have  labored  in  the  southwest  of  Pal- 
estine and  afterward  in  Egypt.  3.  "  The 
Lord's  brother"  (Gal.  i.  19),  that  is,  a  son  of 
Joseph  and  Mary,  or,  as  some  think,  a  cousin 
of  Jesus.  He  resided  at  Jerusalem,  was  mar- 
ried (1  Cor.  ix.  5),  and  was  early  a  recognized 
leader  in  the  church  (Acts  xii.  17,  xxi.  18, 
Gal.  ii.  9,  12).  H-j  presided  at  the  council 
held  at  Jerusalem,  a.d.  49  (Acts  xv.)  and 
proposed  the  decree  which  was  adopted.  In 
Gal.  i.  19  he  is  apparently  (not  certainly) 
classed  as  an  apostle.  He  is  called  "  the 
Just"  by  Josephus,  and  stood  in  high  repute 
even  among  the  Jews,  but  was  slain  by  the 
Sanhedrin,  according  to  Josephus,  A  D.  G2,  but 
according  to  Hegesippus,  a.d.  69.    T.  W.  C. 

James,  Epistle  of,  "a  servant  of  God  and 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  It  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  written  by  James  the 
Just,  probably  from  Jerusalem,  before  a.d. 
62,  and  possibly  much  earlier.  It  is  addressed 
to  "  the  12  tribes  which  are  of  the  Disper- 
sion," that  is,  Jewish  believers.  The  style  is 
marked  and  original,  unlike  any  other  Nev/ 
Testament  writing.  It  is  sententious,  vivid, 
and  ligurative,  and  rich  in  appropriate  illus- 
trations. The  design  is  ethical,  not  doctrinal. 
The  writer  supposes  the  distinctive  doctrines 
of  Christianity  known,  and  pushes  their  prac- 
tical applications.  He  says  nothing  of  the 
atonement,  Christ's  resurrection  and  ascen- 
sion, or  the  work  of  the  Spirit.  Even  our 
Saviour's  name  occurs  only  twice  (i.  1,  ii.  1). 
A  close  resemblance  to  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  has  been  noted,  many  of  the  precepts 
and  illustrations  being  the  .same  in  the  Sermon 
and  the  epistle.  The  logical  connection  is 
not  easy  to  trace.  The  author  dwells  on  the 
benefits  of  affliction,  the  observance  of  the 
moral  law,  the  sin  of  worldliness,  the  worth- 
lessness  of  faith  without  works,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  tongue,  the  pursuit  of  peace,  the 
avoidance  of  covetousness,  and  the  exercise 
of  patience  and  prayer.  The  apparent  differ- 
ence between  him  and  Paiil  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  former  opposes  an  inifruitful  theo- 
retical belief,  while  the  latter  opposes  legalism 
and  self-righteousness.  Besides  the  general 
commcmtaries,  Lange,  ^Mcyer,  the  Bible  Com- 
mentan/ (Scott),  Popular  C'ommoitnrj/  (Gloag), 
see  R.  Johnstone,  Edinburgh,  1871,  2d  cd., 
1888  ;  and  C.  F.  Deems,  under  caption  The 
Gospel  of  Common  Sense,  New  York,  1890. 
T.  W.  C. 

James,  John  Angell,  D.D.  (Princeton, 
18—  ;  Glasgow,  18 — ).  Congrcgationalist  ;  b. 
at  Blandford.  Dorsetshire,  103  m.  w.  by  s,  of 
London.  June  6,  1785  ;  d.  at  Birmingham, 
Oct.  ].  1859.  lie  .studied  at  Gosport,  and  was 
pa.stor  of  Carr's  Lane  chapel,  Birmingham, 
from   Sept.,    1805.     He  acquired  fame  as  a 


preacher,  and  was  active  in  forming  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  in  184C.  His  writings, 
as  collected,  London,  1860-G4,  fill  15  vol- 
umes ;  the  most  notable  are,  I'Jie  Anxious 
Inquirer,  Birmingham,  1834,  14th  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1884  ;  An  Farnent  Ministry,  1848  ;  the 
latter  has  been  widely  circulated  and  trans- 
lated. His  Life  and  Letters,  edited  by  his 
colleague,  R.  W.  Dale,  appeared  London, 
1362.  (See  also  True  Greatness,  a  Brief 
'Cemoir,  1860,  and  a  review  of  his  life  and 
character  by  J.  Campbell,  1860.)     F.  M.  B 

Jameson,  Mrs.  Anna  (Murphy),  b.  in  Dub- 
lin, May  19,  1794  ;  d.  at  Ealing,  London, 
March  i7,  1860.  In  1825  she  contracted  an 
unhappy  marriage  with  Robert  Jameson,  a 
barrister  ;  in  1829  he  went  to  Dominica  as  a 
judge,  and  she  returned  to  her  father,  a  paint- 
er of  note.  She  gained  much  literary  re- 
pute, and  in  her  later  years  rendered  impor- 
taut  services  to  the  cause  of  charity  and  re- 
form. Among  her  books  are,  Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art,  London,  1848,  2  vols.  ;  Le- 
gends of  the  Monastic  Orders,  1850  ;  Legends 
of  the  Madonna,  1852  ;  Llistory  of  our  L^ord  in 
Art,  1860,  vol.  i.  (vol.  ii.  completed  by  Lady 
Eastlake,  1864).  F.  M.  B. 

Janes,  Edmund  Storer,  M.D.,  D.D.  (Uni- 
versity of  Vermont,  1844),  LL.D.  (  ), 
Methodist  ;  b.  at  ShefField,  Berk.sliire  County, 
Mass.,  April  27,  1807  ;  d.  in  New  York  City, 
Sept.  18,  1876.  He  was  early  removed  to 
Salisbury,  Conn.-;  taught  from  1824  to  1830, 
meantime  studying  law,  and  afterward  medi- 
cine ;  entered  the  Pliihulelphia  Conference, 
1830  ;  became  financial  secretary^  of  the 
American  Bible  Society,  1840,  and  was  elected 
bishop,  1844.  In  this  office  he  was  pre-emi- 
nent for  labors  and  travels,  and  contributed 
as  largely  as  any  man  of  his  time  to  the 
growth  and  prosperity  of  his  denomination. 
(See  his  life  bv  II.  B.'Ridgawav,  New  York, 
1882.)               '                             '     F.  M.  B. 

Jan'-nes  and  Jam'-bres,  two  of  the  princi- 
pal magicians  of  Egypt  who  attempted  to 
imitate  the  miracles  of  ]\Io.ses  and  Aaron  (Ex. 
vii.  11,  etc.).  Their  names  are  not  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament,  but  occur  in  the  Targum 
of  Jonathan  and  in  2  Tim.  iii.  8.     T.  W.  C. 

Janow,  Matthias  von,  descended  from  a 
noble  Bohemian  family  ;  studied  theology  at 
Prague  and  in  Paris  ;  was  appointed  canon 
in  tiie  cathedral  of  St.  Vitus,  Prague,  1381, 
and  died  there,  Nov.  30,  1394.  He  was  one 
of  the  precursors  of  IIus  and  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  treatises  which  he  collected  himself  iu 
1392,  under  the  title,  Jlcgnlm  V.  et  jV.  Ih^ta. 
menti.  (See  Jordan,  Die  Vorluiifer  dcs  JIus- 
sitentMims,  Leipzig,  1846  ;  Lociiler,  Johann 
von  Wiclifvnddie  Vorgeschichte  der  Reforma- 
tion, 1873,  2  vols..  I.e.) 

Jansen  and  Jansenism.  Cornelius  Jan- 
sen,  b.  at  Acquoi,  North  Holland,  the  Nether- 
lands, Oct.  28,  1585  ;  d.  at  Ypres,  West 
Flanders,  Belgium,  May  6,  1638 ;  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Louvain  ;  lived 
for  sevenxl  years  in  Paris  and  at  Bayonne, 
and  became  principal  of  the  newly  erected 
I'ulcheria  College  in  Louvain,  1617  ;'  profess- 


JANSEN 


(428) 


JANSEN 


or  of  theology  in  the  university,  1630  ;  and 
bisliop  of  Ypres,  1636.  This  last  promotion, 
by  the  king  of  Spain,  he  owed  to  his  Mars 
Oallicus,  1635,  a  pamphlet  full  of  violent  in- 
vectives against  the  king  of  France  and  Car- 
dinal Richelieu  on  account  of  their  alliance 
with  the  Protestants  of  Germany.  Several 
other  writings,  Alexipharmacum,  1630  ;  No- 
tarum  Sponcjia,  1631,  etc.,  were  expressly 
directed  against  tlie  Reformed.  Neverthe- 
less, he  was  no  friend  of  the  Jesuits.  Twice, 
in  1633  and  1627,  he  went  to  Madrid  as  the 
representative  of  the  University  of  Louvain, 
for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the  exclusion  of 
the  Jesuits  from  the  chairs  of  philology  and 
philosophy  in  that  institution,  and  in  tlie  con- 
troversy between  Archbishop  Rovenius  of 
Utrecht  and  the  order,  he  sided  with  the 
former.  On  the  contrary,  after  the  publica- 
tion of  Augustinvs,  which  is  the  positive  ex- 
pression of  his  personal  views,  the  Jesuits  be- 
came his  deadly  enemies.  This  book,  Avgus- 
tinus,  slm  doctrina  StL  Augustini  de  Immanm 
natures  sanitate,  mgritudine,  medicina  adver- 
sus  Pelagianos  et  Massilienses  was  really  the 
result  of  more  than  20  years  of  labor.  While 
studying  at  Louvain,  he  had  formed  an  inti- 
mate friendship  with  Du  Vergier.  From 
1613  to  1617  he  lived  with  him  in  Bayonne  ; 
they  studied  Augustine's  works  together,  and 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Roman  Church 
in  many  points  had  deviated  from  the  straight 
line  of  orthodoxy,  as  that  line  had  been 
marked  out  by  him.  When,  in  1621,  Du 
Vergier  visited  Jansen  in  Louvain,  they 
agreed  to  enter  jointly  upon  a  criticism  of 
the  standpoint  of  tlie  Roman  Church  viewed 
in  the  light  of  St.  Augustine,  Jansen  treating 
the  doctrinal  part  of  the  question,  Du  Vergier 
the  part  concerned  with  polity  and  disci- 
pline. Jansen  finished  his  work  a  short  time 
before  he  died,  and  the  discrepancy  which  it 
exposed  between  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Church  and  the  doctrines  of  St.  Augustine  is 
Jansenism.  It  was  published  at  Louvain, 
1640,  in  three  volumes,  folio. 

First  the  Jesuits  tried  to  prevent  the  print- 
ing of  the  book  altogether.  In  that  they 
failed,  but  after  the  publication  they  suc- 
ceeded in  having  it  forbidden,  first  by  the  In- 
quisition, Aug.  1,  1641,  and  then  by  the  pope, 
Urban  VIII.,  in  the  bull  In  erninenti,  March 
6,  1642.  The  bull,  however,  met  with  con- 
siderable opposition  both  from  the  bishops 
and  from  the  universities.  Quite  conspicuous 
was  the  resistance  offered  by  the  monastery 
of  Port  Royal,  in  Paris.  Since  1623  it  stood 
under  the  direction  of  Du  Vergier,  and  after 
his  death  in  1643,  under  that  of  his  pupil. 
Antoine  Arnauld  (q.v.).  It  was  the  home  of 
a  fully  developed  Jansenism  long  before  the 
world  ever  heard  about  such  a  thing.  The 
bull  In  eminenti  condemned  Jansen's  book  in 
general  terms  without  giving  any  specifica- 
tion. In  1651,  85  members  of  the  French 
clergy  petitioned  the  pope  for  siich  a  speci- 
fication, and  it  was  granted  by  Innocent  X., 
May  31,  1653.  But  in  1655  Arnauld  pub- 
lished his  Lcttre  d'un  docteur  de  Sorbonne  d 
tin  due  et  pair  de  France,  in  which,  though  he 
admitted  that  the  5  propositions  condemned 
by  Innocent  X.  were  erroneous,  he  protested 


that  they  were  not  found  in  Jansen's  book,  or 
at  least  not  used  by  him  in  the  sense  in  wliich 
they  were  condemned  by  the  pope.  This 
touched  Alexander  VII.,  the  successor  of  In- 
nocent X.,  to  the  quick.  He  asserted  with 
great  vehemence  that  the  5  propositions  did 
occur  in  Jansen's  book  and  were  used  by 
him  in  the  sense  condemned,  and  he  peremp- 
torily demanded  that,  under  penalty  of  ex- 
communication, every  one  should  subscribe 
to  a  formula  condemning  Jansen.  The  king, 
Louis  XIV.,  always  averse  to  the  Jansenists 
because  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  in- 
terfered, and  the  monks  and  nuns  of  Port 
Royal  were  compelled  to  subscribe,  though 
they  did  so  with  certain  reservations.  Ar- 
nauld had  made,  in  the  above-mentioned  let- 
ter, a  distinction  between  the  question  of  right 
and  the  question  of  fact.  When  the  pope.'he 
said,  confirms  anything  as  right  or  condemns 
it  as  wrong,  he  must  be  obeyed  ;  he  is  infalli- 
ble. But  with  respect  to  the  mere  ciuestion 
of  fact,  his  perception  is  as  limited  and  as 
liable  to  mistakes  as  anybody's  else.  Hence 
the  reservations  of  the  subscription.  The 
papal  authority  was  at  stake.  Port  Royal 
was  at  that  moment  a  power  which  had  to  be 
managed.  In  1656  Pascal  published  his  Pro- 
vincial Letters,  and  though  they  did  not  attack 
the  pope  himself,  they  made  such  an  onset 
upon  the  pope's  most  trusted  and  most  power- 
ful ally,  the  Jesuits,  as  had  never  been  seen 
before.  A  frightful  contest  ensued  between 
the  Jansenists  and  the  Jesuits,  and  the  latter 
were  evidently  worsted.  Other  circumstances 
made  the  situation  still  more  difficult.  The 
distinction  of  Arnauld  was  adopted  by  4  of 
the  bishops  of  France,  those  of  Alet,  Angers, 
Beauvais,  and  Pamicrs,  and  Alexander  VII. 
was  compelled  to  negotiate.  He  did  not 
yield,  however,  but  the  so-called  "peace" 
which  his  successor,  Clement  IX.,  bi-ought 
about  in  1668  was  a  defeat. 

Meanwhile  the  fight  between  Jansenists 
and  Jesuits  went  on  until,  in  1701,  by  the  so- 
called  "  Cas  de  Conscience,"  the  battle  once 
more  became  pitched  betw^een  the  Jansenists 
and  the  pope.  A  Jansenist  asked  whether 
absolution  should  be  given  to  a  priest  who 
on  his  death-bed  confessed  that,  though  with 
the  church  and  the  pope  he  condemned  the  5 
propositions,  he  still  felt  uncertain  as  to  the 
question  whether  they  actually  were  found 
in  Jansen's  Augustinus  or  not,  and  50  doc- 
tors of  the  Sorbonne  declared  that  in  such 
a  case  absolution  should  not  be  withheld. 
The  Jansenists  published  the  declaration,  but 
Clement  XL  condemned  it  in  1703,  and,  in- 
stigated by  Louis  XIV.,  he,  in  1705,  issued 
the  bull  Yineam  Domini,  by  which  he  took  up 
the  standpoint  of  Alexander  VIL,  absolute 
condemnation  and  unreserved  submission. 
The  nuns  of  Port  Royal  refused  acquiescence. 
In  1707  they  were  excommunicated  ;  in  1709 
the  monastery  was  dissolved  ;  in  1710  the 
buildings  were  razed  to  the  groxmd.  This, 
however,  was  really  a  victory  for  the  king  ; 
the  pope  had  still  his  laurels  to  win.  In  1687 
Paschasius  Quesnel  had  published  his  Reflex- 
ions Morales  sur  le  Nouveau  Testament,  and 
the  Jansenists  had  used  the  book  much  and 
done  much  to  spread  it.     In  1708  the  Jesuits 


JANSSEN 


(429) 


JAPAN 


succeeded  in  having  it  forbidden  by  the  pope, 
and  in  1713  Clement  XI.  issued  the  famous 
bull  Unigcnitus,  condemning  101  propositions 
in  Quesnel's  book,  among  which  were  several 
sentences  from  the  Bible  and  the  church 
fathers.  The  bull  wa.s  accepted  by  some, 
the  Acceptants,  but  others,  the  Appellants, 
appealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council. 
In  1720,  however,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  re- 
gent of  France,  accepted  the  bull,  in  1728  tlie 
archbishop  of  Paris,  and  in  1730  the  Sor- 
bonne  were  compelled  to  submit,  and  from 
that  time  Jansenism  existed  only  in  form  of 
vague  mysticism.  Its  last  appearance,  or 
rather  its  disappearance,  w^as  not  very  edi- 
fying. Fran9ois  de  Paris,  a  Jansenist  deacon 
in  the  church  of  St.  Medard,  Paris,  died  in 
1727,  and  shortly  after  it  was  reported  that 
miracles  were  wrought  on  his  grave  in  the 
cemetery  of  St.  Medard.  The  place  soon 
became  the  goal  of  numerous  pilgrims,  but 
also  the  scene  of  disgustimr  excesses,  and 
the  Convulsionists  actually  threw  a  shadow, 
if  not  over  Jansen,  certainly  over  Jansenism. 
(See  Gerberon,  Ilistoirc  fjenerale  (hi  Jansen- 
isme,  Amsterdam,  1700  ;  Montgeron,  La  verite 
ili'S  Miracles  operes  par  V interc4;f<sion  ds  A.  de 
P..  1737-45,  Paris,  17—  ;  Rapin  [Jesuit],  lUs- 
toire  de  Janse/iisme,  edited  by  Domenech, 
Paris,  1861  ;  Bouvier,  ^tude  critique  sur  le 
Jansenisme,  Strassburg,  1864 ;  Fuzet,  De.t 
Jaiisenistes  du  XVII.  siede,  Paris,  1876,  and 
the  literature  to  the  articles,  Arnauld,  Pas- 
cal, Port  Royal,  Unigenitus.)         C.  P. 

Janssen,  Johannes,  Ph.D.  (Bonn,  1853), 
D.D.  (lion.  Wurzburg,  1882;  Louvain.  1884), 
Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  at  Xanten,  Rhenish 
Prussia,  Germany,  April  10,  1829  ;  studied 
at  Louvain,  1850-51,  and  13onn,  1851-53  ; 
and  became  professor  of  history  in  the  gym- 
nasium at  Frankfurt-am-Main,  1854.  lie  is 
papal  domestic  prelate,  apostolic  prothonotary, 
and  archiepiscopal  councillor  of  Freiburg. 
Besides  several  other  works,  he  wrote  Fried- 
rich  Leopold,  Graf  za  Stolherf],  Freiburg, 
1875-76,  3  vols.,  also  in  1  vol. ^^  3d  ed.,  1882, 
and  Geschichte  des  deuUchen  Volkes  scit  dem 
Ausgang  des  Mittelalters,  1876  sqq.  (vol.  i., 
14th  ed.,  1887  ;  vol.  ii.,  15th  cd.,  1889  ;  vol. 
vi.,  12th  ed.,  1888).  In  defence  of  this  book, 
which  was  vigorousl}''  attacked  by  Protestant 
sciiolars,  he  published  An  meine  Kritiker, 
1884  ;  Ein  ziceites  Wort  an  meine  Kritiker, 
1884  (many  editions  of  both.) 

Januarius,  St.,  bishop  of  Benevento,  was 
bchcalcd  at  Putcoli  during  the  persecution 
of  Diocletian,  but  his  head  and  two  phials  of 
his  blood  were  rescued  and  arc  preserved  in 
a  chapel  of  the  cathedral  in  Naples,  of  which 
city  he  is  the  patron  saint.  Twice  a  year. 
May  1  and  Sept.  19,  these  relics  are  exhibited, 
and  when  the  blood  is  brought  within  sight  of 
the  head,  it  becomes  liquid  and  begins  to  bub- 
ble. This  performance  is  believed  by  the 
credulous  to  be  miraculous.  (See  Act.  Sanct., 
Sept.  19.) 

Japan.  The  empire  of  Japan,  called  by 
the  natives  Dai  Nippon,  consists  of  4  large 
and  nearly  4000  small  islands  lying  in  tlie 
Pacific  Ocean,  east  of  China.  Corea,  and  Rus- 
sia, extending  from  long.  122"  45'  to  156°  32' 


and  from  lat.  24°  6'  to  50°  56'.  Its  total  area 
is  148,766  square  miles,  and  it  has  a  coast 
line  of  21,088  miles.  The  4  large  islands- 
Hondo,  Kiushiu,  Shikoku,  and  "Yezo— with 
fringes  of  outlying  archipelagos  like  the 
Kuriles  and  Riu  Kiu,  make  a  nearly  continu- 
ous chain  stretching  from  the  Aleutian  Islands 
to  Formosa,  thus  including  nmch  variety  of 
climate,  and  bringing  the  frontiers  in  close 
proximity  with  those  of  the  United  States, 
Russia,  Corea,  and  China. 

The  population  by  census  of  1888  was 
39,007.234,  of  whom  20,008,445  were  males 
and  19,598,789  were  females.  Since  1880, 
when  an  exact  census  was  first  taken,  there 
has  been  steady  increase.  Most  of  the  popu- 
lation, which  is  now  over  40,000,000,  is  massed 
in  the  older  portions  of  the  country,  and  not- 
withstanding the  removal  of  political  and 
legal  disabilities,  is  still  allocated  on  the  old 
feudal  lines.  Tlic  densest  population  is  found 
along  the  coasts  of  the  inland  sea  and  on  the 
eastern  and  western  coasts  of  Hondo.  Mu- 
sashi,  Owari,  Sanuki,  and  the  4  provinces 
between  Osaka  and  Kioto  have  over  1000  in- 
habitants to  the  square  mile,  while  in  Yezo 
there  are  fewer  than  7.  Hondo  has  30,420,- 
162,  Kiushiu  6,103,446,  Shikoku  2,828,821, 
and  Yezo  254,805  souls.  The  average  to  a 
household  is  5.08.  The  nobles  number  3811, 
the  gentry  1,970,480,  and  the  common  people 
37,626,943.  Of  these  137  are  over  100  years 
old.  The  males  are  in  excess  at  birth,  but 
after  the  60th  year  the  superior  longevity  of 
the  women  is  strikingly  manifest.  There  are 
6  cities  which  have  over  100,000  inhabitants, 
viz.,  Tokio,  Osaka,  Kioto,  Nagoya,  Yoko- 
hama, and  Kobe  ;  30  which  have  over  30,000, 
and  124  which  have  over  10,000.  The  num- 
ber of  marriages  in  1888  was  330,246,  or  8.34 
to  every  1000  people,  the  married  couples 
numbering  7,419,953,  or  one  fifth  of  the  popu- 
lation ;  the  divorces  being  109,175,  or  one  di- 
vorce to  fewer  than  three  marriages. 

The  chief  food  of  the  people  is  rice  and 
fish.  Physically  the  Japanese  are  smaller  iu 
weight  and  height  than  their  environment  de- 
mands, owing  to  their  peculiar  sedentary 
habits  and  deficient  nourishment— defects 
which  promise  to  be  remedied  by  the  reforms 
now  in  progress.  Ethnologically  they  are  in 
a  mixed  race  made  up  of  the  great  drift  of 
humanity  coming  up  from  the  south  along 
the  Kuro  Shiwo  or  Black  Stream  of  the  Pacific 
that  sweeps  from  tlie  tropics  past  Formosa, 
Japan,  Alaska,  California,  and  Hawaii,  with 
aboriginal  tribes  from  the  more  northern 
Asian  mainland.  About  the  time  of  the 
Christian  era,  a  band  of  conquerors  from  the 
northern  highlands  of  Asia,  descending  by 
way  of  Corea,  landed  in  Kiushiu  and  grad- 
uall3'  pushed  their  conquests  northward,  set- 
tling in  the  region  around  Kioto,  and  im- 
posing their  authority  upon  the  outlying 
tribes.  Japanese  tradition  was  not  committed 
to  writing  until  a.d.  712,  nor  was  time  accu- 
rately measured  until  the  6lh  century,  so  that 
the  so-called  history  of  Japan,  which  dates 
the  founding  of  the  throne  and  imperial 
dynasty  at  600  B.C.,  is  worthless.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  the  Yamato  house  or  tribe 
emerged  from  the  mass  of  warring  clans  and 


i 
i 


JAPAN 


(430) 


JAPAN 


became  paramount.  The  conquest  of  an 
agricultural  people  having  superior  weapons 
and  a  rigid  system  of  dogmatics,  which  lo- 
cated the  ancestors  of  the  Mikado  or  chief  of 
Yamato  iu  heaven,  went  on,  and  the  con- 
querors and  conquered,  like  Normans  and 
Saxons,  became  amalgamated.  The  Mikado's 
person  became  more  and  more  sacred,  and 
reverence  for  the  throne  increased  until  it 
showed  itself  the  most  potent  and  ineradicable 
force  iu  the  national  history.  Nevertheless 
actual  government  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
men  of  craft  and  ability,  and  throughout  all 
her  history  Japan  has  been  governed  by  a 
family,  or  clan  combination,  Fujiwara,  Taira, 
Minamoto,  IIojo,  Ashikaga,  or  Tokugawa. 
Having  no  outside  enemies  or  invaders,  the 
struggle  of  able  and  ambitious  men  was  that 
of  native  with  native,  and  all  Japanese  history 
tended  to  a  dualism  in  form.  Tiie  long  wars 
requisite  to  subdue  the  aborigines  to  the 
Mikado's  rule  issued  in  a  separation  of  the 
official  functions  into  those  of  civil  and  mili- 
tary, and  the  people  into  a  warrior  and  an 
agricultural  class.  Then  the  soldiers  ranged 
themselves  under  the  Red  or  Taira  and  the 
White  or  Minamoto  banners,  and  these  soldier 
clans  transferring  their  activities  from  camp 
to  court,  displaced  the  civil  officers  and  them- 
selves came  to  blows,  the  Minamoto,  after 
bloody  wars,  annihilating  the  Taira.  The 
victors  then  established  the  city  of  Kamakura 
in  the  East  a. d.  1192,  holding  the  sword,  the 
purse,  and  actual  administration  of  the  law, 
while  the  Mikado,  the  court,  and  the  fountain 
of  honors  remained  in  Kioto.  Thus  were 
the  functions  of  the  camp  and  the  throne 
separated  during  nearly  700  years,  and  until, 
in  the  presence  of  foreigners,  dualism  ceased 
forever  after  the  coup  d'etat  and  civil  war  of 
1868,  when  all  government  was  united  in  the 
Mikado.  Japan  is  now  a  nation  in  the  sense 
in  which  it  has  never  been  before. 

The  coming  of  Commodore  Peny,  modern 
diplomacy.  Western  civilization,  and  mis- 
sionary influences  from  without  were  timed 
by  Providence  and  made  to  coincide  with  a 
most  remarkable  inward  preparation  which 
had  been  going  on  for  a  century  before  the 
arrival  of  the  American  ships.  The  contact 
of  the  inward  and  outward  forces  formed  the 
resultant  which  is  New  Japan,  and  of  which 
the  Constitution,  proclaimed  Feb.  11,  1889,  is 
the  logical  expression.  By  tliis  document, 
given  by  Mutsuhito,  tlie  123d  Mikado  of  "  the 
line  unbroken  for  ages  eternal,"  the  govern- 
ment is  changed  from  a  despotism  to  a  con- 
stitutional and  representative  monarchy,  and 
the  imperial  diet  is  to  assemble  in  Dec,  1890. 
Under  this  instrument,  tlie  rights  of  the  com- 
mon people,  who  have  hitherto  never  been  ac- 
knowledged, defined,  or  guaranteed,  are  to  be 
determined  by  law,  as  they  are  now  broadly 
outlined  and  guaranteed.  The  right  of  abode 
and  of  changing  the  same,  of  freedom  from 
arrest,  detention,  or  trial,  except  according  to 
law,  of  domicile  and  freedom  from  search,  of 
the  secrecy  and  inviolability  of  letters,  of  the 
freedom  of  religious  belief,  and  the  liberty  of 
speech,  writing,  publishing,  public  meeting, 
association  and  petition,  within  the  limits  of 
law,  arc  guaranteed  to  every  subject. 


In  religion,  the  Japanese  are  Shintoists, 
Buddhists,  Confucianists,  or  Christians.  Shin- 
to means  the  way  or  doctrine  of  the  gods, 
and  is  the  indigenous  cult,  with  a  ritual  and 
dogmas,  but  without  formulated  codes  of 
morals.  According  to  the  Kojiki,  its  "  bible," 
composed  713  a.d.,  heaven  and  earth  came 
into  existence  through  evolution  or  spontane- 
ous generation  and  differentiation,  and  out  of 
the  first  rush-sprout  were  propagated  several 
beings,  or  pairs  of  beings,  then  sex,  creators, 
gods,  men,  plants,  rocks,  etc.,  the  Mikado 
being  the  direct  descendent  of  the  sun-goddess, 
and  the  various  deities  which  fill  the  pantheon 
of  Shinto  being  but  chieftains,  warriors,  civil- 
ians, and  various  personages  of  ability  apothe- 
osized. When  Buddhism  came  from  Corea 
in  552  A.D.  and  found  only  this  rudimentary 
cult  opposed  to  it,  the  conquest  of  Japan  was 
not  a  work  of  great  difficulty,  especially  M'hen, 
in  the  9th  century,  Kobo,  by  an  elaborate 
scheme  of  reconciliation,  in  which  all  the 
Shinto  deities  were  declared  to  have  been 
avatars  or  manifestations  of  Buddha,  suc- 
ceeded in  absorbing  Shinto  into  Buddhism. 
For  nearly  a  millennium  this  indigenous  faith 
sunk  out  of  sight,  only  to  be  revived  in  this 
century  by  scholars,  archa?ologists,  and  poli- 
ticians, who  made  it  an  engine  of  statecraft  in 
restoring  the  prestige  of  the  Mikado. 

The  missionary  age  of  Buddhism  lasted 
from  the  6th  to  the  12th  century,  and  then 
came  the  age  of  the  development  of  doctrine, 
during  which  the  sects  unknown  to  Buddh- 
ism outside  of  Japan  were  formed.  From 
the  16th  to  the  19th  century  is  the  era  of  out- 
ward splendor,  the  last  hundred  years  being 
one  of  decay.  The  triumphs  of  Christianity 
have  recently  provoked  the  Buddhists  la 
Japan  to  a  determined  show  of  strength,  and 
even  into  the  formation,  in  Kioto,  Aug.,  1889, 
of  a  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  (Outer  Seas 
Proclaiming  Doctrine  Board),  and  the  con- 
tributions to  two  cliief  temples  in  Kioto,  in 
1889,  are  stated  at  360,000  yen,  or  $270,000. 
There  are  6  great  sects  and  numerous  smaller 
sects  and  subdivisions,  many  having  flour- 
ished for  a  time  and  passed  away.  The  chief 
elements  in  the  formation  of  those  sects  which 
have  departed  most  widely  from  the  primi- 
tive doctrine  of  Sakyamuni  are  the  constant 
tendency  of  the  Japanese  mind  to  pantheism, 
and  the  patriotism  which  modifies  all  their 
religion.  Almost  every  Japanese  of  eminence 
iu  life  becomes  some  sort  of  a  Buddhist  saint. 
The  Zen,  Jodo,  Shin-gon,  and  Shin  are  the 
most  powerful  sects,  the  last  being  that  em- 
bracing what  is  called  "Reformed  Buddh- 
ism," its  features  being  notably  protestant. 
The  Tendai  lay  emphasis  on  asceticism  and 
contemplation,  the  Shin-gon  on  spiritual 
vision,  tlie  Zen  on  intuition,  the  Jodo  on  im- 
puted righteousness,  and  the  Nichiren  on 
emotional  religion.  There  .were,  in  1887,  152 
state  temples  and  192,359  smaller  temples  and 
shrines,  with  14,195  priests  in  the  Shinto  and 
71,991  temples  and  56,280  priests  in  the  Buddh- 
ist cultus.  The  government  statistics,  which 
include  all  who  in  any  way  teach,  preach,  or 
serve  officially,  give  for  Shinto  9  heads  of 
sects,  54,850  priest-preachers  and  850  pupils  ; 
for  Buddhism  38  heads  of  sects,  48,537  priest- 


JAPAN 


(431) 


JAPAN 


preachers,  33,348  monks,  or  ordinary  priests, 
and  19,869  pupils.  The  chief  seat  of  the 
strength  of  Shinto  is  in  Western  and  of  Buddli- 
ism  ill  Central  Hondo. 

The  history  of  Christianity  covers  two 
periods  of  time,  the  one  between  A.D.  1549 
and  1637,  and  the  other  since  the  opening  of 
Japan  in  1859  by  the  Townsend  Harris 
Treaty.  Europeans  first  landed  at  the  island 
of  Tan6,  the  famous  Mcndez  Pinto  introduc- 
ing trade  and  firearms.  In  1549,  Francis 
Xavier,  who  had  met  Aujiro,  a  Japanese,  at 
Goa,  India,  caine  to  Kagoshima  with  three 
other  missionaries,  and  after  a  year's  labors 
100  converts  to  the  Roman  form  of  Christi- 
anity were  enrolled.  Gi)ing  thence  to  Hirado 
(Firando)  Island,  and  to  Yamaguchi,  in  Suwo, 
Xavier  made  his  way  to  Kioto  only  to  find 
the  capital  desolated' by  civil  war.  Return- 
ing to  Yamaguchi,  he  gathered  a  church  of 
500  converts  In  two  months,  after  which  he 
went  to  Bungo  province,  and  shortly  after 
sailed  for  China,  dying  on  the  way  thither. 
The  other  missionaries  were,  in  1553,  rein- 
forced, and  Bungo  became  the  centre  of  ac- 
tive propagation.  The  times  were  rather  pro- 
pitious for  the  spread  of  a  new  religion.  The 
power  of  the  Ashikaga  d^-nasty  of  military 
rulers  had  waned,  and  that  of  the  Mikado  was 
little  more  than  a  shadow.  The  arts  of  liter- 
ature and  of  peace  had  decayed,  civil  war  was 
the  rule,  and  fighting  the  chief  pastime.  The 
various  daimios,  or  feudal  rulers,  now  practi- 
cally independent,  were  seeking  the  advan- 
tages of  foreign  trade,  and  patronized  the 
missionaries.  In  some  cases  they  even  com- 
pelled their  subjects  to  become  Christians  by 
proclamation,  giving  the  alternative  of  ban- 
ishment or  confiscation  of  goods.  In  the  op- 
position religions  there  was  little  vitality,  for 
Shinto  was  a  shadowy  system  of  myths,  and 
Buddhism  had  overgrown  into  a  system  of 
military  monasticism,  combining  great  out- 
ward splendor  of  temples  "wiLli  immense 
■wealth  in  land  and  revenues,  and  armies  of 
monks  in  armor,  who  often  decided  the  day  in 
the  battles  of  rival  daimios. 

At  no  time  in  Japan's  history  was  the  estate 
of  the  people  lower,  or  their  condition  more 
pitiable.  Coming,  then,  with  eloquence,  fer- 
vor, new  doctrines,  and  a  gorgeous  ritual, 
the  feuccess  of  Torrez,  Organtin,  Valignani, 
Martizen,  and  scores  of  other  Portuguese 
priests,  was  markedly  rapid.  Kiushiu  was 
especially  a  promising  field.  In  1582  several 
Japanese  Christian  nobles,  the  representatives 
of  many  thousand  converts,  sent  an  embassy 
to  the  pope  at  Rome,  the  envoys  remaining 
over  two  years,  to  find,  on  their  return,  in 
1585,  that  Nobunaga,  their  friend  and  pro- 
tector and  the  uncompromising  enemy  and 
destroyer  of  the  Buddhists,  liad  fallen  under 
the  assa-ssin's  arrow.  Two  years  later  Hide- 
yoshi,  the  regent,  ordered  all  foreign  priests 
to  leave  the  empire,  but  the  decree  was  not 
pressed,  and  the  propaganda  went  on,  3000 
converts  being  baptized  in  one  year.  In  1590 
four  Franciscan  friars,  coming 'in  the  train  of 
the  visiting  governor  of  tlie  Philippine  Islands, 
introduced  the  two  elements  of  discord  which 
tended  to  the  destruction  of  Roman  Christi- 
anity iu  Japan  ;    they  trespassed  upon  tlie 


ground  of  the  Jesuits,  hitherto  the  only  mis- 
sionaries in  Japan,  and  they  violated'  their 
promise  made  to  Hideyoshi  not  to  preach  or 
make  converts,  and  thus  roused  his  implacable 
wrath  and  suspicions,  to  which  his  successor 
lyeyasu  became  heir.  Notwithstanding  the 
scheme  of  the  invasion  of  Corea,  in  wliich  the 
Christian  leaders  and  jnany  of  the  abler  men 
were  sent  out  of  the  country,  the  propaganda 
continued,  new  reinforcements  of  mission- 
aries arrived,  in  1008  the  pope  declared  Japan 
a  field  for  all  orders,  a  mission  press  was 
established  and  Christian  literature  circulated. 
In  1011  the  Dutch,  and  in  1613  the  English, 
established  commercial  factories,  and  in  1614 
lyeyasu,  the  founder  of  Yedoand  of  the  Toka- 
gawa  dynasty  of  military  rulers  (1604-1868), 
declared  Christianity  a  religion  dangerous  to 
the  state,  and  rigidly  enforced  the  decree  of 
suppression  and  banishment.  The  churches 
were  destroyed,  the  foreign  priests  and  native 
leaders  sent  out  of  the  country,  and  the  Chris- 
tian peasantry,  numbering  a  million  and  a 
half  souls,  were  left  without  teachers. 

The  Roman  Catholics  explain  the  hostility 
of  lyeyasu  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Protestant 
Dutch  and  English,  but  the  true  story  of  the 
expulsion  of  the  foreign  religion  has  never 
yet  been  told  from  the  most  important  side — 
the  Japanese — and  still  awaits  a  historian. 
Diligent  search  reveals  no  trace  of  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Scriptiux'S  beyond  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, Lord's  Prayer,  and  selections  ; 
but  in  his  monograph,  IVie  Jesuit  Mission 
Press  in  Japan,  1591-1010,  Mr.  Ernest  Satow 
shows  that  grammars,  dictionaries,  cate- 
chisms, various  works  of  devotion  and  dis- 
cipline, the  Imitation  of  Christ,  and  a  few 
volumes  of  miscellaneous  literature,  were  com- 
posed in  or  translated  into  Japanese. 

Despite  the  bloody  repression  of  the  Chris- 
tian rebellion  at  Shimabara  in  1637,  and  the 
severe  measures  used  during  the  two  and  a 
half  centuries  of  Japan's  isolation,  for  the  ex- 
tirpation of  the  faith,  the  French  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  found,  on  their  arrival 
at  Nagasaki,  in  1859,  considerable  numbers 
of  descendants  of  believers  who  were  secret 
disciples.  At  first  persecuted  by  the  govern- 
ment, these  people  are  now  open  and  devout 
adherents.  From  this  nucleus  the  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  in  modern  Japan,  with 
methods  more  conciliatory,  and  entirely  free 
from  suspicion  of  ulterior  political  purposes, 
have  diligently  prosecuted  tl)eir  earnest  labors 
in  most  parts  of  the  empire.  They  claim  a 
following  of  49.000,  including  infants  and 
children,  and  in  their  organization  are  S 
bishops,  49  abbots  or  heads  of  parochial 
clergy,  and  34  ordinary-  priests,  locatc<l  at  23 
stations,  most  of  them  large  cities.  There 
are  also  38  sisters  of  charity,  with  5  mothers- 
superior  in  7  cities. 

The  Russian  Ecclesiastical  Mission,  under 
the  energetic  leadership  of  Bishop  Nicolai, 
began  the  labors  of  propagating  Christianity, 
according  to  the  Russo-Greek'form,  in  1870. 
In  the  northern  parts  of  Hondo  and  iu  Yczo 
a  number  of  churches  have  been  planted. 
The  Protestant  translation  of  the  Bil)le  is 
mtidc!  use  of.  and  special  stress  is  laiil  upon 
raising  up  a  large  native  ministry.     Massive 


JAPAN 


(432) 


JAPAN 


and  commodious  buildings  in  Tokio,  paid  for 
by  tlie  Russian  Gov^erument,  wliich  has  re- 
cently increased  its  appropriation  for  Japan 
by  100,000  roubles,  are  the  headquarters  of  the 
educational  and  propaganda  departments,  and 
in  the  capital  this  church  has  a  strong  follow- 
ing. Three  other  Russian  clergymen  assist 
Bishop  Nicolai,  and  the  following  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  Japan  numbers  probably 
18,000. 

In  the  history  of  Protestant  missions  in 
Japan  there  are  two  distinct  epochs,  with  a 
prospective  third,  from  1859  to  1872  and  from 
1872  to  1890.  The  American  Episcopal, 
Presbyterian,  Reformed  (Dutch)  and  Baptist 
societies  located  their  teachers  and  medical 
missionaries  in  1859  at  Yokohama  and  Naga- 
saki, amid  much  prejudice  and  suspicion, 
and  daring  10  years  prosecuted  the  work  of 
education,  enlightenment,  mastery  of  the 
language,  and  smoothing  of  the  path  for 
other  comers.  These  were  years  of  toil  and 
discouragement,  and  of  unrest  and  turmoil  in 
the  country  itself,  but  a  foundation  was  laid 
on  which  a  superb  superstructure  has  since 
been  erected.  In  1869  the  ChurchvMissionary 
Society  of  England  and  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M. 
established  missions.  At  the  opening  of  1872 
there  were  10  natives  known  to  be  Christians, 
and  on  Sunday,  May  10,  after  a  season  of 
prayer  and  the  study  of  the  Book  of  Acts, 
the  Japanese  Church  was  organized  with  11 
members.  At  this  time  the  embassy  sent 
round  the  world  by  the  Mikado  was  in  Amer- 
ica, and  before  the  close  of  the  year  the  calendar 
of  Christendom  w^as  adopted,  and  in  Feb.  13, 
1873,  the  edicts  against  Christianity  were  re- 
moved. At  the  end  of  1872  there  M^ere  51 
missionaries  on  the  ground,  and  in  1873  a  re- 
inforcement of  45  arrived,  and  evangelistic, 
educational,  medical,  and  literary  work  was 
pushed  with  fresh  vigor.  By  1879  the  ex- 
perimental stage  was  over,  the  field  fully 
plotted  out,  and  the  missionaries  numbered 
201.  The  New  Testament  in  Japanese,  after 
20  years  of  preliminary  study,  and  5|-  years 
after  it  had  been  begun  by  a  board  of  foreign 
and  native  translators,  was  completed  No- 
vember 3,  1879.  The  completion  of  the  Bible 
in  Japanese,  after  various  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  had  been  Jiublished,  was  celebrated 
in  Tokio,  Feb.  3,  1888. 

One  of  the  oldest  missionaries  ascribes  one 
half  of  the  present  wonderful  results  of  Chris- 
tian missions  in  Japan  to  the  work  of  the 
Bible  societies.  Of  these  the  American,  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign,  and  National  Bible  Society 
of  Scotland  have  agencies  in  Japan,  and  have 
been  generous  supporters  of  the  expenses  of 
translating,  publishing,  and  circulating  the 
Scriptures,  the  American  Bible  Society  alone 
having  disposed  of  over  550,000  volumes  of 
the  whole  or  portions  of  the  Bible.  In  this 
work,  as  in  the  multifarious  labors,  the  na- 
tive Christians  have  taken  part,  and  the  trans- 
lation is  probably  one  of  the  most  successful 
missionary  versions  yet  made  of  the  divine 
Word,  while  by  the  30,000  Christians  in  300 
churches  it  is  read  with  avidity  and  edifica- 
tion. 

Into  a  description  of  all  the  forms  of  mis- 
sionary activity  our  space  does  not  permit  us 


to  go,  nor  to  mention  the  names  of  even  the 
veteran  toilers  who  have  seen  both  seed-time 
and  planting.  Remarkable  are  the  gifts  and 
characteristics  of  the  native  Christians,  more 
than  one  half  of  whom  have  come  from  the 
samurai  class,  which  has  for  centuries  been 
noted  for  its  strong  intellectuality,  and  from 
Avhich  has  issued  the  public  opinion  that  has 
swayed  society.  A  spirit  of  eager  desire  to 
engage  actively  in  all  departments  of  Christian 
service,  a  spirit  of  self-support,  a  sense  of  re- 
sponsibility for  the  conversion  of  their  coun- 
trymen, equally  with  a  refusal  to  inherit  or 
blindly  receive 'the  ecclesiastical  divisions  and 
quarrels  of  Europe  and  America,  and  the 
sectarianism  of  some  of  their  teachers,  have 
characterized  the  native  ministry  and  congre- 
gations. Nearly  all  the  methods  and  agencies 
collateral  to  the  churches  and  found  efficient 
at  home  are  tried  in  Japan,  and  usually  with 
satisfactory  results.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
missionaries,  as  a  rule,  a  noble  band  of  highly 
qualified  men  and  women,  have  shown  a  ten- 
dency to  ignore  differences  and  to  unite  as 
far  as  possible  in  presenting  an  unbroken 
front  against  paganism.  A  good  beginning 
has  been  made  in  vernacular,  Christian  jour- 
nalism and  literature,  and  in  the  churches  of 
Reformed  Christianity  are  many  promising 
editors,  writers,  and  scholars.  Of  the  17 
Christian  newspapers  now  published,  1  is 
Roman  Catholic,  1  Greek  Church,  1  unde- 
nominational, 1  Methodist,  2  Episcopal,  2 
Presbyterian,  6  Congregational,  2  Unitarian, 
1  Friends.  Twenty-nine  societies  now  labor 
in  the  chief  cities  of  the  empire,  and  the  ap- 
proximate statistics  for  1890  are  as  given  be- 
low. 

There  are  5  large  groups,  the  missionaries 
and  natives  in  which  work  in  practical  har- 
mony, viz.,  the  Presbyterial  co-operating 
with  the  United  Church  of  Christ  in  Japan, 
the  Episcopal  in  connection  with  the  Nippon 
Sei  Kokwai,  the  Baptists,  the  Congregational- 
ists,  and  the  ]\Iethodists,  all  of  these  having 
British  as  well  as  American  missionaries,  ex- 
cept the  Congregationalists.  There  are  also 
the  German  Evangelical  Protestant  (German 
Swiss),  and  from  the  United  States  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends,  Christian  Alliance,  Uni- 
tarian, and  Universalist  missions,  besides  va- 
rious educational,  medical,  or  evangelistic 
agencies  not  under  regularly  organized  mis- 
sionary societies.  Of  the  527  missionaries 
(1889),  166  were  married  males,  34  unmarried 
males,  and  171  unmarried  females,  at  84  sta- 
tions and  448  outstations.  Of  the  274  organ- 
ized churches,  153  were  wholly  and  151  par- 
tially self-supporting,  in  which  5007  adult 
converts  and  535  children  were  baptized.  In 
present  membership  are  13,021  men,  9418 
Avomen,  2204  children— total,  24,643.  In  18 
boys'  boarding  schools  are  2998  pupils,  and 
in  51  girls'  schools  4249  ;  in  56  day  schools 
are  3269  pupils,  or  a  total  of  10,506  young 
persons  under  direct  Christian  training  dur- 
ing week  days  ;  350  Sunday-schools  have 
21,597  pupils,  and  17  theological  schools  train 
up  275  young  men  for  the  ministry.  There 
are  135  native  ministers  and  409  unordained 
native  helpers,  3  schools  for  Bible  women, 
with    22    pupils.      In  3  hospitals  were  437 


JAPHETH 


(483) 


JEALOUSY 


in-patients,  and  in  9  dispensaries  14,057  per- 
sons were  treated.  Tlie  number  of  yen  (three 
quarters  of  a  dollar)  contributed  by  native 
Cliristians  for  all  purposes  was  53,503.18,  an 
increase  over  1888  of  U048.43.  Later  statistics 
presented  at  a  meeting  of  the  Japanese  Evan- 
gelicjil  Alliance,  in  Tokio,  May,  1890,  show  a 
total  of  nearly  84,000  Protestant  native  Chris- 
lian.s  in  Japan. 

LiTEu.vTURE.— For  the  history  of  Christi- 
anity in  Japan  and  for  descriptions  of  the 
country,  see,  Trdiisdctions  of  the  Adatic  8o- 
cieti/  /if  J<i]wn,  pdssim,  ;  Jean  Crasset,  Histoire 
delEfjlMg  dii  Japon,  Paris,  1689,  2  vols.,  3d 
ed.,  1715,  Eng.  trans.,  lite  History  of  the 
Church  of  Japan,  London,  1705  ;  P.  F.  X. 
de  Charlevoix,  Histoire  et  description  (jcnerale 
dii  Jti\wn,  Paris,  1736,  4tli  ed.,  Tours,  1844  ; 
Leon  Page,  Hintoire  de  la  rellqion  chretienne 
ait  Japon,  Paris,  1869  ;  W.  E.  Griffis,  The 
Mikado's  Empire,  New  York,  1876,  6th  ed., 
1890  ;  E.  M.  Satow,  The  Jesuit  Mission  Press 
of  Japan  ;  G.  F.  Verbeck,  History  of  Protes- 
tant Missions  in  Japan,  Yokohama,  1883 ; 
Basil  Hall  Chamberlain,  Things  Japane^^e,  Lon- 
don, 1890,  and  the  numerous  popular  works  of 
travel  and  observation  (e.q.,\)y  W.  Gray  Dixon 
[18G9],  Isabella  Bird  [1880],  J.  J.  Rein  [1883- 
89]).  William  Elliot  Guiffis. 

Ja'-pheth  {enlargement),  the  second  son  of 
Noah  (Gen.  x.  21).  His  7  sons  (Gen.  x.  2-5, 
1  Chron.  i.  5)  occupied  with  their  posterity 
the  north  of  Asia  and  most  of  Europe.  In 
later  years  the  Greeks  and  Romans  subdued 
large  portions  of  Southern  and  Western  Asia, 
in  accordance  with  Noah's  blessing  (Gen.  ix. 
27),  and  Japheth's  "enlargement"  now  ex- 
tends over  America  and  Australia. 

T.  W.  C. 

Jarvis,  Samuel  Farmer,  D.D.  (University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1819),   LL.D.   (Washington 

iQow  Trinity],  1837),  Episcopalian  ;  b.  at 
liddletown.  Conn.,  Jan.  20,  1786  ;  d.  there, 
March  26,  1851.  His  father  was  the  second 
bishop  of  Connecticut.  He  graduated  at 
Yale,  1805  ;  was  ordained  deacon,  1810,  and 
priest,  1811  ;  rector  in  New  York,  1813-19, 
at  St.  Paul's,  Boston,  1820-26,  and  at  jMiddle- 
town,  1837-42,  with  brief  terms  as  professor 
in  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  1819- 
20,  and  in  Washington  (now  Trinitv)  College, 
Hartford,  1835-37.  From  1826-35  he  was 
abroad,  mainly  in  Italy.  In  1838  he  was  ap- 
pointed historiographer  to  the  Episcopal 
Church.  His  chief  works  are,  A  Chronologi- 
cal Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Church, 
London,  1844,  Boston,  1845,  and  The  Church 
of  tlie  Pedeemed,  Boston,  1850,  vol.  i.  (all 
published).  F.  M.  B. 

Jasher,  Book  of,  is  mentioned  twice  in  the 
Old  Testament  (Josh.  x.  13,  2  Sam.  i.  18), 
but  the  work  itself  does  not  exist  any  more. 
Several  books  of  this  title  have  since  been 
•written  by  Jews,  one  in  1391,  by  Rabbi  Shab- 
batai  Carmuz  Levita,  is  a  moral  treatise  and 
is  found  in  manuscript  in  the  Vatican  ; 
another,  by  Rabbi  Tham,  d.  1171,  is  a  treatise 
on  the  Jewish  ritual,  and  was  published  in 
Hebrew,  in  Italy,  1544,  at  Cracow,  15S6,  and 
Vienna,  18U  ;  "a  third,  probably  written  by 


a  Spanish  Jew  in  the  13th  century,  is  an 
introduction  to  the  Hexateuch,  and  was 
published  at  Venice,  1625,  Cracow,  1628, 
Prague,  1668.  German  translation  at  Frank- 
fort, 1674.  English  in  New  York,  1840. 
I'he  Book  of  Jasher,  Translated  into  English 
from  the  Hebrew  by  Alruin  of  Prittdn,  tcJio 
went  on  a  Pilgrimage  into  the  Holy  Land, 
London,  1751,  1829,  1833,  is  a  mere  fraud. 
(See  Home,  Introduction,  iv.,  741-47.  See 
Tlie  Book  of  Jasher  in  Emanuel  Deutsch's 
Literary  Remains,  New  York,  1874.) 

Ja'-son,  the  name  of  several  Jews.  1.  Ja- 
son, son  of  Eleazar,  was  sent  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabaaus  as  ambassador  to  Rome  (1  Mace.  viii. 
17).  2.  Jason  of  Cyrene,  a  Hellenistic  Jew, 
who  wrote  shortly  before  the  time  of  Christ  a 
history  of  the  INIaccabees  in  5  books.  The 
original  has  perished,  but  the  second  book  of 
Maccabees  (ii.  19)  is  declared  by  its  author  to 
be  an  abridgment  of  Jason's  work.  3.  Jason 
(brother  of  the  high-priest  Onias  III.),  who 
Ijought  the  office  of  high-priest  from  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes,  changed  his  name  from  Jesua 
to  Jason,  and  used  every  means  to  introduce 
Hellenism  among  his  countrymen,  but  after 
some  years  (b.c.  172)  was  supplanted  and  be- 
came a  fugitiv-e.  Soon  he  returned  and  cap- 
tured Jerusalem,  but  was  again  expelled, 
wandered  from  place  to  place,  and  at  last 
died  in  Sparta,  4.  Jason,  a  Christian  who 
entertained  Paul  (Acts  xvii.  5-9)  in  Thessa- 
loiiica,  and  may  have  been  identical  with  the 
man  mentioned  in  Rom,  xvi.  21  as  a  kinsman 
of  the  apostle.  T.  W.  C. 

Ja'-van,  the  fourth  son  of  Japheth  and  the 
ancestor  of  the  Greeks  or  lonians.  Greece  is 
meant  by  the  word  in  Isa.  Ixvi.  19  and  Ezek. 
xxvii.  13,  and  is  given,  by  both  the  common 
version  and  the  Revised,  in  Dan.  viii.  21  and 
Zech.  ix.  13.  T.  W.  C. 

Jay,  William,  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at 
Tisbury,  Wiltshire,  May  6,  1769  ;  d.  at  Bath, 
Dec.  27,  1853.  He  passed,  in  1785,  from  the 
stone-mason's  trade  to  C.  Winter's  academy 
at  Marlborough,  and  before  he  came  of  age 
had  i^reached  nearly  1000  times.  From  Jan., 
1791,  to  Jan.,  1853,  he  was  minister  of  Argyle 
Chapel,  Bath,  where  he  attained  great  repu- 
tation ;  John  Foster  called  him  the  prince  of 
preachers,  and  Sheridan  the  most  natural 
orator  he  ever  h(!ard.  Lis  Morning  and  Even- 
ing Erercises,  1842,  4  vols.,  and  Mornings 
icith  Jesus,  London,  1854,  have  been  very 
popular.  His  works  were  collected  in  13 
vols.,  Bath,  1842-48,  and  reprinted  in  1856 
and  1876.  Princeton  gave  him  the  degree  of 
D.D.,  but  he  did  not  use  it.  {See  hia  Auto- 
hiograpliy,  ed.  by  G.  Bedford  and  J.  A. 
James,  London,  1854  ;  S.  AVilson's  Memoir, 
1854  ;  Wallace's  Portraiture,  1854  ;  and  C. 
Jay's  Pecollections,  1859.)  F.  j\I.  B. 

Jealousy,  one  of  the  strongest  passions  of 
our  nature  (Prov.  vi.  34,  Cant.  viii.  6).  Com- 
monly it  denotes  a  suspicion  of  conjugal  in- 
fidelity (2  Cor.  xi.  2),  but  is  used  for  anger 
(Ps.  Ixxix.  5,  1  Cor.  x.  22),  and  also  to  denote 
intense  zeal  for  another's  welfare  (Zech.  i.  14, 
viii.  2).  As  God's  relation  to  his  pcojjle  is 
frequently   represented   as   a    marriage-cove- 


JEANNE 


(434) 


JEANNE 


Bant,  he  expresses  the  purity  and  fervor  of 
his  life  by  tlie  jealousy  he  feels  toward  any 
rival,  and  calls  himself  "  a  jealous  God." 

The  Tridl  of  Jealousy. — A  peculiar  pro- 
vision of  the  Mosaic  law  required  a  woman 
who  came  under  suspicion  of  adultery  to 
drink  a  certain  water  of  bitterness,  wdiich  in 
case  she  was  guilty  proved  a  sore  curse,  but 
if  she  were  innocent  w^as  entirely  harmless 
(Num.  v.).  This  was  far  better  than  the 
mediaeval  ordeals  which  wrought  death  or 
great  suffering,  whether  the  suspected  person 
was  guilty  or  innocent.  T.  W.  C. 

Jeanne  d'Albret  (zhan  dal'bra),  queen  of 
Navarre,  one  of  the  most  impressive  char- 
acters in  the  history  of  the  Reformation  in 
France,  was  born  at  Pau,  Jan.  7,  1528  ;  the 
only  child  of  Marguerite  d'Orleans-Angou- 
leme,  the  sister  of  Francis  I.  and  Henry  d'Al- 
bret, king  of  Navarre.  By  her  mother  she 
was  early  brought  into  connection  with  the 
ideas  of  the  Reformation  and  with  the  re 
formers  themselves.  She  grew  up  free  and 
strong  in  spirit.  Everything  was  happy 
around  her,  and   she  was  gay.      When,    in 

1548,  she  was  married  to  Antoine  de  Bour- 
bon, duke  of  Vendome,  wdio  also  belonged  to 
the  reform  party,  she  advised  him  "  not  to 
mix  too  much  with  those  new  ideas,"  and 
■when,  in  1553,  she  bore  her  son,  Henri  IV., 
she  sang  a  Bearnese  ditty  while  being  de- 
livered. Bat  times  soon  became  more  seri- 
ous and  she  with  them.     Her  mother  died  in 

1549,  her  father  in  1555.  As  reigning  queen 
she  continued  the  policy  of  her  parents.  The 
reformed  pastors  were  allowed  to  preach,  and 
refugees  from  France  or  Spain  were  pro- 
tected. The  harangues  of  the  pope  she  left 
unnoticed  and  the  obtrusivenessof  the  French 
court  she  rebuked.  When  Catherine  of  Medi- 
cis  admonished  her  of  her  duty  to  her  son  and 
her  kingdom,  she  answered  that,  with  licr  son 
in  one  hand  and  her  kingdom  in  the  other, 
she  would  jump  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
rather  than  go  to  mass.  In  156]  she  solemnly 
abjured  Romanism,  and  when  her  husband, 
a  man  of  great  talent  and  no  character,  died 
in  1563,  Calvin  became  her  adviser,  the  cele- 
bration of  mass  was  forbidden  in  her  king- 
dom, and  a  Protestant  academy  w^as  estab- 
lished at  Ortliez.  Meanwhile  the  religious 
war  raged  with  fury  in  France,  and  Navarre 
■was  involved  in  it.  'After  the  battle  of  Jarnac, 
March  13,  1569,  wdien  Conde  was  assassinated 
and  all  seemed  to  be  lost,  she  joined  the 
Huguenot  army  and  placed  her  son,  15  years 
old,  at  the  head  of  the  dragoons.  "  Who 
asks  about  sexes  or  age  in  times  like  these  V 
she  said.  In  Aug.,  1570,  Catherine  of  Medi- 
cis  and  the  Guises  had  to  pray  for  peace, 
however,  and  proposed  to  seal  it  ■viith  a  mar- 
riage between  Marguerite  of  Valois  and  Prince 
Henri  of  Navarre,  the  general  of  dragoons. 
She  accompanied  her  son  to  his  wedding,  but 
on  June  4,  1572,  two  months  before  the  prep- 
arations for  St.  Bartholomew  were  finished, 
she  died  suddenly  of  a  mysterious  fever,  in 
Paris.  Slie  left  as  her  witnesses  in  history  a 
large  collection  of  letters  wdiich  are  found  in 
the  National  Library  in  Paris,  but  of  which 
very  few  have  been  printed,  a  tender  memory 


among  men  like  Calvin  and  Bcza,  a  flourish- 
ing Protestant  university  on  French  soil,  a 
law  book,  Siil  (le  la  reine  Jehanne,  still  in 
force,  a  Basque  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, still  in  use,  and  a  son,  Henri  Quatre. 
(See  H.  M.  Baird,  History  of  the  Rise  of  the 
Huguenots,  London,  1880,  3  vols.  ;  Lettres  de 
Ant.  d.  Bourh.  et  J.  d'Al.,  ed.  by  Rocham- 
beau,  Paris,  1877  ;  A.  de  Ruble,  Le  mariage 
de  J.  d'A.,  Paris,  1877;  Antoine  de  Bourbon 
et  Jeanne  d'Albret,  1881.  C.  P. 

Jeanne  d'Arc  (zahn  dare),  the  heroine  of 
French  history,  very  legendary  and  very  real, 
was  horn,  the  third  child  of  humble  peasant 
parents,  about  1410,  at  Dom-Remy,  in  Cham- 
pagne, near  the  frontier  of  Burgundy.  She 
could  neither  read  nor  write,  but  she  knew 
her  Credo,  her  Pater,  her  Ai:e  Maria;  she 
was  intensely  religious,  and  her  faith  was  her 
inspiration.  She  understood  nothing  of  poli- 
tics, but  she  grew  up  amid  the  feuds  between 
France  and  Burgundy,  and  France  and  Eng- 
land ;  she  became  intensely  French,  and  her 
patriotism  was  to  her  a  duty.  Close  by  her 
father's  field  lay  the  forest' of  Bois  Chenu, 
where  the  still  living  lore  told  that  Merlin 
had  lived,  and  from  which  it  was  said  that  a 
virgin  should  come  forward  to  save  France. 
When  the  English  laid  siege  to  Orleans  and 
the  last  hour  of  France  seemed  near  striking, 
she  heard  voices  in  the  air  which  said  to  her, 
that  it  was  she  who  should  go  forward,  and 
she  went.  The  king,  the  court,  the  army 
followed  her  with  awx.  She  raised  the  siege 
of  Orleans  ;  she  defeated  the  English  in  sev- 
eral battles  and  they  fled  in  terror  ;  she  car- 
ried Charles  VII.  \o  Rheims  and  held  the 
banner  of  France  at  his  coronation,  July  17, 
1429.  Then  she  wanted  to  go  home  to  Dom- 
Remy  ;  she  felt  that  her  mission  was  ended. 
But  her  surroundings,  friends  and  foes,  felt 
otherwise.  To  them  she  was  a  living  mir- 
acle, an  angel  or  a  demon,  and  as  long  as  she 
breathed  she  must  necessarily  remain  the 
centre  of  the  world.  She  was  persuaded  to 
stay,  but  her  next  undertakings  were  not  so 
strikingly  successful,  and  by  an  accident  she 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  A  coun- 
cil condemned  her  as  a  witch  and  a  relapsed 
heretic,  and  she  was  burned  alive  at  Rouen, 
]May  31,  1431.  The  literature  on  her,  histori- 
cal, psychological,  poetical,  is  enormous, 
sometimes  blasphemous,  as  with  Voltaire, 
sometimes  hysterical,  as  "u-ith  Dupanloup,  but 
generally  trivial  and  utterly  superfluous. 
The  facts  of  her  life  are  indubitable,  and, 
when  viewed  in  the  light  of  the  time,  very 
easy  to  explain.  There  -was  only  one  pecu- 
liarity about  her,  she  was  a  very  grand  wom- 
an. But  the  phenomena  of  the  order  to  which 
she  belongs — Alexander  the  Great,  Francis  of 
Assissi,  Shakespeare,  etc. — are  not  difficult  to 
understand  when  the  student  is  able  to  feel 
that  they  are  considerably  greater  than  he  is 
himself.  (See  Jules  Quicherat,  Les  deux 
Proces  de  Jeanne  d'Arc,  Paris,  1841-49,  5 
vols.,  French  trans,  of  tlie  Proces,  Paris,  1868  ; 
Lives  by  B.  Martin  [last  ed.,  Paris,  1875]  and 
Janet  Tuckey  [London,  1880]  ;  Mrs.  F. 
Caddy,  Footsteps  of  Jeanne  d'Arc,  Loudon, 
1885.)  C.  P. 


JEBB 


(435) 


JEHU 


Jebb,  John,  D.D.  (Dublin,  18—),  bishop  of 
Limerick  ;  b.  at  Droglicda,  Ireland,  Sept.  27, 
1775  ;  d.  at  Limerick,  Dec.  7,  1883.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  Collcire,  Dublin  ;  became 
rector  of  Abiu,o;tou,  1810,  and  was  conse- 
crated, 1823.  He  was  a  prelate  of  liberal 
spirit  and  exemplary  character.  Besides  his 
Sacred  Literature,  a  review  of  Bishop  Lowth 
(1820),  he  published  many  sermons,  and  Prac- 
tical Thcoloqy.  London,  1830,  2d  ed.,  1837, 
2  vols.  His  life  (1836)  was  written  by  C. 
Forster,  who  also  edited  his  CorreHpondence 
with  Alexander  Knox,  London,  1834,  2d  ed., 
1837.  F.  M.  B. 

Je'-bus  {a  trodden  place),  an  old  name  of 
Jerusalem  (Judges  xix.  10,  11).      T.  W.  C. 

Je'-bu-sites,  the  people  dwelling  in  and 
around  Jebus  in  the  time  of  Joshua  and  whom 
he  was  directed  to  destroy  (Deut.  vii.  1). 
Their  city  was  burned  (Josh.  xi.  16-21),  but 
afterward  reoccupied.  David  conquered 
their  stronghold,  and  it  became  part  of  his 
capital  (2  Sam.  v.  6-8).  Afterward  lie  bouglit 
from  Araunah  the  site  for  an  altar  (2  Sam. 
xxiv.  34),  and  upon  this  the  temple  was  built. 
T.  W.  C. 

Je-ho'-a-haz  {Jehovah  snstains).  1.  Son 
and  successor  of  Jehu,  king  of  Israel,  who 
reigned  17  years  (B.C.  856-840),  during  which 
time  the  country  Avas  in\-a(led  and  despoiled 
by  the  kings  of  'Syria.  2.  Son  and  successor 
of  Josiah,  king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  30), 
also  called  Shallum  (1  Chron.  iii.  15).  He 
did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  and  reigned 
only  3  months,  when  he  was  deposed  by  Pha- 
raoli-Necho,  who  sent  him  to  Egypt,  where 
he  died  b.c.  610).  Comp.  Jerem.  "xxii.  10-12 
and  Ezek.  xix.  3,  4),  T.  W.  C. 

Je-ho'-ash.     See  JoAsn. 

Je-hoi'-a-chin  {appointed  by  Jehovah).  Son 
and  successor  of  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah 
(B.C.  598),  who  reigned  only  3  mouths,  and 
was  then  carried  to  Babylon,  where  he  was  a 
captive  for  37  years,  and  then  released  and 
favored  by  Evil-Merodach  (2  Kings  xxiv. 
8-16,  XXV.  27-30).  T.  W.  C. 

Je-hoi'-a-da  {Jeliocah  knows).  1.  The 
father  of  Benaiah,  a  distinguished  captain 
under  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  18).  2.  A  high- 
priest  in  the  days  of  Athaliah,  whose  dethrone- 
ment he  secured  (2  Kings  xi  ).  He  was  so 
able  and  faithful  that  when  he  died,  at  an  ad- 
vanced age,  he  was  buried  with  royal  honors. 
t.  W.  C. 

Je-hoi'-a-kim  {Jehomh  sets  up),  eldest  son 
of  Josiah.  He  reigned  wickedly  for  11  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  he  was  slain  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  (b.c.  599)  and  "was  buried 
with  the  burial  of  an  ass."  T.  W.  C. 

Je-hon'-a-dab.     See  Rech.^b. 

Je-ho'-ram  (/.raited  by  Jehovah).  1,  Eldest 
sou  and  successor  of  Jehosliaphat.  He  reigned 
8  years.  He  married  Jezebel's  daughter,  and 
was  very  wicked.  In  his  reign  the  Edomites 
revolted  and  secured  their  independence. 
Afterward  he  was  smitten  with  an  incural>le 
disease,  and  wlien  he  died  was  buried  witliout 
roval  honors  (2  Chron.  xxi.  20).     T.  "NV.  C. 


Je-hosh'-a-phat  {God  judges).  The  fourth 
king  of  Judah  after  Solomon.  He  began  to 
reign  at  the  age  of  35  and  reigned  25  years 
(B.C.  914-890).  Distinguished  for  religious 
zeal,  he  cleansed  the  land  from  idolatr}',  and 
was  highly  prospered  at  home  and  abroad. 
His  great  error  was  an  entangling  alliance  with 
Ahab,  which  nearly  cost  hhu  his  life  (2  Chron. 
xviii.  31).  A  vast  host  of  Edomites  and 
others  once  invaded  the  land,  but,  in  answer 
to  his  prayers,  were  panic-stricken  and  routed 
(2  Chron.  xx.).  Later  in  life  he  joined  Aha- 
ziah  in  a  naval  expedition,  but  it  turned  out 
disastrously.  An  expedition  with  Ahaziah 
against  Moab  was  saved  from  failure  only  by 
Elisha's  presence.  He  died  at  the  aire  of  60, 
leaving  7  sons,  one  of  whom,  Jehoram,  suc- 
ceeded him.  T.  W.  C. 

Jehoshaphat,  Valley  of  {valley  ofthejvdg- 
me/tt  of  Jehovah),  a  metaphorical  name  of 
some  place  where  Goa  would  judge  the  foes 
of  his  people  (Joel  iii.  2,  12).  There  is  no 
ground  for  aj^plying  it  to  any  known  site, 
though  since  the  3d  century  it  has  been  given 
to  the  narrow  i;len  of  the  Kidron. 

T.  W.  C. 

Je-ho'-vah  {he  will  be),  the  ineffable  name 
of  God  among  the  Hebrews,  who  substituted 
for  it  Adonai  or  Elohim.  Its  ancient  pro- 
nunciation is  thought  to  have  been  Yahveh, 
but  this  is  not  certain.  It  denotes  the  self- 
existence,  independence,  immutability,  and 
infinite  fulness  of  the  divine  being.  From 
Ex.  vi.  3  it  appears  that  while  this  name  was 
in  use  from  man's  creation,  its  full  meaning 
had  not  been  wrought  out  In  the  experience 
of  the  patriarchs.  It  is  the  peculiar  name  of 
the  Most  High  as  the  author  of  revelation 
and  redemption.  Tliere  may  be  gods  many 
and  lords  many,  real  or  imaginarj',  but  there 
is  and  can  be  "only  one  Jehovah.  Jehovah- 
Jireh  {Jehovah  will  see  ov  provide),  the  name 
given  by  Abraham  to  the  place  where  he  was 
about  to  slay  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  14)  ;  hence 
used  as  a  proverb  for  every  extremity  of 
God's  people.  Jehovah-Nissi  {Jehovah  my 
banner),  the  name  given  to  an  altar  in  mem- 
ory of  Amalek's  defeat  (Ex.  xvii.  15).  Jeho- 
vah-Shalom {Jehovah  is  peace),  the  name 
given  to  Gideon's  altar  in  Ophra,  in  memory 
of  the  angel's  greeting,  "  Peace  be  unto  thee" 
(Judges  vi.  24).  Jehovah-Shammah  {Jeho- 
vah  ts  there)  (Ezek.  xlviii.  35).  Jehovah- 
Tsidkenu  {Jehovah  our  righteousnexs).  The 
marginal  reading  in  Jcr.  xxiii.  6,  xxxiii.  16. 
T.  W.  C. 

Je'-hu  {Jehovah  is  he).  1 .  The  son  of  Hanani 
the  seer,  who  carried  a  threatening  message 
to  Baasha  (1  Kings  xvi.  7),  and  30  years  after- 
ward did  the  .same  ofiice  to  Jehoshaphat 
(2  Chron.  xix.  2).  2.  A  general  of  the  army 
of  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  who  was  divinely 
chosen  to  inliict  judgments  on  the  house  of 
Ahab.  He  slew  his  master  and  usurped  the 
throne,  and  reigned  28  years.  See  the  his- 
tory in  1  Kings  xix.,  2  Kings  ix.  He  slew 
Jezebel  and  extirpated  the  impious  family  of 
Ahab.  He  also  zealously  destroyed  the 
priests  of  Baal  and  all  the  adlierents  of  Ahab, 
But  his  heart  was  not  right  with  God  ;  his 
zeal  for  the  Lord  was  really  a  zeal  fur  him- 


{ 

{ 
i 


JEHUDAH 


(436) 


JERICHO 


self  ;  and  he  did  not  abolish  the  worship  of 
the  golden  calves.  His  family  continued  on 
the  throne  till  the  4th  generation,  and  one  of 
them,  Jeroboam  II.,  was  the  most  prosper- 
ous of  Israel's  kings.  T.  W.  C. 

Jehudah  Ben  Samuel,  the  greatest  Jewish 
poet  of  the  Middle  Age  and  father-in-law  to 
the  great  grammarian,  Aben  Ezra.  Born  in 
Castile,  Spain,  he  died  in  Jerusalem  about 
1150  A. D.  His  chief  work  was  The  Book  of 
Cosari,  an  argument  for  the  national  faith, 
written  in  Arabic,  translated  into  Hebrew 
1504,  Latin  1660,  and  German  1853.  It  is  a 
very  able  production,  uniting  rabbinnical 
learning  and  poetic  beauty.  (See  D.  Kauf- 
mann,  Jehuda  Halewi,  Breslau,  1877.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Jenks,  William,  D.D.  (Bowdoin,  1825  ; 
Harvard,  1842),  LL.D.  (Bowdoin,  1862), 
Congregationalist  ;  hj  at  Newton,  Mass., 
Nov.  25,  1778  ;  d.  in  Boston,  Nov.  13,  1866. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1797  ;  was  pastor 
at  Bath,  Me.,  1805-18  ;  professor  at  Bowdoin, 
1815-18  ;  pastor  in  Green  street,  Boston, 
1826-45.  He  founded  the  American  Oriental 
Society.  His  CompreJiensim  Commentary, 
Brattleboro,  Vt.,  1834,  5  vols.,  and  Philadel- 
phia, 1851,  6  vols.,  was  very  widely  circu- 
lated. F.  M.  B. 

Jennings,  David,  b.  at  Kibworth,  Leicester- 
shire, England,  in  1691  ;  d.  in  London,  Sept. 
16,  1762  ;  became  in  1718  pastor  of  an  inde- 
pendent congregation  at  Old  Gravel  Lane, 
Wapping,  and  remained  there  to  his  death. 
He  wrote  Jewish  Antiquities,  London,  1766. 
10th  ed.,  1839,  etc. 

Jenyns,  Soame,  b.  in  London,  1704  ;  d. 
there,  Dec.  18,  1787  ;  was  not  a  theologian, 
but  wrote  with  success  on  theological  sub- 
jects. His  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion,  London,  1776,  appeared  in  its 
10th  ed.  in  1798  and  often  since.  His  ool- 
lected  works  were  published  in  London,  1790- 
93,  4  vols. 

Jeph'-thah  {whom  God  sets  free),  son  of 
Gilead  by  a  harlot.  Driven  from  home  on 
account  of  his  birth,  he  became  a  freebooter  in 
the  region  east  of  Gilead.  On  invitation,  he 
headed  Israel  in  defeating  the  Animonitei 
with  great  loss,  and  sorely  chastised  the  ei-- 
vious  Ephraimites.  He  judged  the  tran,s- 
Jordanic  Israelites  6  years  (b.c.  1188-1182). 
It  is  still  a  question  whether,  in  accordance 
with  his  vow,  he  actually  sacrificed  his  daugh- 
ter or  simply  devoted  her  to  perpetual  celi- 
bacy, but  the  weight  of  the  argument  is  with 
the  former  view.  In  either  case  God  did  not 
approve  of  his  vow,  which  was  one  that  he 
had  no  right  to  make  (Judges  xi.,  xii.).  In 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  he  is  mentioned 
(xi.  32)  among  the  examples  of  faith,  which, 
however,  is  no  sanction  of  his  dealing  with 
\m  daughter.  T.  W.  C. 

_Jer-e-mi'-ah  {whom  Jehovah  sets  up),  son  of 
Hilkiah,  the  second  of  the  4  great  prophets. 
He  lived  under  various  kings  from  Josiah  to 
the  captivity.  Born  at  Anathotli  in  Benja- 
min, of  a  priestly  race,  he  was  consecrated  to 
be  a  prophet  before  his  birth  (Jcr.  i.   1,  5). 


He  began  his  ministry  at  an  early  age  (b.c. 
628,  the  13lh  year  of  King  Josiah), ''first  at 
Anathoth,  where  his  townsmen  persecuted 
him  (xi.  18-21),  and  afterward  at  Jerusalem. 
He  remained  unmarried  for  prophetic  reasons 
(xvi.  2).  Josiah  co-operated  with  him  iu 
promoting  a  general  reformation  (3  Kings 
xxiii.),  and  his  death  was  lamented  griev- 
ously (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25).  In  the  4th  year 
of  Jehoiakim  he  wrote  his  first  roll  of  warn- 
ings, which  the  king  burned,  and  sought  the 
writer's  life  (Jcr.  xxxvi.),  but  the  prophet  re- 
wrote them.  He  counselled  Zedekiah  kindly, 
but  to  no  purpose,  for  he  was  in  prison  when 
the  city  was  taken.  Nebuchadnezzar  re- 
leased him  and  offered  him  a  home,  but  he 
chose  to  remain  with  the  remnant  of  Jews 
who  carried  him  to  Egypt,  where  he  remained 
till  he  died.  For  over  40  years  he  persisted 
in  his  ofhce,  not  silenced  by  threats  or  ill 
usage,  and  shared  in  the  woes  which  he  could 
not  persuade  his  countrymen  to  avert. 

The  Book  of  Jeremiah  is  a  faithful  reflec- 
tion of  his  sad  and  tender  character  and  the 
calamities  of  his  period.  The  utterances  not 
being  arranged  in  chronological  order,  it  is 
hard  to  make  a  division.  But  one  may  at- 
tempt it  in  this  way  :  1.  Prophecies  in  Josiah's 
reign,  chs.  i.-xii.  B.C.  629-608.  2.  In  Je- 
hoiakim's,  chs.  xiii.,  xx.,  xxii.,  xxiii.,  xxxv., 
xxxvi.,  xlv.-xlviii.,  xlix.  1-33.  B.C.  607-597. 
3.  In  Zedekiah's,  chs.  xxi.,  xxiv.,  xxvii.- 
xxxiv.,  xxxvii.-xxxix.,  xlix.  34-39.  B.C. 
597-586.  4.  In  Gedaliah's,  chs.  xl.-xliv.  Or 
it  may  be  said  that  chs.  i.-xlv.  treat  of  Israel, 
while  all  the  rest  refer  to  the  nations.  Chs. 
i.-xxiii.  are  prophetic  concerning  Israel  ; 
xxiv.-xlv.  combine  prophecy  and  history  ; 
xxiv.-xxix.  set  forth  Neljuchadnezzar  as  God 's 
means  of  chastisement,  and  therefore  submis- 
sion as  the  wisest  policy  ;  xxx.-xxxiii.  are 
the  mo.st  Messianic  portion  ;  while  xxxiv.-xlv. 
are  mainly  historical.  New  Testament  recog- 
nitions of  the  book  are  found  in  Matt.  ii.  17, 
xvi.  14,  Heb.  viii.  8-12.  (See  the  critical 
text  by  G.  C.  Workman,  Edinburgh,  1889, 
and  by  Baer,  Leipzig,  1890  ;  the  Commentaries 
of  T.  K.  Cheyne  and  Adeney  {Pulpit  Com- 
mentary, London,  1883-85,  2  vols.]  ;  C.  von 
Orelli,  Edinburgh  and  New  York,  1890,  and 
C.  J.  Ball,  London  and  New  York,  1890  ; 
T."  K.  Cheyne,  JAfe  and  Times  of  Jeremiah, 
London,  1888.)  T.  W.  C. 

Jeremiah,  Epistle  of.     See  Psetjdepigua- 

PHA. 

Jeremiah,  Ijamentations  of.  See  Lamen- 
tations. 

Jer'-i-cho  {fragrance),  a  rich  and  strong 
city  in  the  Jordan  Valley,  6  m.  n.  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Destroyed  by  Joshua,  who  pros- 
trated its  walls  with  the  blast  of  trumpets,  it 
was  rebuilt  500  years  afterward  (1  Kings  xvi. 
34)  and  became  flourisliing.  It  was  made  a 
school  of  the  prophets  and  Avas  the  residence 
of  Elisha  (2  Kings  ii.)  ;  in  its  plain  Zedekiah 
was  seized  by  the  Chaldeans  (2  Kings  xxv.  5). 
Here  Christ  healed  the  two  blind  men  (Matt. 
XX.  29-34)  and  was  the  guest  of  Zacclucus 
(Luke  xix.  1-10).  It  is  now  an  arid  plain 
with  a  miserable  village,  where  once  were 
stately  palaces  and  groves  of  palms.     There 


JEROBOAM 


(437) 


JERUSAIiEM 


is  still  shown  a  fountain  supposed  to  be  the 
water  which  Elisha  healed  with  salt  (2  Kings 
ii.  19,  20),  and  with  proper  culture  the  an- 
cient fruitfuluess  could  be  restored.  The 
wild  and  difficult  road  from  Jericho  to  Jeru- 
salem is  still  infested  with  robbers  as  in  the 
time  of  the  Good  Samaritan  (Luke  x.  34). 
T.  W.  C. 

Jer-o-bo'-am  {whose  people  is  many).  1. 
The  son  of  Nc-bat,  an  officer  under  Solomon, 
to  wliom  Abijah  foretold  the  crown.  Driven 
to  Egypt,  he  returned  after  Solomon's  death, 
and  on  the  disruption  was  chosen  king  of  the 
10  tribes.  He  set  up  caWes  at  Bethel  and 
Dan  for  worship,  and  made  any  one  he  pleased 
to  be  priest  ;  hence  is  often  described  as  tlie 
one  who  made  Israel  to  sin.  He  reigncid  22 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Nadab,  in  whom 
the  family  became  extinct.  2.  Jeroboam  II., 
son  of  Joash,  was  the  13th  king  of  Israel  and 
the  most  prosperous  of  the  whole  line.  In 
his  long  reign  of  41  years  he  recovered  the 
full  extent  of  the  ancient  sovereignty  and 
took  Hamath  and  Damascus.  Bat  luxury, 
oppression,  and  vice  greatly  prevailed  (Amos 
ii.  6-16,  v.  6),  and  after  his  death  the  king- 
dom rapidly  declined.  T.  W.  C. 

Jerome  (Latin  form,  Hieronymus),  Euse- 
bius  (sonu'limes  Sophronius  is  added,  but 
probably  by  mistake),  b.  about  340,  at  Stridon, 
in  Pannonia  (modern  Hungary)  ;  d.  at  Bethle- 
hem, Sept.  30,  420.  His  early  public  educa- 
tion was  at  Rome,  where  he  was  baptized 
about  360.  After  this  event  he  made  long 
journeys,  and  was  found  at  Treves,  Acquilea, 
Autioch,  and  in  Syria.  At  Antioch  he  had  a 
dream  in  which  he  was  reproached  by  Christ 
for  his  devotion  to  Cicero,  and  vowed  to  re- 
nounce his  classical  studies  ;  and,  in  fact,  he 
did  from  this  time  devote  himself  chiefly  to 
sacred  subjects.  He  immediately  went  into 
the  deserts  of  Syria  and  there  practised  the 
asceticism  of  the  anchoretic  life.  He  was  or- 
dained presbyter  in  Antioch  in  379.  In  Con- 
stantinople, at  the  oecumenical  council  of  381, 
he  soon  returned  to  Rome,  and  remained  there 
some  time,  engaged  about  the  person  of 
the  Roman  bishop,  though  not  made  cardinal 
by  him,  according  to  the  later  legend.  Here 
he  met  a  circle  of  pious  women,  whose  in- 
clinations to  a  monastic  life  he  encouraged, 
and  of  wliom  two,  Paula  and  Eustochium, 
returned  with  him  to  Syria.  He  passed 
through  Egypt  on  his  way,* and  then,  in  386, 
withdrew  to  a  cell  in  the  vicinity  of  BetJile- 
hem.  Here  he  remained,  busied  in  literary 
labors  and  correspondence,  till  his  death. 
Hospitals  and  convents,  at  the  head  of  one  of 
Xvhich  was  Paula,  arose  about  him,  of  which 
he  was  the  spiritual  guide. 

The  greatest  service  of  Jerome  was  ren- 
dered through  his  writings.  He  was  a  liter- 
ary man  ratlicr  tlian  a  theologian,  revised  the 
Italian  translations  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  translated  at  least  portions  of  the  Old 
Testament  from  the  Hebrew.  He  ranks  next 
as  an  exegete,  for  which  service  lie  was  better 
prepared  tiian  any  of  his  contemporaries  by 
knowledge  of  tlie  necessary  languages.  In 
geography,  antiquities,  and  arclia-ology,  as 
well  as  in  patristic,  he  performed  valuable 


pioneer  service.  His  letters  are  a  principal 
source  of  the  history  of  his  times.  Works  in 
Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  XXII.-XXX.  (See  lives 
by  Zockler  [Gotha,  186.".],  Thierrv  [Paris, 
1875,  3d  ed.],  Cutts  [London,  1S77],  ]\Irs. 
C.  Martin  [1S88].)  F.  H.  F. 

Jerome  of  Pragiie,  1).  about  1365  ;  d.  ^May 
30,  1416  ;  studied  in  Cologne,  Paris,  and  0.k- 
ford,  whence  he  brougiit  back  to  Prague  the 
writings  of  Wiclif.  lie  inmiediately  joined 
Hus  in  his  opposition  to  the  hierarchy,  and 
in  April,  1515,  he  repaired  to  Constance, 
whither  Hus  had  been  summoned  the  j^reced- 
ing  October,  in  order  to  support  him.  On 
his  arrival  there  he  was  imprisoned,  and  after 
the  execution  of  Hus  the  council  succeeded 
in  intimidating  him.  He  retracted,  l)Ut  again 
withdrew  the  retraction,  and  in  consctiuence 
was  burned  at  the  stake,  while  singing  Suite 
fcsta  dies,  etc.  (See  C.  Becker,  Ilus  und 
Hieronymus,  Nordlingen,  1858.) 

Jerusalem  is  situated  in  lat.  31°  47'  X.  and 
long.  35°  14'  E.  On  the  map  of  the  United 
States  its  position  would  be  a  little  south  of 
Savannah,  Ga.  It  is  35  miles  from  the  Medi- 
terranean Coast  in  a  direct  line,  but  by  the 
road  to  Jaffa,  at  present  its  only  seaport,  it  is 
40  miles,  namely,  12  miles  to  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  and  28  miles  thence  across  the 
plain  to  the  ancient  Joppa.  It  stands  on  the 
summit  of  the  mountain  ridge  of  Western 
Palestine  just  east  of  the  water-shed,  and  is 
2593  feet  above  the  sea-level.  This  is  the 
highest  part  of  the  city  at  the  northwest 
angle,  but  the  height  of  Mt.  Zion  is  less,  being 
2540  feet  above  the  same  level,  while  that  of 
the  Temple  mount  is  only  2440  feet  above  it. 

Its  site  is  composed  of  four  ridges  or  bluffs 
separated  by  deep  ravines  and  bounded  on 
the  east,  west,  and  south  by  two  others. 
These  bluffs  form  part  of  the  table-lanil  which 
exists  north  of  the  city  and  which  ends  ab- 
ruptlj'  toward  the  south  and  east,  so  tiiat  the 
position  is  in  many  respects  a  remarkable 
one.  Of  these  ravines,  Hinnom  on  the  west 
and  south  sides  and  Jehoshaphat  on  the  cast 
still  remain,  but  the  three  that  passed  through 
the  city  have  been  filled  so  that  the  original 
contour  of  the  ground  is  not  now  apiHucnt. 
Although  the  surface  of  Jerusalem  is  uneven 
and  hilly,  it  furnishes  hardly  a  hint  of  its 
former  condition,  and  only  by  means  of  ex- 
cavations at  numberless  points  has  this  been 
positively  ascertained.  "Why  such  a  place 
wasselected  for  a  city  can  only  be  explained 
by  the  fact  that  on  three  sides  no  important 
artiiicial  defence  was  required  ;  and  there  is 
evidence  to  show  that  the  earliest  structure 
here  was  of  the  nature  of  a  stronghold,  the 
city  being  a  development  of  later  times.  The 
absence  of  water  would  of  itself  make  this  a 
most  inappropriate  site  for  a  town  of  any 
size,  and  tliis  circumstance  formed  one  of  the 
greatest  obstacles  to  be  overcome  as  the  popu- 
lation increased. 

A  few  facts  as  to  the  rocky  bluff  where  the 
Temple  was  built  wUl  illustrate  the  general 
nature  of  the  ground.  The  height  where  the 
Temple  stood  is  2440  feet,  dropping  abruptly 
at  the  northeast  corner  100  feet,  at  the  south- 
east corner  250  feet,  at  the  southwest  corner 


JERUSALEM 


(438) 


JERUSALEM 


140  feet,  and  on  the  west  side  about  100  feet, 
while  toward  the  north,  beyond  what  after- 
ward became  the  Temple  area,  the  ridge  rose 
gradually  about  100  feet,  its  highest  point 
being  at  the  spot  now  known  as  Jeremiah's 
Grotto.  Excluding  the  extension  of  the  ridge 
to  Jeremiah's  Grotto,  the  horizontal  area  thus 
bounded  is  the  same  as  the  present  Haram 
Area.  Zion  was  100  feet  higher  than  the 
Temple  mount,  and  the  distance  across  from 
summit  to  summit  was  less  than  one  third  of 
a  mile  ;  but  the  descent  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ravine  sepjirating  the  two  was  100  feet  on  the 
side  of  the  Temple  mount,  and  200  feet  on 
the  side  of  Zion.  Olivet  is  90  feet  higher 
than  the  highest  point  of  Jerusalem,  143  feet 
higher  than  Mt.  Zion.  and  243  feet  higher 
than  the  Temple  mount.  But  the  distance 
from  the  highest  point  of  Jerusalem  to  the 
top  of  Olivet  is  scarcely  more  than  a  mile. 
Thus  Olivet  commands  Jerusalem,  and  from 
its  summit  the  best  view  of  the  city  is  obtained. 

The  views  from  Jerusalem  are  not  extensive 
except  in  a  single  direction.  To  the  east  is 
Olivet,  to  the  north  Scopas,  to  the  northwest 
a  few  high  points  are  seen,  and  to  the  south- 
west and  south  the  view  is  arrested  by  moun- 
tains only  a  few  miles  distant  from  the  city, 
which,  however,  are  less  than  100  feet  higher 
than  the  city  itself.  As  Olivet  toward  the 
south  breaks  down  suddenly  the  view  from 
Jerusalem  to  the  southeast  is  unobstructed, 
and  a  long  stretch  of  the  distant  mountains 
of  Moab  is  seen,  this  being  the  only  extensive 
outlook  which  Jerusalem  enjoys.  In  the 
clear  atmosphere  so  characteristic  of  Pales- 
tine these  mountains  seem  close  at  hand,  al- 
though they  are  30  to  OO  miles  away. 

To  show  the  heights  of  some  well-known 
places  relative  to  Jerusalem,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  Bethel,  10  miles  to  the  north,  is 
2890  feet,  and  Bireh,  where  there  is  a  copious 
fountain,  a  little  nearer  Jerusalem  than  Bethel, 
is  2820  feet.  Bethlehem  is  about  the  height 
of  Mt.  Zion.  2550  feet,  and  therefore  is  100 
feet  higher  than  the  Temple  mount,  while 
Hebron,  3040  feet,  is  445  feet  higher  than  the 
highest  part  of  the  Holy  City.  From  the 
house-tops  of  Jerusalem  one  sees  on  every 
side  higher  land  except  in  a  single  direction, 
as  has  been  described,  and  these  different 
heights  may  illustrate  the  Psalmist's  words, 
"  As  the  mountains  are  round  about  Jeru- 
salem." as  well  as  though  they  rose  like  Al- 
pine summits. 

The  earliest  historical  name  of  the  place 
was  Jebus,  by  which  it  was  known  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  under  Joshua,  B.C.  1450, 
and  which  it  retained  for  four  centuries  after- 
ward till  it  was  taken  by  David  in  b.c.  1050 
(2  Sam.  V.  6),  when  its  name  was  changed  to 
Jerusalem.  The  meaning  of  the  word  Jebus 
is  obscure,  nor  is  the  derivation  of  the  word 
Jerusalem  beyond  dispute  ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  the  first  part  of  the  compound  means 
fomulation  and  the  second  part  peace  in  the 
sense  of  security.  "  Peace"  could  never  be 
appropriately  applied  to  a  place  whose  strug- 
gles with  foreign  enemies  were  almost  num- 
berless, while  "security"  would  certainly 
characterize  its  well-nigh  impregnable  posi- 
tion.    "  Holy  Hill,"  "  iloly  Mountain,"  and 


"  Holy  City"  are  terms  used  not  infrequently 
in  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  to  de- 
scribe Jerusalem,  and  "El  Kuds, "  meaning 
"  The  Holy,"  is  the  name  at  present  applied 
to  it  by  the  Arabic-speaking  world. 

Jerusalem  is  one  of  the  sacred  cities  of  the 
Mohammedans,  the  others  being  Hebron, 
Mecca,  and  Medina.  Although  it  is  thus  re- 
vered by  them  and  its  mosque  guarded  with 
the  most  jealous  care,  still  it  cannot  be  thought 
of  as  a  ceuti-e  of  Mohammedan  influence.  As 
such  it  has  no  place  in  the  world  to-day.  As 
one  of  the  four  sacred  cities  of  the  Jews,  He- 
bron, Tiberias,  and  Safed  being  the  others, 
it  has  achieved  its  fame  chiefly  as  a  centre  of 
Jewish  influence.  Mohammedans  claim  it 
and  would  fight  for  its  possession,  although, 
in  fact,  it  is  to  them  little  else  than  a  name  ; 
on  the  contrary,  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
world  has  been  moulded,  not  to  say  created, 
by  it.  Its  political  influence,  once  powerful, 
is  now  gone,  except  that  it  may  be  destined 
to  become  a  factor  in  the  politics  of  other  na- 
tions that  had  not  even  begun  to  exist  when 
the  Holy  City  was  destroyed. 

Its  long  occupation  by  the  Jebusites  forms 
the  first  chapter  in  its  ancient  history.  For 
some  reason  it  must  have  been  regarded  as  a 
desirable  location  for  the  capital  of  the  He- 
brew monarchj^,  for  immediately  after  its 
conquest  by  David  it  became  the  royal  as 
well  as  the  sacred  city  of  the  Jews.  Its  prog- 
ress under  David  and  Solomon  was  simply 
wonderful,  and  its  walls,  palaces,  and  Tem- 
ple erected  by  their  care  soon  gave  it  a  world- 
wide fame.  Its  supreme  glory  was,  how- 
ever, of  short  durtition,  for  soon  after  the 
death  of  Solomon  the  kingdom  was  divided, 
and  Jerusalem,  becoming  the  capital  of  the 
southern  kingdom  only,  had  a  powerful  rival 
in  Samaria,  the  capital  of  the  northern  king- 
dom, until  the  destruction  of  the  latter  by 
Shalmanezer  in  b.c.  721  (2  Kings  xviii.).  In 
spite  of  these  three  and  a  quarter  centuries 
when  its  power  was  diminished,  no  one  ever 
regards  it  in  any  other  light  than  as  the  chief 
city  of  the  Jews.  Wealthy,  beautiful  for  situ- 
ation, and  enjoying  a  reputation  for  great 
strength,  foreign  kings  and  armies  were  fre- 
quently before  its  gates  for  the  piirpose  of 
conquest.  The  sieges  which  it  has  undergone 
number  between  25  and  80,  and  it  is  no  won- 
der that  the  excavator  finds  it  to-day  an  in- 
definable mass  of  debris  and  ruins. 

When  Uzziah  came  to  the  throne,  in  b.c. 
810  (2  Chron.  xxvi.),  Jerusalem  was  suffering 
from  the  destruction  caused  in  his  father's 
reign  by  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  about  B.C. 
825,  and  he  immediately  set  about  rebuilding 
the  wall,  strengthening  the  fortifications,  and 
erecting  additional  tow^ers  for  defence.  His 
reign  marks  an  era— a  building  era— in  He- 
brew history,  for  throughout  the  country  he 
built  cities,  walls,  and  fortresses,  besides  dig- 
ging many  wells  and  cisterns.  Under  his 
care  the  Jewish  army  also  was  greatly  in- 
creased, well  disciplined,  and  furnished  with 
improved  weapons  and  implements  of  war. 
In  the  reign  of  Ilezekiah,  about  B.C.  710, 
when  the  Assyrian  army  under  Sennacherib 
was  approacliing  Jerusalem,  its  fortifications 
were  still  further  strengthened.     In  his  time 


JERUSALEM 


(439) 


JERUSALEM 


much  was  done  toward  supplying  the  city 
with  water.  After  Manasseh  had  been  re- 
leased from  his  Assyrian  captivity  the  gates, 
walls,  and  towers  which  had  sulJered  in  the 
recent  siege  were  rebuilt  by  him  ;  but  no  pre- 
cautions could  avail  against  the  power  of  the 
Babylonians,  and  after  two  memorable  and 
cruel  sieges  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jerusalem 
was  taken  by  him,  and  the  city,  together  with 
the  Temple  of  Solomon,  that  had  stood  416 
years,  was  destroyed.  This  occurred  in  b.c. 
588  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  17-19). 

When  Zerubbabel  returned  from  captivity 
he  began  the  erection  of  a  temple  in  Jerusa- 
lem, and  100  years  later,  in  B.C.  445,  Nehe- 
miali  rebuilt  its  walls  and  towers.  In  B.C. 
320  Alexander  the  Great  visited  the  city  and 
entered  the  temple.  Antiochus  Epiphaues, 
who  died  in  B.C.  164,  introduced  heathen 
sports  and  idols,  and  used  various  other 
means  to  turn  away  the  people  from  a  strict 
adherence  to  the  Jewish  religion.  The  city 
yielded  to  Pompey  in  B.C.  63,  and  the  Roman 
general  entered  the  Holy  of  Holies,  whence, 
finding  to  his  surprise  no  visible  image  of  the 
deity  there  worshipped,  he  retired,  leaving  its 
treasures  undisturbed.  • 

Herod,  the  first  king  of  that  name,  who 
gained  possession  of  the  city  in  B.C.  37,  was 
really  a  greater  builder  than  Solomon.  He 
erected  three  great  towers  named  after  his 
wife,  brother,  "and  friend  respectively,  Mar- 
iamne,  Phasiekxs,  and  Hippicus  ;  he  built  two 
magnificent  palaces  for  himself  on  Mt.  Zion  ; 
be  enlarged  the  Temple  area  to  twice  its  former 
extent  (Josephus,  Wars,  i.,  21,  1),  and  recon- 
structed the  second  temple  on  such  a  scale 
that  it  was  practically  a  new  structure.  His 
city  and  temple  were  captured  and  destroyed 
by"  the  Komans  in  a.d.  70.  When  in  a.d. 
130  or  a  little  later  the  walls  of  the  city  were 
rebuilt  by  Hadrian,  the  place  received  the 
name  ^lia  Capitolina,  but  the  temple  re- 
mained in  ruins.  Jerusalem  continued  in  the 
hands  of  the  Romans  and  Christians  till  a.d. 
614,  when  it  was  captured  and  held  for  a 
short  time  by  the  Persians.  In  A.D.  637  it 
was  taken  by  the  Mohanmiedans.  It  was 
capt  ired  bj'  the  Crusaders  in  a.d.  1099,  re- 
captured by  the  Mohammedans  about  100 
years  later,  and  since,  under  various  dynas- 
ties, the  Holy  City  has  been  in  their  power. 
Its  present  rulers  are  Turks,  and  it  is  the  cap- 
ital of  an  important  province  of  the  Turkish 
Empire.  It  seems  nothing  less  than  miracu- 
lous that  during  a  period  of  1070  years  the 
Temple  should  have  becai  destroyed  but 
twice — namely,  under  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
Titus,  for  we  do  not  count  the  reconstruction 
by  Herod,  which  divided  between  the  second 
and  third  temples.  Considering  the  calami- 
ties that  have  overtaken  the  city  since  David 
first  appeared  before  the  stronghold  of  Jebus 
to  the  present  day,  its  very  ruins  and  heaps 
of  dehris  become  memorable  as  witnesses  to 
scenes  of  bloodshed  and  suffering  and  like- 
wise to  deeds  of  heroism  such  as  no  other 
city  on  the  glolx;  has  experienced. 

One  would  suppose  that  in  a  place  like 
Jerusalem,  which  has  always  l)cen  a  centre 
of  special  interest,  there  would  be  maiiv  re- 
mains of  antiquity  and  a  large  number  of  his- 


torical sites  whose  genuineness  no  person 
would  question.  The  truth  is  just  the  con- 
trary of  this.  Very  many  things  are  doubt- 
less buried  which  will,  from  time  to  time,  be 
brought  to  light,  as  has  been  the  case  during 
the  past  25  years.  Thanks  to  recent  excava- 
tions certain  points  and  objects  have  been  re- 
covered which  may  be  accepted  as  authentic 
beyond  dispute.  Thus  w^e  have  the  actual 
site  of  the  Herodian  Temple,  together  with 
portions  of  the  wall  which  supported  its  area, 
also  the  remains  of  a  bridge  of  the  same  period 
which  led  from  the  Temple  to  Mt.  Zion. 
We  have  the  point  of  the  native  rock  over 
which  the  altar  was  built,  and  from  this  are 
able  to  determine  the  site  of  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
We  can  jioint  to  the  spot  where  the  castle  of 
Antonia  stood,  and  thus  fix  the  eastern  ter- 
minus of  the  "  second  wall."  Near  the  Jaffa 
gate  the  present  writer  discovered,  in  1885.  a 
section  of  this  wall,  whose  posh  ion  has  been 
so  long  in  dispute.  One  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  of  it  were  exposed,  consisting  of  one,  two, 
and,  in  a  single  place,  of  three  layers  of  mas- 
sive stones,  and  from  this  the  position  of  the 
Gennath  Gate  can  be  determined  within  a 
few  yards.  The  lower  portion  of  the  so- 
called  "  Castle  of  David  "  belongs  to  the 
time  of  Herod,  if  not  to  an  earlier  period. 
In  the  northwest  corner  of  the  city  the  foun- 
dations of  one  of  the  great  towers  of  ancient 
Ji^rusalem  have  been  uncovered,  and  massive 
work  of  the  same  age  is  found  at  the  Damas- 
cus Gate,  tinder  the  mosque  El  Aksa  we 
have  the  columns  of  the  Double  Gate  and  the 
Porch  belonging  to  it,  through  which  our 
Lord  must  have  often  entered  the  Temple. 
There  is  no  question  about  the  valleys  Hin- 
nom,  Jehoshaphat,  and  the  Tyropean,  or  the 
Pool  of  Siloam.  The  rock-cut  conduit  lead- 
ing for  1700  feet  under  Ophel,  connecting  the 
Pool  of  Siloam  with  the  Virgin's  Fountain, 
in  which  the  Siloam  inscription  was  discov- 
ered in  1880,  dates  from  the  time  of  the  He- 
brew kings.  North  of  the  city  we  have  the 
tomb  of  Helena,  tlic  mother  of  Izates,  built 
in  the  last  century  before  Christ  ;  and  there 
are  a  few  other  objects,  as  the  Tomb  of  Ab- 
salom and  that  <  f  Jehoshaphat,  which  cer- 
tainly belong  to  ancient  times,  but  whose  ex- 
act date  cannot  be  determined. 

Besides  this  brief  list,  which  might  be 
slightly  increased,  all  else  is  chaotic.  Tradi- 
tional sites  are  almost  numberless,  but  for  the 
most  part  they  are  without  any  good  foimda- 
tion  and  cominand  no  respect.  Some  of  the 
most  venerable  of  these  traditions  cluster 
around  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
This  site  was  chosen  in  consequence  of  a 
dream  which  Helena,  the  mother  of  the  Em- 
peror Constantino,  had,  bui  as  for  liistorical 
evidence,  there  is  none  whatever  that  this  was 
the  actual  place  of  the  crucifixion  and  burial 
of  our  Loril.  When  carefully  examined  the 
alleged  evidence  is  found  to  be  unsatisfac- 
tory ;  it  carries  no  weight,  and  there  remain 
very  few  modern  scholars  wlio  still  believe 
thi.s  to  be  the  genuine  site.  The  line  of  the 
second  wall  was  outside  this  church,  which 
fact,  had  we  no  other  argument,  would  alone 
disprove  its  extravagant  claims.  There  is  no 
doubt,  however,  that  on  this  site  a  church- 


JERUSALEM 


(440) 


JERUSALEM 


was  built  by  Constantino,  but  it  has  since 
been  destroyed  and  rebuilt  several  times,  and 
the  present  structure  dates  from  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century,  when  it  was  re- 
constructed after  a  disastrous  conflagration  in 
1808. 

Each  of  the  chief  religious  sects— Greek, 
Latin,  Armenian,  Coptic,  Abyssinian — have 
their  allotted  places  in  this  church,  and  order 
is  preserved  by  a  Turkish  guard.  Some  of 
the  other  churches  of  the  city  deserve  notice, 
but  the  interest  of  the  antiquarian  and  of  the 
devout  traveller  as  well  will  doubtless  be  cen- 
tred in  the  Haram  Area  and  its  two  beautiful 
mosques.  Here  stood  Solomon's  and  Herod's 
temples,  and  the  present  area  corresponds 
nearly  to  the  space  about  Herod's  Temple 
with  which  our  Lord  was  familiar.  About 
36  acres  are  inclosed,  and  the  entire  southeast 
portion  of  the  platform  is  supported  on  mas- 
sive piers  erected  probably  by  Herod  the 
Great.  This  vast  underground  room  is  known 
as  "  Solomon's  stables."  The  dome  of  the 
principal  mosque,  popularly  known  as  the 
Mosque  of  Omar,  rises  to  a  height  of  100  feet, 
and  while  the  exterior  of  the  dome  is  covered 
with  lead,  the  exterior  of  the  walls  of  the 
mosque  are  covered  with  beautiful  tiles  repre- 
senting some  of  the  oldest  work  of  the  kind 
in  existence.  Between  this  and  the  Mosque 
El  Aksa  is  the  great  stone  basin  usually  tilled 
with  water  from  Solomon's  pools  south  of 
Bethlehem.  The  ancient  and  exquisitely 
carved  pulpit  in  the  mosque  itself  deserves 
the  admiration  it  receives.  A  special  seat  is 
provided  for  the  pasha  of  Jerusalem,  who  at- 
tends service  here  every  Friday. 

The  present  wall  of  Jerusalem  was  built 
by  Sultan  Suleiman  "  the  Magnilicent"  about 
A.D.  1543.  and  in  it  stones  can  here  and  there 
be  pointed  out  which  belonged  to  the  days  of 
Hebrew  supremacy.  Its  four  principal  gates 
are  the  Damascus  Gate  on  the  north,  the 
Jaffa  Gate  on  the  west,  David  or  Zion  Gate 
on  the  south,  and  St.  Stephen's  Gate  on  the 
east.  For  these  gates  the  Mohammedan 
population  have  other  names.  It  is  a  curious 
fact  that,  in  the  early  Christian  centuries,  all 
the  traditions  respecting  the  martyr  Stephen 
were  confined  to  the  region  just  north  of  the 
Damascus  Gate,  while  for  GOO  years  past  they 
have  been  located  on  the  east  side  of  the  city. 
These  gates  were  formerly  closed  at  night, 
but  for  15  years  past  they  have  been  o'pcn 
night  and  day.  In  the  middle  of  the  Jaffa 
Gate  there  is  a  small,  narrow  door,  now  closed, 
designed  to  allow  persons  to  enter  after  the 
gate  liad  been  locked  at  night.  Formerly 
there  was  no  such  contrivance,  but  when 
these  gates  were  built,  25  years  ago,  the  pasha 
ordered  this  place  to  be  left.  The  older  in- 
habitants of  Jerusalem  are  familiar  with  this 
fact,  and  the  man  is  still  living  who  made 
the  gates.  In  recent  times  some  sensational 
writers  and  speakers  have  used  this  little  door 
of  such  modern  origin  as  an  illustration  of 
the  "  needle's  eye"  referred  to  by  our  Lord, 
than  which  nothing  could  be  more  absurd. 

In  Jerusalem  the  death-rate  is  very  high. 
The  prevailing  diseases  are  fever,  diarrhoea, 
measles,  and  small-pox.  Occasionally  the 
city  is  visited  by  cholera.     No  lepers  are  al- 


lowed in  the  city,  and  have  not  been  for  10  or 
more  years  past.  This  disease  is  not  consid- 
ered contagious.  AVater  is  supplied  by  cis- 
terns, but  when  these  fail  in  early  summer,  all 
that  is  used  is  brought  into  the  town  in  skins. 
When  water  is  scarce  and  sold  at  a  high 
price  as  little  as  possible  is  used,  and  sickness 
prevails.  Sanitary  laws  are  uniformly  vio- 
lated by  all  classes.  The  rainy  season  lasts 
from  November  till  the  first  of  April,  and  the 
dry  season  from  April  to  November.  During 
the  dry  season  not  a  drop  of  rain  falls,  but 
during  the  rainy  season  there  are  numerous 
intervals,  sometimes  lasting  for  three  or  four 
weeks,  of  delightful  weather.  The  coldest 
weather  is  in  February,  when  the  temperature 
is  as  low  as  44°.  The  freezing-point  is  seldom 
reached.  The  mean  temperature  in  August, 
the  hottest  month,  is  76°,  but  during  the  sum- 
mer 100°  is  frequently  reached.  At  night 
there  is  usually  a  breeze  which  is  cool  and  re- 
freshing. Jerusalem  is  a  garrison  town,  the 
soldiers  stationed  there  being  brought  from  a 
distance,  while  those  recruited  in  Palestine 
are  sent  to  remote  parts  of  the  empire. 

The  impression  made  upon  one  who  visits 
Jerusalem  for  the  first  time  is  not  altogether 
pleasant.  The  smalluess  of  the  city,  it  being 
less  than  three  miles  in  circumference,  its  un- 
even surface,  its  narrow  winding  streets,  its 
dilapidated  houses,  its  filth,  and  its  motley, 
uninteresting  inhabitants,  half  of  whom  he 
sees  at  a  glance  are  poor  and  wretched,  kindle 
anything  but  feelings  of  inspiration  and  joy. 
Outside  the  walls  the  houses  are  better,  but 
the  conditions  of  life  are  far  from  being  at- 
tractive or  desirable. 

There  is  very  little  wealth  in  Jerusalem. 
Formerly  it  could  boast  of  families  of  ample 
means,  but  their  money  has  been  scattered, 
and  at  present  it  is  true  that  more  persons,  in 
proportion  to  the  entire  population,  are  as- 
sisted by  charity  in  this  city  than  in  any  other 
in  the  world.  Estimating  "that  Jerusalem  con- 
tains 12,000  Mohammedans,  8000  Christians, 
and  22,000  or  25,000  Jews,  a_  majority  of  the 
two  latter  classes,  numbering  upward  of 
30,000,  are  helped  to  a  part  of  their  scanty 
living  from  benevolent  sources. 

Jerusalem  is  not  a  centre  of  trade,  and  it 
has  no  manufactures  or  business  by  which 
wealth  can  be  acquired.  It  has  its  market- 
place, its  multitude  of  small  shops  where  goods 
of  an  inferior  quality  are  sold,  and  its  work- 
men in  very  many  departments  of  artisan 
life.  Very  few  laborers  or  traders  earn  any- 
thing beyond  the  most  meagre  subsistence. 
Money-changers  are  numerous,  because  peo- 
ple from  all  parts  of  Europe  and  every  sec- 
tion of  Western  Asia  are  found  there,  most  of 
whom  bring  with  them  coin  that  is  not  cur- 
rent in  the  city.  Besides,  it  is  a  curious  rule 
that  shopkeepers  are  never  able  to  make 
change  themselves,  and  it  is  understood  that 
the  purchaser  must  come  preparatl  to  pay  the 
exact  amount  of  his  purchase  ;  hence,  with- 
out money-changers  both  strangers  and  resi- 
dents would  alike  be  put  to  their  wit's  end  to 
carry  on  the  ordinary  business  of  daily  life. 
The  baker  has  always  enough  to  do,  and  his 
is  one  of  the  few  profitable  occupations. 
With  him  may  be  mentioned  those  who  fur- 


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nish  the  market  with  fruit  and  vegetables. 
Of  all  industries  represented  in  the  city,  that 
of  soap  making  comes  nearest  to  being  a  lu- 
crative one,  for  great  quantities  of  this  article 
are  manufactured  in  Jerusalcni  and  shipped 
from  Jaffa  every  year.  A  good  stone-cutter 
— and  his  art  has  been  a  leading  handicraft 
here  since  the  days  of  the  Jebusites— receives 
the  highest  wages  of  any  workman,  while  the 
ordinary  laborer  must  be  satistied  with  10  or 
20  cents  a  day,  according  to  the  kind  of  work 
he  does.  Even  with  steady  employment  it 
would  be  difficult  to  live  on  such  wages  as 
are  paid  in  Jerusalem,  but  with  work  obtain- 
able only  a  portion  of  the  year  there  is  a  vast 
amount  of  enforcetl  idleness  which  results  in 
distress  and  misery.  In  any  civilized  country 
such  a  state  of  things  would  cause  an  in- 
crease of  vice  and  intemperance,  but  in  Jeru- 
salem and  the  East  in  general  the  class  re- 
ferred to  have  no  mouev.  and  hence  cannot  in- 
dulge in  vices  or  excessx's  of  any  kind. 

In  such  a  mixed  population  as  exists  in  the 
Holy  City,  where  upward  of  40  different  lan- 
guages and  dialects  are  spoken,  the  traits  of 
character  exhibited  are  not  purely  Oriental. 
The  Mohammedans  are  fatalists,  but  the  Jews 
and  Christians  are  not,  nor  are  they  indiffer- 
ent to  events,  progress,  hopes  and  fears,  as 
the  Moslems  are.  Society  is  of  a  low  order, 
all  phases  of  it  being  rude  rather  than  refined, 
and  in  this  description  morals  must  be  in- 
cluded. The  people  are  slow  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  new  conditions,  which  no  doubt 
would  greatly  improve  their  lot,  preferring 
the  uncouth  and  slow  methods  and  ways 
which  they  have  inherited  from  former  gen- 
erations. Tliere  is,  however,  reason  to  hope 
that  much  might  be  made  of  them  could  they 
be  brought  under  better  religious  and  educa- 
tional intluences,  and  likewise  under  a  wise 
and  helpful  government.  At  present  one 
looks  upon  their  condition  with  pity;  bodies 
and  minds  are  neglected  ;  oppressive  burdens 
are  laid  upon  them  by  those  in  power  ;  their 
homes  are  small,  and  in  hundreds  of  cases  a 
large  family  will  be  found  crowded  together 
in  one  room  ;  children  are  only  half  clothed, 
and  both  parents  and  children  are  poorly 
fed  ;  personal  cleanliness  is  almost  unknown  ; 
and  when  epidemic  disease  comes  it  finds  a  mul- 
titude ready  to  be  swept  away  as  its  victims. 

There  is  little  prospect  of  an  immediate 
change  for  the  better,  but  the  efforts  that 
have  been  made  for  the  elevation  of  the  differ- 
ent classe.s  by  the  various  missionary  and 
charitahle  societies  represented  in  Jerusalem 
deserve  the  higliest  praise.  Some  of  these 
movements  are  opposed  by  the  government, 
but  the  difficult  work  of  transformation  has 
been  begun,  and  it  is  hardly  possible  that  it 
can  be  permanently  checked.  The  London 
Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among 
the  Jews  has  a  school  for  Jewish  boys,  an- 
other for  Jewish  girls,  and  another  of  a  higher 
grade  for  young  men,  who  at  the  same  time 
are  trained  in  one  or  more  industrial  arts. 
They  have  also  a  home  for  aged  and  needy 
persons,  and  a  well-equipped  hospital  and 
dispensary.  The  Kaiserswerth  deaconesses 
have  a  nourishing  school  for  ^Mohammedan 
girls,   and  a  hospital  where  patients  arc  re- 


ceived without  regard  to  sect.  Schneller's 
orphanage  for  native  boys  is  a  large  and  pros- 
perous institution,  and  is  most  useful,  as  every 
inmate  is  taught  some  trade.  Blind  children 
are  likewise  received  here  and  instructed  in 
some  simple  handicraft  by  which  they  may 
in  part  support  themselves.  The  English 
Church  Missionary  Society  has  a  number  of 
schools  besides  a  native  church,  together 
with  many  outstations.  There  is  on  Mt.  Zion 
an  excellent  school  for  young  men,  many  of 
whose  graduates  become  teachers.  The  Jews 
have  .several  charitable  institutions,  hospitals, 
almshouses,  and  the  like,  toward  whose  sup- 
port Montefiore,  Rothschild,  and  other  weal- 
thy Jews  have  made  liberal  contributions. 
The  Israelite  Alliance  has  a  large  establish- 
ment where  industrial  arts  are  taught  besides 
languages  and  such  other  branches  as  will  fit 
young  Jews  for  positions  in  business  or  for 
teaching.  This  school  flourishes,  although 
the  orthodox  Jewish  leaders  in  Jerusalem 
look  upon  it  as  inimical  to  the  Jewish  faith. 
(For  an  account  of  this  Alliance  see  art.  Jews.) 
In  ly83  an  eye  infirmary,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  English  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem, was  established,  where  every  ycnr 
since  that  time  hundreds  of  suffering  people 
have  been  treated. 

Only  the  more  important  of  the  benevolent 
enterprises  centred  in  Jerusalem  have  been 
mentioned,  nor  has  any  account  been  taken 
of  those  that  are  under  the  care  of  the  Greeks 
and  Roman  Catholics,  which,  like  all  Jewish 
institutions,  are  strictly  and  exclusively  sec- 
tarian. These  various  forms  of  good  Avorks 
designed  to  relieve  poverty,  ignorance,  dis- 
ease, and  distress  are  having  their  Influence 
on  the  people,  although  there  is  a  vast  amount 
of  misery  and  wretchedness  that  has  not  yet 
been  reached.  It  is  a  wonder  that  Moham- 
medans, who  cannot  be  blind  to  the  beneficial 
results  accomplished,  should  not  be  impelled 
to  organize  similar  enterprises  among  their 
own  people.  It  is  their  fatali.sm  that  makes 
them  indifferent  to  the  wants  of  others,  and 
prevents  them  from  making  any  efforts  to 
alleviate  suffering  or  to  improve  the  condition 
of  their  fellow-men. 

The  best  map  of  Jerusalem  is  that  of  the 
Ordnance  Survey.  Tho.se  found  in  the  Hand- 
book of  Baedeker  are  correct,  and  this  vol- 
ume for  accurate  details  is  indispensable. 
AVhen  Captain  Warren  began  his  excavations 
in  18G7,  a  new  era  in  the  literature  of  Jeru- 
salem was  inaugurated.  Books  written  since 
that  date,  if  carefully  done,  ought  to  be  of 
much  greater  service  than  those  that  appeared 
previous  to  it.  Older  works  arc  valuable  iu 
many  respects,  and  some  of  them  are  models 
for  scholarly  research.  Under  this  head 
should  be  mentioned  E.  Robinson,  Biblical 
Researches,  Boston,  1841,  3  vols.,  rev.  ed., 
185G  ;  W.  II.  Bartlett,  Walks  about  the  City 
and  Environs  of  Jerusalem,  London,  1844  ; 
Jcrusahia  Itivisited,  IS.lo  ;  G.  Williams,  llic 
Holy  City,  London,  1845,  2d  cd..  1849  ;  A.  P. 
Stanley,  Sinai  and  Palestine,  1853,  and  many 
editions  since  ;  J.  F.  Thrupp,  Ancient  Jeru- 
salem, 1855;  J.  T.  Barclav.  The  City  of  the 
Great  King,  Philadelphia.'  1857  ;  T.  Lewin, 
Jerusalem  :  a  SIcetch  of  the  City  and  7'emple, 


JERUSALEM 


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JESUITS 


London,  1861  ;  also  The,  Siege  of  Jerusalem 
h}l  Titm,  1863  ;  James  Fergusson,  Ancient 
fopor/rapliy  of  Jerustdejn,  1847  ;  and  The  Holy 
Sepulchre  and  the  Tomb,  1865.  The  works  of 
this  latter  writer  exhibit  great  learning,  and  his 
name  will  always  be  mentioned  with  respect, 
although  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  clung  to  an 
impossible  theory  respecting  the  Temple. 
Important  works  in  German  are  those  of 
Sepp,  Schultz,  Tobler,  Rosen,  Guthe,  and 
others,  and  the  Journal  of  the  German  Pales- 
line  Society,  which  has  been  published  since 
1878,  contains  many  papers  of  special  interest 
on  the  topography  of  Jerusalem.  For  the 
ancient  history  of  the  city  important  docu- 
ments translated  from  the  Assyrian  and  Baby- 
lonian tablets  will  be  found  in  the  series  of 
volumes  entitled  Records  of  the  Past.  For 
the  modern  history  an  interesting  work  is 
that  of  Bjsant  and  Palmer,  Jerusalem,  the 
City  of  Herod  and  Saladin,  London,  1871, 
n.e.,  1888.  For  a  scholarly  account  of  the 
geological  features  of  the  region  about  Jeru- 
salem the  reader  is  referred  to  Sir  J.  W. 
Dawson's  Modern  Science  in  Bible  Lands, 
Now  York,  1888.  Since  the  date  mentioned 
— 1867 — the  Quarterly  Statements  of  the  Eng- 
lish Palestine  Exploration  Fund  have  been 
full  of  viluable  papers  and  discussions  per- 
taining to  the  Holy  City.  Among  the  works 
published  under  the  auspices  of  this  society 
are  Wilson  and  Warren,  The  Recovery  of  Jeru- 
salem, 1871  ;  Our  Work  in  Palestine,,  1873  ; 
Warren,  Undergroumi  Jerusalem,  187G  ;  C.  R. 
Conder,  Tent  Work  in  Palestine,  1878  ;  and 
in  The  Survey  of  Western  Palestine,  1884,  a 
large  quarto  volume  is  devoted  entirely  to 
Jerusalem.  As  a  recent  volume  of  early 
Palestinian  travel,  see  The  Epitome  of  S. 
Eueherius  about  Certain  Holy  Places  {circa 
A.D.  530)  and  the  Breviary  of  Short  Descrip- 
tion of  Jerusalem  (circa  a.d.  533).  Translated 
by  A.  Stewart,  annotated  by  Ch.  "W.  Wilson, 
London,  1890.  On  "The  Site  of  Calvary," 
see  an  article  in  the  Andomr  (Mass.)  Review, 
November,  1885;  and  on  "The  Second 
Wall,"  with  a  plan  showing  the  portions  that 
have  been  recovered,  see  The  S^iiiday- School 
Times  (Philadelphia),  June  1,  1889.  These 
articles  are  by  the  present  writer,  wdio  has  in 
preparation  a  volume,  I'he  Discovery  of  the 
Second  Wall  of  Ancient  Jerusalem,  and  its 
Bearing  on  the  Site  of  Calvary. 

Selah  Merrill. 

Jerusalem,  Councils  of.  Several  councils 
have  been  Jield  in  Jerusalem,  of  which  the 
first  two  have  special  interest  :  that  of  47, 
under  James  the  Less  (Acts  xv.),  is  the  first 
council  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
and  commanded  the  faithful  to  abstain  from 
meat  which  had  been  offered  to  idols,  from 
blood  and  things  strangled,  and  from  fornica- 
tion ;  that  of  335,  on  the  consecration  of  the 
Clmrch  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  restored  Arius 
to  community  with  the  church,  and  allowed 
Lira  to  return  to  Alexandria. 

Jerusalem,     The     Patriarchate     of,     was 

erected  by  Tiieodosius  IL,  and  its  boundaries 
were  fixed  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  451. 
Under  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  the 
city  became  the  subject  of  general  attention 


and  reverence  throughout  Christendom,  and 
the  Council  of  Nica^a,  325,  conferred  a  prec- 
edence of  honor  upon  it  ;  but  the  episcopal 
see  never  exercised  any  considerable  influence 
on  the  history  of  the  church,  and  still  less  did 
the  patriarchate.  The  c-ountry  was  succes- 
sively conquered  by  the  Persians,  the  Arabs, 
and  the  Turks,  and  when  reconquered,  in 
1099,  by  the  crusaders,  the  patriarchal  throne 
was  vacant.  The  selection  of  the  first  Latin 
patriarch  was  an  unfortunate  one,  and  the  re- 
lation to  Rome  was  loose  or  strained.  Better 
were  afterward  the  relations  with  the  Rus- 
sian Church,  and  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem, 
1672,  resulting  in  the  Shield  of  Orthodoxy,  one 
of  the  symbolical  books  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  forms  the  culminating  point  in  the 
history  of  the  patriarchate.  It  comprises  14 
episcopal  dioceses,  but  numbers  hardly  17,000 
souls.  (See  Schaff,  Through  Bible  Lands, 
New  York,  1880.) 

Jerusalem,  Synod  of.  See  preceding  arti- 
cle. 

Jerusalem,  The  Protestant  Episcopal  See 

of,  was  founded  in  1840  by  England  and  Prus- 
sia conjointly.  With  respect  to  jurisdiction, 
it  stands  under  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  the  right  of  appointment  is  alternately 
exercised  by  the  two  states.  The  institution 
has  been  of  great  importance  for  the  mission 
among  the  Jews.  The  first  bishop  was 
Michael  S.  Alexander  (1842-45) ;  the  second 
was  the  famous  Abyssinian  missionary,  Sam- 
uel Gobat  (q.  V.)  The  present  bishop  is  George 
Francis  Popham  Blyth,  D.D.,  consecrated 
1887.  (See  W.  H.  Heckler,  The  Jerusalem 
Bishopric,  London,  1883.) 

Jessup,  Henry  Harris,  D.D.  (University 
of  New  York  City  and  College  of  New  Jer- 
sey, Princeton,  1865),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Montrose,  Pa.,  April  19,  1832;  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1851-,  and 
Union  Theological -Seminary,  New  York  City, 
1855  ;  went,  in  1856.  as  a  missionary  to 
Tripoli,  thence  to  Syria,  and  settled  in  1860 
at  Beirut.  He  published  Women  of  the  Arabs, 
New  Y'ork,  1873  ;  Syrian  Home  Life,  1874  ; 
The  Mohammedan  Missionary  Problem,  Phil- 
adelphia, 1879. 

Jesuits,  The  Order  of  the,  Societas  Jesu, 
was  founded,  1534,  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  in 
Paris,  and  confirmed,  1540,  by  Paul  III.  At 
its  head  stands  a  general,  propositus  generalis, 
and  under  him  a  propositus  ptrovincialis  for 
each  province.  The  body  of  the  order  con- 
sists of  novices  who,  after  two  years'  prepara- 
tion, take  the  three  common  monastic  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience  ;  scholastics, 
who  study  and  teach  for  10  or  15  years,  first 
rhetoric,  literature,  history,  and  languages, 
then  philosophy,  physics,  and  mathematics, 
and  finally,  during  their  terciate,  theology  ; 
coadjutores,  both  temporales,  comprising  the 
whole  personel  of  the  management,  from  the 
valet  and  the  cook  to  the  spy  and  the  com- 
mercial agent,  and  spirituules,  who  are  always 
ordained  priests  ;  and  professi  quatuor  voto- 
rum,,  who  take  the  vow  of  absolute  obedience 
to  the  pope.  The  present  number  of  mem- 
bers is  13,300,  distributed  in  23  provinces. 


JESUS 


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JESUS 


Their  field  of  work  is  and  has  always  been 
double,  mission  and  education,  and  in  both 
fields  they  have  revealed  the  most  admirable 
energy  and  talent  side  by  side  to  the  most  as- 
tonisliing  frivolity  of  purpose  and  laxity  of 
method.  Francis  Xavier  is  one  of  the  grand- 
est examples  of  sublime  courage  and  heroic 
self-sacritice  which  the  history  of  the  Chris- 
tian mission  contains,  and  yet,  in  his  track, 
grew  up  the  theory  of  accommodation,  ac- 
cording to  which  Christianity  was  lowered 
until  it  could  meet  even  the  most  abominable 
forms  of  heathenism  without  a  clash.  Sev- 
eral popes — Innocent  X.,  Clement  XI.,  Clem- 
ent XII.— fought  hard  against  this  scandal, 
until  at  List  Benedict  XIV.  succeeded  in  wip- 
ing it  out.  Paraguay  was  one  of  the  most 
gigantic  successes  the  Christian  mission  has 
ever  achieved.  In  a  few  years  a  nation  was 
converted  and  a  Christian  state  established, 
and  it  held  on  for  more  than  100  years,  1610- 
17o0,  to  the  admiration  of  the  whole  Christian 
world.  Then  came  the  astonishment.  Peo- 
ple discovered  that  the  Jesuits  managed  the 
Paraguayans  exactly  as  the  farmer  manages 
his  milch  cows,  and  when  they  were  driven 
out  of  the  country  they  left  not  a  trace  of 
Christianity  or  Christian  civilization  behind 
them.  In  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  in  the 
Indian  Empire,  wherever  under  a  civilized 
regime  the  Jesuits  were  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  uncivilized  aboriginal  popu- 
lation, it  alwa^'s  ended  in  lawsuits  between 
them  and  their  converts  ;  while  they  con- 
verted the  poor  people  to  Christianity,  they 
tried  to  cheat  them  out  of  their  landed  es- 
tates. In  the  field  of  education  their  success 
was  as  phenomenal  and  of  as  doubtful  a  char- 
acter. In  the  two  first  centuries  after  the 
Reformation  they  may  fairly  be  said  to  have 
been  in  possession  of  the  school  and  the  uni- 
versity within  the  pale  of  the  Roman  Church. 
Their  pupils  were  singularly  accomplished, 
and  proved  singularly  useful.  Even  Protes- 
tants in  the  higher  walks  of  life  wanted  to 
have  their  ciiildren  instructed  by  Jesuits. 
Nevertheless  by  degrees,  as  the  Jesuit  hand- 
books became  known  to  the  public,  people 
were  not  a  little  surprised  at  the  adroitness 
and  audacity  with  which  unpleasant  facts  or 
even  whole  series  of  such  facts  were  spir- 
ited away  and  concealed  from  science,  and 
they  were  actually  shocked  when  they  became 
accjuainted  with  'maxims  and  principles  like 
probabilism,  mental  reservation,  viethodus 
dinr/eiidce  intentionis,  etc.,  which  could  not 
fail  to  imdermine  the  whole  moral  foundation 
of  social  life. 

In  the  first  decades  of  the  18th  century 
everyV)ody  began  to  understand,  the  pope  not 
excepteil,  that  the  Jesuits  were  something 
more  than  simply  a  powerful  instrument  ; 
they  were  a  danger.  The  enormous  wealth 
they  had  amassed  and  the  immense  power 
they  wielded  tlirougli  \.\\o  confessional  made 
them  almost  irrrsistible  when  tlicv  mixed  with 
politics,  and  their  political  intrigues,  which 
tilled  every  court — that  is,  every  government 
in  Europe-- with  uncertainty  and  suspicion, 
and  which  actually  covered  the  whole  globe 
with  a  network  of  underground  forces,  liad 
always  for  their  sole  objects  Kie  agrandize- 


ment  of  the  power  of  the  order  and  the  in- 
crease of  its  wealth.  They  were  much  feared 
and  they  were  still  more  iiated.  In  the  mid- 
dle of  the  18th  century  it  came  to  au  explo- 
sion. They  carried  tiieir  resistance  to  the 
liberal  and  progressive  policy  of  Pombal  so 
far  as  to  attempt  to  assassinate  the  king,  but 
Sept.  3,  1759,  a  royal  ordinance  dissolved  the 
ortler  in  Portugal  ;  all  its  property  in  the 
country  was  confiscated  and  every  one  of  its 
members  was  arrested,  some  being  held  in 
prison  for  a  time  and  then  placed  before  the 
criminal  courts,  while  others  were  sent  to 
Rome  "as  a  present  to  St.  Peter."  About 
the  same  time  the  failure  of  a  commercial 
speculation  entailed  a  loss  of  between  2  and  3 
million  livres  (between  10  and  13  million 
francs)  on  the  order  in  France,  but  instead 
o"  paying  the  debt,  the  provincial  tried  to  un- 
'jad  it  on  the  shoulders  of  the  agent.  The 
parliament  took  up  the  case,  and  the  investi- 
gations instituted  caused  such  a  scandal  that, 
in  1764,  the  order  was  expelled  from  the  coun- 
try. March  31,  17G7,  all  the  Jesuits  not  only 
in  Spain,  but  also  in  the  Spanish  colonies, 
were  arrested  and  shipped  to  Rome.  Neither 
the  pope  nor  the  general  woukl  receive  them. 
Finally  they  were  allowed  to  land  in  Corsica 
and  disperse.  Their  expulsion  from  Naples, 
Parma,  etc.,  followed  shortly  after,  and  July 
21,  1773,  Clement  XIV.  dissolved  the  order. 
As  the  papal  bull  could  have  no  effect  in  a 
Protestant  or  Greek  Catholic  country,  the 
order  lived  on  in  Prussia  and  Russia,  and 
after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  Pius  VII.  restored 
the  order,  Aug.  7,  1814.  The  restoration, 
however,  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  a  suc- 
cess. Generally  the  Jesuits  sided  with  the  re- 
action in  its  most  sterile  forms  :  Don  Miguel 
in  Portugal,  Don  Carlos  in  Spain,  (!harlcs  X. 
in  France  ;  and  whenever  they  adopted  an 
idea  from  modern  civilization,  as,  for  in- 
stance, th'e  liberty  of  religion,  the  use  they 
made  of  it  never  failed  to  impress  people  as  if 
a  hideous  spectre  suddenly  had  unmasked 
itself.  They  have  successively  been  expelled 
from  Russia,  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, Mexico,,  etc.  (See  for  their  constitu- 
tion, Institutum  Societatis  Jesu,  Avignon, 
1830-38,  7  vols.  ;  for  their  history,  Cretineau- 
Jol}',  IJistoire  de  la  Compngnie  de  Jesus,  Paris, 
1844-46,  6  vols.  ;  Parkman,  The  Jesuits  in 
North  America,  Boston,  1868  ;  J.  A.  Wvlie, 
The  Jesuits,  London,  1881.)  C.  P. 

Jesus  Christ.  The  name  Jesus,  the  Greek 
forhi  of  Joshua,  signifies  Jehovah  saves  or 
Saviour,  and  was  our  Lord's  common  name. 
Christ,  meaning  the  INIessiah  or  Anointed 
One,  was  his  official  name.  His  Person  has 
been  treated  imder  CnuiSTOLOGv  ;  his  Work 
will  be  in  the  next  article  ;  the  present  article 
recounts  his  life.  The  sources  are,  of  course, 
the  fourfold  biography  contained  in  the  Gos- 
pels. As  these  were  written  independently 
and  from  different  points  of  view,  the  exact 
course  of  events  can  only  approximately  be 
determined.  The  order  common  to  most 
harmonists  has  been  followed. 

1.  Jlis  Birth  and  Childhood.— Toward  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great,  4  years 
before  a.d.  1.  he  was  born  of  3Iarv,  the  be- 


JESUS 


(444) 


JESUS 


trotlied  wife  of  Joseph,  while  still  a  virgin, 
in  order  that,  enteriug  our  humanity,  he  might 
escape  its  inherited  curse.  This  occurred  in 
Bethlehem  according  to  Micah's  (v.  2)  proph- 
ecy. Angels  celebrated  it  with  songs,  and 
wise  men  from  the  East  brought  precious 
gifts  to  the  new-born  babe.  To  escape  Herod's 
jealous  rage  he  was  taken  to  Egypt,  but  soon 
returned  and  was  settled  with  his  parents  at 
Nazareth,  where  he  grew  up  in  obscurity, 
varied  only  by  a  visit  when  13  years  old  to 
Jerusalem,  when  he  astonished  the  doctors  by 
his  words  and  questions. 

2.  Opening  of  his  Ministry.— So\m  the  Bap- 
tist came  forward  in  the  15th  year  of  Tiberius 
(Luke  iii.  1)  and  produced  a  wide  and  deep 
impression  by  his  call  to  repentance.  Jesus 
sought  baptism  at  his  hands,  and  received 
testimony  from  heaven,  after  which  he  was 
led  into  the  wilderness  to  be  tempted  of  the 
devil.  This  temptation  did  not  take  place  in 
vision,  nor  was  it  a  mere  subjective  experi- 
ence, but  actually  occurred,  although  we 
must  hold  that  our  Lord  could  not  possibly 
have  fallen.  After  conquering  Satan  he  went 
to  Cana  of  Galilee,  where  his  tirst  sign  or 
miracle  was  accomplished  at  a  wedding. 

3.  First  Tear  of  Ms  Ministry. — After  col- 
lecting some  disciples  he  set  out  for  Jerusalem 
to  keep  the  Passover.  His  first  work  was  the 
cleansing  of  the  Temple  area  from  traffickers 
and  money-changers — an  action  which  he  re- 
peated at  the  close  of  his  ministry  (Matt.  xxi. 
12).  He  received  a  visit  by  night  from  the 
ruler,  Nicodemus,  to  whom  he  gave  the 
whole  gospel  in  epitome.  Soon  after  he  re- 
paired to  the  Jordan,  where  his  disciples  bap- 
tized in  his  name,  and  John  gave  a  fresh  testi- 
mony to  Christ's  claims.  Presently  the  Bap- 
tist was  thrown  into  prison,  which  seems  to 
have  impelled  the  Saviour  to  withdraw  to 
Galilee.  On  his  way  through  Samaria  he 
held  an  intereisting  conversation  with  a  woman 
at  Jacob's  well.  Arriving  at  Nazareth,  he 
was  rejected  by  the  people,  and  went  to  Ca- 
pernaum, which  henceforth  became  "  his 
own  city. "  Here  he  called  Peter  and  Andrew 
and  James  and  John,  and  made  a  tour  through 
Galilee,  performing  many  miracles,  and  among 
them  the  first  case  of  the  healing  of  a  leper. 

4.  Second  Year. — Jesus  went  up  to  Jeru- 
salem to  a  feast  of  the  Jews  (John  v.  1),  and 
healed  a  lame  man  at  the  pool  of  Bethesda, 
vindicating  at  length  his  right  to  heal  on  the 
Sabbath  day,  a  subject  which  he  resumed 
when  his  disciples  were  blamed  for  plucking 
ears  of  corn  as  they  accompanied  him  on  his 
return  to  Galilee.  When  he  reached  the  Sea 
of  Tiberias  multitudes  followed  him.  He 
appointed  the  12  apostles  and  delivered  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  much  the  longest  of 
his  discourses.  He  gave  a  significant  answer 
to  the  question  sent  by  John  from  his  prison, 
and  then  commenced  a  second  circuit  in 
Galilee,  during  which  he  delivered  the  series 
of  parables  in  Matt,  xiii.,  stilled  the  storm  on 
Galilee,  healed  the  demoniacs  of  Gadara, 
raised  the  daughter  of  Jairus,  and  after  other 
miracles  came  again  to  Nazareth,  where  he 
was  again  rejected.  He  then  made  a  third 
circuit  in  Galilee,  and  sent  forth  the  apostles, 
giving  the  instructions  recorded  in  Matt,  x., 


xi.  After  an  interval  of  perhaps  two  months, 
during  which  Herod  Antipas  held  him  to  be 
the  beheaded  John  restored  to  life,  the  12  re- 
turned, and  with  them  he  retired  to  the  eastern 
shore  of  Tiberias.  Here  occurred  the  feeding 
of  the  5000  with  5  loaves  and  2  fishes,  Christ's 
walking  upon  the  water,  and  the  remarkable 
discourse  (John  vi.)  in  the  synagogue  at 
Capernaum. 

5.  Third  Tear.  —Jesus  rebuked  the  Phari- 
sees, who  complained  of  the  disciples  for  eat- 
ing with  unwashen  hands,  and  then  set  off 
toward  the  northwest,  where  he  healed  the 
daughter  of  the  Syroplienician  woman,  and 
then  passed  around  to  Decapolis,  where  he 
wrought  many  miracles  and  fed  4000  with  7 
loaves.  In  the  neighborliood  of  Caesarea 
Philippi  he  drew  from  Peter  and  the  rest  a 
confession  of  their  faith,  and  then  foretold 
his  own  death  and  resurrection  and  the  trials 
of  his  followers  ;  after  which  to  cheer  them 
occurred  the  transfiguration,  followed  the 
next  morning  by  the  healing  of  a  demoniac 
child.  On  the  way  back  to  Capernaum  he 
anew  foretold  his  sufferings,  and  Jiaving  ar- 
rived, exhorted  the  disciples  to  humility,  for- 
bearance, and  brotherly  love.  About  this 
time  he  instructed  and  sent  out  the  70  on 
their  temporary  mission,  probably  through 
Peraja. 

Then  he  left  Galilee  for  the  last  time,  and 
having  cleansed  10  lepers  as  he  passed  through 
Samaria,  came  to  Jerusalem  at  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  (John  vii.  2).  Here  he  taught  in 
public,  and  answered  a  lawyer's  question 
with  the  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan.  The 
healing  of  the  man  born  blind  led  to  a  long 
discourse,  after  which  Jesus  retired  beyond 
Jordan,  and  multitudes  followed  him.  In 
Pera^a  he  healed  the  infirm  woman  on  the 
Sabbath,  and  then,  as  he  went  journeying 
toward  Jerusalem,  uttered  the  parables  of  the 
lost  sheep,  etc.,  the  unjust  steward,  the  rich 
man  and  Lazarus,  and  the  pharisee  and  the 
publican  ;  gave  precepts  concerning  divorce  ; 
blessed  little  children  ;  and  followed  his  an- 
swer to  the  rich  young  ruler  with  the  parable 
of  the  laborers  in  the  vineyard.  A  third  time 
he  foretold  his  death  and  resurrection,  and  .. 
approaching  Jericho,  healed  two  blind  men, 
called  Zacchseus,  and  gave  the  parable  of  the 
pounds.  He  arrived  at  Bethany  6  days  before 
the  Passover.  At  supper  in  Simon's  house, 
he  is  anointed. 

6.  Proceedings  of  the  Last  WeeJc. — Jesus 
made  a  public  entry  into  the  city,  and  once 
more  cleansed  the  temple.  Gave  parables  of 
the  two  sons,  the  wicked  husbandmen,  the 
marriage  of  the  king's  son.  Confronted 
Pharisees  about  the  tribute,  the  Sadducees  on 
the  resurrection,  and  a  lawyer  on  the  greatest 
commandment— all  on  the  same  day.  Gave 
warnings  against  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  ; 
lamented  ov^er  Jerusalem  ;  praised  the  widow's 
mite  ;  met  certain  Greeks  and  predicted  his 
second  coming  with  solemn  warnings  con- 
firmed by  the  parables  of  the  ten  virgins,  the 
five  talents,  and  the  sheep  and  the  goats. 

7.  From  the  Fourth  Passover.  Jesus  ate 
this  with  the  12,  instituted  the  Lord's  Supper, 
delivered  his  valedictory  discourses,  and  with- 
drew to  Gethsemane.     Here,  after  his  agony, 


J£SUS 


(445) 


JEW 


he  was  arrested  and  dragged  first  before 
Caiaplias  and  then  before  Herod.  Con- 
demned at  the  double  trial,  he  was  mocked 
and  crucified.  After  death  he  was  buried 
and  a  watch  set  upon  the  grave.  Ou  the 
morning  of  the  third  day  tlie  tomb  was  found 
empty,  and  soon  he  appeared  to  the  women 
and  to  the  disciples,  who  could  hardly  believe 
the  fact.  During  40  days  he  taught  them, 
and  then,  at  Bethany,  ascended  to  lieaven  in 
their  sight.  Two  subsequent  appearances  are 
on  record— one  to  Saul  of  Tarsus,  when  he 
was  converted  on  his  way  to  Damascus,  the 
other  to  the  Apostle  John  in  Patmos,  when 
he  received  the  astounding  visions  of  the 
Apocalypse.  There  is  a  number  of  unsettled 
questions  as  to  certain  details  of  this  life  of 
one  who  went  about  doing  good,  but  as  to 
the  general  course  of  events  there  is  and  can 
be  no  dispute.  It  is  history,  not  fable  ;  re- 
ality, not  imagination. 

Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  most  spotless 
life  ever  lived,  friends  and  foes,  heaven  and 
earth  testifying  that  Christ  was  without  sin. 
In  word  and  deed  he  showed  such  a  symmetry 
of  virtues  and  graces  as  has  never  been 
equalled.  He  stands  alone  as  a  miracle  of 
moral  excellence.  And  this  short  life,  by  the 
confession  of  an  \inbeliever,  has  done  more  to 
regenerate  mankind  than  all  the  reasonings  of 
philosophers  or  the  exhortations  of  moralists. 

Tlie  best  lives  in  English  arc  by  S.  J.  An- 
drews (New  York,  i862),  F.  W.  Farrar 
(IST.J),  C.  Geikie  (1877),  A.  Edersheim  (1883), 
and  J.  Stalker  (Edinburgh,  1884) ;  in  Ger- 
man by  B.  Weiss  (Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh, 
1888-84,  3  vols.),  and,  from  the  R.  C.  stand- 
point, J.  Grimm  (Regensburg,  1876,  2d  ed., 
1890) ;  in  French  by  Pressense  (Eng.  trans., 
Loudon,  1866).  T.^W.  C. 

Jesus  Christ,  Offices  of.  From  a  very  early 
period  these  have  been  considered  as  threefold. 
This  mode  of  representation  is  found  in  the 
Rabbins,  was  common  in  the  4th  century,  is 
used  in  the  chief  catechisms  (Geneva,  Heidel- 
berg, Westminster),  and  has  won  the  approval 
of  many  modern  scholars.  It  has  intrinsic 
merit,  for  Christ  could  not  be  a  full  Mediator 
unless  he  was  Prophet,  Priest,  and  King. 
These  ottices  arc  found  among  the  heathen, 
they  are  fully  developed  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  the  predictions  of  the  Messiah  set 
him  forth  under  this  Imagery.  He  is  a 
Prophet,  one  who  spake  as  never  man  spake. 
He  declared  the  Father,  and  gave  the  new  and 
perfect  revelation  of  his  will.  All  previous 
teachings  are  summed  up  in  him  as  the  Word 
of  God.  He  in  his  own  person  and  by  those 
whom  he  appointed  lias  given  to  men  all  the 
knowledge  needed  for  this  life  and  that  which 
is  to  come.  lie  is  a  Priest,  the  only  true 
priest,  who  offered  himself  without  spot  unto 
God  through  an  eternal  spirit.  All  other 
priests  were  but  types  and  shadows,  while  he 
by  his  one  sacrifice  became  the  author  of  eter- 
nal redemption  to  all  who  obey  him.  He  is 
also  a  Kinrj,  not  of  this  world,  yet  riding  by 
an  indefeasible  right.  His  crown  of  thorns 
became  an  imperial  diadem.  God  gave  him 
a  name  that  is  above  every  name  ;  and  all 
things  are  put  under  his  feet. 


It  is  necessary  to  consider  Christ  in  all  these 
offices  in  order  to  be  preserved  from  partial 
and  one-sided  views  of  his  work.  Some  take 
him  as  only  a  teacher,  others  dwell  most  upon 
his  atoning  death,  while  others  view  him 
ciiiefly  as  tlie  Lord  of  spiritual  life.  But  he 
is  each  and  all.  Nor  do  we  know  him  fully 
and  truly  until  we  know  him  in  all  his  func- 
tions :  as  our  Prophet  to  teach  us,  our  Priest 
to  make  atonement,  our  King  to  rule  in  and 
over  us.  T.  W.  C. 

Jesus,  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of,  ex- 
isted, since  the  beginning  of  tlie  I8th  century, 
in  the  form  of  brotherhoods,  foinuled  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  visions  of  Maria  Alacoque 
(q.v.),  but  was  reorganized  in  1794  as  a  form 
under  which  it  should  be  possible  for  the 
Jesuits  to  live  on  after  the  dissolution  of  their 
order.  When  the  order  was  restored,  in 
1814,  the  society  was  consequently  simply  ab- 
sorbed by  it.  Of  more  importance  became 
the  female  society  of  the  same  name,  founded 
in  1800  by  Madame  Magdelena  Sophie  Barat, 
confirmed  in  1826  by  Leo  XII.,  and  much 
favored  by  Pius  IX.  Its  principal  object  was 
female  education,  and  it  became  very  fashion- 
able. On  account  of  its  connection  with  the 
Jesuits  it  has  been  expelled  both  from  France 
and  from  Germany.  (See  Baunard,  Ilistoire 
de  Madame  Barat,  Paris,  1^76,  2  vols.) 

C.  P. 


Jeter,  Jeremiah  Bell,  D.D.  (- 


Baptist  ;  b.  in  Bedford  County,  Va.,  July 
18,  1802  ;  d.  in  Richmond,  Feb.  25,  1880.  He 
began  to  preach  in  1822,  but  was  not  ordained 
till  1824,  and  was  a  pastor  in  Richmond  from 
1835,  except  1849-52,  when  he  held  a  charge 
in  St.  Louis.  He  was  a  leading  divine  of  his 
denomination,  and  wrote  CampbeUism  Exam- 
ined, New  York,  1854  ;  The  Christian  Mir- 
ror, Charleston,  1856,  and  several  memoirs. 
His  life  was  written  by  W.  E.  Hatcher,  Balti- 
more, 188-.  F.  M.  B. 

Jeth'-ro  {excellence),  a  priest  or  prince  of 
Midian,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses  (Ex.  iii.  1), 
He  is  called  Raguel  (Num.  x.  29)  and  Reuel 
(Ex.  ii.  18),  so  that  Jethro  was  probably  his 
official  title.  He  visited  Moses  at  Sinai,  and 
gave  him  judicious  counsel  (Ex.  xviii.).  See 
HOBAB.  T.   W.  C. 

Jew,  The  Wandering.  The  legend  of  the 
wandering  Jew  is  of  comparatively  late  date. 
In  Englisli  and  Frencli  literature  it  is  first 
mentioned  by  Matthew  Paris  in  his  Chronicle, 
1259  ;in  German  literature  not  until  1602,  in 
a  pamphlet,  Kurze  Bcschreihunq  lotd  Erzdh- 
Inufj  Ton  einem  Judcn  mit  Xahmen  Ahasvcrtis; 
Luther  and  Hans  Sachs  seem  not  to  have 
known  it.  The  two  stories  present  many  dis- 
crepancies, but  also  many  points  of  resem- 
blance. According  to  Dr.  L.  Neubaur :  Die 
Sage  vom  ewigcn  Judcn,  Leipzig,  1884,  the 
former,  the  Hying  rumor,  the  tradition — which 
finally  became  fixed  in  the  latter,  the  folk- 
book,  the  novel — grew  from  a  double  root, 
parth'  from  a  misunderstanding  of  John  xxi., 
20,  wliicli  made  people  believe  that  John  had 
never  died,  but  should  wait  alive  on  earth 
until  the  second  coming  of  the  Lord;  partly 
from  a  story  about  some  one — a  servant  iu  the 


JEWEL 


(446) 


JEWS 


palace  of  the  high-priest  or  a  tradesman  living 
in  the  street  leading  to  Golgotha — who  rudely 
pushed  Jesus  on  and  gave  him  a  blow,  but 
received  the  answer:  "I  am  going  on,  but 
you  shall  w^iit  till  I  come  back."  In  the 
12th  aud  13th  centuries  all  these  elements 
coalesced,  and  were  used  in  the  disputations 
between  Christians  and  Jews  as  one  of  the 
principal  arguments  in  favor  of  Christianity, 
it  being  asserted  that  in  Armenia  there  lived 
a  man  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Christ  and 
present  at  the  crucifixion.  (See  JM.  D.  Con- 
way, Tlie  Wandering  Jeio,  London,  1881,  and 
in  Baring-Gould,  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
n.e.  London,  1872,  pp.  1-31.)  C.  P. 

Jewel  (or  Jewell),  John,  D.D.  (Oxford) 
1565),  bishop  of  Salisbury  ;  b.  at  Berry  Nar- 
bor,  near  Ilfracombe,  Devonshire,  May  24, 
1522  ;  d.  at  Monkton  Farleigh,  Sept.  22, 
1571,  while  on  a  tour  of  visitation.  He  en- 
tered Merton  College,  Oxford,  1535  ;  imbibed 
Protestant  opinions  from  Parkhurst,  after- 
ward bishop  of  Norwich,  and  became  tutor 
in  Corpus  Christi,  1539.  In  1549  he  came 
under  the  influence  of  Peter  ]\-artyr.  After 
Mary's  accession,  in  1553,  he  was  expelled 
from  his  college,  and  induced  to  sign  a  state- 
ment of  Roman  doctrine.  Repenting  this 
error,  he  fled,  in  1555,  to  Frankfort,  and  pub- 
licly abjured  his  'recantation.  The  next  3 
years  he  spent  chiefly  at  Strassburg  and  Zu- 
rich, with  Peter  Martyr.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land in  1558,  he  was  one  of  8  who  disputed 
with  as  many  of  the  old  party  before  Eliza- 
beth at  Westminster.  Appointed  bishop,  he 
had  scruples  about  vestments,  bat  put  them 
aside  and  received  consecration,  Jan.  21, 
1560.  Previous  controversies  with  Harding 
and  other  papists,  which  followed  on  his  ser- 
mon at  St.  Paul's  Cross  in  Jan.,  1559,  led 
him  to  write  his  famous  book,  Apoloc/ia  Eccle- 
sicB  Anglicano?,  1562,  Eug.  trans..  Apology  for 
the  Church  of  En^jland,  repeatedly  since,  e.g., 
1886.  This  was  esteemed  the  ablest  defence 
of  the  Anglican  position  at  that  time,  and  has 
retained  a  high  place  to  the  present  day. 
Elizabeth  ordered  a  copy  to  be  chained  in 
every  parish  church  ;  it  was  translated  into 
nearly  every  language  of  Europe,  and  into 
English  (1564)  by  Ann.  mother  of  Lord  Ba- 
con. The  Council  of  Trent  honored  it  by  a 
formal  condemnation,  and  appointed  two 
divines  to  refute  its  arguments.  Harding's 
Confutation,  1565,  was  answ^ered  at  length  by 
Jewel  in  a  Defence  of  the  Apology,  1567,  en- 
larged, 1571.  He  defends  the  Reformation 
as  a  return  from  unauthorized  opinions  and 
practices  to  primitive  truth  ;  his  views  are 
neither  sacramentarian  nor  strongly  Calvin- 
istic  ;  the  fathers  non  sunt  Momini,  sed  dnces 
("  not  lords,  but  leaders").  His  works  were 
collected,  London,  1609,  4  pt.  fol.,  4th  ed., 
1711  ;  by  the  Parker  Society,  1845-50,  4  vols., 
and  by  Dr.  R.  W.  Jelf,  1847-48,  8  vols.  (See 
his  life  by  C.  W.  Le  Bas,  1835,  and  others.) 
His  character  as  man  and  prelate  was  of  the 
highest;  Hooker  called  him  "  the  Jewel  of 
bishops,  the  worthiest  divine  that  Christen- 
dom hath  bred  for  some  hundred  of  years." 
F.  M.  B. 

Jewish  Christians.     See  Judaizers. 


Jews.  The  first  period  of  Jewish  or  rather 
Hebrew  history  is  here  made  to  extend  from 
the  call  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xii.)  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  in  a.d.  70,  and 
embraces  nearly  21  centuries.  The  origin  of 
the  Hebrew  race  is  not  definitely  knowai,  but 
it  is  certain  that  in  the  remotest  times  there 
was,  about  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
(Gen.  X.  10),  a  people  wdiich  enjoyed  a  high 
degree  of  civilization,  and  which  sent  out 
colonies  to  other  countries.  Thus  building 
Semites  went  from  this  region  to  Nineveh 
(Gen.  X.  11,  12),  pastoral  Semites  went  to 
Canaan  afterward  Palestine  (Gen.  xii.),  and 
others  skilled  in  maritime  arts  went  to  the 
Phoenician  coast,  each  in  turn  developing 
into  a  famous  historical  nation.  The  restless, 
roving  spirit  which  has  always  characterized 
the  Jews  is  illustrated  even  in  the  lives  of 
Abraham  and  his  immediate  descendants,  for 
the  long  journeys  made  by  themselves  and 
their  wives  would  have  been  noteworthy  in 
modern  times.  Southern  Palestine  was,  how- 
ever, the  place  of  the  chief  sojourn,  and  there, 
at  Hebron,  they  were  all  buried. 

Two  hundred  years  after  Abraham  entered 
Palestine,  B.C.  1921,  Jacob  and  his  family 
left  it,  B.C.  1706,  for  a  long  residence  in 
Egypt.  Received  at  first  with  almost  royal 
honors,  allowed  to  reside  in  one  of  the  richest 
portions  of  the  empire,  and  for  a  considerable 
period  treated  with  consideration,  they  at  last 
became  slaves  to  Egyptian  masters,  and  for 
generations  suffered  in  cruel  bondage  (Ex. 
i.-xii.).  Both  he  who  received  them  when 
they  went  to  Egypt  and  he  who  led  them 
forth  again  were  representatives  of  the  He- 
brew race,  and  it  is  significant  that  both 
Joseph  and  Moses  were  prominently  connected 
with  the  Egyptian  royal  household. 

Whether  the  time  spent  in  Egypt  was  430 
years  (Ex.  xii.  40),  or  only  half  that  number, 
the  same  marvel  was  true  that  has  been  wit- 
nessed in  every  age  and  country  since— name- 
ly, that  they  could  have  preserved  their  race 
characteristics  intact  throughout  such  a  period 
and  under  such  oppression.  This  fact  is  un- 
disputed ;  at  the  same  time  they  were  influ- 
enced by  Egyptian  life  and  thought  in  many 
ways,  as  is  evidenced  by  a  careful  study  of 
the  laws  of  Moses.  Egypt  did  not  supplant, 
but  only  supplemented  the  features  of  religion 
and  thought  which  their  ancestors  had  brought 
from  the  East.  It  is  true,  we  find  the  civili- 
zation of  the  Nile  and  that  of  the  Tigris  both 
contributing  to  the  stream  of  Hebrew^  history, 
bat  the  rearfatherland  of  the  Hebrew  religion 
was  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  ;  its  lan- 
guages, written  laws,  extensive  literature, 
sacred  poetry,  its  learning,  art,  and  military 
science,  full  records  of  which  modern  research 
has  brought  to  light,  formed  the  great  foun- 
tain which  gave  life  and  character  to  the  He- 
brew world  in  all  subsequent  ages. 

If  the  exact  route  of  tlie  exodus  is  not 
known  the  historical  character  of  such  a  fact 
cannot  be  denied,  and  subsequent  to  it  40 
years  are  allowed  for  the  wanderings  of  the 
Hebrews  in  the  wilderness  before  they  reached 
the  promised  land.  Moses  died  in  the  coun- 
try east  of  the  Jordan  (Dent,  xxxiv.),  and 
Joshua  led  the  Israelites  to  the  conquest  of 


JEWS 


(447) 


JEWS 


Canaan.  This  was  in  b.c.  1450,  and  at  this 
time  they  possessed  the  Tabernacle,  with  its 
altars,  table,  seven-branched  candlestick,  and 
other  furnishings,  also  the  Ark  of  the  Cove- 
nant, and  the  two  tal)les  of  the  Law  which 
had  been  given  at  Sinai.  These  were  placed 
at  Shiloh  (Josh,  xviii.  1),  which  for  a  long 
period  was  the  religious  centre  of  the  nation. 
After  the  conquest  of  the  country  under 
Joshua  it  was  divided  between  the  i2  tribes, 
Reuben,  Gad,  and  half-IManasseh  receiving 
their  portions,  by  their  own  choice,  on  the 
east  of  the  Jordan,  while  all  the  others  were 
located  on  the  west  of  the  river  (Josh,  xiii.- 
xvii.). 

From  this  time  forward  till  the  anointing 
of  Saul  as  king,  the  nation  for  nearly  300 
years  was  governed  by  judges.  This  is  in 
many  respects  an  obscure  period,  yet  it  was 
full  of  names  and  deeds  that  have  made  the 
Hebrew  annals  famous.  In  its  records  the 
growth  of  idolatry  is  mentioned,  and  the  in- 
creasing power  of  the  troublesome  Cauaanite 
tribes  that  had  not  been  thoroughly  subdued, 
and  there  are  other  dark  pages  which  show 
the  prevalence  of  human  weaknesses  and  pas- 
sions ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have  re- 
corded the  heroic  deliverance  of  the  nation, 
under  one  brave  leader  and  another,  from  the 
Mesopotamian  king,  Chushan-Kishathaim, 
also  from  the  Midianites,  3Ioabites,  Ammon- 
ites, and  the  Philistines,  always  their  implaca- 
ble enemies,  from  whom  tliey  suffered  much, 
all  of  which  shows  that  national  vigor  and  re- 
sources were  not  wholly  wanting  to  the  Jews. 
Moreover,  this  period  contains  the  exploits  of 
such  heroic  characters  as  Deborah  and  Barak, 
Gideon,  Jephthah,  and  Samson,  such  a  charm- 
ing story  as  that  of  Ruth  and  her  family,  such 
a  life  as  that  of  the  saintly  man  and  pious 
reformer  Samuel. 

It  was  in  the  time  of  the  last-named  worthy 
that  the  nation  began  to  emerge  from  its  con- 
dition of  comparative  obscurity  and  to  move 
forward  until,  under  David  and  Solomon,  it 
reached  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  Under 
the  influence  of  Samuel  a  religious  and  politi- 
cal revival  was  begun,  which,  in  the  reign  of 
Solomon,  culminated  in  the  Temple  and  its 
magnificent  service,  and  in  the  consolidation 
and  extension  of  the  empire  from  the  Eu- 
phrates to  the  border  of  Egypt  (1  Kings  iv. 
21).  A  royal  navy  was  created  (3  Chron.  ix. 
21),  trade  and  commerce  were  extended, 
wealth  increased,  and  public  edificses  were 
erected,  among  which  the  palace  and  Temple 
at  Jerusalem  were  the  most  elaborate  and 
costly.  With  continued  prosperity  there  were 
developed  in  Solomon  himself  the  traits  of  an 
Oriental  ruler— a  passion  for  extravagant  dis- 
play, ambition  to  outdo  all  rivals,  indifference 
to  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  his  subjects — until 
the  Hebrew  monarchy  was  in  reality  a  des- 
potism powerful  and  splendid  while  it  lasted, 
but  which  brought  forth  its  legitimate  results 
ill  the  rebellion  which  followed  Solomon's 
death. 

In  B.C.  975,  when  Rehoboam  refused  to 
lighten  the  burdens  under  which  the  people 
sulTered  in  his  father's  reign,  10  tribes  re- 
volted under  Jeroboam,  established  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom,  and  tliercafter,  besides  for- 


eign wars,  there  were  constant  internal  dis- 
sensions which  added  many  tragic  pages  to 
the  checkered  history  of  the  nation.  From 
this  point  on  till  Samaria  was  captured  by 
Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  in  b.c.  720, 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  had  19  rulers,  while 
that  of  Judali,  whose  capital  was  Jerusalem, 
had  20  rulers.  It  was  in  the  sack  of  the  Holy 
City  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  b.c.  586,  that  the 
Temple  of  Solomon  was  destroyed,  after  hav- 
ing stood  418  years.  The  power  of  the  Jews 
was  now  gont,  and  their  fame  as  a  great  na- 
tion was  a  thing  of  the  past.  Judah  was 
prostrate,  and  the  territory  of  Israel  had  been 
planted  with  colonies  of  mixed  and  strange 
people  from  the  East,  that  were  destined  to 
be  unified  and  to  become  known  as  the  Sa- 
maritan race,  a  new  source  of  trouble  to  the 
remnant  of  the  chosen  people. 

From  the  East— that  is,  from  Babylon,  de- 
struction had  come,  but  from  a  nation  still 
farther  east  help  was  to  arise,  for  Cyrus,  the 
Persian  king,  was  magnanimous  in  his  treat- 
ment of  the  exiled  Jews,  and  by  his  royal 
favor  a  great  colony  returned  to  the  promised 
land  in  B.C.  530.  Under  Zerubbabel,  in  b.c. 
520,  the  second  temple  rose  on  the  ruins  of 
the  first,  but  it  was  not  till  75  years  later,  in 
B.C.  445,  that  the  walls  of  the  city  were  re- 
built by  Nehemiah.  Tiie  records  of  that 
period  reveal  the  weakness  of  the  Jews  and 
the  opposition  they  had  to  encounter  from 
jealous  and  hostile  neighbors  (see  Ezra  and 
Neiiemiaii).  They  remained  subject  to  Per- 
sia till  Alexander  the  Great  appeared  in  the 
East  as  a  conqueror,  and  to  him  they  sub- 
mitted without  a  struggle.  This  was  in  b.c. 
332.  Alexander  entered  the  Temple,  was  re- 
ceived with  marked  honors,  and  his  only  act 
seems  to  have  been  the  transplanting  of  many 
thousands  of  Jews  to  Egypt  to  increase  the 
population  of  his  new  city — Alexandria.  In 
the  long  period  following  his  death  the  Jews 
were  frequently  plundered  by  different  con- 
querors, and  the  soil  of  Judea  became  the 
scene  of  many  bloody  conflicts  between  the 
Egyptian  and  Syrian  kings.  The  cruel  forms 
of  oppression  resorted  to  by  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  drove  the  Jews  to  desperation,  and  in 
B.C.  165,  with  Judas  Maccabeus  as  a  leader, 
they  revolted  and  freed  themselves  from  the 
Syrian  yoke.  By  heroic  efforts  they  estab- 
lished an  independence  which,  with  some  re- 
verses, lasted  till  Rome  conquered  the  East, 
and  in  a  modified  form  even  till  the  great  re- 
volt-against  tile  Roman  power  in  a.d.  06-70. 

The  Asmonean  family,  counting  from  Judas 
Maccabeus  to  the  accession  of  Herod  the 
Great,  reigned  130  years,  and  in  sub-sequent 
times  the  Jews  always  spoke  with  pride  of 
that  line  of  native  rulers — a  feeling  that  was 
intensified  by  the  fact  that  the  next  dynast}*, 
the  Herodian,  was  of  an  alien  race.  Herod 
and  his  descendants  governed  Juilea  for  more 
than  a  century,  and  though  some  of  the 
family  led  profligate  lives  and  all  were  hatt'd 
by  the  orthodox  Jews,  they  were  jtrinces  who 
loved  their  adopted  country,  and  who  did 
much  to  enhance  its  prosperity.  They  could 
not,  however,  check  the  ardor  of  their  sub- 
jects, who,  with  an  infatuation  that  was  blind 
and  reckless,  were  determined  to  plunge  into 


i 
i 


JEWS 


(448) 


JEWS 


a  war  with  Rome,  in  which  everything — the 
Holy  City,  Temple,  wealth,  country,  liberty- 
was  lost.  The  war  began  in  a.d.  66,  and 
two  future  emperors,  Vespasian  and  Titus, 
were  the  successive  leaders  of  the  Roman 
army.  Seldom  has  the  world  witnessed 
greater  desperation  than  was  evinced  by  the 
Jews  in  their  hopeless  struggle  with  the  im- 
perial legions.  In  the  last  year  of  the  war, 
A.D.  70,  Jerusalem  was  taken,  and  both  the 
city  and  the  magnificent  Temple  of  Herod, 
the  second  of  the  Jews,  were  destroyed. 

The  government  of  the  Hebrews  was  theo- 
cratic. All  their  laws  and  enactments  bear 
witness  to  the  intimate  relations  which  were 
supposed  to  exist  between  God  and  his  chosen 
people,  and  hence  they  breathe  a  spirit  that  is 
mild  and  humane.  National  questions  were 
decided  in  national  assemblies.  Civil  and 
criminal  causes  were  heard  by  the  king  or  by 
legally  appointed  judges,  and  the  testimony 
of  competent  witnesses  was  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. Punishments  were  tempered  by 
justice  and  merc3^  Even  slavery  existed  un- 
der such  modified  conditions  as  to  rob  the  sys- 
tem of  its  forbidding  features.  In  very  many 
respects  the  Hebrew  commonwealth  was  a 
model  one,  where  just  laws  were  administered 
by  intelligent  citizens,  and  where  the  rights  of 
all  classes  were  duly  considered.  As  to  edu- 
cation, the  family,  the  household,  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Sabbath  and  public  worship, 
systematic  contributions  for  sacred  and  be- 
nevolent purposes,  rules  as  well  as  practice 
were  strict,  and  the  moral  effect  upon  the  na- 
tion at  large  was  an  unmeasured  blessing. 
Some  critics  have  attempted  to  show  that  the 
priestly  system  of  the  Jews,  as  described  in 
the  Books  of  Moses,  was  an  invention  of  a 
late  period,  but  the  assumption  has  not  been 
proved.  On  the  other  hand,  when  we  con- 
sider that  temples  and  priests  both  in  the  He- 
brews' fatherland  and  in  Egypt,  the  land  of 
their  long  sojourn,  were  the  most  prominent 
facts  in  the  economy  of  the  two  nations,  we 
can  say  that  it  would  have  been  simply  inex- 
plicable had  not  these  things  been  established 
by  the  Jews  the  moment  they  were  free  to 
act  for  themselves,  which  was  true  when  they 
had  safely  reached  the  wilderness. 

The  golden  age  of  Hebrew  literature,  repre- 
sented by  the  earlier  books  of  the  Bible,  was 
long  previous  to  the  destruction  of  the  first 
Temple,  but  the  period  of  the  exile,  including 
one  or  two  centuries  subsequent  to  that  event, 
produced  works  of  great  historical  interest. 
Too  much  praise  cannot  be  bestowed  upon 
Ezra  as  a  reformer,  especially  upon  the  part 
he  took  in  eradicating  idolatry  and  in  raising 
to  a  higher  level  the  religious  life  of  his  peo- 
ple. In  what  is  termed  the  Greek  period,  that 
following  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
there  was,  in  spite  of  the  wars  and  commo- 
tions of  the  times,  an  unusual  degree  of  lit- 
erary activity,  and  many  writers,  chiefly  those 
living  outside  of  Palestine,  attempted  to  make_ 
Jewish  religion  and  thought,  on  the  one  hand, " 
and  Greek  philosophy,  on  the  other,  illustrate 
and  confirm  each  other.  The  greatest  monu- 
ment of  this  period  is  the  Septuagint  trans- 
lation of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  which 
throughout     the     Greek-speaking,     civilized 


world  had  a  wonderful  influence  in  shaping 
religious  thought.  Previous  to  the  time  of  our 
Lord  the  ancient  and  classic  Hebrew  had  been 
supplanted  in  Palestine,  except  in  synagogue 
and  school,  by  the  Aramaic,  which  at  first 
was  the  language  of  commerce,  and  which, 
by  necessity,  came  at  last  to  be  the  language 
of  the  people.  To  the  literature  of  this  lan- 
guage belong  the  paraphrases  of  the  books  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  known  as  the  Targums. 
As  a  nation  the  Jews  cherished  always  an 
intense  feeling  of  pride  coupled  with  a  feeling 
of  contempt  for  every  other  race.  This  is 
one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  they  did  not 
share  the  fate  of  other  peoples,  and  become 
absorbed  by  those  who  conquered  them.  In 
slavery,  captivity,  poverty,  and  national  dis- 
aster and  dissolution  the  Jew  preserved  his 
character  to  the  last. 

The  second  chapter  in  Jewish  history  that 
we  are  to  consider  extends  from  the  close  of 
the  war  in  a.d.  70  to  the  present  time.  Sev- 
enteen centuries  of  this  period  present  a  suc- 
cession of  enactments  in  diilerent  countries 
for  and  against  the  Jews,  also  numberless 
persecutions  succeeded  by  brief  intervals  of 
respite  from  oppression  and  death— a  strange 
and  appalling  record  of  which  hardly  an  out- 
line can  here  be  given. 

After  the  destruction  caused  by  those  four 
terrible  years  of  war,  when  one  and  a  half 
millions  of  people  from  Jerusalem  alone  were 
consumed  by  the  sword  or  by  slavery,  one 
might  well  suppose  that  the  Jewish  nation 
had  been  annihilated,  and  that  its  history  was 
at  an  end.  But  we  find  that  we  are  dealing 
with  an  exceptional  race — a  race  that  defies 
disaster,  that  has  never  been  absorbed  or  as- 
similated by  another  nation  ;  a  race  that  war, 
persecution,  famine,  and  pestilence  have  not 
succeeded  in  blotting  out. 

The  many  Jews  that  were  carried  into  East- 
ern captivity  previous  to  our  era  developed 
into  a  powerful  body,  which  for  a  long  time 
exerted,  in  that  region,  great  influence  in 
wealth,  learning,  and  even  in  politics.  On 
the  other  hand,  those  that  returned  from  cap- 
tivity, together  with  those  that  remained  in 
Palestine,  formed  a  vast  community  in  the 
West,  so  that  for  centuries  the  world  pos- 
sessed two  important  centres  of  Jewish 
thought,  Judea  and  Babylon,  the  head  of  one 
being  known  as  The  Prince  of  the  Captivity, 
and  of  the  other.  The  Patriarch  of  the  West. 
Between  these  two  bodies  there  was  at  times 
harmony,  at  other  times  sharp,  not  to  say 
bitter  rivalry,  but  both  helped  to  maintain 
and  perpetuate  the  principles  of  Judaism  in 
their  strictest  forms.  The  schools  of  Nehar- 
dea.  Sura,  and  especially  Pumbeditha  in  the 
East  were  famous,  but  no  more  so  than  that 
by  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  After  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  the  centre  of  Jewish  authority 
was  moved  first  to  Jabne,  thence  to  several 
other  places  before  it  was  permanently  estab- 
lished at  Tiberias.  It  was  subsequent  to  this 
time— that  is,  in  the  second  century  of  our 
era,  that  the  synagogues  of  Galilee  were  built, 
the  remains  of  a  few  of  which  still  exist,  as  at 
Tell  Hum,  Kefr  Birim,  and  elsewhere. 

The  different  parties  in  Judea,  Pharisees 
Sadducees,  Essenes,  and  Herodians,  as  meiu 


JEWS 


(449) 


JEWS 


tioned  in  the  New  Testament,  by  no  means 
represented  all  the  various  divisions  and  sects 
among  the  Jews  at  that  period,  for  to  discuss 
endlessly  and  never  to  arrive  at  harmony  of 
opinion  was  then  as  now  a  prominent  char- 
acteristic of  the  Jewish  race.  The  fame  of 
two  leaders  and  teachers  of  that  time  is  world 
wide — Hillel  and  Shammai — and  thcj"  need 
not  be  mentioned  further  than  to  say  that 
Hillel  was  lenient  or  liberal  in  his  views, 
while  Shammai  adhered  to  the  strictest  inter- 
pretation of  the  law.  With  these  should  be 
named  the  wise  Gamaliel,  the  teacher  of  St. 
Paul. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  until  some  time  in 
the  2d  century  Jews  and  Christians  were  con- 
founded both  by  the  Roman  authorities  and 
in  the  Roman  popular  mind,  so  that  in  the 
successive  persecutions  of  that  age  both  par- 
ties suffered.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the  2d 
century  the  Jews  appear  to  have  gained 
greatly  in  numbers  and  wealth  in  Egypt, 
Cyprus,  Mesopotamia,  and  Palestine,  and 
goaded  by  cruelties  practised  upon  them,  they 
rose  in  rebellion  against  their  oppressors, 
slaughtered  multitudes  of  them,  and  at  last 
aimed  at  the  reconquest  of  their  fatherland. 
Their  leader  was  Bar-Kochba(q.v.),  Son  of  the 
Star,  to  them  a  real  messiah,  under  the  magic 
of  whose  name  they  rallied,  captured  Jeru- 
salem, and  besides  it  had  in  their  possession 
50  of  the  .strongest  castles  of  the  country  and 
985  villages.  Soon  they  were  driven  from 
the  Holy  City  and  retired  to  Either,  where, 
after  a  heroic  resistance,  their  leader  was  slain 
and  most  of  his  followers  perished.  Dion 
Cassius  reports  that  during  this  formidable 
rebellion  580,000  Jews  fell  by  the  sword. 
When  Jerusalem  was  rebuilt  a  royal  edict 
prohibited  them  from  entering  the  city  or 
even  from  approaching  it  near  enough  to  be- 
hold it  from  a  di.stance.  Tliis  war  ended  in 
A.D.  135. 

Persecution  and  toleration  alternate  in  the 
treatment  of  the  Jews— Constantine  was  se- 
vere against  them,  Theodosius  the  Great  and 
Honorius  considerate  toward  them,  Justinian 
returned  to  harsh  and  cruel  methods,  and 
Heraclius  (a.d.  610-41)  drove  them  from  Jeru- 
salem and  prohibited  their  return.  He  was 
impelled  to  this  step  by  the  horrid  massacres 
of  Christians  which  the  Jews  had  been  guilty 
of  during  the  short-lived  triumpJi  in  Palestine 
of  Chosroes,  t(f  whose  standard  they  Hocked, 
hailing  him  as  their  deliverer. 

As  a  large  part  of  Jewish  history  in  these 
early  centuries,  as  in  every  other  period,  is  a 
sickening  record  of  bloodshed  and  suffering, 
it  is  pleasanter  to  turn  for  a  moment  to  an- 
other pha.se  of  their  life.  In  every  age  their 
passion  for  money  getting  has  been  equalled 
by  their  love  of  literature,  and  in  Babylon 
and  Judea  we  find  them,  in  spite  of  war  and 
persecution,  devoting  themselves  to  the  study 
of  the  law.  They  can  hardly  be  said  to  have 
a  literature  that  does  not  in  some  degree  deal 
with  religion.  The  written  law  formed  the 
basis  of  all  their  learning.  They  sjjent  their 
lives  in  defending  and  explaining  it.  First 
came  oral  tradition,  much  of  which  existed 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  but  which  wa.s  not  col- 
lected into  its  present  shape— that  is,  the  Mish- 


na,  till  about  a.d.  220.  To  this  was  added  the 
Gemara,  or  explanation,  which  took  two  forms 
according  as  it  was  delivered  by  the  teachers 
in  the  East  or  by  those  in  the  West  ;  the 
Western  commentary,  with  the  Mishna,  formed 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  while  the  Eastern, 
with  the  same  Mishna,  formed  the  Babylonian 
Talmud.  The  Jerusalem  Talmud  was  com- 
pleted between  a.d.  350  and  400,  the  Baby- 
lonian not  earlier  than  a.d.  500.  As  regards 
affairs  in  Palestine,  the  Jerusalem  Talmud 
has  the  advantage,  inasmuch  as  it  was  com- 
piled earlier  than  the  other  and  in  the  country 
itself. 

To  most  modern  scholars  the  Talmuds  are 
an  unexplored  wilderness  of  thought.  They 
contain  maxims  of  wisdom  in  pages  of  repe- 
titious nonsense,  diamonds  in  mountains  of 
earth,  flowers  that  nuist  be  plucked  from 
fields  of  mire.  The  elder  Disraeli,  a  man  re- 
spected by  the  Jews,  and  not  chargeal)le  with 
partiality  toward  Christians,  says  :  "In  the 
Talmud  we  find  a  prodisrious  mass  of  contra- 
dictor}'  opinions,  an  infinite  number  of  casuis- 
tical cases,  a  logic  of  scholastic  theology,  some 
recondite  wisdom,  and  much  rambling  do- 
tage ;  many  puerile  tales  and  Oriental  fancies  ; 
ethics  and  sophLsms,  reasonings  and  unreason- 
ings,  subtle  solutions,  maxims  and  riddles  ; 
nothing  in  human  life  seems  to  have  happened 
which  these  doctors  have  not  perplexed  or 
provided  against.  .  .  .  The  children  of  Israel, 
alwaj's  children,  were  delighted  as  their  Tal- 
mud increased  its  volume  and  their  hardships. 
The  Gemara  was  a  third  law  to  elucidate  the 
Mishna,  which  was  a  second  law,  and  which 
has  thrown  the  first  law,  the  law  of  Moses, 
into  obscurity"  {Genius  of  Judaism,  p.  88). 
This  is  a  pretty  correct  description  of  that 
wonderful  compilation,  and  the  last  paragraph 
contains  one  of  the  most  serious  charges, 
damaging  becau.se  it  is  true,  that  can  be 
brought  against  modern  Jews,  that  they  have 
forsaken  the  law  of  Moses,  and  seem  to  be 
satisfied  to  pin  their  faith  on  the  petty  and 
ridiculous  absurdities  of  their  Talmud. 

Between  the  Magian  religion  on  the  East 
and  Christianity  on'the  West,  it  is  surprising 
that  Judaism  should  have  maintained  itself 
with  such  vigor  for  so  many  centuries.  In 
the  South,  however,  there  was  no  serious  ob- 
stacle to  the  extension  of  this  race  and  their 
doctrines,  and  in  Arabia  they  established 
themselves  at  an  early  period,  and  long  before 
the  time  of  j\Iohammed,  even  in  a.d.  230, 
there  was  in  that  country  a  flourishing  Jew- 
ish kingdom.  But  when  Mohammed  (q.v.) 
arose  they  were  the  first  to  be  slaughtered  or 
converted  by  his  sword.  When,  however, 
his  followers  had  taken  Jerusalem  the  Jews 
are  said  to  have  fared  well  at  their  hands. 
Indeed,  under  the  Arabian  princes  in  general 
the  Jews  enjoyed  a  long  interval  of  compara- 
tive peace,  and  especially  was  this  true  inider 
the  Moors  of  Spain,  where  their  condition 
was  in  every  respect  one  of  prosperity.  Great 
attention  was  paid  by  them  at  this  time  to 
literature,  and  in  the  Arabic  language,  which 
they  adopted,  they  transmitted  to  the  modern 
world  some  of  the  ancient  classics  that  other- 
wise would  now  be  lost.  Tliis  was  a  bright 
and  perhai)s  it  might  be  called  a  romantic 


i 


JEWS 


(450) 


JEWS 


period  in  their  history.  But  disaster  came  or 
rather  culmiuated  in  1493,  when,  after  a  cen- 
tury of  most  cruel  persecutions  from  the 
Inquisition,  they  were  driven  from  Spain. 
In  the  commerce,  agriculture,  learning,  and 
politics  of  the  nation  they  had  taken  a  promi- 
nent part,  and  their  position  had  been  one  of 
honor.  In  every  way  they  were  superior  to 
their  coreligionists  in  other  parts  of  Europe, 
and  this  superiority  is  still  apparent  in  the 
Spanish  as  distinguished  from  the  German 
Jews,  as  both  are  represented  in  the  East. 
They  were  obliged  to  leave  Spain  in  four 
months  and  to  leave  all  their  property  behind 
them.  Half  a  million  or  more  departed  on 
these  merciless  terms,  and  Spain,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  Jews,  has  never  recovered  from 
this  shock  to  her  national  enterprise  and 
wealth.  These  wretched  people,  having  no 
country  to  which  to  flee,  sufEered  untold  pri- 
vations and  hardships.  Those  that  took  ref- 
uge in  Italy  and  Turkey  fared  the  best.  In 
Italy  they  turned  at  once,  as  if  by  instinct,  to 
their  passion  for  handling  and  accumulating 
money,  and  at  one  time  wealthy  Italian  Jews 
had  in  their  hands  nearly  the  entire  trade  of 
the  Levant. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  VI.  the  Jews  were 
banished  from  France,  as  indeed  they  have 
been,  at  one  time  or  another,  from  almost 
every  country  of  Europe.  But  after  a  time 
they  began  to  return,  gradually  gained  dis- 
tinction in  many  ways,  and  in  1790  they  were 
admitted  to  all  the  rights  of  citizenship  with- 
out reservation.  The  conduct  of  Napoleon 
toward  the  Jews  shows  that  his  great  mind 
could  rise  above  all  personal  and  religious 
prejudices  in  his  consideration  of  the  interests 
of  a  race  to  which  the  world  was  so  deeply 
indebted.  His  summoning  of  the  Sanhedrin 
to  Paris,  in  1806,  and  his  submitting  to  its 
members  a  series  of  dignified  and  reasonable 
propositions,  which  were  formulated  and 
adopted  by  this  Jewish  body,  forms  a  remark- 
able chapter  in  the  history  of  France,  not  to 
say  in  the  history  of  civilization.  The  con- 
sistorial  organization  which  the  emperor  es- 
tablished still  exists  there  in  a  modified  form. 
A  very  important  organization  in  France  in 
the  interest  of  the  Jews  is  the  Alliance  Israel- 
ite Universelle,  established  in  1860,  whose 
object  is  in  part  to  support  schools  for  boys 
and  girls  in  Africa  and  Turkey,  but  whose 
chiief  purpose  is,  by  using  legitimate  political 
influence,  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  their 
coreligionists  in  other  countries,  as  Russia  and 
the  different  provinces  of  Southeastern  Eu- 
rope—sufferings that  result  from  oppressive 
laws.  The  result  of  the  favorable  conditions 
granted  to  Jews  in  France  has  resulted  in 
making  Judaism  there  less  objectionable  on 
the  ground  of  bigotry  than  in  any  other 
country.  Indeed,  very  many  once  of  that 
faith  have  gradually  allowed  themselves  to  be 
either  partially  or  entirely  absorbed  in  the 
Christianity  or  Infidelity  of  the  French  na- 
tion. 

Frederick  the  Great  favored  the  Jews  in 
some  respects,  while  in  others,  as  in  laws 
regulating  marriage,  owning  property,  and 
engaging  in  trade,  his  restrictions  upon  them 
were  severe.     The  year  1871,  which  witnessed 


the  consolidation  of  the  German  Empire,  gave 
also  poHtical  and  civil  equality  to  the  Jews 
throughout  Germany.  This  had  been  ap- 
proached in  previous  years,  as,  for  instance, 
in  1812,  when  a  royal  edict  declared  all  Jews 
in  Prussia  to  be  citizens  and  gave  them  equal 
rights  with  their  Christian  fellow-country- 
men. Later  a  few  of  these  privileges  were 
Avithdrawn,  and  equal  rights  were  not  fully 
assured  to  them  till  the  date  indicated,  at  the 
close  of  the  war  with  France. 

In  the  last  century  (1729-86)  Moses  Mendels- 
sohn deserves  great  praise  for  his  efforts  to 
elevate  the  people  of  his  race  by  a  higher  and 
more  liberal  education,  and  by  showing  that 
the  exercise  of  tolerant  views  was  the  only 
reasonable  way  of  living  for  both  Jews  and 
Christians.  Like  a  second  Ezra,  his  life  and 
literary  labors  form  an  important  era  in  Eu- 
rope in  regard  to  the  oppressed  race  to  which 
he  belonged,  pue  of  the  earliest  theological 
seminaries  was  that  founded  by  Zacharias 
Fraenkel,  in  Breslau,  in  1854,  which  has  sent 
out  many  well-trained  rabbis  to  different  parts 
of  Europe  and  even  to  America.  A  similar 
school  was  established  by  Hildesheimer,  in 
Berlin,  in  1877.  In  Germany,  Holland, 
France,  Italy,  and  in  other  covmtries  the  Jews 
have  in  recent  years  founded  schools  of  a  high 
order  for  their  own  people,  and  some  of  these 
have  already  become  famous. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  present  century, 
when  the  political  restrictions  under  which 
the  Jews  had  suffered  began  to  be  removed, 
there  was  more  freedom  of  action  on  their 
part  in  regard  to  their  religious  observances, 
and  two  strong  parties  arose  between  which 
the  feeling  was  sometimes  violent  and  which 
has  resulted,  at  the  present  time,  in  the  exist- 
ence in  very  many  of  the  cities  of  Europe  and 
America  of  an  orthodox  and  a  reform  con- 
gregation. Many  of  the  so-called  ' '  re- 
formed" congregations  are  simply  rational- 
istic societies — the  Jews  themselves  apply  the 
term  "infidel"  to  them,  which  are  held  to- 
gether by  no  other  bond  than  a  pronounced 
disbelief  in  all  that  ever  ennobled  Judaism. 

The  history  of  Jewish  emancipation  in  Eng- 
land or  of  the  various  enactments  by  which 
Jews  have  come  to  enjoy  the  same  legal  rights 
that  their  fellow-countrymen  possess,  is  deeply 
interesting,  and  belongs  for  the  most  part  to 
the  present  century.  The  history  of  the  op- 
position to  this  movement  is  likewise  interest- 
ing, but  from  another  point  of  view.  They 
entered  England  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons, 
and  after  centuries  of  tragic  experience  were 
driven  from  the  island  in  a.d.  1290,  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  Cromwell  favored  them, 
but  his  efforts  in  their  behalf  were  not  sup- 
ported by  the  nation,  and  it  was  not  till  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  that  they  were  allowed  to 
settle  in  the  kingdom.  In  1723  they  obtained 
the  right  of  possessing  laud,  and  in  1753  that 
of  naturalization  was  granted  them.  It  was 
not  till  1833  that  they  entered  the  profession 
of  advocates,  and  in  1845  the  oflices  of  alder- 
man and  lord  mayor  were  opened  to  them. 
In  1858  they  were  allowed  to  sit  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  in  1871,  after  the  abolition  of  tests, 
a  Jew  was  made  a  Master  of  Arts  at  Oxford. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  in  the  1st  cen- 


JEWS 


(451) 


tury  of  our  era  the  Jews  were  scattered  in 
every  part  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  the 
names  of  the  places  where  they  were  residing, 
as  given  by  early  writers,  make  a  long  list. 
In  all  the  great  cities  which  were  also  cen- 
tres of  commerce  and  trade,  they  had  estab- 
lished themselves  and  were  living  according 
to  the  traditions  and  customs  of  their  fa- 
thers. Sometimes  they  were  courted,  some- 
times oppressed  and  robbed,  but  seldom  or 
never  were  they  so  poor  and  degraded  as  to 
be  treated  by  the  Roman  authorities  with 
silent  contempt.  Their  wide  dispersion  at 
that  time  might  be  regarded  as  miraculous, 
for  the  fact  proved  to  be  of  the  greatest  ser- 
vice in  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  It  was 
through  the  medium  of  these  intiuential  Jew- 
ish communities  that  the  new  religion  made  its 
way  so  rapidly  throughout  the  Roman  world. 
No  less  interesting  is  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews 
at  the  present  day.  Indeed  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  name  a  country  where  they  are  not. 
In  China,  India,  Central  Asia,  Africa,  in  the 
most  unexpected  regions  there  are  commu- 
nities representing  this  ancient  race.  What- 
ever their  countrj',  language,  or  color,  they 
present  the  same  general  features  and  char- 
acteristics of  mind,  occupation,  and  life  that 
are  so  Avell  known  to  the  student  of  their 
history. 

In  recent  years  much  has  been  said  of  the 
return  of  the  Jews  to  Palestine.  Journals  in 
the  interest  of  such  a  scheme  have  been  estab- 
lished and  societies  organized,  and  a  few  colo- 
nies have  been  planted  there.  They  are  all 
weak  and  are  for  the  most  part  aided  by  be- 
nevolent contributions  from  other  countries. 
Owing  to  the  obstacles  they  have  to  contend 
with — climate,  competition  with  fellaheen 
labor,  lack  of  familiarity  with  agricultural 
pursuits,  and  restrictions  imposed  by  the 
Turkish  Government — their  success  is  far 
from  being  assured.  On  the  whole,  the 
movement  seems  to  be  forced,  there  being  no 
general  desire  on  the  part  of  the  Jews  as  a 
race  to  reoccupy  the  Holy  Land.  At  the 
same  time  the  number  of  Jews  in  Palestine 
has  been  increasing  during  10  or  15  years 
past,  and  Jerusalem  contains  at  present  not 
far  from  25,000  of  them.  As  a  class  they  are 
poor,  extremely  orthodox,  and  many  of  the 
adult  males  devote  much  time  to  the  study  of 
the  Talmud.  If  the  entire  number  of  Jews 
in  the  world  is  placed  at  7,000,000  (there  are 
no  exact  figures),  those  in  Jerusalem  form 
about  one  third  of  one  per  cent  of  this  num- 
ber. 

As  any  outline  of  Jewish  history  is  neces- 
sarily meagre,  the  present  condition  of  this 
people  may  best  be  appreciated  by  contrasting 
it  with  their  condition  two  centuries  ago,  or 
perhaps  with  a  much  more  recent  date.  They 
were  then  despised  by  every  other  nation  and 
race.  They  were  crowded  into  ghettoes  and 
Jew-alleys  and  shut  away  from  light  and  air. 
They  lived  in  tilth  and  misery.  They  were 
confined  to  the  most  menial  and  degrading 
occupations.  A  few  accumulated  money  only 
to  have  it  taken  from  them  by  oppressive 
rulers  or  unjust  enactments.  A  few  others 
prosecuted  literary  studies  under  the  greatest 
disadvantages,    and    not    infrequently    their 


works  were  condemned  to  be  suppressed  or 
burned.  They  were  denied  every  honorable 
position  in  civil,  social,  educational,  and  po- 
litical life.  They  existed  but  under  such  cir- 
cumstances as  to  make  existence  a  burden. 

The  transformation  that  has  taken  place  in 
recent  years  in  the  treatment  of  the  Jews  has 
added  a  new  marvel  to  tlie  already  long  cata- 
logue of  wonders  of  which  their  history  is 
composed.  Now  in  every  department — liter- 
ature, art,  music,  medicine,  politics — as  states- 
men, lawyers,  bankers,  military  officers,  edi- 
tors, professors— they  occupy  many  of  the 
foremost  positions.  Laws"  discriminating 
against  them  have  been  repealed.  No  civil 
or  political  disabilities  bar  their  way  to  prog- 
ress or  success.  If  with  this  change  in  public 
sentiment  there  had  been  a  corresponding  im- 
provement in  Jewish  character,  these  people 
would  command  the  respect  and  admiration 
of  the  world.  It  remains  to  be  seen  what 
use  the  Jew  will  make  of  the  new  condition!* 
by  which  he  is  now  surrounded.  In  the  past, 
to  the  shame  of  governments  and  peoples, 
Jews  have  been  condemned  without  mercy  ; 
but  at  the  present  time  the  opposite  extreme 
has  been  reached,  and  the  unqualified  praise 
that  is  bestowed  upon  them  is  as  unwise  as  it 
is  unjust.  Thus  their  pride  is  fanned,  and 
they  are  encouraged  to  feel  that  as  the  seed 
of  Abraham  they  are  without  blemish.  Un- 
less Jewish  character  is  elevated  Jews  will 
not  deserve  the  new  privileges  which  they 
now  enjoy  or  the  many  honors  that  are  now 
heaped  upon  them. 

The  earliest  efforts  of  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles were  directed  toward  the  conversion  of 
the  Jews.  Through  the  communities  of  these 
people  scattered  tliroughout  the  world  the 
Gospel,  as  we  have  seen,  first  gained  a  foot- 
hold. After  the  distinction  between  Christian, 
and  Jew  came  to  be  clearly  defined  all  frater- 
nization ceased  ;  courtesy  gave  way  to  mutual 
contempt.  Perhaps,  however,  in  no  age  of 
the  church,  even  when  persecution  of  the 
Jews  was  most  fanatical  and  violent,  have 
there  been  wanting  persons  who,  by  voice  or 
pen,  have  advocated  their  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity. Likewise  there  has  been  no  period 
during  the  past  1800  years  that  has  not  wit- 
nessed the  turning  of  some  of  the  children  of 
Israel  to  the  Gospel. 

Some  of  the  early  proselytes— that  is,  those 
who  renounced  Judaism  for  the  Catholic 
faith,  wrote  vigorously  against  the  Jews  and 
in  favor  of  Christianity,  and  in  the  history  of 
religion  in  mediieval  times  their  works  have 
an  important  place.  Such  books  were  largely 
controversial,  and  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that 
most  of  them  emanated  from  Spain,  in  which 
country  for  many  centuries  catholic  zeal  was 
fervent  in  this  phase  of  missionary  work. 
Proselyting  efforts  were  also  extensively  car- 
ried on  in  Italy,  but  they  belong  for  the  most 
part  to  a  later  era  than  those  in  Spain  that 
are  now  referred  to.  One  of  the  greatest 
councils  in  the  world  was  that  held  in  Tortosa 
between  learned  rabbis  and  eminent  proselytes, 
when  in  the  interval  from  February,  1418,  to 
November,  1414,  69  sittings  were  held.  This 
conference  was  arranged  and  presided  over 
by  Cardinal  Pedro  de  Luna,  who  was  after- 


i 

i 


JEWS 


(453) 


JEWS 


ward  known  as  Benedict  XIII.  The  actual 
success  attending  these  efforts  is  not  known, 
but  it  is  certain  that  many  thousands  of  Jews 
were  baptized,  and  Graetz  admits  {Geschichte, 
viii.,  p.  83  ;  see  also  p.  134)  that  "Judaism 
was  deprived  of  much  talent  by  the  transition 
of  so  many  learned  and  cultivated  men  to 
Christianity."  Many  interesting  movements 
were  set  on  foot  in  England  during  the  long 
period  between  William  Rufus  and  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  Jews  from  the  country,  in 
1390,  for  their  conversion,  resulting  in  the  re- 
nouncing of  Judaism  by  a  large  number  of 
families  which  became  absorbed  in  the  Eng- 
lish, race.  In  fact,  more  Jewish  blood  is  now 
flowing  in  Christian  veins  than  is  dreamed  of 
by  the  popular  mind. 

Coming  down  to  modern  times,  we  find  that 
more  difficulties  beset  this  question  of  the 
conversion  of  the  Jews  than  any  other  moral 
problem  that  is  before  the  world.  They  are 
such  that  very  many  in  the  Christian  Church 
have  despaired  of  success,  and  have  left  this 
for  other  channels  of  religious  effort.  On  the 
part  of  the  Christian,  it  requires  unusual 
bravery  and  skill  to  address  listeners  who  are 
bitterly  hostile  to  the  facts  one  has  to  present, 
in  such  a  way  as  not  to  excite  their  anger, 
which  would  be  only  a  negative  result,  but 
in  a  way  also  to  command  their  attention. 
The  Christian  teacher  in  addressing  a  Jew 
addresses  one  whose  hostility  to  the  Gospel 
amounts  to  hatred. 

On  the  side  of  the  Jew  who  would  become 
a  Christian,  there  is  not  only  his  own  deep- 
seated  prejudice  against  Christianity  that  he 
must  overcome,  but  he  has  to  endure  from 
thase  of  his  own  faith  a  persecution  worthy 
of  the  days  of  Torquemada.  If  it  is  known 
to  Jews  that  one  of  their  faith  has  such  a  de- 
sire they  cut  him  off  from  all  social  relations, 
they  refuse  to  deal  with  him  in  business,  they 
excommunicate  him  from  the  synagogue,  and 
do  all  in  their  power  to  make  him  miserable. 
Toleration  is  not  known.  If  a  Jew  would 
take  such  a  step  he  must  make  himself  as  one 
that  is  lost  or  dead  to  his  family,  friends,  and 
home.  To  face  such  things  requires  no  ordi- 
nary amount  of  courage. 

Among  the  converts  from  Judaism  could 
be  mentioned  some  of  the  foremost  writers, 
scholars,  philanthropists,  and  most  eminent 
Christians  that  the  world  has  seen.  But  it  is 
not  by  noted  personages  so  much  as  it  is  by 
the  faith  and  life  of  humble  disciples  that  the 
Gospel  achieves  its  greatest  triumphs.  There 
are  to-day  tens  of  thousands  of  believers  who 
have  come  out  of  Judaism  and  have  accepted 
Christ  as  their  Messiah.  England  has  be- 
tween 5000  and  6000  such  converts,  and  sev- 
eral hundred  from  this  class  are  numbered 
among  the  professors,  Christian  teachers,  and 
clergymen  of  the  Established  Church.  Among 
the  eminent  divines  of  the  Presbyterian  body 
are  not  a  few  representatives  of  this  ancient 
race. 

The  London  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
Christianity  among  the  Jews  was  founded  in 
1808,  and  one  of  the  few  who  were  particu- 
larly active  in  the  movement  was  a  convert 
from  the  Jewish  faith.  Since  1815  this  so- 
ciety has  been  under  the  care  of  the  Church 


of  England,  and  upward  of  100  proselytes  are 
at  present  engaged  in  preaching  the  Gospel  in 
its  different  stations  throughout  the  world. 
Between  30  and  30  societies  exist  in  different 
Protestant  countries  for  the  express  purpose 
of  converting  the  Jews,  all  of  which  have 
been  established  since  the  formation  of  the 
London  society— Norway,  Sweden,  Holland, 
Switzerland,  Germany,  and  tlie  United  States 
joining  with  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  England 
in  carrying  on  this  enterprise  of  such  peculiar 
interest.  When  the  nature  of  the  work  is 
considered  together  with  the  limited  means 
employed,  the  number  of  converts  yearly, 
averaging  from  600  to  800,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  mai'ked  success. 

The  most  important  station  of  the  London 
Jews'  Society  is  that  in  Jerusalem.  If  the 
Gospel  makes  any  progress  here  it  is  in  the 
face  of  the  strongest  opposition  that  Judaism 
can  present.  Nowhere  else,  not  even  in  the 
depths  of  Central  Europe,  is  Jewish  bigotry 
and  fanaticism  carried  to  such  an  extreme  as 
it  is  by  the  rabbis  and  their  followers  in  the 
Holy  City.  Their  struggle  is  against  every 
form  of  education,  science,  language,  business 
that  is  not  thoroughly  rabbinical  and  there- 
fore, as  they  think,  orthodox.  But  even  here 
the  efforts  of  this  society  are  not  without  a 
good  measure  of  success.  A  home  for  aged 
and  helpless  persons,  an  excellent  hospital, 
an  industrial  school  where  trades  are  taught, 
and  two  schools,  one  each  for  Jewish  boys 
and  Jewish  girls,  are  the  chief  means  used 
aside  from  preaching,  by  which  many  have 
been  led  to  accept  the  Gospel.  All  the  soci- 
eties of  this  class  are  doing  excellent  work, 
and  from  the  group  the  one  at  Leipzig, 
founded  in  1849,  may  be  mentioned,  and 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  emi- 
nent scholar  and  Christian,  Dr.  Delitzsch, 
who  died  in  1890,  did  so  much  for  its  success. 
Among  the  masses  of  Jews  in  all  parts  of  Eu- 
rope his  Hebrew  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  has  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions, has  been  read  by  thousands  and  is 
silently  producing  goocl  results.  Such  a 
movement  as  that  of  Rabinowitz  in  South- 
eastern Europe,  if  it  has  not  led  large  num- 
bers to  Christianity,  has  had  the  effect  of 
calling  the  serious  and  earnest  attention  of 
many  hitherto  prejudiced  Jews  to  the  claims 
of  the  Gospel.  The  slanders  which  Jewish 
writers  are  always  ready  to  cast  upon  those 
who  embrace  Christianity,  particularly  if 
they  are  prominent  in  Jewish  circles,  as  was 
true  of  the  person  just  named,  are  in  most 
cases  as  unjust  as  they  are  malicious,  and  the 
present  writer  can  testify  from  observations 
during  his  residence  of  several  years  in  Jeru- 
salem, that  some  of  the  converts  exhibit  the 
noblest  traits  of  mind  and  heart— a  disregard 
of  opposition  whose  bitterness  cannot  be  de- 
scribed, and  a  devotion  to  principle  that  is 
nothing  less  than  heroic.  Poverty,  the  worst 
forms  of  ostracism,  and  sometimes  personal 
violence  are  endured  with  a  patient  and  for- 
giving spirit  that  can  be  manifested  only  by  a 
sincere  and  humble  follower  of  Christ 

In  Judaism  at  the  present  day  there  are  two 
notable  movements,  both  of  which  tend  to  dis- 
integrate the  Jewish  faith  so  far  as  that  is  a 


JEWS 


(453) 


JI]ZEBEL 


rabbinical  system— one  is  toward  Christianity 
and  the  other  toward  rationalism  or  infidelity. 
Many  Jews  in  Germany,  by  education  in 
modern  schools,  reading  all  classes  of  litera- 
ture, and  association  with  those  not  of  their 
faith,  have  become  worldly  and  materialistic. 
Theological  and  religious  study  have  given 
place  to  something  that  is  supposed  to  have  a 
material  advantage.  In  proportion  as  they 
learn  how  to  get  money  and  power,  they  for- 
get God  and  all  that  pertains  to  a  higher  life. 
The  attitude  of  multitudes  of  Jews  toward 
religion  is  one  of  indifference.  With  pros- 
perity has  come  worldliness,  and  against  its 
attractions  religion,  with  its  necessary  re- 
straints, has  little  power.  The  future  of  the 
Jews  awakens  questions  of  the  deepest  inter- 
est. 

Literature. ^ — For  the  ancient  history  of 
the  Jews  the  Bible  is  the  only  record.  The 
Assyrian  documents  should  be  read  and 
Josephus  consulted.  It  may  be  said  that 
without  Josephus  a  large  part  of  what  is  now 
known  as  Jewish  history  would  be  simply  a 
blank.  His  account  of  the  war  of  the  Jews 
with  Rome  in  a.d.  66-70  is  deservedly  one  of 
the  most  famous  productions  of  antiquity. 
In  addition  to  his  works  we  have,  for  the 
close  of  the  first  period,  the  booksi  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, Philo,  and  a  considerable  body  of  no- 
tices in  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  For 
the  second  period,  since  a.d.  70,  the  amount 
of  literature  is  bewildering.  Xo  library  con- 
tains anything  like  a  complete  collection,  and 
no  complete  bibliographical  list  has  ever  been 
made.  Fuerst's  Bibliothera  Judnica  (Leipzig, 
1849-63,  3  vols.,  8vo)  is  the  nearest  approach 
to  such  a  list,  but  since  the  date  of  his  third 
volume  works  in  this  department  have  multi- 
plied. They  exist  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  in  the  medieval  dialects,  and  in  every 
modem  language  of  Europe.  Many  Jewish 
writers  have  issued  their  works  in  Hebrew, 
and  hence  thev  are  not  accessible  to  the  gen- 
eral reader.  Others  have  written  in  the  lan- 
guages of  their  respective  countries,  and 
among  the  most  valuable  of  these  we  give  the 
first  place  to  J.  M.  Jost.  His  Geschichte  der 
Inraeliten  seit  der  Maccabaer  bis  anf  nnsere 
Tage  (Berlin,  1820-47,  10  vols.)  and  his  Ge- 
schichte des  Judenthiims  U7id  seiner  Secten 
(Leipzig,  1857-59,  3  parts)  are  characterized 
by  great  learning  and  research,  and  in  fairness 
he  is  a  model  historian  compared  with  the 
partisan  spirit  of  Hirsch  Graetz.  Nevertheless 
the  latter's  Geschichte  der  Juden  von  den  iiltes- 
ten  Zeiten  bis  auf  die  Gegenicort  (Berlin, 
1854-75),  extending  to  12  closely  printed  oc- 
tavo volumes,  is  a  monument  of  industry, 
and  since  it  is  a  vast  storehouse  of  materials, 
no  student  can  afford  to  overlook  or  slight  it. 
Nearly  on  a  level  with  Jost  we  would  place 
Dr.  Leopold  Zunz.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  and  all  his  works  deserve  the  highest 
praise.  In  Die  Synafiogale  Poesie  des  Mittel- 
alters  (Berlin,  1855-59,  2  parts)  he  h:is  given 
from  a  study  of  the  original  documents  an 
appalling  record  of  the  cruelties  to  which  the 
Jews  were  .subjected  in  that  age.  How  two 
such  subjects  can  be  united  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  history  of  those  sufferings  had 
to  be  described  in  order  to  explain  the  mean- 


ing of  the  poetry.  In  preparing  this  work, 
he  read  many  old  manuscripts  and  frequently 
spent  a  good  part  of  the  night  at  this  labor. 
More  than  once  his  wife  came  to  call  him  from 
his  study,  and  found  him  bathed  in  tears,  so 
affected  was  he  by  what  he  read  of  the  suffer- 
ings of  his  ancestors.  See  also  Levi  Herzfeld, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  von  Zerstorung  des 
ersten  Tempels  bis  zur  Einsetzung  des  Macka- 
bders  Schimon  zum  hohen  Priester  und  Fur- 
sten  (Braunschweig,  1847-63,  3  vols.,  8vo), 
and  if  one  is  interested  in  the  commercial  ac- 
tivity of  the  Jews  he  will  find  this  author's 
Ilandelgeschichte  der  Juden  des  Alterthums, 
1879,  of  special  interest.  Of  special  histories 
may  be  mentioned  M.  Kayserling,  Geschichte 
der  Juden  in  Portugal,  Leipzig,  1867  ;  Jas- 
suda  Bedarride,  Les  Jtiifs  en  France,  en  Italie, 
et  en  Espagne,  Paris,  1859,  3d  ed.,  1867  ; 
II.  N.  Adler,  The  Jews  in  England,  London, 
1870  ;  A.  A.  Beugnot,  Les  Juifs  d'  Occident, 
Paris,  1824  ;  for  the  Jews  in  Berlin,  L.  Geiger, 
Berlin,  1871,  2  parts  ;  the  Jews  in  Hamburg, 
by  M.  M.  Haarbleichcr,  Hamburg,  1867-68  ; 
the  Jews  in  Worms,  Breslau,  1862,  and  the 
Jews  in  Vienna,  Wien,  1876,  by  G.  Wolf  ;  the 
Jews  in  Danzig,  by  A.  Stein,  Danzig,  1860  ; 
the  Jews  in  Roumania,  by  Israel  Davis,  Lon- 
don, 2d  ed.  [1872]  ;  the  Jews  in  Poland,  by 
HoUaenderski,  Paris,  1846  ;  the  Jews  in  Meck- 
lenburg, by  L.  Donath,  Leipzig,  1874,  and 
there  are  a  dozen  or  20  other  single  histories 
of  the  Jews  in  different  European  centres. 

The  best  general  survey  of  J.ewish  litera- 
ture since  the  time  of  Christ  is  the  scholarly 
work  of  J.  W.  Etheridge,  Jerusalem  and 
Tiberias;  Sora  aiid  Cordova,  London,  1856. 
W.  H.  Rule  has  a  valuable  History  of  the 
Karaite  Jews,  London,  1870,  which  we  men- 
tion, although  in  our  article  we  have  not  given 
any  space  to  this  branch  of  our  subject.  (See 
Karaites.)  On  the  return  of  the  Jews  to 
Palestine  many  works  have  been  written,  and 
that  of  Professor  David  Brown,  under  the 
title  llie  Restoration  of  the  Jews  (London, 
1861)  is  mentioned,  as  it  contains  all  the  argu- 
ments. The  standard  work  in  English  and 
the  best  in  any  language  is  by  H.  H.  Millman, 
The  History  of  the  Jews,  London,  1829,  3  vols., 
8vo,  4th  ed.,  1866.  Many  of  the  almost  num- 
berless articles  that  have  appeared  in  the  vari- 
ous journals  and  periodicals  of  the  day,  on 
different  phases  of  the  Jewish  question,  are  of 
great  value,  although  they  cannot  be  specified 
here.  On  the  connection  of  the  Jews  with 
Christianity  the  most  important  work  is  by 
the  Danish  scholar  Kalkar,  Israel  und  die 
Kirche.  Geschirhtlicher  UeberbUck  der  Bekch- 
rungcn  der  Juden  zum  Christenthvme  in  alien 
Jahrhunderten,  German  trans.,  Ilamlmrg, 
1869.  The  present  writer,  as  well  as  every 
one  who  touches  this  phase  of  the  subject, 
must  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  this 
volume.  A  vast  amount  of  information  will 
be  found  in  the  journals  of  the  various  mis- 
sionary societies  which  labor  among  the  Jews. 
Selaii  Merrill. 

Jez'-e-bel  {untouched),  daughter  of  a  Zido- 
nian  king,  and  wife  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel 
(1  Kings  xvi.  31).  She  sought  to  establish  a 
false  worship,    maintaining    400    priests    of 


JEZRSEL 


(454) 


JOB 


Astarte  while  Ahab  maintained  450  of  Baal. 
When  the  latter  perished  at  Carmel,  she  per- 
secuted Elijah,  their  destroyer.  By  perjuries 
and  murder  she  secured  Naboth's  vineyard 
for  her  husband,  and  afterward  was  slain  at 
the  very  scene  of  this  crime  (2  Kings  ix. 
30-37). 

Her  name  has  become  proverbial  even  to 
our  own  day  as  a  name  of  infamy,  and  was 
used  symbolically  in  Rev.  (ii.  20)  to  denote  a 
person  or  party  in  Thyatira  holding  a  like 
pre-eminence  in  station  and  wickedness. 

T.  W.  C. 

Jez'-reel  {sowing  of  God),  a  celebrated  city 
of  Issachar,  10  m.  s.  of  Nazareth,  where  Ahab 
had  a  palace,  probably  his  "ivory  house" 
(1  Kings  xxi.  1,  xxii.  39),  and  near  which  was 
Naboth's  vineyard.  It  is  now  replaced  by  a 
miserable  Arab  village  called  Zerin. 

T.  W.  C. 

Jezreel,  Valley  of.  The  largest  plain  in 
Palestine,  extending  25  miles  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  Jordan,  and  12  miles  from 
the  range  of  Carmel  to  the  hills  of  Galilee. 
It  was  noted  for  its  richness,  though  now 
mainly  uncultivated.  Here  the  hosts  of  Sisera 
fell  (Judges  iv.)  and  Josiah  was  mortally 
wounded  (2  Kings  xxiii.).  It  is  a  classic 
battle-field.  Its  modern  Greek  name  {Es- 
draelon)  occurs  only  in  the  Apocrypha. 

T.  W.  C. 

Jimines.     See  Ximenes. 

Jo'-ab  {Jehovah  his  father).  The  oldest  of 
the  3  sons  of  Zeruiah,  David's  sister,  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  his  army  (1  Chron.  ii.  16, 
1  Kings  xi.  15).  He  was  a  valiant  man,  an 
able  general,  and  a  shrewd  statesman,  but 
imperious,  revengeful,  and  unscrupulous. 
He  treacherously  assassinated  Abner  and  his 
cousin,  Amasa  (2  Sam.  iii.  27,  xx.  60),  con- 
nived at  the  death  of  Uriah,  slew  Absalom, 
and  at  last  conspired  with  Adouijah  against 
Solomon,  by  whose  order  he  was  at  length 
put  to  death  by  the  side  of  the  altar  (1  Kings 
ii.  28-34).  T.  ^Y.  C. 

Joachim  of  Floris,  b.  at  Coelicum,  a  vil- 
lage of  Calabria,  Italy,  about  1145  ;  d.  at 
Floris  about  1201  ;  entered  the  Cistercian 
order  after  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
but  retired  afterward  wnth  some  friends  to 
the  mountain  wilderness  of  Sylfe,  near  his 
native  place  ;  formed  a  monastic  community, 
with  a  very  austere  rule,  of  its  own,  and  built 
a  monastery,  St.  Joannis  en  Flori,  which 
Ccelestine  III.  confirmed  as  an  independent 
institution,  and  which  became  the  model  of 
several  other  similar  establishments.  His 
prophetico-apocalyptical  views  of  the  reign 
of  the  Father  from  the  creation  to  the  birth 
of  Christ,  the  reign  of  the  Son  to  1260,  and 
the  reign  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  that  time 
to  the  end,  were  looked  upon  with  interest  by 
several  popes  and  adopted  by  various  groups 
of  the  Franciscans  ;  and  after  his  death  they 
gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  an  everlasting  gospel, 
evangelium  wterne,  which  should  supersede 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Three  of  his 
works  still  exist,  and  were  printed  in  Venice 
in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  :  Con- 
cordia Veteris  et  Novi  I'estamenti,  Psalterium 


d^um  Chordarum,  and  Expositio  in  Apocalyp- 
sin.  In  1254  a  Minorite,  Gerard  of  Borgo 
San  Donnino,  wrote  a  commentary  on  these 
works,  which  he  called  Introductoi-ius  in 
Eixingelium  Sterne,  and  the  book  made  a 
great  sensation.  It  was  immediately  sup- 
pressed by  the  pope,  however,  and  the  author 
locked  up  in  a  dungeon,  where  he  spent  18 
years.  Nevertheless,  the  professor  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  at  that  moment  under 
the  sway  of  the  mendicant  orders,  undertook 
to  systematize  the  views  of  Joachim  in  31 
propositions,  and  presented  them  to  Alexander 
IV.  But  the  Council  of  Anagni,  1245,  con- 
demned the  propositions,  and  finally,  in  1263, 
a  Council  of  Aries  condemned  Joachim's 
writings.  His  ideas,  however,  continued  to 
live  on  for  a  long  time  among  the  Francis- 
cans. (See  Renan  in  Bevue  des  deux  Mondes, 
1866 ;  Dcillinger  in  Historisch  Taschenbuch, 
1871  ;  Schneider,  Joach.  v.  Floris  und  die 
Apokalyptiker  des  Mittelalters,  Dilliugen, 
1873.)  C.  P. 

Joan,  Pope,  a  fable  according  to  which  the 
papal  throne  was  occupied  for  two  years  by 
a  woman,  who  died  in  855  from  bearing  a 
child  while  walking  in  a  procession  through 
the  streets.  (See  Dcillinger,  Fables  Respecting 
the  Popes  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Eng.  trans.. 
New  York,  1872  ;  and  E.  Rhoides,  Pope  Joan, 
Eng.  trans,  by  C.  H.  Collette,  London,  1886, 
a  vindication  of  the  reality  of  the  story.) 

C.  P. 

Joan  d'Albret.  See  Jeanne  d'Albret. 

Joan  of  Arc.  See  Jeanne  d'Arc. 

Job  {afflicted),  the  famous  patriarch  of  Uz, 
probably  in  Eastern  Edom.  He  was  a  patri- 
archal magnate,  distinguished  for  his  wealth 
and  honors,  and  at  the  same  time  for  his  in- 
tegrity and  piety.  It  pleased  God  to  allow 
Satan  to  strip  him  of  his  children  and  his 
property,  and  afflict  him  with  a  painful  and 
loathsome  disease.  But  he  maintained  his 
integrity  with  some  drawbacks  of  intemperate 
speech,  and  was  ultimately  restored,  God 
giving  back  all  that  he  had  lost  and  much 
more.  That  he  was  a  real  historical  person 
is  apparent  from  the  Scripture  references  in 
Ezek.  xiv.  14,  16,  18,  20  and  James  v.  11  ; 
and  the  fact  that  the  book  itself  specifies  per- 
sons, places,  and  circumstances  in  the  manner 
of  true  history. 

TJte  Book. — This  is  an  elaborate  poem  on 
an  historical  basis,  as  is  shown  by  the  narra- 
tive prologue  and  epilogue  in  prose.  Its  au- 
thor is  uncertain,  some  ascribing  it  to  Moses 
in  Midian,  others  carrying  it  down  to  the  age 
of  Solomon.  It  is  written  in  the  purest  He- 
brew, and  shows  intimate  acquaintance  with 
both  Egyptian  and  Arabian  scenery  and 
usages.  Its  great  theme  is  the  problem  of 
evil,  why  the  righteous  suffer  and  the  wicked 
prosper  in  this  world.  After  the  outbreak  of 
Job's  despair  (ch.  iii.)  there  are  three  series 
of  controversies,  in  which  each  of  Job's 
friends  makes  an  address,  to  which  Job  replies 
(save  that  in  the  32d  series  Zophar  is  silent) 
(chs.  iv.-xxvi.).  Then  Job  makes  a  closing 
address  to  all  three  (xxvii.,  xxviii.),  followed 
by  a  striking  soliloquy  (xxix.-xxxi.).     Elihu 


JOBSON 


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JOHN 


utters  four  discourses  (xxxii.-xxxvii.),  after 
which  Jehovah  speaks  out  of  the  whirlwind 
(xxxviii.-xli.),  and  Job  is  humbled  and  yet 
vindicated.  The  poetic  merit  of  the  book  has 
been  recognized  by  the  best  critics  of  every 
age.  It  ranks  as  one  of  the  immortal  master- 
pieces of  genius.  Carlyle  said  that  "  there  is 
nothing  written  of  equal  literary  merit. ' '  But 
it  is  no  less  estimable  for  its  religious  and 
ethical  worth,  setting  forth  as  it  does  the 
being  and  perfections  of  Jehovah,  the  apos- 
tasy and  guilt  of  evil  spirits  and  of  mankind, 
the  sovereignty  of  divine  providence,  the 
mercy  of  God  on  the  basis  of  sacrifice  and 
penitence,  the  disciplinary  nature  of  his  peo- 
ple's sorrows,  the  wisdom  of  submission  to 
his  will,  and  the  assurance,  in  view  of  his  in- 
finite power  and  wisdom,  that  all  shall  be  well 
with  his  followers  in  the  end.  The  book  has 
suffered  much  from  the  imperfection  of 
translations,  and  the  Revised  English  Version 
greatly  facilitates  the  apprehension  of  its  true 
meaning. 

Special  works  on  Job,  including  commen- 
taries, are  by  Delitzsch  (Leipzig,  2d  ed.,  1876, 
Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1866,  2  vols.) ;  Zoeck- 
ler  (1864,  in  Lange,  New  York)  ;  W.  H. 
Green  (New  York,  1874)  ;  Samuel  Cox  (Lon- 
don, 1880,  2d  ed.,  1885)  ;  G.  H.  B.  Wright 
(1883,  2d  ed.,  1885)  ;  A.  B.  Davidson  (1884)  ; 
G.  G.  Bradley  (1887,  2d  ed.,  1888);  T.  K. 
Cheyne  {Job  and  Solomon,  1887)  ;  Joseph 
Parker  (1890)  ;  G.  H.  Gilbert  (Chicago,  1890). 
T.  W.  C. 

Jobson,  Frederick  James,  D.D.  (  ), 

Wesleyan  ;  b.  at  Lincoln,  131  m.  n.  by  w.  of 
London,  in  1812  ;  d.  in  London,  Jan.  3,  1881. 
He  entered  the  ministry,  1834,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Wesleyan  Conference  in  1869. 
Among  his  writings  are  Chapel  and  School 
Architecture,  London,  1850  ;  America  and 
American  Methodism,  1857  ;  Australia,  with 
Notes  by  the  Way  on  Egypt,  Ceylon,  Bombay, 
and  the  Holy  Land,  1862.  Life  by  Rev.  Ben- 
jamin Gregory,  London,  1884.         F.  M.  B. 

Joch'-e-bed  (icJiose  glory  is  Jehovah),  wife 
of  Amram,  and  mother  of  Moses,  Aaron,  and 
Miriam  (Num.  xxvi.  59).  T.  W.  C. 

Jo'-el  {Jehovah  is  Ood),  the  son  of  Pethuel, 
one  of  the  minor  prophets,  of  whom  nothing 
is  known  beyond  the  hints  contained  in  his 
prophecy.  lie  lived  in  the  kingdom  of  Judali. 
Different  dates  have  been  assigned  for  his  ap- 
pearance, but  the  prevailing  opinion  is  that 
he  was  the  first  of  the  prophets  after  Jonah, 
and  came  forward  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah 
about  800  B.C.,  though  some  say  it  was  in  the 
time  of  his  grandfather,  Joash. 

The  Book  of  Joel  suffers  by  the  division  of 
chapters.  It  con.sists  obviously  of  two  parts. 
The  first  (i.-ii.  17)  deals  with  the  national 
judgments  and  calls  to  repentance  ;  the  sec- 
ond (ii.  18,  iii.  iv.)  has  promises  of  mercy  and 
blessing  for  Judah,  and  foretells  the  over- 
throw of  oppressors.  The  calamity  is  de- 
scribed in  the  most  vivid  way,  wliether  the 
plague  of  locusts  be  considered' actual  or  sym- 
bolical, and  the  call  to  penitence  is  very  earn- 
est and  based  on  God's  known  character  of 
mcrcj'  and  grace  (ii.  13).  The  promi.se,  l)egin- 
ning  with  ii.  18  ("  Then  was  the  Lord  jealous 


for  his  land,  and  had  pity  on  his  people," 
R.  V.)  offers  assurance  of  present  relief,  and 
then  passes  on  to  a  great  future  outpouring 
of  the  Spirit,  wonderfully  fulfilled  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  16).  After  this  follows 
a  glance  at  the  day  of  the  Lord,  when  nations 
are  smitten  down  and  trodden  as  in  a  wine- 
press, while  Jehovah  dwells  in  Zion  which  is 
a  refuge  for  his  people,  holy  and  lasting  from 
generation  to  generation.  The  detailed  inter- 
pretation of  these  passages  is  difficult,  but  the 
general  sense  is  plain  and  very  comforting  to 
the  people  of  God.  For  Literature,  see  art. 
Minor  Prophets.  T.  W.  C. 

John  (i.q.,  Johanan,  trhom  Ood  loves) 
1.  The  Baptist,  the  forerunner  of  our  Saviour. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  priestly  family  on  both 
sides  (Luke  i.  5),  and  his  birth,  name,  and 
work  were  foretold  by  the  angel  Gabriel  to 
his  father  while  ministering  at  the  altar.  He 
grew  up  in  solitude,  and  when  about  30  years 
old  began  to  preach  in  the  wilderness  of 
Judaea.  In  appearance,  dress,  food,  and  man- 
ner of  life  he  was  an  austere  Nazarite,  and, 
like  Elijah,  expressed  in  symbol  the  repent- 
ance which  was  the  burden  of  his  discourses. 
He  was  fearless  and  faithful,  and  met  with 
immense  success  among  the  people  and  the 
authorities,  yet  he  was  humble  and  gave  all 
honor  to  the  Saviour,  whom  at  his  own  in- 
stance he  baptized.  He  prosecuted  his  labors 
with  growing  popularity  for  a  year  and  a 
half,  when  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by 
Herod  because  of  his  fidelity  in  reproof.  Here 
his  faith  began  to  waver,  for  he  sent  to  Jesus 
to  know  if  he  were  really  the  Messiah,  and 
received  a  most  satisfactory  answer  (Matt.  xi. 
4-6).  But  the  implacable  malice  of  Herodias, 
whose  connection  with  Herod  John  had  re- 
buked, wrought  his  death  (Matt.  xiv.  6-12). 
He  was  the  greatest  of  them  that  are  born  of 
women,  yet  less  than  one  that  was  but  little 
in  the  kingdom  of  God,  the  former  because 
he  saw  Christ  entering  on  his  work  and  pre- 
pared his  way,  the  latter  because  he  did  not 
see  the  kingdom  established  by  our  Lord's 
death  and  resurrection.  (See  life  by  H.  R. 
Reynolds,  London,  1889.) 

il.  The  Apostle  and  Evangelist.  The  son 
of  Zebede(!  and  Salome,  he  was  born  in  Beth- 
saida.  His  father  was  able  to  have  "hired 
servants"  and  his  mother  was  one  of  the 
women  who  aided  in  Jesus'  support  (Luke 
viii.  3)  and  took  spices  to  embalm  his  body 
(Mark  xvi.  1).  The  youngest  of  the  .12,  he 
had  been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  but 
on  seeing  the  Lamb  of  God  followed  him 
(.John  i.  35-37).  He  is  noted  as  "  the  disciple 
whom  Jesus  loved,"  and  as  one  of  the  three 
chosen  to  witness  the  restoration  of  Jairus' 
daughter,  the  transfiguration,  and  the  agony 
in  the  garden.  At  the  Last  Supper  he  re- 
clined on  Jesus'  liosom,  and  to  liis  care  the 
dying  Redeemer  committed  his  mother.  He 
with  Peter  on  the  resurrection  morn  ran  to 
the  empty  tomb  of  Jesus,  and  ' '  he  saw  and 
believed."  When  with  some  others  he  was 
fishing  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  he  was  the  first 
to  recognize  the  Lord  standing  on  the  shore. 
After  tlie  ascension  he  and  James  and  Peter 
were  the  "  pillar"  apostles  (Gal.  ii.  9),  who  are 


JOHN 


(456) 


JOHN 


the  heads  of  the  infant  church  and  guide  its 
counsels.  He  was  banished  for  a  time  to  the 
isle  of  Palmos.  Tradition  represents  him  as 
closing  his  career  at  Ephesus.  He  was  medi- 
tative and  affectionate,  but  no  sentimentalist, 
for  our  Lord  called  him  a  "  son  of  thunder." 
Though  amiable,  he  was  firm  and  fearless, 
and  in  his  own  way  as  plain  spoken  and 
severe  as  Paul. 

Writings. — His  gospel  was  the  latest  of 
the  four  and  admirably  supplements  them.  It 
groups  all  the  events  around  the  several  Jew- 
ish feasts — viz.,  three  or  four  Passovers,  one 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  and  one  Feast  of  Dedi- 
cation ;  and  thus  furnishes  invaluable  notes 
of  time.  Its  object  was  that  we  might  ' '  be- 
lieve that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
and  believing  might  have  life  in  his  name" 
(xx.  31).  It  contains  none  of  Christ's  para- 
bles and  relates  only  7  of  his  53  miracles. 
While  omitting  much  given  in  the  other  3 
gospels,  it  dwells  much  more  than  they  on 
the  new  life  in  the  soul  through  Christ,  union 
with  him,  regeneration,  and  the  work  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  Its  genuineness  has  been 
much  contested  of  late,  but  quite  ineffectu- 
ally. 

The  First  Epistle  of  John  is  a  sort  of  prac- 
tical application  of  his  gospel,  and  aims  to  re- 
fute certain  errors  as  to  the  person  of  Christ, 
and  also  to  build  up  believers  in  truth  and 
grace  and  especially  in  holy  love.  The  Sec- 
ond Epistle,  addressed  to  the  "  elect  lady  and 
her  children,"  had  in  view  either  some  honor- 
able woman  eminent  for  piety  or  possibly  a 
particular  church  so  described.  The  Third, 
directed  to  Gains,  commends  his  piety  and 
urges  perseverance  in  every  good  work.  For 
the  Apocalypse  see  Revelation. 

Literature. — For  life  see  Macdonald 
(New  York,  1877)  and  Culross  (London,  1872, 
2d  ed.,  1878).  On  the  gospel  may  be  specially 
recommended  Godet  (Eng.  trans.,  New  York, 
1881-85,  3  vols.)  ;  Lange  (with  Schaff's  addi- 
tions. New  York,  1871)  ;  M.  F.  Sadler  (Lon- 
don, 1883).  On  the  epistles  B.  F.  Westcott 
(London,  1883),  and  on  all  his  writings  J.  T. 
Harris  (London,  1890).  T.  W.  C. 

John  is  the  name  of  23  popes.  1.  Aug.  13, 
523-May  18,  536,  a  native  of  Siena,  a  city  of 
Tuscia,  34  m.  s.e.  of  Florence,  was  sent  by 
Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  to  Con- 
stantinople to  speak  in  behalf  of  the  Arians. 
He  was  not  an  Arian  himself,  however,  but 
entirely  in  the  power  of  the  king.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Ravenna  he  was  thrown  into  prison 
and  died  there.  2.  Dec.  31,  532-May  27,  535, 
a  native  of  Rome,  Mercurius  by  name. 
3.  July  14,  560-July  13,  573,  a  native  of 
Rome,  entirely  in  the  power  of  the  Byzantine 
emperor.  4.  Dec.  25,  640-Oct.  12,  642,  a  Dal- 
matian by  birth,  condemned  the  Monothelites 
at  the  Synod  of  Rome,  641.  5.  May  or  July, 
685-Aug.  2,  686,  a  Syrian.  6.  Oct.  30,  701- 
Jan.  10,  705,  a  Greek.  7.  March  1,  705-Oct. 
18,  707,  also  a  Greek.  8.  Dec.  14,  872-Dec. 
15,  882,  a  native  of  Rome  ;  audacious  and  un- 
scrupulous ;  very  busy  with  political  affairs 
and  wholly  indifferent  to  religious  questions  ; 
full  of  plans  for  the  extension  of  the  papal 
power,  but  paying  an  annual  tribute  to  the 


Saracen  marauders  in  the  Campagna  ;  was 
poisoned,  and  as  the  poison  did  not  work 
quickly  enough  killed  by  the  blow  of  a  ham- 
mer. There  are  308  letters  of  his  extant  found 
in  Mansi,  Condi.,  xvii.  (See  Gasquet,  Jean 
VIII.  et  la  fiti  de  I'empire  caroUngien,  Paris, 
1886.)  9.  June,  898-July,  900,  a  Benedictine 
monk  from  Tivoli.  10.  May  15,  914-July, 
929  ;  was  raised  to  the  papal  throne  by  Theo- 
dora, whose  paramour  he  was,  and  led  in  per- 
son a  successful  campaign  against  the  Sara- 
cens, but  became  inconvenient  to  Marozia,  the 
daughter  of  Theodora,  and  her  husband, 
Guido  of  Tuscia,  and  was  seized  by  them, 
thrown  into  prison,  and  strangled.  11.  March, 
931-Jan.,  936,  a  son  of  Marozia  and  Pope 
Sergius  III.,  was,  together  with  his  mother, 
dragged  from  the  orgies  of  the  papal  palace 
by  his  half-brother  Alberic  and  imprisoned. 
Though  released,  he  died  verv  soon  after. 
12.  Dec.  16,  955-May  14,  964,  Octavian ;  a 
son  of  Alberic  ;  16  or  18  years  old  when  en- 
throned and  the  first  pope  who  on  that  occa- 
sion changed  his  name  ;  led  a  most  scandalous 
life  in  the  Lateran,  and  was  in  963  convicted 
of  murder,  adultery,  and  perjury,  and  deposed 
by  a  synod  convoked  by  the  Emperor  Otto  I. 
and  held  in  St.  Peter's.  As  soon,  however, 
as  Otto  had  left  Rome  John  returned  and  suc- 
ceeded in  having  the  synodal  decrees  can- 
celled by  a  new  synod,  but  he  died  very  soon 
after  struck  by  apoplexy  in  an  adulterous 
bed.  13.  Oct.  1,  965-Sept.  6,  972,  a  Roman 
by  birth.  14.  Nov.  or  Dec,  983- Aug.  20, 
984,  died  from  starvation  in  a  dungeon  of  St. 
Angelo,  where  he  had  been  confined  by  Boni- 
face VII.  15.  Sept.,  985-April,  996.  16. 
May,  997-March,  998,  of  Greek  descent ;  b. 
in  Calabria  ;  was  seized,  fearfully  mutilated, 
and  brought  to  death  by  Gregory  V.  17. 
June  13-Dec.  7,  1003,  b.  at  Asco'na,  in  the 
present  canton  of  Ticino,  Switzerland.  18. 
Dec.  25,  1003-June,  1009,  Fasanus,  a  Roman 
by  birth.  19.  July,  1024-Jau. ,  1033,  a  brother 
of  Benedict  VIII.  and  a  layman.  21.  Sept.  8, 
1276-May  20,  1277,  Petrus  JuUani,  b.  at  Lis- 
bon ;  ought  really  to  be  counted  as  number 
20,  but  owing  to  some  confusion  he  assumed 
the  title  of  21.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether 
he  is  identical  with  Petrus  Hispanus,  the  au- 
thor of  several  medical  and  philosophical 
works.  He  was  killed  at  Viterbo  by  the  fall- 
ing in  of  the  ceiling  of  his  room.  22.  Aug.  7, 
1316-Dec.  4.  1334,  Jacques  Duese,  b.  at 
Cahors,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Lot, 
France  ;  was  elected  by  a  conclave  held  at 
Lyons  ;  resided  at  Avignon,  and  became  no- 
torious for  his  almost  incredible  cupidity  and 
graspiness  (he  left  25  millions)  and  his  mon- 
strous arrogance  in  his  contest  with  Lewis  of 
Bavaria.  (See  V.  Verlaque,  Jean  XXII. , 
Paris,  1883.)  23.  Baldassarre  Cossa,  b.  at 
Naples,  was  elected  pope,  May  17,  1410,  by 
bribery  and  fraud,  but  was  deposed  by  the 
Council  of  Constance,  forgiven  by  Martin  V., 
and  died  as  cardinal-bishop  of  Tusculum, 
Dec.  22,  1419.  Since  his  time  no  other  pope 
has  liked  to  bear  the  name  of  John.  (See 
H.  H.  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  London, 
1854-56,  6  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1858;  Langen,  Ge- 
schicJite  d.  Rom.  Kirche,  Bonn,  1881-85.) 

C.  P 


JOHN 


(457) 


JOHNS 


John  Jqunator,  "  the  Faster,"  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  582-95  ;  assumed  the  title 
of  (Ecumenical  Patriarch,  for  which  he  was 
most  violently  attacked  by  Gregory  I.,  who 
considered  the  idea  as  an  inspiration  of  Satan. 
He  is  a  saint  of  the  Greek  Church. 

John  Nepomuk,  b.  at  Nepomuk,  a  town  of 
Bohemia,  54  m.  s.w.  of  Prague,  between 
1330  and  1340  ;  d.  in  Prague  in  1393  ;  held 
some  high  position  iu  the  Bohemian  Church, 
but  fell  out  with  the  king,  and  was  on  his 
command  thrown  iu  the  Moldau  and  drowned. 
He  was  canonized  by  Benedict  XIII.  in  1729, 
and  is  the  most  popular  saint  among  the  Bo- 
hemians, but  his  life  by  Bohuslav  Balbinus  is 
legendary  throughout.  (See  Anton  Frind, 
Joh.  Nepomuk,  Eger,  1861.) 

John  of  Antioch,  or  John  Scholasticus, 
b.  at  Sirimis,  near  Antioch,  was  a  presbyter 
of  the  Church  of  Antioch,  and  since  564  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  ;  d.  578.  His  Collectio 
canonum,  containing  86  so-called  apostolical 
canons,  is  found  in  Greek  and  Latin  in  Jus- 
telli,  Bibliotheca  Juris  Canonici,  Paris,  1662, 
vol.  2. 

John  of  Ohur,  b.  at  Coire  or  Chur,  in  the 
canton  of  the  Grisons,  Switzerland,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  14th  century  ;  d.  about 
1380  ;  was  the  son  of  a  rich  merchant  and  in- 
herited a  large  fortune,  but  distributed  his 
wealth  among  the  poor,  built  a  chapel  in  the 
mountain  wilderness,  and  lived  there  in  se- 
clusion. He  belonged,  like  Eckart  and  Tauler 
and  the  author  of  The  German  Theology,  to 
that  kind  of  mystics  who  were  generally  des- 
ignated as  "  Friends  of  God,"  and  has  devel- 
oped his  views  in  a  book.  Das  Buch  von  den  5 
Mannen.  (See  Jundt,  Bulman  Mersioin  et 
I'ami  de  Dieu  de  I' Oberland,  Paris,  1890.) 

John  of  Damascus,  b.  at  Dama.scus  toward 
the  close  of  the  7th  century  ;  d.  in  Jerusalem 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  8th  century  ;  was 
educated  by  an  Italian  monk,  Cosmas,  and 
held  a  high  office  under  the  Saracenic  caliph 
in  his  native  city,  but  resigned  and  retired  to 
the  monastery  of  St.  Sabas  in  Jerusalem.  He 
is  the  last  of  the  Greek  Fathers  and  the  higli- 
est  theological  authority  in  the  Greek  Church. 
His  principal  work,  The  Fountain  of  Knowl- 
edge (German  trans,  of  3d  and  most  important 
part,  "Summary  of  the  Orthodox  Faith," 
by  Hayd  in  Bihliothek  der  Kirchenviiter, 
Kempten,  1880)  is  an  application  of  Aris- 
totelian dialectics  to  the  Christian  dogma, 
but  so  that  the  circumscription  of  tradition  is 
never  transgressed.  He  also  wrote  some 
hymns,  of  which  one,  "  The  Day  of  Resur- 
rection," is  well  known  from  English  hymn- 
books.  His  life  was  written  by  John  of  Jeru- 
salem in  the  10th  century,  but  is  of  a  very 
legendary  character.  His  collected  works 
were  edited  by  Le  Quien,  Paris,  1712,  2  vols. 
fol.  (See  Langen,  Johann  von  Damaskus, 
Gotha,  1879  ;  J.  H.  Lupton,  St.  John  of 
Danuiscus,  London,  1882. 

John  of  Ephesus,  a  Monophysite  bishop, 
lived  in  the  6th  century  and  wrote  a  church 
hi.story,  of  which  parts  were  discovered  in  the 
Bkritish  3Iuseum  amoug   some   manuscripts 


from  the  Nitrian  desert,  edited  by  Cureton, 
Oxford,  1853,  and  translated  into  English  by 
R.  Payne  Smith,  Oxford,  1860. 

John  of  Monte  Corvino,  b.  about  1250  ; 
d.  1332  ;  proved  a  very  successful  missionary 
among  the  JNIongols  in  Persia,  and  was  in  1291 
sent  to  China,  where  he  translated  the  New 
Testament  and  the  Psalms,  and  formed  a 
school  of  native  boys  who  were  educated  for 
missionary  work.  He  is  said  to  have  baptized 
6000  heathens  and  was  made  archbishop  of 
Pekin. 

John  of  Salisbury  (Johannes  Saresberi- 
ensis,  or  Johannes  Parvus),  b.  at  Sarum,  the 
present  Salisbury,  Wiltshire,  England,  in  the 
second  decade  of  the  12th  centurj'  ;  d.  at 
Chartres,  France,  Oct.  25,  1180 ;  went  in 
1136  to  France,  where  he  studied  under  Abe- 
lard  ;  accompanied  Eugenius  III.  to  Rome  ; 
returned  in  1153  to  England  ;  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  became 
the  intimate  friend  of  Thomas  Becket ;  fol- 
lowed him  into  exile,  and  was,  in  1176,  made 
bishop  of  Chartres.  His  philosophical  writ- 
ings have  some  interest  for  the  development 
of  scholasticism,  but  of  still  greater  interest 
to  the  historian  are  his  numerous  letters  and 
his  life  of  Becket.  His  collected  works  were 
edited  by  Giles,  Oxford,  1848,  5  vols.  (See 
Schaarschmidt,  Jo?ian  Salisbury,  Leipzig, 
1862. 

John,  The  Eve  of  St.,  falling  on  June  24, 
was,  like  Christmas  Eve,  celebnvted  by  all  na- 
tions of  Germanic  origin  with  merry-making 
and  great  glee,  referring  to  the  longest  day, 
the  summer  solstice,  like  Christmas  Eve  to 
the  shortest  day,  the  winter  solstice.  It  was 
adopted  by  the  Christian  Church,  but  never 
became  a  truly  Christian  festival. 

John  the  Presbyter,  a  mythical  or,  at  all 
events,  entirely  unidentilied  character  of  the 
12th  century.  According  to  popular  belief, 
he  was  a  Christian  priest  who  routed  the 
Mohammedans  in  a  frightful  battle  and 
founded  a  magnificent  empire  in  Central  Asia 
or  India  or  China,  and  on  account  of  this 
popular  belief,  for  which  no  historical  basis 
could  be  given,  the  popes  sent  embassies  to 
him  which  never  found  him,  and  the  mis- 
sionaries and  even  jMarco  Polo  went  in  search 
of  his  empire  without  ever  reaching  it.  (See 
G.  Brunet,  La  Legende  du  Pi-etre  Jean,  Bor- 
deaux, 1877  ;  F.  Zarncke,  Der  Priester  Jo- 
hannes, Leipzig,  1879.) 

Jphns,  John,  S.T.D.  (Princeton,  Columbia, 
and  University  of  New  York,  1834),  LL.D. 
(William  and  Mary,  1855),  bishop  of  Vir- 
ginia ;  b.  at  Newcastle,  Del.,  July  10,  1796  ; 
d.  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  April  5,  1876.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton,  1815  ;  studied  the- 
olosry  there  ;  was  ordained  bv  Bishop  White, 
1819  ;  rector  at  Frederick,  Md.,  till  1829,  and 
then  of  Christ  Church,  Baltimore  ;  conse- 
crated, 1842,  as  assistant  bishop  of  Virginia, 
and  succeeded  Bishop  ^leade  in  1862.  He 
was  also  president  of  William  and  ^lary  Col- 
lege. 1849-54,  and  for  some  time  professor  of 
homiletics  and  pastoral  theology  in  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Seminary  at  Alexandria. 
He  was  amiable  and  popular  and  an  intimate 


JOHNSON 


(458) 


JONES 


friend  through  life  of  Dr.  C.  Hodge.  He 
published  a  Memorial  of  Bislwp  Meade,  Balti- 
more, 1857.  The  hymns  which  bear  his 
name  are  by  another  Johns,  an  English  Uni- 
tarian, who  wrote  for  Beard's  collection,  1837. 
F.  M.  B. 

Johnson,  Herrick,  D.D.  (Western  Reserve 
College,  Hudson,  O.,  1867),  LL.D.  (Wooster 
University,  Wooster,  O.,  1880),  Presbyte- 
rian ;  b.  near  Fonda,  Montgomery  County, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  21,  1832  ;  graduated  from  Hamil- 
ton College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1857,  and  from 
Auburn  Theological  Seminary,  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  1860;  colleague  pastor  of  the  First 
Church,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  1860-62  ;  pastor  of  the 
Third  Church,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  1862-68,  and 
of  the  First  Church,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1868- 
74  ;  professor  of  homiletics  and  pastoral  the- 
ology at  Auburn,  1874-80  ;  pastor  of  the 
Fourth  Church  and  professor  of  sacred  rhet- 
oric in  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the 
Northwest  since  1880.  He  is  president  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  Board  of  Aid  for  Col- 
leges and  Academies,  and  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees  of  Lake  Forest  University,  111.  Be- 
sides sermons  and  articles  he  published  Chris- 
tianity's Challenge,  Chicago,  1882,  4th  ed., 
1884  ;  Plain  Talks  About  the  Theatre,  1883  ; 
Revivals,  their  Place  and  Power,  1883. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  M.A.  (Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, 1723),  D.D.  (Oxford,  1743),  Episco- 
palian ;  b.  at  Guilford,  Conn.,  Oct.  14,  1696  ; 
d.  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  Jan.  6,  1772.  He 
graduated  at  Yale,  1714  ;  served  as  tutor  for 
a  while,  and  in  1720  became  Congregational 
pastor  at  West  Haven.  In  1722-23  he  crossed 
the  sea  to  obtain  orders  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  was  sent  back,  in  1724,  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  S.  P.  G.  For  years  he  was 
the  only  Episcopal  minister  in  Connecticut. 
He  was  the  first  president  of  King's  (now 
Columbia)  College,  1753-63,  after  which  he 
returned  to  Stratford.  Among  his  works  are 
A  System  of  Morality,  1746,  of  which  an  en- 
larged edition  was  published  under  the  title 
Elementa  Philosophica,  Philadelphia,  1752,  a 
Hebrew  Orammar,  1767,  etc.  His  life  was 
written  by  Drs.  T.  B.  Chandler,  1805,  and 
E.  E.  Beardsley,  New  York,  1874. 

F.  M.  B. 

Jok'-tan  {diminished),  son  of  Eber  and  an- 
cestor of  the  Joktanite  Arabs  (Gen.  x.  25-30 
1  Chron.  i.  19-23).  T.  W.  C. 

Jo'-nah  {dove),  the  son  of  Amittai,  and  the 
5th  of  the  minor  prophets,  was  born  at  Gath- 
hepher  in  Zebulun  (2  Kings  xiv.  25).  Nothing 
certain  is  known  about  him  beyond  what  is 
given  in  his  book.  Sent  about  825  B.C.  to 
threaten  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  he  em- 
barked at  Joppa  for  Tarshish,  but  a  storm 
arising  he  was  cast  into  the  sea,  where  a  great 
fish  swallowed  him.  On  the  3d  day,  being 
vomited  up,  he  went  to  Nineveh  and  deliv- 
ered his  message,  and  sat  down  to  see  it  exe- 
cuted. But  the  Ninevites  repented,  and  were 
spared,  which  angered  Jonah,  and  the  Lord 
rebuked  him  severely.  The  veracity  of  this 
narrative  has  often  been  objected  to,  but  with- 
out reason.  Not  a  few  Christian  scholars  of 
repute  consider  it  as  a  parable  or  figurative 


illustration  of  God's  care  for  the  heathen 
world.  But  our  Lord  refers  to  it  in  a  way 
which  compels  one  to  regard  it  as  literal  truth. 
He  makes  Jonah's  imprisonment  in  the  fish  a 
type  of  his  own  burial  and  resurrection  (Matt, 
xii.  39-41),  and  refers  to  Jonah's  preaching 
and  its  results  in  comparison  with  his  own 
(Luke  xi.  29-32).  The  narrative  is  a  very  in- 
structive one,  forecasting  the  universality  of 
the  Gospel,  exhibiting  the  extent  of  the  divine 
sovereignty,  and  showing  that  God's  grace 
has  never  been  confined  to  the  covenant  peo- 
ple. Recent  English  commentaries  are  by 
H.  Martin  (London,  1866,  3d  ed.,  1889); 
A.  Raleigh  (1866,  2d  ed.,  1875)  ;  Stuart  Mit- 
chell (Philadelphia,  1875)  ;  R.  A.  Redford 
(London,  1883)  ;  O.  Funcke  (London,  1885, 
2d  ed.,  1886).  T.  W.  C. 

Jonas,  Justus,  originally  lodocus,  or  Jobst 
Eoch,  b.  at  Nordhausen,  Prussian  Saxon j% 
June  5,  1493  ;  d.  at  Eisfeld,  Saxe-Meiuingen, 
Oct.  9,  1555  ;  studied  humaniora,  canon  law, 
and  theology  at  Wittenberg  and  Erfurt  ;  be- 
gan to  lecture  on  theology  in  the  latter  place 
in  1518  ;  was  appointed  professor  at  Witten- 
berg in  1521  ;  went,  in  1541,  to  Halle  to  intro- 
duce the  reformation,  but  was  expelled  by 
Maurice  in  1546  ;  was  appointed  court  preach- 
er at  Coburg  in  1550,  and  superintendent  at 
Eisfeld  in  1553.  He  was  one  of  Luther's 
most  intimate  friends  ;  accompanied  him  to 
Worms  and  officiated  at  his  funeral  ;  his  cor- 
respondence with  him,  which  is  of  the  great- 
est interest  for  the  history  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, has  been  edited  by  Kawerau,  with  bio- 
graphical sketch,  in  the  1st  and  2d  parts  of 
the  17th  vol.  of  Geschichtsquellen  der  Provim 
Sachsen,  Halle,  1884-85.  His  works  consist 
mostly  of  polemical  treatises  and  translations 
of  Luther's  andMelanchthon's  works.  His 
life  has  been  written  by  Reinhard,  Weimar, 
1731  ;  Knapp,  Halle,  1814 ;  and  Hasse  in 
Meurer's  Lebcn  der  Altriiter  d.  L.  Kirclie, 
Leipzig,  1864. 

Jon'-a-than  {gift  of  Jehotah),  the  eldest  of 
Saul's  4  sons.  His  brilliant  exploit  at  Mich- 
mash  (1  Sam.  xiii.,  xiv.)  illustrates  his  bravery, 
his  pious  faith,  and  his  favor  with  the  people, 
who  would  not  suffer  the  king  to  perform  the 
foolish  vow  which  would  have  caused  Jona- 
than's death.  He  loved  David  as  his  own 
soul,  and  that  notwithstanding  he  saw  that 
God  had  chosen  him  for  Saul's  successor. 
He  perished  at  Mt.  Gilboa,  and  David  em- 
balmed his  memory  in  an  elegy  unsurpassed 
in  its  beauty  and  pathos  (2  Sam.  i.  17-27). 
T.  W.  C. 

Jones,  Jeremiah,  Nonconformist  ;  b.  1693  ; 
d.  1724.  He  studied  under  S.  Jones,  of 
Tewksbury  (the  teacher  of  Butler  and  Seeker) 
and  became  minister  at  Forest  Green,  near 
Nailsworth,  Gloucestershire.  His  New  and 
Full  Method  of  Settling  the  Canonical  Author- 
ity of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1726-27, 
3  vols.)  was  the  completion  of  a  book  which 
he  put  forth  in  1719.  F.  M.  B. 

Jones,  Samuel  Porter,  the  "  Mountain 
Evangelist,"  Methodist  Church,  South  ;  b.  in 
Chambers  County,  Ala.,  Oct.  16,  1847  ;  re- 
ceived a  good  academic  education  ;    entered 


JOPPA 


(459) 


JOSEPHINISM 


the  legal  profession,  and  practised  law  in  his 
native  county,  1869-70  ;  was  converted  ; 
joined  the  Methodist  Church,  and  became  a 
preacher  under  the  sanction  of  the  North 
Georgia  Conference.  Since  1881  he  has 
preached  all  over  the  South  and  also  in  the 
North,  and  everywhere  with  remarkable  suc- 
cess. Several  volumes  of  his  sermons  have 
been  printed. 

Jop'-pa  (beauty),  an  ancient  city  on  the 
Mediterranean,  30  m.  s.  of  Caesarea  and  35 
n.w.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  seaport  to 
which  wood  was  brought  from  Lebanon  to 
build  Solomon's  temple  (3  Chron.  ii.  16)  and 
also  for  the  second  temple  (Ezra  iii.  7).  Here 
Jonah  took  ship  for  Tarshish.  Here,  too, 
Peter  raised  Dorcas  from  death,  and  in  the 
house  of  Simon  had  a  heavenly  vision  (Acts 
ix.  36-41,  X.  11).  It  is  now  called  Jaffa,  and 
has  15,000  inhabitants.  T.  W.  C. 

Jor'-dan  {descender),  the  chief  river  of  Pal- 
estine. It  rises  among  the  hills  of  Anti- 
Lebanon  and  runs  south  through  Lake  Huleh 
(waters  of  ilerom)  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  till 
it  ends  its  sinuous  course  in  the  Dead  Sea, 
having  made  a  descent  of  nearly  3000  feet. 
Its  stream  is  sluggish  at  first,  but  afterward 
very  swift,  and  its  waters  are  always  turbid. 
The  plain  of  the  Jordan  (3  Kings  xxv.  4),  be- 
tween the  two  seas,  called  now  El  Ghor,  is 
5  miles  wide,  but  at  Jericho  13  miles.  During 
its  annual  swelling  it  was  miraculously  crossed 
by  Israel  (Josh.  iii.  15),  and  afterward  by 
Elijah  and  Elisha  (2  Kings  ii.  8,  14).  In  it's 
•waters  Naaman  was  healed  and  an  iron  axe- 
head  made  to  swim  (3  Kings  v.  14,  vi.  5).  In 
it  our  Saviour  was  baptized.  It  runs  through 
the  most  remarkable  depression  of  the  earth's 
surface  anywhere  to  be  seen,  and  is  as  note- 
worthy for  its  physical  character  as  it  is  for 
its  sacred  associations.  T.  W.  C. 

Joris,  or  Joriszoon  (the  son  of  George), 
David,  b.  at  Bruges,  West  Flanders,  Bel- 
gium, 1501  ;  d.  at  Basel,  Aug.  25,  1556  ;  was 
by  profession  a  painter  on  glass  ;  married 
and  settled  at  Delft,  South  Holland,  9  m. 
from  Rotterdam,  when,  in  1538,  he  was  put  in 
the  pillory  and  had  his  tongue  pierced  with 
a  red-hot  iron,  because  he  had  scoffed  at  the 
monstrance  carried  by  in  the  streets  hj  a 
priest.  In  1534  he  joined  the  Anabaptists, 
but  soon  formed  a  sect  of  his  own,  the  David- 
ists  or  Jorlsts,  whose  ]Vle.ssiah  he  was  and  for 
whom  he  wrote  a  number  of  treatises,  half 
mystical,  half  scurrilous  {Wonderhoeck,  etc.). 
The  JorLsts  were  most  cruelly  persecuted  by 
the  Reformed,  but  they  put  absolute  con- 
fidence in  their  leader,  and  he  used  their  con- 
fidence to  amass  a  good  fortune,  with  which 
he  disappeared.  Under  the  name  of  David 
of  Bruges  he  settled  in  Ba.sel  and  joined  the 
Reformed  Church,  no  one  suspecting  that  the 
pious,  decorous,  and  rich  citizen  had  any- 
thing to  do  with  the  horrible  scandals  of 
David  Joris,  until  three  years  after  his  death, 
when  his  corpse,  his  books,  and  his  portrait 
were  burned  by  the  hangman  and  his  family 
compelled  to  do  public  penance  in  the  cathe- 
dral. (See  Nippold  in  Zeitschrift  f.  hist.  The- 
ologie,  1863-64.) 

Jortin,    John,    D.D.     (Cambridge,    1755), 


Church  of  England  ;  b.  in  London,  Oct.  23, 
1698  ;  d.  there,  Sept.  5,  1770.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  held 
two  rural  livings,  but  spent  most  of  his  life 
in  London,  of  which  he  was  made  archdeacon 
in  1764.  Among  his  learned  works  are  Re- 
marks on  Ecclesiastical  History ,  London, 1751- 
73,  5  vols.  ;  a  Life  of  Erasmus,  1758-60,  3 
vols.,  and  simdry  Discourses  and  Tracts.  His 
life  was  written  by  J.  Disney,  1792. 

F.  M.  B. 

Jo'-seph  {he  will  add).  I.  The  elder  of  the 
two  sons  of  Jacob  and  Rachel.  The  story  of 
his  father's  partiality,  his  protest  against"  sin 
in  his  brothers,  of  their  jealous  hostility,  of 
his  sale  to  the  Midianites  and  by  them  to 
Potiphar  in  Egypt,  of  the  divine  favor  on  his 
pure  and  prudent  life,  his  resistance  to  keen 
temptation,  his  imprisonment  for  years,  his 
sudden  transfer  to  power  and  his  wise  use  of 
it,  his  tender  care  for  his  father,  his  magnanim- 
ity to  his  brethren,  and  his  faith  in  the 
future  of  God's  chosen  people,  makes  one  of 
the  most  interesting  and  instructive  narra- 
tives in  all  Scripture.  (Gen.  xxx.  24,  xxxvii., 
xxxix.-xlix.)  He  died  at  the  age  of  110,  and 
when  the  Israelites  went  up  from  Egypt  they 
took  his  bones  and  buried  them  in  Shechem 
(Josh.  xxiv.  32). 

II.  The  husband  of  Mary,  our  Lord's 
mother.  He  resided  at  Nazareth  and  was  by 
occupation  a  carpenter.  He  was  a  pious  and 
honorable  man,  who  received  4  distinct  inti- 
mations of  God's  will  (Matt.  i.  20,  ii.  13,  19, 
23)  and  promptly  obeyed  them  all.  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  he  died  before  our  Lord 
began  his  ministry,  as  he  is  not  mentioned 
after  his  attendance  on  the  Passover,  when 
Christ  was  12  years  old. 

III.  Joseph"  of  Arimathea,  a  wealthy  citi- 
zen of  Jerusalem,  eminent  for  wisdom  and 
piety,  who  was  "  looking  for  the  kingdom  of 
God"  (Luke  xxiii.  51).  A  secret  disciple  of 
Christ  (John  xix.  38),  when  all  was  over,  he 
went  boldly  to  Pilate  to  ask  for  the  body  of 
Jesus,  which  he  interred  in  his  own  new  tomb. 

T.  W.  C. 

Josephinism  denotes  that  peculiar  tendency 
which  was  pursued  by  Joseph  II.  of  Austria, 
1765-90,  in  his  church  policy,  more  espe- 
cially after  the  death  of  his  mother,  Maria 
Theresa,  in  1780.  On  the  one  side  he  issued, 
in  1781,  an  edict  of  toleration,  which,  with  few 
and  insignificant  restrictions,  gave  the  Prot- 
estants of  the  Augsburg  and  the  Helvetic 
Confessions,  and  the  Greeks  the  same  relig- 
ious and  civil  rights  in  Austria  and  his  other 
hereditary  possessions— Hungary,  Belgium, 
Bohemia— as  the  Roman  Catholics.  On  the 
other  side  he  tried  to  loosen  the  connection 
l)etween  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  within 
his  dominion  and  the  pope  by  forbidding  the 
introduction  of  any  papal  bull  or  brief  until 
it  had  received  his  "placet,"  by  dissolving 
all  relation  between  the  religicms  orders  in  his 
realm  and  any  superi(jr  residing  in  foreign 
countries,  etc.  He  met  with  great  opposition 
both  in  Hungary  and  Belgium,  and  after  his 
death  all  his  reforms  were  abolished.  (See 
Riehl-Reinohl,  J»s,f  IL,  Vienna,  1881  ;  G. 
Frank,  Joseph  II.,  1882.) 


i 


JOSEPHUS 


(460) 


JOSEPHUS 


Josephus  Flavius.  The  place  which  this 
Jewish  writer  occupies  in  history  is  in  every 
way  unique.  He  was  born  at  Jerusalem  in 
the  last  part  of  a.d.  37,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  1st  century,  in  his  64th  year,  was  still 
living  at  Rome.  The  exact  date  of  his  death 
is  not  known.  He  lived  under  11  different 
emperors— Caligula,  Claudius,  Nero,  Galba, 
Otho,  Vitellius,  Vespasian,  Titus,  Domitian, 
Nerva,  and  Trajan  ;  7  procurators  of  .Tudea, 
2  Jewish  kings,  Agrippa  I.  and  II.,  not  to 
mention  2  famous  women  of  the  Herodian 
family,  quasi-rulers,  Drusilla  and  Bernice. 

The  period  covered  by  his  life  was  one  of 
intense  thought  and  thrilling,  not  to  say 
tragic  events.  In  government  and  religion 
an  unprecedented  crisis  had  been  reached. 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  had  been  crucified,  Stephen 
had  been  stoned,  the  adherents  of  the  new 
faith  were  preaching  in  every  corner  of  the 
land,  the  supporters  of  crumbling  Judaism 
were  struggling  in  its  defence  as  never  before, 
and  it  was  hardly  possible  that  a  man  of 
Josephus'  temperament  should  devote  him- 
self exclusively  to  a  religious  life  as  his  father, 
a  man  of  the  priestly  order,  had  at  first  de- 
signed. Each  of  the  3  great  parties,  the 
Pharisees,  the  Sadducees,  and  the  Essenes, 
claimed  his  attention  and  adherence  as  a  fol- 
lower, but  it  was  to  the  lalter  that  he  joined 
himself,  and  for  3  years,  from  the  age  of  16 
to  19,  he  studied  their  doctrines  and  con- 
formed to  their  severe  ways  of  life.  Al- 
though he  left  them  to  join  the  Pharisees,  the 
effects  of  that  discipline  can  be  traced  in  much 
that  he  has  written. 

At  the  age  of  26  he  went  to  Rome  in  the 
interest  of  certain  Jewish  priests  who  had 
been  imprisoned,  and  by  the  aid  of  a  Jewish 
actor  who  was  a  friend  of  Nero,  and  that  of 
Nero's  wife,  Poppsea,  who  was  a  Jewish  pros- 
elyte, his  mission  was  successful.  On  this 
voyage  to  Rome  he  was  shipwrecked,  and  of 
the  600  persons  on  board  the  vessel  only  80 
were  saved.  There  were  at  that  time  multi- 
tudes of  great  transport  and  passenger  ships 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  there  is  not  the 
slightest  reason  for  supposing  that  the  ship- 
wreck of  St.  Paul,  as  described  by  Luke,  and 
this  event  were  identical.  Two  years  later 
he  was  at  Jerusalem  trying  to  dissuade  his 
countrymen  from  plunging  into  a  war  with 
Rome.  A  spirit  of  bitter  discontent,  that  had 
been  growing  for  a  generation,  was  intensi- 
fied by  the  cruelties  of  the  Procurator  Gessius 
Florus,  and  broke  out  into  open  rebellion  in 
A.D.  66. 

Josephus,  who  had  labored  for  conciliation, 
joined  his  countrymen  when  the  struggle 
came,  and  was  appointed  governor  of  Galilee 
and  general  of  the  Galilean  army.  He  man- 
aged the  campaign  with  ability,  fortified  sev- 
eral places,  contended  successfully  against 
the  intrigues  of  his  rival,  John  of  Gischala, 
resisted  for  40  days  the  siege  of  Jotapata  by 
Vespasian,  was  taken  prisoner  at  its  capture 
in  A.D.  67,  and  thereafter  till  the  fall  of  Jeru- 
salem under  Titus,  in  a.d.  70,  accompanied  the 
Roman  army  and,  as  interpreter  and  in  many 
other  ways,  was  of  great  service  to  his  captors. 
In  A.D.  69  he  was  set  at  liberty  by  Vespasian, 
and  after  the  war  went  with  Titus  to  Rome. 


Up  to  this  point  his  life  had  been  a  most^ 
eventful  one,  and  now,  at  the  age  of  34,  he 
was  ready  to  enter  upon  the  literary  phase  of 
his  career,  which  was  to  be  \astly  more  im- 
portant to  the  world  than  his  previous  civil 
and  military  career  had  been.  He  enjoyed 
the  favor  of  the  emperor,  from  whose  family, 
the  Flavian,  he  adopted  the  name  Flavius,  so 
that  he  was  no  longer  known  as  Joseph,  the 
son  of  Matthias.  In  the  sack  of  Jerusalem 
he  had  saved  certain  books  and  documents, 
which  proved  invaluable  in  his  future  labors. 
He  had  at  hand  the  "  commentaries"  of  Ves- 
pasian on  his  Judsean  campaign,  a  large  num- 
ber of  letters  of  King  Agrippa  II.,  and  sev- 
eral accounts  of  the  war  written  by  different 
persons.  His  History  of  the  Jewish  War  was 
prepared  in  his  vernacular,  the  Aramaic,  and 
designed  for  his  countrymen  in  the  East. 
Subsequently  it  was  translated  into  Greek  by 
the  aid  of  persons  more  familiar  with  that 
language  than  himself.  The  date  of  this 
work  is  about  a.d.  75.  His  Jetcish  Antiq- 
nities  did  not  appear  till  a.d.  93.  His  life 
and  Defence  of  the  Jewish  Nation  arjainst 
Ajnon  appeared  toward  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury. 

His  writings  are  useful  in  interpreting  and 
illustrating  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  in 
the  views  presented  of  Alexandrian  philoso- 
phy and  Jewish  tradition,  and  in  the  evidence 
they  afford  that  the  author  had  at  his  com- 
mand authentic  national  records  other  than 
the  Hebrew  and  Septuagint  Scriptures  which 
we  now  possess.  They  have  alw^ays  been 
highly  esteemed,  and  even  those  who  are  most 
ready  to  speak  slightingly  of  Josephus'  merits 
are  obliged  to  turn  to  his  pages  when  they 
would  illustrate  the  life,  politics,  and  religion 
of  Judaea  18  centuries  ago.  The  permanent 
hold  they  have  on  the  Christian  world  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  during  the  3  decades 
just  past  more  attention  has  been  paid  to 
them  by  scholars  than  during  any  other  period 
of  equal  duration  since  printed  copies  first  ap- 
peared in  the  last  half  of  the  15th  century. 

LiTERATUKE. — FlavH  JosepM  Opera  (edited 
by  A.  Arlenius),  Basel,  1544,  fol.  (the  first 
Greek  edition)  ;  Flavii  Josephi  opera  omnia  ah 
I.  Bekkero  ^•eco^'Hito,  Leipzig,  1855-56,  6  vols. 
(2d  ed.  by  Samuel  Adrian  Naber,  1888  sqq., 
vol.  2,  1889)  ;  Flavii  JosepM  opera.  Eddidit 
et  apparatu  critico  instruxit  B.  Niese,  Berlin, 
1885  sqq.  (Niese  is  professor  at  Marburg,  and 
has  been  at  work  many  years  on  a  revised 
text,  comparing  for  tliat  purpose  all  existing 
manuscripts).  English  translations  :  First 
translation,  "out  of  the  Latin  and  French," 
by  T.  Lodge,  London,  16()2,  fol.  ;  best  trans- 
lation, from  the  Greeli,  by  William  Whiston, 
London,  1737,  fol.,  many  editions  and  reprints 
(in  spite  of  all  the  hard  things  that  have  been 
said  against  it,  it  still  holds  its  own,  and  has 
driven  from  the  field  no  less  than  a  dozen 
different  English  competitors  of  whose  names 
in  connection  with  Josephus  no  one  now,  ex- 
cept the  antiquarian,  ever  hears)  ;  rev.  ed. 
by  Rev.  A.  R.  Shilleto  (on  the  basis  of  Din- 
dorf 's  Greek  ed.,  Paris,  1865),  London,  1889- 
90,  5  vols.,  12mo.  For  the  War  see  Traill's 
(London,  1862)  English  translation. 

Selah  Merbill. 


JOSHUA 


(461) 


JUBILXIX; 


Josh'-u-a  {Jehovah  saves),  the  son  of  Nun, 
the  successor  of  Moses.  First  called  Oshea 
or  Hoshea  (Num.  xiii.  8,  Deut.  xxxii.  44),  he 
■was  afterward  called  Jehoshua  or  Joshua 
(Num.  xiii.  16),  and  in  the  New  Testament, 
A.  v.,  Jesus  (Acts  vii.  45,  Heb.  iv.  8).  He 
■was  about  44  years  old  at  the  Exodus,  and 
led  the  attack  on  Amalek  (Ex.  xvii.  9).  He 
and  Caleb  were  of  the  spies,  and  they  alone 
urged  the  people  to  set  forth  at  once  (Num. 
xiv.  6).  He  was  set  apart  to  succeed  Closes 
(Deut.  xxxi.  7,  8),  and  at  the  age  of  84 
crossed  the  Jordan  and  in  6  years  subjugated 
the  land,  though  portions  of  it  were  still  held 
by  the  Canaanites.  He  and  Eleazar  divided 
it  among  the  13  tribes.  He  died  in  Timnath- 
serah,  1426  B.C.,  having  given  his  farewell 
counsels  (Josh,  xxiii.,  xxiv.).  He  had  all  the 
qualities  needed  for  a  military  leader — prompt- 
ness, decision,  and  courage— nor  did  Israel 
produce  a  better  soldier.  He  was  a  hero  of 
faith,  of  piety,  and  of  unsw-erving  obedience. 

The  Book  of  Joshua  narrates  what  he  did, 
and  was  written  by  him  or  under  his  direc- 
tion. The  first  13  chapters  relate  the  conquest 
of  Canaan,  the  next  10  the  apportionment  of 
the  land,  and  the  last  3  Joshua's  farewell,  w. 
29-33  of  the  last  chapter  being  added  by  a 
later  hand.  Frequent  references  and  allu- 
sions to  its  events  are  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (Ps.  xliv.  2-4,  Ixxviii.,  cxiv.)  and  the 
New  (Heb.  xi.  30-82,  James  ii.  25).  Its  au- 
thenticity and  inspiration  are  not  to  be  doubt- 
ed. (See  commentary  by  J.  Lloyd,  London, 
1886,  also  W.  Deane,  Life  and  Tinus  of  Joshua, 
London,  1889.)  T.  W.  C. 

Jo-si'-ah  {whom  Jehovah  Juals),  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Amon,  king  of  Judah,  he  began  to 
reign  at  the  age  of  8  years  and  reigned  31 
years  (b.c.  641-610),  during  which  he  grad- 
ually abolished  idolatry  and  accomplished 
great  reforms  in  worship  and  in  the  religious 
character  of  the  people.  In  repairing  the 
temple  Hilkiah  found  "the  book  of  the  law 
of  the  Lord  given  by  Moses"  (3  Chron.  xxxiv. 
14).  The  king  assembled  the  people,  read  to 
them  the  law,  and  with  them  renewed  the 
covenant  with  Jehovah,  and  celebrated  the 
Passover  with  a  solemnity  like  that  of  its  first 
Institution.  When  Pharaoh- Necho  went  up 
to  Carchemish,  Josiah,  as  ally  or  vassal  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  gave  him  battle  at  Megiddo 
and  received  a  mortal  wound.  He  was  buried 
at  Jerusalem,  and  Jeremiah  composed  an 
elegy  on  the  occasion  (3  Chron.  xxxv.  25). 
No  king  w;is  more  deeply  lamented  ;  indeed, 
the  mourning  was  such  as  to  become  prover- 
bial (Zech.  xii.  11).  Josiah  was  remarkable 
for  his  early  and  consistent  piety,  his  zeal  for 
purity  of  worsliip,  and  his  resolute  opposition 
to  all  idolatrous  customs  not  only  in  Judah, 
but  as  far  north  as  Naphtali  (3  Chron.  xxxiv. 
6).  T.  W.  C. 

Jost  (yOst),  Isaac  Marcus,  b.  at  Bernburg, 
in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt,  23  m.  s.  of  Magde- 
burg, Feb.  23,  1793  ;  d.  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  Nov.  20,  1860  ;  was  educated  in  a  Jew- 
ish orphan  asylum  at  Wolfenbiitel  ;  studied 
philology  and  philosophy  at  Gcittingen  and 
Berlin,  and  became  in  1835  headmaster  of 
the  Jewish  high  school  at  Frankfort.     Of  his 


numerous  writings  his  Geschichte  der  Israeli- 
ten,  Berlin,  1820-28,  9  vols.,  is  the  best  known. 

Jo'-tham  {Jehovah  is  upHght).  1.  The 
youngest  sou  of  Gideon,  the  only  one  who 
escaped  the  massacre  by  Abimelech  (Judges 
ix.)  and  boldly  denounced  the  Shechemites. 
2.  The  10th  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Uzziah. 
For  7  years  he  was  regent  with  his  leprous 
father,  but  on  his  death  a.scended  the  throne, 
aged  25  years,  and  reigned  16  years  (b.c. 
758-741),  His  wise  and  prosperous  adminis- 
tration, his  resubjugation  of  the  Ammonites, 
and  his  useful  public  works  are  recounted  in 
2  Kings  XV.  and  2  Chron.  xxvi.,  xxvii. 

T.  W.  C. 

Jovianus,  Koman  emperor  from  June  27, 
363,  to  Feb.  16,  364.  He  was  a  Christian,  and 
he  immediately  abolished  the  laws  of  Julian, 
restored  to  the  Christian  Church  its  authority, 
immunities,  and  wealth,  and  reintroduced  the 
Christian  emblems  on  standards,  coins,  etc. 
But  he  allowed  no  oppression  of  paganism. 
He  was  also  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Atha- 
nasius,  reinstated  him  at  Alexandria,  and 
took  his  advice  on  all  ecclesiastical  points. 
But  he  showed  the  same  impartiality  toward 
the  Arians  as  toward  the  pagans.  In  other 
respects  he  seems  to  have  been  rather  a  medi- 
ocre person,  and  his  short  reign  left  hardly 
any  traces  of  itself. 

Jovinianus,  a  Roman  monk,  lived  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  4th  century,  opposed  the 
reigning  ascetic  tendencies,  and  was  con- 
demned by  a  synod  of  Rome  in  390.  He  is 
known  only  through  the  attacks  of  his  antag- 
onists, Jerome,  Adversus  Jovinianus,  406,  and 
Augustine,  Ilceres.,  82,  De  Virginitate,  Be 
Bono  Conjugale,  but  he  makes  quite  a  differ- 
ent impression  on  our  time,  and  has  by  some 
Protestant  church  historians  been  represented 
as  one  of  the  most  reliable  sources.  (See 
Bestmann,  Geschichte  d.  christ.  Sitte,  Nord- 
lingen,  1883-1885,  3  vols.  (I.e.);  Luthardt, 
Geschichte  d.  chr.  Ethik,  Leipzig,  1888. 

Jo-wett,  Benjamin,  LL.D.  (University  of 
Leyden,  1875),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Camberwell,  London,  England,  in  1817 ; 
graduated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  B.A., 
1839,  M.A.,  1843  ;  was  ordained  deacon,  1843, 
and  priest,  1845  ;  fellow  of  Balliol  College, 
1838  ;  master,  1870  ;  regius  professor  of 
Greek,  1855  ;  vice-chancellor,  1883.  He  has 
translated  the  Bialogucs  of  Plato,  London 
and  New  York,  1871,  4  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1875, 
5  vols.  ;  Thucydides,  1881,  2  vols.,  rep.  Bos- 
ton, 1883,  1  vol.  ;  The  Politics  of  Aristotle, 
London,  1885,  3  vols. 

Jubilee,  a  Hebrew  festival  celebrated  every 
50th  year.  Its  name  was  derived  from  the 
curved  trumpets  whose  joyful  peals  an- 
nounced its  arrival.  Its  peculiar  feature  was 
that  it  restored  individuals,  families,  and  com- 
munities to  the  same  condition  in  which  they 
were  at  the  beginning  of  the  period.  All  ser- 
vants of  Hebrew  birth  were  set  free,  all 
pledges  were  given  up,  all  inheritances  (save 
liouses  in  walled  towns)  ■which  had  been  alien- 
ated for  whatever  cause  came  back  to  the 


JUBIIiSE 


(462) 


JUDAS 


original  owners.  No  Hebrew  sowed  or  reaped, 
but  all  lived  on  the  spontaneous  growth  of 
the  soil.  The  design  was  to  prevent  oppres- 
sion, maintain  equality,  perpetuate  the  old 
division  of  lands,  afford  time  for  instructing 
the  young,  and  remind  all  that  they  were 
simply  tenants  of  Jehovah.  No  mention  is 
made  of  its  actual  observance,  but  there  are 
evident  allusions  to  it  in  Isa.  Ixi.  1,  3  (cf. 
Luke  iv.  17-21),  Ezek.  vii.  12,  13,  xlvi.  17, 
Neh.  V.  3-13.  T.  W.  C. 

Jubilee  Year,  an  institution  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  which  arose  incidentally, 
without  any  historical  or  typical  foundation, 
and  was  established  by  Boniface  VIII.,  in 
1300,  for  the  purpose  of  making  money  by 
selling  absolutions,  valid  for  a  whole  century, 
to  any  one  who  visited  Rome  during  the 
jubilee  year.  Clement  VI.  made  every  50th 
year  a  jubilee.  Urban  VI.  every  33d,  Paul  II. 
every  25th,  but  then  the  popular  confidence 
was  exhausted,  and  the  institution  fell  to 
pieces. 

Jud  (yude),  Leo,  called  by  his  fellow-towns- 
people Meister  Leu,  b.  at  Gemar,  Alsace, 
1482  ;  d.  at  Ziirich,  June  19,  1542  ;  studied  at 
Basel,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  Einsiedeln, 
1518,  and  of  St.  Peter's,  in  Ziirich,  1522.  He 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Zwingli.  In  lit- 
erary respects  he  helped  on  the  Reformation 
by  his  translations  :  Old  Testament  in  Ger- 
man (used  by  Coverdale)  ;  New  Testament  in 
Latin.  His  life  w^as  written  by  his  son,  Zu- 
rich, 1574,  and  by  Pestalozzi,  Elberfeld,  1860. 

Ju-dae'-a,  the  land  of  the  Jews,  a  name 
given  sometimes  to  the  southern  part  of  Pales- 
tine, at  others  to  the  whole  country.  In  New 
Testament  times  it  was  the  third  province, 
west  of  the  Jordan  and  south  of  Samaria. 
"The  hill  country  of  Judah"  (Judaea)  lay 
south  of  Jerusalem  and  included  Bethlehem, 
Hebron,  and  36  other  cities  (Josh.  xv.  48-60, 
Luke  i.  39).  "  The  wilderness  of  Judaea,"  in 
which  John  began  to  preach  and  where  Christ 
was  tempted  (Matt.  iii.  1,  iv.  1),  was  in 
the  eastern  part,  the  slope  adjacent  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  It  had  only  6  towns  (Josh.  xv.  61, 
62),  and  is  still  one  of  the  most  desolate  and 
dreary  regions  in  the  whole  country. 

t.  W.  C. 

Ju'-dah  {praise),  the  4th  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah.  His  name  appears  honorably  in  the 
history  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xxxvii.  26,  xliii., 
xliv.),  but  disgracefully  in  that  of  Tamar 
(Gen.  xxxviii.).  Jacob's  prophetic  blessing 
(Gen.  xlix.  8-12)  foretold  the  warlike  char- 
acter of  the  tribe  and  its  duration  till  the  com- 
ing of  Christ.  After  the  schism  of  Jeroboam 
this  name  was  given  to  the  kingdom  of  the 
two  tribes  who  preserved  the  true  religion 
and  the  temple  worship  at  Jerusalem.  After 
the  exile  this  name  was  given  to  the  entire 
nation,  who  from  that  time  were  known  only 
as  Jews.  T.  W.  C. 

Judah,  Tribe  of.     See  Tribes. 

Judaizers,  a  name  given  to  those  Christians 
who  not  only  themselves  kept  the  ceremonial 
law,  but  held  that  it  was  binding  upon  all 
believers,  whether  of  Jewish  or  Gentile  origin. 


Differences  of  opinion  on  the  subject  led  to 
the  Council  in  Jerusalem  (see  Apostolic 
Council),  where  the  matter  was  fully  dis- 
cussed and  a  decision  arrived  at  which  was 
generally  accepted.  But  there  were  dissen- 
tients who  kept  alive  the  controversy  and  gave 
the  Apostle  Paul  much  trouble,  and  at  one 
time  even  persuaded  Peter  at  Antioch  to  dis- 
semble. Paul's  most  earnest  argumentation 
on  the  point  is  found  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians,  where  he  denounces  in  the  strong- 
est terms  the  bondage  which  som.e  of  the  Jew- 
ish Christians  sought  to  enforce.  The  in- 
crease of  Gentile  converts,  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  growth  of  Christian  knowl- 
edge diminished  more  and  more  the  Judaizers 
until  the  remnant  took  shape  in  the  2d  cen- 
tury as  Ebionites  (q.v.).  T.  W.  C. 

Ju'-das.  I.  Iscariot  {Ish  Kerioth),  the 
man  of  Kerioth,  a  town  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv. 
25),  the  betrayer  of  Christ.  His  executive 
ability  led  to  his  choice  as  treasurer,  but  the 
office  stimulated  his  avarice  (John  xii.  6). 
For  the  paltry  sum  of  about  $15  he  engaged 
to  guide  Christ's  foes  to  a  place  where  they 
could  arrest  him  without  a  tumult.  But 
when  the  deed  was  done  he  was  filled  with 
terrible  remorse,  confessed  his  sin  to  the 
priests,  and  flung  down  before  them  the 
money  and  hanged  himself  (Matt,  xxvii.  3-10) ; 
but  the  rope  breaking,  he  fell  headlong  and 
burst  asunder  (Acts  i.  18).  The  prophecy  as 
to  the  30  pieces  of  silver  quoted  by  Matthew 
as  from  Jeremiah  is  found  in  Zech.  xi.  12,  13. 
Some  have  tried  to  extenuate  the  guilt  of 
Judas,  but  our  Lord  called  him  "  the  son  of 
perdition, ' '  for  whom  it  would  have  been  good 
"  if  he  had  not  been  born"  (John  xvii.  12, 
Matt.  xxvi.  24).  His  confession  was  a  signal 
testimony  to  Christ's  spotless  innocence,  and 
a  solemn  warning  against  covetousness  and 
all  unfaithfulness  (Acts  i.  25).  For  sugges- 
tive fiction  see  J.  W.  T.  Hart,  Autohiograj)hy 
of  Judas  Iscariot,  London,  1884. 

II.  The  apostle  (Jude,  A.  V.),  called  also 
Thaddaeus  (Mark  iii.  18)  and  Lebbeeus  (Matt, 
x.  3).  He  was  the  author  of  the  epistle  that 
bears  his  name,  written  about  a.d.  65.  In  it 
he  calls  himself  "  a  servant  of  Christ  and  a 
brother  of  James" — i.e.,  the  Less,  who  was 
svirnamed  the  Jiist  and  lived  at  Jerusalem. 
The  epistle  is  a  vehement  warning  against 
false  teachers,  whose  character  and  doom  are 
set  forth  most  vividl3^  In  verse  14  is  a  re- 
markable quotation  from  the  apocryphal 
book  of  Enoch,  relating  the  prediction  of  the 
7th  from  Adam  respecting  a  judgment  to 
come.  The  book  was  never  received  as  ca- 
nonical, but  the  authority  of  the  apostle  stamps 
this  portion  as  a  genuine  inspiration.  (See 
G.  F.  E.  Fronmiiller  [in  Lange,  Ger.  orig., 
Bielefeld,  4th  ed.,  1890].) 

III.  Judas  of  Galilee,  a  leader  of  insurrec- 
tion "in  the  days  of  the  taxing"  or  enrol- 
ment, A.D.  6,  who,  according  to  Gamaliel, 
was  very  successful  for  a  time,  but  in  the  end 
perished  (Acts  v.  37).  Some  suppose  that 
tliis  was  the  same  as  the  man  born  in  Gamala 
of  whom  Josephus  speaks  as  attempting  to 
excite  a  revolt  in  the  time  of  Quirinus,  the 
proconsul  of  Syria. 


JUDAS 


(463) 


JUDSON 


IV.  A  Jew  of  Damascus  with  whom  Paul 
lodged  during  his  blindness  at  the  time  of  his 
conversion  (Acts  ix.  11,  17). 

V.  A  Christian  teacher  surnamed  Barsab- 
bas,  a  chief  man  among  the  brethren,  a  propii- 
et,  who  was  sent  along  with  Paul.  Barnabas, 
and  Silas  to  convey  to  Antioch  the  decisions 
of  the  Jerusalem  Council,  a.d.  50,  a  mission 
which  he  faithfully  performed  and  then  re- 
turned to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  23,  27,  32,  33). 

T.  W.  C. 

Judas  Maccabaeus.     See  Maccabee. 
Jude.     See  Judas  II. 

Judge.  A  magistrate  appointed  by  Moses 
at  the  suggestion  of  Jethro  to  relieve  him  of 
a  part  of  his  duty  in  the  administration  of 
justice  (Ex.  xviii.  13-26).  It  would  seem 
from  1  Chron.  xxiii.  4  that  there  were  local 
judges  in  David's  time.  The  great  reform  of 
Jehoshaphat  included  a  sort  of  supreme  court 
sitting  at  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  xlx.  5-11). 
The  Scripture  contains  many  exhortations  to 
judicial  fairness  (Deut.  xvi.'  19,  Prov.  xxiv. 
23,  Ps.  Ixxxii.). 

There  were  others  of  this  name  raised  up 
in  special  emergencies  and  invested  with  ex- 
traordinary civil  and  military  powers,  some- 
thing like  the  dictators  of  Rome.  They  were 
given  to  Israel  about  the  space  of  450  years 
till  the  days  of  Samuel,  who  was  the  last  of 
the  order  "(Acts  xiii.  20).  There  were  15  in 
all,  of  whom  only  6  (Ehud,  Deborah,  Gideon, 
Jephthah,  Samson,  and  Eli)  have  any  details 
recorded.  It  is  certain  that  these  were  not 
all  successive,  but  some  ruling  at  the  same 
time  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The 
period  was  rude  and  semi-barbarous,  when 
"every  man  did  that  which  was  right  in  his 
own  eyes"  (Judges  xxi.  25),  but  for  that  very 
reason  divine  interpositions  were  needed  and 
were  often  granted.  It  was  the  heroic  age  of 
Hebrew  history. 

Tfte  Book  of  Judges  contains  the  annals  of 
the  time  when  Lsrael  was  ruled  by  judges, 
and  is  a  narrative  of  ev^ents  from  20  years 
after  Joshua  to  the  time  of  Saul.  The  chro- 
nology of  the  period  is  very  uncertain.  Its 
author  is  unknown,  but  it  is  quite  evidently 
a  compilation  from  existent  and  trustworthy 
materials.  Many  critics  assign  it  to  Samuel 
B.C.  1403.  It  consists  of  3  parts,  {n)  ch.  i.- 
iii.  6  being  introductorj-,  {b)  ch.  iii.  7-xvi., 
the  main  narrative,  and  (c)  ch.  xvii.-xxi.,  the 
appendix  containing  two  .separate  incidents, 
one  the  story  of  ^licah  and  his  priest  (xvii. , 
xviii.),  the  other  the  revenge  of  the  insult  to 
the  Levite,  this  appendix  being  plainly  out  of 
chronological  order.  The  book  illustrates 
God's  care  over  his  people,  mingling  his  long- 
suffering  with  timely  chastisements.  On  4 
memorable  occasions  (ii.  1-5,  vi.  11-21,  x. 
10-16,  xiii.  3-23)  the  Angel-Jehovah  appeared 
for  their  deliverance.  Upon  the  whole  the 
period  was  one  of  prosperity.  The  book  has 
been  styleil  a  commentary  upon  the  saying 
"  Righteousness  exalteth  a  nation,  but  sin  is 
a  reproach  to  any  people"  (Prov.  xiv.  34). 
Recent  commentaries  are  those  by  A.  R. 
Fausset  (London.  1885)  and  Millar  (in  Ilomi- 
letukd  Comimiitnry,  1890).     (Cf.  R.   A.  Wat- 


son, Judges  and  Ruth  [in  Expositor's  Bible, 
London  and  New  York,  1889].)     T.  W.  C. 

Judgment  is  the  act  of  the  mind  in  forming 
an  opinion  as  to  the  real  nature  of  anything 
or  the  character  of  any  person  or  act  (Ps. 
cxix.  66).  God's  judgments  are  his  secret  de- 
cisions (Ps.  X.  5),  or  the  declarations  of  his 
will  (Deut.  vii.  12),  or  his  chastisements  of 
evildoers  (Prov.  xix.  29).  For  Judgment- 
Hall  see  PK.^iTORIUM. 

Bay  of  Judgment  is  that  great  day  when 
Christ  shall  sit  as  judge  over  all  the  world 
(Acts  xvii.  31),  and  each  member  of  the  race 
will  receive  according  to  his  works,  whether 
they  be  good  or  evil.  The  necessity  of  such 
an  event,  and  the  fact  that  such  a  day  is  ap- 
pointed, are  evident  from  the  inequalities  of 
retribution  in  th-s  world  and  the  forebodings 
of  conscience  as  well  as  from  the  statements 
of  Scripture  (Eccl.  xi.  9,  xii.  14,  Heb.  ix.  27). 
The  books  will  be  opened  (Rev.  xx.  12),  and 
every  secret  thing  be  brought  to  light.  Its  de- 
cisions will  be  final  and  irreversible,  admit- 
ting the  righteous  to  the  joys  of  Christ's 
kingdom  of  glory,  and  dooming  the  wicked 
to  outer  darkness  and  eternal  despair  (Matt. 
XXV.  31-46).  The  time  of  its  coming  and  its 
duration  are  known  only  to  God,  but  it  will 
break  upon  the  world  with  awful  majesty 
and  be  a  perfect  vindication  of  all  the  ways 
of  the  Most  High.  T.  W.  C. 

Judson,  Adoniram,  D.D.  (Brown  Univer- 
sity, Providence,  R.  I.,  1823),  Baptist  ;  b.  in 
Maiden,  Mass.,  Aug.  9,  1788  ;  d.  at  sea,  April 
12,  1850.  The  eldest  son  of  a  Congregational 
minister  of  the  same  name,  and  showing  from 
infancy  exceptional,  if  not  precocious,  mental 
ability,  he  received  a  mo.st  careful  religious 
and  mental  training.  He  was  graduated  in 
1807  from  Brown  University,  valedictorian  of 
his  class.  At  this  time  he  was  inclined  to  the 
deistic  type  of  scepticism  then  prevailing,  but 
the  sudden  death  of  an  infidel  friend  impelled 
him  to  a  more  serious  consideration  of  the 
evidences  of  religion.  In  the  fall  of  1808  he 
was  admitted  to  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminar}'  as  a  special  student,  being  then 
neither  a  Christian  nor  a  candidate  for  the 
ministry.  On  Dec.  2  of  that  year  he  gave 
himself  to  the  service  of  God,  and  May  28, 

1809,  he  was  received  as  a  member  into  the 
Third  Congregational  Church  of  Plymouth, 
of  which  his  father  was  pastor.  His  intimate 
friends  in  the  Andover  Seminai-y  were  Samuel 
Nott,  Jr.,  Samuel  J.  ]\Iills,  Jr.,  James  Rich- 
ards, Luther  Rice,  and  Gordon  Hill.  At 
about  the  same  time  these  young  men  became 
impressed  with  their  duty  to  devote  them- 
selves to  the  work  of  foreign  missions  and 
formed  a  mis.sionary  society.      In  February, 

1810,  near  a  hay.stack  at  Williamstown,  these 
young  men  solemnly  dedicated  them.selves  to 
this  work.  The  great  foreign  missionary  en- 
terprises of  American  Christians  had  their 
birth  at  that  hour  and  place.  A  letter,  signed 
by  4  of  these  6  young  men,  to  the  General 
Association  of  Massachusetts,  notifying  this 
body  of  their  decision,  led  to  the  formation, 
on  June  28,  1810,  of  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  of  Foreign  Missions.  On 
Sept.    24  Judson  was  graduated   from  An- 


JUDSON 


(464) 


JUDSON 


dover.  After  a  visit  to  England  as  a  delegate 
to  the  English  Missionary  Society,  an  incident 
of  which  was  his  capture  and  brief  incarcera- 
tion in  a  French  dungeon,  he  was  appointed, 
with  Messrs.  Nott,  Newell,  Hall,  and  Rice, 
missionary  to  India,  and  sailed  from  Salem, 
Mass.,  Feb.  19,  1812,  arriving  at  Calcutta, 
June  17.  Knowing  that  he  would  encounter 
English  Baptist  missionaries,  and  that  possi- 
bly controversy  might  ensue,  he  undertook  to 
prepare  himself  by  study  of  the  Scriptures 
for  this  possible  emergency.  But  by  this 
study  he  was  convinced  that  the  only  baptism 
recognized  in  the  Scriptures  is  the  immersion 
of  a  believer.  True  to  this  conviction,  he  was 
immersed  by  the  Rev.  William  Ward  at  Cal- 
cutta, Sept.  6.  This  necessitated  his  with- 
drawal from  the  service  of  the  American 
Board,  and  left  him  in  a  strange  land  without 
denominational  support  or  financial  resources. 
When  the  news  reached  the  United  States, 
however,  it  roused  tlie  Baptist  churches  to  a 
sense  of  their  duty  in  the  work  of  foreign 
missions,  and  the  Baptist  Triennial  Conven- 
tion was  formed,  May  18,  1814,  and  undertook 
the  support  of  Judson.  Before  this  time, 
however,  he  had  been  compelled  by  the  East 
India  Company  to  leave  Calcutta,  and  July 
14,  1813,  he  arrived  at  Rangoon,  where  he 
at  once  began  missionary  work  among  the 
Burmans.  "Fruits  of  this  work  were  slow  in 
appearing,  but  on  June  27,  1819,  Moung 
Nau  was  baptized — the  first  Burman  convert 
to  Christianity.  The  work  now  seemed  in  a 
fair  way  to  prosper  ;  Mr.  Judson  was  favor- 
ably received  at  the  Burman  court,  and  no 
obstacles  were  placed  in  his  way.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  war  between  England  and 
Burmah,  in  1824,  all  was  changed.  Mr.  Jud- 
son was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  spent  a 
year  and  seven  mouths  in  all,  suffering  un- 
speakable tortures  of  body  and  mind.  At 
one  time  he  was  condemned  to  death.  But 
for  the  heroic  devotion  of  his  wife,  Ann  Has- 
seltine  Judson  (q.v.),  who,  with  a  young  in- 
fant in  her  arms,  ministered  daily  to  his  wants, 
his  life  would  have  ended  then.  When  at 
length  released  he  resumed  his  missionary 
labors  at  Ava,  Maulmain,  Prone,  and  Ran- 
goon. Besides  his  work  as  preacher,  teacher, 
pioneer,  and  organizer  of  the  mission,  he  la- 
bored indefatigably  as  a  translator,  complet- 
ing the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Burmese 
Jan.  31,  1831,  and  at  his  death  leaving  well 
advanced  a  complete  Burmese-English  dic- 
tionary. Like  all  other  missionary  trans- 
lators, he  was,  of  course,  largely  indebted  to 
his  native  assistants,  but  he  himself  possessed 
extraordinary  linguistic  capacity.  His  Bur- 
mese Bible  is  acknowledged  to  be  unsurpassed 
among  missionary  versions  for  faithfulness, 
elegance,  and  idiomatic  style,  and  still  re- 
mains the  only  version  of  the  Scriptures  in 
the  Burmese  language.  In  1845  Dr.  Judson 
visited  the  United  States.  During  the  few 
months  of  his  stay  honors  and  attentions  of 
every  kind  were  showered  upon  him,  and  his 
influence  in  arousing  and  extending  the  mis- 
sionary spirit  among  the  Baptist  churches  of 
this  country  cannot  be  overestimated.  Re- 
turning to  Burmah  in  June,  1846,  he  reached 
India  m  the  following  Nov.   at  Maulmain. 


Here  he  continued  his  missionary  and  lin- 
guistic labors,  but  his  hardships  and  toils  had 
broken  his  health.  A  severe  attack  of  fever 
found  the  enfeebled  condition  of  his  constitu- 
tion unable  to  resist  it.  As  a  last  resort  his 
physicians  ordered  a  sea  voyage,  but  4  days 
after  the  ship  sailed  he  died,  and  his  body 
was  committed  to  the  deep  A  memorial 
chapel  has  recently  been  erected  in  Maulmain, 
and  a  memorial  church  was  completed  in  1891 
in  New  York  City  at  Washington  square  and 
Fifth  avenue.  Dr.  Judson  was  one  of  the 
greatest  of  modern  missionaries.  His  natural 
endowments  were  exceptional.  His  force  of 
character  impressed  itself  upon  all  with  whom 
he  came  in  contact.  In  his  personal  piety 
there  was  a  tinge  of  asceticism,  which  in  later 
years  became  more  marked.  Of  the  depth  of 
his  consecration  to  his  work  and  his  unfalter- 
ing devotion  to  duty  as  he  saw  it  there  was 
never  any  question.  To  the  inspiration  of 
his  life  and  example  American  Baptists,  un- 
der God,  owe  all  that  they  have  done  in  the 
work  of  foreign  missions. 

Dr.  Judson  was  thrice  married.  His  wives 
were  :  1.  Ann  Hasseltine,  b.  in  Bradford, 
Mass.,  Dec.  22,  1789  ;  d.  in  Amherst,  Oct.  24, 
1826.  From  a  very  early  age  her  character 
foreshadowed  a  remarkable  career  ;  of  a  very 
ardent,  restless  temperament,  and  of  excep- 
tional religious  experience,  she  was  specially 
fitted  to  be  the  wife  of  the  pioneer  missionary. 
She  became  a  member  of  the  Congregational 
Church  in  Bradford,  Sept.  14,  1806,  and  was 
married  to  Adoniram  Judson,  Feb.  5,  1812. 
She  experienced  the  same  change  of  convio- 
tion  with  her  husband  on  the  voyage  to  India, 
and  was  immersed  at  the  same  time  by  Rev. 
Wm.  Ward.  With  the  exception  of  a  visit  to 
the  United  States  in  1821-23,  her  missionary 
labors  were  identified  with  those  of  her  hus- 
band until  her  death.  There  is  no  more  ro- 
mantic story  in  modern  missions  than  the  for- 
titude and  devotion  with  which  she  bore  hard- 
ships and  ministered  to  her  husband  in  his 
affliction.  Her  death  was  hastened,  if  not 
caused,  by  her  terrible  experiences  at  Ava 
and  Oung-pen-la.  The  proto-martyr  of 
American  missions,  her  memory  will  always 
be  cherished  by  those  to  whom  a  life  of  un- 
faltering faith  and  devotion  do  not  appeal  in 
vain.  2.  Sarah  Boardman,  b.  in  Alstead,  N. 
H.,  Nov.  4,  1803  ;  d.  at  St.  Helena,  Sept.  1, 
1845.  The  daughter  of  Ralph  and  Abiah  Hall ; 
in  early  life  she  became  a  member  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church  in  Salem,  Mass.  Soon  after 
her  conversion  she  had  a  desire  to  engage  in 
foreign  missionary  work.  She  was  married 
to  George  Dana  Boardman,  July  4,  1825,  and 
sailed  with  him  to  Calcutta.  After  a  few 
months  of  missionary  work  at  Moulmein  they 
were  transferred  to  Tavoy,  April  1,  1828, 
where  Mr  Boardman  began  the  first  mission 
among  the  Karens.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband,  Feb.  11,  1831,  she  continued  her 
missionary  work  among  the  Karens.  June 
10,  1834,  she  became  the  wife  of  Dr.  Judson, 
and  for  11  years  was  his  faithful  and  eflicient 
assistant  in  all  his  labors.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  year  1844  her  physicians  decided  that 
nothing  would  restore  her  liealth  but  a  long 
sea  voyage.     She  embarked  with  her  husband 


JUDSON 


(465) 


JULIUS 


and  children  April  26,  1845,  but  though  at 
tirst  she  rallied,  her  strength  rapidly  failed, 
and  the  end  came  in  mid-voyage.  Her  char- 
acter was  one  of  singular  grace  and  beauty. 
Her  translation  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  into 
Burmese,  and  her  hymns  in  that  language 
are  among  the  best  of  missionary  writings. 
3.  Emily  Chubbuck,  b.  in  Eaton,  N.  Y., 
Aug.  22,  1817  ;  d.  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  June 
1,  1854.  From  early  girlhood  she  showed  a 
marked  aptitude  for  literary  pursuits,  and 
became  a  contributor  to  many  of  the  news- 
papers and  magazines  of  the  day  under  the 
pen-name  of  "Fanny  Forester.'"'  Many  of 
these  papers  were  afterward  collected  and 
published  under  the  title  of  Aldcrbrook  (Bos- 
ton, 1846,  2  vols.)  She  was  married  to  Dr. 
Judson  June  2,  1846,  sailing  for  Calcutta  the 
same  month,  and  arriving  there  Nov.  30. 
During  Dr.  Judson 's  last  j-ears  at  Maulmaiu 
she  was  his  sympathizing  companion,  friend, 
and  helper,  and  her  literary  talents  were  of 
great  assistance  to  him  in  his  work.  After 
Dr.  Judson 's  death  she  returned  to  this  coun- 
try, but  her  health  was  broken,  and  beyond 
assisting  in  the  preparation  of  Dr.  Wayland's 
biography,  her  labors  were  few.  She  was  a 
woman  of  rare  gifts  of  mind  and  heart.  (See 
Wayland's  Memoir  of  Judson,  New  Y^ork, 
1853,  2  vols.  ;  Life  of  Adoniram  Judson,  by 
his  son,  Edward  Judson,  New  Y^ork,  1883  ; 
Knowles'  Life  of  Mrs.  Ann  II.  Judson,  Bos- 
ton, 1829,  3d  ed.  ;  Memoir  of  Sarah  B.  Jud- 
son, by  Emily  C.  Judson,  New  Y'ork,  1849  ; 
Kendrick's  Life  and  letters  of  Emily  C.  Jud- 
son, New  Y^ork,  1861.) 

Henry  C.  Vedder. 

Judson,  Edward,  D.D.  (Madison  Univer- 
sity, 1883),  Baptist  ;  son  of  Adoniram  and 
Sarah  Boardman  Judson  ;  b.  at  Maulmain, 
Burmah,  Dec.  27,  1844  ;  graduated  at  Brown 
University,  1865 ;  principal  of  Townshend 
(Vt.)  Seminary,  1865  ;  professor  of  Latin  and 
modern  languages,  Madison  University,  1867  ; 
pastor  of  Baptist  Church,  North  Orange,  N. 
J.,  1875  ;  Berean  Church,  New  Y'ork  City, 
1881.  He  brought  out  a  life  of  his  father, 
New  York,  1883. 

Julian  (commonly  styled  the  "  Apostate"), 
Roman  Emperor.  Flavius  Claudius  Julian- 
us,  b.  at  Constantinople  331  (after  June  26)  ; 
d.  during  the  campaign  against  the  Persians, 
June  26,  363  ;  was  a  member  of  the  imperial 
family.  Spared  at  the  accession  of  the  sons 
of  Constantine  in  the  general  murder  of  rela- 
tives with  which  they  signalized  that  event, 
he  was  educated  chiefly  by  Mardonius,  who 
was  only  outwardly  a  "Christian,  but  also  by 
Eusebius,  the  bishop  of  Nicomedia.  Afte'r 
the  death  of  the  latter  Julian  was  sent  to 
Macellum  in  Cappadocia,  wJiere  he  lived  in 
great  isolation,  deprived  of  the  opportunity 
to  pursue  those  studies  in  literature  and  phi- 
losophy to  which  he  had  already  become 
greatly  attached.  It  is  said  that  he  here  per- 
formed the  office  of  "  reader"  in  the  church  ; 
whether  he  had  been  baptized  or  not  does 
not  appear.  The  year  350  restored  to  Julian 
the  opportunity  of  study  in  Constantinople, 
but  he  was  soon  sent  to  Nicomedia,  where  he 
came  under  the  influence  of  the  famous  Liba- 


nius,  the  rhetorician.  The  influences  of  these 
years  led  him  finally  to  go  over  secretly  to 
paganism  (351).  It  was  not  a  low  paganism 
which  he  adopted,  but  the  higher  philosophic 
speculations  of  the  Greeks,  their  poetic  and 
mystic  ideas  as  expressed  in  the  pagan  cultus, 
with  considerable  emphasis  upon  the  ancient 
.sacrificial  rites,  were  accepted  by  him  with 
deep  enthusiasm.  It  seems  that  he  also  em- 
braced about  this  time  the  purpose  of  reform- 
ing Hellenism  in  such  directions.  But  first 
he  had  to  begin  his  public  life  under  difiicult 
circumstances.  Gallus,  his  brother,  who  had 
been  made  Csesar  in  351,  was  executed  ii 
354,  and  Julian  called  to  court.  For  a  short 
time  in  355  he  was  permitted  to  study  ia 
Athens,  but  .the  following  winter,  having 
been  made  Ctesar,  he  was  sent  to  the  army  in 
Gaul.  Here  he  spent  several  years  in  con- 
stant campaigning,  and  with  distinguished 
success.  In  360  the  emperor  set  out  to  weaken 
him  by  withdrawing  his  troops,  but  the  troops 
themselves  took  occasion  to  make  him  em- 
peror, and  he  was  finally  obliged  to  march 
against  Constantius.  But  before  they  could 
meet  in  battle  Constantius  died,  and  Julian 
entered  Constantinople  in  December  361  un- 
disputed emperor.  He  had  already  openly 
avowed  his  adhesion  to  the  old  religion,  and 
had  invoked  the  help  of  the  gods  in  his  march 
against  the  emperor.  He  immediately  began 
efforts  to  re-establish  heathenism  as  the 
privileged  religion  of  the  state,  and  to  deprive 
Christianity  of  the  advantages  which  it  had 
secured  through  its  establishment.  It  was 
not  his  policy  to  persecute  Christians,  and 
nothing  worthy  of  the  name  of  a  persecution 
occurred  during  his  reign,  though  his  failiu^e 
to  receive  the  support  of  any  party  among  the 
people  rendered  him  irritable  at  the  last,  so 
that  he  approved  of  some  excesses.  In  fact, 
he  seems  to  have  had  a  large  degree  of  phil- 
osophic toleration  both  in  temper  and  in 
polic}'.  In  March,  363,  he  set  out  upon  his 
expedition  against  the  Persians  from  Antioch, 
whence  he  never  returned.  The  legend  that 
he  cried  "  Thou  hast  conquered,  Galilean  1" 
has  no  certain  foundation.  He  wrote  several 
works,  including  letters  and  orations  (see 
partial  translation  in  Bohu's  series,  Lon- 
don, 1888),  the  most  important,  a  work 
against  Christianity,  being  now  lost.  (Beside 
Gibbon  and  Neander,  see  Rode,  Oeschichte 
der  Reaktion  Kaiser  Julians  gegen  die  christ- 
lidie  Kirche,  Jena,  1877,  and  Rendall's  Hul- 
sean.  Essay  upon  Julian,  London,  1879.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Julius  is  the  name  of  3  popes.  1.  337- 
April  12,  352,  a  Roman  by  birth  ;  took  the 
side  of  Athanasius  in  the  Arian  controversy. 
The  Council  of  Sardica,  343,  acknowledged 
the  right  of  the  see  of  Rome  to  receive  ap- 
peals from  bishops  who  were  deposed  by 
provincial  synods,  and  act  as  a  superior 
court.  Ilis  letters  are  found  in  3Iigne,  Pat, 
Lat.  VIII.  2.  Oct.  31,  1503-Feb.  20,  1513, 
Guiliano  Rovere,  b.  at  Albizola,  in  the  pres- 
ent province  of  Genoa,  Italy,  of  a  family 
without  name  or  fortune  ;  obtained  a  good 
chance  when  his  uncle  became  cardinal  and 
then  pope,  Sixtus  IV.,  and  knew  how  to  im- 


JULIUS 


(466) 


JUSTIFICATION 


prove  it.  He  was  passionate  and  cunning, 
and  became  a  scandal  on  the  papal  throne  by 
his  unscrupulous  diplomacy  and  bloody  wars, 
which  had  no  other  purpose  than  the  exten- 
sion of  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope.  He 
first  formed  the  league  of  Cambray  with 
Spain,  France,  and  Germany  against  Venice, 
but  as  soon  as  he  had  attained  what  he  want- 
ed he  turned  round  and  formed  the  holy 
league  with  Venice  and  Spain  against  France. 
He  was  successful,  however,  in  his  policy,  and 
Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Ferrara  were  added  to 
the  papal  dominions.  He  built  the  larger 
part  of  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  founded  the 
Museum  of  the  Vatican,  kept  Bramante, 
Michel  Angelo.  Raphael,  busy  at  work,  and 
left,  nevertheless,  a  considerable  sum  in 
ready  cash  in  the  papal  treasury.  (See  his 
life  by  M.  Brosch,  Gotha,  1878.)  3.  Feb.  7, 
1550  March  23,  1555,  Giovanni  Maria  del 
Monte,  a  native  of  Rome,  was,  while  cardi- 
nal, a  decided  adversary  of  Charles  V.,  but 
became,  as  pope,  his  most  jjliant  tool.  (See 
Balan,  Oiidio  II.  e  Oiulio  III.,  Mirandola, 
1876.)  C.  P. 

Julius  Africanus,  Sixtus,  a  Christian 
scholar  from  the  middle  of  the  3d  century  ; 
b.  in  Libya  ;  hved  at  Nicopolis,  Palestine  ; 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Heliogabalus  ;  dedi- 
cated a  book  to  Alexander  Severus  ;  main- 
tained relations  with  Abgarus  of  Edessa.  Of 
his  writings  a  history  of  the  world,  a  letter  to 
Origen  on  the  Book  of  Daniel,  another  to 
Aristides  on  the  genealogy  of  Christ  in  Luke 
and  Matthew,  the  remains  are  found  in 
Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  X. 

Jumpers  is  the  name  given  to  some  Welsh 
Methodists,  who  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century  adopted  dancing  or  jumping  as  part 
of  their  worship.  The  jumping  followed 
immediately  a-fter  the  sermon  and  lasted  for 
hours.  The  phenomenon  is  described  in 
Tyerman,  Life  of  John  Wesley, yo\.  ii. ,  p.  480. 

Junilius,  a  high  official  in  the  civil  admin- 
istration during  the  reign  of  Justinian  ;  lived 
in  Constantinople  and  wrote  in  551  a  work, 
Instituta  regularia  divinm  Icgis  or  De  -partihus 
divinm  legis,  which  is  one  of  the  first  attempts 
in  biblical  introduction.  It  is  found  in  Migne, 
Pat.  Lat.  LXV.,  and  re-edited  by  Kihn, 
Freiburg,  1880. 

Juniper,  a  shrub  of  the  broom  family,  at- 
taining a  height  of  about  13  feet.  The  Arabs 
call  it  retem.  It  is  abundant  in  the  Sinaitic 
penisula,  where  it  is  often  the  only  possible 
shade  (1  Kings  xix.  4,  5).  Its  roots  are  thick 
and  made  by  the  Bedouin  into  charcoal,  which 
brings  a  high  price  because  of  its  intense  heat 
(Ps.  cxx.  4).  In  the  extreme  of  hunger  its 
bitter  roots  may  be  used  as  food  (Job  xxx.  4). 
T.  W.  C. 

Junius,  Franciscus  (Fran9ois  du  Jon),  b. 
at  Bourges,  Central  Frauct,  1545  ;  d.  at  Ley- 
den,  1603  ;  studied  at  Geneva  ;  was  pastor  at 
Antwerp  ;  almoner  to  the  prince  of  Orange  ; 
professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg  and  at 
Leyden.  He  aided  Tremellius  in  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  and  wrote  a  number  of 
critical  and  polemical    works,   Junii   Opera 


Theologica,  Geneva,  1607,  2  vols.  fol.  ;  Am- 
sterdam, 1882,  edited  by  A.  Kuypers.    C.  P. 

Junkin,  George,  D.D.  (Jefferson  College, 
1833),  LL.D.  (Rutgers  College,  1856),  Pres- 
byterian ;  b.  near  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Nov.  1,  1790  ; 
d.  in  Philadelphia,  May  20,  1868.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Jefferson  College,  1813  ;  studied 
divinity  under  Dr.  J.  M.  Mason  ;  began  to 
preach,  1816  ;  and  held  pastorates  at  Milton 
and  McEwensville,  Pa.  He  was  president  of 
Lafayette  College,  1832-41  and  1844-48  ;  of 
Miami  University,  1841-44,  and  of  Washing- 
ton College,  Lexington,  Va.,  1848-61.  At 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  he  returned  to  the 
North.  He  was  a  prominent  champion  of 
the  Old  School  theology,  the  accuser  of 
Albert  Barnes  (1836),  and  moderator  of  the 
Old  School  Assembly  in  1844.  He  wrote  a 
Treatise  on  Justification,  Philadelphia,  1839  ; 
Lectures  on  the  Prophecies,  1844  ;  Sabbatismos 
(1866)  ;  a  Commentary  on  Hebrews  (1873),  and 
other  books.  (See  his  life  by  his  brother, 
D.  X.  Junkin,  Philadelphia,  1871.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Jurieu  (zhii'-re-uh),  Pierre,  b.  at  Mer,  near 
Blois,  France,  Dec.  34,  1637  ;  d.  at  Rotter- 
dam, Jan.  11,  1713  ;  studied  at  Saumur, 
Sedan,  Holland,  and  England  ;  held  various 
positions  in  the  Reformed  Church  in  France, 
but  retired  in  1681  on  account  of  persecutions 
to  Rotterdam,  whence  he  carried  on  his  in- 
defatigable defence  of  the  Reformed  Church 
and  his  unremitting  attacks  on  its  foes,  espe- 
cially Bossuet.  One  of  his  principal  writings 
is  his  Apologie  pour  la  morale  des  Reformes, 
1675  ;  another  is  his  Ilistoire  du  Galmnisme  et 
celle  du  Papisme  mises  en  parallele,  Rotter- 
dam, 1683.  In  English  have  appeared  his 
Plain  Method  of  Christian  Devotion  (Rotter- 
dam, 1674),  London,  22d  ed.,  1692  ;  History 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Geneva,  1682),  1684  ; 
Pastoral  Letter  (1686),  1689  ;  Tlie  Accomplish- 
ment of  the  Scripture  Prophecies  (1686),  1687  ; 
A  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  and  Wor- 
ships .  .  .  of  the  Church  (Amsterdam,  1704- 
5,  2  pts.),  1705,  2  vols. 

Jurisdiction,  Ecclesiastical.  See  Church 
Jurisdiction. 

Justice  is  that  principle  which  secures  an 
exact  and  scrupulous  regard  to  the  rights  of 
others.  It  is  counted  as  one  of  the  4  cardinal 
virtues  and  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  character 
approved  in  God's  Word,  nor  will  anything 
else  compensate  for  the  lack  of  it.  Justice 
in  God  is  that  perfection  which  causes  him 
to  render  to  every  one  of  his  creatures  what 
is  due,  and  it  is  so  identified  with  his  being 
that  we  cannot  conceive  of  an  unjust  God. 
"  Shall  not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do 
right?"  T.  W.  C. 

Justification  is  a  forensic  term.  It  is  the 
opposite  of  condemnation  and  means  acquit- 
tal and  vindication  (Deut.  xxv.  1,  cxliii.  2, 
Prov.  xvii.  15).  As  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment it  is  that  act  of  God's  sovereign  grace 
by  which  he  accepts  and  receives  all  who 
believe  in  Christ  as  just  or  righteous.  It  in- 
cludes the  pardon  of  sins  and  the  imputation 
of  Christ's  righteousness  (Eph.  1.  17,  2  Cor. 
V.  19,  21).     The  merits  of  Christ  are  the  only 


JUSTIN 


(467) 


JUSTINIAN 


ground  of  justification,  and  faith  is  simply 
the  means  by  which  those  merits  are  appro- 
priated. Neither  faith  nor  any  other  act  or 
work  of  the  believing  soul  furnishes  any 
claim  upon  God.  "  Ye  are  saved  by  grace." 
"  There  is  therefore  now  no  condemnation  to 
them  that  are  in  Christ  Jesus. "  The  moment 
they  believe  their  justification  is  as  perfect  as 
it  can  be,  for  it  is  as  perfect  as  the  infinite 
worthiness  of  the  Redeemer.  Their  sanctiti- 
cation  is  not,  for  it  is  a  progressive  growth  in 
holiness,  which  starting  from  ever  so  small  a 
nucleus  goes  on,  or  should  go  on,  day  by  day, 
ever  becoming  more  full  and  complete.  And 
to  this  the  strongest  motives  are  offered  by 
gratuitous  justification.  The  soul  engrafted 
into  Christ  is  continually  summoned  by  grati- 
tude and  love  and  consecration  to  pursue  a 
holj^  life,  and  having  adoption  into  God's 
family,  peace  of  conscience  and  the  indwell- 
ing of  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  has  unusual  facilities 
for  dropping  the  old  nature  and  putting  on 
the  new.  The  Roman  Catholic  divines  iden- 
tify justification  and  sanctification,  and  hence 
make  it  a  progressive  course  consisting  in 
faith  and  good  works.  They  appeal  to  James 
ii.  24,  where  the  apostle  seems  to  exalt  works 
over  faith  ;  but  it  is  a  dead  faith  which  re- 
mains alone  and  which  even  the  demons  have 
that  James  opposes,  and  so  do  all  friends  of 
truth.  A  genuine  faith  worketh  through 
love,  and  must  so  work,  otherwise  it  demon- 
strates its  own  spuriousness.  This  doctrine 
is  exceedingly  important.  Luther  called  it 
the  article  by  which  the  church  stands  or 
falls.  It  is  the  secret  of  strength,  the  hiding 
of  God's  power.  T.  W.  C. 

Justin  Martyr,  the  first  Christian  writer 
after  the  apostolic  fathers  of  whom  we  have 
adequate  information.  His  martyrdom  oc- 
curred under  Marcus  Aurelius,  at  Rome 
(166  ?).  He  was  born  at  Flavia  Neapolis,  the 
ancient  Shechem,  of  heathen  parents,  and  re- 
ceived a  heathen  education.  He  4ong  sought 
truth  among  the  diilerent  systems  of  philoso- 
phy without  satisfaction,  till  in  Platonism  he 
seemed  to  find  the  promise  of  a  knowledge 
of  God.  But  meeting  with  a  Christian,  he 
was  convinced  of  the  impossibility  of  finding 
God  himself  by  philosophy,  and  became  a 
Christian,  after  which  event  he  journeyed 
through  the  world  defending  and  explaining 
Christianity,  going  more  than  once  to  Rome. 

Eusebius  mentions  a  large  number  of  writ- 
ings as  belonging  to  Justin,  but  only  three 
have  come  down  to  us,  two  Apologies  and  the 
Dialogue  with  Trypho.  The  apologies  defend 
Christians  from  the  charge  of  atheism  and 
secret  crimes  by  setting  forth  their  doctrines 
and  their  life.  Tlie  dialogue  defends  Chris- 
tianity against  Judaism  by  proving  from  the 
Old  Testament,  which  Justin  accepts  as  truly 
as  the  Jews,  that  the  new  law  of  Christ  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  old  law  of  Moses. 
Thus  the  faith  of  the  church  of  Justin's  day 
is  clearly  spread  before  us,  and  the  more  ade- 
quately inasmuch  as  Justin  always  attempts 
to  present  the  common  faith  of  all  Christians. 
Over  against  the  transitory,  material,  and  im- 
perfect world,  he  taught  tlie  existence  of  a 
single,  spiritual  God,  possessed  of  all  perfec- 


tions, underived  in  being,  the  creator  of  all 
things  and  the  former  of  the  world,  who  was 
actuated  in  the  creation  and  in  all  his  subse^ 
quent  dealings  with  his  creatures  by  the  spirit- 
of  love.  Here  is  no  special  advance  upon 
the  doctrine  of  the  apostolic  fathers.  But 
Justin  sets  forth  for  the  first  time,  clearly, 
the  doctrine  of  the  Logos.  God  (who  had 
from  eternity  wisdom  in  himself)  before  his- 
works,  and  as  the  beginning  of  the  same, 
begat  of  himself,  by  an  act  of  his  will,  a  Son, 
who  was  another  God,  numerically  distinct, 
and  yet  not  separate  from  himself.  By  this 
Son  God  created  the  worlds,  revealed  him- 
self in  the  prophets  and  in  the  Scriptures, 
appeared  unto  the  patriarchs  and  others  in 
the  theophanies,  was  graciously  present  in  all 
men,  produced  everything  good  in  the  world, 
till  at  last  this  Son  was  miraculously  born  of 
a  virgin,  and  as  a  Saviour  lived  and  died  in 
our  behalf.  The  marks  of  crude  thinking 
are  evident  in  the  doctrine  at  this  stage.  The 
New  Testament  writings  are  extensively 
quoted  by  Justin,  but  never  as  authority  in 
the  sense  in  which  he  continually  employs 
the  Old.  The  central  importance  of  the 
death  of  Christ  is  fully  taught,  but  no  theory 
of  this,  or  of  faith,  or  of  free  will  could  be 
expected  at  that  time,  and  is  not  found.  But 
Justin  and  his  associates  succeeded  in  their 
object  of  making  Christianity  intelligible  to 
educated  Greeks  and  in  commending  it  to 
them.  Justin's  works  are  translated  in  the 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Christian  Literature 
Company  ed.,  vol.  i.  (See  Semisch,  Justin 
der  Mdrtyrer,  Breslau,  1840-42,  2  vols.,  and 
Harnack,  Dogmengeschichte,  vol.  1.,  pp.  372- 
422  ;  also  G.  T.  Purves,  Testimony  of  Justin 
Martyr  to  Early  Christianity,  New  York, 
1889.)  F.  H.  F. 

Justinian,  Roman  emperor  ;  b.  at  Tauresi- 
um,  Illyricum,  May  11,  483  ;  d.  at  Constanti- 
nople, Nov.  14,  565.  He  was  adopted  by  his 
Uncle  Justin,  and  when  he  had  become  em- 
peror the  nephew  acquired  at  once  great  in- 
fluence. He  acceded  to  the  throne  in  527. 
His  greatest  work  was  the  preparation  by 
means  of  commissions  of  what  is  known  as 
the  Corpses  Juris  Civilis,  containing  the  bodies 
of  the  imperial  and  earlier  laws  of  Rome,  and 
an  elementary  treatise  upon  law,  the  Insti- 
tutes of  Justinian.  His  own  chief  personal 
interest  was,  however,  in  theology,  and  his 
ecclesiastical  activity  was  extensive  and 
varied.  He  endeavored  to  put  an  end  to  the 
Monophysite  party  by  first  purging  the  Greek 
Church  of  all  suspicion  of  complicity  with 
the  heresy,  and  then  by  persuading  or  com- 
pelling the  Monophysitic  bishops  to  give  up 
their  views.  It  was  with  this  purpose  that 
he  engaged  in  the  controversy  of  the  Three 
Chapters  (q.v.).  But  at  the  close  of  his  career 
Justinian  himself  fell  into  heresy  by  embrac- 
ing the  doctrine  tliat  the  flesh  of  Christ  was 
incorruptible  and  incapable 'of  all  Aveakness. 
Justinian  also  persecuted  heathens.  He 
closed  the  famous  schools  of  Athens.  He 
was  so  severe  upon  the  Montanists  in  Phrygia 
and  the  Samaritans  in  Palestine  as  to  lead  to 
revolts  in  both  cases.  Tlie  alienation  of 
Monophysitic  Egypt  and  Syria  by  Justinian's 


JUVENOUS 


(468; 


KANT 


methods  may  in  part  explaiu  their  ready  con- 
<quest  by  the  Mohammedans.  (Eng.  trans, 
of  his  works  by  J.  B.  Moyle,  Oxford,  1883, 
2  vols.;  of  the  Institutes  by  T.  C.  Sandars, 
London,  1874,  7th  ed.,  1883.  See  F.  A.  Isam- 
berl,  Vie  de  Justinen,  Paris,  1856,  2  vols.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Juvencus,  Cajus  Vettius  Aquilius,  a  Span- 
iard by  birth  and  a  presbyter  of  his  native 
church,  wrote  about  330  a  Historia  evangelica 
in  3233  Latin  hexameters,  which  was  highly 
appreciated  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  is 
found  in  Migue,  Pat.  Lat.  XIX. 


K 


Eaabah,  The.  This  structure,  without  any 
historical  or  symbolical  significance,  is  much 
older  than  Mohammed,  and  probably  a  rem- 
nant of  old  Arabian  heathenism,  just  as  the 
black  stone,  which  is  devoutly  kissed  by  the 
pilgrims,  certainly  is  an  old  fetish.  Diodorus 
speaks  of  it  as  the  Pantheon  of  the  Arabs. 
Mohammed  purged  it  of  its  heathenish  idol- 
atry and  turned  into  a  sacred  shrine,  the  cen- 
tre of  the  Mohammedan  world,  to  which  all 
Moslems  address  their  prayers  and  direct  their 
pilgrimages.  It  stands  in  the  court  of  the 
great  mosque  at  Mecca,  and  consists  of  an 
oblong  structure  about  40  feet  high,  with  no 
windows,  but  with  a  door  raised  71  feet  from 
the  ground,  built  of  irregular  blocks  of  stone, 
among  which  is  inserted  the  black  stone,  a 
piece  of  volcanic  basalt,  set  in  silver.  (See 
Burton,  Medinah  and  Mecca,  I.e.  ;  Keane,  Six 
Months  in  Mecca,  I.e.) 

Ea'-desh  {holy),  or  Kadesh-Barnea,  called 
also  Enmishpat  (Gen.  xiv.  7)  and  Meribah 

Radesh  (Ezek.  xlvii.  19),  the  name  of  a  foun- 
tain, a  city,  and  the  desert  round  it  (Ps.  xxix. 
8).  Its  precise  location  has  not  been  identi- 
fied until  of  late  years.  Robinson  put  it  at 
Ain  el  Weibeh,  near  the  pass  of  Supha,  and 
Dean  Stanley  in  or  near  Petra,  but  Rowland 
and  Palmer  at  Ain  Gadis,  on  the  border  of 
the  Negeb,  in  the  desert  of  Et  Tih,  about  40 
miles  south  of  Beer-sheba.  This  last-men- 
tioned identification  has  been  established  by 
the  personal  investigation  of  Dr.  H.  Clay 
Trumbull,  whose  volume  on  the  subject  was 
issued  in  1883.  The  place  was  visited  by  the 
Israelites  soon  after  they  left  Sinai,  and  from 
here  they  sent  spies  into  Canaan,  who,  when 
they  returned,  brought  an  evil  report,  and 
murmuring  broke  out  among  the  people 
(Num.  xiii.,  xiv.).  Then  followed  the  great 
penal  wandering  in  the  desert,  at  the  close  of 
which,  40  years  after  the  Exodus,  the  people 
once  more  encamped  at  Kadesh  (Num.  xx.  1). 
Here  Miriam  died  and  was  buried,  and  here 
Moses  smote  the  rock  and  called  forth  water 
for  the  thirsty  people.  From  this  point  Israel 
commenced  the  march  which  brought  them 
to  the  plains  of  Moab  at  Jericho.  (See  H.  C. 
Trumbull,  Kadesh  Bainiea,  New  York,  1884 
T.  W.  C. 


Kalkar,  Christian  Andreas  Herman,  Ph.D. 
(Kiel,  1833),  D.D.  (Copenhagen,  1836),  Lu- 
theran ;  b.  in  Stockholm,  Nov.  27, 1802  ;  d.  in 


Copenhagen,  Feb.  2.  1886  ;  was  the  son  of  a 
Jewish  rabbi  ;  studied  first  jurisprudence, 
then,  after  his  conversion,  theology  in  the 
University  of  Copenhagen  ;  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Western  Europe  ;  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Glasaxe,  near  Copenhagen,  1843  ; 
retired  and  settled  in  Copenhagen,  1868  ;  was 
a  member  of  the  examining  board  of  the  uni- 
versity ;  the  founder  of  the  Danish  Mission 
Society,  1860  ;  president  of  the  Conference  of 
the  Evangelical  Alliance  in  Copenhagen, 
1884,  etc.  He  published  in  Danish  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  1847,  3  vols.,  vdth  illus- 
trations, several  works  on  biblical  history 
and  Danish  church  history,  a  commentary  to 
the  Old  Testament,  etc.,  and  in  Danish  and 
German,  Die  evangeliscJien  Missionsbestrebun- 
gen  in  unseren  Tagen,  Erlangen,  1867  ;  Oe- 
schichte  der  rdmisch-katliolischen  Mission,  Er- 
langen, 1867  ;  Oeschichte  der  christlichen  Mis- 
sion unter  den  Heiden,  Giitersloh,  1879-81, 
2  vols.,  etc.  C.  P. 

Kant,  Immanuel,  b.  at  Konigsberg,  Prus- 
sia, April  23,  1724  ;  d.  there,  Feb.  12,  1804  ; 
studied  first  theology,  afterward  philosophy 
and  mathematics  in  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  there  in  1770.  He  remained  un- 
married and  led  a  very  quiet,  regular,  some- 
what pedantic  life,  but  was,  in  all  social  rela- 
tions, not  only  a  man  of  strict  duty,  but  also 
a  generous  friend  and  a  pleasant  companion. 

His  system,  which  denotes  a  decisive  turn 
in  the  history  of  modern  philosophy,  is  alter- 
nately designated  as  criticism  and  transcen- 
dentalism. The  former,  because  in  his  Cri- 
tique of  Pure  Reason  he  subjected  the  human 
mind  to  a  searching  investigation,  and  proved 
that  the  thing  itself  is  utterly  inaccessible  to 
us,  and  what  knowledge  we  have  of  it  is  con- 
ditioned by  the  inborn  organization  of  our 
understanding.  The  latter,  because  in  his 
Critique  of  Practical  Reason  he  demonstrated 
the  existence  in  the  human  conscience — that 
is,  in  the  natural  relation  .between  man  and 
God— of  a  "  categorical  imperative"  which  is 
transcendent  to  all  analysis  and  yet,  by  its 
very  presence,  authoritative  to  the  will.  Both 
characterizations,  however,  give  some  hints 
with  respect  to  what  his  Religion  within  the 
Boundaries  of  Pure  Reason  contains.  The 
latter  book  was  published  in  1793,  and  brought 
its  author  a  cabinet  ordinance  from  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  II.,  which  forbade  him  to  publish 
anything  more  concerning  things  religious. 
Religion  is  here  made  an  appendix  to  morals, 
useful  as  a  means  by  which  to  combat  what 
is  evil  in  the  world,  but  losing  its  impor- 
tance as  the  true,  moral  standard  becomes  re- 
alized. The  Christian  dogmas  are  not  denied, 
but  they  are  accepted  only  as  "postulates" 
of  practical  reason.  There  is  an  ideal  of  man 
in  general  without  which  individual  man 
cannot  save  himself  from  sin,  not  be  born 
anew,  not  rise  morally.  To  call  that  ideal 
the  Son  of  God  is  very  proper.  To  believe 
that  it  has  been  realized  by  any  one  indi- 
vidual being  can  do  no  harm.  But  it  cannot 
be  proved,  and  even  if  it  could  that  would 
add  nothing  to  the  impressiveness  and  au- 
thority of  the  ideal. 


KARAITES 


(469) 


EEBLE 


While  Kant's  influence  on  the  moral  eleva- 
tion of  his  age  was  very  great,  his  influence 
on  its  religious  development  was.  of  course, 
very  small.  But  it  must  not  be  taken  for 
granted  that  he  in  any  way  worked  into  the 
hands  of  rationalism.  On  the  contrary,  those 
who  may  be  considered  as  his  theological  rep- 
resentatives— Wegscheider,  Paulus,  Amnion, 
etc.— found  through  him  a  way  out  of  ration- 
alism. (See  Die  Reliriionslehre  Kants,  Jena, 
1874  ;  P.  Bridel,  La  philosophie  de  la  religioti 
de  Kant,  Lausanne,  1876.) 

There  are  three  editions  of  his  collected 
works  in  German.  Translated  into  English 
are,  Metaphydcs  of  Ethirx,  1836  (reii.,  1870), 
and  Religion  within  the  Boiiu(tary  of  Pure 
Reason,  1888,  by  Semple,  Edinburgh  ;  Cri- 
tique of  Pure  Reason,  by  Meiklejohn,  London, 
1858.  and  Max  ]\Iiiller.  London.  1882,  3  vols.  ; 
Critique  of  Practical  Reason,  by  Abbott,  Lon- 
don, 1873,  n.e.,  1881.  C.  P. 

Karaites,  a  sect  of  the  Jews,  who,  rejecting 
the  Talmud  and  the  Midrash  as  the  work  or 
man,  hold  only  such  ordinances  and  laws  as 
come  from  a  simple  and  natural  exegesis  of 
Scripture  to  be  binding  upon  the  community. 
They  began  at  Bagdad  in  the  8th  century, 
and  spread  over  the  East  and  in  the  regions 
around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  with  great 
rapidity.  They  are  now,  however,  found 
only  in  small  numbers  in  Southern  Ilussia, 
Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria.  Having  set  aside 
"  rabbinical"  traditions,  they  developed  a  new 
traditional  system  of  their  own.  Prayer, 
fasting,  pilgrimages  to  Hebron  are  the  points 
to  which  they  pay  the  greatest  attention. 
Their  general  conduct  has  been  allowed  even 
by  their  antagonists  to  be  of  the  highest 
moral  standard.  They  produced  an  extensive 
Hebrew  literature,  consisting  of  works  on  the- 
ology, philosophy,  mathematics,  astronomy, 
and  medicine.  The  greater  part  of  this  has 
been  lost,  and  what  remains  is  for  the  most 
part  buried  in  great  libraries.  The  library  of 
Leyden  was  long  the  richest  in  manuscripts 
and  printed  works  of  the  Karaites,  but  it  is 
now  surpassed  by  that  of  St.  Petersburg, 
which  has  the  large  and  valuable  collection 
made  by  Firkowitsch  and  bought  by  the  em- 
peror. '  T.  W.  C. 

Karlstadt  (karl'-stat),  Andreas  Rudolf 
Bodenstein,  1).  at  Karlstadt,  Franconia,  a 
ffw  years  before  1483  ;  d.  at  Basel,  in  1541  ; 
studied  in  Italy  ;  settled  at  Wittenberg,  in 
1504,  and  became  professor  of  theology  in 
the  university  in  1508.  He  considered  him- 
self the  ornament  of  the  university,  one  of 
the  leading  theologians  of  the  age,  but  he 
belonged  entirely  to  the  old  sciiool.  His  van- 
ity, however,  superficiality  and  impetuosity 
made  it  ea.sy  for  him  to  jump  from  one  ex- 
treme into  another,  and  when  he  could  not 
command  Luther,  he  became  his  humble  ser- 
vant. From  scholasticism  he  turned  to  mys- 
ticism, and  while  Luther  was  at  Wartburg 
he  brought  the  city  of  Wittenberg  into  a  mo.st 
dangerous  state  of  uproarious  excitement. 
On  Luther's  return  he  was  expelled,  1522. 
but  the  next  year  he  found  an  opportunity  to 
renew  his  reformatory  experiments  at  Orla- 
miinde.     Scenes  took  place  which  reminded 


of  Thomas  Miintzer  and  the  Anabaptists,  and 
he  was  again  expelled.  Accused  of  being  in 
connection  not  only  with  the  Anabaptists 
but  also  with  the  peasant  insurrection,  he 
was  sorely  persecuted,  and  wandered  about 
fi"om  place  to  place  until  he  finally  found  an 
asylum  in  Switzerland,  by  siding  with  Zwingli 
and  attacking  Luther  in  the  controversy  con- 
cerning the  Lord's  Supper.  In  1534  he  was 
made  professor  of  theology  at  Basel.  There 
is  no  collected  edition  of  his  works,  but  a 
complete  list  of  them  is  fount  I  in  Rotermund, 
Erneuertes  Andenkcn,  Bremen,  1818.  His 
life  was  written  by  Jager,  Stuttgart,  1856. 

C.  P. 

Kaye,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1815),  bish- 
op of  Lincoln  ;  b.  at  Hammersmith,  Loudon, 
1783  ;  d.  at  Lincoln,  Feb.  19,  1853.  He  was 
educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
became  master  of  it,  1814  ;  regius  professor 
of  divinity,  1816  ;  bishop  of  Bristol,  1820, 
and  of  Lincoln,  1827.  Besides  charges,  etc.. 
he  wrote  on  TertuUian,  Cambridge,  1825,  5tli 
ed.,  1845  ;  Justin  Martyr,  London,  1829  ; 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  1835  ;  Athanasius  and 
the  Council  of  Nicaja,  1853.  and  the  Oovern- 
ment  and  Discipline  of  the  Church  during  the 
First  Three  Centuries,  1855.  F.  M.  B. 

Keach,  Benjamin,  Particular  Baptist  ;  b. 
at  Stokeliaman,  Bucks,  England,  Feb.  29, 
1640  ;  d.  at  Horsleydown,  Snuthwark,  Lon- 
don, July  18,  1704.  He  was  a  London  pastor 
from  1668,  and  endured  persecution  for  his 
opinions.  Of  his  quaint  devotional  books  the 
best  known  is  Travels  of  True  Godliness,  1683, 
which,  with  its  companion,  Progress  of  iSin, 
exists  in  modern  editions.  New  York,  1831, 
London,  1846  and  1849.  He  wrote  also,  in 
prose,  Tropologia,  London,  1681,  rep.,  1853 
and  1856  ;  A  Golden  Mine  Opened,  1694  ; 
Gospel  Mysteries  Unveiled,  1701,  2  vols,  fol., 
rep. ,  1856  ;  and  in  verse,  Sion  in  Distress, 
1682  ;  GloiHous  Lover,  1686  ;  Spiritual  Melody, 
and  others.  (See  his  memoir,  by  Dr.  H.  Mal- 
com,  New  York,  1831,  in  the  edition  of 
Travels  of  True  Godliness.)  F.  M.  B. 

Eeble,  John,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Fairford,  25  m.  s.e.  of  Gloucester,  England, 
April  25,  1792  ;  d.  at  Bournemouth,  Hants, 
March  29,  1866.  His  father  prepared  him 
for  Oxford,  where  he  entered  Corpus  Christi 
College,  1806,  and  graduated  with  double 
first  class  honors,  1810.  In  April,  1811,  he 
was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  ;  here  he  was  as- 
sociated with  Whately  and  Arnold,  and  be- 
came intimate  with  Pusey  and  Newman.  He 
was  ordained  deacon,  1815,  and  priest,  1816  ; 
tutor  at  Oriel,  lsiS-23  ;  curate  to  his  father, 
1823,  and  at  Hursley,  Hampshire,  1825  ;  vicar 
of  Hursley,  1835.  He  was  i)r()fess()r  of  poetry 
at  O.xford,  1831-41,  succeeding  Dean  Milnian. 
His  sermon  on  National  Ajmstasy,  ]ireached 
from  the  University  pulpit  July  14,  1833,  was 
called  forth  by  the  suppression  of  ten  Irish 
bishoprics  ;  that  day,  sajs  Dr.  Newman, 
"  I  have  ever  considered  and  kept  as  the  start 
of  the  religious  movement  of  1833."  In  that 
movement  (popularly  called  Tractarian,  Pu- 
seyife.  Newmanite,  etc.),  Keble  took  a  promi- 
nent part.  After  Newman  he  was  the  chief 
contributor  to   Lyra    Apostolica,    1836  ;     he 


KEDESH 


(470) 


KEITH 


I 


wrote  8  (Nos.  4,  13,  40,  53,  54,  57,  60,  89)  of 
the  famous  Tracts  for  the  Times,  and  saw  and 
approved  the  manuscript  of  No.  90,  which 
closed  the  series  in  1841  and  occasioned  an 
uproar.  Newman's  secession  to  Rome  was  a 
deep  grief  to  Keble  ;  with  Pusey  he  came 
resolutely  to  the  front,  and  assumed  the  task 
of  defending  and  applying  their  principles 
within  the  English  Church,  and  counselling 
those  who  had  followed  them  thus  far  to  go 
no  farther.  His  ecclesiasticism  was  consist- 
ent and  unflinching  ;  the  beauty  of  his  char- 
acter did  much  to  reconcile  opponents  to  his 
extreme  position  ;  they  might  abhor  the 
views,  they  could  not  but  respect  and  admire 
the  man.  Keble 's  reputation  as  a  poet  rests 
upon  his  Christian  Tear,  which  appeared 
without  his  name  at  Oxford,  1827,  2  vols. 
Within  half  a  century  some  400,000  copies 
were  sold  ;  no  other  devotional  poet  since 
George  Herbert  has  been  nearly  so  popular  in 
the  English  Church.  The  oTaject  of  the  vol- 
ume was  to  help  toward  "a  sober  standard 
of  feeling,"  in  tune  with  the  PrayerBook, 
"in  matters  of  practical  religion  ;'"'  perhaps 
its  chief  charm  was  that  it  so  faithfully  re- 
flected the  modest,  delicate,  ethereal,  and  lov- 
ing spirit  of  the  writer.  Of  less  fame  and 
value  are  his  Metrical  Version  of  the  Psalter, 
Oxford,  1839  ;  Lyra  Innocentium,  Oxford 
(1846),  and  Miscellaneous  Poems  (posthumous), 
London,  1869.  His  most  precious  composi- 
tion is  "  Sun  of  my  soul  "  (1827).  In  prose 
he  wrote  Pralectiones  AcademiecB  (lectures  on 
poetry),  1844,  2  vols.;  Eucliaristical  Adora- 
tion, 1857  ;  a  Life  of  Bishop  Wilson,  1863  ; 
Sermons,  collected  in  11  vols.,  1876-80  ;  Oc- 
casional Papers  and  Reviews,  1877  ;  Stvdia 
Sacra,  1877  ;  Outlines  of  Instruction  or  Medi- 
tation, 1880  ;  and  prepared  the  best  edition  of 
Hooker's  works,  1836.  His  Memoir,  by  Sir 
J.  T.  Coleridge,  appeared  in  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1869.  Keble  College,  at  Oxford,  is  a 
fitting  memorial  of  the  reverential  affection 
with  which  he  impressed  many.  His  last 
years  were  spent  at  Bournemouth  for  his 
wife's  health,  and  there  he  died  from  a  par- 
alytic stroke.  '  F.  M.  B. 

Ke'-desh  (sanctiiary),  a  fortified  and  Leviti- 
cal  city  of  refuge  in  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  37, 
xxi.  32).  Here  Barak  was  born,  and  here  the 
forces  were  assembled  to  fight  with  Sisera 
(Judges  iv.  6,  10).  It  was  ravaged  by  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  (2  Kings  xv.  29).  It  is  now  a 
small  village,  Kades,  10  miles  north  of  Safed, 
surrounded  with  ruins.  T.  W.  C. 

Keil  (kile),  Johann  Carl  Friedrich,  Lie. 
Theol.,  Ph.D.,  D.D.  (University  of  Berlin, 
1883, 1834,  and  1838),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Oeluitz, 
Saxony,  Feb.  26,  1807  ;  d.  at  Rodlitz,  Saxony, 
Feb.  26,  1888  ;  studied  at  Dorpat,  1827-30, 
and  Berlin,  1831-33  ;  became  ^^mirt^  docent  at 
Dorpat,  1833  ;  professor  extraordinary,  1838  ; 
ordinary  professor,  1839  ;  and  retired  as  pro- 
fessor emeritus  to  Leipzig,  1859.  Among  his 
works  are  Biblische  ArcJweologie,  Frankfort, 
1857 ;  commentaries  on  the  historical  and 
prophetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
translated  in  Clark's  Library,  etc. 

Eeim  (kime),  Karl  Theodor,  Ph.D.  (Tu- 
bingen,   1847?),    D.D.    Qwn.,    I860?);    b.    at 


Stuttgart,  Dec.  17,  1825  ;  d.  at  Giessen,  Nov 
17,  1878  ;  studied  theology  at  Tiibingen  and 
Bonn  ;  was  appointed  pastor  of  Esslingen, 
Wiirtemberg,  1856  ;  and  professor  of  theology 
in  Zurich,  1860,  and  in  Giessen,  1873.  He 
was  essentially  a  historian.  A  series  of 
monographs  (1851-60)  on  the  history  of  the 
Reformation  in  Suabia  attracted  great  atten- 
tion. But  after  settling  at  Zurich  he  changed 
his  field.  He  concentrated  his  energy  on 
the  origin  of  Christianity,  more  especially  on 
the  life  of  Christ,  and  here  he  produced  some- 
thing decisive,  the  standard  representation 
from  his  standpoint— rationalistic,  but  with 
deep  roots  down  in  a  tender  conscience,  and 
with  reverence.  The  first  monograph.  Die 
menschliche  Entwickelung  Jesu  Ghristi,  ap- 
peared, Zurich,  1860  ;  then  followed  Die  ge- 
scMchtliche  Wilrde  Jesu,  Zurich,  1864,  and  Der 
geschichtliche  Christus,  Zurich,  1865,  3d  ed., 
1866  ;  and  finally  came  Jesu  of  Nazareth  and 
the  National  Life  of  Israel,  Zurich,  1867-72, 
3  vols.,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1873-82,  6  vols. 
He  published  also  Predigten,  Stuttgart,  1861- 
62,  2  vols. ;  Aus  detn  UrchristenMinri ,  Zurich, 
1878.  To  his  Rom  ujid  das  Christentum, 
Berlin,  1881,  H.  Ziegler,  his  literary  executor, 
added  a  memoir  of  his  life.  C.  P. 

Keith,  Alexander,  D.D.  (  ),  Scottish 

Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Keith  Hall,  Aberdeen- 
shire, 1791  ;  d.  at  Buxton,  32  m.  n.w.  of 
Derby,  Feb.  7,  1880.  He  became  minister  of 
St.  Cyrus,  Kincarolineshire,  in  1816,  but  de- 
voted most  of  his  life  to  literary  pursuits. 
His  Evidence  of  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Re- 
ligion, derived  from  the  Literal  Fulfilment  of 
Prophecy,  Edinburgh,  1824,  was  extremely 
popular,  and  drew  largely  on  the  accounts  of 
recent  travellers  in  Bible  lands.  Of  similar 
general  character,  but  less  eminently  success- 
ful, were  Signs  of  the  Times,  1832,  2  vols.  ; 
Demonstration  of  the  Trtith  of  Christianity, 
1838  ;  The  Land  of  Israel,  1843  ;  Harmony 
of  Prophecy,  1851  ;  and  History  and  Destine 
of  the  World  and  of  the  Church,  1861.  Hy 
also  published  replies  to  Elliott's  Horw  Apoca- 
lypticcB  and  to  some  parts  of  Stanley's  Sinai 
and  Palestine.  He  was  one  of  the  committee 
sent  by  the  Kirk,  in  1839,  to  investigate  the 
condition  of  the  Oriental  Jews,  and  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Free  Church,  in  1843. 
F.  M.  B. 

Keith,  George,  a  •  Quaker  sectary  ;  b.  iu 
Aberdeen  about  1640  ;  d.  at  Edburton,  Sus- 
sex, about  1714.  He  was  educated  for  the 
Scottish  Church,  but  joined  the  Friends  about 
1664,  and  was  associated  with  Barclay  and 
Penn  in  defending  their  principles.  Impris- 
oned, 1684,  for  preaching,  he  went  to  America ; 
was  surveyor-general  of  East  Jersey,  1685-88  ; 
taught  in  Philadelphia,  and  disputed  with  the 
Mathers,  but  soon  attacked  the  beliefs  of  his 
coreligionists  as  unsound  ;  returned  to  Eng- 
land ;  was  denounced  by  Penn  as  an  apostate, 
and  condemned  by  the  Yearly  Meeting. 
Hereon  he  formed  a  body  of  "  Christian 
Quakers"  or  Keithians.  Entering  the  Church 
of  England,  he  was  sent  to  America  as  a  mis- 
sionary, and  in  1702-5  converted  and  baptized 
many  Quakers.  From  1706  he  was  rector  of 
Edburton.     Bishop  Burnet  pronounced  him 


KEIiLT 


(471) 


the  most  learned  of  Quakers.  His  Standard 
of  tM  Quakers  Examined,  London,  1702,  was 
an  answer  to  Barclay's  Apology.     F.  M.  B. 

Kelly,  Thomas,  Congregationalist  ;  b.  near 
Athy,  13  m.  s.  of  Kildare,  Ireland,  in  1769  ; 
d.  there.  May  14,  1855.  He  graduated  at 
Dublin  University  ;  was  ordained,  1792,  but 
inhibited  by  the  archbishop  of  Dublin,  and 
became  a  dissenter,  engaging  in  evangelistic 
work  and  building  many  chapels.  His 
Hymns,  which  appeared  in  at  least  8  editions, 
1804-53,  number  near  800  ;  they  are  simple 
and  fervent,  and  especiall}'  strong  on  the  ex- 
altation of  Christ  and  the  spread  of  his  king- 
dom. During  his  life  they  were  more  ex- 
tensively employed  than  those  of  any  other 
writer  of  the  present  century,  unless  James 
Montgomery,  and  many  of  them  are  still  in 
use.  F.  M.  B. 

Keltic  Church.     See  Celtic  Church. 

Kempis,    Thomas    a,   the    author    of    the 

famous  Imitation  of  Chnst ;  b.  at  Kempen, 
in  the  bishopric  of  Cologne,  1380  ;  d.  at 
Zwolle,  July  25,  1-471.  His  surname  was 
Haemercken  ("little  hammer").  His  father 
and  mother  lived  in  humble  circumstances. 
His  brother  John  was  a  friend  of  Gerhard 
Groot,  and  belonged  to  the  founders  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  (q.v.).  He 
established  the  monastery  of  Mt.  St.  Agnes 
near  Zwolle,  and  Thomas,  who  at  the  age  of 
13  had  gone  to  the  famous  school  at  Deveuter, 
was  transferred  here  in  1399.  Thomas  had 
already  gained  a  proticiency  in  the  art  of  writ- 
ing books,  and  the  povcrt}^  of  the  monastery 
kept  him  at  this  employment  most  of  his  life. 
Till  1406  he  remained  in  the  novitiate,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1414.  At  this  time  he 
wrote  the  treatise  upon  the  communion  which 
constitutes  the  fourth  book  of  the  Imitation. 
His  life  was  uneventful,  though  tilled  with 
busy  labors  as  preacher,  confessor,  copyist, 
writer.  Twice  he  was  made  superior  of  his 
monastery,  but  he  preferred  the  quiet  routine 
of  his  studies.  He  was  of  a  contemplative, 
spiritual  nature,  and  this  was  the  chief  source 
whence  he  drew  his  great  book. 

The  Imitation  itself,  which  arose  gradually, 
and  was  often  revised  by  the  author,  is  anon- 
ymous. It  is  composed  of  4  books  :  1.  Ad- 
monitions useful  for  a  spiritual  life.  2.  Ad- 
monitions concerning  inward  things.  3.  Of 
internal  consolation.  4.  A  devout  exhortation 
to  the  holy  communion.  The  division  into 
chapters  and  paragraphs  was  made  by  Thomas 
himself,  as  well  as  the  punctuation,  which, 
with  the  parallelism  of  the  sentences  and  the 
rhythm  and  even  rhyme  of  the  whole,  shows 
that  the  structure  of  the  work  is  poetic.  It 
should  be  specially  noted  that  it  was  not  de- 
signed as  a  book  of  devotion  for  Christians  in 
feneral,  but  for  the  inmates  of  a  monastery. 
Teither  is  it  a  treatise,  nor  the  logical  develop- 
ment of  a  theme.  It  is  rather  a  collection  of 
useful  suggestions  found  in  the  Scriptures, 
in  the  fathers,  particularly  Augustine  and 
Bernard,  in  the  cliussics  and  elsewhere,  which, 
illuminated  by  experience",  were,  with  tlie 
added  suggestions  of  actual  life,  loosely 
thrown  together  under  appropriate  heads  for 
the  advantage  of  the  brethren. 


Since  the  book  is  anonymous,  and  since 
Thomas  is  well  known  to  have  been  an  indus- 
trious copyist,  it  has  been  doubted  whether 
he  really  wrote  the  Imitation.  It  has  been 
ascribed  to  several  others,  and  particularly  to 
Gerson.  But  the  following  grounds  are  de- 
cisive for  Thomas  a  Kempis  :  1.  Direct  wit- 
nesses among  contemporaries,  of  whom  5  ex- 
pressly ascribe  the  work  to  him.  The  first 
collector  of  Gerson's  works  says  it  was  not 
Gerson 's,  but  Thomas's.  2.  Autograph  manu- 
scripts, of  which  one  at  least  has  corrections 
which  no  one  but  the  author  would  allow 
himself.  3.  Citations  which  mention  Tliomas 
as  the  author.  4.  Various  internal  reasons, 
such  as  the  citations,  the  Germanisms,  and 
similarity  to  other  writings  of  Thomas.  Its 
date  is  the  years  previous  to  1421. 

There  were  numerous  other  writings  of 
Thomas,  of  the  same  general  character,  and 
of  no  special  present  interest 

The  best  critical  edition  is  that  of  Hirsche, 
Berlin,  1874,  after  the  autograph  of  1441.  It 
lias  been  translated  into  many  languages,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  familiar  of  religious  ■works. 
The  only  edition  in  English  treating  it  as  poetry 
is  Musica  ecclesiastica  (anonymously  edited), 
London  and  New  York,  1889.         F.  H.  F. 

Ken,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1684),  bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells  ;  b.  at  Berkhampstead, 
Hertfordshire,  July,  1G37  ;  d.  at  Longleat, 
Somersetshire,  the  seat  of  Lord  "Weymouth, 
March  19,  1711.  He  entered  Winchester  Col- 
lege, 1652,  and  Oxford,  1656  ;  became  fellow 
of  New  College,  1657  ;  B.A.,  1661  ;  and  was 
ordained,  16G2.  After  holding  three  succes- 
sive livings  he  returned,  in  1672,  to  "Winches- 
ter as  prebendary  ;  here  he  wrote  his  hymns 
and  put  forth  his  Manual  of  Prayers,  1674. 
A  visit  to  Rome  in  1674  confirmed  his  Angli- 
can principles.  He  was  chaplain  to  Mary, 
princess  of  Orange,  1679,  and  to  Charles  II., 
1680,  who,  in  1684,  appointed  him  to  the 
vacant  see  of  Batli  and  Wells,  as  "  the  good 
little  man  that  refused  his  lodging  to  poor 
Nell  "  (Gwynn).  He  was  consecrated,  Jan. 
25,  1685,  and. soon  after  ministered  faithfully 
to  the  king  in  his  last  hours.  He  was  one  of 
the  illustrious  7  bisliops  who  were  committed 
to  the  Tower,  June  8,  1688,  for  refusing  to 
read  the  "  Declaration  of  Indulgence"  of 
James  II.  Refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  "William  and  Mary,  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  see  in  1691.  On  the  death  of 
his  successor,  Dr.  Kidder,  in  1703  he  was 
urged  to  resume  his  diocese,  but  refused. 
He  was  an  eloquent  preacher  ;  his  character, 
.says  Macaulay,  "  approached  as  near  as  hu- 
man infirmity  permits  to  the  ideal  perfection 
of  Christian  virtue. ' '  His  lofty  independence 
and  saintly  purity  have  kept  his  memory 
green  ;  his  morning  and  evening  hymns,  with 
itlieir  doxology,  have  been  familiar  to  every 
worshipping  assembly  for  near  200  years. 
His  Poems,  in  4  vols.,  appeared,  London, 
1721  ;  selections  from  them  exist  in  recent 
editions.  His  prose  works  were  edited  by 
J.  T.  Round  in  1  vol.,  London,  1838.  His 
life  has  been  written  by  W.  Hawkins,  Lon- 
don. 1713  ;  W.  L.  Bowles,  1830,  2  vols.  ; 
J.  L.  Anderdon,  1851,  2d  ed.,  1852;  and 
E.  H.  Plumptre,  1886.  2  vols.         F.  M.  B. 


EENDRICK 


(472) 


KERI 


Eendrick,  Asahel  Clark,  D.D.  (Union  Col- 
lege, Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1845),  LL.D.  (Lewis- 
burg  University,  Lewisburg,  Pa.,  1870),  Bap- 
tist ;  b.  at  Poultney,  Vt  ,  Dec.  7,  1809, 
graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton, 
N.  Y.,  1831  ;  professor  of  Greek  in  Madison 
University,  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  1832-50,  and  in 
Rochester  (N.  Y.)  University  since  1850, 
teaching  also  Hebrew  and  New  Testament 
Greek  in  Rochester  Theological  Seminary 
(Baptist).  He  was  a  member  of  the  New 
Testament  Company  of  the  Anglo-American 
Bible  Revision  Committee,  1871-81.  He  re- 
vised and  in  part  translated  Olshausen's  Com- 
mentary,  New  York,  1856-58,  6  vols.  ;.  trans- 
lated Moll  on  Hebrews  in  American  edition  of 
Lange's  Commentary,  1868  ;  revised  transla- 
tion of  Meyer's  Commentary  on  John,  1884,  etc. 

Eenite  {worker  in  iron).  A  tribe  of  Midian 
between  Palestine  and  Sinai.  Jethro  was  a 
Keuite,  and  he  and  others  of  the  tribe  settled 
in  the  Holy  Land.  Heber  and  the  Rechabites 
were  their  descendants.  Saul  and  David 
spared  them  in  their  raids  on  Amalek  (1  Sam. 
XV.  6,  xxvii.  10,  XXX.  29).  T.  W.  C. 

Kennet,  White,  D.D.  (Oxford,  17—),  bish- 
op of  Peterborough  ;  b.  at  Dover,  Aug.  10, 
1660  ;  d.  at  Westminster,  Dec.  19,  1728.  He 
was  educated  at  Westminster  and  at  St.  Ed- 
mund's Hall,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became 
vice -principal  ;  vicar  of  Amersden,  1685-1700  : 
archdeacon  of  Huntingdon,  1701  ;  dean  of 
Peterborough,  1707  ;  bishop,  1718.  He  pub- 
lished 57  works,  of  which  the  more  important 
treat  of  history  and  antiquities,  and  several 
refer  to  America.  He  was  in  his  later  years 
an  active  Low  Churchman.  His  life,  by 
W.  Kennet,  appeared,  London,  1730. 

F.  M.  B. 

Kennicott,  Beiyamin,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1767), 
Hebraist  ;  b,  at  Totues,  Devonshire,  196  m. 
w.  by  s.  of  London,  April  4,  1718  ;  d.  at  Ox- 
ford, Sept.  18,  1783.  He  passed  from  an 
humble  station  to  Wadham  College,  Oxford, 
1744,  and  won  a  fellowship  in  Exeter  College, 
1747,  by  dissertations  on  Trie  Tree  of  Life  and 
The  Oblations  of  Cain  and  Abel.  He  became 
keeper  of  the  Radcliffe  Library,  1767,  and  in 
1770  canon  of  Christ  Church  and  rector  of 
Culham,  Oxfordshire.  His  State  of  the 
Printed  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament 
Considered,  Oxford,  1753-59,  2  vols.,  won 
unfavorable  comment  from  Warburton  and 
Home,  but  attracted  much  attention.  In 
1760  he  issued  proposals  for  collating  all  He- 
brew manuscripts  of  the  Bible,  and  received 
subscriptions  of  nearly  £10,000.  During  9 
years  P.  J.  Bruns,  of  Helmstadt,  and  many 
others  labored  at  this  task,  and  over  600 
manuscripts  were  collated,  amounting  to  30 
folio  volumes  of  material.  The  Vetus  Testa- 
menium  Ilebraicum  c^im  variis  Lectionibus  ap- 
peared, London,  1776-80  ;  the  second  volume 
included  a  Dissertatio  generalis.  Kennicott 
followed  the  text  of  Van  der  Hooglit,  but 
neglected  the  vowel  points  ;  the  variations  of 
text  were  given  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  De 
Rossi  carried  the  work  further  in  Varire  Lec- 
tiones,  Parma,  1784-88-98,  4  vols,  and  a  sup- 
plement. F.  M.  B. 

Kenosis  {an  emj)tying),  a  theological  term 


of  constant  recurrence  in  Christological  dis- 
cussions. It  is  takea  from  the  words  of  the 
apostle  (Phil.  ii.  7),  "But  emjjtied  himself, 
taking  the  form  of  a  servant,"  and  the  ques- 
tion is  as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  this 
emptying.  In  the  17th  century  there  was  a 
subtle  controversy  between  the  Lutheran 
divines  of  Giessen  and  those  of  Tiibingen, 
whether,  as  the  former  maintained,  there  was 
a  kenosis  by  Christ  in  the  state  of  humiliation — 
i.e.,  an  entire  abstinence  from  the  use  of  his 
divine  attributes,  or,  as  the  latter  held,  there 
was  a  secret  use  of  them.  The  discussion 
came  to  an  end  in  the  disasters  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  But  it  has  been  revived  of  late 
in  another  form,  to  wit  :  whether  the  kenosis 
of  Christ  was  a  renunciation  of  the  use  or  of 
the  possession  of  the  divine  attributes.  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  the  possibility  of  the  lat- 
ter. The  subject  is  treated  in  the  Dogmatics 
of  Hodge,  Martensen,  and  Dorner,  and  with 
great  fulness  in  the  work  of  Professor  Bruce, 
The  Humiliation  of  Christ,  Edinburgh,  2d 
ed.,  1881.  T.  W\  C. 

Kenrick,  Francis  Patrick,  D.D.  (  ), 

Roman  Catholic  archbishop  ;  b.  in  Dublin, 
Dec.  3,  1797  ;  d.  in  Baltimore,  July  6,  1863. 
He  studied  at  Rome,  and  in  1821  was  ordained 
priest  and  sent  to  America  as  head  of  a  semi- 
nary at  Bardstown,  Ky. ,  where  he  wrote  Let- 
ters from  Omicron  to  Omega,  1828  ;  was  con- 
secrated, June  6,  1830.  as  bishop  of  Arath  in 
fartibus,  and  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Conwell, 
of  Philadelphia  ;  translated  to  that  see,  1842, 
and  founded  the  seminary  of  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo  ;  archbishop  of  Baltimore,  1851  ;  apos- 
tolic delegate  at  the  first  plenary  council  of 
the  United  States,  1852  ;  honorary  primate  of 
the  United  States,  1859.  He  wrote  several 
controversial  books,  and  in  Latin  Theologia 
dogmatica,  Philadelphia,  1839-40,  4  vols.,  2d 
ed.,  Mechlin,  1858,  3  vols.,  and  Theologia 
Moralis,  Philadelphia,  1841-43,  3  vols.,  2d  ed., 
Mechlin,  1859,  which  are  w-orks  of  authority 
in  his  church.  His  revised  and  annotated 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  English, 
New  York,  1849-51,  2  vols.  ;  of  the  Psalms, 
Canticles,  and  Book  of  Wisdom,  1857  ;  of 
Job  and  the  Prophets,  1859  ;  the  Pentateuch, 
1860  ;  and  the  later  historical  books,  1862, 
is  meritorious.  F.  M.  B. 

Kentigem,  St.,  apostle  of  Strathclyde  ;  b. 
at  Culross,  21  m.  w.n.w.  of  Edinburgh,  about 
516  ;  d.  at  Glasgow,  603.  In  the  traditions 
he  was  son  of  a  nun  and  grandson  of  a  pagan 
king  ;  his  other  name,  Mungo,  means  "  dear- 
est friend."  Going  to  Cathures  (Glasgow), 
he  won  fame  for  sanctity  and  was  made  a 
bishop.  Driven  thence,  he  founded  in  South 
Wales  the  monastery  of  Llanclwy,  afterward 
St.  Asaph's.  Returning,  his  see  was  for  a 
time  at  Hoddam,  Dumfriesshire,  but  finally  at 
Glasgow^  ("  the  dear  family"),  where  he  again 
restored  religion  after  the  primitive  pattern. 
His  day  is  Jan.  13.  F.  M.  B. 

Keri  and  Kethib,  better  Q'eri  and  K'thib, 
terms  employed  in  the  margin  of  Hebrew 
Bibles.  K'thib  {written)  denotes  what  is 
found  in  the  text  ;  Q'eri  {to  be  read)  indicates 
the  reading  which  it  is  supposed  should  be 
substituted  for  the  text.  T.  W^  C. 


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KIERKEGAARD 


Kessler,  Johannes,  h.  at  St.  Gall,  Switzer- 
land, 1502  ;  d.  there,  March  17,  1574  ;  studied 
theology  at  Basel,  but  decided  after  a  visit  to 
Wittenberg  and  a  meeting  with  Luther,  in 
1523,  not  to  become  a  priest,  but  to  go  into 
business.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  saddler, 
but  began  the  following  year  to  preach  the 
Reformation,  and  that  with  such  effect  that 
he  became  the  reforniator  of  his  native  city. 
In  1587  he  was  appointed  teacher  in  the  Latin 
school,  and  in  1542  pa.stor  of  St.  Margaret. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation  at  St.  Gall,  which  he  called  Sab- 
batta,  because  he  wrote  it  on  his  holy  days, 
and  which  others  have  called  "  the  good  con- 
science of  the  Reformation,"  because  it  is 
one  of  the  most  precious  historical  documents 
of  the  age.  It  was  edited  by  Gotzinger,  St. 
Gall,  1866-68.  His  life  was  written  by  Ber- 
net,  St.  Gall,  1826. 

Keys,  Power  of,  in  the  Roman  Church, 
the  power  ascribed  to  bishops  and  priests  of 
binding  and  loosing,  or  of  forgiving  sins  and 
imposing  punishments,  in  the  sacrament  of 
penance.  It  is  claimed  to  be  derived  from 
the  words  of  our  Lord  to  Peter  (Matt,  xvi, 
19)  and  subsequently  to  the  other  disciples 
(John  XX.  22).  For  a  long  time  in  the  ancient 
church  there  was  considerable  uncertainty 
in  the  application  of  these  passages,  but  they 
were  restricted  more  and  more  to  the  office  of 
the  church  in  administering  discipline  for 
sin.  Two  tendencies  early  become  traceable, 
which  reappear  in  the  church  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  which  have  not  disappeared  from 
the  Roman  theology  to  the  present  day. 
These  are  that  which  emphasizes  the  spiritual 
side,  the  necessity  of  repentance,  and  the  be- 
stowment  of  forgiveness  by  God  immediately 
upon  the  spiritual  exercise  in  the  heart,  and 
the  other,  that  which  emphasizes  the  ecclesi- 
astical side,  or  conditions  the  attainment  of 
forgiveness  in  some  sense  upon  the  offices  of 
the  church.  The  tirst  tendency  is  represented 
by  Peter  Lombard,  who  said  that  forgiveness 
was  bestowed  even  before  oral  confession, 
when  the  desire  for  it  tirst  rose  in  the  heart. 
The  power  of  binding  and  loosing  is  therefore 
only  the  power  to  declare  the  individual  loosed 
or  bound,  to  loose  before  the  church  him 
whom  God  has  already  loosed.  The  priest  is 
therefore  a  judge,  but  it  is  in  foro  ecclesice 
{i.e.,  in  the  Church's  place).  This  view  is 
held  by  a  number  of  distinguished  theologians 
to  the  Reformation  period.  On  the  other  side 
stands  Thomas  A<iuinas,  now  exalted  to  the 
position  of  teacher  of  the  church  by  Leo 
XIII.  To  him,  the  priest  was  judge  in  foro 
Dei  (i.e.,  in  God's  place).  He  has  power  by  the 
use  of  the  keys  to  remove  hindrances  which 
would  otherwise  bar  the  way  of  the  sinner 
into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  This  sacra- 
mental power  is  exercised  in  the  sacrament  of 
penance.  God  alone  forgives  sin,  and  peni- 
tence (contrition)  must  precede,  or  if  a  less 
degree  of  sorrow  is  present  (attrition),  it  is  in- 
creased by  tlie  sacrament.  Hindrances  are 
removed  and  grace  enters.  When  finally  the 
conditions  have  been  fultilled  and  the  satis- 
faction prescribed,  the  utterance  of  the  priest, 
'"I  absolve  thee,"  is  the  act  of  bestowmeut 


of  forgiveness  by  God.  Thus  the  judgment 
of  the  priest  is  an  absolute  one,  an  infallible 
judgment  of  God's.  But  by  the  peculiar  in- 
consistency of  the  Roman  theology,  which 
often  contains  within  it  the  most  irreconcil- 
able elements,  it  is  generally  acknowledged 
that  the  priest  is  not  lifted  to  the  plane  of 
infallibility,  and  hence  the  judgment  is  re- 
garded as  a  conditioned  one.  But  the  ten- 
dency of  the  Roman  Church  since  the  Council 
of  Trent  and  the  Roman  catechism  is  to  stif- 
fen the  ecclesiastical  system,  and  to  view  the 
power  of  the  keys  as  more  and  more  abso- 
lute. 

The  Protestant  churches  have  from  the 
first  generally  limited  the  power  of  the  kevs 
to  the  declaration  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins 
by  preaching  and  otherwise,  and  to  the  exer- 
cise of  church  discipline.  The  power  granted 
by  the  Saviour  was  the  power  of  govern- 
ment, so  that  what  the  church  does  is  not  a 
mere  empty  thing,  but  is  done  by  the  com- 
mission of  God,  and  thus  has  a  divine  validity, 
conditioned,  however,  so  that  not  every  act 
of  the  church  as  such,  but  only  those  which 
are  in  accord  with  the  divine  will  are  accepted 
in  heaven.  Yet  all  have  authority.  See 
article  Roman  Chukch.  F.  H.  F. 

Khan.     See  Inn. 

Kid'-ron  (black),  a  winter  torrent  and  the 
valley  in  wliich  it  flows,  east  of  Jerusalem. 
It  rises  li  m.  n.w.  of  the  city,  runs  between 
it  and  the  Mt.  of  OHves,  and  pursuing  a 
winding  course  through  the  wilderness  of 
San  Saba,  falls  into  the  Dead  Sea.  Its 
sides  are  full  of  tombs  ancient  and  modern. 
It  was  crossed  by  David  in  his  flight  from 
Absalom  (2  Sam.  xv.  23,  30),  and  by  our  Lord 
on  his  way  to  Gethsemane  (John  xviii.  1). 
T.  W.  C. 

Kierkegaard  (kyer -ke-gord),  Soren  Aaby, 
b.  at  Copenhagen,  May  5,  1813  ;  d.  at  the  same 
place,  Nov.  11,  1855,  having  never  left  his  na- 
tive city  more  than  a  few  days  at  a  time,  except- 
ing once,  when  he  went  to  Germany  to  study 
Schelling's  philosophy.  He  was  the  most 
original  thinker  and  theological  philosopher 
the  North  ever  produced.  His  fame  has  been 
steadily  growing  since  his  death,  and  he  bids 
fair  to  become  the  leading-  religio-philosophi- 
cal  light  of  Germany.  Not  only  his  theologi- 
cal, but  also  his  esthetic  works  have  of  late 
become  the  subject  of  universal  study  in 
Europe. 

As  a  boy,  Soren  Kierkegaard  was  weak  in 
health,  rather  morbid  and  precocious.  From 
his  father,  a  Jutland  peasant  and  woolhandler 
in  Copenhagen,  he  inherited  a  sharp  wit  and 
keen  insight,  together  with  a  large  amount 
of  melancholy,  traits  that  led  him  into  much 
trouble,  and  laid  him  in  an  early  grave.  In 
1830  he  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Copenhagen,  and  10  years  later  he  passed  the 
theological  examination,  but  neither  sought 
nor  ever  filled  any  public  ministry.  His  de- 
gree of  M.  A.  he  earned  by  an  essay  On  Irony, 
the  main  concept  of  his  future  philosophy. 
His  father  left  him  a  fortune,  which  enabled 
him  to  live  in  independent  and  elegant  retire- 
ment.    But  he  was  mo:?t  literally  alone  in  the 


KIERKEGAARD 


(474) 


KIERKEGAARD 


world  ;  as  he  said  himself,  "  Knowing  all,  I 
am  known  by  nobody. ' '  He  was  never  mar- 
ried, though  for  a  few  months  engaged. 

Soren  Kierkegaard's  writings  abound  in 
psychological  observations  and  experiences, 
great  penetration  and  dexterous  experimenta- 
tions, all  of  which  enable  him  to  speak  of  that 
which  but  few  know  and  fewer  still  can  ex- 
press. His  diction  is  noble,  his  dialectics  re- 
fined and  brilliant  ;  scarcely  a  page  of  his 
can  be  found  which  is  not  rich  in  poetic  senti- 
ment aud  passionate  though  pure  enthusi- 
asm. It  is  generally  conceded  that  his  literary 
productions  overflow  with  intellectual  won- 
ders, still  it  must  be  said  that  he  is  often 
more  fascinating  and  seductive  than  convinc- 
ing. 

He  defined  his  task  to  be  "  to  call  attention 
to  Christianity,"  to  make  himself  an  instru- 
ment to  summon  people  to  the  truly  Human. 
Ideal  or  true  Christianity,  so  little  known,  as 
he  claimed,  and  to  which  he  wanted  to  call 
attention,  is  neither  a  theory,  scientific  or 
otherwise,  but  a  life  and  a  mode  of  existence  ; 
a  life  which  nature  can  neither  define  nor 
teach.  It  is  an  existence  rooted  wholly  in  the 
beyond,  though  it  must  be  realized  in  actual 
life.  Christian  truth  is  not  and  cannot  be 
the  subject  of  science,  for  it  is  not  objective, 
but  purely  subjective.  He  does  not  deny  the 
value  of  objective  science  ;  he  admits  its  use 
and  necessity  in  a  real  world,  but  he  utterly 
discards  any  claims  it  may  lay  to  the  spiritual 
relations  of  the  Christian— relations  which 
are  and  can  be  only  subjective,  personal,  and 
individual.  Defined,  his  perception  is  this, 
"  Subjectivity  is  the  truth"— a  doubtful  prop- 
osition, and  only  true  with  regard  to  the  One 
who  could  say  about  himself,  "I  am  the 
truth."  Rightly  understood,  it  is  the  specula- 
tive principle  of  Protestantism  ;  but  wrongly 
conceived,  it-  leads  to  a  denial  of  the  church 
idea.  However,  the  main  element  of  this 
philosophy  would  not  have  met  with  any  de- 
termined opposition  had  Kierkegaard  moder- 
ated his  language.  As  it  was  he  defiantly  de- 
clared war  against  all  speculation  as  a  source 
of  Christianity,  and  opposed  those  who  seek 
to  speculate  on  faith— as  was  the  case  in  his 
day  and  before — thereby  striving  to  get  an  in- 
sight into  the  truths  of  revelation.  Specula- 
tion, he  claimed,  leads  to  "  a  fall,"  and  to  a 
falsification  of  the  truth.  He  would  protect 
faith  from  speculation  by  declaring  it  to  be 
beyond  reasoning,  because  it  is  "  absurd  ' ' 
or  even  '' dimnely  absurd"  {credo,  quia  ab- 
surdum  est),  as  he  said.  Again,  he  declared 
that  Christianity  is  "  the  absolute  paradox," 
which  must  be  beheved  in  defiance  of  all  rea- 
son, "in  virtue  of  the  absurd."  Here  he 
gave  offence,  and  so  he  did,  too,  when  he 
propounded  his  method  of  arriving  at  Chris- 
tian truth.  In  answering  that  to  him  mo- 
mentous question.  How  do  I  become  a  Chris- 
tian ?  he  does  not  point  directly  to  faith 
and  the  imitation  of  Christ,  but  proposes  the 
Socratic  method  of  "betrayal  into  truth." 
"  It  is  just  a  Socrates  of  which  this  world, 
perplexed  by  its  great  knowledge,  stands  in 
need,"  to  help  it  to  turn  against  speculation, 
"to  make  difficulties,"  to  disperse  all  imag- 
inary knowledge,  and  to  evoke  soberness. 


He  was  right  enough  when  he  insisted  upon 
the  category  of  ' '  the  individual  ' '  in  opposi- 
tion to  Pantheism  and  the  dead  Churchism  of 
his  day.  Without  personal  relationship,  the 
cause  of  Christianity  falls  to  the  ground. 
"  Every  one  must  navigate  the  sea  of  this 
world  in  his  own  little  kajak  ;"  to  be  saved 
' '  one  must  embark  in  the  vessel  of  his  own 
individuality  ;"  but  he  denies  the  church  idea 
and  leads  us  a.stray  when  he  says,  "  Every 
human  being  of  earnest  mind,  who  knows 
what  edification  means— -every  one,  whatever 
else  they  may  be,  high  or  low,  wise  or  sim- 
ple, man  or  woman— every  one  who  has  felt 
the  power  of  edification,  or  God  present  with 
them,  will  grant  me  unconditionally  that  it 
is  impossible  to  edify  or  to  be  edified  e7i 
masse;  edification  yet  more  than  love  can 
only  bear  relation  to  the  individual — the  in- 
dividual, not  in  the  sense  of  the  distinguished 
and  specially  endowed,  but  the  individual  in 
the  sense  in  which  every  one  ought  and  can 
be  such,  in  which  he  must  place  his  honor- 
nay,  his  salvation,  on  attaining."  He  de- 
stroys all  ministry,  and  makes  Christ  the 
saviour  of  the  individual  only,  overlooking 
both  the  church  and  the  world  when  he  says, 
"  The  individual — this  category  has  only  been 
employed  once  before,  the  first  time  in  a  de- 
cidedly dialectic  manner  by  Socrates  in  order 
to  overthrow  paganism.  In  Christianity,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  employed  this  sec- 
ond time  to  make  men  (i.e.,  nominal  Chris- 
tians) real  followers  of  Christ.  It  is  not  the 
category  of  the  missionary  in  regard  to  the 
heathien  which  he  announces  to  the  Christian 
world  ;  but  it  is  the  missionary's  category 
within  Christendom  itself  to  reintroduce 
Christianity  into  Christendom. ' ' 

His  one-sided  interest  in  "  the  individual  " 
led  him  to  a  false  position  in  regard  to  the 
established  state  church,  or,  as  he  called  it, 
"  ofticial  Christianity,"  which  was,  as  he  re- 
peatedly declared,  "  a  vast  deception."  It 
also  made  him  antagonistic  to  church  people 
at  large,  "  the  thousands  of  people  who  call 
themselves  Christians,  but  have  their  lives  in 
entirely  different  categories."  During  the 
last  few  years  of  his  life  he  became  quite  vio- 
lent in  his  denunciations,  particularly  so 
after  the  funeral  of  Bishop  Mynster,  a  man 
and  a  minister  of  no  remarkable  qualities, 
whom  Bishop  Martensen  extravagantly  char- 
acterized as  a  "  witness  of  truth."  In  a  peri- 
odical, The  Moment,  established  and  owned 
by  Kierkegaard  he  overdid  himself,  and  made 
himself  the  laughing  stock  of  many.  In  the 
most  extraordinary  language  he  abused  the 
clergy  for  their  easy-going  ways,  for  making  a 
"living  out  of  the  wounds  and  bruises  of 
Christ,"  and  took  them  to  task  for  their 
hypocrisy  aud  betrayal  of  the  cause  of  Christ. 
In  the  same  paper  he  also  frequently  wrote 
about  "the  dreadful  error"  to  suppose  that 
"because  one  outwardly  is  within  the  vessel 
of  the  church,  outwardly  belongs  to  the  com- 
nnmity  of  the  true  church,  he  therefore  has 
an  insurance  upon  eternal  bliss." 

Soren  Kierkegaard's  influence  was  good  in 
many  ways,  but  he  never  had  the  effect  he 
expected,  and  died  a  disappointed  man.  He 
did  cause  many  to  ask  about  Christ  and  the 


KIMOHI 


(475) 


KING 


living  ways  ;  he  also  influenced  the  clergy  for 
the  better  ;  but  it  can  be  said  on  good  evidences 
that  he  did  a  great  deal  of  harm,  too.  Hia 
characterizations  of  Christianity  as  a  "  para- 
dox" and  "  an  absurdity,"  and  of  the  Church 
asa  "  vast  deception,"  became  the  stumbling- 
block  for  man}',  and  caused  much  suffering 
and  offence.  Tiie  use  one  of  his  followers 
and  a  teacher  in  the  university,  the  late  Pro- 
fessor Rasmus  Nielsen,  made  of  his  phraseol- 
ogy, set  an  absolute  barrier  against  belief  in 
many  a  student's  heart,  and  much  of  mod- 
ern Danish  infidelity  and  blasphemy  may  be 
laid  at  the  door  of  both  teacher  and  pupil. 
Many  of  his  works  have  been  translated  into 
German,  e.g.  Christenthum  u.  Kirclie,  Ham- 
burg, 1861  ;  Die  Lilien,  etc.,  Halle,  1877  ; 
Hoher  priester,  1877  ;  Einilbung  in  Chruten- 
thum,  1878  ;  Die  Krankheit  zum  Tode,  1881  ; 
Furcht  u.  Zittern,  Erlangen,  1882  ;  EntiDeder- 
Odei\  Leipzig,  1885  ;  Stadien  auf  dem  Le- 
bemioege.  1886 ;  Znr  PsycJiologie  der  Siinde, 
1890  ;  Lebe/i  und  Walteii  der  Liehe,  1890. 

C.  H.  A.  B.TEUREGAARD. 

Kimchi  (kim'-kee),  David,  a  Jewish  rabbi 
living  at  Narbonne,  Southern  France,  1160- 
1240,  of  whose  life  nothing  is  known, but  whose 
•writings  were  very  celebrated.  They  consist 
of  a  commentary  on  the  Psalms,  printed,  1477, 


at  Bologna,  translated  into  Latin  by  Janvier, 
Constance,  1544  ;  a  Hebrew  grammar,  edited 
by  Elias  Levita,  Venice,  1545,  and  by  M. 
Hechim,  Furth,  1793,  and  translated  into 
Latin  by  Guidocier,  Paris,  1540  ;  a  Hebrew 
dictionary,  also  edited  by  Elias  Levita,  Venice, 
1546,  and  Biesenthal  and  Lebrecht,  Berlin, 
1847,  and  translated  into  Latin,  1535  ;  com- 
mentaries on  Genesis  and  tlie  prophets,  of 
which  that  on  Zechariah  was  translated  by 
McCaul,  London,  1837.  C.  P. 

King,  a  title  which  in  Scripture  does  not 
always  denote  great  power  or  large  territory. 
It  is  applied  to  rulers  of  single  towns  (of 
whom  Adonizedek  had  "  70  "  under  his 
table),  like  the  sheikhs  of  modern  Arabs. 
Israel  had  no  kings  until  Saul,  but  was  gov- 
erned b\^  eklers,  as  in  Egypt,  bj'  rulers  ap- 
pointed of  God,  as  Mo.ses  and  Joshua,  and  by 
judges,  as  Gideon  ;  and  when  a  king  did  come 
the  government  was  still  a  theocracy,  as  the 
king  was  to  rule  according  to  God''s  laws. 
The  first  three  kings  were  Saul,  David,  and 
Solomon,  each  of  whom  reigned  40  years. 
Soon  after  the  death  of  Solomon  the  kingdom 
was  divided,  and  hence  there  are  from  that 
time  two  parallel  lines  which  are  given  in  de- 
tail in  the  table  that  covers  a  period  of  nearly 
400  years.  T.  W.  C. 


Kings  op  Judah 
all  of  one  dynasty. 

Kings  op  Israei, 
of  nine  dynasties. 

i 

Name. 

0  = 

r 

ri 

Name. 

o 

>• 

a 

Contemporary  Prophets, 
Kings,  and  Events. 

1 

3 

Rehoboam 

Abijah 

Asa    

Jehoehaphat 

'I 

41 

25 

8 
1 
7 
40 

29 

. 

16 
16 
29 

55 
2 
31 

8ino8 

11 
3roo8 

11 

975 
958 
9.55 

914 

885 
878 

838 

810 

758 
741 
726 

697 
642 
640 

609 

598 
688 

975 

954 
9.53 
930 
929 
918 

897 
896 

856 
840 
825 

784 
772 
771 

760 

758 

738 
729 
721 

22 

2 
24 

2 
12 
22 

2 

12 

28 

17 
16 
41 

12 
6mo8. 
1  mo. 

10 
2 

20 

8 
9 

Jeroboam 

Nadab 

1 

2 
3 

4,5 
6 

8 
9 

10 

11 
12 
13 

14 
15 
16 

\l 

19 

I. 

11. 
II. 
II.,  III. 
IV. 
IV. 

IV. 
IV. 

V. 

V. 
V. 
V. 

V. 

VI. 
VII. 
VII. 
VUI. ' 

IX. 

Shishak,  Egj-pt,  975-953. 

Eiah,  Zimri.... 

Lycurgus,  92.3-841. 
Ben-hadad  914-885 

Ahab.        .  . 

4 
5 

Ahaziah 

Jehoram 

Jehu 

Hazael,  8&5-845. 

6 

Ahaziah 

.\thaliah,  Usurper 
Joaeh .. 

Amaziah 

Uzziah 

Carthage  founded,  869. 

Shalmaneser  II.,  860-824. 

Jonah,  a30-815. 

AmoB,  800-784. 
Hosea,  786-730. 
Shalmaneser  III.,  783-773. 
Pul  invades  Israel,  770. 

8 
9 

Jehoahaz 

Jehoash 

Jeroboam  II 

Interreguum 

Zachariah 

Shallum 

Menahem 

Pekahiah 

Pekah 

Interregnum... 

Hoehea 

Capti\ity 

11 

Rome  founded,  754. 

13 

13 
14 
15 

Hezekiah  

Manasseh 

Amon 

Josiah 

Nabonassar,  747-7.31. 
Tiglath  pileser,  745-727. 
NaTmm,  720-698. 
Numa  Pompilius,  715-678. 
Sennacherib,  705-681. 

16 
17 
18 
19 

Johoahaz 

Jehoiakira  

Jehoiachin 

Zedekiah 

Captivity 

Zephaiiiah,  6.30-620. 
Jeremiah,  628-588. 

Daniel,  606-.5.38. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  605-562. 
Ezekiel,  594-576. 

T.  W.  C. 

KING 


(476) 


KINGS 


King,  John,  D.D.  (Oxford,  ),  bishop 

of  London  ;  b.  at  Wornall,  Buckioghamshire, 
about  1559  ;  d.  in  London,  March  30,  1621. 
He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  became  chaplain 
to  the  queen  ;  archdeacon  of  Nottingham, 
1590  ;  dean  of  Christ  Church,  1605  ;  and 
bishop  of  London,  1611.  His  Lectures  on 
Jotms,  Oxford,  1594-97,  had  great  celebrity, 
and  was  reprinted  in  vol.  with  Rainold's  on 
Obadiah,  in  NicoU's  series,  Edinburgh,  1864. 
F.  M.  B. 

King,  Jonas,  D.D.  (Princeton,  1832),  Con- 
gregationalist ;  b.  at  Hawley,  Mass.,  July  29, 
1792  ;  d.  at  Athens,  Greece,  May  22,  1869. 
He  graduated  at  Williams  College,  1816,  and 
at  Andover,  1819.  He  preached  for  a  time 
in  South  Carolina  ;  was  a  missionary  in  Syria, 
1823-26,  and. in  Greece,  1828-69.  'He  trans- 
lated into  modern  Greek  sundry  publications 
of  the  Tract  Society,  and  wrote  several  vol- 
umes in  the  same  language.  One  of  these, 
condemning  Mariolatry  by  citations  from  the 
fathers,  was  made  the  occasion  of  a  prosecu- 
tion by  the  local  church  authorities  in  1845. 
In  1850-51  he  was  again  attacked  for  preach- 
ing doctrine  contrary  to  that  received.  In 
March,  1852,  he  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  15 
days'  confinement,  and  banishment  from  the 
kingdom.  One  day  he  spent  in  prison,  and 
for  several  more  he  was  under  guard  ;  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  was  remitted,  and  in  1854  it 
was  revoked.  In  1863  the  Holy  Synod  of 
Athens  anathematized  him.  He  wrote  in 
English  7Wie  Oriental  Church  and  the  Latin, 
New  York,  1865,  and  other  books.  His  life, 
by  F.  E.  H.  H.,  appeared.  New  York,  1879. 
F.  M.  B. 

King,  Thomas  Starr,  Unitarian  ;  b.  in  New 
York  City,  Dec.  17,  1824  ;  d.  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, March  4,  1864.  After  supporting  him- 
self in  youth,  he.  in  1846,  became  a  Univer- 
salist  pastor  (as  his  father  had  formerly  been) 
at  Charlestown,  Mass.  In  Dec,  1848,  he  was 
installed  at  the  Hollis  street  Unitarian  church, 
Boston  ;  thence  he  passed  to  San  Francisco  in 
1860.  He  was  mainly  instrumental  in  keep- 
ing California  in  the  Union,  and  in  establish- 
ing there  a  branch  of  the  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion. By  his  eloquence  as  a  lecturer  and  his 
shining  qualities  as  a  man  he  gained  great 
reputation  and  many  friends.  His  only  publi- 
cation was  The  White  Hilh,  Boston,  1851  ; 
but  three  volumes  of  his  lectures,  etc.,  were 
gathered  after  his  death.  One  of  these, 
Christianity  and  Humanity,  Boston,  1877,  in- 
cluded a  memoir  by  E.  P.  Whipple.  A 
Tribute  to  his  memory,  by  R.  Frothingham, 
appeared,  Boston,  1864.  F.  M.  B. 

King,  WUUam,  D.D.  (Trinity  College, 
16—),  archbishop  of  Dublin  ;  b.  at  Antrim, 
19  m.  n.w.  of  Belfast,  May  1,  1650  ;  d.  at 
Dublin,  May  8,  1729.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  ordained,  1674,  and 
after  9  years  in  a  Dublin  parish  became  dean 
of  St.  Patrick's,  1688  ;  bishop  of  Derry, 
1691  ;  and  archbishop  of  Dublin,  1702.  As  a 
Whig  and  a  Protestant  he  was  imprisoned  in 
1688.  His  works  include  T?ie  State  of  the 
Protestants  in  Ireland  under  King  James,  Lon- 
don, 1691,  and  a  Latin  treatise,  Be  Oriyine 
Mali,  1702,  which  attempts  to  reconcile  God's 


goodness  with  the  existence  of  evil  ;  this  was 
answered  by  Bayle  and  Leibnitz,  and  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Bishop  E.  Law,  1731. 
His  celebrated  sermon  on  Predestination,  1709, 
has  been  held  to  maintain  the  dangerous  posi- 
tion that  the  moral  attributes  of  deity  differ 
not  only  in  degree  but  in  essence  from  those 
of  his  rational  creatures.  F.  M.  B. 

King's  Evil,  The,  was  a  century  ago  the 
common  name  of  scrofula  in  England,  and 
arose  from  the  belief  that  the  disease  could  be 
cured  by  the  touch  of  the  king.  The  first 
English  king  who  "  touched  "  children  was 
Edward  the  Confessor,  1042-66,  and  the  last 
was  Anne,  1702-14,  and  for  centuries  the 
belief  in  this  miracle  formed  ' '  part  of  the 
religion  attached  to  the  person  of  the  king," 
and  the  Prayer  Book  prescribed  a  special  ser- 
vice for  the  ceremony  up  to  1719.  The  same 
belief  prevailed  in  France  ;  Louis  XVI. 
"  touched"  a  child  at  Rheims  in  1775. 

King's  Daughters.     See  p.  988. 

Kingdom  of  God,  a  name  of  the  greatest 
institution  in  the  world.  Foretold  by  Daniel 
(ii.  44),  it  was  announced  by  John  the  Bap- 
tist (Matt.  iii.  2),  proclaimed  by  the  Lord 
Jesus  (Matt.  iv.  17),  who  explained  its  char- 
acter and  demands,  and  set  up  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  when  the  Spirit  was  poured  out. 
From  that  time  it  has  gone  on,  using  the  visi- 
ble church  as  its  instrument  or  training  school,, 
but  exerting  an  influence  on  all  forms  of  hu- 
man life  and  character,  and  preparing  the 
way  for  its  full  and  final  manifestation  in  a. 
regenerated  world.  It  will  be  perfected  in 
heaven  (Matt.  viii.  11),  and  will  never  cease 
(Luke  i.  33),  even  when  the  mediatorial  reign 
of  our  Saviour  is  accomplished  (1  Cor.  xv.  28). 
All  other  kingdoms  have  in  themselves  the 
seeds  of  their  own  dissolution,  but  this  one  in 
its  nature,  as  in  the  purpose  of  its  divine 
founder,  is  spiritual  and  eternal.     T.  W.  C. 

Kings,  The  Books  of.  In  the  Hebrew 
Canon  they  formed  one  book,  and  may  be  so 
treated,  as  the  narrative  is  unbroken.  Unlike 
the  books  of  Chronicles,  which  treat  only  of 
Judah's  kings,  these  contain  the  record  of 
both  lines  intermingled,  beginning  with  Solo- 
mon and  ending  with  Zedekiah.  The  author 
cannot  be  identified.  They  are  largely  a  com- 
pilation from  existing  documents,  yet  are  not 
a  haphazard  collection,  but  the  work  of  a 
competent  and  inspired  writer.  They  are  not 
a  mere  record  of  events,  but  an  account  of 
the  nation  in  its  relation  to  Jehovah,  its  right- 
ful ruler,  and  of  his  dealings  with  it  by  his 
priests  and  his  prophets.  The  annals,  there- 
fore, are  highly  instructive,  not  only  in  show- 
ing how  the  theocratic  promise  of  2  Sam.  vii. 
12  was  kept  in  the  preservation  of  the  Davidic 
line,  but  also  in  setting  forth  the  evil  of  de- 
parting from  the  living  God  and  the  wisdom 
of  uniform  obedience  to  his  will.  These 
books  are  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament 
(Luke  iv.  25,  Acts  vii.  47,  Rom.  xi.  2,  James  v. 
17),  and  the  latest  discoveries  in  ancient  his- 
tory are  in  striking  agreement  with  their  rec- 
ord. The  Moabite  stone,  the  temple  walls  at 
Karnac,  and  the  tablets  of  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lon all  bear  witness  to  the  truth  of  these  art- 
less histories. 


KINGSLET 


(477) 


KIRCHENTAQ 


Kingsley,  Charles,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Holne  vicarage,  Dartmoor,  Devonshire, 
June  12,  1819  ;  d.  at  Eversley,  Hampshire, 
Jan.  23,  1875.  He  entered  jVIagdalen  College. 
Cambridge,  1838,  and  iu  1842  graduated  with 
honors  and  became  curate  of  Eversley,  of 
which  he  was  rector  from  1844.  He  was  also 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge, 
1860-69  ;  canon  of  Chester,  1869  ;  canon  of 
Westminster,  1873,  and  chaplain  to  the  queen. 

His  versatile  talents,  his  untiring  energy, 
his  quick  and  wide  sympathies,  found  vent 
in  various  activities,  and  made  him  one  of  the 
most  prominent  and  influential  meu  of  his 
time.  A  diligent  and  brilliantly  successful 
autlior  in  several  fields,  an  earnest  and  gifted 
preacher,  a  zealous  reformer  and  philan- 
thropist, his  interest  extended  alike  to  science 
and  politics,  to  every  work  of  God  or  man. 
As  Dean  Stanley  said,  "  that  listening  ear 
seemed  almost  to  catch  the  growing  of  the 
grass  and  the  opening  of  the  shell."  With 
his  friend,  F.  D.  Maurice,  whom  he  followed 
in  theology  and  philosophy,  he  was  an  advo- 
cate of  "  Christian  socialism,"  eagerly  study- 
ing the  condition  of  tlie  working  classes  and 
seeking  to  improve  it ;  hence  his  earlier 
novels.  Often  accused  of  inconsistency  (as 
when  he  shocked  many  by  defending  Gov- 
ernor Eyre  of  Jamaica),  he  was  never  con- 
sciously inconsistent.  Not  a  deep  scholar,  he 
was  always  prying  into  and  beneath  the  sur- 
faces of  things,  and  finding  in  them  new  reve- 
lations of  God.  He  had  a  wonderful  gift  of 
realizing  keenly  what  he  saw  or  felt,  and 
giving  it  vivid  and  vivacious  expression  ; 
thus  he  was  a  powerful  interpreter  of  the 
thoughts  of  men  intellectually  greater  than 
himself.  He  abjured  the  distinction  between 
"sacred"  and  "secular;"  all  life  to  him 
was  God's  kingdom,  the  body  as  well  as  the 
spirit  ;  thus  his  lusty,  heartj^  natui'e  was  at 
one  with  "muscular  Christianity,"  and  his 
faith,  his  convictions,  are  as  prominent  in  his 
novels  and  poems  as  in  his  sermons.  He  was 
a  man  of  his  time,  intensely  feeling  and  re- 
flecting its  conflicts  and  aspirations.  He  grew 
somewliat  more  conservative  with  years  ;  but 
to  the  last,  wherever  he  went,  in  person  or  in 
his  books— with  tlie  queen's  children,  at  the 
Abbey,  or  in  liis  American  lecturing  tour  of 
1873-74— he  attracted  and  impressed  his  hear- 
ers. His  errors,  his  deficiencies  might  now 
and  then  repel  ;  but  his  sincerity  and  earnest- 
ness were  rarely  questioned. 

His  books  must  be  divided  into  several 
classes.  Poems :  Saint's  Tragedy,  1848  ; 
Andrwaeda,  etc.,  1858.  Fiction :  Alton 
Locke,  1849  ;  Yeast,  1851  ;  Ilypatia,  1853 ; 
Westward  Ho !  1855  ;  I'wo  Tears  Ago,  1857  ; 
Hereicard  the  Wake,  1866.  Sermons,  Tuider 
various  titles,  1846.  1852-54-55-59-61-63-66- 
67-72-74.  History  and  philosophy  :  Phnthon 
(a  Socratic  dialogue),  1852  ;  Alexandria,  and 
her  Schools,  1854  ;  Limits  of  Kract  Science 
Applied  to  History,  1860  ;  T/ie  llomaii  ami 
the  Teuton.  1864  :  The  Ancient  Regime,  1867  ; 
The  Jlermit.'i,  1869.  Juvenile  and  miscellane- 
ous :  Glaiii-iiH,  1854  ;  The  Heroes,  1856  ;  Mis- 
cellanies, 1859  ;  Water-Bahics,  1863  ;  Madam 
How  and  Lady  Why,  1869  ;  At  Last,  1871  ; 
Toum     Geology,    1872 ;    Prose    Idyls,    1873  ; 


Plays  and  Puritans,  1873  ;  Health  and  Edu- 
cation, 1874  ;  Lectures,  1875.  His  life,  by  his 
widow,  appeared  in  2  vols.,  London,  1876, 
and  in  an  abridged  American  ed.,  New  York, 
1877.  F.  M.  B. 

Kinsman  often  denotes  mere  relationship 
(Lev.  xviii.  12,  Ps.  xxxviii.  11),  but  the  He- 
brew word  GoEL  designates  one's  nearest 
male  blood  relative,  to  whom  certain  rights 
and  duties  belonged,  the  most  interesting  of 
which  was  the  privilege  of  ransoming  back 
an  estate  after  it  had  been  sold  by  repaying 
the  purchase  money.  Thus  Boaz  as  kinsman 
redeemed  the  patrimony  of  Elimelech  and 
married  Ruth.  The  term  kinsman-redeemer 
has  often  been  applied  to  the  Lord  Jesus,  who 
took  our  nature  iipon  him  and  so  became  kin. 
that  he  might  redeem  us.  T.  W.  C. 

Kip,  William  Ingraham,  S.T.D.  (Columbia 
College,  New  York,  1847),  LL.D.  (Yale  Col- 
lege, New  Haven,  Conn.,  1872),  Episcopalian, 
Bishop  of  California  ;  b.  in  New  York,  Oct. 
3,  1811  ;  graduated  at  Yale  College,  1831, 
and  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  1835  ;  became  rector  of  St.  Peter's, 
Morristown,  N.  J.,  1835  ;  assistant  minister  of 
Grace  Church,  New  York,  1836  ;  rector  of 
St.  Paul's,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1837  ;  missionary 
bishop  of  California,  1853,  and  diocesan 
bishop  1857.  He  was  by  appointment  of  the 
President  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Exam- 
iners in  tlie  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  1880.  and  in  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point,  N.  Y.,  1883.  He  is  the  author 
of  several  very  popular  works  :  Early  Jesuit 
Missions  in  JVorth  America,  New  York,  1846 
(now  in  5th  ed. )  ;  Early  Conflicts  of  Christi- 
anity, 1850  (now  in  4th  ed.j  ;  Catacombs  of 
Rome,  1854,  4th  ed.,  1881  ;  The  Unnoticed 
Things  of  Scripture,  1868,  3d  ed.,  1879  ;  Olden 
Time  in  New  York,  1872  ;  Historical  Scenes 
from  Old  Jesuit  Missions,  1875. 

Kirchentag,  Evangelischer,  is  the  German 
name  of  a  union  between  the  various  evan- 
gelical clmrches  in  Germany — the  Lutheran, 
the  Reformed,  the  United,  the  Moravian,  etc. — 
which  was  attempted  in  1848.  It  looked  at 
that  moment  very  much  as  if  the  relation  be- 
tween church  and  state,  hitherto  very  close  in 
Germany,  should  be  severed  altogether,  and 
as  the  evangelical  churches  would  liave  to 
face  at  the  same  time  the  onset  of  the  Ultra- 
montanes  and  the  attacks  of  the  Materialists, 
the  situation  was  very  grave,  and  combined 
action  seemed  to  be  the  only  escape.  Under 
the  pressure  of  these  circumstances  a  move- 
ment arose  which  residtcd  in  the  assembling 
of  the  first  Kirchentag  at  Wittenberg,  S^t. 
21,  1848.  More  than  500  delegates  from  the 
various  evangelical  churches  were  present, 
and  after  an  animated  debate  the  assembly- 
agreed  that  the  evangelical  cliurcli  communi- 
ties should  form  a  union  ;  that  this  union 
should  not  a.ssume  the  form  of  a  unity,  abol- 
ishing the  dilTerences  of  creed,  but  only  the 
form  of  a  confederacy  ;  that  the  confederacy, 
based  on  the  common  evangelical  principle  of 
the  confessions,  should  leave  each  church 
free  to  arrange  its  relations  to  the  state,  its 
constitution,  its  ritual,  and  its  doctrinal  sys- 
tem, as  it  pleased  ;  that  the  confederacy  as 


KIR-HARESETH 


(478) 


KITTO 


such  should  bear  witness  against  the  non- 
evangelical  churches,  defend  the  rights  and 
liberties  which  belong  to  every  evangelical 
church,  act  as  umpire  in  case  of  possible  con- 
flicts between  its  members,  etc.  The  union, 
however,  was  never  realized,  though  the 
Kirchentag  continued  to  assemlale  up  to  1872. 
The  strict  Lutherans  kept  aloof  from  the 
very  beginning.  In  1857  Stahl  and  Hengsten- 
berg  and  the  group  they  represented  retired  ; 
some  years  later  Schenkel,  Lipsius,  and  their 
group  did  the  same.  But  the  purpose  for 
which  the  union  was  to  be  formed  has  been 
to  some  extent  achieved  by  the  Church  Con- 
ference of  Eisenach,  which  assembles  every 
second  year,  and  consists  of  the  highest  eccle- 
siastical officials  of  the  various  evangelical 
denominations.  C.  P. 

Kir-Ha-re'-seth  {brick-fortress),  a  strong  city 
of  Moab,  situated  near  the  southeast  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  once  nearly  destroyed  by  Jo- 
ram,  king  of  Israel  (2  Kings  iii.  25).  It  is  now 
called  Kerak,  and  is  a  town  of  300  families. 
T.  W.  C. 

Kirk,  Edward  Norris,  D.D.  (Amherst, 
1855),  Cougregationalist  ;  b.  in  New  York, 
Aug.  14,  1802  ;  d.  in  Boston,  March  27,  1874. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton,  1820,  and  in  the- 
ology, 1825  ;  was  a  Presbyterian  pastor  at 
Albany,  1829-37  ;  travelled  abroad  and  at 
home,  1837-42,  as  secretary  of  the  Foreign 
Evangelical  Society  ;  pastor  of  Mount  Vernon 
Church,  Boston,  1842-71.  In  1856  he  went 
to  France  and  procured  the  erection  of  an 
American  chapel  in  Paris.  His  works  in- 
clude Sermons,  Boston,  1840  and  1860  ;  Lec- 
tures on  Christ's  Parables,  New  York,  1856, 
and  On  Revivals,  Boston,  1874  ;  two  hymn- 
books,  and  translations  from  Astie,  Lectures 
on  Louis  XLV.  and  the  Writers  of  his  Age, 
Boston,  1855,  and  Gaussen,  Canon  of  the 
Scriptures,  Boston,  1862.  His  life,  by  D.  O. 
Mears,  appeared,  Boston,  1877.       F.  M.  B. 

Kirkland,  Samuel,  Congregationalist  ;  b. 
at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Dec.  1,  1741  ;  d.  at  Clin- 
ton, Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  28,  1808. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton,  1765,  and  was  or- 
dained, 1766.  Having  learned  the  Mohawk 
tongue  at  E.  Wheelock's  school,  and  ac- 
quired that  of  the  Senecas  by  a  sojourn  among 
them,  he  was  for  years  a  missionary  to  the 
Six  Nations,  and  kept  the  Oneidas  friendly 
to  the  American  cause  when  the  other  tribes 
joined  the  British.  In  1779  he  was  an  army 
chaplain.  The  government,  in  1789,  rewarded 
his  services  with  a  large  tract  of  land,  to 
wh|ph  he  removed,  and  which  took  his  name. 
In  1793  he  founded  the  Hamilton  Oneida 
Academy,  from  which  grew  Hamilton  Col- 
lege. A  memoir  by  his  grandson  is  in  Spark's 
American  Biography.  F.  M.  B. 

Kirwan,  Walter  Blake,  dean  of  Killaloe 
(kil'-la-loo),  Ireland  ;  b.  at  Gal  way,  1754  ; 
d.  at  Killaloe,  Oct.  27,  1805.  Educated  a 
Jesuit,  he  was  for  a  time  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  Louvain,  but  in  1787  conformed  to  the 
Established  Church  ;  was  made  prebendary 
of  Howth  and  rector  of  St.  Nicholas,  Dublin 
(1788),  where  he  at  once  gained  great  note  as 
a  preacher  ;    became  dean,    1800,     His  Ser- 


mons,  with    a    memoir,    appeared,    London, 
1814,  2ded.,  1816. 

"  Kirwan"  was  the  pen-name  of  Dr. 

Nicholas  Murray  (q.v.).  F.  M.  B. 

Kir'-jath-Jear-im  (city  of  forests),  one  of 
the  4  Gibeonite  cities  (Josh.  ix.  17),  on  the 
border  between  Benjamin  and  Judah,  but  as- 
signed to  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  60).  Hither  the 
ark  was  brought  back  from  the  Philistines 
(1  Sam.  vi.  21)  and  remained  70  years  till 
David  removed  it  (1  Chron.  xiii.  5).  It  was 
repeopled  after  the  Captivity  (Neh.  vii.  29). 
It  is  now  Kuryet  el-Enab,  a  small  village  8 
miles  from  Jerusalem.  T.  W.  C. 

Kir  Moab.     See  Kir  Hareseth. 

Ki'-shon  (winding),  now  the  Nahr  Mukatta, 
a  river  which  drains  the  plain  of  Esdraelon 
and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  a  little  south 
of  Acre.  The  total  defeat  of  Sisera  (Judges 
iv.  7)  and  the  execution  of  the  priests  of  Baal 
by  Elijah  (1  Kings  xviii.  40)  took  place  on  its 
banks.  T.  W.  C. 

Kiss,  a  salutation  of  respect  and  affection 
used  in  most  nations  and  from  the  earliest 
times.  Usually  it  was  between  relatives  and 
near  friends.  It  was  a  token  of  condescen- 
sion (2  Sam.  XV.  3),  of  respect  (Luke  vii.  45). 
of  reconciliation  (Gen.  xxxiii.  4),  of  leave- 
taking  (Gen.  xxxi.  55),  of  homage  (Ps.  ii.  12, 
1  Sam.  X.  1),  or  symbolical  of  Christian  love 
and  fellowship  (IThess.  v.  26,  Rom.  xvi.  16, 
1  Peter  v.  14).  Images  and  the  heavenly 
bodies  were  worshipped  by  kissing  the  hand 
toward  them  (1  Kings  xix.  18,  Job  xxxi.  27, 
Hos.  xiii.  2).  In  the  Christian  Church  the 
holy  kiss  accompanied  social  worship  long 
after  apostolic  times,  and  died  out  with  the 
age  of  persecutions.  T.  W.  C. 

Kitto,  John,  D.D.  (Giessen,  1844),  a  layman 
of  the  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Plymouth, 
Dec.  4,  1804  ;  d.  at  Cannstadt,  Wiirtemberg, 
Nov.  25,  1854.  His  youth  was  passed  in 
misery,  and  three  years  of  it  in  the  work- 
house ;  at  12  he  totally  lost  his  hearing  by  a 
fall  while  assisting  his  father,  a  drunken 
stonemason.  In  1823  better  fortunes  began, 
for  he  attracted  the  attention  of  intelliffent 
and  humane  persons.  Mr.  Groves,  a  dentist 
at  Exeter,  employed  him  for  a  time,  and  in 
1825  sent  him  to  the  Church  Missionary  So- 
ciety Institution  at  Islington,  to  learn  printing. 
Thence  he  was  sent  to  Malta,  but  in  both  places 
his  zeal  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  was 
greater  than  his  devotion  to  his  duties.  In 
1829  he  accompanied  his  benefactor  on  a  mis- 
sionary journey  to  the  East,  serving  as  tutor 
to  Mr.  Groves'  sons.  In  Bagdad,  1829-32,  he 
acquired  the  knowledge  of  Oriental  life  which 
he  so  abundantly  utilized  in  his  books.  Re- 
turning he  married,  and  wrote  for  Charles 
Knight,  the  Penny  Magazine,  etc.  His  Pic- 
torial Bible  appeared,  London,  1838,  3  vols., 
8vo,  and  in  an  enlarged  edition,  1849,  4  vols. 
His  zealous  industry  was  further  shown  in 
Travels  in  Persia,  1838,  2  vols.  ;  Pictorial 
History  of  Palestine,  1841,  2  vols.  ;  Gallery  of 
Scripture  Engravings,  1841-43,  3  vols.  ;  His- 
tory of  Palestine  from  the  Patriarchal  Age, 
1843  ;  Pictm-ial  Sunday  Book,  1845  ;  Ancient 
Jerusalem,   1846 ;    Modern  Jerusalem,    1847 ; 


KIjEE 


(479) 


ENOX 


Court  of  Persia,  1849  ;  People  of  Persia,  1849  ; 
The  Tabernacle  and  its  Furniture,  1849  ;  Bible 
Histoi-y  of  the  Iloly  Land,  1849.  His  most 
popular  and  useful  productions  were  the 
Cydopmdia  of  Biblical  Literature,  Edinburgh, 
1848-45,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  greatly  enlarged  by 
W.  L.  Alexander,  1862-70,  3  vols.,  and  Daily 
Bible  Illustrations,  1849-53,  8  vols.,  n.e.  by 
J.  L.  Porter,  Edinburgh,  1866-67,  both  of 
which  he  edited  and  mainly  wrote.  The 
Journal  of  Sacred  Literature,  London,  1848- 
53,  11  vols.,  was  less  successful,  and  involved 
him  in  losses.  In  1850  he  was  pensioned. 
In  1851  his  health  began  to  fail  ;  in  Aug., 
1854,  he  went  to  Germany  for  rest,  and  there 
died. 

Dr.  Kitto  was  unsurpassed  as  a  popularizer 
of  biblical  knowledge,  and  an  example  of  the 
self-made  and  self-educated  man  who  strug- 
gles with  and  triumphs  over  immense  difficul- 
ties. His  autobiography  is  partly  given  in  a 
short  memoir  appended  to  his  first  book,  Es- 
says and  Letters,  Plymouth,  1825,  and  in  his 
Lost  Senses,  London,  1845.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  J.  E.  Ryland,  London,  1856,  and 
J.  Eadie,  Edinburgh,  1857  ;  rep.  New  York. 
F.  M.  B. 

Klee(clay),  Heinrich,  b.  at  Miinstermaifeld, 
near  Cobleutz,  April  20,  1800  ;  d.  at  Munich, 
July  28,  1841  ;  was  educated  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  seminary  at  Maj-ence  ;  ordained  a 
priest  in  1823,  and  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology and  philosophy  in  the  seminary  of  May- 
ence,  1825  ;  at  Bonn,  1829  ;  and  in  Munich, 
1839.  He  represented  the  orthodox,  tradi- 
tional standi)oint  of  the  Roman  Church  over 
against  the  Hermesians,  and  wrote  Die  Katho- 
lische  Dorjumtik,  ]\Iainz,  1834-35,  3  vols.,  4th 
ed.,  1861  (partial  Eng.  trans.,  J.  Treatise  on  the 
Church,  London,  1847)  ;  Lehrbuch  der  Dorj- 
mengeschichte,  1835-37,  2  vols.  (French  trans., 
Paris,  1848),  etc. 

Elopstock,  Friedrich  Gottlieb,  b.  at  Qued- 
liuburg,  31  m.  s.w.  of  Magdeburg,  Saxony, 
July  2,  1724  ;  d.  in  Hamburg,  March  14, 
1803  ;  was  educated  in  the  celebrated  school 
at  Schulpforte  ;  studied  in  Jena  and  Leipzig  ; 
lived  from  1751  to  1770  in  Copenliagen,  at  the 
court  of  Frederik  V.,  who  gave  him  a  pen- 
sion of  400  thalers,  but  removed  a  few  years 
after  the  death  of  the  king  (1706)  to  Ham- 
burg, still  enjoying  the  l)ani.sh  pension.  His 
great  work,  Messias,  an  epic  written  in  hex- 
ameters, appeared  in  parts  between  1748  and 
1780,  and  has  been  translated  into  Latin,  Eng- 
lish (London.  1763,  2  vols.,  first  complete, 
1814,  3  vols.),  French  (Neuchatel,  1795,  4 
vols.),  Dutch,  Italian  (Milan,  1838),  Polish 
(Pesth,  1872),  and  Icelandic  (Kaupmannahcifn, 
1834-38).  His  Odcn  nnd  FAcrjien  liave  also 
been  translated  into  English  by  W.  Nind, 
Loudon,  1847,  but  not  his  drama,  Die  Her- 
mannschlarht.  The  motive  powers  in  his  in- 
spiration were  nationality  and  Christianity  ; 
his  artistic  models  were  English— Milton  and 
Shakespeare.  Tiic  impression  he  made  on 
his  age  was  decisive.  AVitli  him  begins  mod- 
ern German  literature.  Of  his  collected 
works  there  are  numerous  editions.  There 
is  a  life  of  him  by  Doring,  Weimar,  1825, 
besides  monographs  on  every  event  of  his  life, 


from  his  valedictory  at  Schulpforte  to  his 
funeral  in  Hamburg.  C.  P. 

Knapp,  Albert,  b.  at  Tiibingen,  July  25, 
1798  ;  (1.  in  Stuttgart,  June  18,  1864  ;  studied 
theology  at  Tiibingen  ;  held  several  minor 
charges  in  the  country,  and  was  in  1836  trans- 
ferred to  Stuttgart  and,  in  1845,  made  pastor 
of  St.  Leonhard's  church.  He  was  one  of 
the  best  hj^mn-writers  in  Germany  in  this 
centur}'.  His  various  collections  of  poems, 
Ghristliche  Gedichte,  Basel,  1829  ;  Christen- 
lieder,  1841,  etc.,  contain  more  than  1200 
hymns  and  songs.  Many  of  his  hymns  passed 
immediately  into  the  hymn-books  ;  a  few 
have  been  translated  into  English,  e.g.  "  More 
than  all,  one  thing  my  heart  is  craving," 
Schaff,  Christ  in  Song.  (See  Karl  Gerok, 
A.  K.,  Stuttgart,  1879.) 

Kneeling.  To  bow  the  knee  means  to  wor- 
ship (1  Kings  xix.  18,  Isa.  xlv.  23,  Phil.  ii. 
10),  and  this  was  the  customary  posture  in 
prayer  (2  Chron.  vi.  13,  Dan.  vi.  10,  Acts  vii. 
60,  Eph.  iii.  14),  since  it  is  the  simplest  and 
most  striking  way  of  declaring  one's  self  in- 
ferior to  another,  and  expresses  both  humilia- 
tion and  dependence.  T.  W.  C. 

Knife  is  used  to  translate  4  different  He- 
brew words,  and  applied  to  all  cutting  instru- 
ments, whether  of  flint  (Ex.  iv.  25,  Josh.  v.  2) 
or  of  bone,  bronze,  or  iron.  Knives  were 
seldom  Tised  at  meals,  but  for  carving  sacri- 
fices (Gen.  xxii.  6,  10),  for  pruning  hooks 
(Isa.  xviii.  5),  as  lancets  (1  Kings  xviii.  28), 
and  for  sharpening  reed-pens  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23). 
T.  W.  C. 

Knobel,  Karl  August,  b.  at  Tzschechelm, 

in  Lower  Lusatia,  Aug.  7,  1807  ;  d.  at  Gies- 
sen.  May  25,  1863  ;  was  educated  at  Sorau  ; 
studied  theology  at  Breslau  ;  was  appointed 
professor  extraordinary  there  in  1835,  and  or- 
dinary professor  at  Gie.ssen  in  1839.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  Ecclesiastes,  Genesis, 
Exodus,  etc.,  and  Isaiah,  which  involved  him 
in  a  controversy  with  Ewald  and  occasioned 
him  to  write  Exegetisches  Vadeinecum,  1844. 

KnoUys,  Hanserd,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Chalk- 
well,  Lincolnshire,  1598  ;  d.  in  London,  Sept. 
19,  1091.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge 
and  ordaintd,  1629,  but  renounced  episcopac}' 
about  1636  and  joined  the  Puritans.  Under 
persecution  he  emigrated,  1638  ;  became  the 
first  minister  of  I)over,  N.  II.  ;  engaged  in 
controversy  with  the  authorities;  made  "a 
confession"  in  Boston,  and  was  dul)bed  "  Mr. 
Absurd  Knowless"  by  Cotton  Mather.  Re- 
turning to  England,  lie  endured  varying  for- 
tunes, and  for  a  time  was  a  refugee  on  the 
continent,  but  at  last  a  London  pastor.  He 
possessed  learning  and  elocjuence.  He  wrote 
The  Shilling  of  a  Flaming  Fire  in  Zion  (a  book 
in  defence  of  the  Baptists),  London,  1646  ;  Ru- 
diments of  Jlibirw  Grammar,  1648  ;  7'he  Life 
and  Death  of  J  I.  K.,  1692  (an  autobiography 
to  1672,  finished  by  W.  Kniffin).  A  society 
named  from  him  was  formed,  1845,  to  reprint 
early  Baptist  works.  F.  U.  B. 

Knox,  John,  Scottish  reformer  ;  b.  at  Gif- 
fordgate,   a    suburb    of     Haddington,    East 


ENOX 


(480) 


EOESTIiIN 


Lothian,  1505  ;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  24, 
1572.  His  father  was  of  medium  family  and 
estate  ;  his  mother  was  a  Sinclair.  He  stud- 
ied for  a  time  at  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
but  did  not  graduate,  and  became  a  priest 
about  1530.  Particulars  of  his  early  life  are 
lacking.  In  1543  he  was  still  in  Roman  or- 
ders ;  but  the  influence  of  his  friend  Wishart, 
who  was  martyred,  1545,  fixed  him  in  Protes- 
tant principles.  He  now  thought  of  going  to 
Germany,  but  being  dissuaded  by  Douglas  of 
Longniddrie,  to  whose  sons  he  was  tutor, 
took  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St.  Andrew's,  and 
there  preached  the  new  doctrines.  In  July, 
1547,  the  French,  avenging  Cardinal  Beaton's 
death,  took  the  castle,  and  Knox  became  a 
galley  slave.  Released  after  near  19  months' 
imprisonment,  he  repaired  to  England,  was 
favorably  received  by  Cranmer,  and  minis- 
tered at  Berwick,  1549-50  ;  Newcastle,  1551- 
53  ;  and  in  London  and  the  south.  Cited  by 
Tonstall  in  1550,  he  argued  against  the  mass. 
As  one  of  6  chaplains  to  Edward  VI.,  he  re- 
viewed the  45  Articles  of  Religion  drawn  up 
by  Cranmer.  Tlie  duke  of  Northumberland 
recommended  him  for  bishop  of  Rochester, 
but  Knox  did  not  desire  the  post.  (See  Dr. 
horimer's  Knox  and  the  Church  of  England, 
London,  1875.)  On  Mary's  accession  he  with- 
drew to  the  continent,  and  was  English  chap- 
Iain  at  Frankfort,  1554,  and  at  Geneva,  1555- 
59.  His  Faithful  Admonition  appeared  1554. 
Part  of  1555-56  he  spent  in  Scotland,  preach- 
ing in  Edinburgh  and  elsewhere  ;  either  then 
or  previously  he  married  Marjory  Bowes, 
who  died  1560.  Among  his  writings  of  this 
period  the  most  momentous  was  the  First 
Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the  Monstrous 
Regiment  of  Women,  Geneva,  1558.  Directed 
against  the  two  Marys,  this  imprudent  publi- 
cation so  incensed  Elizabeth  that  its  writer 
was  not  allowed  to  pass  through  England  on 
his  return.  Landing  at  Leith,  May  2,  1669, 
he  was  proclaimed  a  rebel  and  outlaw,  and 
joined  the  Protestants  at  Dundee.  His 
preaching  at  Perth  and  St.  Andrew's  resulted 
in  the  speedy  destruction  of  monasteries  and 
the  removal  of  images  and  pictures  from  the 
churches.  Returning  to  Edinburgh  in  June, 
he  was  elected  its  minister,  July  7.  From 
this  date,  or  rather  from  his  setting  foot  on 
her  shores  in  May,  his  history  is  that  of  Scot- 
land. Leaving  the  capital  with  the  lords  of 
the  congregation  when  the  queen-regent's 
army  entered,  he  travelled  through  the  coun- 
try, rousing  the  people  and  consolidating  the 
reforming  party.  The  next  year  he  was  again 
in  Edinburgh,  received  Protestant  ordination, 
bore  part  in  drawing  up  the  Confession  of 
Faith  ratified  by  parliament,  Aug.  17,  and 
the  Book  of  Policy  or  plan  of  church  govern- 
ment approved  by  the  General  Assembly  in 
December. 

The  Reformation  was  now  officially  estab- 
lished, but  its  troubles  were  by  no  means 
over.  The  young  queen  returned  from 
France  in  Aug.,  1561,  and  presently  held  the 
first  of  several  debates  with  Knox.  She  ex- 
erted her  fascinations  on  him  in  vain,  but 
with  more  success  on  the  Protestant  nobles. 
Foiled  by  his  bold  denunciation  of  their  apos- 
tasy and  of  her  papist  views  and  practices. 


she  said  to  him,  "  I  cannot  get  quit  of  you  ; 
I  vow  to  God  I  shall  be  once  revenged  !"  His 
personal  character  was  assailed  in  vain.  Ac- 
cused of  treason,  he  was  triumphantly  ac- 
quitted by  the  council  in  Dec,  1562  ;  "  that 
night  was  neither  dancing  nor  fiddling  in  the 
court."  In  1563  he  published  an  account  of 
his  dispute  (Sept.,  1562)  with  Kennedy,  abbot 
of  Cromagnel.  March,  1564,  he  married  Mar- 
garet Stewart,  daughter  of  Lord  Ochiltree. 
Darnley,  Mary's  husband,  took  offence  at  a 
sermon  delivered  in  his  presence,  Aug.  19, 
1565,  and  brought  Knox  again  before  the 
council,  which  forbade  his  preaching  while 
their  majesties  were  in  the  city.  "Within  two 
years  Mary  had  fallen,  and  Knox  preached  at 
the  coronation  of  James  VI.,  July  29,  1567. 
He  had  the  same  office  in  Dec,  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  parliament  which  ratified  the  Con- 
fession of  1560.  The  assassination,  Jan.  23, 
1570,  of  the  regent  Murray,  by  a  man  whose 
pardon  Knox  had  obtained,  afflicted  him  pro- 
foundly. In  Oct.  he  had  an  apoplectic  stroke, 
but  recovered.  Under  the  enmity  of  Kircaldy 
of  Grange,  governor  of  the  castle,  "  sore 
against  his  will,  being  compelled  by  the 
brethren  of  the  kirk  and  town,"  he  retired. 
May  5,  1571,  to  St.  Andrew's.  Aug.  23,  1572, 
he  returned  to  appear  twice  more  in  the  pul- 
pit— on  the  news  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew, and  on  the  induction  of  his  succes- 
sor, Nov.  9.  He  was  buried  in  St.  Giles' 
churchyard,  but  the  precise  spot  is  unknown. 

His  History  of  the  Reformation  in,  Scotland, 
begun  about  1560  and  mostly  written  1566, 
appeared  1586  ;  his  works  were  edited  by 
D.  Laing  in  Edinburgh,  1846-64,  6  vols.  His 
life  has  been  written  by  Dr.  T.  McCrie.  Edin- 
burgh, 1811-13,  7th  ed.,  1855  ;  W.  M.  Taylor, 
New  York,  1885,  and  in  German  by  Brandcs, 
Elberfeld,  1862. 

Many  varying  opinions  have  been  held  of 
the  Scottish  Luther.  Against  the  laudations 
of  his  admirers  and  the  tearful  tribute  of  his 
servant  Ballantyne — "this  man  of  God,  the 
light  of  Scotland,  the  comfort  of  the  kirk, 
the  mirror  of  godliness,  and  patron  and  ex- 
ample to  all  true  ministers"— may  be  cited 
the  partisan  verdict  of  the  Tory  sceptic 
Hume  :  "  His  political  principles  were  as  full 
of  sedition  as  his  theological  were  full  of  rage 
and  bigotry  ;"  and  the  horrified  outburst  of 
the  peaceful  scholar  Lecky,  who  calls  him 
' '  the  great  apostle  of  murder. ' '  So  Dr.  John- 
son hoped  that  he  was  buried  "in  the  high- 
way," and  Whitaker  pronounced  him  "  a  holy 
savage. "  But  he  was  a  man  of  his  own  time 
and  land,  which  were  somewhat  tierce  ;  the 
ix)litic  Cranmer,  the  mild  Melanchthon  could 
not  have  done  his  work.  The  least  courtly, 
the  most  pugnacious  and  unbending  of  the 
reformers,  he  was,  in  Carlyle's  words,  ''  a 
most  clear-cut,  hardy,  distinct,  and  effective 
man,  fearing  God,  without  any  other  fear." 
F.  M.  B. 

Koestlin,  JuliuB  Theodor,  Ph.D.,  Lie. 
Theol.  (Tiibingen,  1855),  D.D.  (hon.,  Got- 
tingen,  1860),  LL.D.  (hon.,  Marburg,  1883) ; 
b.  at  Stuttgart,  May  17,  1826  ;  studied  in 
Tubingen,  1844-48,  and  Berlin,  1849-50  ;  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  at  Gottingen,  1855  ;  or- 


iiOHATHITE 


(481) 


ERELL 


dinary  professor  at  Breslau,  1860  ;  at  Halle, 

1870.  His  standpoint  is  that  of  the  so-called 
orthodox  New  German  theolog}^  which  aims 
at  a  union  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
churches.  He  studied  Presbyterianism  per- 
sonally in  Scotland  in  1849,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  organization  of  the  new  consisto- 
rial  constitution  in  Prussia,  which  shows  Pres- 
byterian features.  lie  wrote  Die  srottiftcJie 
Kirche,  Hamburg  and  Gotha,  1852  ;  Luthcrs 
Lehre  von  der  Kirche,  Stuttgart,  1853  ;  Dan 
Wesen  der  Kirche  nach  d.  N.  T. ,  Gotha,  1854, 
2d  ed.,  1873  ;  Luthers  Theologie,  Stuttgart, 
1863,  2  vols.  ;  Martin  Luther,  sein  Lehen  loul 
seine  Schriften,  Elberfeld,  1875,  2  vols.,  3d 
ed.,  1883  ;  Luthers  Leben,  Leipzig,  1882,  3d 
ed.,  1883,  Eng.  trans.,  London  and  New 
York,  1883,  and  Philadelplna,  1883  ;  Martin 
Luther  (Festschrift),  Halle,  1883,  22d  ed., 
1884  (Eng.  trans..  London,  1883). 

Eohathite,  one  of  the  3  great  families  of 
Levi,  afterward  divided  into  4  branches 
(1  Cliron.  xxiii.  12).  They  bore  the  ark,  the 
altars,  the  tables,  etc.,  in  the  wilderness,  and 
•when  in  camp  their  station  was  south  of  the 
tabernacle.  They  attained  wealth  and  impor- 
tance, and  were  judges,  treasurers,  and  singers 
(1  Chron.  xxvi.  23-32,  2  Chron.  xx.  19). 

T.  W.  C. 

Kol  Nidre  {(dl  vows),  a  formula  uttered 
thrice  by  the  leader  of  worship  on  the  evening 
of  the  Day  of  Atonement,  indicating  that  all 
vows  and  renimciations  hitherto  made  are 
now  repented  of  and  pronounced  of  no  etiicacy. 
Lehmann,  Die  Abschaffung  des  Kol  Nidre, 
Mainz,  1863.  T.  W.  C. 

Eollegial  System,  or  Collegialism,  a  tech- 
nical term  developed  by  the  ecclesiastical  juris- 
prudence of  Germany,  and  denoting  a  theory 
of  church  polity  which,  in  contradistinction 
to  episcopalism  and  territorialism,  defines  the 
church  as  a  society  of  voluntary  members, 
collegium,  independent  of  the  state,  self-gov- 
erning, and  with  the  highest  authority  vested 
in  the  whole  body  of  members. 

Konrad  of  Marburg,  b.  at  Marburg,  a  town 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  in 
the  second  half  of  tlie  12th  century  ;  was 
killed  there,  July  30,  1233.  He  became 
noted  as  the  spiritual  adviser  of  St.  Elizabeth 
and  inciuisitor-gencral  of  Germany,  and  was 
the  best  hated  and  most  detested  person  in 
his  time.     His  life  has  been  written  by  Beck, 

1871,  Cuno,  1877,  and  Kaltner,  1882. 

Korahites,  descendants  of  Korah,  a  Kohath- 
ite  Levite  who  was  a  ringleader  in  the  rebellion 
against  Moses,  which  was  summarily  ended 
by  the  miraculous  opening  of  the  earth  to 
swallow  some  of  the  con.spirators,  while  others 
were  destroyed  by'  fire.  Korah's  children 
escaped,  and  became  prominent  in  the  temple 
service  (1  Chron.  vi.  22,  ix.  19).  To  tluin 
were  inscribed  .several  Psalms  (xlii.,  xliv.- 
xlix.,  etc.).  T.  \\.  C. 

Eornthal,  a  r(;ligious  conmiunity  in  Wiir- 
tembert:,  7  m.  from  Stuttuart,  was  founded 
in  1819  by  Michael  Hahn,  a  pea.sant.  G.  W. 
Hoffmann,  mavor  of  Leonberg,  and  other 
pietists.     By  a  "royal  edict  of  Sept.  8,  1818, 


such  a  community  was  allowed  to  form,  in- 
dependent of  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of 
the  state  government,  with  absolute  right  to 
manage  its  own  church  matters,  with  power 
to  expel  obnoxious  members,  etc.,  and  the 
following  year  a  number  of  families  ])ought 
an  estate  of  13,000  acres  at  Kornthal  and  set- 
tled there.  The  conuuunity  is  not  schismatic. 
It  accepts  the  Aug.sburg  Confession  with  a 
few  omissions.  The  chiliastic  views,  at  one 
time  very  prevalent,  have  nearly  died  out. 
It  manages  its  affairs,  secular  as  well  as  re- 
ligious, with  great  strictness,  and  is  very  pros- 
perous. See  Krapff,  Die  tcurt.  BrMergemein- 
den  Kornthal  und  Wilhelmsdorf,  Kornthal, 
1839  ;  Palmer,  Gemeinschaften  vnd  Sekten 
Wl'irtembergs,  Tiibingen,  1877. 

Krasinski,  Valerian,  b.  about  1780  ;  d. 
Dec.  22,  1855  ;  was  a  Pole  by  birth,  but  a 
Protestant  by  faith,  and  held  a  position  in 
the  department  of  public  instruction  in  War- 
saw, when  the  revolution  of  1830  broke  out. 
By  the  provisory  government  he  was  sent  as 
ambas.sador  to  England,  but  the  revolution 
was  so  swiftly  suppressed  that  he  never  re- 
turned. He  settled  in  London,  afterward  in 
Edinburgh,  and  published  7'he  Reformation 
in  Poland,  London,  1838-40,  2  vols.  ;  Re- 
ligious History  of  the  Slavonian  Nations,  Edin- 
burgh, 1851. 

Krauth,  Charles  Porterfield,  D.D.  (Penn- 
sylvania College,  Gettysl)urg,  1856),  LL.D. 
(Pennsylvania  College,  Gettysburg,  1874), 
Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Martin.sburg,  Va.,  March  17, 
1823  ;  d.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  2,  1883.  The 
son  of  an  eminent  professor  at  Gettysburg, 
he  graduated  there,  1839,  and  in  theology, 
1841  ;  was  pastor  at  Baltimore,  1842-47  ;  Shep- 
herdstown,  Va.,  1847-48;  Winchester,  Va., 
1848-55  ;  Pittsburg,  1855-59,  and  then  in 
Philadelphia  ;  editor  of  The  Lutheran,  1861- 
67  ;  professor  of  systematic  theology  in  the 
seminary  there,  1864-83,  and  of  intellectual 
and  moral  philosophy  in  the  Univer.sity  of 
Pennsylvania  from  1868  ;  vice-provost  from 
1873.  A  brilliant  wit  and  controversialist, 
he  was  the  most  accomplished  scholar  of  his 
communion  in  America.  He  bore  a  leading 
part  in  founding  its  General  Council,  and  was 
one  of  the  American  revisers  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Of  his  numerous  publications,  the  most 
important  is  Tlie  Cause rvatire  Reformation  and 
its  Theology,  Philadelphia,  1872.      F.  M.  B. 

Krebs,  John  Michael,  D.D.  (Dickinson, 
1841),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Ilagerstown,  ]Md., 
3Iay  6,  1804  ;  d.  in  New  York.  Sept.  30,  1867. 
lie  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  1827,  and 
in  theology  at  Princeton,  1830,  and  was  pastor 
in  Rutgers  street.  New  York,  1830-67  ;  per- 
manent clerk  of  the  Old  School  General  As- 
sembly, 1837-45,  and  its  moderator,  1845  ; 
director  of  the  Princeton  Seminary,  1842-67, 
and  president  of  the  board,  18()()  ;  meml)er  of 
the  J^nsbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  ]Mis.>>i()iis 
from  its  organization,  and  for  some  j-ears  its 
president.  He  wvota  Purpose  and  Success  of 
the  Gosju'l,  New  York,  1833,  and  sundry  other 
F.  M.  B. 


Gosj, 
books. 


Erell,  Nikolaus,  b.  at  Leipzig  about  1550  ; 
beheaded  at  Dresden,  Oct.   9,  1601  ;  was  in 


ERUDENER 


(482) 


KULTURKAMPF 


1589  made  chancellor  of  Saxony,  and  has  a 
place  in  the  church  history  of  the  country  on 
account  of  the  zeal  with  which  he  tried  to 
substitute  Calvinism  for  Lutheranism.  Sub- 
scription to  the  Formula  Concordiae  was  not 
demanded  any  more,  a  Calvinistic  catechism 
was  introduced,  Calvinist  preachers  found 
appointment,  and  a  new  edition  of  the  Ger- 
man Bible,  with  Calvinistic  notes  in  the  mar- 
gin, the  so-called  Krell's  Bible,  was  published. 
For  10  years  after  1591,  however,  he  was  im- 
prisoned at  Kiinigstein,  but  his  process  was 
principally  concerned  with  his  politics.  (See 
his  life  by  Richard,  Dresden,  1859,  2  vols.) 

C.  P. 

Kriidener,  Barbara  Juliane,  Baroness 
von,  b.  at  Riga,  Nov.  21,  1764  ;  d.  at  Karasu- 
Bazar,  Dec.  25,  1824  ;  was  married  when  14 
years  old,  but  separated  from  her  husband 
and  settled  in  Paris,  where  she  led  a  very  friv- 
olous life.  Suddenly  she  became  religious, 
but  that  did  not  prevent  her  from  continuing 
very  eccentric  and  extravagant.  In  1815  she 
became  very  intimate  with  Alexander  I.  ;  she 
gave  the  Holy  Alliance  its  name.  For  several 
years  she  exercised  great  influence  not  only 
on  him,  but  on  many  of  the  highest  social 
circles  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Russia. 
After  her  return  to  St.  Petersburg,  in  1818, 
Alexander  I.  felt  annoyed  at  her  eccentricities, 
and  banished  her  from  the  city.  Her  life 
was  written  by  Eynard,  Paris,  1849,  2  vols.  ; 
Sternberg,  Leipzig,  1856,  and  Ziethe,  New 
York,  1867.  (See  Sainte-Beuve,  Portraits  de 
femmes  and  Derniers  portraits.)  C.  P. 

Krummacher,  Friedrich  Adolf,  Reform- 
ed, b.  at  Tecklenburg,  July  13,  1767 ;  d.  in 
Bremen,  April  4,  1845  ;  He  studied  at 
Halle,  and  was  successively  pastor  of  Kett- 
wig,  Bernberg,  and  the  church  of  St.  Ansgar 
in  Bremen,  since  1824.  His  Parables,  Bremen, 
1805,  were  translated  into  English,  London, 
1844,  and  often  reprinted. 

Krummacher,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  son  of 

the  preceding  ;  b.  at  Mors  on  the  Rhine,  Jan. 
28,  1796  ;  d.  at  Potsdam,  Dec.  10,  1868.  He 
studied  at  Halle,  and  was  successively  pastor 
at  Frankfort,  Ruhrart,  Elberfeld,  and  Trinity 
Church,  Berlin,  since  1847,  and  finally  court 
preacher  at  Potsdam.  Several  of  his  collec- 
tions of  sermons  have  been  translated  with 
great  success  into  English  :  Elijah  the  Tish- 
Ute,  London  and  New  York,  1838  ;  The  Suf- 
fering Saviour,  Edinburgh  and  Boston,  1870  ; 
David,  the  King  of  Israel,  Edinburgh  and 
New  York,  1870 ;  also  his  autobiography, 
Edinburgh,  1871. 

Kulturkampf  is  the  name  generally  adopted 
for  a  movement  in  Germany,  which  took 
place  immediately  after  the  establishment  of 
the  empire  in  1871,  and  which,  although  on 
the  surface  it  looked  like  a  series  of  purely 
administrative  measures,  nevertheless  involved 
religious  interests  of  the  greatest  import. 

Everybody  felt  that  two  so  momentous 
events  as  the  promulgation  of  the  dogma  of 
papal  infallibility  and  the  reorganization  of 
the  German  Empire,  with  a  Protestant  prince 
at  its  head,  could  not  occur  contemporane- 
ously and  work  themselves  out  into  their  first 


consequences  without  clashing  together  ;  and 
Pius  IX.  was  neither  slow  nor  sparing  in  his 
denunciations  of  what  he  saw  must  come. 
Perhaps  this  somewhat  uncommon  outspoken- 
ness of  the  pope  acted  as  a  provocation  ;  per- 
haps the  commotion  which  the  promulgation 
of  the  dogma  caused  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Germany  acted  as  a  temptation  ; 
at  all  events,  the  first  moves  of  an  aggressive 
character  were  made  by  the  emperor  as  king 
of  Prussia.  July  8,  1871,  the  administration 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Prussia  by 
a  special  Roman  Catholic  department  was 
abolished,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
suddenly  saw  itself  represented  in  the  Prus- 
sian Government  by  a  Protestant.  Feb.  13, 
1872,  the  state  assumed  the  exclusive  right 
and  the  sole  power  to  superintend  the  schools 
and  educational  institutions,  public  and  pri- 
vate, within  the  dominion  of  Prussia,  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  schools  and  seminaries  sud- 
denly felt  themselves  at  the  mercy  of  a  Prot- 
estant minister  of  state.  These  specific  Prus- 
sian laws  were  rapidly  followed  by  general 
imperial  laws  of  the  same  description.  Dec. 
10,  1871,  the  German  clergy  were  warned  that 
any  interference  from  their  side  with  the 
affairs  of  the  state  was  liable  to  be  punished 
with  suspension,  discharge,  imprisonment, 
etc.  July  4,  1872,  the  Jesuits  and  several 
other  monastic  congregations  were  expelled 
from  the  empire. 

It  was  not  possible,  however,  to  go  further 
in  the  direction  indicated  without  altering  the 
Prussian  constitution  of  1850.  But  that  w^as 
speedily  done,  and  then  followed  the  so-called 
May  or  Falk  laws,  which  expelled  all  religious 
orders  from  Prussia  except  those  wdiose  sole 
object  is  to  nurse  the  sick,  regulated  the  edu- 
cation and  appointment  of  all  ecclesiastics, 
limited  church  discipline  to  purely  religious 
affairs  and  purely  religious  means,  made  civil 
marriage  obligatory  to  all,  allowed  a  member 
of  a  church  to  leave  it  by  simply  announcing 
his  intention  to  the  nearest  ju.stice  of  the 
peace,  ordered  all  church  property  to  be 
placed  in  charge  of  royal  commissionaries  in 
case  of  vacancies,  etc.  These  laws  were  met 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  with  decided 
and  stubborn  resistance.  Six  bishops,  who 
would  not  submit,  were  deposed  and  impris- 
oned by  tlie  government,  a  number  of  schools 
and  seminaries  were  closed,  and  many  con- 
gregations were  without  pastors.  The  resist- 
ance of  the  clergy,  however,  was  not  suffi- 
ciently supported  by  the  laity  to  be  of  any 
importance.  Very  little  serious  discontent 
was  felt  in  the  Roman  Catholic  districts,  the 
ultramontane  thunder  in  the  diet  rolled  away 
without  hurting  anybody,  and  the  fulmina- 
tions  of  Pius  IX.  in  his  allocutions,  calling 
the  old  emperor  a  second  Nero,  a  modern 
Attila,  caused  only  a  smile.  Nevertheless, 
long  before  Pius  IX.  died  it  had  become  ap- 
parent that  Bismarck  was  not  prepared  to  go 
any  further,  and  immediately  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Leo  XIII.,  1878,  he  turned.  The  rea- 
son was  that  the  May  laws  had  touched  not 
only  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  also  the  Prot- 
estant churches  in  Germany  ;  that  the  Protes- 
tant clergy  had  taken  alarm  throughout  the 
country,  and  that  Bismarck  was  as  poorly 


EUENEN 


(483) 


LA  CHAISB 


supported  in  his  position  as  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic clergy  in  theirs.  In  the  following  years 
several,  though  hardly  any  of  the  more  im- 
portant points  of  the  May  laws  have  been 
cancelled.  C.  P. 

Euenen,  Abraham,  D.D.  (Leiden,  1851),  b. 
at  Haarlem,  North  Holland,  Sept.  16,  1828  ; 
studied  at  Leiden,  1846-51,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  there  in  1853.  In  theology 
he  belongs  to  what  in  Holland  is  called  "  the 
modern  school, ' '  and  advocates  the  application 
of  historical  criticism  to  the  Bible,  especially 
to  the  Old  Testament.  He  wrote  Israel  to  the 
Fall  of  tlie  Jewish  State,  translated  by  A.  W. 
May,  London,  1874-75,  3  vols.  ;  Prophets  and 
Prophecy  in  Israel,  1877  ;  National  Religions 
and  Universal  Religion  (Hibbert  Lectures), 
London,  1883  ;  of  his  Ilistorico- critical  Inves- 
tigation into  the  Origin  ami  Collection  of  the 
Books  of  the  Old  I'estament,  Leiden,  1861-65, 
3  vols.,  2d  ed.  revised  and  enlarged,  1885  sqq. , 
the  two  first  chapters  were  translated  by  Bishop 
Colenso  in  his  Pentateuch,  London,  1865  ;  the 
2d  ed.  is  appearing  in  German  (Leipzig)  and 
English  (London)  translations. 

Kunze,  John  Christopher,  D.D.  (Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  1783),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at 
Artern.  Pru.ssian  Saxony,  Aug.  4,  1744  ;  d.  in 
New  York,  July  24,  1807.  Having  studied 
at  Leipzig,  he  taught  for  four  years  in  Ger- 
many, and  came  to  Philadelphia  in  1770  as 
third  collegiate  pastor  of  St.  TVIichael's  and 
Zion's.  In  1779  he  succeeded  the  rector.  Dr. 
H.  jM.  Muhlenberg,  whose  daughter  he  had 
married.  In  1784  he  removed  to  New  York, 
where  he  was  pastor  till  his  death.  He  helped 
to  found  the  University  of  New  York,  and 
was  for  a  time  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
in  Columbia  College.  Among  his  publica- 
tions were  a  History  of  the  Christian  Religion 
andof  tJie  Lutheran  Church,  and  the  first  Eng- 
lish Lutheran  hymn-book,  1795  ;  its  transla- 
tions from  the  German  are  curiosities. 

F.  M.  B. 

Kurtz,  Johann  Heinrich,  Lie.  Theol.  (hon., 
Konigsberg,  1844),  D.D.  (hon.,  Kosbach, 
1849),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Montjoie,  near  Aachen, 
Rhenish  Prussia,  Dec.  13,  1809  ;  d.  at  Mar- 
burg, April  26,  1890  ;  studied  at  Halle  and 
Bonn,  1830-33  ;  became  head  master  in  re- 
ligion at  the  Milan  gymnasium,  1835,  and  in 
1850  ordinary  professor  of  theology  in  Dorpat 
University,  whence  he  retired  in  1870  as  pro- 
fessor emeritus  and  settled  at  Marburg.  He 
wrote  The  BUjU  and  Astronomy,  Eng.  trans., 
Philadelphia,  1857  ;  Manual  of  Sacred  His- 
tory, Eng.  trans  ,  Philadelphia,  1855  ;  Bible 
History,  translated  by  A.  Melville,  Edin- 
burgh, 1867  ;  History  of  the  Old  Covenant, 
translated  and  annotated  by  Dr.  A.  Eders- 
heim,  Edinburgh,  1860,  3  vols.  ;  Text-book  of 
Church  History,  orig.  Mitau,  1849,  11th  ed., 
Leipzig,  1890;  Enff.  trans.,  i:dinhurgh  and 
New  York,  1888-90,  3  vols.  ;  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,    Eng.  trans.,  1863,  etc. 

Eyrie,  an  abridgment  of  Eyrie  Eleyson 
{Lord,  hare  mercy),  which  very  early  became  a 
fixed  formla  in  tlie  common  church-prayer  of 
the  Greek  Church.  Afterward  it  came  into 
use  among  the  Latins,  and  lias  been  retained 
in  many  Protestant  churches.         T.  W.  C. 


L. 

Labadie  (la-ba-de),  Jean  de,  b.  at  Bourg, 
near  Bordeaux,  Feb.  13,  1610  ;  d.  at  Altona, 
Holstein,  Feb.  13,  1674  ;  was  educated  in  the 
Jesuit  college  in  Bordeaux  and  actually  en- 
tered the  order,  but  left  it  again  in  1639,  and 
preached  in  Bordeaux,  Paris,  Amiens,  etc.  ; 
persecuted  by  the  Jesuits,  but  for  some  time 
protected  by'Richelieu  until,  in  1650,  after  the 
study  of  Calvin's  Institutiones,  he  embraced 
the  Reformed  faith.  He  was  successively  pas- 
tor at  Mortauban,  Geneva,  and  Middle])urg, 
but  there  was  a  tendency  to  separatism  in  hiS' 
nature  which  easily  disturbed  his  relations 
both  to  the  congregation  and  to  his  col- 
leagues. In  Middleburg  he  refused  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  Belgian  Confession  and  recog- 
nize the  authority  of  the  synod,  and  he  was 
consequently  suspended.  Finally  he  retired 
with  a  small  circle  of  friends  or  followers  to 
Altona.  His  writings,  La  frophetie,  1668  ; 
Manuel  de  piite,  1669  ;  Protestation  de  bonne 
foiet  saine  doctrine,  1670,  etc.,  were  trans- 
lated into  German  and  much  read  by  the 
Pietists  and  the  Moravian  Brethren. 

After  the  death  of  Labadie  his  followers, 
called  Labadists,  settled  at  Wienwert,  West 
Friesland,  and  at  one  time  the  flock  began  to 
increase.  Theoretically  they  differed  very 
little  from  the  Reformed  Church  as  instituted 
by  Calvin,  but  the  practical  ideal  they  pur- 
sued was  mediaeval  monasticism,  transp'lanted 
on  Protestant  ground  and  in  modern  times. 
Their  attempts  of  colonization  in  Surinam  and 
on  the  Hudson  came  to  nothing,  and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century  they  disappeared 
altogether.  (See  Berkiim,  Die  Labadie  en  die 
Labadisten,  Sneek,  1851,  2  vols.  ;  Heppe, 
Geschichte  des  Pietisnius  der  reformierten 
Kirche,  Leyden,  1879  ;  Ritschl,  Gesch.  d. 
Pietismvs  in  d.  ref.  K.,  Bonn,  1880).     C.  P. 

La'-ban  {white),  son  of  Bethuel,  grandson  of 
Nahor,  Abraham's  brother,  and  brother  of 
Rebekah.  He  at  first  showed  hearty  hospi- 
tality to  Eliezer  and  arranged  Rebekah's  mar- 
riage, but  in  his  dealings  with  Jacob,  his 
nephew,  exhibited  a  grudging  and  mercenary 
disposition  (Gen.  xxix.-xxxi.).  In  the  end  he 
was  outmatched  by  Jacob's  shrewdness,  and 
restrained  from  harming  him  by  divine  inter- 
position. T.  "\V.  C. 

Labarum,  a  Roman  militarj'  standard  be- 
longing to  the  later  empire.  It  was  composed 
of  a  banner  suspended  from  a  cross-bar,  and 
bore  the  effigy  of  the  general,  thus  being  a 
personal  standard.  Constantine  put  upon  it 
the  sign  of  the  cro.ss  (as  is  said,  in  consequence 
of  a  vision  or  a  dream,  in  whi(;h  he  saw  the 
(TOSS  in  the  heavens),  and  made  it  the  imperial 
standard.  He  also  put  upon  it  the  monogram 
of  Christ,  XP.  F.  H.  F. 

Labbe  (lab),  Philippe,  b.  at  Bourges.  Cen- 
tral France,  July  10,  1607  ;  d.  in  Paris,  March 
25,  1667  ;  was  a  member  of  the  Jesuit  order  ; 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  literature,  and 
wrote  75  different  works,  of  which  one.  Con- 
cilia, Paris,  1672,  18  vols.,  rep.  1728  at  Venice, 
is  still  used. 

La  Chaise  (shaz),  Fran9ois  de,  b.   at  Aix 


LAOHISH 


(484) 


LAFTTAU 


17  m.  n.  of  Marseilles,  Aug.  25.  1634  ;  d.  at 
Versailles,  Jan.  20,  1705  ;  was  a  member  of 
the  Jesuit  order  and  became,  in  1673,  con- 
fessor to  Louis  XIV.,  whom  he  allowed  to 
do  exactly  what  he  liked.  The  king  gave 
him  an  extensive  piece  of  ground  in  Paris,  on 
which  he  built  a  sumptuous  villa,  and  which 
is  now  the  famous  cemetery,  Pere  la  Chaise. 
His  life  was  written  by  Chantelauze,  Paris, 
1859. 

Ija'-chish  {invincible),  a  royal  Canaanitish 
'^^ity,  south  of  Jerusalem,  subdued  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  X.  8),  fortified  by  Jeroboam  (2  Chron. 
xi.  9),  besieged  by  Sennacherib  (xxxii.  9),  re- 
occupied  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi.  30).  Now 
identified  with  Tel  el-Hesy.  T.  W.  C. 

Lachmann  (lak-man),  Karl,  Protestant,  b. 
at  Brunswick,  March  4,  1793  ;  d.  in  Berlin, 
March  13,  1851  ;  studied  at  Leipzig  and  Got- 
tingen,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  phil- 
ology at  Konigsberg,  1816,  and  Berlin,  1827. 
The  object  of  his  critical  editions  of  the  Greek 
text  of  the  New  Testament  was  to  restore  the 
oldest  obtainable  text,  that  of  the  4th  century. 
His  life  was  wrilten  by  Hertz,  Berlin,  1851. 

Lacordaire  (la-kor-dar),  Jean  Baptiste 
Henri  Dominique,  b.  at  Recey-sur-Ource, 
Cote  d'Or,  France,  March  12,  1802  ;  d.  at 
Soreze,  Tarn,  Nov.  21,  1861  ;  studied  law  at 
Dijon  and  began  practising  in  Paris,  but, 
stirred  up  by  Lamennais'  Essay  siir  I'indiffer- 
ence,  he  entered  the  theological  seminary  of  St. 
Sulpice  in  1824,  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
1827.  After  the  revolution  of  1830  he  founded 
VAvenir,  a  journal  which  should  demonstrate 
and  explain  the  natural  and  necessary  connec- 
tion between  Romanism  and  radicalism,  and 
opened  a  free  school,  without  paying  any  re- 
gard to  the  privileges  of  the  University  of 
Paris.  But  the  police  closed  his  school  and 
the  pope  condemned  his  paper.  He  then  be- 
gan to  preach,  and  his  conferences  in  Notre 
Dame  made  a  sensation  unparalleled  in  Paris 
and  kept  up  for  many  years.  In  1840  he  en- 
tered the  Dominican  order  and  in  1848  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly, and  he  made  the  cowl  as  respected 
on  the  platform  as  he  had  made  it  awful  in 
the  pulpit.  But  when  he  declared  himself  an 
uncompromising  republican,  he  received  order 
from  the  Vatican  to  retire  from  politics,  and 
when  he  openly  and  vehemently  denounced 
the  coup  d'etat,  "he  received  order  to  retire  also 
from  the  pulpit.  The  last  years  of  his  life  he 
spent  as  director  of  the  school  of  Soreze  and 
provincial  of  the  Dominican  order  in  France. 
Within  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  he  repre- 
sented the  same  movement  which,  a  genera- 
tion later,  became  very  conspicuous  in  the 
Protestant  churches  of  America,  and  whose 
object  avowedly  is  to  infuse  fresh  blood  into 
the  religious  life  of  the  age  by  applying  Chris- 
tianity directly  to  the  questions  of  the  day, 
social,  political,  literary,  idustrial,  etc.,  and 
he  represented  that  movement  with  matchless 
eloquence  and  courage  to  spare.  His  col- 
lected works  were  published  in  Paris,  1872- 
73,  9  vols.  His  Conferences  Delivered  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  were  translated  by 
Henry  Langdou,  New  York,  1870.     His  life 


was  written  by  Montalembert,  1863  ;  Chocarne 
(Eng.  trans.,  by  Father  Aylward,  London  and 
New  York,  1867,  2d  ed.,  1878)  ;  Sidney  Lear, 
London,  1882,  n.e.,  1883,  and  Ricard,  Paris, 
1882.  C.  P. 

Lactantius,  a  Christian  writer  of  the  early 
4th  century,  of  Italian  (?)  origin,  the  place 
and  time  of  whose  birth  and  death  are  not 
known.  He  was  trained  as  a  rhetorician,  and 
was  engaged  in  this  profession  under  Diocle- 
tian in  Nicomedia,  when  he  became  a  Chris- 
tian. At  the  outbreak  of  the  Diocletian  per- 
secution, he  relinquished  his  professorship, 
and  after  much  distress  was  finally  made  in- 
structor of  Crispus,  son  of  Constantine,  in 
Gaul. 

Lactantius'  writings  in  the  service  of  the 
church  are  numerous.  The  greatest  is  his 
Divine  Institutes,  comprising  seven  books, 
written  in  an  elegant  Latin  style,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  commend  Christianity  to  the 
educated.  It  is  not  only  an  apology,  but  a 
real  institute  of  Christianity.  After  treating 
Of  False  Religion  and  Of  the  Origin  of  Evil, 
he  treats  the  heathen  philosophies  in  the  book 
Of  False  Wisdom.  The  fourth  book,  Of 
True  Wisdom,  treats  of  the  Christian  doc- 
trine of  God  and  Christ,  and  then  in  succes- 
sive books.  Of  Justice,  Of  True  Worship,  and 
Of  a  Happy  Life,  the  positive  ideas  of  Christi- 
anity are  further  drawn  out. 

Lactantius'  other  writings  are  :  On  the 
Wrath  of  God,  On  the  Workmanship  of  God, 
On  the  Death  of  the  Persecutors  ;  and  there 
are  one  or  two  others  ascribed  to  him  without 
sufficient  authority.  (See  for  original  edi- 
tions that  of  Fritzsche,  Leipzig,  1842  ;  Migne, 
Pat.  Lat.  VI.,  VII.  ;  and  for  an  English 
translation,  the  Christian  Literature  Com- 
pany, Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  vol.  vii.,  1886; 
Brandt,  JJeber  die  dualistischen  Zusiitze  tend 
die  Kaiseranreden  bei  L.,  Vienna,  1890.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Lacticinia  (Latin,  milk  dishes),  milk,  but- 
ter, cheese,  etc.,  including  also  eggs,  were  for- 
bidden during  fasts  by  the  Council  of  Laod- 
icea,  351,  and  the  Trullan  Council  of  692, 
and  the  rule  is  still  observed  in  most  East- 
ern Churches,  while  in  the  Western  Church 
abstinence  from  lacticinia  is  enjoined  only 
for  the  quadragesimal  fast  before  Easter. 

Lady  Chapel  is  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin,  and  generally  attached  to  the  eastern 
end  of  cathedrals  or  other  large  churches. 

Lady  Day,  March  25th,  thus  called  be- 
cause the  festival  of  the  annunciation  of  the 
Virgin  is  held  on  that  day. 

Laetare  Sunday,  the  fourth  Sunday  of 
Lent,  received  its  name,  Imtare,  "rejoice," 
from  the  first  word  with  which  the  introit  of 
the  mass  for  that  day  begins.  It  is  the  day 
on  which  the  pope  blesses  the  rose. 

Lafitau  (la-fe-to),  Joseph  Franqois,  Jesuit  ; 
b.  at  Bordeaux,  1670  ;  d.  there,  July  3,  1746. 
Coming  to  Canada,  1712,  he  was  a  missionary 
among  the  Iroquois  at  Saidt  St.  Louis  till  1717. 
Returning  to  France,  he  became  a  professor 
of  belles-letters,  and  wrote  Maeurs  des  Sauv- 


liAGARDE 


(485) 


LAMECH 


ages  Ameriqiiains,  Paris,  1723-24,  2  vols.,  and 
a  history  of  Portuguese  discoveries  in  the 
New  World,  1733,  4  vols.  The  former  aimed 
to  prove  the  Indians  descendants  of  the  jjre- 
historic  inhabitants  of  Greece.        F.  M.  B. 

Lagarde,  Paul  Anthony  de,  Ph.D.  (Berlin, 
1849),  Lie.  Theol.  (hon.,  Erlungen,  1851), 
D.D.  (hon.,  Halle,  1868),  German  Protestant  ; 
b.  in  Berlin,  Nov.  2,  1827  ;  studied  in  the  uni- 
versity there,  1844-46,  and  at  Halle,  1846-47  ; 
taught  in  schools  in  Berlin,  1855-66,  and  be- 
canie.  in  1869,  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Gottingen.  He  says  "he  accepts  nothing 
but  what  is  proved,  but  accepts  everything 
that  has  been  proved."  His  chief  labors  have 
been  in  linguistics,  especially  orieutalia,  and  he 
has  edited  texts,  mostly  biblical,  in  Greek, 
Syriac,  Arabic,  Hebrew,  Persian,  etc.  See 
list  in  Enci/clopo'dia  of  Living  Divines  (now 
called  vol.  iv.  of  the  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclo- 
prpdia),  to  which  add  Agathangelusu.  die  Akten 
Gregors  von  Armenien,  neu  hrsg.  1887  ;  Ueber- 
sicht  uberdieim  Arnmuischen,  Arabischen  und 
Hebrdisrhcn  ubliche  Bildung  der  Nomina, 
1889 ;  Ueber  einige  Berliner  Tlieologen  und 
teas  von  ilinen  zit  lerneii  ist,  1890. 

Laid  lie,  Archibald,  D.D.  (New  Jersey, 
1770),  Dutch  Reformed  ;  b.  at  Kelso,  Scot- 
land, Dec.  4,  1727  ;  d.  at  Red  Hook,  N.  Y., 
Nov.  14,  1779.  Educated  at  Edinburgh,  and 
ordained,  1759,  he  w^as  pastor  of  the  Scotch 
church  at  Flushing,  Holland,  till  called,  in 
1763,  to  be  the  first  English-speaking  minister 
of  the  Collegiate  Church  in  New  York.  The 
new  departure  excited  opposition,  which 
Yielded  to  his  talents  and  virtues.  He  left 
the  city  when  the  British  took  it.    F.  M.  B. 

Lainez  (ll-netli),  lago,  b.  at  Almancaris, 
Castile,  Spain,  1512  ;  d.  in  Rome,  Jan.  19, 
1565  ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Jesuit 
order  (see  Ignatius  Loyola),  and  became  its 
second- general  in  1557.  He  exercised  consid- 
erable iniiueuce  on  the  development  of  the 
order,  as  also  through  his  manipulation  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  on  the  general  history 
of  the  church.  His  life  was  written  by  Riba- 
deneira,  Madrid.  1592  ;  French  trans.,  Michel 
d'Esne,  Douai,  1597. 

La'-ish  {lion),  a  place  on  the  wooded  slopes 
of  Bashan,  afterward  called  Dan  (Judges 
xviii.  7,  29)  because  of  the  settlement  there  of 
a  number  of  persons  who  came  from  the  tribe 
of  Dan.  The  reference  in  Isa.  x.  30  is  prob- 
.iblv  to  another  Laish  not  far  from  Jerusalem. 
T.  W.  C. 

Laity,  a  term  used  to  denote  the  body  of 
believers  as  distinguished  from  their  leaders. 
This  distinction  certainly  existed  in  the  New 
Testament  age,  for  elders  were  recognized 
(Acts  xiv.  23,  XV.  22),  and  Paul  in  his  earliest 
epistle  (1  Thess.  v.  12)  directs  the  brethren  to 
"  know  them  that  are  over  you  in  the  Lord." 
Of  course  all  believers  were  at  liberty  to  speak 
the  word  as  they  had  opportunity,  but  ofHcial 
instruction  and  the  administration  of  ordi- 
nances and  the  exercise  of  discipline  belonged 
to  the  pastors  and  teachers.  But  the  laity 
have  a  work  to  do.  In  all  Protestant  bodies 
they  are  represented  in  the  councils  of  the 
church  bv  their  delegates.     But  decencv  and 


order,  and  the  steady  advance  of  the  gospel 
ree^uire  that  the  dignity  and  responsibility  of 
the  clergy  as  ministers  of  Christ  and  leaders 
and  guides  of  the  people  should  be  carefully 
maintained.  All  believers  are  indeed  priests 
(Christ  being  the  only  atoning  or  sacrificial 
priest  in  the  New  Dispensation),  but  all  are 
not  rulers  or  teachers  (1  Cor.  xii.  29,  30, 
Ephes.  iv.  11),  nor  do  all  have  charge  of  the 
fiock  of  God  (1  Peter  v.  2,  3).  T.  W.  C. 

Lamaism  A  form  of  Buddhism  (see  India) 
prevalent  in  Thibet  and  Mongolia,  and  to 
some  extent  in  China  and  Japan,  so  called 
from  its  lamas,  celibate  priests  of  different 
grades.  There  are  two  Great  Lamas,  the 
Pantshen  and  the  Dalai  Lama,  the  second  of 
whom  is  the  ruler  in  Thibet,  and  is  known 
outside  as  the  Grand  Lama,  and  also  is  the 
spiritual  ruler  of  the  Buddhists  of  Mongolia 
and  China,  but  not  of  his  co-religionists  in 
Japan. 

Lamb.  I'he  sacrificial  type  of  the  atoning 
Saviour,  and  the  most  frequent  victim  in  the 
Jewish  ritual.  It  is  with  the  sacred  writers 
a  common  emblem  of  innocence  and  inoffen- 
siveness  (Isa.  xi.  6,  liii.  7,  Jer.  xi.  19). 

T.  W.  C. 

L£imb  of  God.     See  Agnus  Dei. 

Lambert  of  Hersfeld  l)ecame  monk  in  the 
monastery  of  Hersfeld,  in  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Hesse-Nassau,  32  m.  s.e.  of  Cassel,  in 
1058  ;  was  ordained  a  priest  in  the  same  year  ; 
made  afterward  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, 
und  wrote,  besides  two  other  works  which 
are  lost,  his  Annales,  edited  by  Hesse,  1843 
and  1874,  which  are  of  great  importance  for 
the  history  of  the  11th  century,  more  espe- 
cially the  period  from  1069  to  1077. 

Lambert,  FranQois,  b.  at  Avignon,  1486  ; 
d.  at  Marburg,  April  18,  1530  ;  entered  the 
Franciscan  order  in  1501,  but  afterward  em- 
braced the  Reformation,  first  in  its  German 
form  and  hiter  in  its  Swiss  ;  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of 
]\Iarburg,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Reformation  in  Hesse. 
His  life  was  written  bv  J.  W.  Baum,  Strass- 
burg,  1840  (German)  ;  F.  S.  Stieve,  Breslau, 
1867  (Latin),  and  L.  Ruffet,  Paris,  1873 
(French). 

Lambeth  Articles.  See  Articles  of  Re- 
ligion. 

Lambruschini  (lam-broos-kee-nee),  Luigi, 
Cardinal,  b.  at  Genoa,  May  6,  1776  ;  d.  in 
Rome,  May  8,  1854  ;  entered  the  order  of  the 
Barnabites  and  became  archbishop  of  Genoa 
in  1819,  and  cardinal  in  1831.  As  papal  nun- 
cio in  Paris,  1823-30,  he  was  one  of  the  sup- 
porters, if  not  the  very  instigator,  of  that 
policy  in  France  which  ended  in'the  revolution 
of  July,  1830,  and  as  secretary  of  state  to 
Gregory  XVL,  1836-45,  he  was  "the  leader  of 
that  policy  in  Italy  which  ended  with  the 
revolution  in  1848.  He  was  so  hated  in  Rome 
that  he  had  to  flee  for  his  life,  disguised  as  a 
groom. 

La'-mech,  (1)  the  fifth  lineal  descendant  of 
Cain  and  father  of  Jabal,  Jubal,  and  Tu))al 
Cain  (Gen.  iv.   18-24)  ;  (2)  the  seventh  lineal 


IiAMENNAIS 


LANFRANO 


descendant  of  Setli  and  father  of  Noah  (Gen. 
V.  25-31).  T.  W.  C. 

Lamennais  (la-ma-na),  Hugues  Felicite 
Robert  de,  b.  at  St.  Malo,  Bretague,  June  19, 
1783  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Feb.  27,  1854  ;  entered  the 
theological  seminary  of  his  native  city  in  1811  ; 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1816,  and  pubhshed 
from  1817  to  1825  his  Essay  sur  V indifference,  4 
vols.,  wliich  caused  a  revival  within  Roman- 
ism, prepared  for  a  breach  with  Gallicanism, 
and  formed  the  first  rallying  point  of  tlie 
Ultramontane  party.  The  pope  was  enthusi- 
astic for  the  book.  But  when  Lamennais  be- 
gan to  further  develop  his  very  radical  views 
of  the  true  relation  between  state  and  church, 
and  his  very  democratic  ideas  of  the  perfect 
organization  of  the  church,  the  pope  grew 
cold.  In  1833  he  condemned  VAvenir,  a 
paper  which  Lamennais,  Lacordaire,  and 
Montalembert  had  founded  with  the  purpose 
of  demonstrating  the  natural  affinity  which 
existed  between  Romanism  and  radicalism, 
and  in  1836  he  rose  in  a  towering  rage  against 
Paroles  d'un  croyant,  "  a  small  volume  of  huge 
perversity, ' '  which  in  a  few  years  ran  through 
100  editions  and  was  translated  into  many  for- 
eign languages.  Lamennais  answered  with 
his  Affaires  de  Rome,  1836-37,  2  vols.,  and 
went  on  his  own  way  without  submitting. 
From  1841-46  he  published  his  Esquisse  d'une 
philosophie,  4  vols.,  and  in  1848  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Con.stituent  Assembly.  But 
after  the  coup  d'etat  he  retired  altogether 
from  public  life,  sad  and  disappointed.  His 
(Euvres  completes  appeared  in  11  vols.,  1844- 
47  ;  (Euvres  posthumes  (containing  his  corre- 
spondence) in  5  vols.,  1855-58.  (See  Blaize, 
Essai  biographique,  Paris,  1858.)  C.  P. 

Lamentations,  the  title  of  5  elegies  com- 
posed on  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  attrib- 
uted by  tradition,  which  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt,  to  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  They  are 
elaborately  composed,  the  first  4  being  acros- 
tics (like  Ps.  25,  34,  etc.).  Chs.  1,  2,  and  4 
contain  22  verses  each,  but  ch.  3  has  3  suc- 
cessive verses  beginning  with  the  same  letter, 
making  66  in  all.  This  artificial  structure 
was  doubtless  intended  to  aid  the  memory, 
to  ensure  completeness  to  the  composition, 
and  to  give  emotion  its  due  and  proper  scope. 
The  first  and  second  elegies  describe  the  over- 
throw of  the  city,  the  calamities  of  the  siege, 
the  horrors  of  famine,  the  pollution  of  the 
temple,  the  ravages  of  the  sword,  the  failure 
of  friends,  and  the  derision  of  foes.  The 
third  elegy  is  more  personal,  and  dwells  on 
the  writer  s  own  afflictions,  their  severity  and 
the  purpose  for  which  they  were  sent,  at  the 
same  time  suggesting  penitence  and  confes- 
sion as  offering  a  gleam  of  hope  The  fourth 
recapitulates  the  woes  endured  with  special 
reference  to  the  king,  "the  breath  of  their 
nostrils,"  and  closes  with  a  prediction  of 
Edom's  doom.  The  last  one  takes  the  form 
of  a  prayer,  reciting  the  sufferings  of  all  ages, 
classes,  and  conditions,  and  entreating  relief. 

The  Jews  were  accustomed  to  read  these 
elegies  once  every  year  to  commemorate  at 
once  the  national  misery  and  the  final  deliver- 
ance, and  they  are  said  to  be  still  used  at  "  the 
place  of  wailing"  in  Jerusalem.     Recent  com- 


mentaries in  English  are  those  by  Henderson 
(Ando^er,  1868)  ;  Nagelsbach  (in  Lange, 
New  York,  1871) ;  Payne  Smith  (in  Speaker's 
Commentary,  1875).  T.  W.  C. 

Lammas  Day,  or  Lammas  Tide,  a  word  of 
uncertain  etymology,  but  probably  from 
"  klaf-mass, "  loaf-mass,  was  the  name  of  the 
old  English  festival  of  the  wheat  harvest, 
celebrated  on  Aug.  1.  As  the  Roman  Church 
celebrates  a  festival  in  honor  of  St.  Peter 
(Acts  xii.  4-10)  on  the  same  day,  there  arose 
a  derivation  of  the  word  from  lamb,  but  it  is 
mere  fiction. 

Lamp,  the  usual  means  in  the  East  of  secur- 
ing artificial  light.  Caudles  were  and  are  un- 
known save  as  brought  by  travellers.  In. 
Judges  vii.  16,  20,  John  xviii.  3,  Matt.  xxv. 
1,  torches  are  meant.  Lamps  were  of  clay 
or  of  bronze  or  other  metals.  T.  W.  C. 

Lamy  (la-me),  Bernard,  b.  at  Le  Mans, 
Sarthe,  France,  130  m.  s.w.  of  Paris,  in  June, 
1640  ;  d.  at  Rouen,  Jan.  29,  1715 ;  entered  the 
Congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  1658  ;  was  a 
teacher  of  philosophy  at  Grenoble,  Paris,  and 
Rouen,  and  published  an  Apparatus  Biblicus, 
Lyons,  1696,  which  was  twice  translated  into 
French,  and  also,  into  English,  by  R.  Bundj', 
London,  1723. 

Lance,  The  Holy,  is  in  the  ecclesiastical 
terminology  of  the  Greek  Church  the  name 
of  that  knife  with  which  the  officiating  priest 
pierces  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist  just  as 
Christ,  when  on  the  cross,  was  pierced  by  the 
lance  of  a  Roman  soldier.  In  the  legends  of 
the  Roman  Church,  however,  it  means  that 
very  lance  itself.  According  to  tradition,  it 
was  discovered  by  the  Empress  Helena,  and 
was  preserved  in  the  portico  of  the  church 
she  built  over  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  Thence 
it  made  many  singular  wanderings  until  the 
legend-creating  spirit  died  out  and  it  was 
allowed  to  rest— one  in  Prague,  where  Inno- 
cent VI.  (1352-62)  established  a  festival  in  it."* 
honor,  another  in  Rome,  where  Innocent 
VIII.  (1484-92),  who  received  it  as  a  present 
from  Constantinople,  placed  it  in  the  basilica 
of  the  Vatican,  and  a  third,  which  was  cut  up 
in  splinters  and  scattered  all  over  the  earth. 

Lando,  pope,  Nov. ,  913-May,  914,  between 
Anastasius  III.  and  John  X. 

Lanfranc,  thirty-fourth  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury ;  b.  in  Pa  via,  Italy,  about  1005  ;  d. 
at  Canterbury,  May  28,  1089.  His  father  was 
a  senator  of  Pavia,  and  the  son  was  instructed 
in  civil  law  in  Bologna,  and  became  attorney 
and  teacher  of  jurisprudence  in  his  native 
city.  But  his  income  and  position  here  not 
meeting  his  wishes,  he  made  his  way  to  Nor- 
mandy, where  the  duke  had  a  reputation  for 
desiring  the  improvement  of  learning.  He 
opened  (1039)  a  school  in  Avranches,  which 
soon  became  famous.  But  a  change  of  feel- 
ing and  conviction  led  liim  to  enter  upon  the 
monastic  life,  which  he  did  in  1042,  in  the 
Benedictine  monastery  at  Bee.  After  three 
years  of  retirement  here  the  knowledge  of 
his  place  of  retreat  got  spread  abroad,  and  he 
was  soon  surrounded  by  a  multitude  of  schol- 
ars again,  among  wliom  were  Anselm,  his 


liANGE 


(487) 


liAO-TSE 


successor  (1093),  the  famous  theologian,  and 
another  Ansehn,  who  became  Pope  Alexander 
II.  (1061).  In  1045  he  became  prior  of  his 
monastery,  and  soon  after  became  involved 
in  the  contest  with  Berengarius  (q.v.)  upon 
transubstantiation.  It  would  appear  that  he 
even  went  to  Rome  to  institute  proceedings 
against  liim,  and  Berengarius  was  condemned 
(i050).  His  public  activity  had  brought  him 
to  the  notice  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and 
this  fact  determined  his  further  career.  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  soul  of  the  enterprise 
of  conquering  England,  and  his  prince  early 
destined  him  for  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
bury. Made  abbot  of  St.  Stephen's  at  Caen 
(1062),  he  declined  the  archbishopric  of  Rouen 
(1067),  but  accepted  that  of  Canterbury,  and 
■was  consecrated  Aug.  29.  1070.  In  1070  he 
proceeded  in  the  most  intimate  connection 
with  William  to  remodel  the  English  Church 
in  conformity  to  the  new  order  of  things. 
The  archbishopric  of  York  was  made  subor- 
dinate to  that  of  Canterbury  (1072),  and  grad- 
ually the  Anglo-Saxon  prelates  and  abbots 
were  replaced  by  Normans,  till  only  one  Saxon 
bishop  was  left.  At  the  same  time,  Laufranc 
was  rather  independent  in  his  relations  to 
Rome.  Til  us  he  disregarded  a  summons  to 
Rome,  under  threat  of  suspension  (1081). 
The  obedience  of  England  in  his  day  was 
scarcely  anything  more  than  courteous  bear- 
ing. He  followed  in  the  line  of  the  reforms 
of  Gregory  VII.  in  the  matter  of  simony  and 
clerical  celibacy  (1076),  but  only  partially,  for 
he  allowed  the  parochial  clergy  to  retain  their 
wives,  and  did  not  carry  out  the  financial 
wishes  of  the  pope. 

In  his  literary  capacity  Lanfranc  was  much 
overpraised  in  his  own  time.  He  was  cele- 
brated for  every  talent  and  for  vast  erudition. 
But  in  truth  he  seems  to  have  been  a  sharp 
dialectician  without  speculative  genius,  and 
to  have  had  only  a  scanty  knowledge  of  the 
fathers.  His  true  work  was  that  of  an  in- 
spiring teacher,  and  he  thus  did  much  to 
usher  in  a  new  epoch.  His  most  important 
writing  was  the  Book  upon  the  Body  and  Blood 
of  the  Lord  against  Berengarius.  He  sur- 
passes Paschasius  Radbertus  in  his  doctrine, 
since  he  teaches  that  those  who  unworthily 
partake  receive  not  only  bread  and  wine,  but 
the  real  body  and  blood,  though  not  with 
saving  effect.  He  attempts  to  answer  thor- 
oughly the  logical,  metaphysical,  historical, 
and  biblical  objections  of  Berengarius  with 
varying  success.  There  are  a  number  of 
other  writings  of  his,  comprising  letters,  and 
a  monastic  rule.  Some  of  his  works  are  lost. 
Works,  Paris,  1648,  Lyons,  1677,  rep.  Oxford, 
1844,  2  vols.  ;  in  Migiie,  Pat.  Lat.  CL.  (See 
also  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canter- 
bury, vol.  ii.  ;  Freeman,  History  of  the  Nor- 
man Conquest,  vol.  iv.  ;  Crozal,  Jjinfranc, 
Paris,  1877.)  F.  H.  F. 

Lang-e,  Johann  Peter,  D.I)..  United  Evan- 
gelical ;  b.  at  Sonnborn,  near  Elberfeld, 
Rhenish  Prussia.  April  10,  1802  ;  d.  at  Bonn. 
July  8.  1884  ;  studied  in  the  University  of 
Bonn,  1822-25  ;  became  pastor  of  Wald.  1826, 
Langenberg,  1828,  and  Duisburg,  1832  ;  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Zurich,   1841,  and  at 


Bonn,  1854.  He  wrote,  Leben  Jesu,  Heidel- 
berg, 1844-47,  Eng.  trans..  Edinburgh.  1864, 
6  vols.,  n.e.,  Philadelphia,  1872  ;  Theol.- 
homil.-BihliCii'k.  Bielefeld,  1857-76,  Eng. 
trans.,  edited  by  P.  Schaff,  New  York,  1864- 
74,  24  vols.,  etc. 

Langton,  Stephen,  forty -fourth  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  ;  b.  about  1150,  probably  in 
Yorkshire  ;  d.  at  Slindon,  Sussex,  July  9, 
1228.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Paris,  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  become 
chancellor.  His  college  friend,  Lothario 
Conti.  became  Innocent  III.  in  1198,  and 
made  him  a  member  of  the  papal  household. 
In  1206  he  was  made  cardinal- priest  of  St. 
Chrysogonus,  and  soon  after  elected  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  by  order  of  the  pope, 
who  rejected  two  candidates  chosen  by  op- 
posing parties  in  England.  His  consecration 
at  Viterbo,  June  17,  1207,  was  violently  re- 
sented by  King  John,  who  in  refusing  to  ad- 
mit him  braved  the  terrors  of  an  interdict 
(1208),  but  finally  yielded  to  deposition  (1212) 
and  a  threatened  crusade  (1213).  Having  so- 
journed meantime  at  Pontigny,  in  France, 
Langton  reached  England  in  July,  1213,  and 
absolved  the  delinquent  monarch  upon  con- 
dition that  he  should  keep  the  laws  of  his 
grandfather,  Henry  I.  Next  year  he  helped 
the  barons  to  unite  at  London,  when  (Aug. 
25.  1214)  he  produced  the  old  charter  of 
Henry  I.,  and  thus  prepared  the  way  for 
Magna  Charta,  which  he  was  the  first  to  sign 
in  June,  1215.  The  pope  repealed  this  docu- 
ment and  suspended  Langton  for  contumacy 
in  refusing  to  allow  the  sentence  read  in  the 
churches.  He  w^ent  to  Rome  to  attend  the 
fourth  Lateran  Council,  and  remained  there 
till  1218,  part  of  the  time  as  a  state  prisoner. 
He  crowned  Henry  III.  in  1220,  presided  at 
the  Council  of  Osney,  1222,  and  in  1223  led 
the  barons  in  demanding  from  the  king  the 
confirmation  of  ]\Iagna  Charta.  He  wrote  a 
]{e.rameron  and  a  commentary  on  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  little  we  know  of  his 
life  is  derived  chiefly  from  Roger,  of  Wen- 
dover.  (See  Hook's  Lives  of  the  Archbishops, 
vol.  ii.)  F.  M.  B. 

La-o-di-ce'-a,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  associated 
by  Paul  (Col.  iv.  13-16)  with  Colossal  and  Hier- 
apolis,  one  of  which  was  18  m.  e.  of  it,  the 
other  6  m.  n.  Under  the  Roman  rule  it  be- 
came a  great  commercial  centre  and  gained 
large  wealth  from  its  excellent  wools. 

The  Epistle  from  Laodicea  (Col.  iv.  16)  is 
probably  one  that  God  did  not  see  fit  to  pre- 
serve, being  only  of  local  and  temporarj^  use. 
What  is  known  as  this  epistle  exists  only  in 
Latin  and  is  a  forgery  of  late  date. 

The  epistle  "  to  the  angel  of  the  church  in 
Laodicea"  (Rev.  iii.  14-22)  shows  that  the 
church  addressed  was  in  a  lukewarm  state, 
and  so  offensive  to  Christ,  yet  buoyed  up  with 
imaginary  excellence.  The  counsel  given  to 
it  is  earnest  and  tender.  T.  W.  C. 

Lao-Tse  (hoary  child),  the  founder  of  Tao- 
ism, b.  in  the  province  of  Ilonan,  China. 
B.C..  565  ;  (1.  at  unknown  date  ;  was  so  called 
because  at  birth  his  hair  was  white.  He  wa.s 
historiographer  to  a  prince,  and  enjoyed  the 
respect  of  Confucius.     He  taught  the  exist- 


IiAPLACE 


(488) 


LASCO 


ence  of  a  supreme  Being,  whom  he  denomi- 
nated Tao,  or  "  supreme  wisdom,"  hence  his 
disciples  are  called  Tao-tse,  or  "  disciples  of 
reason."  He  inculcated  virtue  and  undis- 
criminating  kindness.  Modern  Taoism  is 
akin  to  Buddhism.     See  China. 

Laplace  (la-plass),  Josue  (Placeus),  b.  in 
Bretagne,  1606  ;  d.  at  Saumur,  on  the  Loire, 
Aug.  17,  1655  ;  was  appointed  preacher  of 
Nantes  in  1625,  and  professor  in  Saumur,  1632. 
In  his  De  statu  hominis  lapsi,  1640,  he  tried  to 
weaken  the  doctrine  of  the  Reformed  Church 
concerning  the  imputation  of  the  sin  of  Adam, 
but  this,  as  well  as  other  novelties  introduced 
by  him  and  Amyraut,  were  formally  rejected 
by  the  Consensus  Helveticus,  1675.  His  col- 
lected works  were  published  at  Franeker, 
1699,  and  Aubeneit,  1702,  3  vols.,  quarto. 

Lapsed,  a  name  applied  after  the  3d  cen- 
tury in  the  wider  sense  to  all  Catholic  Chris- 
tians who  had  committed  a  mortal  sin,  for 
which  they  came  under  the  discipline  of  the 
church,  and  when  persecutions  were  renewed 
in  a  narrower  sense  to  those  baptized  Chris- 
tians who,  in  one  way  or  another,  had  failed 
to  confess  Christ. 

There  were  from  the  first  cases  of  apostasy 
under  persecution,  and  at  times  the  number 
of  the  lapsed  rose  to  a  large  amount.  But  by 
the  testimony  of  the  heathen  themselves  we 
know  that  steadfastness  was  characteristic  of 
the  Christians.  This  went  so  far  that  at  times 
there  was  a  fanatical  desire  for  martyrdom, 
as  in  the  case  of  Ignatius.  While  all  ac- 
knowledged the  duty  of  submitting  to  martyr 
dom,  there  arose  a  school  in  the  church, 
afterward  represented  by  the  Montanists,  who 
taught  that  it  was  to  be  sought.  But  these 
were  excesses  which  sober  experience  brought 
to  an  end. 

The  question  as  to  what  discipline  should 
be  inflicted  upon  the  lapsed  became  a  vital 
one  only  in  the  last  persecutions  which  the 
church  suffered.  The  number  of  the  lapsed 
had  greatly  increased,  and  this  was  particu- 
larly so  when  a  long  period  of  peace  had  inter- 
vened between  two  persecutions.  Technical 
terms  appear  about  the  year  250.  The  "  sac- 
rificati"  were  those  who  had  sacrificed  to  the 
heathen  gods,  the  "  thurificati"  those  who 
had  burned  incense  to  them,  the  "  libellatici" 
those  who  in  various  ways  had  obtained  offi- 
cial papers  certifying  that  they  were  not 
Christians.  After  the  edict  of  Diocletian, 
which  commanded  the  delivery  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, there  was  a  class,  "  traditores, "  who 
had  in  some  way  complied.  With  all  such 
the  original  method  of  the  church  had  been 
to  refuse  readmission  to  the  church,  even 
after  evidence  of  genuine  repentance.  God 
might  forgive  them,  but  the  church  not.  In 
the  process  of  time  it  became  impossible  to 
enforce  so  rigid  a  standard,  and  concessions 
were  made  in  the  one  direction  or  the  other. 
Schisms  of  those  who  wished  to  maintain  the 
old  principle  occurred.  The  growing  ten- 
dency to  identify  the  visible  with  the  invisible 
church,  and  so  to  make  salvation  depend 
upon  restoration  to  church  privileges,  worked 
in  the  direction  of  mitigation.     The  way  was 


first  opened  for  the  readmission  of  persons 
guilty  only  of  carnal  sins.  The  intercession 
of  "  confessors"  was  enough  to  justify  the  re- 
admission of  almost  any  one,  which  evil  rose 
to  a  great  height  in  Carthage.  The  general 
tendency  was  still  to  greater  laxness  when  the 
cessation  of  persecutions  removed  the  ques- 
tion in  its  narrower  application  from  among 
living  issues.  (See  Ritschl,  Entstelmng  d.  alk. 
Kirclie,  and  monographs  on  Cyprian.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Lardner,  Nathaniel,  D.D.  (Aberdeen, 
1745),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Hawkhurst,  Kent, 
about  50  m.  s.e.  of  London,  June  6,  1684  ; 
d.  there,  July  24,  1768.  His  father  was  a  dis- 
senting minister.  He  studied  at  Utrecht, 
1699-1703,  then  at  Leyden  for  6  months,  and 
for  6  years  in  London,  entering  the  ministry, 
1709. '  From  1713-21  he  was  chaplain  to  Lady 
Treby  and  tutor  to  her  son.  Deafness  and 
an  infirmity  of  speech  interfered  with  his 
preaching,  and  inclined  him  to  a  retired  and 
studious  life  ;  but  he  was  assistant  at  Crutched 
Friars,  1729-51.  His  Tuesday  evening  lec- 
tures at  the  Old  Jewry,  1724,  were  the  begin- 
ning of  his  great  work.  Credibility  of  the  Gos- 
pel History,  or  the  Principal  Facts  of  the  New 
Testament  Confirmed  by  Passages  of  Ancient 
Authors.  Part  i.,  in  2  vols.,  appeared,  Lon- 
don, 1727  ;  part  ii.,  in  12  vols.,  1733-55.  From 
this  storehouse  of  learning  Paley,  Gibbon,  and 
many  others  have  drawn.  A  supplement  in  3 
vols. ,  1756-57,  dealt  with  the  apostles.  He  also 
wrote  Jewish  and  Heathen  Testimonies,  1764- 
67,  4  vols.;  Heretics  of  the  Two  First  Centuries, 
1780  ;  and  a  letter  on  the  Logos.  1759,  indi- 
cating Socinian  views.  Memoirs  of  him  ap- 
peared, 1769.  His  works,  with  a  life  by  Dr. 
Kippis,  were  collected  in  11  vols.,  1788,  and 
rep.,  1817  and  1827.  F.  M.  B. 

La-sae'-a,  a  town  in  Crete,  near  Fair  Haven, 
mentioned  in  Paul's  last  voyage  (Acts  xxvii. 
8),  now  in  ruins.  T.  W.  C. 

La  Salle,  Jean  Baptiste  de,  D.D.  (Paris, 
167-),  founder  of  an  R.  C.  order,  the  Iguo- 
rantines  (q.v.),  or  Brethren  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  which  was  approved  by  the  Pope  in 
1724  ;  b.  at  Rheims,  April  30,  1651  ;  was  edu- 
cated in  Paris  ;  d.  at  Rouen,  April  7,  1719. 

La  Saussaye,  Daniel  Chantepie  de,  D.D. 

(Bonn,  1858),  Reformed,  b.  at  The  Hague, 
Dec.  10,  1818  ;  d.  in  Groningen,  Feb.  13, 
1874,  where  he  had  been  professor  of  theology 
since  1872.  He  was  a  distinguished  opponent 
of  rationalism.  Pierre  Daniel  Chantepie  de 
(Utrecht,  1871),  his  son,  b.  at  Leenwarden, 
April  9,  1848,  has  been  since  1878  professor 
of  the  history  of  religions  at  Amsterdam,  and 
is  the  author  of  LehrbucJi  der  Eeligionsgc- 
schichte,  Freiburg  i.  Br.  1887-89,  2  vols. 

Las  Casas,  Bartolomeo  de,  b.  at  Seville, 
1474  ;  d.  in  Madrid,  1566  ;  a  Dominican 
monk  ;  devoted  his  life  to  preaching  the  Gospel 
among  the  American  aborigines  and  protect- 
ing them  against  the  cruelties  of  the  Span- 
iards. His  writings  have  been  collected  in 
2  volumes,  Paris,  1822. 

Lasco,  Johannes  a,  b.  at  Warsaw  in  1499  ; 
d.  at   Krticic,   Jan.    13,    1560  ;   educated  for 


IiATERAN 


(489) 


LAUD 


the  church  ;  travelled  and  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Erasmus  and  Zwingli ;  received  ap- 
pointment in  the  Polish  Church  as  soon  as  he 
returned  home,  1526,  but  refused  an  Episcopal 
see  in  1536  ;  embraced  the  Reformed  faith  and 
left  Poland.  He  was  then  pastor  of  the  Re- 
formed congregation  at  Emden,  1542-49,  and 
of  the  foreign  Protestant  congregation  in 
London,  1549-53.  In  1556  he  was  called 
home  and  made  superintendent  of  the  Re- 
formed congregations  of  Lesser  Poland.  His 
collected  works  appeared  in  Amsterdam, 
1866,  2  vols.  Life  by  Dalton,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1886.  (See  Krasinski,  Sketch  of  the 
Reformation  in  Poland,  London,  1838,  2  vols.) 

C.  P. 

Lateran  Church  at  Rome.  The  palace  of 
the  Lateran  family  was  confiscated  by  Nero, 
and  given  in  part  to  the  bishop  of  Rome  as 
his  residence  by  Coustantine,  who  also  built  a 
basilica  in  connection  with  it,  which  was  the 
first  Lateran  church.  Sergius  HI.  rebuilt  it 
at  the  beginning  of  the  10th  century,  and  the 
present  cliurch  was  erected  about  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century,  upon  the  walls  of  the 
old.  It  has  had  several  names,  and  is  com- 
monly called  St.  John  Lateran.  It  is  re- 
garded as  the  mother  church  of  all  Christen- 
dom, by  some  said  to  have  received  the  sanc- 
tity of  the  original  temple  at  Jerusalem.  It 
is  tlie  cathedral  church  of  the  pope,  and  here 
he  is  solemnly  entliroued.  F.  H.  F. 

Lateran  Councils,  that  is,  councils  held  in 
the  Lateran  basilica  in  Rome,  5  of  which  are 
recognized  as  oecumenical  by  the  church  of 
Ronie-namely  1123,  1139,  1179,  1215,  and 
1512.  The  most  important  is  the  fourth,  con- 
vened by  Innocent  III.,  1215,  and  attended 
by  412  bishops  and  800  abbots  and  priors.  In 
its  decree  against  the  Waldensians  the  word 
transubstantiatio  occurs  for  the  first  time. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  reformer  and  martjT  ;  b. 
at  Thurcaston,  Leicestershire,  about  1490  ; 
burned  at  Oxford,  Oct.  16,  1555.  A  farmer's 
son,  he  retained  the  plain  language  of  the 
people.  Entering  Cambridge  at  14,  he  be- 
came fellow  of  Clare  Hall,  1509,  and  later 
w^as  "  as  obstinate  a  papist  as  any  iu  Eng- 
land." Bilney  (who  was  martyred  1531) 
brought  him  to  Protestant  opinions,  which  he 
was  prompt  to  avow.  His  sermons  On  the 
Cards,  Dec,  1529,  provoked  attack,  but 
Henry  VIII.  protected  him.  A  year  later  he 
pleaded  for  the  free  circulation  of  Scripture, 
and  was  made  a  royal  chaplain  and  (1531) 
rector  of  West  Kington,  Wiltshire.  Thrice 
sllencx'd  by  bishops,  doors  were  opened  to  him 
elsewhere;  condemned  by  convocation,  1532, 
he  escaped  by  a  partial  recantation.  Crau- 
mer's  elevation  in  1533  diminislied  his  diHi- 
culties.  and  on  the  king's  repudiation  of  papal 
authority  in  1534  he  became  a  chief  adviser 
in  the  new  measures.  He  was  consecrated 
bishoj)  of  Worcester  in  Sept.,  1535,  but  re- 
signed his  see  in  1539,  being  opposed  to  the 
"  Six  Articles,"  and  refu.sed  to  resume  it  on 
the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  Just  before 
this,  in  1546,  lie  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower. 
His  preaching,  resumed  in  1548  with  even 
greater  power  than  before,  was  a  leading  in- 


fluence in  fixing  Reformation  principles  in  the 
popular  heart.  Bold,  terse,  direct,  humorous, 
nobly  practical,  often  quaintly  narrative, 
sometimes  stingingly  sarcastic,  his  sermons 
are  a  chief  source  of  information  as  to  the 
conditions  of  his  time.  His  ending  was  tri- 
umphant. Warned  of  his  doom,  but  scorning 
to  escape,  he  obeyed  the  summons  of  council, 
knowing  that  "  Smithtield  groaned  for"  him. 
After  two  years'  imprisonment  and  wearisome 
disputations  he  was  led  to  the  stake.  "Be 
of  good  comfort,  Master  Ridley,"  he  said  to 
his  companion,  "  and  play  the  man  ;  we  shall 
this  day  light  such  a  candle,  by  God's  grace, 
in  England  as  shall  never  be  put  out."  He 
"  received  the  flame,  as  it  were  embracing  it," 
bathed  his  hands  in  it,  and  so  died.  His  ser- 
mons, first  published  1549,  were  rep.  1869  ; 
Sermons  on  the  Card,  London,  1886  ;  his 
works,  edited  by  G.  B.  Corrie  for  the  Parker 
Society,  2  vols.,  1844-45.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  W.  Gilpin,  1755,  and  R.  Demaus, 
1869,  n.e.,  1881.  F.  M.  B.  , 

Latin  Language,  Church  Use  of.     In  the 

Western  Church  Latin  became  the  recognized 
vehicle  of  intercourse,  and  while  the  modern 
tongues  were  forming  this  was  a  great  ad- 
vantage to  all.  But  even  after  the  custom 
ceased  to  be  of  service  Rome  insisted  upon 
preserving  it,  and  the  Council  of  Trent  an- 
athematized those  who  say  that  the  mass 
should  be  celebrated  in  the  vulgar  tongue  only. 
(Sess.  XXII.  C.  ix.  Canon  9.  Cf.  Schaff's 
Greeds,  ii.,  186.)  T.  W.  C. 

Latin  Versions.     See  Bible,  p.  104. 

Latitudinarian,  a  term  which  came  into 
use  in  the  17th  century.  It  is  applied  to  men 
who,  while  differing  in  their  theological  opin- 
ions, yet  agreed  in  wishing  to  relax  somewhat 
liturgical  strictness  in  the  hope  of  winning 
over  dissenters.  They  were  represented  by 
Hales  and  Chillingworth,  Cudworth,  Tillot- 
son,  and  perhaps  Stillingfleet.  Opposed  at 
first,  they  gained  influence  afterward,  but  not 
with  any  decisive  result.  The  name  has  been 
applied  in  our  day  to  those  who  are  known 
as  the  "  Broad  Church"  party  in  the  Church 
of  England.  As  usually  employed,  it  de- 
notes one  who  puts  more  stress  upon  conduct 
than  upon  creed  or  ritual  and  is  willing  to 
sacrifice  doctrine  for  comprehensiveness. 
(See  Tulloch,  Rational  Theolorjy  and  Chris- 
tian Philosophy  in  England  in  the  I'ttJi  Ceii- 
tnnj,  London,  1872-74.) 

Laud,  William,  seventy-eighth  archbishop 
of  Canter  bur}'  ;  b.  at  Reading,  37  m.  w.  of 
London,  Oct.  7,  1573  ;  beheaded  at  Tower 
Hill,  Jan.  10,  1645.  His  father  was  a  well-to- 
do  clothier  ;  a  maternal  uncle  became  a  knight 
and  lord  mayor  of  London.  In  1589  he  en- 
tered St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  of  whicli 
he  became  a  fellow,  1593,  and  president,  1611. 
From  the  start  he  held  those  peculiar  views 
which  had  such  vital  results  on  his  own  fate 
and  on  English  history  ;  the  bishop  of  Roches- 
ter, who  ordained  him  in  1601,  "  found  his 
study  rai.sed  above  the  .system  and  ojiinions  of 
the  age,  upon  the  noble  foundation  of  the 
Fathers,  councils,  and  ecclesiastical  histori- 
ans," and  expected  him  to  be  "  an  instrument 


LAUD 


(490) 


LAUD 


of  restoring  the  church  from  the  narrow  and 
private  principles  of  modern  times."  His 
defence  of  Rome  as  the  true  church  until  the 
Reformation  involved  a  controversy  with  Dr. 
Abbot  in  1603,  and  in  1606  he  was  accused 
and  tried  by  the  vice-chancellor.  Gaining  re- 
pute by  his  ability  and  energy,  though  always 
opposing  the  doctrines  then  prevalent,  he  was 
presented  to  various  livings,  which  he  held  in 
commendam  after  he  had  attained  the  highest 
dignities.  He  became  archdeacon  of  Hun- 
tingdon, 1615,  dean  of  Gloucester,  1616,  and 
soon  after  urged  James  I.  to  impose  a  prayer- 
book  upon  Scotland.  "I  keep  back  Laud 
from  all  place  of  rule  and  authority,"  the 
king  is  credited  with  saying  in  one  of  his 
wiser  moments,  "  because  he  hath  a  restless 
spirit,  and  cannot  see  when  matters  are  well, 
but  loves  to  toss  and  change,  and  to  bring  things 
to  a  pitch  of  reformation  floating  in  his  own 
brain,  which  may  endanger  the  steadfastness 
of  that  which  is  in  good  pass."  Despite  these 
prudent  suspicions  Laud  was  made  bishop 
of  St.  David's,  1631.  His  controversy  with 
the  Jesuit  Fisher,  in  1633,  concerning  the 
papal  claims,  was  an  eminent  service  to  Angli- 
can polemics,  and  won  the  favor  of  Bucking- 
ham and  Prince  Charles.  When  the  latter 
reached  the  throne,  in  1685,  the  way  was 
smoothed  for  Laud's  ambition.  He  w^as  made 
dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal  and  afterward  of 
Westminster,  transferred  to  the  see  of  Bath 
and  Wells,  1636,  and  to  that  of  London,  1638. 
Already  a  member  of  the  Court  of  High  Com- 
mission, he  became  a  privy  councillor,  1637, 
and  prime  minister  on  Buckingham's  death 
in  1638.  A  similarity  of  aims  and  of  temper- 
ament endeared  him  to  the  new  king.  Both 
were  earnest,  narrow,  wilful,  careless  of 
means  as  compared  with  ends,  an.^ious  to  es- 
tablish what  they  thought  right,  and  con- 
temptuous of  public  opinion.  Both  loved 
ceremonial,  highly  prized  authority,  and  ab- 
horred the  ways,  works,  ideas,  and  tenden- 
cies of  the  Puritans.  Less  than  absolute  su- 
premacy in  every  department  of  human 
thought  and  life  could  not  content  them  ;  for 
so  only  could  the  Lord  triumph  and  his  truth 
have  free  course  in  the  persons  of  his  anoint- 
ed. A  certain  weakness  of  temporizing  ir- 
resolution in  Charles  was  corrected  by  the 
steady  and  somewhat  ruthless  lirmness  of  his 
adviser.  So  this  congenial  but  dangerous  in- 
strument was  made  chancellor  of  tlie  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  in  1638,  and  primate  of  Eng- 
land in  1633. 

Thus  armed  with  almost  absolute  power, 
what  he  considered  the  good  work  went  on 
apace.  Unity,  in  his  opinion,  could  not  long 
endure  without  uniformity,  and  outward 
neglect  and  irreverence  will  ' '  cast  a  damp 
upon  the  true  and  inward  worship  of  God, 
which,  while  we  live  in  the  body,  needs  ex- 
ternal helps,  and  all  little  enough  to  keep  it  in 
any  vigor."  So  (to  continue  in  his  own 
words)  he  "labored  nothing  more  than  that 
the  external  public  worship  of  God— too  much 
slighted  in  most  parts  of  this  kingdom — might 
be  preserved,  and  that  with  as  much  decency 
and  uniformity  as  might  be." 

However  pious  this  object,  the  means  em- 
ployed for  its  furtherance  were  repugnant  in 


the  last  degree  to  our  modern  ideas  of  liberty, 
and  extremely  offensive  at  the  time  to  a  very 
large  proportion  of  Englishmen  of  all  classes. 
If  people  did  not  know  what  was  right,  they 
must  be  taught  by  precept,  example,  and 
penalty.  The  prayer-book  services  were 
rigidly  enforced  ;  the  holy  table  was  every- 
wliere  removed  to  the  east  end  of  the  church, 
and  communicants  required  to  kneel  before 
the  railing.  Terms  and  usages  regarded  by 
the  Puritans  as  scandalous  innovations  were 
insisted  on  as  a  return  to  primitive  practice. 
Adherents  of  Geneva  were  sternly  repressed, 
and  advocates  of  what  seemed  almost  Romish 
methods  brought  to  the  front.  The  arch- 
bishop and  his  spies  were  everywhere,  even 
in  private  houses  ;  recalcitrants  were  brought 
before  the  terrible  Star  Chamber,  fined,  im- 
prisoned, exiled  ;  branded  foreheads,  lopped 
ears,  and  slit  noses  became  familiar.  Char- 
acter was  no  defence,  position  afforded  no 
immunity  ;  an  inquisition,  only  less  severe 
than  the  Spanish,  was  in  every  parish.  Every 
one  knew  that  the  primate  was  the  king's 
chief  adviser,  the  instigator  and  supporter  of 
every  encroachment  on  human  rights.  Un- 
der this  tyranny  men  grew  restive  ;  as  the  in- 
strument of  so  much  oppression  the  church, 
hitherto  supposed  to  include  all  citizens,  be- 
came detestable  ;  the  end  was  at  hand. 

It  came  through  the  Scottish  liturgy  of 
1537  and  the  fatuous  folly  of  Latid  in  trying 
to  impose  episcopacy  and  forms  of  prayer 
upon  a  race  of  sturdy  Presbyterians.  For 
this  attempt  James  I.  had  been  too  sagacious  ; 
his  son,  no  wiser  than  a  minister  who  was 
distinguished  for  "  good  intentions  and  bad 
management,"  yielded,  and  the  consequence 
was  rebellion.  When  the  victorious  Scots,  in 
1640,  sent  commissioners  to  London,  they  de- 
manded the  primate's  punishment.  The 
Long  Parliament  had  no  sooner  met  than  the 
CJommons  impeached  him  of  high  treason. 
He  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  fined  £80,- 
000,  and  ordered  to  compensate  Prynne  and 
others  for  their  sufferings  at  his  hands.  His 
trial  began  March  13,  1644,  and  lasted  30 
days.  He  defended  himself  ably,  and  the 
peers  hesitated  ;  but  the  impatient  commons 
passed  a  bill  of  attainder,  Jan.  4,  1645,  and 
overruled  the  king's  pardon  under  the  gi-eat 
seal.  In  his  fall  he  behaved  with  meek  firm- 
ness, and  made  an  edifying  end. 

By  his  admirers  (see  Southey  's  Book  of  the 
Church)  he  has  been  esteemed  a  martyred 
saint,  by  his  enemies  little  better  than  a  de- 
mon. At  this  distance  from  the  partisan  pas- 
sions of  his  time,  it  is  not  difficult  fairly  to 
estimate  his  character  and  motives.  His  sin- 
cerity, his  piety,  and  (in  large  measure)  his 
disinterestedness  need  not  be  questioned  ;  but 
for  statesmanship  he  was  curiously  unfit. 
For  a  reformer  (which  he  earnestly  meant  to 
be)  he  had  too  little  sympathy  and  magnet- 
ism. Coldly  resolute,  haughty,  unconciliat- 
ing,  he  sought  to  mend  the  world  by  the 
strong  arm  of  secular  force,  rather  than  by 
an  appeal  to  conscience.  Not  vulgarly  am- 
bitious, he  valued  wealth  and  power  for  what 
he  supposed  the  Lord's  uses,  and  spent  them 
royally  to  that  end.  If  he  looked  rather  to 
the  surface  than  beneath,  and  was  busier  with 


UlUDS 


(491) 


LAVATER 


vestments  and  rituals  than  witli  deeper  tilings, 
the  fact  indicates  his  limitations.  Yet  in  one 
way  he  is  almost  justitiecl  ;  the  pattern  which 
he  strove  to  impose  upon  his  church  it  has 
since  in  good  degree  received,  by  peaceful 
and  gradual  means  ;  the  more  emphatic  and 
reverent  ritual  at  which  he  aimed  has  been 
realized  ;  the  "  popish  novelties"  for  which 
lie  was  blamed  are  now  accepted  marks  of 
Anglicanism.  He  was  no  papist,  as  many 
thought,  but  one  not  so  afraid  of  Rome  as  to 
shun  what  she  had  retained  from  purer  ages  ; 
when  a  cardinal  s  hat  was  privately  offered 
him,  he  said,  "  Something  dwells  within  me 
that  will  not  suffer  that  till  Rome  be  other 
than  it  is."  His  violences,  his  cruelties,  his 
willingness  to  set  up  Christ's  kingdom  by  the 
rack  and  pillory,  belong  to  a  time  when  toler- 
ation was  scarcely  dreamed  of,  when  religion 
and  government  were  indissolubly  united  in 
all  men's  minds,  when  each  sect  was  ready  to 
exterminate  its  rival,  to  "  persuade"  through 
policemen  and  penal  laws,  and  convert  by 
jails  and  scaffolds.  Laud's  condemnation  lay 
in  his  lack  of  political  sense,  in  his  impotence 
to  estimate  facts  and  possibilities.  To  ignore 
public  feeling,  to  turn  the  world  against  its 
will,  requires  a  loftier  enthusiasm  than  his, 
dependent  solely  on  spiritual  aids— or  else 
less  intelligence  and  spirit  in  the  people,  and 
a  strong  standing  army.  Such  counsellors 
are  bred  by  kings  like  the  Stuarts,  but  seldom 
with  Laud's  element  of  moral  greatness. 
His  virtues,  his  abilities,  his  reckless  courage, 
his  tenacious  consistency,  served  only— for 
the  moment — to  destroy  everything  that  he 
prized.  Had  his  church  been  fairly  repre- 
sented by  his  methods,  she  had  deserved  never 
to  rise  again.  But  in  a  sense  he  builded  bet- 
ter than  he  knew.  His  violence  bred  strife, 
and  tiirough  that  strife  the  principles  of  civil 
and  religious  liberty  began  to  be  apprehended. 
The  truths  for  which  he  stood,  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal ideal  he  aimed  at,  survived,  to  be  purged 
of  bad  companionship  and  pursued  by  more 
effectual  and  gentler  means.  With  the  least 
possible  external  similarity,  there  is  a  certain 
parallel  between  Laud  and  that  John  Brown 
who  was  hanged  in  Virginia. 

Laud's  Seven  Sermons  appeared,  London, 
1651  ;  "his  Summarie  of  Devotions,  1667;  His- 
tory o/(his)  Troubles  and  Trial,  1695.  These, 
•with  his  valuable  Letters  and  Diary,  are  in- 
cluded in  his  works,  edited  by  Dr.  Bliss,  1858, 
7  vols.  For  one  view  of  his  life,  see  Dr. 
Heylin's  Cyprianus  Angliaus,  1671  ;  for  an- 
other, Prynne's  Brevinte,  1644,  and  Canter- 
bury's Doome,  1646  ;  and  in  general.  Hook's 
Lives  of  the  ArrhbisJiops,  ii.,  vol.  6,  1875  ;  S.  R. 
Gardiner's  books  on  Charles  L,  1877-83; 
A.  C.  Benson,  London,  1887,  etc.     F.  M.  B. 

Lauds  in  combination  with  matins  forms 
the  tirst  of  the  7  canonical  hours  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  has  received  its  name 
from  tlie  circumstance  that  it  consists  prin- 
cipally of  songs  of  praise.  C    P. 

Laura,  a  word  of  uncertain  derivation,  de- 
notes a  transition  form  between  the  hermitage 
and  the  monastery.  In  the  laura  each  cell  is 
an  independent  and  separate  structure,  and 
consequently  the  inmates  of  the  laura,  the 


monks,  live  in  solitude  and  see  each  other 
only  in  the  church  at  service.  This  form  of 
monastic  life  was  at  one  time  very  common 
in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Palestine. 

Laurentius,  St.,  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  was 
appointed  treasurer  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
in  257.  In  the  following  year,  during  the 
Valerian  persecution,  he  was  thrown  info 
prison.  The  prefect,  having  heard  that  the 
church  was  in  possession  of  a  great  treasm-e, 
proposed  to  release  Laurentius  if  he  would 
surrender  the  treasure.  He  con.sentcd,  hast- 
ened to  the  treasury,  and  returned  with  a 
flock  of  cripples  and  paupers,  of  whom  the 
church  took  care.  "That  is  our  treasure." 
The  prefect  then  sentenced  him  to  be  roasted 
alive  on  a  gridiron  over  a  slow  coaU15re.  His 
day  is  Aug.  10.  In  his  memory  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  who  had  himself  a  liking  for  roasting 
people  alive,  built  his  magnificent  palace  at 
Escorial  (q.v.)  in  the  form  of  a  gridiron. 

Laurentius,  antipope.  Upon  the  death  of 
Anastasius  II.  (498)  two  popes  were  chosen, 
Symmaclius  and  Laurentius.  A  savage  civil 
w'ar  broke  out  over  the  matter,  and  streets 
and  churches  flowed  with  blood.  Theodorich 
decided  for  Symmachus.  F.  H.  F. 

Laurentius  Valla  (Lorenzo  Delia  Valle), 
humanist  and  theologian  ;  b.  at  Rome,  1406 
or  1407  ;  d.  there,  Aug.  1,  1457.  His  family 
was  distinguished,  and  his  early  education 
careful.  In  1431  he  was  ordained  priest,  and 
became  professor  of  eloquence  at  Pavia.  Here 
he  wrote  his  Dialectic  Qiiestions  and  his  On 
Elegance  of  Latin  Diction,  which  were  a  break 
with  the  barbarisms  of  the  past.  The  strife 
which  broke  out  was  so  hot  tliat  Laurentius 
had  to  tlce,  and  in  1435  or  1436  entered  the 
service  of  Alphonso  Y.  of  Arragon.  He  now 
engaged  in  theological  studies,  writing  (about 
1440)  his  Declamation  Concerning  the  Spiirioua 
Donation  of  Constantine,  which  he  followed 
with  publications  questioning  the  genuineness 
of  the  correspondence  of  Christ  with  Abgar, 
the  identity  of  Dionysius  of  Athens  w  ith  the 
author  of'  the  writings  bearing  the  same 
name,  etc.  For  all  tliis  he  was  brought  to 
trial,  but  was  protected  by  the  king.  He 
now  passed  over  to  New  Testament  questions, 
found  mistranslations  in  the  Vulgate,  and  ac- 
cused Augustine  of  error  in  the  doctrine  of 
predestination.  Being  called  by  family  affairs 
to  Rome  (1444),  he  was  compelled  to  escape 
the  malice  of  his  enemies  by  flight.  He  now 
took  up  his  residence  in  Kaples,  where  he 
opened  a  school.  He  fell  into  violent  con- 
troversy with  humanists  upon  literary  ques- 
tions. But  finally  he  became  a  favorite  of 
the  humanistic  pope,  Nicholas  V.,  was  made 
apostolic  secretary  by  his  successor,  Calixtus, 
and  was  buried  in  the  Lateran  church.  His 
works  were  collected  (incomplete)  at  Basel, 
1540-43  ;  Yenice,  1592.  (See  his  life  by  Mon- 
rad,  Copenhagen,  1879,  German  trans.,  Gotha, 
1881.)  F.  H.  F. 

Lavater,  Johann  Easpar,  b.  at  Zurich, 
Nov.  15,  1741  ;  d.  there,  Jan.  2,  1801  ;  stud- 
ied theology,  and  was  appointed  deacon  of  the 
church  of  the  orphan  house  in  his  native  city. 


LAVER 


(492) 


LAZARISTS 


1768,  and  pastor  of  St.  Peter's  church,  1786. 
He  exercised  an  extraordinary  influence  on 
his  time,  partly  through  his  Physiogiiomische 
Fragniente,  Leipzig,  1775-78,  4  vols.,  which 
chimed  in  fully  with  the  hero-worship  or  gen- 
ius-worship inaugurated  by  Goethe  and  one  of 
the  leading  traits  of  the  age ;  partly  by  his 
sermons,  hymns,  Aussichten  in  die  Eicigkeit, 
1768-73,  3  vols.,  which  formed  a  striking  and 
often  very  effectual  protest  against  the  reigning 
rationalism.  His  life  was  written  by  Gessner, 
Zurich,  1802,  3  vols.  ;  Herbst,  Ansbach,  1832  ; 
Boderaann.  Gotha,  1856,  2d  ed.,  1877,  and  by 
Morikofer  in  his  Schweitz.  Litter,  d.  18  Jahrh., 
Leipzig,  1861. 

Laver,  a  brazen  vessel,  standing  in  the 
court  of  the  tabernacle  containing  water  for 
the  priests  to  wash  their  hands  and  feet  when 
approaching  the  altar.  It  was  made  from 
the  metallic  mirrors  of  the  women  (Ex. 
xxxviii.  8;.  In  Solomon's  temple  there  were 
10  lavers,  5  on  each  side  of  the  priest's  court 
(1  Kings  vii.  27-39).  T.  W.  C. 

Law  is  a  rule  of  action  enforced  by  com- 
petent authority.  There  is  a  law  of  nature 
written  in  the  hearts  of  men  (Rom.  ii.  15) 
which  is  coeval  with  the  human  race  and 
binding  all  over  the  globe.  This  law,  which 
all  men  recognize,  their  conscience  bearing 
witness  therewith  and  their  thoughts  one  with 
another  accusing  or  else  excusing  them,  is 
that  by  which  the  heathen  are  to  be  judged  in 
the  great  day.  But  there  is  another  law,  given 
by  express  revelation,  which  is  a  complete  and 
absolute  rule  of  duty.  Its  substance  is  stated 
in  the  Decalogue  and  still  further  summarized 
in  the  two  precepts  of  Christ  enjoining  the 
supreme  love  of  God  and  the  love  of  our 
neighbor  as  ourselves.  This  law  is  perfect, 
perpetual,  and  holy.  It  forbids  all  that  is 
wrong  and  enjoins  all  that  is  right,  and  can 
never  cease  to  be  binding.  Christ  came  not 
to  abrogate  it,  but  to  complete  it  and  furnish 
means  and  motive  for  obedience.  The  glory 
of  the  Gospel  is  that  it  makes  provision  for 
pardon  and  redemption,  while  at  the  same 
time  upholding  the  sanctity  and  permanence 
of  the  moral  law.  T.  W.  C. 

Law^  of  Moses.  See  Moses,  Pentateuch. 
Law,  William,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Kingscliff,  Northamptonshire,  12  m.  w.  of 
Peterborough,  in  1686  ;  d.  there,  April  9,  1761. 
He  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
1705,  and  in  1711  became  a  fellow  and  took 
orders.  In  1716,  refusing  to  take  the  oaths 
to  George  I.,  he  abandoned  his  position  and 
prospects.  From  1727-31  he  was  tutor  to 
Gibbon  at  Cambridge,  and  for  some  years 
lived  at  Putney  as  "  friend  and  spiritual 
director"  to  the  family  of  the  future  his- 
torian. About  1734  he  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  .lacob  Behmen,  the  German  mystic. 
From  1740  he  ■svas  "  chaplain,  instructor,  and 
almoner"  to  two  wealthy  ladies,  who,  like 
himself,  preferred  a  life  of  rural  retiremebt 
and  unobtrusive  charities.  His  talents  were 
eminent,  his  character  singularly  pure,  his 
chosen  pursuits  those  of  study,  beneficence, 
and  piety.  His  literary  career  began  with 
controversy,  in  Three  Letters  to  the  Bishop 
of  Bangor  (Hoadley),    London,    1717,   in  de- 


fence  of  the  Nonjurors.  He  also  answered 
Mandeville's  Fable  of  the  Bees,  in  1723  (re- 
print by  F.  D.  Maurice,  1844),  and  Tindal  in 
1732.  His  best-known  work,  Serious  Call  to 
a  Devout  and  Holy  Life,  1729,  has  won  the 
praise  alike  of  Evangelicals,High  Churchmen, 
and  Rationalists,  and  still  has  readers.  His 
mystical  writings,  far  less  familiar,  display 
his  genius  and  character  to  great  advantage. 
Some  of  them  confute  Dr.  Trapp,  Bishop 
AVarburton.  etc.  ;  others  deal  with  Revelation, 
1739  ;  Regeneration,  1739 ;  The  Spirit  of 
Prayer,  1749  ;  Spirit  of  Love,  1752  ;  Way  to 
Divine  Knowledge,  1752  ;  A  Methodist  and  a 
Churchman,  1760  ;  Address  to  the  Clergy,  1761. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  R.  Tighe,  1813  ; 
C.  Walton,  1848,  and  J.  H.  Overton,  1881. 
F.  M.  B. 

Lay  Abbots.     See  Abbots. 

Lay  Brothers  and  Lay  Sisters  were  arti- 
sans, nurses,  menial  servants,  employes  of 
various  descriptions,  who  lived  in  Die  monas- 
teries under  certain  very  strict  rules,  but  took 
no  vows.  They  occur  for  the  first  time  in  the 
11th  century,  but  became  soon  very  numer- 
ous. 

Lay  Oommunion,  when  used  as  a  technical 
term,  means  the  deprivation  of  office  and 
general  degradation  of  a  clergyman  to  the 
state  of  a  layman— whence  it  follows  that  he 
partakes  of  the  eucharist  only  as  a  layman— 
but  has  no  direct  reference  to  communion  in 
one  kind  {i.e.,  the  bread). 

Lay  Preaching.  The  present  distinction 
of  clergy  and  laity  is  not  primitive  nor  essen- 
tial, though  conducive  to  order.  There  is  no 
good  reason  why  a  layman  should  not  preach, 
if  his  call  to  do  so  be  manifest,  just  as  there  is 
no  good  reason  why  a  clergyman  should 
preach  when  he  is  plainly  not  so  called.  Ex- 
perience, however,  shows  that  persons  with- 
out regular  theological  training  are  likely  to 
be  more  useful  in  Christian  work  outside  of 
the  pulpit.  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  Meth- 
odism owed  its  spread,  under  God,  to  lay 
preaching,  but  then  there  has  always  been  in 
that  body  a  guiding  band  of  trained  profes- 
sional teachers,  and  where  such  is  present  lay 
preaching  is  a  valuable  supplement  to  the 
clerical. 

Lay  Representation.  The  feature  of  Prot- 
estant churches  whereby  religious  judicato- 
ries are  composed  in  part  of  regularly  chosen 
laymen. 

Laying  on  of  Hands.  See  Imposition  of 
Hands. 

Lazarists,  a  religious  order  founded  in  1625 
by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  confirmed  in  1631  by 
Urban  VIII. ,  and  named  after  that  house  in 
Paris,  the  abbey  of  St.  Lazare,  in  which  it 
was  installed.  Its  formal  name  was  "The 
Priests  of  the  Mission,"  and  its  objects  were 
missions  at  home  and  abroad,  and  education, 
especiall}^  of  young  priests.  It  spread  into 
many  countries,  and  in  France  it  lived  tlirough 
the  Revolution.  Under  the  name  of  "  The 
Fathers  of  the  Mission"  it  still  exercises  great 
influence  in  Poland,  especially  on  ecclesiastical 
education,  and  in  1878  it  numbered  1195  mem 
bers  in  France,  mostly  occupied  in  missions 


LAZARUS 


( 493 ) 


liECTIONARIES 


in  foreign  countries.  It  maintained  at  that 
time  46  stations  in  China,  5  in  Turkey  in 
Asia,  3  in  Turl^ey  in  Europe,  3  in  Abyssinia, 
etc. 

Lazarus  (=  deazar,  God  helpn).  1.  Of 
Bethany,  brother  of  Mary  and  Martlia  (John 
xi.  1).  Clirist  was  a  frequent  guest  of  the 
family.  He  raised  Lazarus  from  the  grave, 
which  so  angered  the  Jews  that  they  sought 
to  kill  both  Christ  and  Lazarus.  2.  The  name 
of  the  beggar  in  the  striking  parable  in  which 
our  Lord  taught  what  we  know  of  the  mid- 
dle state  (Luke  xvi.  19-31).  T.  W.  C. 

Leade,  Jane  (Wjird),  founder  of  the  Phila- 
delphian  Society  ;  b.  at  Norfolk,  1623  ;  d.  in 
London,  Aug.  19,  1704.  She  married,  1644, 
and,  losing  her  husband  and  property  in  1670, 
gave  herself  up  to  mystical  speculations,  and 
gathered  a  congregation  of  the  likeminded. 
In  1680  she  began  to  publish  her  revelations, 
among  them  The  Wonders  of  God's  Creation, 
London,  1695.  and  The  Tree  of  Faith,  1696. 
She  predicted  the  Second  Advent  about  1700. 
An  account  of  her  life  and  writings  is  given 
by  Hochhuth  in  Zeitschrift  fur  die  Hist.  The- 
olocjie,  vol.  XXXV.,  1865.  F.  M.  B. 

Leander,  St.,  b.  at  Cartagena,  Spain,  in  the 
first  half,  d.  at  Seville  toward  the  close  of  the 
6tli  century  ;  was  metropolitan  bishop  of 
Seville  from  about  575  to  about  600,  and  pre- 
sided over  the  Council  of  Toledo,  589,  at 
which  the  whole  West  Gothic  people.  King 
Reccared  at  their  head,  abjured  Arianism  and 
joined  the  Catholic  Churc'h.  This  event,  so 
important  not  only  to  the  Spanish  Church  but 
to  Christendom,  was,  indeed,  his  work,  and 
he  is  revered  by  the  Roman  Church  as  a  saint. 
His  two  brothers,  Isidorus  Hispalensis  and 
Fulgentius,  and  his  sister,  Florentina,  were 
alro  canonized.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Gregory  the  Great,  who  dedicated  his 
Moralia  in  Jobnm  to  him.  Of  his  own  writ- 
Inge  only  two  are  still  extant,  a  rule  for  nuns, 
Rcgida  de  institutione  Virrjininn,  found  in 
Holsten,  Cod.  Rrr/.  iii.,  and  his  speech  at  To- 
ledo, Ilomilia  do  triumpho  ecclesiw,  in  Mansi, 
Coll.  Cone. 

Leathes,  Stanley,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1878), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  EllesborougJi, 
Bucks,  Marcii  21,  1830  ;  B.A.  (Cambridge, 
1852)  ;  Professor  of  Hebrew,  King's  College, 
Loudon,  1863.  He  was  Boyle  lecturer,  1868- 
70  ;  Hulsean  lecturer,  1873  ;  Bampton  lectur- 
er, 1874  ;  Warburtonian  lecturer,  187(>-80  ; 
O.  T.  reviser,  1870-85.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  works,  including  the  witness  of 
the  0.  T.  (London,  1868),  of  St.  Paul  (1869), 
and  of  ^'i!.  John  (1870)  to  Christ ;  The  Gospel 
its  Own  Witness,  1874  ;  The  Religion  of  the 
Chi-ist,  1874,  2d  ed.,  1870;  0.  T.  Prophecy, 
1880  ;  Christ  and  the  Bible,  1885. 

Leaven,  a  lump  of  fermented  dough.  The 
Jews  were  forbidden  to  offer  it  in  the  temple 
(Lev.  ii.  11),  and  could  not  have  any  in  their 
liouses  during  the  Passover  week.  It  is  used 
to  denote  corrupt  doctrines  (Matt.  xvi.  6)  and 
evil  practices  (I  Cor.  v.  7,  8),  and  also  in  our 
Lord's  parable  (Matt.  xiii.  33)  to  express  tlie 
silent  way  in  which  the  truth  works  in  the 
heart  until  its  aim  is  accomplished. 

T.  W.  C. 


Leavitt,  Joshua,  D.D.  (Wabash  College), 
Cougregationalist  ;  b.  at  Heath,  Franklin 
County,  Mass.,  Sept.  8,  1794  ;  d.  in  Brooklyn, 
Jan.  16,  1873.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  1814, 
and  in  divinity,  1825,  after  practising  law 
a  few  years  ;  was  pastor  at  Stratford,  Conn., 
1825-28  ;  secretary  of  the  Seamen's  Friend, 
Society  and  editor  of  the  Sailor's  Magazine, 
New  York,  1828-31  ;  editor  of  the  Evangelist, 
1831-37  ;  of  the  EmancijMtor,  1837-41  ;  of 
the  Boston  Daily  Chronicle,  1841,  and  of  the 
Indcpemient  from  1848.  He  compiled  the  Sea- 
men's Ilymn-Book,  1830,  and  the  Christian 
Lyre,  1830-31.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  New  York  Anti-Slavery  Society,  the 
first  lecturer  employed  by  the  American  Tem- 
perance Society,  and  active  on  behalf  of  Sun- 
day-scliools  and  free  trade.  F.  M.  B. 

Leb'-a-non  {exceeding  w?iite),  a  double  moun- 
tain range  north  of  Palestine  enclosinsr  a  val- 
ley from  6  to  8  miles  broad  (Josh.  xi.  17), 
anciently  called  Ca-losyria,  now  El-Bukda,  in 
which  are  the  ruins  of  Baalbec.  The  average 
height  is  7000  feet,  but  the  loftiest  peaks  are 
10,000  feet  and  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
The  sides  are  clothed  with  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion, and  every  available  space  is  utilized  for 
figs,  vines,  and  olives,  "rhe  lordly  cedars 
which  covered  the  mountain  are  now  reduced 
to  a  few  groves.  The  region  was  assigned  to 
the  Israelites,  but  never  conquered  by  them 
(Josh.  ii.  13,  Judges  iii.  1-3.  Its  cedars,  wines, 
and  cold  waters,  are  repeatedly  mentioned 
in  Scripture  (Can.  v.  15,  Hos.  xiv.  7,  Jer. 
xviii.  14),  and  it  often  gave  occasion  for  a 
striking  simile  (Ps.  Ixxii.  16,  xxix.  5,  6,  civ. 
16-18,  Isa.  XXXV.  2,  Ix.  13).  T.  W.  C. 

Lebbaeus.     See  Jude. 

Lebuin  or  Liafwin  (Latin,  Livimis),  an 
Anglo-Saxon  by  birth,  went  as  missionary 
among  the  Frisians  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
8th  century,  built  two  churches  at  Wulpcn 
and  Deventer,  and  is  revered  as  the  patron 
saint  of  Dciventer.  His  life  is  in  Pertz,  Mon- 
lim.   Germ.  ii. 

Lechler,  Gotthard  Victor,  Ph.D.  (Tubing- 
en, 1840)  ;  D.D.  (Gottingen,  1858).  Lutlieran  ; 
b.  at  Kloster  Reichenbach,  Wurtemberg, 
April  18,  1811  ;  d.  at  Leipzig,  Dec.  26,  1888, 
where  he  was  professor  of  theology  since  1858. 
His  two  greatest  works  were  Bas  Apostolische 
Zeitalter,  Haarlem,  1851,  3d  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1885  (Eng.  trans.,  7?te  Apostolic  and  Post- 
apostolic  Times,  Edinburgh,  1886),  ami  Johann 
vonWiclif,  1873,  2  vols.  (Eng.  trans,  of  vol.  i., 
London,  1878,  2  vols.,  n.  e.,  1884,  1  vol.) 

Lectern  or  Lecturn,  a  piece  of  church 
furniture,  the  desk  from  which  the  lessons  of 
Holy  Scripture  are  read,  sometimes  made  of 
wood  or  brass  and  movable,  sometimes  of 
stone  and  fixed,  often  havmg  the  shape  of  an 
eagle  with  the  wings  spread,  referring  prob- 
ably to  the  eagle  of'St.  John. 

Lectionaries  (Latin,  rolmnina  lectionaria, 
or  Wjri  Uctionorii)  were  tables  of  religious 
lessons  selected  from  Holy  Scripture  with  a 
reference  to  their  special  applic^ibility  to  a 
certain  day,  as.  for  instance,  tlie  narrative  of 
the  birth  of  Christ  to  Christmas,  that  of  his 
resurrection  to  Easter,  etc.,  and  read  on  that 


LECTOR 


(494) 


LEGATES 


very  day  by  the  lector  from  the  ambo  as  part 
of  the  divine  service.  This  custom  of  having 
sacred  lessons  read  at  every  service,  between 
the  hymns,  the  prayers,  the  sermon  and  the 
administration  of  the  sacraments,  was,  no 
doubt,  adopted  by  tiie  primitive  church  from 
the  synagogue,  and  the  lessons  were,  of 
course,  taken  from  the  Old  Testament  only. 
Then  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  came 
in  ;  then  the  Acta  Martyrum,  letters  from 
and  sermons  by  eminent  divines,  etc.  But 
already  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  360,  forbade 
to  use  uucanonical  writings  for  church  les- 
sons, and  gradually  the  selection  was  confined 
to  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The  num- 
ber of  such  lessons  varied  in  the  various 
churches.  Thus  the  churches  of  Gaul  and 
Spain,  before  the  introduction  of  the  Roman 
ritual,  had  three  lessons  :  one  from  the  Old 
Testament,  one  from  the  gospels,  evangelis- 
taria,  and  one  from  the  epistles,  epistolaria, 
while  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  Church,  fol- 
lowed in  this  point  by  the  Anglican  and  the 
Lutheran,  had  only  two,  of  which  the  latter 
was  always  taken  from  the  gospels.  Origi- 
nally these  lessons  ran  on  continuously,  the 
next  always  beginning  where  the  preceding 
had  stopped.  But  soon  it  became  general 
practice,  on  account  of  the  special  applica- 
bility of  certain  jjortions,  to  select  and  fix  the 
lessons  for  each  day  of  the  year— a  little  ar- 
bitrarily, it  would  seem,  as  when  the  Book  of 
Genesis  was  always  read  in  Lent— and  thus 
sprang  up  the  pericopal  system  (see  Peri- 
cope).  The  oldest  instance  of  such  a  table 
of  ecclesiastical  lessons  or  lectionary,  still  ex- 
isting, is  the  so  called  Comes,  once  ascribed 
to  Jerome  and  found  among  his  works,  then 
the  Lectionarium  Oallicanum  (Mabillon,  De 
Liturg.  Gall.),  the  Lectionarium  Romanum 
(Fronto,  Calend.  Rom.),  Lectionarium  Ala- 
mconnicuni  (Gerbert,  Man.  vet.  lurgv.  Alem.), 
etc.  (See  Ranke,  Das  kirclil.  Pericopenstysten, 
Berlin,  1847.)  C.  P. 

Lector  {avayvuaTTjg)  was  one  of  the  regular 
officers  of  the  ancient  church.  His  duty  was 
to  read  the  sacred  lessons  from  the  ambo 
during  service,  but  as  he  was  not  allowed  to 
give  any  exegetical  or  homileticai  expositions, 
he  belonged  to  the  lower  clerical  orders. 
After  the  5th  century  his  office  disappeared 
and  his  duties  were  performed  by  the  deacon. 
See  Harnack,  Die  Quellen  cler  apostolischen 
Kirchenordrmng ,  Giessen,  1886. 

Lee,  Ann,  founder  of  the  American  Shak- 
ers ;  b.  in  Manchester,  Feb.  29,  1736  ;  d.  at 
AVatervliet,  near  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8,  1784. 
The  daughter  of  a  blacksmith,  in  early  life 
she  served  in  a  cotton-mill  and  an  infirmary 
kitchen  ;  married  A.  Standley,  and  buried 
4  children.  Connected  in  1758  with  Ward- 
ley's  "  Shaking  Quakers,"  she  began  in  1770 
to  have  visions  and  revelations,  which  brought 
her  for  a  time  into  a  jail  and  a  lunatic  asylum. 
She  left  her  husband,  believed  herself  a  sec- 
ond incarnation  of  Christ,  and  was  called 
"  Mother  Ann"  and  "  Ann  the  Word."  She 
led  her  followers  to  America,  1774  ;  settled 
at  Watervliet,  1776  ;  was  twice  imprisoned 
for  alleged  treason  and  witchcraft,  but  gained 
many  converts  ;  removed  her  headquarters  in 


1780  to  New  Lebanon,  Columbia  County,  and 
travelled  and  preached  through  New  Eng- 
land, 1783-84.     See  Shakers.        F.  M.  B. 

Lee,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Halle,  1822  ;  Cam- 
bridge, 1833),  Orientalist  ;  b.  at  Longnor, 
Shropshire,  152  m.  n.n.w.  of  London,  May 
14,  1783  ;  d.  at  Barley,  Somersetshire,  Dec.  16, 
1852.  He  learned  6  dead  languages  while 
apprentice  to  a  carpenter  ;  taught  at  Shrews- 
bury, 1810-13  ;  entered  Queens"  Col  lege,  Cam- 
bridge, 1813  ;  graduated,  1817,  and  took  or- 
ders ;  professor  of  Arabic,  1819,  and  of  He- 
brew, 1831  ;  rector  of  Barley.  He  translated 
Travels  of  Ihn  Batiita,  London,  1829,  and 
The  Book  of  Job ,  1837,  and  produced  a  Hebrew 
granmiar  (1830)  and  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
lexicon,  1840,  etc.  F.  M.  B. 

Legal  Hundred.  See  p.  565. 
_  Legates  and  Nuncios.  Papal  representa- 
tives, legati,  nuncii,  missi,  etc.,  are  spoken  of 
as  present  at  the  first  councils  held  in  the 
East,  and  when  the  Council  of  Sardica,  343, 
gave  the  bishop  of  Rome  the  right  to  receive 
appeals  from  other  bishops  ;  also  on  other  occa- 
sions, when  some  case  had  to  be  decided  on 
the  very  spot  where  it  occurred.  But  in  the 
first  centuries  there  were  no  canonical  regu- 
lations of  the  title,  rank,  power,  etc.,  of  those 
representatives.  As,  however,  the  Roman 
hierarchy  became  more  and  more  perfectly 
organized  these  offices  also  became  more 
and  more  strictly-  defined,  the  principal  decre- 
tals belonging  to  Gregory  IX.,  Boniface  VIII., 
and  Leo  X.  A  distinction  was  made  between 
legati  nati  (born)  and  legati  dati  or  missi  (ap- 
pointed). The  office  of  the  legatus  natus  was 
alwajs  connected  with  an  episcopal  or  archi- 
episcopal  see,  but  was  not  much  more  than  a 
title  and  a  rank.  At  all  events,  the  power  of 
a  legatus  natus  was  immediately  suspend- 
ed when  a  specially  appointed  legate  was 
present.  The  title  still  belongs  to  the  sees 
of  Quesen-Posen,  Cologne,  Salzburg,  and 
Prague.  Among  the  legates  specially  ap- 
pointed a  further  distinction  was  made  be- 
tween the  simple  legatus  missns  and  the  lega- 
tus a  latere,  "from  the  side  of  the  pope." 
The  former  was  provided  with  a  special  man- 
date which  limited  his  power  to  that  particu- 
lar case  for  which  he  was  sent,  while  the 
latter  really  was  the  representative  of  the 
pope,  and,  with  very  few  restrictions,  acted 
with  full  pontifical  power.  A  cross  was  car- 
ried before  him  in  the  streets  ;  he  sat  on  a 
throne  under  a  canopy  ;  not  only  the  whole 
clergy,  but  also  the  king  and  the  court  turned 
out  to  receive  him.  As  the  legate  generally 
was  to  be  entertained  by  the  clergy  of  the 
province  to  which  he  was  sent,  and  as  his 
principal  errand  often  was  to  raise  money  for 
the  papal  treasury,  he  was  by  no  means  al- 
ways a  welcome  guest,  and  the  arrogance 
with  which  he  behaved,  the  extortions  he 
was  allowed  to  make,  the  frauds  and  crimes 
he  was  suffered  to  commit,  form  one  of  the 
most  curious  pages  of  mediaeval  history.  In 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries  the  kings  of  Eng- 
land and  France  declared  that  no  legates  were 
allowed  to  enter  their  dominions  without  a 
special  royal  permit.  Continuous  nunciatures 
were  first  established  at  the  imperial  court  of 


UBGEND 


{  41.5  ) 


L£IGHTON 


Vienna  and  the  royal  court  of  Warsaw.  But 
they  had  a  more  political  or  diplomatic  char- 
acter. The  nuncio  was  clad  in  red,  rode  on 
a  white  horse,  and  wore  golden  spurs.  After 
the  Reformation  nunciatures  were  also  estab- 
lished at  Luzern,  Cologne,  Brussels,  and  other 
mixed  districts.  But  these  nunciatures  had  a 
missionary  purpose,  to  reclaim  Protestant 
fields,  and  caused  much  discontent  among  the 
bishops.  There  was,  indeed,  always  a  great 
jealousy  between  the  bishops  and  the  legates. 
The  Council  of  Trent  tried  to  adjust  the  mat- 
ter by  a  strict  delinition  of  the  power  of  a 
legate.  Nevertheless,  the  establishment  of 
the  nunciature  in  Munich  led  to  the  Emser 
Punctation,  1785.  Besides  regular  nnncii 
there  are  a\so  pro-Jiuncii  and  inter-nuncii,  but 
the  distinction  between  these  offices  has  no 
interest  except  perhaps  to  the  incumbents. 

C.  P. 

Legend  {legenda,  "  things  to  be  read  '")  was 
the  name  given  in  early  times  to  a  book  con- 
taining the  daily  lessons  of  divine  service. 
These  afterward  came  to  include  lives  of 
saints  and  martyrs.  At  first  the  lives  had  a 
historical  basis  and  were  useful,  but  in  the 
Dth  century  there  arose  such  a  wonderful  ex- 
aggeration of  fancy  and  ecclesiastical  enthusi- 
asm that  the  legends  became  a  mass  of  fic- 
tion. The  fraudulent  repn^sentations  were 
so  gross  that  tlie  simplest  faith  could  not  re- 
ceive them.  Finall}'  in  the  16th  century,  with 
the  rise  of  Protestantism,  the  legend  began 
to  disappear.  And  if  in  oui  day  men  of 
genius  take  up  the  subject  at  all,  it  is  merely 
from  a  literary  or  aesthetical  point  of  view. 
T.  W   C- 

Legion,  The  Theban,  thus  called  because 
levied  in  the  Thebais,  the  district  around 
Thebes,  Egypt,  was  taken  to  Italy  by  Max- 
iniian,  286-305,  to  beused  against  the  Bagandaj, 
who  had  risen  in  revolt  under  the  leadership 
of  two  Roman  officers,  286  or  297.  At  Agau- 
num,  the  present  St.  Maurice,  in  the  canton 
of  Vallais,  Switzerland,  the  emperor  reviewed 
the  new  legion,  and  the  soldiers  were  called 
upon  to  swear  allegiance,  with  all  the  usual 
heathen  ceremonies.  They  were  Christians, 
however,  and  exhorted  by  their  commander, 
Mauritius,  they  refused.  The  consequence 
was  a  decimation— every  tenth  man  was 
killed.  Still  they  refused,  and  a  new  decima- 
tion followed.  Finally  the  emperor  ordered 
the  whole  legion  to  be  massacred — 6666  men 
— and  it  was  done.  This  story  spread  widely 
north  of  the  Alps,  and  took  very  strong  hold 
of  men's  minds.  The  name  of  Agaunum  was 
changed  to  St.  jNIaurice  ;  a  monastery  was 
founded  there  in  his  honor  ;  his  lance  became 
the  ensign  of  the  Burgundians,  and  when  the 
Roman  emperor  came  to  Aries  to  be  crowned 
as  king  of  Burgundy,  he  was  invested  with 
the  spurs  of  St.  Maurice.  Many  places  in 
Germany,  as,  for  instance,  Magdeburg,  chose 
him  for  "their  patron  saint,  and  it  was  also  a 
northern  man,  St.  Euchcrius,  bishop  of  Lj'ons 
and  a  Gaul  by  descent,  who  first  gave  a  writ- 
ten account  of  the  event,  .some  time  in  the  nth 
century.  150  years  after  it  took  place.  But 
south  of  the  Alps  nobody  seems  to  have  heard 
anything    about    the    story.      Contemporary 


writers  or  such  as  are  nearest  to  the  event, 
Eusebius,  Lactantius,  Orosius,  etc.,  are  silent, 
and  it  looks  very  singular  that  Lactantius, 
who  was  tutor  to  the  son  of  Constantiue  the 
Great,  and  often  speaks  of  the  cruelty  of  Max- 
imian,  never  mentions  it.  The  first,  however, 
to  reject  the  whole  legend  as  a  mere  fable 
was  the  Magdeburg  Centuriea,  and  after  that 
time  it  has  alternately  been  attacked  (Du 
Bordieu,  Ilottinger,  Gibbon,  Rettberg)  and 
defended  (De  risle.  Canon  Robertson,  Amedee 
Thierry,  Friedrich).  The  sources  are  given 
in  full  and  very  ably  treated  by  the  BoUand- 
ists.  Act.  Sanct.,  Sept.  22. 

Legion,  The  Thundering  {Icgio  fulmina- 
trix),  happened  some  time  during  the  reign 
of  Marcus  Aurelius,  lGl-80,  to  find  itself  shut 
up  in  a  gorge  in  the  Alps  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  enemies,  and  suffering  terribly  from 
total  lack  of  water,  when  unexpectedly  it  was 
saved  by  the  bursting  of  a  mighty  shower. 
The  event  made  quite  an  impression  at  the 
time.  It  stands  pictured  on  the  column  of 
the  emperor  in  the  Piazza  Colonna,  Rome, 
and  is  mentioned  by  contemporary  writers, 
both  Christian  and  pagan,  the  former  ascrib- 
ing the  salvation  of  the  legion  to  the  prayers 
of  the  Christian  soldiers,  the  latter  to  the 
prayers  of  the  pagan  emperor.  The  letter  of 
the  emperor  to  the  senate  is  spurious,  how- 
ever, and  the  name  fi/lmi?mtnx  vfas  not  given 
to  the  legion  on  account  of  that  event ;  it  was 
more  than  100  years  old  at  that  time. 

LeTii  (jawbone),  a  place  in  Judah  where 
Samson  slew  1000  Philistines  with  the  jaw- 
bone of  an  ass  (Judges  xv.  9-19).  T.  W.  C. 

Leibni(t)z  (lib-nits),  Gottfried  Wilhelm,b. 
at  Leipzig,  July  1, 1646  ;  d.  at  Hannover,  Nov. 
14,  1716.  He  studied  at  Leipzig  and  Jena, 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  elector  of  May- 
ence  in  1667,  and  in  1676  that  of  the  Dute 
of  Brunswick,  in  which  he  continued  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
precocity  and  the  wide  range  of  his  scholar- 
ship, being  eminent  in  nearly  every  branch  of 
knowledge.  His  writings  were  numerous, 
but  those  of  most  interest  to  the  theologian 
were  his  theodicy  and  those  in  behalf  of 
Christian  union.  The  former  maintained 
that  this  was  the  best  possible  world  that 
could  exist,  a  thesis  which  led  him  to  strip 
evil  of  its  ethical  character,  and  make  it  a 
natural  result  of  the  necessary  limitation 
of  everything  created.  The  latter  induced 
him  to  enter  into  many  conferences,  with 
a  view  of  reconciling  Romanism  and  Prot- 
estantism, and  at  length  to  prepare  an  ex- 
position of  his  doctrinal  belief,  called  Si/s- 
tenia  Thcologicum,  written  about  1686,  but 
not  published  till  1819,  Ger.  trans.,  Mainz, 
1820,  Ijut  the  only  result  was  to  render  his 
own  Protestantism  susi)ected  by  many.  His 
genius  was  colossal  and  his  ideas  were  brill- 
iant. His  works,  latest  ed.  by  Onno  Klopp, 
Hannover,  1864-85,  13  vols.,  were  read  with 
interest  even  where  his  positions  were  not  ac- 
cepted, and  he  left  an  enduring  mark  upon 
his  age.  (See  Pichler,  Die  Theologie  den  L., 
Leipzig,  1869-70,  2  vols.)  t.  W.  C. 

Leighton  (la-ton),   Robert,   archbishop  of 


LEIGHTON 


(496) 


liE  MAITRE 


Glasgow  ;  b.  probably  in  Scotland,  1611  ;  d. 
in  London,  June  25,  1684.  His  father,  Dr. 
Alexander  Leighlon,  for  Zio/i's  Plea  against 
the  Prelacie,  was  barbarously  mutilated  by  the 
Star  Chamber  and  imprisoned  10  years  in  Lon- 
don ;  but  the  sou's  gentle  and  catholic  spirit 
harbored  no  resentment  for  these  injuries.  En- 
tering the  University  of  Edinburgh,  1627,  he 
graduated,  1631,  and  spent  some  years  in 
France,  seeing  much  of  certain  relatives  at 
Douay,  with  whom  he  long  corresponded,  and 
coming  into  contact  with  some  Jansenists  ;  this 
was  the  only  foundation  for  the  later  charges 
of  a  leaning  toward  Rome.  He  was  Presby- 
terian minister  at  Newbattle  in  Midlothian, 
1641-52,  and  from  Feb.,  1653,  principal  and 
professor  of  divinity  at  Edinburgh.  When 
Charles  IL  reconstituted  the  Scottish  Church, 
he  accepted  the  small  see  of  Dunblane,  and 
was  consecrated  with  Sharp  and  others  at 
Westminster  Abbey,  Dec.  15,  1661.  He  was 
now  between  two  tires.  An  unworldly  man, 
caring  little  for  politics  and  much  for  peace, 
he  was  surrounded  by  fierce  partisans  and 
bitter  strife.  His  work  "  seemed  to  him  a 
fighting  against  God  ;"  more  than  once  he 
desired  to  lay  down  his  dignity,  and  went  to 
London  to  protest  against  the  persecutions  of 
the  Covenanters.  Himself  at  the  furthest  re- 
move from  prelatic  arrogance  and  self-seeking, 
he  accepted  Archbishop  Ussher's  moderate 
scheme  of  episcopacy,  and  in  his  cathedral 
used  "neither  liturgy  nor  surplice."  He 
had  wished  in  1652  to  resign  his  parish  and 
"  be  left  to  his  own  thoughts  ;"  his  comfort 
was  still  in  solitary  walks  and  silent  medita- 
tion. In  1672  he  was  persuaded,  against  his 
will,  to  accept  the  archbishopric  of  Glasgow. 
Here  he  attempted  a  scheme  of  accommoda- 
tion, in  the  vain  effort  to  reconcile  those  who 
desired  no  reconciliation  ;  for  episcopacy  was 
generally  hated  in  Scotland,  and  most  of 
those  who  adhered  to  it  were  of  another  spirit 
than  Leigliton's.  Disheartened,  he  retired 
from  his  office  in  Sept.,  1674,  and  soon  took 
refuge  with  a  sister  at  Broadhurst  in  Sussex. 
While  on  a  visit  to  London  his  singular  wish 
was  fulfilled,  and  he  died,  like  a  pilgrim,  in 
an  inn. 

It  does  not  appear  that  his  great  talents, 
learning,  and  piety  exerted  any  appreciable 
influence  on  those  with  whom  he  had  to  do. 
Unfitted  for  scenes  of  contention,  if  not  for 
active  duties,  he  was  without  effect  on  his 
own  generation,  but  not  on  posterity.  The 
ejected  ministers  whose  woes  he  labored  to 
mitigate  regarded  him  with  suspicion  and 
hostility,  and  denounced  him  as  a  Jesuitical 
hypocrite.  Wodrow  says  "he  was  judged 
void  of  any  doctrinal  principles,"  and  "as 
very  much  indifferent  to  all  professions  which 
bore  the  name  of  Christian."  Burnet,  who 
seems  the  only  one  among  his  contemporaries 
to  appreciate  him,  credits  him  with  "  the 
greatest  elevation  of  soul,  the  largest  compass 
of  knowledge,  the  most  mortified  and  heavenly 
disposition  .  .  .  the  greatest  parts  as  well  as 
virtue,  with  the  perfectest  humility  that  I 
ever  saw  in  man.  ...  I  never  knew  liim  say 
an  idle  word,  or  one  that  liad  not  a  direct 
tendency  to  edification  ;  and  I  never  once 
saw  him  in  any  other  temper  but  that  which 


I  wished  to  be  in  in  the  last  minutes  of  my 
life."  Serious,  unsmiling,  saintly,  remote 
from  human  passions  and  infirmities,  de- 
tached from  earthly  affairs,  ambitions,  inti- 
macies, he  was  one  to  fail  of  effect  at  the  time 
and  leave  his  memory  to  later  ages.  He 
would  never  be  called  "my  lord,"  and  at 
clerical  gatherings  wished  to  take  the  foot  of 
the  table.  When  told  that  all  the  brethren 
preached  to  the  times,  he  said  they  might 
"  permit  one  poor  brother  to  preach  Christ 
and  eternity."  His  retiring  modesty  over- 
came even  the  desire  of  u.sefulness,  or  else 
(as  is  said)  he  had  no  sense  of  the  value  of  his 
writings  ;  for  he  published  nothing,  and  left 
orders  for  his  papers  to  be  burned.  This  ex- 
treme demand  was  happily  disregarded,  and 
his  fame  rests  upon  liis  books.  His  JSermotts 
appeared,  London,  1692  ;  Burnet  ascribes  to 
them  "  a  sublime  strain,  majesty  of  thought, 
and  of  language. "  His  Prcelectiones  Tlicolog- 
icm,  1693,  are  "  remarkable  for  the  purity  and 
elegance  of  their  Latiuity,  and  their  subdued 
and  meditative  eloquence."  Bishop  Jebb 
called  them  ' '  the  very  philosophy  of  the  New 
Testament,"  and  the  Practical  Commentary 
on  the  First  Epistle  of  St.  Peter,  1693-94,  "a 
treasury  of  devotion."  This  last  is  perhaps 
the  most  popular  of  his  writings,  which, 
taken  togetlier,  have  for  near  two  centuries 
enjoyed  eminent  repute,  not  so  much  for 
their  theological  as  for  their  practical  and  de- 
votional character.  They  have  been  edited 
by  Wilson,  1746-63  ;  Middleton,  about  1750  ; 
Foster,  1777 ;  Jerment,  1808-14  ;  Baynes, 
1823-29  ;  Pearson,  1825,  and  W.  West,  1869, 
and  later  ;  besides  single  volumes  and  selec- 
tions. Selections,  edited  with  memoir  and  notes 
by  W.  Blair,  London,  1883.  Some  of  these 
contain  brief  memoirs  of  the  author,  and  his 
life  has  been  written  by  Dr.  T.  Murray,  Dr. 
J.  Stoughton,  and  others.  F.  M.  B. 

Leipzig  Interim.     See  Interim. 

Leland,  John,  D.D.  (Aberdeen,  1739),  Pres- 
byterian  ;  b.  at  AVigan,  Lancashire,  196  m. 
u.n.w.  of  London,  Oct.  18,  1691  ;  d.  at  Dub- 
lin, Jan.  16,  1766.  Removed  in  childhood  to 
Dublin,  he  was  educated  there,  and  from 
1716  was  pastor  in  New  Row.  Stirred  up  by 
the  English  sceptics  of  his  time,  he  answered 
Tindal  in  A  Defence  of  Vhristianity ,  London, 
1733  ;  Morgan  in  Divine  Authority  of  the  Old 
and  Neio  Testatnents,  1738  ;  Dodwell  in  Re- 
marks,  1741  ;  and  Bolingbroke  in  EefleHons, 
1 753.  His  chief  work,  A  View  of  the  Principal 
Deistical  TF/7^e?-s,  appeared  in  2  vols.,  1754- 
56,  and  was  reprinted,  1837  ;  its  value  is  his- 
torical only.  His  Advantage  and  jVecessity  of 
the  Christian  lievelation  was  printed  1766. 
and  his  Discourses,  in  4  vols.,  1768-79.  His 
life  was  written  by  Huddesford,  1772.  Others 
of  this  name  were  a  noted  antiquary,  1506-52, 
and  an  American  Baptist  preacher  and  hymn- 
writer,  1754-1841.  F.  M.  B. 

Le  Maitre  (leh-m5tr),  Louis  Isaac,  better 
known  under  the  name  de  Sacy ;  b.  in  Paris, 
March  29,  1613  ;  d.  at  Pomponne,  Jan.  4, 
1084  ;  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1048  ;  became 
the  spiritual  director  of  the  nuns_  of  Port 
Royal  ;  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile  for  2^ 
years,  1666-68,  during  the  contest  between  the 


liSMUIlL 


(497) 


LEO 


Jansenists  and  the  Jesiiists,  and  retired  in  1679 
to  Pomponne.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer. 
He  translated  the  Bible  ;  the  New  Testament, 
well  known  under  the  title  Nonveaii  Testa- 
ment de  Mons,  appeared  in  Amsterdam,  1667. 
His  Office  de  V^jlise  traduit  en,  fran^ais,  Par- 
is, 1650,  containing  ITymnesti-aduites  en  versis 
often  spoken  of  under  the  title  Ileurexjdnsen- 
istes  or  Heures  de  Port  Royal. 

Lem'-u-el  {devoted  to  Ood),  the  king  to 
whom  were  addressed  the  counsels  in  Prov. 
xxxi.  2-9.  Some  think  it  an  enigmatical  name 
for  Solomon.  T.  W.  C. 

Ijeiid-a-Hand  Clubs.     See  p.  985. 

Lenfant  (lon-fon),  Jacques,  Reformed  ;  b. 
at  Bazoches,  Beame.  Central  France,  April 
13.  1661  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Aug.  7,  1728  ;  studied 
theology  at  Saumur  and  Geneva,  and  was 
appointed  pastor  of  the  French  Reformed 
congregation  at  Heidelberg,  1684,  and  in 
Berlin,  1688.  Of  his  numerous  critical,  po- 
lemical, and  historical  writings,  the  last  ones 
are  the  most  remarkable,  Ilistoire  da  concile 
de  Constance,  Amsterdam,  1714,  2d  ed.,  1727, 
much  enlarged,  2  vols.,  1136  pages,  with  a 
great  number  of  portraits,  excellently  en- 
graved (the  Paris  reprint,  1718,  is  worthless), 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1730,  2  vols,  quarto  ; 
Ilistoire  da  concile  de  Pise,  Amsterdam,  1724, 
2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Utrecht,  1731 ;  Ilistoire  du  con 
cile  de  Basle  (posthumous),  Utrecht,  1731,  2 
vols.  There  is  something  in  these  books 
which  resembles  the  most  modern  treatment 
of  history — their  statistics —and  there  is 
.something  which  wof  ully  reminds  of  the  time 
in  which  they  were  written  ;  the  Jesuits 
succeeded  in  keeping  all  the  documents  on 
the  Hussite  side  away  from  the  writer  ;  he 
knew  only  the  slander  of  the  papists. 

Lent  (from  the  Anglo-Saxon  lencten, 
"  spring,"  the  German,  lenz)  denotes  in  eccle- 
siastical terminology  that  period  of  40  week- 
days which  the  Greek,  the  Roman,  and  the 
Anglican  churches  observe  with  fasts  and 
prayers  preparatory  to  the  celebration  of 
Eas'ter.  The  custom  of  such  a  preparation 
seems  to  be  as  old  among  Christians  as  the 
church  itself,  but  the  length  and  the  .strict- 
ness of  the  observation  has  varied  very  much, 
according  to  time  and  place.  Originally  the 
fast  lasted  only  40  hours,  having  reference  to 
the  40  hours  which  elapsed  between  the  cru- 
cifixion and  the  resurrection,  but  gradually  it 
extended  to  40  days,  having  reference  to  the 
40  days  of  the  fa.st  and  temptation  of  Christ, 
to  Moses  in  the  wilderness,  to  Elijah,  to 
Jonah.  Gregory  the  Great,  590-604,  speaks 
of  Lent  as  lasting  6  weeks,  but  as  no  fa.sting 
took  place  on  Sundays,  6  weeks  give  only  36 
days,  and  it  is  not  certain  whether  he  or 
Gregory  IL  added  the  4  days  which  go  to 
make  up  tiie  (ptadraqesimn.  The  manner  of 
observation  also  varied.  In  some  places  it 
consisted  in  abstinence  from  all  kinds  of  food 
until  after  sunset,  in  others  simply  in  absti- 
nence from  certain  kinds  of  food — meat,  wine, 
etc.  At  the  same  time  all  arrangements  of 
a  festal  character  were  prohibited— public 
games,    theatrical    shows,    horse-races,    even 


the  celebration  of  marriages  and  birthday 
festivals.  Valentiuian  would  not  allow  a  sen- 
tence of  death  to  be  given  during  the  holy 
season  ;  Theodosius  forbade  the  application 
of  torture  ;  in  manj^  places  the  courts  were 
closed  altogether.  In  the  churches  the  divine 
service  assumed  a  more  sombre  character — 
there  was  no  music,  the  pictures  were  veiled, 
etc.  But  about  all  these  things  there  were  no 
universally  accepted  regulations. 

Lentiles  (crruni  lenM),  a  species  of  pulse  or 
small  bean  still  common  in  Syria,  sometimes 
made  into  pottage  (Gen.  xxv.  34),  or  by  the 
poor  into  bread  (Ezek.  iv.  9).  A  "  piece  of 
ground  full  of  lentiles"  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  11)  is 
common  in  Palestine.  T.  W.  C. 

Lentulus.     See  Chuist,  Images  of. 

Leo,  popes  of  that  name.  1.  (The  Great) 
pope  440-61.  His  early  life  is  unknown  to 
us.  He  first  appears  when  engaged  in  vari- 
ous public  employjnents,  and  was  at  the  time 
of  his  election  to  the  bishopric  of  Rome  ab- 
sent in  Gaul  by  commission  of  the  emperor, 
in  the  attempt  to  reconcile  the  two  highest 
Roman  officials  there.  His  surroundings  as 
he  ascended  the  episcopal  chair  were  such  as 
to  call  for  a  strong  man,  and  give  such  a  one 
an  opportunity.  Valentinian  III.,  a  man  of 
no  character,  was  emperor  of  the  West,  and 
was  succeeded  by  men  less  than  himself. 
The  emperors  of  the  East  were  Theodosius 
II.,  and  then  Marcian,  the  husband  of  Pul- 
cheria.  The  affairs  of  Italy  were  in  great 
confusion,  and  in  the  lack  of  any  other  leader, 
a  man  like  Leo  had  every  opportunity  to  lead, 
and  thus  to  advance  himself  and  the  chair  he 
filled.  Leo  was  not  slow  to  take  advantage 
of  this,  and  was  prominent  in  averting  an 
attack  by  Attila  (452),  and  in  moderating  the 
ferocity  of  Genseric  at  Rome  (455).  Such 
events  made  him  the  most  prominent  person- 
ality in  Italy. 

Leo  was  the  first  pope  to  hold  clearly  the 
monarchical  idea  of  the  papacy.  The  church 
is  built  upon  Peter,  and  hence  he  has  the  duty 
of  guiding  and  governing  it.  This  duty  has 
descended  to  his  proper  successors,  the  bishops 
of  Rome,  who  have  therefore  supreme  power 
in  the  church.  This  is  especially  conferred 
by  God.  The  whole  ecclesiastical  activity  of 
Leo  is  filled  with  this  idea.  It  appears  in  his 
attempts  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  Africa. 
This  province,  which  had  been  so  indepen- 
dent in  the  days  of  Cyprian,  had  now  sunk, 
under  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals,  to  a  sad 
state  of  dependence,  and  Leo  was  able  to 
issue  directions  for  remedying  abuses  as  he 
wotild  not  have  been  able  to  do  in  happier 
times.  The  monarchical  idea  was  still  more 
clearly  brought  out  in  a  contest  with  Hilary 
of  Aries.  Under  Patroclus  (d.  426)  a  kind  o'f 
jirimacy  in  Gaul  had  been  recognized  by  the 
pope  as  residing  in  the  bishop  of  .^rles.  The 
idea  had  fallen  into  al)eyance,  but  was  re- 
aftirmed  by  Hilary  (429  ff.).  He  came  thereby 
into  conflict  with  Celidonius  of  Besan9on, 
who  made  an  appeal  to  Rome.  Hilary  justi- 
fied his  action  there,  and  for  his  independent 
utterances  was  nearly  imprisoned.  The  ap- 
pellant was  successful,  and  was  restored  in 


LEO 


(498) 


LEO 


445  by  a  Roman  synod,  and  Leo  procured 
from  the  emperor  an  edict  which  made  oppo- 
sition to  the  Roman  bisliop  treason  to  the 
state. 

In  the  Christological  controversies  of  his 
time  (see  Christologt)  Leo  exercised  the  de- 
cisive influence  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
whicli  settled  the  dispute.  He  was,  however, 
much  disturbed  by  further  action  of  the  coun- 
cil, which  put  new  Rome  upon  a  level  with 
old,  and  made  the  question  to  depend  upon 
the  political  rank  of  the  two  cities.  He  finally 
succeeded  in  getting  the  offensive  canon  can- 
celled by  the  emperor. 

In  other  respects  the  work  of  Leo  was  less 
important.  His  proceedings  against  heretics, 
Manichseans  in  Italy,  Priscillianists  in  Spain, 
were  not  entirely  successful.  As  a  preacher, 
he  obtained  great  fame.  As  a  dogmaticiau, 
he  has  no  special  historical  importance.  His 
works  were  collected  in  an  edition  (the  best) 
bv  Balleriui  at  Venice,  1753-57,  3  vols.  In 
Migne.  Pat.  Lat.  LIV.-LVI.  For  life,  see 
Arendt,  Leo  der  Orosse  und  seine  Zeit,  Mainz, 
1)^35  ;  Perthel,  Papst  Leos  I.  Lebenund  ScJirif- 
ten,  Jena,  1843. 

2.  Pope  683-83,  confirmed  the  result  of  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (681),  which  con- 
demned Honorius  (q.v.)  as  a  heretic.  3.  Pope 
795-816.  The  correspondence  whicli  he  had 
with  Charlemagne  at  the  beginning  of  his 
pontificate  shows  that  Charlemagne  regarded 
him  as  a  subject.  After  three  years  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  from  Rome,  and  sought  out  the 
king  at  Paderborn.  Together  they  returned 
to  Rome,  and  here  Leo  crowned  Charlemagne 
as  emperor  on  Christmas  Day,  800  (see  article 
Filioque).  (See  Dollinger,  I)ns  Kaiserthum 
Kdi'ls  des  Orossen,  Miinchener  llist.  Jahr- 
bikher,  1865.  4.  Pope  847-55.  Beside  efforts 
to  repair  the  damages  done  to  the  city  bj^  war 
and  fire,  Leo  assumed  again  somewhat  of  the 
tone  of  the  first  Leo  in  regard  to  the  papacy. 
5.  Pope  about  a  month  in  903.  6.  Pope  July, 
928,  to  Feb.,  929,     7.  Pope  936-39. 

8.  Pope  963^65.  John  XII.  was  deposed 
by  a  Roman  synod,  and  the  same  day  Leo 
was  elected,  hastily  put  through  all  the  orders 
of  the  ministry,  and  two  days  later  conse- 
crated pope.  But  the  city  of  Rome  was  in- 
clined to  obey  neither  the  emperor.  Otto  I., 
nor  the  pope,  and  in  Feb.,  964,  Leo  was 
obliged  to  flee,  and  John  returned.  He  soon 
died,  only  to  be  succeeded  by  Benedict,  and 
Otto  was  obliged  to  reseat  his  pope,  Leo,  by 
force.  When  the  emperor  again  withdrew 
the  position  of  the  pope  became  precarious, 
but  lie  soon  died. 

9.  Pope  Feb.  12,  1049,  to  April  19,  1054. 
.  His  family  name  was  Brun,  and  he  was  born 

in  Alsace,  June  21,  1002.  He  was  educated 
in  the  monastic  school  at  Toul,  and  became 
canon,  and  subsequently  bishop  there.  He 
was  a  favorite  with  Conrad  II.,  both  for  his 
services  in  war  and  for  his  personal  charac- 
teristics. He  was  thoroughly  in  sympathy 
with  the  reform  efforts  of  the  monastery  at 
Cluny,  and  when  the  Romans  demanded  an- 
other pope  of  the  emperor,  Henry  III.,  after 
the  death  of  Damasus  II.,  tlie  emperor's  at- 
tention was  immediately  attracted  to  Bruno. 
He  accepted  the  nomination  only  upon  con- 


dition that  he  should  also  be  regularly  elected 
at  Rome,  whither  he  went,  with  Hildebrand 
in  his  train,  for  election  and  consecration. 
He  immediately  began  his  efforts  for  the  re- 
form of  the  church,  and  this  he  sought  to 
effect  by  a  revival  of  the  system  of  local 
synods.  Over  many  of  these  he  presided 
himself,  and  journeyed  from  one  end  of  the 
empire  to  the  other  constantly  in  this  work. 
We  may  mention  the  earliest  of  these  synods, 
that  of  Rome  at  Easter,  1049,  wdiere  the  two 
subjects  of  simony  and  celibacy  were  dis- 
cussed. Celibacy  was  prescribed  for  all  the 
clergy  down  to  the  subdeacons.  The  synod  of 
1050,  also  at  Rome,  where  the  heresy  of  Be- 
rengarius  (q.v.)  was  considered  and  celibacy 
enforced  by  new  regulations,  is  noteworthy. 
In  these  synods  Leo  sought  to  revive  the 
ecclesiastical  life  of  the  church  at  large.  To 
this  end  he  joined  with  them  efforts  lying  in 
the  exact  line  of  the  piety  of  the  day,  presid- 
ing at  many  ceremonies  where  the  relics  of 
martyrs  were  deposited  in  new  sanctuaries, 
atthededicationof  churches,  etc.  He  effected 
much  in  these  ways  toward  kindling  a  new 
and  real  life  among  the  masses  of  the  people. 
His  life  closed  in  a  less  glorious  manner. 
Marching  against  the  Normans  in  1053,  he 
was  totally  defeated,  and  though  his  personal 
influence  led  them  to  a  nominal  submission, 
he  was  really  some  time  their  prisoner.  He 
returned  to  Rome,  but  did  not  long  survive. 

10.  Pope  March  11,  1513,  to  Dec.  1,  1521. 
(Giovanni  de  Medici)  b.  in  Florence,  Dec. 
11,  1475  ;  d.  at  Rome  as  above  ;  received  the 
tonsure  at  the  age  of  7  ;  was  cardinal  at  13, 
and  actually  admitted  to  the  college  at  17. 
He  immediately  occupied  important  posts, 
but  spent  his  life  up  to  the  death  of  Julius 
II.  chiefly  in  the  pursuit  of  pleasure.  He 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  Ravenna  (1512). 
At  his  election  he  had  to  sign  a  capitulation 
which  protected  the  property  of  the  church, 
and  promised  a  reformation  in  head  and  mem- 
bers ;  but  he  did  not  fulfil  it.  His  reign  was 
taken  up  with  intrigues  and  conflicts  for  the 
extension  of  the  papal  power  in  Italy.  The 
French  had  lost  Milan  after  the  battle  of 
Ravenna,  but  repossessed  themselves  of  it  in 
the  battle  of  Marignano  (1515).  This  cost  the 
pope  also  Parma  and  Piacenza.  He  finally 
recovered  these,  and  met  with  other  successes 
in  the  political  sphere  ;  but  lie  left  the  papal 
treasury  empty.  In  the  more  purely  ecclesi- 
astical sphere,  he  found  at  his  accession  a 
schism  of  a  portion  of  the  cardinals,  which  he 
healed.  He  gave  away,  in  his  capacity  as 
lord  of  the  earth,  great  tracts  of  undiscovered 
lands  to  the  king  of  Portugal.  The  Reforma- 
tion which  he  had  solemnly  promised,  but 
did  not  make,  was  introduced  during  his 
reign  by  another.  (See  Luther.)  When 
Charles  V.  was  elected  emperor,  Leo  made  a 
secret  treaty  with  him  against  France.  But 
his  speedy  death  put  the  conduct  of  affairs 
during  this  prince's  life  into  another's  hands. 

11.  Pope  April  1  to  April  27,  1605.  12. 
Pope  Sept.  28, 1823,  to  Feb.  10, 1829.  (Anni- 
bale  della  Genga)  b.  Aug.  22,  1760  ;  cardinal, 
1816  ;  was  occupied  in  various  missions  till 
his  election  to  the  papacy.  His  policy  as 
pope  comprised  the  assumption  of  more  inti- 


I.ZIO 


1499) 


LESIitB 


mate  relations  with  France,  the  holding;:  of  a 
jubilee  at  Rome— which  was  largely  a  failure 
— the  promotion  of  the  emancipation  of  the 
Catholics  in  England,  and  a  wiser  conduct  of 
the  papal  affairs  with  Russia.  He  also  organ- 
ized the  church  anew  in  the  South  American 
republics,  a  measure  which  the  jealousy  of 
Spain  had  hitherto  prevented,  and  which'was 
now  unfavorably  received  there.  He  also 
made  great  efforts  to  improve  the  government 
of  the  papal  states,  in  which  he  was  partly 
successful.  13.  Pope  at  the  present  time 
(1890)  (Vincenzo  Qioacchino  Pecci)  ;  b.  at 
Carpineto,  Anagui,  states  of  tliecliurch, March 
2,  1810,  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  in  Rome, 
graduating  D.D.  in  1831,  andD.C.L.  in  18B7. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  1837  ;  made  arch- 
bishop of  Perugia  in  1846  ;  proclaimed  cardi- 
nal in  1853,  and  made  camerlengo,  1877.  He 
was  chosen  pope  Feb.  20,  1878,  and  crowned 
March  3.  In  his  encycliea  of  April  21,  1878, 
he  reaflirraed  the  theological  positions  of  liis 
predecessor  (immaculate  conception,  infalli- 
bility), emphasized  the  necessity  of  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  pope,  and  condemned  all 
the  errors  which  liis  jiredecessors  had  con- 
demned. In  some  respects  he  has  been  more 
liberal  than  his  immediate  predecessor,  Pius 
IX.,  and  has  shown  an  interest  in  scholarship 
by  opening  the  Vatican  library  to  scholars. 
It  is  still  too  early  to  judge  of  the  true  charac- 
ter of  his  reign.  Life  by  O'Reillv,  London, 
1887.  F.  11.  F. 

Leo  Hebraeus.     See  Abarbanei,. 

Leontius  of  Byzantium,  a  writer  about  the 
end  of  the  6th  century  upon  heresy,  b.  in 
Byzantium,  and  therefore  named  as  above, 
biit  an  inmate  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Sabas, 
near  Jerusalem,  whence  he  is  also  called 
Leontius  of  Jerusalem.  Some  writers  dis- 
tinguish between  these  names  as  denoting 
different  men.  His  principal  work  is  entitled 
Concerning  the  ISects,  and  is  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  history  (found  in  ^Mignc,  Pat. 
Gr.  LXXXVL),  dealing  with  great  minute- 
ness with  the  writers  during  and  after  the  4th 
century.  Other  works  of  his  are  that  Agninst 
the  Nestorians  and  Eiiti/rhians,  and  a  dia- 
logue Agaimt  the  AphtlKirto- Docetisti*,  with  a 
short  treatise  against  the  Apollinarists.  There 
are  other  works  ascribed  to  him,  but  without 
sufficient  grounds.  There  are  also  several 
other  Leontiuses.  F.  II.  F. 

Leprosy,  a  loathsome  di.sease  still  preva- 
lent in  the  Ea-st.  Beginning  with  reddish  erup- 
tions, it  gradually  attacks  the  whole  body,  and 
the  joints  of  the  hands  and  the  feet  lo.se  their 
power.  While  usually  not  affecting  the  gen- 
eral health,  yet  it  was  impossible  to  cure 
(2  Kings  V.  7).  Anciently  it  was  regarded  as 
a  "plague"  or  judgment  from  God  (Deut. 
xxiv.  8).  It  rendered  the  sufferer  unclean, 
and  as  such  he  was  cut  off  from  the  sanctuarjr 
?nd  from  the  societv  of  his  fellows  (Lev.  xiii. 
45.  46,  Num.  xii.  10,  3  Chron.  xxvi.  21).  The 
disease  in  all  its  forms  was  a  lively  emblem 
of  sin.  This  malady  of  the  .soul  is  also  all- 
pervading,  unclean,  and  incurable  ;  it  sepa- 
rates its  victim  from  God  and  heaven  ;  it 
proves  its  existence  by  its  growing  strength 


and  its  fatal  termination.  The  typical  nature 
of  the  disea.se  accounts  for  the  miniite  direc- 
tions in  Leviticus  (xiii.,  xiv.)  as  to  the  mean* 
of  ascertaining  its  existence,  the  seclusion  of 
the  victim,  and  the  method  of  restoring  him 
when  cleansed  to  the  privileges  of  the  sanc- 
tuary and  conumuiion  with  his  kind.  The- 
term  "  the  plague  of  leprosy"  was  applied  not 
only  to  this  disease  in  men,  but  also  to  a  sim- 
ilar infection  in  garments  and  upon  the  wall* 
of  houses,  the  exact  nature  of  which  cannot 
be  determined,  but  the  law  was  imperative 
that  if  the  disease  certainly  existed,  the  gar- 
ment mu.st  be  burned  with  tire  and  the  house 
liroken  down,  and  the  stones,  timber,  and 
mortar  carried  into  an  unclean  place. 

The  divine  power  of  our  Saviour  was  no- 
where more  signally  shown  than  in  the  way 
in  which  with  a  word  lie  healed  this  awful 
disease  (Mark  i.  40,  Luke  xvii.  12-19)  and  le- 
stored  its  victim  to  health  and  hope.  Among 
the  signs  of  his  Messianic  mission  rejiorled  by 
his  direction  to  John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  xi.  5) 
was  this  significant  statement,  "  The  lepers 
are  clean.sed."  T.  W.  C. 

Lerins.  Isles  (Lisulm  Lerince),  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  belonging  to 
France  ;  near  the  coast,  just  opposite  Cannes, 
of  which  the  largest,  Lero,  the  present  Sainte 
Marguerite,  was  strongly  fortified  duiing  the 
later  IMiddle  Ages  and  became  the  jirison  of 
the  "  man  with  the  iron  mask"  and  of  Ba- 
zaine,  while  a  minor  one,  Lerinum,  the  pres- 
ent St.  Ilonorat,  was  the  .seat  of  a  convent 
which,  founded  in  400  bj*  St.  Ilonorat  as  a 
canobinni  of  anchorites  after  Eastern  pat- 
terns, developed  into  a  rich  and  magnificent 
monastical  institution  and  exercised  a  great 
influence  on  the  church  of  Southern  France 
from  the  middle  of  the  5lh  century  to  the 
time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity  of  the 
popes,  1305-77.  The  monks  of  Lerins  al- 
ways showed  a  strong  spirit  of  independence  : 
in  tlie  7th  century  they  killed  the  abbot 
Aigulf  because  he  tried  to  introduce  the  rules 
of  St.  Benedict  among  them,  and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  14th  century  they  refu.sed  to 
be  called  f nit  res,  and  demanded  the  title  of 
(hmdiii,  wliich  was  granted  them.  Though 
the  convent  was  plundered  in  the  8lh  century 
by  tlie  Arabs,  in  the  10th  by  the  Saracens, 
and  in  the  12th  by  the  Genoese,  the  poi>es. 
when  they  settled  at  Avignon,  in  130.'),  found 
it  a  goUrmine.  John  XXII.,  Clement  VI., 
and  Innocent  VI.  drew  inwncnse  sums  from 
it  by  selling  it  under  the  form  of  giving  it 
away  in  comi/iendmn,  and  when  the  pojx-'S 
finally  left  Avignon,  1377,  both  the  wealth 
and  Ihe  discipline  of  Lerinum  were  gone. 
The  monasterv  was  clo.sed  in  1788,  and  the 
island  was  sold  in  1791  to  an  actress  from 
the  Comedie  Fran9aise.  (See  Vita  St.  II.  in 
BUA.  Patr.  Mar.  VIII.,  and  Art.  S,i„ct.  Jan. 
II.  ;  AUiez,  Ilistoire  du  inonastere  de  lAriia, 
Paris,  1662.  2  vols.) 

Leslie,  Charles,  nonjuror  ;  b.  at  Raphoc, 
Donegal,  16r.o  ;  d.  ai  Gla.slough,  MonuLrhan, 
April  13.  1722.  The  son  of  an  Irisli  bishop, 
he  graduated  at  Trinity  College.  Dublin, 
166H  ;  studied  law  in  London  ;  took  orders, 
1680,  an  1  was  chancellor  of  the  cathedral  of 


LESSING 


(500) 


IiEVITES 


Connor,  1687-89.  For  30  years  lie  lived  in 
London,  engaged  in  political  and  religious 
controversies  with  all  opinions  differing  from 
his  own.  His  Good  Old  Cause,  an  attack  on 
Bishop  Burnet,  brought  him  into  trouble  ; 
he  fled  to  the  Pretender,  and  lived  in  France 
and  Italy  I  ill  1 721 .  His  SJiort  and  Easy  3Iethod 
with  the  Deists.  London,  1697,  has  often  been 
reprinted.  Similar  books  of  his  assailed  the 
Jews  (1689),  Quakers  (1696),  Socinians  (1697), 
and  Romanists  (1703,  1713).  Strange  as  it 
may  appear,  his  reasoning  is  said  to  have 
converted  many.  His  I'heological  Works  ap- 
peared in  3  vols,  folio,  1731,  and  in  7  vols., 
8vo,  1833.  F.  M.  B. 

Lessing,  Gotthold  Ephraim,  b.  at  Kamentz, 
Saxony,  Jan.  23,  1739  ;  d.  at  Brunswick, 
Feb.  is,  1781  ;  was  appointed  librarian  at 
Wolfenbiittel  in  1770,  and  while  there  he 
published  Emilie  Galotti,  1770 ;  Fragmeide 
eiuer  Ungenannten,  1774-78,  together  with 
the  whole  Goeze  controversy,  Nathan  der 
Weise,  1779,  and  Die  Erziehung  des  Mensehen- 
geschleclds,  1780  ;  the  very  works  from  which 
alone  can  be  formed  a  true  conception  of  his 
relation  to  Christianity.  The  question  is 
somewhat  obscure.  While  his  influence  on 
literature  and  art  is  decisive  and  palpable, 
his  influence  on  philosophy  and  theology, 
though  easy  to  feel,  is  very  difficult  to  define. 
There  are  some  who  think  they  can  trace 
throuo'h  his  later  writings  a  progress  toward 
Christianity,  and  there  are  others  who  protest 
that  he  ended  as  a  full-fledged  pupil  of  Spino- 
za.    How  is  this  to  be  explained  ? 

Lessing  was  a  critic.  Even  his  dramas  are 
the  products  of  critical  insight  rather  than  of 
poetical  inspiration.  But  if  criticism  shall 
mean  something  more  than  a  mere  correction 
of  blunders,  if  it  shall  become  a  living  influ- 
ence in  the  evolution,  it  must  be  launched 
from  a  positive  standpoint.  In  literature  and 
art  he  had  a  firm  and  fixed  foothold,  and 
when  he  appealed  to  nature,  he  was  able  not 
only  to  laugh  down  the  imnaturalness  of 
Voltaire,  but  also  to  show  his  readers  what 
nature  is,  where  to  find  it,  how  to  handle  it, 
etc.  In  philosophy  and  theology  he  lacked 
such  a  positivity.  He  appealed  to  truth,  and 
he  could  be  most  mercilessly  delightful  in 
demonstrating  how  wrong  was  poor  Goeze. 
But  truth  was  to  him  not  a  fixed  point  from 
which  heaven  and  earth  could  be  moved  ;  it 
was  only  an  infinite  progress  toward  sucli  a 
point.  "  If  the  Lord  held  truth  in  the  right 
hand  and  search  after  truth  in  the  left,  and 
gave  me  the  choice,  I  should  choose  the  left 
hand."  By  his  studies  and  controversies  he 
certainly  learned  much,  very  much  about 
philosophy,  theology,  and  Christianity,  but 
an  infinite  progress  toward  an  infinite  goal 
leaves  a  man  forever  at  the  point  from  which 
he  starts. 

There  are  several  German  editions  of  Les- 
sing's  collected  works,  excellent  and  cheap, 
and  several  biographies  of  him  by  his  brother, 
1793  ;  Danzel,  1850  ;  Stahr,  1859  ;  Diintzer, 
1882.     Translated  into  English  are  Dramatic 

Works,  by  Bell  and  Zimmern,  London,  1878  ; 
Nathan  der  Weise,  by  Ellen  Frothingham, 
New  York,    1871,   and  by  Wood  in  blank 


verse,  London,  1877  ;  Education  of  th.e  Hunian 
Race,  by  Robertson,  London,  1873  ;  Laoeoon, 
by  Frothingham,  1874,  Sir  R.  Phillimore, 
1875,  A.  Hamann,  1878  ;  Selected  Prose  Works 
in  Bohn's  Standard  Library,  1879  ;  Fragments 
from  Reimarvs,  London,  1879.  His  biog- 
raphy was  written  by  James  Sime,  London, 
1877-79,  3  vols.  (Boston  repr.,  1879).    C.  P. 

Lestines,  Council  of  {Concilium  Liftinense), 
the  second  Austrasian  synod  under  Carloman, 
was  held  at  Lestines,  a  royal  residence  in  the 
present  Hainault,  Belgium,  in  743,  and  is 
noted  for  the  heavy  secularization  of  ecclesi- 
astical estates  which  took  place  there.  (See 
Paul  Roth  in  Munchner  hist.  Jahrhuch, 
1865,  i.) 

Le'-vi  {joined),  third  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah 
(Gen.  xxix.  34).  By  avenging  with  Simeon 
the  wrongs  of  Dinah  (Gen.  xxxiv.  25-31)  he 
incurred  the  curse  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xlix.  5-7), 
but  for  the  zeal  of  his  descendants  on  occa- 
sion of  the  golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  36-29)  the 
curse  was  changed  into  a  blessing  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  8-11).  T.  W.  C. 

Levi.    See  Tribes  op  Israel. 

Leviathan,  the  Hebrew  name  of  a  huge 
reptile  minutely  described  in  Job  xli.  It  is 
probably  the  crocodile  (as  behemoth  in  the 
previous  chapter  is  the  hippopotamus),  which 
once  abounded  in  the  Lower  Nile,  but  now  is 
rarely  seen.  (See  Ps.  Ixxiv.  14,  Isa.  xxvii.  1.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Levirate  {levir,  "a  husband's  brother"). 
An  ancient  usage  of  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
xxxviii.),  reordained  by  Moses  (Deut.  xxv. 
5-10)  required  that  when  a  man  died  without 
male  issue  his  brother  should  marry  the  wid- 
ow, and  the  firstborn  son  of  the  new  marriage 
should  succeed  in  the  deceased  brother's  name 
and  enjoy  his  property  and  privileges,  "  that 
his  name  be  not  blotted  out  of  Israel."  W^e 
learn  from  the  case  of  Ruth  (iii.,  iv.)  that 
when  there  was  no  brother  alive  the  law  ex- 
tended to  the  nearest  relative  of  the  deceased 
husband.  In  case  the  person  refused  to  per- 
form the  duty,  he  was  publicly  disgraced. 
The  reasons  of  the  regulation  were  to  gratify 
the  natural  desire  of  an  Israelite  not  to  lose 
his  share  in  the  blessings  bound  up  with  the 
preservation  of  Abraham's  seed,  and  also  to 
be  in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  Israel  con- 
cerning the  retention  of  property  within  the 
same  tribe  and  family.  That  the  law  existed 
in  our  Lord's  time  appears  from  the  question 
of  the  Sadducees  (Matt.  xx.  24).     T.  W.  C. 

Levites.  All  the  descendants  of  Levi  are 
sometimes  intended  by  this  name  (Ex.  vi.  25. 
Josh.  xxi.  3),  but  usually  it  meant  all  these 
except  the  sons  of  Aaron,  the  priests.  At  the 
time  of  the  Exodus  the  firstborn  males  of 
srael,  being  spared  when  those  of  Egypt 
were  slain,  belonged  unto  the  Lord,  but  he 
took  the  Levites  in  their  place  (Num.  iii.  11- 
13),  and  thenceforth  they  occupied  a  place 
midway  between  the  priests  and  the  people. 
They  could  not  offer  sacrifice  or  burn  incense, 
but  they  marched  nearer  the  ark  than  the 
people,  and  during  the  wandering  in  the  wilder- 
ness one  of  their  families,  the  Kohathites  car- 


Bvmous 


(501) 


liZBERIUS 


ried  the  sacred  vessels,  a  second,  the  Gershon- 
ites.  the  hangings  and  curtains  of  the  taber- 
nacle, and  the  third,  the  Merarites,  the  boards 
and  pillars.  They  also  kept  the  book  of  the 
Law  and  served  as  judges  (Lev.  xvii.  8-12,  18). 
God  assigned  for  the  Levites  48  cities  with 
fields,  pastures,  and  gardens  (Num.  xxxv.),  of 
Avhich  13  were  given  to  the  priests  and  6  were 
cities  of  refuge.  Besides,  they  received  a 
tithe  of  all  produce,  animal  and  vegetable,  of 
which  they  paid  a  tithe  to  the  priests  (Num. 
xviii.  26).  Another  tithe  they  received  every 
third  year  (Deut.  xiv.  28,  29),  and  a  special 
provision  was  made  for  them  when  they  min- 
istered in  the  sanctuary.  In  the  time  of 
David  their  number  had  increased  to  38,000, 
of  whom  24,000  were  set  apart  for  the  ordi- 
nary service,  6000  for  the  teaching  of  the  law, 
4000  as  porters,  and  4000  as  musicians  (1 
Chron.  xxiii.  1-6).  They  were  divided  into 
courses,  and  came  up  from  their  cities  to  the 
temple  in  rotation.  After  the  revolt  of  the 
10  tribes  the  Levites  abandoned  their  cities  in 
Israel  and  dwelt  in  Judah  (2  Chron.  xi.  13, 
14)  and  were  conspicuous  in  the  history  un- 
der Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xix.,  xx.),  Joash 
(xxiii.),  Hezekiah  (xxix.),  Josiali  (xxxiv., 
XXXV.).  After  the  Captivity  a  small  number 
returned  (Ezek.  ii.  36-42,  iii.  10,  vi.  18),  and 
assumed  their  former  position  in  the  new  or- 
ganization. In  the  New  Testament  they  are 
not  often  mentioned  (John  i.  19,  Luke  x.  32, 
Acts  iv.  36),  and  when  they  are  it  is  as  unlov- 
ing formalists.  The  distinction  of  Levite  is 
still  maintained  among  the  Jews.  T.  W.  C. 

Leviticus,  the  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch, 
so  called  because  of  its  contents.  Only  the 
chapters  viii.-x.  are  narrative  ;  all  the  rest 
treat  of  the  Levitical  services.  Chs.  i.-vii. 
give  the  law  of  offerings  ;  viii.-x.,  the  cou- 
.secration  of  the  priests  ;  xi.-xv.,  the  laws  con- 
cerning what  is  clean  and  what  is  unclean  ; 
xvi. .  the  Day  of  Atonement,  the  culmination 
of  Hebrew  worship  ;  xvii.-xx.,  the  separation 
of  Israel  from  heathendom  in  food,  marriage, 
etc.  ;  xxi.,  xxii.,  the  holiness  of  priests  and 
offerings  ;  xxiii.,  the  holiness  of  convocations. 
Sabbaths,  etc.  ;  xxv.,  the  jubilee  year  ;  xxvi., 
a  hortatory  discourse  ;  xxvii.,  the  rule  con- 
cerning vows.  Tiie  only  history  in  the  book 
is  that  of  Aaron's  consecration,  the  death  of 
Nadab  and  Abihu  (viii.-x.)  and  the  doom  of 
the  blasphemer  (xxiv.  10-23).  The  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  is  the  New  Testament  commen- 
tary on  this  book,  showing  the  correspond- 
ence and  also  the  superiority  of  the  antitype 
to  the  typical  sacrifices.  The  authenticity  and 
integrity  of  the  book  are  not  denied  save  by 
those  critics  who  insist  that  the  entire  ritual 
belongs  to  the  post-exilian  period,  a  theory 
which  raises  many  more  and  worse  difficulties 
than  those  it  seeks  to  remove.  See  the  general 
commentaries,  and  those  on  the  Pentateuch  ; 
for  a  special  commentary  see  C.  D.  Ginsburg, 
London,  1885.  T.  W.  C. 

Lewis,  Tayler,  LL.D.  (Union,  Schenectady, 
1844).  Reformed  (Dutch),  layman  ;  b.  at 
Northumberland,  Saratoga  Countv,  N.  V., 
March  27.  1802  ;  d.  at  Schenectadv,  N.  Y., 
May  11,  1877.  He  graduated  at  Union.  1820  ; 
studied  law  and  practised  it  for  a  time,  but 


turned  to  scholastic  and  literary  pursuits  ; 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Universitv 
of  New  York,  1838,  and  at  Union,  1849,  as  later 
of  Oriental  languages.  Among  his  works  are, 
The  Six  Days  of  Creation,  Schenectady,  1855, 
n.e.,  New  York,  1879  ;  The  Bible  and  Science, 
Schenectady,  1856,  answer  to  criticisms  of 
the  former  book  ;  The  Divine  Human  in  the 
Scriptures,  New  York,  1860  ;  metrical  ver- 
sions of  Ecclesiastes,  1870,  and  Job,  1874  ; 
and  Nature  and  the  Scriptures,  1875. 

F.  M.  B. 
Leyden,  John  of.    See  Anabaptists,   p. 
28. 

Libellatici.     See  Lapsed. 

Liber  Diurnus   Romanorum   Pontificum, 

a  collection  of  formulas  used  by  the  Romau 
Curia  in  its  correspondence  and  ordinary 
business,  seems  to  have  been  made  between 
685  and  751,  and  was  in  use  till  the  11th  cen- 
tury, when  it  became  antiquated.  It  was 
afterward  entirely  forgotten,  until  Lucas 
Holstenius,  in  1650,  discovered  a  copy  of  it 
in  Rome.  He  was  not  allowed  to  publish  it, 
however,  but  another  copy  was  found  in 
Paris,  in  1680,  and  published  by  the  Jesuit 
Garnier.  It  has  considerable  interest,  both 
archaeological  and  historical.  Thus,  it  con 
tains  the  confession  of  faith  which  the  pope 
had  to  subscribe  at  his  accession,  and  as  that 
confession  accepted  the  canons  of  the  sixth 
Ecumenical  Council,  it  condemned  Honorius 
I.  as  a  heretic.  The  best  edition  of  the  Lib. 
Diur.  is  that  by  Roziere,  Paris,  1869. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  a  history  of  the  bishops 
of  Rome  from  Peter  down  to  the  last  half  of 
the  9th  century.  It  was  at  first  regarded  as 
the  work  of  Anastasius,  abbot  of  a  monastery 
at  Rome  and  librarian  of  the  Roman  Church 
under  Nicholas  I.  (858-67),  but  internal  evi- 
dence makes  it  evident  that  it  is  the  w^ork  of 
several  hands.  The  earliest  sources  of  the 
Liber  are  still  in  existence  in  the  shape  of 
several  catalogues  of  popes  of  great  antiquity, 
such  as  the  Catidogus  Liberii.  which  Momm- 
sen  dates  a. D.  354,  and  the  Catalogus  Felician- 
ufi,  the  character  of  which  is,  however,  more 
doubtful.  The  earliest  portions  of  the  work 
were  written  about  the  end  of  the  5th  or  the 
beginning  of  the  6th  centur}",  and  there  is  a 
distinct  division  about  the  end  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury, where  the  numerous  references  to  de- 
tails betray  the  personal  acquaintance  of  the 
writer  with  the  times.  At  least  two  ckarly 
marked  continuations  bring  down  the  history 
to  the  time  of  Hadrian  II.  (872),  with  an  ap- 
pendix upon  Stei)hen  VI.  The  first  proper 
edition  dates  from  the  year  1602,  and  is  by 
Busajus.  There  is  a  lioman  edition  by  Vig- 
noli,  1724-55,  3  vols.  A  new  edition  is  prom- 
ised for  the  Monunienta  Germania.  Four 
separate  continuations  have  brought  the  his- 
tory down  to  Alexander  III.  (1181). 

F.  H.  F. 

Liberius,  bishop  of  Rome,  May  22,  352  to 
Sept.  24,  366.  As  the  successor  of  Julius,  he 
first  took  the  side  of  Athanasius  in  the  .strife 
which  sfill  continued  about  his  person.  He 
resisted  tlie  tendencies  of  the  Svnod  of  Aries 


LIBSRTINES 


(502) 


LIBRARIES 


against  Athanasius,  and  also  held  out  against 
the  Synod  of  Milan.  When  brought  before 
the  Emperor  Constantius,  he  demanded  the 
acknowledgment  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  the 
restoration  of  Athanasius,  and  the  calling  of 
a  council  at  Alexandria,  where  the  questions 
raised  about  Athanasius  could  be  properly 
settled.  But  wlieu  he  had  been  banished  to 
Berea,  and  when  Felix  had  been  consecrated 
bishop  in  his  place,  Liberius  went  as  far  in 
the  other  direction.  He  agreed  with  the  the- 
ological statements  of  the  Oriental  bishops, 
gave  Athanasius  wholly  up,  even  declaring 
that  he  had,  long  since  been  excluded  from 
the  communion  of  the  Roman  Church,  re- 
jected the  test  word  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  the 
Homoousion,  and  was  thus  finally  permitted 
to  return  to  Rome.  Felix  retired,  and  when 
Constantius  was  dead,  Liberius  took  back  all 
the  concessions  he  had  made.  F.  H.  F. 

Libertines.  1.  The  name  of  a  synagogue 
in  Jerusalem  the  members  of  which  were 
among  the  opponents  of  Stephen  (Acts  vi.  9). 
They  are  thought  to  have  been  Jews  who  had 
been  enslaved  as  captives  in  war,  and  after 
manumission  had  settled  as  freedmen  {liber- 
tini)  in  Jerusalem.  2.  A  party  that  arose  in 
the  Netherlands  during  tlie  Reformation  and 
for  a  time  made  progress,  but  soon  after  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century  disappeared.  As 
they  had  an  esoteric  and  an  exoteric  teaching, 
it  is  not  easy  to  define  their  tenets.  They 
held  a  sort  of  pantheism,  saying  that  God  is 
all  and  all  is  God,  so  that  the  natural  passions 
are  the  voices  of  the  Spirit — impulses  from 
God.  Hence  they  called  themselves  Spirituals, 
but  were  in  reality  favorers  and  followers 
of  the  flesh.  Calvin  detected  their  error,  and 
published  twice  against  them,  once  in  1545, 
and  again  in  1547.  3.  The  name  of  a  party  in 
Geneva  who  rose  in  resistance  against  the 
moral  reforms  which  were  carried  through 
witli  such  unsparing  rigor  under  tlie  influence 
of  Calvin,  and  complained  of  them  as  a  new 
tyranny  as  bad  as  the  old.  It  is  possible, 
although  it  cannot  be  proved,  that  this  fac- 
tion was  in  some  way  connected  with  the 
Libertines  of  tlie  Netherlands.        T.  W.  C. 

Libraries  of  Christian  books  were  formed 
very  early  both  at  the  cathedral  churches  and 
in  the  monasteries. 

The  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  mentioned 
by  any  historian  is  that  founded  by  Alexan- 
der, bishop  of  Jerusalem,  about  212.  Euse- 
bius  (d.  340)  says  of  it  that  it  had  been  of 
much  use  to  him  in  compiling  his  church  his- 
tory, and  tells  us  that,  among  other  books,  it 
contained  a  great  number  of  epistles  written 
by  one  bishop  or  learned  ecclesiastic  to  an- 
other. A  still  larger  and  more  famous  library 
was  that  of  Cffisarea,  in  Palestine,  founded  by 
Origen,  185-254,  and  much  enlarged  by  Pam- 
philus  (d.  309),  the  friend  of  Eusebius.  St. 
Jerome,  340-420,  knew  it  well,  and  mentions 
among  its  books  the  supposed  Hebrew  orig- 
inal of  the  gospel  according  to  Matthew,  the 
originals  of  the  Hexapla,  the  Apology  for 
Origen  by  Pamphilus,  etc.  Isidore  of  Sevilla 
(d.  636)  asserts  that  the  library  of  CiBsarea 
contained  nearly  30,000  volumes.  But  the 
chief  church  library  of  the  East  was  that  be- 


longing to  the  Patriarchium  in  Constanti- 
nople, both  on  account  of  its  wealth  of  books 
and  on  account  of  the  authority  of  its  copies. 
There  is  still  extant  a  letter  from  Constantiue 
the  Great  to  Eusebius  ordering  "fifty  vol- 
umes of  the  sacred  writings,"  to  be  made 
"  on  well-prepared  parchment  by  calligraphic 
artists,  thoroughly  skilled  in  the  art,"  for  the 
new  church.  And  when  Bede,  674-735,  and 
afterward  Hincmar  of  Rheims,  806-82.  visited 
Constantinople,  they  speak  of  the  "silver- 
bound  parchments""  lent  them  from  the 
libraries.  It  was,  how^ever,  not  the  imperial 
library  in  the  portico  of  the  palace,  but  the 
church  library  in  the  Patriarchium  which 
was  considered  as  authoritative.  Thus,  the 
ardent  image-worshii^per,  Theophanes,  of 
yzantiura,  758-816,  refused  to  look  at  a 
copy  of  Isaiah  brought  from  the  imperial  li- 
brary, because  all  those  books  were  corrupted, 
and  asked  for  a  copy  from  the  Patriarchium. 

In  the  West  the  general  state  of  afi'airs  was 
by  no  means  so  favorable  to  the  acquisition 
of  learning  as  in  the  East,  fewer  books  were 
produced  and  fewer  were  used.  Still,  when 
Augustine  died,  430,  there  was  a  library  at  his 
church  in  Hippo  Regius,  the  present  Bona, 
Algeria,  to  which  he  bequeathed  his  own 
books  and  copies  of  his  w-orks.  From  about 
the  same  time  we  have  notices  of  the  exist- 
ence of  libraries  at  the  churches  of  Rome. 
According  to  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  Hilarius, 
461-68,  formed  two  libraries  in  the  Lateran 
baptistery,  and  the  works  of  Gelasius,  492-96, 
were  kept  in  the  library  of  the  church.  Greg- 
ory the  Great,  590-604,  speaks  not  only  of  the 
libraries  of  the  city,  Miiich  were  rapidly  dis- 
appearing, but  also  of  those  of  the  churches 
which,  as  yet,  however,  were  not  much  more 
than  simple  archives.  An  anecdote  shows 
that  there  was  a  library  at  St.  Peter's  in  the 
middle  of  the  7th  century,  but  it  also  shows 
in  what  state  it  was.  Bishop  Taio  of  Sara- 
gossa  went  to  Rome  expressly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  procuring  a  copy  of  the  Moralia  by 
Gregory  the  Great.  But  neither  the  pope  nor 
anybody  else  could  tell  where  the  book  wi\s  ; 
in  a  vision,  however,  it  was  revealed  to  Taio 
that  it  could  be  found  in  the  library  of  St. 
Peter's,  in  that  or  that  press,  etc.  Curious 
is  also  a  passage  in  a  letter  of  reconnnenda- 
tion  which  the  Roman  legates  brought  from 
Agatho,  678-81,  to  the  emperor  ;  lie  makes 
excuses  for  their  ignorance.  In  Spain  and 
Gaul  times  were  so  troubled  that  nobody 
could  think  of  forming  a  new  library.  Bet- 
ter were  the  prospects  in  Ireland  and  Eng- 
land. Already  in  the  7th  century  the  Irish 
monks  were  excellent  transcribers,  and  from 
Alcuin,  735-804,  we  learn  that  there  at  his 
tim«  were  good  libraries  at  York  and  Canter- 
bury. So  far  as  the  Prankish  Empire  is  con- 
cerned a  powerful  impulse  was  given  to  the 
cause  by  Charlemagne's  order  of  787,  that 
there  should  be  established  schools  at  all 
cathedrals,  and  that  the  schools  should  be 
provided  with  books  :  the  gospels,  a  psalter, 
an  antiphonary,  a  breviary,  a  computus,  a 
martyrology,  a  penitential,  a  passional,  a 
volume  of  canons,  homilies,  etc. 

Of  still  greater  importance  are  the  niona.stic 
libraries,   not  because  the  schools  and  book 


LICENTIATE 


(503) 


IiIGHTFOOT 


collections  established  in  the  monasteries, 
when  compared  to  those  established  at  the 
cathedrals,  were  the  more  powerful  centres 
of  learning  and  intellectual  development,  for 
that  is  very  doubtful,  but  because,  through 
their  indefatigable  copying,  they  became  the 
printing-presses  of  their  time.  To  the  monks, 
their  industry,  conscientiousness,  taste— 
which  it  is  as  easy  to  sneer  at  as  it  would  be 
difficult  to  equal— the  world  is  indebted  for 
the  preservation  of  the  whole  Latin  and  the 
better  part  of  the  Greek  literature.  As  for 
the  East,  very  little  is  known  about  the  date 
of  the  origin  and  the  manner  of  the  growth 
( f  the  monastic  book  collections,  but,  to  infer 
from  the  remains  of  them,  they  must  have 
been  very  old  and  very  large.  Between  the 
years  1839  and  1847  no  less  than  400  vol- 
umes of  manuscripts  were  brought  to  the 
Lritish  Museum  from  one  single  Syrian  mon- 
astery, St.  Mary  Deipara  in  the  Nitriaii  Des- 
(.rt,  and  three  of  those  volumes,  containing 
the  epistles  of  St.  Ignatius,  date  back  to  a 
time  before  the  middle  of  the  6th  century. 
The  manuscript  Bible  found  by  Tischendorf 

n  the   monastery  of    St.    Catherine  at  Mt. 

inai,  dates  from  the  4th  century,  and  the 
immense  treasures  he  brought  back  to  St. 
Petersburg  from  the  monasteries  of  Palestine, 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Patmos,  etc.,  give  a  ver}^ 
vivid  idea  of  what  the  book  collections  of  the 
Eastern  monasteries  must  have  been  before 
they  were  overthrown  by  the  Arabs  and 
Turks. 

Among  the  Western  monks  reading  was 
often  commanded  by  their  rules  ;  those  of 
Csesarius,  503,  ordered  that,  while  at  the  table 
no  one  should  speak,  but  some  book  should 
be  read  aloud,  "  that  as  the  body  is  refreshed 
by  food,  so  may  the  soul  Ije  refreshed  b}"  the 
word  of  God  J'  those  of  Benedict,  r30,  that 
in  Lent  every  monk  should  receive  a  book 
from  the  library  and  read  it  througli.  and,  in 
order  not  to  soil  the  books,  the  monks  were 
allowed  to  keep  a  handkerchief  about  it  while 
reading.  When  Cassiodorus  in  563  built  the 
monastery  of  Vivarium,  he  introduced  tran- 
scription as  a  regular  work  among  his  monks, 
and  so  it  continued  in  many  monasteries  and 
for  centuries.  Tlie  above-mentioned  order  by 
Charlemagne,  787,  was  also  addressed  to  the 
abbots,  and  one  of  its  immediate  con.sequences 
was  the  establishment  of  the  library  at  Fulda, 
which  became  the  most  famous  book  collec- 
tion among  the  Germans,  perhaps  with  the 
exception  of  that  of  St.  Gail,  both  of  which 
are  still  in  existence  ;  Abbot  Sturm,  who  re- 
cently had  founded  tlie  monastery  of  Fulda, 
is  said  to  have  employed  400  monks  as  copy- 
ists. The  two  most  celebrated  monastic 
libraries  in  Italy  were  t'^at  of  Monte  Casino 
and  that  of  Bobbio.  The  former  was  burned 
down  in  the  6th  century  by  tlie  Lombards  and 
in  the  9th  by  the  Saracens,  but  each  time  re- 
established ;  the  latter  was  famous  for  its 
palimpsests,  of  which  the  catalogue,  made  in 
the  10th  century,  is  found  in  ]\Iuratori,  Antiq. 
Ital.  Med.  jEt.,  iii.,  817-24.  In  France  the 
monasteries  of  Cluny  and  Corbie  were  re- 
nowned for  tlieir  libraries,  especially  the  lat- 
ter, of  which  the  larger  part  has  been  incor- 
porated with  tlie  national  library  in  Paris. 


Of  monastic  libraries  in  England  that  of 
Wearmouth  seems  at  one  time  to  have  been 
the  largest,  but  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
in  867.  Those  of  Canterbury,  Whitby, 
Croyland,  Duijiam,  were  also  considerable, 
and  far  above  anything  of  the  kind  at  that 
time  found  in  France  or  Germany.       C.  P. 

Licentiate,  an  academical  degree,  interme- 
diate between  Bachelor  of  Art  and  Doctor, 
has  become  antiquated  in  England,  but  is 
still  in  use  in  France  and  Germany. 

Lichtenberger,  Frederic  Auguste,  Lie. 
Tlieol.,  D.D.  (Strassburg,  1857  and  1860),  b. 
at  Strassburg,  JMarch  21,  1832  ;  studied  there, 
in  Paris,  and  in  Germany  ;  became,  in  1864, 
a  member  of  the  French  Protestant  theologi- 
cal faculty  at  Strassburg,  wliich,  in  1877,  was 
reorganized  in  Paris  with  him  for  its  dean. 
He  edited  the  Eitcydopedie  des  Sciences  Re- 
ligieuses,  Paris,  1872-83,  13  vols.  Among  his 
other  works  is  a  Ilistoire  des  edees  religievses 
cib  Allemagne,  etc.,  1873,  3  vols. 

Liddon,  Henry  Parry,  D.D.,  D.C.L.  (both 
Oxford,  1870),  b.  at  Stoneham  Hants,  Aug.  20, 
1839  ;  d.  at  Weston  Super  Mare,  Eng.,  Tues- 
day, Sept.  9, 1890.  He  graduated  B.  A.  at  Ox- 
ford, 1850  (second  class  in  classics)  ;  Johnson 
Theological  Scholar,  1851  ;  M.A.,  1853  ;  Bamp- 
ton  lecturer,  1866.  From  1854  to  1859  he  was 
vice-principal  of  the  theological  college  of 
Cuddesdon  ;  from  1864  to  1870  a  prebendary 
of  Salisbury  ;  from  1870  to  1883  Ireland  pro- 
fessor of  exegesis,  Oxford  ;  from  1870  to  1886 
a  canon  residentiary  of  St.  Paul's,  London  ; 
since  chancellor.  He  was  by  common  consent 
the  foremost  preacher  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. His  sermons  were  usually  at  least  an 
hour  long  and  very  elaborate,  but  so  clear  in 
style,  so  interesting  in  manner,  and  so  admira- 
ble in  delivery  that  they  were  attentively  listen- 
ed to  by  enormous  congregations.  His  great 
work  is  his  Bampton  lectures  on  The  Diviniti/ 
of  Jesus  CJirint,  Loudon,  1867  (numerous  edi- 
tions), an  English  classic  ;  but  he  published 
many  sermons  and  the  Lenten  lectures.  Some 
Elements  of  Religion,  1870-72. 

Liebner,  Theodor  Albert,  b.  at  Sclikolen, 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  3Iurch  3, 
1806  ;  d.  at  Meran,  Tyrol,  June  24,  1871  ; 
was  appointed  professor  of  theoloir)'  succes- 
sively at  Gcittingen,  1835  ;  Kiel,  1844  ;  Leip- 
zig, 1851,  and  court  preacher  at  Dresden, 
1855.  He  published  several  volumes  of  ser- 
mons, a  CJiristliche  Dogmntik,  Gottingen,  1849, 
monouraplis  on  Hugo  (Leipzig,  1832)  and 
Richard  (Gottingen,  1837-39),  of  St.  Victor, 
etc. 

Lightfoot,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge.  1652), 
Church  of  Eniiland  ;  b.  at  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
Staffordshire,  3lareh  19(29),  1602  ;  d.  at  Ely, 
Dec.  6,  1675.  He  graduated  B.A.  at  Caiii 
bridge,  1621  ;  became  minister  of  St.  Bar 
tholomew's,  London,  1642,  and  sat  in  the 
Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines  ;  in  1643 
master  of  Catherine's  Hall,  Cambridge,  and 
rector  of  Much  ]\Iunden,  Hertfordsliire  ;  in 
1655  vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity. He  liad  hitlierto  belonged  to  the  Pres- 
byterian party,   but  conformed  in  1662,  and 


i 

i 


LIGHTFOOT 


(504) 


LILY 


became  a  prebendary  of  Ely,  1675.  His 
great  and  universal  fame  was  made  as  a  He- 
braist, especially  as  the  author  of  Horm  He- 
braiccB  et  Talmudicm,  Hebrew  and  Talmudi- 
cal  exitations  upon  the  Gospels,  Acts,  1  Co- 
rinthians, and  part  of  Romans,  Eng.  trans., 
Oxford,  1659,  4  vols.,  a  perfect  storehouse  of 
Talmudical  lore.  (See  his  complete  works, 
London,  1822-25,  V6  vols.,  with  life.) 

Ijightfoot,  Joseph  Barber,  D.D.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1864  ;  Durham,  1879),  LL.D.  (Glas- 
gow, 1879),  D.C.L.  (Oxford,  1879),  bishop  of 
Durham  ;  b.  at  Liverpool,  April  13,  1828  ; 
d.  at  Bishop's  Auckland,  8  m.  s.w.  of  Dur- 
ham, Dec.  21,  1889.  Entering  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  he  gained  a  scholarship, 
1849,  and  graduated  with  high  honors,  1851  ; 
became  fellow,  1852,  Norrisian  prizeman,  1853. 
M.A.,  1854,  and  tutor,  1857  ;  was  ordained 
deacon,  1854,  and  priest,  1858  ;  select  preach- 
er to  the  university,  1058  ;  chaplain  to  Prince 
Albert,  1861  ;  Hulsean  professor  of  divinity, 
1861-75  ;  honorary  chaplain  to  the  queen, 
1862  ;  examining  chaplain  to  Dr.  Tait  as 
bishop  of  London,  1861-69,  and  as  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  1869-79  ;  preacher  at  White- 
hall, 1866-67  ;  canon  of  St.  Paul's,  London, 
1871-79  ;  select  preacher  at  Oxford,  1874-75  ; 
Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Cam- 
bridge, 1875  ;  deputy  clerk  of  the  closet  to 
the  queen,  1875  ;  bishop  of  Durham,  1879. 
He  was  a  Moderate  Churchman  and  a  munifi- 
cent and  efficient  prelate.  He  never  married, 
but  received  at  his  palace  many  young  men 
whom  he  trained  for  the  ministry  ;  70  of 
them  are  now  in  orders.  As  a  biblical  and 
patristic  scholar  he  had  no  superiors  in  his 
own  age  and  few,  if  any,  equals.  His  learn- 
ing is  shown  without  pedantry  in  his  com- 
mentaries on  Galatians,  1865  ;  Philippians, 
1868  ;  Colossians  and  Philemon,  1875,  and  on 
the  Epistles  of  Clement,  1869  (Appendix, 
1877)  ;  Ignatius  and_  Polycarp,  1885.  While 
engaged  upon  Ignatius,  he  learned  Armenian 
and  Coptic,  to  gain  every  possible  light  upon 
his  subject.  He  w^as  one  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment Company  of  Bible  Revisers,  whose  work 
he  explained  in  an  essay  On  a  Fresh  Revmoii. 
of  the  EngluU  New  Testament,  1871.  With 
good  talents  for  practical  affairs,  his  was  emi- 
nently the  scholar's  temperament  ;  if  his 
candor,  modesty,  and  moderation  make  his 
character  appear  somewhat  colorless,  they 
contributed  to  the  singular  happiness  of  his 
life.  Honors  came  to  him  unsought,  and  he 
bore  them  meekly.  Though  mucli  engaged 
in  controversy,  as  with  the  author  of  Siqjer- 
natural  Religion  (1875)  and  the  bishop  of 
Salisbury,  he  escaped  the  attacks  alike  of 
partisan  zeal  and  of  personal  misconception. 
Dean  Stanley  and  Dr.  Jowett  gratefully  ac- 
knowledged his  criticisms  ou  their  writings. 
His  work  was  never  of  a  sort  to  win  popular 
interest  or  applause,  but  Archdeacon  Farrar 
{Contemporary  Review,  Feb.,  1890)  considers 
him  "by  far  the  greatest  ecclesiastic  of  the 
present  day,"  and  says  of  his  sermons,  which 
are  soon  to  appear  in  three  volumes,  that  ' '  for 
massive  splendor  and  majesty  of  style  he  was 
unsurpassed,  and  that  if  matter  be  infinitely 
more  important  than  manner,  he  should  have 


been  ranked  as  one  of  the  first— if  not  the 
first— preacher[s]  in  the  Church  of  England." 
F.  M.  B. 
Lights,   The  Ceremonial   Use   of,   in   the 

Christian  service  does  not  seem  to  be  a  mere 
continuation  of  a  Jewish  custom,  in  spite  of 
Acts  XX.  8  ;  or  a  simple  adoption  of  a  pagan 
practice,  in  spite  of  its  manifest  connection 
with  Greek  and  Roman  usages,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  case  of  Candlemas  (q.v.). 
More  likely  it  is  a  reminiscence  from  those 
days  when  Christianity  was  a  forbidden  re- 
ligion, and  the  Christians  were  compelled  to 
worship  in  the  dead  of  night  or  in  secret 
places — the  catacombs,  for  instance — where 
artificial  light  was  a  practical  necessity.  In 
the  4th  century  it  had  become  a  sacred  rite  ; 
Vigilantius  attacked  it,  Jerome  defended  it. 
Afterward  it  spread  and  became  very  con- 
spicuous at  certain  occasions,  for  instance  at 
burials.  The  Reformed  Church  abolished  it 
but  the  Anglican  and  Lutheran  retained  it, 
though  it  seems  to  have  lost  its  living  power 
of  symbolization. 

Lign-aloe  {ligmim  aloes).  A  tree  of  tropi- 
cal Asia  yielding  a  rich  perfume  (Num.  xxiv. 
6).  Elsewhere  in  sacred  Scripture  it  is  called 
aloe  (Ps.  xlv.  8,  Prov.  vii.  17,  Song  iv.  14). 
Nicodemus  brought  it  mingled  with  myrrh 
to  embalm  the  body  of  our  Lord  (John  xix. 
39).  T.  W.  C. 

Liguori,  Alfonso  Maria  da,  b.  at  Marinnel- 
la,  a  suburb  of  Naples,  Sept.  27,  1696  ;  d.  at 
Nocera,  Aug.  1,  1787  ;  was  ordained  a  priest 
in  1726  ;  formed  the  order  of  the  Redemptor- 
ists  in  1732  ;  was  appointed  bishop  of  St. 
Agatha  de'  Goti  in  1762,  but  retired  to  a  Re- 
demptorist  house  in  1775.  He  was  canonized 
in  1839  by  Gregory  XVI.,  and  declared  a 
doctor  of  the  church  by  Pius  IX.  in  1871. 
His  best  known  book  is  The  Glories  of  Mary, 
Venice,  1784,  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans..  New  York, 
1852  ;  but  his  chief  work  is  his  Theologia, 
Moralis,  Naples,  1753,  2  vols.  There  is  a  life 
of  him  written  in  English  by  a  Rederaptorist 
father,  Baltimore,  1855,  and  his  Maxims  and 
Counsels  were  translated,  London,  1887. 


LiUie,  John,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1855),  b. 
at  Kelso,  Scotland,  Dec.  16,  1812 ;  d.  at 
Kingston,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  23,  1867.  He  gradu- 
ated at  tlie  University  of  Edinburgh,  1831  ; 
studied  theology  there  and  at  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.  ;  was  Dutch  Reformed  pastor  at 
Kingston,  183(5-41,  and  in  New  York  City, 
1843-48  ;  Presbyterian  pastor  at  Kingston, 
1857-67.  He  was  an  eminent  biblical  scholar 
and  a  translator  for  the  American  Bible 
Union,  1851-57.  Among  his  writings  are 
Perpetuity  of  the  Earth,  New  York,  1842, 
translations  for  Lange's  Commentary,  and 
lectures  on  Thessalonians,  1860,  and  on  1  and 
2  Peter,  1869.  The  latter  has  a  sketch  of  his 
life  by  Dr.  Schaff  and  J.  Inglis.      F.  M.  B. 

Lily.  Several  varieties  of  the  plant  thus 
named  are  found  in  Palestine.  It  was  used 
in  the  ornamental  work  of  the  temple  (2 
Chron.  iv.  5),  and  is  often  employed  a.s  a  sym- 
bol of  loveliness    (Song  ii.    1,    v.    13,   tic). 


lilMBORCH 


(505) 


LITERJB 


From  it  Christ  drew  one  of  bis  most  striking 
figures  (Matt.  vi.  28).  T.  W.  C. 

liimborch,  Philipp  van,  b.  in  Amsterdam, 
June  19,  1633  ;  d.  there,  April  13,  1712  ;  was 
appointed  pastor  at  Gonda  in  1657,  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  Remonstrant  college 
in  Amsterdam,  1668.  His  Imtitutiones  The- 
ologim  GkrintiniKP.  1686,  was  translated  into 
English  by  William  Jones,  London,  1702,  and 
his  Histoi'ia  Inquisitionis,  1692,  by  Samuel 
Chandler,  London,  1731.  (See  Van  der 
Hoeven,  De  J.  Clerico  et  P.  L.,  Amsterdam, 
1845.  He  was  a  friend  of  Locke  ;  see  Locke's 
Letters,  London,  1737.) 

Iiimbus,  or  liimbo,  meaning  in  Latin  ' '  bor- 
der," is  used  by  the  Roman  Catholic  cate- 
chism in  two  connections — limbus  patrum,  or 
the  bosom  of  Abraham,  a  place  between 
heaven  and  hell,  where  the  pre-Christian 
saints  are  received,  and  limbus  infantum,  also 
a  place  between  heaven  and  hell  to  which  the 
unbaptized  children  are  sent.  In  both  places 
the  state  is  intermediate  between  blessedness 
and  punishment. 

Linen,  a  cloth  made  of  flax,  used  for  the 
garments  of  the  priests  (Ex.  xxviii.  39)  and  of 
kings  (1  Chron.  xv.  27).  The  best  was  made 
in  Egypt.  It  was  an  emblem  of  innocence 
and  purity  (Rev.  xv.  6,  xix.  8).       T.  W.  C. 

Lingard,  John,  D.D.  (Rome,  1821),  LL.D. 
(Rome,  1821),  F.R.S.  (1824),  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  at  Winchester,  Feb.  5,  1771  ;  d.  at 
Hornby,  9  m.  n.e.  of  Lancaster,  July  17, 
1851.  He  studied  at  Douai,  1782-93,  and 
after  a  year  as  tutor  settled  with  otliers  at 
Crook  Hall,  near  Durham,  where  a  seminary 
was  soon  organized,  with  him  as  vice-presi- 
dent and  teacher  of  philosophy.  In  1808  the 
community  removed  to  Ushaw,  Durham.  In 
1811  he  declined  the  presidency  of  the  college 
at  Maynooth,  and  retired  to  a  small  mission 
at  Hornby  to  gain  leisure  for  his  studies.  He 
visited  Rome  in  1817,  and  in  1821  received  his 
two  degrees  from  Pius  V^II.  In  1825  he  is 
said  to  have  declined  a  cardinalate.  His  An- 
tiquities of  t?ie  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  1806,  was 
much  enlarged,  1845.  His  great  work,  A 
Bhtory  of  England,  appeared  in  8  vols.,  Lon- 
don. 1819-30,  and  was  several  times  revised  ; 
the  6th  ed.,  in  10  vols.,  1854-55,  had  a  life  of 
Lingard  by  Tierney,  and  was  translated  into 
French,  German,  and  Italian.  It  is  of  great 
value  for  the  Roman  Catholic  view  of  British 
aifairs  ;  Cardinal  Wiseman  called  its  author 
"  the  only  impartial  historian  of  our  coun- 
try." Among  his  avowedly  polemic  works 
are  .1  Collection  of  Tracts,'  1820,  and  Cate- 
chetical Instructions,  1840.  F.  M.  B. 

Linus,  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  as  bishop 
of  Rome,  and  by  IrensBus  identitied  with  that 
Linus  from  whom  St.  Paul  sent  greetings  to 
Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv.  21).  There  is  with  him 
no  question  about  the  order  of  succession,  as 
is  the  case  with  his  successors,  but  the  dates 
are  differently  given  by  Irenajus,  Jerome, 
Augustine,  etc. 

Lion,  tlie  well-known  king  of  beasts,  found 
in  Palestine  till  the  12th  centurv.  He  is  men- 
tioned over  100  times  in  the  Bible,  and  the 


Hebrew  has  6  different  names  for  him.  Christ 
is  called  (Rev.  v.  5)  "  the  lion  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah."  T.  W.  C. 

Lipsius,  Richard  Adelbert,  Ph.D.,  Lie. 
Theol.  (Leipzig,  1853  and  1854),  D.D.  (hon., 
Jena,  1858),  b.  at  Gera,  35  m.  s.w.  of  Leipzig, 
Feb.  14,  1830  ;  studied  at  Leipzig,  1848-51  ; 
h&cume  privat  docent  there,  1855,  and  profes- 
sor extraordinary,  1859  ;  ordinary  professor 
in  Vienna,  1861,  at  Kiel,  1865,  and  at  Jena, 
1871.  He  is  in  philosophy  a  follower  of  Kant 
and  in  theology  of  Schleiermacher,  and  seeks 
to  build  up  the  dogmatic  system  upon  the  re- 
ligious experience  of  the  Christian  com- 
munion and  the  individual  believer.  He 
wrote,  among  other  learned  works,  Clironol- 
ogie  der  romischen  Bischofe  bis  zur  Mitte  des 
4:Ja7irh.,  Kiel,  1869  ;  Die  Qnellen  der  dltesten 
KetzergescMcMe,  1875  ;  Lehrhvch  der  ev.  j)yot. 
Dogmatik,  Braunschweig,  1876,  2d  ed.,  1879  ; 
Die  apokryphen  Apostelgeschichten  vnd  Apostel- 
legenden,  1883-87,  2  vols.;  Philosophie  vnd 
Religion,  Leipzig,  1885. 

Litany.  The  word  Qaravt'ia),  as  used  by 
Eusebius,  Chrysostom,  and  in  a  law  of  Arca- 
dius,  means  a  prayer  of  any  kind.  Later  it 
was  applied  to  the  processions  in  which  peni- 
tential or  intercessory  petitions  were  recited. 
The  form  of  words  varied  greatly,  and  seems 
at  times  to  have  been  contined  to  "  Kyrie 
eleison."  This  expression  was  introduced  in 
the  West,  529,  as  the  equivalent  of  "  Domine 
miserere,"  and  must  have  been  commonly  a 
congregational  response  to  some  petition 
offered  by  the  minister.  The  litany  was  much 
developed  in  France  during  the  5th  and  6th 
centuries,  and  passed  into  English  use,  747. 
A  processional  litania  major  was  employed  in 
Rome,  April  25,  before  590.  Gregory  I.  in- 
troduced a  litania  septiformis  (sung  by  7 
choirs)  on  occasion  of  a  pestilence,  590-91  : 
this  was  the  model  of  the  Gallic  rogationes  or 
litania  minores.  Bede  says  that  Augustine 
and  his  monks  chanted  a  litany  as  they  entered 
Canterbury. 

Clement  VIII.  found  it  necessary  to  check 
the  increasing  number  of  litanies,  accepting 
of  the  later  ones  only  that  of  our  Lady  of 
Loretto.  That  of  the  Name  of  Jesus  was'aLso 
sanctioned  in  1646.  Luther  compiled  a  Latin 
and  a  German  litany,  to  which  petitions 
against  Turks  and  pope  were  added.  The 
Moravians  early  employed  a  similar  form. 

The  first  English  litany  appeared  1544,  and 
in  the  Prayer-Book  of  1549  was  ordered  to 
be  said  before  the  Communion  office  on 
Wednesdays  and  Fridays.  In  1552  it  occu- 
pied its  present  place,  and  was  appointed  also 
for  Sundays.  Cranmer  compiled  it  from 
many  sources,  with  such  eminent  success  that 
it  has  hardly  been  modified  since.  Except  in 
Lent  it  is  generally  somewhat  abridged. 

Of  late  years  metrical  litanies  have  been 
abundantly  produced  in  the  English  Church 
and  introduced  into  sundry  hymnals. 

F.  M.  B. 

Literae  CommunicatoriaB  and  Literse  For- 
matae.  From  the  earliest  time  it  was  cus- 
tom in  the  Christian  Cliurch  to  give  its  trav(  1- 
ling  members  letters  of  introduction,   littrin 


LITTER 


(506) 


LITURGY 


comiminicatorm  (Acts  xviii.  27,  Rom.  xvi.  1), 
and  as  it  was  forbidden  to  receive  a  heretic  into 
one's  house  (2  John  x.),  a  passport  of  or- 
thodoxy soon  became  absolutely  necessary. 
Then  people  began  to  counterfeit  such  letters, 
and  in  order  to  avoid  the  fraud  and  deceit 
thus  practised,  they  were  written  in  certain 
prescribed  forms  and  provided  with  a  seal, 
forma;  hence  their  name,  liter m for mata. 

Litter,  a  covered  conveyance  carried  either 
by  men  or  animals  (Isa.  Ixvi.  20).  Solomon's 
"  chariot"  (Song  iii.  9)  is  rendered  in  R.  V. 
palanquin — no  doubt  correctly.     T.  W.  C. 

Littledale,  Richard  Frederick,  LL.D. 
(Dublin,  1862),  D.C.L.  (Oxford,  1862),  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  in  Dublin,  Sept.  14,  1833  ; 
d.  in  London,  Jan.  11,  1890.  He  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  1854 ;  was  or- 
dained, 1856,  and  served  till  1861  as  a  curate 
at  Thorpe,  Norfolk,  and  St.  Mary's,  Soho, 
London  ;  but  ill-liealth  turned  him  from  active 
duties  to  religious  and  controversial  litera- 
ture, in  which  he  became  eminent  for  learn- 
ing, dilgence,  ability,  and  wit.  He  was  a 
churchman  of  the  most  "  advanced  "  school, 
but  a  steady  and  most  formidable  opponent  of 
Roman  claims.  Among  his  works  are  (Jom- 
munities  of  Women  in  the  Early  Ghurch,  Lon- 
don, 1862  ;  Offices  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church, 

1863  ;  The  Mixed  Ohalice,  1863  ;  North  Side 
of  the  Altar,   1864  ;   Unity  and  the  Rescript, 

1864  ;  Catholic  Ritual  in  tlie  Church  of  Eng- 
land, 1865  ;  Elevation  of  the  Host,  1865  ; 
Earltj  Christian  Ritual,  1867  ;  The  Children's 
Bread..  1868  ;  vols,  ii.-iv.,  1868-74,  of  A  Com- 
mentary on  tlie  Psalms  from  Primitive  and 
Medimval  Writers,  begun  by  his  friend,  Dr. 
J.  M.  Neale  ;  Commentary  on  the  Song  of 
Songs,  1869  ;  Religious  Education  of  Women, 
1872;  At  the  Old  Catholic  Congress,  1872; 
Papers  on  Sisterhoods,  1874-78  ;  Last  Attempt 
to  Reform  tlie  Church  of  Rome  from  Within, 

1875  ;      Ultramontane     Popular     Literature, 

1876  ;  An  Inner  View  of  the  Vatican  Coumil, 

1877  ;  Why  Ritualists  do  not  Become  Roman 
Catlwlics,  1878;  Petrine  Claims,  1878-84. 
Of  his  Plain  Reasons  aqainst  Joining  the 
Church  of  Rome,  1879,  40,000  copies  were 
sold  in  8  years.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
The  Priest's  Prayer-Book,  1864  ;  The  People's 
Hymnal,  1867,  which  contained  many  original 
or  translated  hymns  of  his  own  ;  Primitive 
Liturgies,  1868-69  ;  Ths  Altar  Manual,  1877, 
etc.  He  wrote  steadily  for  the  Church  Times, 
The  Acculemy,  and  other  papers.  This  enor- 
mous amount  of  work,  and  much  more,  he 
performed  while  suffering  the  tortures  of  a 
spinal  disease.  F.  M.  B. 

Liturgy  {Xeirovpyia,  public  service) :  ge- 
nerically,  any  form  for  worship,  as  the  Book 
of  Common'Prayer  or  its  component  parts  ; 
specifically  and  more  accurately,  a  eucharis- 
tic  ritual  or  "  order  for  the  administration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  or  Holy  Communion." 

The  questions  of  divine  autliority  and  apos- 
tolic practice  in  the  matter  of  forms  of  prayer 
are  more  easily  raised  than  settled.  As  to  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  it  may  be  claimed,  on  the  one 
!  hand,  that  in  it  Christ  not  only  sanctioned 


but  enjoined  forms  of  prayer  ;  on  the  other, 
that  he  merely  offered  a  model  for  the  sub- 
stance and  spirit  of  our  devotions  ("  after  this 
manner  pray  ye").  As  to  the  usage  of  the 
1st  century,  nothing  is  known  with  certrinty. 
The  services  of  the  first  Christians,  as  Jews, 
and  accustomed  to  a  fixed  service,  would 
naturally  be  liturgical  ;  but  it  is  probable  that 
forms  of  service  grew  and  took  shape  by  de- 
grees, like  the  form  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment. 

The  chief  and  central  act  of  Christian  faith 
and  worship  from  the  first  must  have  been 
the  commemoration  of  the  Founder's  death, 
in  the  manner  prescribed  by  himself.  His 
words  and  acts  in  blessing  the  bread  and 
wine  were  necessarily  repeated  in  subsequent 
consecrations,  and  afforded  at  least  the  nu- 
cleus of  a  liturgy  proper.  But  however  this 
service  developed,  or  at  whatever  time  and 
place  it  assumed  something  like  a  fixed  shape, 
it  seems  to  have  been  committed  to  memory 
rather  than  to  writing  ;  for  while  in  the  per- 
secutions portions  of  the  Scriptures  were  often 
siezed,  no  otficial  service-book  was  ever  given 
up.  The  "  books"  and  "  parchments"  men- 
tioned by  St.  Paul  (2  Tim.  iv.  13)  may  have 
been  of  any  nature  ;  and  while  certain  quota- 
tions in  the  epistles  seem  to  be  of  hymnic 
structure,  and  others  are  found  in  early  litur- 
gies, we  are  not  justified  in  assuming  an  ofti- 
cial  character  for  the  unknown  originals 
whence  they  were  taken.  The  oldest  known 
precomposed  Christian  prayer,  apart  from 
Holy  Writ,  is  found  in  that  part  of  the  epis- 
tle of  Clement  discovered  by  Bryennios,  1875, 
and  may  have  been  a  sample  of  the  petitions 
offered  in  the  church  at  Rome.  The  so-called 
Apostolical  Constitutions,  probably  of  the  4th 
century,  contain  in  Book  VIH.  a  quasi-lit- 
urgy,  which  seems  never  to  have  been  used 
in  public  worship. 

The  eiirly  liturgies,  intended  for  congre- 
gational use,  and  in  general  supposed  to  liave 
been  thus  actually  used,  are  divided  into  5 
groups,  3  of  them  wholly  Oriental.  All  of 
them  art  "  sacramentaries"  or  liturgies  proper, 
and  all  contain  prayers  for  the  dead,  but 
without  allusion  to  purgatory. 

I.  West  Syrian. — This  group  includes,  be- 
sides the  pseudo-Clementine  above  mentioned, 
those  which  bear  the  names  of  St.  James,  St. 
Basil,  St.  Chrysostom,  and  St.  Gregory  the 
Illuminator  (Armenian),  besides  many  based 
upon  the  Syriac  liturgy  of  St.  James.  Those 
of  SS.  Chrysostom  and  Basil  are  still  used  in 
the  Eastern  Church. 

II.  Egyptian. — Greek  liturgies  of  St.  Mark. 
St.  Basil,  and  St.  Gregory  ;  Coptic  of  the  two 
last  and  St.  Cyril,  and  the  Ethiopic  "  Canon 
Universalis." 

III.  East  Syrian.— Three  survive,  those 
credited  to  SS.  AdiEus  and  Maris,  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia,  and  Nestorius ;  those  of 
N arses,  Barsumas,  and  Diodorus  of  Tarsus 
are  lost.  That  of  the  Christians  of  St. 
Thomas  in  Western  India  belonged  to  this 
group  till  taken  in  hand,  1599,  by  the  Jesuit 
missionaries,  who  gave  it  a  Roman  form. 

IV.  A  group  of  Eastern  origin  but  West- 
ern use,  named  after  Ephesus  and  St.  John  ; 
once  prevalent  in  Spain  and  Gaul,  but  since 


LroDGERUS 


(507; 


IiIUDGERUS 


generally  superseded  by  tho  Roman  liturgy. 
Its  chief  numbers  are  (1)  the  Mozarabic,  which 
was  national  in  Spain  till  near  1100,  was 
printed  by  Ximenes  about  1500,  and  is  still 
used  in  Toledo  ;  (3)  the  Galilean,  used  in 
France  till  suppressed  by  Charlemagne  about 
800,  discovered  and  published  in  several  forms 
by  Tnomasius,  1680,  Mabillon,  1687,  and  re- 
cently by  Mone,  Bunsen,  and  Mai ;  (3)  the 
Ambrosian,  also  suppressed  by  Charlemagne, 
but  preserved  by  the  Lombards  ;  claimed  for 
St.  Barnabas,  the  first  preacher  of  Milan  ; 
gradually  corrupted  into  aftinity  with  the 
Roman  liturgy  ;  (4)  the  Celtic,  of  which  our 
knowledge  is  due  almost  wholly  to  recent 
discoveries. 

V.  Roman  ov  Pc<?'iw.f.— Supposed  to  be 
wholly  Western,  this  liturgy  was  once  of 
local  use,  but  through  papal  influence  it 
gradually  drove  out  others  and  became  nearly 
coextensive  with  the  Roman  obedience.  The 
manuscripts  purport  to  copy  the  Roman  sac- 
ramentary  of  the  time  of  Gregory  I.  (590- 
604),  but  none  of  them  antedates  the  9th  cen- 
tury. One  published  1680  by  Thomasius  as 
SacranuntariiDii  Gelasianum  was  written  in 
France.  The  origin  of  this,  as  of  all  the  early 
liturgies,  is  shrouded  in  the  mists  of  antiquity. 
They  are  distinguished  from  each  other 
chiefly  by  the  varying  positions  of  the  great 
intercession. 

Turning  to  England,  where  the  Roman 
liturgy  was  introduced  in  the  7tli  century,  we 
have  the  Anglo-Saxon  missals  of  Leofric  and 
of  Robert  of  Jumieges,  all  of  the  11th  cen- 
tury, which  are  mere  modifications  of  the 
Roman  ;  and  in  the  Normau  period  the  cele- 
brated Sarum  missal  of  1085,  which  passed 
from  the  province  of  Canterbury  to  Ireland 
and  parts  of  Scotland.  Minor  "uses"  ob- 
tained in  York,  Hereford,  and  elsewhere. 
Besides  the  missal  and  breviary,  there  were 
less  important  books  called  Aiitiphonary , 
Orndual,  etc. 

At  the  Reformation  English  took  the  place 
of  Latin  in  the  first  Prayer-Book  of  Edward 
VI.,  1549.  Its  successor,  1552,  went  further 
in  the  Puritan  interest.  Of  these  Cranmer 
and  Ridley  were  the  chief  compilers.  Sup- 
pressed under  Mary,  this  was  restored  with 
modifications  in  1559,  and  revised  in  1604  and 
1663.  Since  the  latter  date  only  slight 
changes  have  been  made  in  it.  The  Praj^er- 
Book  is  generally  admitted  to  be  one  of  the 
monumental  works  of  English  literature.  It 
preceded  Shakespeare  and  the  King  James 
Bible  in  forming  and  fixing  the  English 
tongue.  Though  only  a  compilation  and 
translation,  it  is  almost  a  work  of  genius. 
Mr.  Gladstone  calls  its  collects  our  finest 
prose.  Purged  of  mediieval  errors  and  cor- 
ruptions, steering  carefully  between  opposite 
extremes,  and  avoiding  or  gently  touching 
doubtful  and  disputed  points,  it  is  a  marvel 
alike  of  tact,  taste,  large-minded  statesman- 
ship, and  spiritual  discretion.  The  noble 
beauty  of  its  language  so  matches  the  gravity 
and  wisdom  of  its  thoughts  that  though  it 
was  prepared  for  times  and  conditions  far  re- 
mote from  ours,  very  little  of  its  contents  has 
become  obsolete  or  inappropriate  ;  few  of  the 
millions  who  use  it  would  have  it  changed. 


and  it  is  exposed  to  criticism  only  in  some  of 
its  minor  portions.  Whatever  of  disreputable 
policy  and  time-serving  self-interest  marked 
the  course  of  the  English  Reformation,  the 
learning  and  piety  of  its  adherents  found 
their  worthiest  expression  and  most  effective 
agency  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

In  Scotland  a  liturgy  was  compiled  in  1636 
by  Spottiswood  and  other  bishops,  approved 
by  Laud,  and  unwisely  attempted  to  be  forced 
upon  the  people  by  Charles  I.  As  revised 
and  adopted  in  1718,  it  more  nearly  resembles 
the  first  book  of  Edward  VI.  than  its  succes- 
sors. The  American  Episcopal  Prayer-Book 
of  1789  was  in  the  main  based  closely  on 
that  of  England,  but  in  the  Communion  OlHce 
rather  followed  the  Scottish,  with  it  restoring 
the  second  oblation  and  invocation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  immediately  after  the  consecra- 
tion. It  was  slightly  revised,  1886-89,  chiefiy 
in  the  interest  of  greater  liberty.  The  Irish 
Prayer-Book  was  revised  (after  the  disestab- 
lishment) in||1870  by  omission  of  the  Athanasian 
Creed  (also  omitted  in  the  American  book) 
and  some  minor  matters.  The  Irvingite  or 
"  Catholic  Apostolic  Church"  has  a  rich  lit- 
urgy based  on  the  English  Prayer-Book. 

Protestants  of  the  Continent  of  Europe  are 
usually  more  or  less  liturgical.  Luther  issued 
a  treatise  Of  the  Order  of  Sermce,  1533,  and 
the  German  Mass,  1536.  The  Moravians, 
Lutherans,  etc.,  have  service  books  in  Ger- 
man and  English,  compiled  from  ancient 
sources  ;  of  the  latter  the  best  American  book 
is  that  of  the  General  Council,  1868.  The 
Old  Catholics  put  forth  in  1875  a  Rititale  in 
German,  preliminary  to  a  revised  missal. 

The  Calvinistic  bodies  are  less  given  to 
forms,  and  such  as  they  have  used  look  more 
to  instruction  than  to  worship,  and  take  as 
their  central  point  the  sermon  rather  than  the 
Lord's.Supper.  The  form  put  forth  by  Cal- 
vin in  1538-41  was  little  more  than  an  order 
of  service,  with  the  Decalogue  and  a  confes- 
sion of  sin  prescribed.  Knox  followed  this 
at  Frankfort  in  1554  ;  his  scheme  was  adopted 
by  the  General  Assembly,  1560,  and  used  in 
Scotland  till  the  Directory  of  Public  Worship 
was  adopted  in  1645.  The  English  Puritans 
abhorred  forms  of  prayer,  no  less  than  church 
festivals,  fasts,  vestments,  etc.,  as  rags  of 
Rome  and  marks  of  Antichrist  ;  and  the  de- 
votions of  Presbyterians,  Congregatioualists, 
etc.,  have  ever  since  been  almost  wholly  ex- 
tempore. But  of  late  years  the  advantages  of 
a  fixed  and  decorous  order  for  public  worship 
are  beginning  to  be  felt,  and  a  liturgical  move- 
ment, led  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  R.  D.  Hitch- 
cock and  other  Presbyterians  of  the  highest 
eminence,  has  been  initiated.  The  outcome  is 
not  yet  visible,  but  the  force  of  prejudice  has 
in  good  degree  abated.  The  feeling  of  can- 
did and  scholarly  men  in  non-liturgical  com- 
munions was  long  ago  expressed  by  President 
Mark  Hopkins,  in  answer  to  a  student's  ques- 
tion whether  forms  of  prayer  were  ever  ad- 
missible :  "  Sir,  I  pity  the  man  who  cannot 
jiray  without  a  form,  and  I  most  profoundly 
i)itv  the  man  who  cannot  prav  with  one." 
F.  M.  B. 

liiudgerus,  or  Ludgerus,  St.,  b.  near  Dock- 


LIXTDPRAND 


(508) 


LIVINGSTONE 


um,  about  744  ;  d.  at  Billerbeck,  Westphalia, 
March  26,  809  ;  descended  from  a  Frisian 
family  ;  was  educated  in  the  school  of 
Utrecht  ;  studied  at  York  under  Alcuin  ; 
was  by  Charlemagne  sent  as  missionary  to 
the  Frisians,  and  worked  8  years  among  them, 
after  which  he  was  made  bishop  of  the  newly 
founded  Miinster  among  the  Saxons.  He 
founded  the  monastery  of  Werden  on  the 
Ruhr  in  Westphalia.  The  sources  of  his  life, 
among  which  are  three  biographies  from  the 
9th  century,  are  found  in  Diekamp,  Oeschichts- 
quellen  des  Bistums  Munster,  Miinster,  1881, 
vol.  iv.  His  life  was  written  by  Behrends, 
1843  ;  Hiising,  1878,  and  Pingsmann,  1879. 

Liudprand,  or  Luitprand,  b.  at  Pa  via,  of 
Lombard  descent  ;  d.  at  Constantinople,  972. 
He  was  educated  at  Pavia  ;  served  Otho  I.  ; 
was  by  him  made  bishop  of  Cremona,  and 
left  unlinished  three  histories,  Antapodosis, 
887-949  ;  Be  rebus  gestis  Ottonis,  960-64,  and 
De  legatione  ConstantinopoUtana,  968-69, 
edited  by  Pertz,  Mon.  Oerm.  iii.,  and  by 
Diimmler,  1877. 

Livingston,  John  Henry,  D.D.  (Utrecht, 
1770),  "father  of  the  Keformed  Dutch 
Church  in  America  ;"  b.  at  Poughkeepsie, 
N.  Y.,  May  80,  1746  ;  d.  at  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.,  Jan.  20,  1825.  He  graduated  at  Yale, 
1762  ;  read  law  for  a  time  ;  went  to  Holland, 
1766  ;  studied  divinity  at  Utrecht,  and  se- 
cured the  independence  of  the  American 
churches  from  the  Dutch  classis.  Returning 
to  New  York  1770,  he  became  associate  pas- 
tor, and  soon  reconciled  two  contending  par- 
ties in  his  church.  Tliis  office  he  retained  till 
1810,  though  absent  from  the  city  during' its 
occupation  by  the  British,  1776-88.  In  1784 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology,  and 
for  a  time  taught  at  Flatbush,  L.  I.  Receiv- 
ing a  second  appointment,  with  the  presi- 
dency of  Queen's  (now  Rutgers)  College,  he 
removed  to  New  Brunswick  in  1810.  His  ser- 
vices to  his  denomination  were  of  the  highest 
importance,  and  included  the  chief  part  in 
framing  its  constitution,  and  its  first  psalm 
and  hymn-book,  1787.  He  was  eminent  as  a 
patriot  and  as  a  preacher.  His  memoirs  by 
A.  Guun,  New  York,  1829,  were  abridged  by 
Dr.  T.  W.  Chambers,  1856.  F.  M.  B. 

Livingstone,  David,  LL.D.  (GIasgoM% 
1857),  D.C.L.  (Oxford,  1857),  F.R.S.  (1858). 
F.R.G.S.,  African  missionaiy  and  explorer  ; 
b.  at  Blantyre,  7  m.  from  Glasgow,  March 
19,  1813  ;  d.  in  Ilala,  Africa,  April  30,  1873. 
The  son  of  poor  parents,  he  was  placed  in 
a  cotton-mill  at  10,  but  managed  to  obtain 
an  education  ;  was  accepted  as  a  candidate  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1888,  and 
in  1840  took  a  medical  degree  and  was  or- 
dained. He  had  desired  to  go  to  China,  but 
the  opium  war  prevented,  and  Dr.  Moffat 
turned  his  thoughts  toward  Africa.     Dec.  8, 

1840,  he  sailed  for  Algoa  Bay,  and  reached 
Kuruman  station,   700  m.    inland,   July  81, 

1841.  After  two  years  in  that  neighborhood 
he  settled  at  Mabotsa,  200  m.  n.e.  Here  he 
narrowly  escaped  death  from  a  lion,  which 
crushed  his  left  arm,  and  in  1844  married 
Mary   Moffat.      Always  preferring   to  open 


new  ground,  he  removed,  in  1846,  to  Chonu- 
ane,  40  m.  n.,  and  in  1847  to  Koloberg,  40  m. 
w.  ;  at  these  places  he  ministered  to  the  Bak- 
wain  tribe.  In  an  excursion  to  the  north  he 
crossed  the  Kalahari  desert  and  discovered 
Lake  N'gami,  Aug.  1, 1849.  In  1851  he  made 
his  way  to  the  Chobe  and  the  Zambesi,  and, 
reaching  Capetown  with  his  family  in  1852, 
sent  them  to  England.  From  this  time  his. 
most  conspicuous  work  was  exploration. 
This,  however,  he  regarded  as  subsidiary  to 
his  missionaiy  aims  ;  routes  must  be  .sought 
apd  opened  between  the  interior  and  the 
coast,  that  the  natives  might  be  brought 
within  reach  of  civilizing  influences. 

Returning  to  the  Chobe,  he  was  waimly 
received  by  the  Makololo  at  Linyanti.  Leav- 
ing there  with  27  picked  men,  in  Nov.,  1853, 
he  reached  Loanda  May  31,  1854,  after  a  toil- 
some and  perilous  journey,  whereof  he  sent 
home  an  account  to  the  Geographical  Society', 
which  awarded  him  its  gold  medal.  Thence 
he  crossed  the  continent  for  the  first  time, 
resting  and  refitting  at  Linyanti,  discovering 
the  Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambesi  in  Nov., 
1855,  and  reaching  Killimane,  on  the  eastern 
coast,  May  20,  1856.  This  journey  added 
vastly  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge,  and 
involved  a  reconstruction  of  the  map  of  Afri- 
ca. Reaching  England  in  Dec,  he  was  re- 
ceived with  great  honor,  published  his  Mis- 
sionary Tracds  cuid  Researches  in  South  Africa 
(1857)  ;  left  the  service  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  and  in  Feb.,  1858.  was  ap- 
pointed "  consul  at  Killimane  for  the  eastern 
coast  and  the  independent  districts  in  the  in- 
terior, and  commander  of  an  expedition  for 
exploring  Eastern  and  Central  Africa. ' '  Sail- 
ing in  March,  he  ascended  the  Zambesi  tO' 
Tette  and  explored  the  regions  beyond,  much 
hampered  by  the  Portuguese  slave-traders, 
but  discovering  Lake  Nyassa  in  Sept.,  1859. 
The  Universities'  Mission,  begun  early  in 
1860,  met  with  little  success,  and  was  recalled 
in  1863,  after  Bishop  Mackenzie  and  others, 
with  Livingstone's  wife,  had  fallen  victims  to 
the  climate.  The  comparative  failure  of  this 
expedition,  due  in  part  to  disagreements 
among  the  members,  and  in  greater  degree  to 
natural  obstacles,  increased  by  the  parjilyzing 
and  desolating  effects  of  the  slave-trade, 
brought  much  discouragement  and  no  little 
blame  to  the  explorer.  In  1864  he  returned 
to  England  via  Bombay,  and  wrote  his  Zain- 
best  and  its  Tributaries,  1865. 

Sir  R.  Murchison  now  urged  him  to  go  out 
again  ;  true  to  his  principles,  he  would  pur- 
sue geographical  ends  only  in  sul)onlination 
to  the  improvement  of  the  natives.  He  was 
appointed  consul  to  Central  Africa  ;  to  his 
expedition  the  government  contributed  £500, 
and  later  £1000  ;  most  of  its  support  came 
from  other  quarters.  Its  chief  objects  were 
the  suppression  of  slavery  and  the  ascertain- 
ment of  the  Avatershed  between  Nyassa  and 
Tanganyika.  Reachin,^  Zanzibar  Jan.  28, 
1866,  he"  started  for  the  interior  April  4,  with 
no  Avliite  companions.  Misfortunes  of  every 
sort  now  assailed  him :  his  escort  melted 
away  ;  his  medicine  chest  and  supplies  were 
stolen  ;  fever,  dysentery,  and  \dcers  ate  away 
his    strength ;    the    natives    supposed    every 


LIZ  Aim 


(509) 


LOGOS 


stranger  to  be  an  agent  of  the  slave- trade,  and 
would  afford  little  help.  Yet  he  discovered 
Lake  Bangweolo,  July  18,  1868,  and  March 
14,  1869,  arrived  at  Ujiji,  "  a  ruckle  of  bones." 
For  over  a  year  he  tried  in  vain  to  reach  the 
Lualaba,  and  for  4  months  he  sought  a  canoe 
at  Nyangwe  to  take  him  across  the  stream. 
Here,  in  1871,  he  witnessed  a  massacre  by 
Arab  raiders,  and  described  it,  with  much 
subsequent  effect,  in  England.  Returning  to 
Ujiji,  he  was  found,  Oct.  18,  1871,  by  H.  M. 
Stanley,  with  supplies  from  the  New  York 
Herald.  Five  months  of  comradeship  bright- 
ened the  darkness  of  these  later  years.  In 
Aug.,  1873,  he  started  for  Lake  Bangweolo 
with  a  native  company  sent  him  by  Stanley, 
aiming  to  seek  south  and  west  for  the  sources 
of  the  Nile.  Entangled  in  swamps  and  at- 
tacked by  dysentery,  he  had  to  be  carried  in 
a  rude  litter ;  the  'last  entry  in  his  journal 
is  dated  April  27,  1873.  Two  days  later  the 
party  reached  a  village  on  the  Lulimala,  on 
the  south  shore  of  Bangweolo  ;  here,  on  the 
morning  of  May  1,  he  was  found  dead  on  his 
knees.  His  men,  with  exemplary  lidelity, 
carried  his  body  to  Zanzibar,  and  it  was 
buried  with  all  honors  at  AVestminster  Abbey, 
April  18,  1874. 

Livingstone  is  famous  not  more  for  his  im- 
mense contributions  to  geographical  knowl- 
edge, pursued  to  the  last  day  of  his  life  under 
terrible  difficulties  and  sufferings,  than  for 
the  lofty  purity,  devotedness,  and  zeal  of  his 
Christian  character.  His  example  and  mem- 
ory have  peopled  Africa  with  missionaries  and 
explorers,  and  raised  a  feeling  against  the 
slave  trade  which  will  sooner  or  later  destroy 
that  abomination.  His  motto  was  ' '  Fear  God 
and  work  hard."  (See  his  Last  Journals, 
edited  by  H.  Waller,  London  and  New  Y'ork, 
1874,  and  his  life  by  Rev.  W.  G.  Blaikie, 
1881  ;  Anecdotes,  by  Dr.  Macaulay,  London, 
1889.)  F.  M.  B. 

Lizard,  a  reptile  much  like  a  serpent,  but 
having  4  feet.  Large  numbers  are  found  in 
Syria,  varying  greatly  in  size  and  appearance. 
The  "  spider  "  of  Prov.  xxx.  28  is  in  the 
R.  V.  made  a  lizard.  The  animal  was  un- 
clean by  the  Levitical  law  (Lev.  xi.  30). 

T.  W.  C. 

Llorente,  Juan  Antonio,  b.  at  Rincondel 
Soto,  Aragon,  March  30,  1756  ;  d.  in  Mad- 
rid, Feb.  5,  1823  ;  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
1779,  and  was  appointed  vicar  general  to  the 
bishop  of  Calahorra  in  1782,  and  secretary- 
general  to  the  Inquisition  in  1789.  Having 
been  dismissed  in  1801,  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  State  under  King  Joseph,  and 
accompanied  him  to  Paris,  where  he  lived  till 
1822.  He  wrote  in  France  a  history  of  the 
Inquisition,  wiiich  made  a  great  sensation  and 
was  translated  into  English,  London,  1822  ; 
also  Portraits  jwlitiques  des  Papes,  etc. 

Loaf.     See  Bread. 

Locke,  John,  layman,  b.  at  Wrington, 
Somersetshire,  Aug.  29,  1632  ;  d.  at  Gates, 
Essex,  20  m.  from  London,  Oct.  28,  1704. 
Educated  at  Oxford,  he  entered  the  pub- 
lic service,  in  which  he  continued  nearly 
all  his  life,  occupying  different  positions  in 


turn.  He  was  a  devout  and  conscientious 
man,  and  rendered  great  service  to  the  cause 
of  civil  and  religious  liberty  ;  but  his  fame 
rests  chiefly  upon  his  Essap  on  the  Under- 
standing, tirst  issued  in  1687.  Written  in  a 
clear,  somewhat  loose  and  conversational 
style,  free  from  all  technicalities  and  charac- 
terized throughout  by  profound  sense,  it  con- 
trasted favorably  with  the  scholastic  distinc- 
tions of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  abstract 
metaphysical  discussions  of  his  contempo- 
raries, and  soon  attained  great  popularity. 
Locke  denied  the  existence  of  innate  ideas, 
maintained  that  all  our  ideas  are  derived  from 
sensation  and  reflection,  and  held  knowkulge 
.to  be  the  perception  of  the  connection,  and 
agreement  or  disagreement,  and  repugnancy 
of  any  of  our  ideas.  His  principles  were,  on 
one  hand,  carried  out,  or  iKTvcrtrd  in  France 
to  the  establishment  of  a  sensational  jiliiloso- 
phy,  while,  on  the  other,  Beikeley  deduced 
from  them  his  idealism.  But  Reid  and  the 
Scottish  school  avoided  both  these  extremes, 
and  developed  the  Common  Sense  Philoso- 
phy. Few  English  writers  have  exeiled  so 
wide  and  so  lasting  influence  as  he.  Some 
French  critic  said  that  his  essay  was  well 
named,  for  it  put  a  lock  on  the  human  under- 
standing ;  but  so  far  from  that  it  has  ever  since 
it  was  written  been  a  stimulant  to  investiga- 
tion and  thOiight.  He  was  the  author  of 
other  works.  The  Reasonableness  of  Christi- 
anity, Letters  on  Toleration,  Commentary  on 
St.  Paul's  Epistles,  and  The  Conduct  of  the 
Understanding,  but  with  the  exception  of  the 
last  named,  they  have  all  been  superseded  by 
other  works  in  the  .same  field.  (See  Fox 
Bourne,  JJfe  of  Locke,  London,  1876,  2  vols.  ; 
Thomas  Fowler,  Locke,  n.e.,  London,  1888.) 
T.  ^Y.  c. 

Locust,  a  voracious  winged  insect  of  the 
grasshopper  family,  a  great  scourge  in  Ori- 
ental countries  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times.  The  Bible  represents  swarms  of  lo- 
custs as  directed  by  God  for  the  chastisement 
of  guilty  nations,  as  in  the  case  of  Egypt 
(Ex.  X.  4-19).  A  vivid  account  of  their  rav- 
ages is  given  in  Joel  ii.  1-11.  The  locust 
was  a  "  clean"  animal  (Lev.  xi.  22),  and  was 
used  for  food  by  John  the  Baptist  (Matt.  iii. 
4).  In  Rev.  ix.  7-10  there  is  a  terrific  de- 
scription of  symbolical  locusts.       T.  W.  C. 

Logos  (transliteration  of  the  Greek  term, 
meaning  both  "word"  and  "reason"),  its 
theological  use  has  been  wide  and  varied. 
1.  In  Philo,  the  Jewish  philosopher  of  Alex- 
andria who  sought  to  harmonize  Mosaism  and 
Platonism,  the  Logos,  which  he  derived  from 
the  personified  wisdom  of  Solomon  and  com- 
bined with  Plato's  nous  (mind),  was  the  em- 
bodiment of  all  divine  powers  and  ideas.  He 
distingui.shed  between  the  Logos  inherent  in 
God=reason  in  man,  and  the  Logos  emanat- 
ing from  God,  corresponding  to  the  sjioken 
word.  His  wliole  conception'  was  vague  and 
wavering,  if  not  self-contradictory,  and  in  no 
respect  involved  or  suggested  the  idea  of  the 
incarnation  of  the  Logos  and  his  real  union 
with  humanity. 

2.  In  the  gospel  of  John  Logos  is  u.sed  6 
times  to  designate  the  divine  pre-existent  per- 


liOHE 


(510) 


LOLLARDS 


son  of  Christ.  This  use  of  the  word  was  de- 
rived not  from  Philo,  but  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  distinguishes  between  tlie  hidden 
and  the  revealed  being  of  God.  Christ  in  his 
div'ine  nature  bears  the  same  relation  to  God 
as  the  word  does  to  the  idea,  giving  it  form 
and  shape,  and  revealing  it  to  others.  Christ 
as  Logos  is  the  revealer  and  interpreter  of  the 
hidden  being  of  God  (John  i.  18,  Matt.  xi. 
27).  He  was  one  in  essence  with  God,  yet 
personally  distinct  from  him  and  in  closest 
connection  with  him. 

3.  The  doctrine  of  John  was  the  germ  of 
most  of  the  Gnostic  and  patristic  speculations 
as  to  the  divine  nature  of  Christ.  Justin 
Martyr  was  the  first  to  apply  to  the  prehis- 
toric Christ  the  term  Logos  in  the  double 
sense  of  divine  reason  and  creative  word.  By 
him  the  world  was  made,  and  he  sent  forth 
all  the  seeds  of  truth  and  virtue  found  in  the 
heathen  world.  But  to  him  the  Logos  and 
Christ  were  a  single  person,  while  the  Gnostic 
separated  the  ideal  Christ  from  the  historical. 
The  Alexandrian  school  felt  the  influence  of 
Philo  and  Plato  and  used  their  language  in 
developing  the  subject.  Origen  maintained 
the  eternal  generation  of  the  Logos,  yet 
viewed  him  as  subordinate  to  the  Father.  In 
the  Nicene  age  the  essential  unity  and  per- 
sonal distinction  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Father 
were  brought  out  and  established  through 
the  influence  of  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory 
of  Nazianzen,  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa.  The 
development  of  the  Logos  doctrine  reached  its 
full  and  final  stage  at  that  period,  and  subse- 
quent ages  of  investigation  and  discus,' ion 
have  added  nothing  to  tlie  apprehension  or 
the  statement  of  this  sublime  and  all-impor- 
tant truth. 

See  Dorner,  EntwickelungsgescJiichte  d. 
Lehre  ton  Person  Ghristi,  Berlin,  1846-56,  3 
vols. ;  Eng.  trans. ,  Development  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Person  of  Christ,  Edinburgh,  1861-63,  5 
vols.;  Liddon,  Tlte  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ, 
London,  1868  ;  Westcott,  Revelation  of  the 
Father,  London,  1884.  •   T.  W.  g. 

Lohe,    Johann    Eonrad    Wilhelm,    b.    at 

Fiirth,  near  Nuremberg,  Feb.  21,  1808;  d.  at 
Neudettelsau,  Jan.  2,  1872  ;  studied  theology 
at  Erlangen  and  in  Berlin,  and  was  succes- 
sively pastor  at  Kirchenlaraitz,  Nuremberg, 
and  Neudettelsau,  and  founded  in  1849  the 
Lutheran  Society  for  Home  Mission,  in  1853 
an  institution  of  deaconesses,  etc.,  and  aided 
in  the  formation  of  the  Missouri  Synod,  etc. 
He  published  some  sermons. 

Lollards,  the  followers  of  Wiclif,  so  called 
from  the  faintly  heard  singing  of  their  meet- 
ings (old  German,  lollen,  luUen,  English, 
lull),  who  continued  to  exist  down  to  the 
times  of  the  Reformation.  Their  doctrines 
were  derived  from  "Wiclif,  and  were  all  in- 
volved in  their  main  proposition  that  the 
Bible  is  the  sole  source  of  authority  in  mat- 
ters of  religion.  They  took  the  position  after- 
ward taken  by  the  Reformed  churches,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  Lutheran,  that  all  that  was 
not  commanded  in  the  Scriptures  was  unlaw- 
ful. Although  Wiclif  himself  was  engaged 
with  the  deeper  speculative  questions  of  the- 
ology, his  followers  confined  their  efforts  to 


the  reform  of  the  church  upon  the  practical 
side,  to  what  had  to  do  with  divine  service, 
with  Christian  life,  and  with  the  relations  of 
church  and  state.  They  were  particularly 
strong  in  their  opposition  to  pilgrimages,  to 
the  worship  of  pictures,  and  to  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation.  Here  they  taught  that 
the  bread  and  wine  were  not  changed  into 
the  body  and  blood,  so  that  no  bread  and 
wine  remained  upon  the  altar,  but  that  the 
body  ^nd  blood,  were  given  with  the  bread 
and  wine— a  view  approximating  the  Luther- 
an. Faith  as  the  condition  of  blessing  was  of 
more  importance  to  them  than  the  elements 
of  the  sacrament.  They  not  only  laid  em- 
phasis upon  the  duty  of  the  priests  to  preach, 
but  also  said  that  every  layman,  even  women, 
had  the  right  to  preach.  Oral  confession  was 
rejected  by  them,  though  advice  of  a  good 
priest  was  acknowledged  to  be  useful.  Thus, 
while  much  enlightened  above  the  church  of 
their  day,  the  Lollards  were  at  some  points  in 
danger  of  going  to  the  extreme  of  throwing 
discredit  upon  the  organized  church. 

Five  periods  are  distinguished  in  their  his- 
tory. The  first,  extending  to  the  death  of 
Wiclif,  is  the  period  of  their  establishment. 
Wiclif 's  ideas  gained  much  sympathy  in  the 
higher  classes,  and  among  university  men,  as 
well  as  among  the  common  people.  Many 
eminent  men  gave  themselves  to  the  work  of 
the  travelling  preacher,  and  went  through  the 
kingdom  extending  the  doctrines  of  Wiclif. 
They  preached  righteousness  and  faith,  but 
did  not  abstain  from  taking  the  clergy  sharply 
to  task  for  the  many  abuses  and  the  moral  cor- 
ruption of  the  church.  The  bishops  were  scon 
stirred  up  against  them.  They  were  accused 
of  disobedience  to  ecclesiastical  laws,  of  sowing 
the  seeds  of  discontent  among  the  people,  and 
of  heresy.  In  1382  the  archbishop  approached 
Parliament  upon  the  subject,  but  though  the 
House  of  Lords  passed  a  resolution  directing 
the  imprisonment  of  the  travelling  preachers, 
the  Commons  did  not  concur.  But  ihe  king  by 
a  patent  of  June  26  gave  the  necessary  orders, 
and  the  persecution  of  the  Lollards  began. 
The  principal  representatives  of  the  cause  at 
Oxford  were  cowed  into  submission.  The 
death  of  Wiclif  now  occurred  (1884),  and  the 
second  period  of  the  history  began.  At  first 
the  bishops  seem  to  have  thought  that  they 
had  extirpated  the  sect  by  silencing  its  leaders. 
But  these  leaders  themselves  were  found  to 
be  still  active  and  the  movement  to  be  still 
progressing.  The  principal  seats  of  the  Lol- 
lards were  London,  Lincoln,  Salisbury,  and 
Worcester.  The  movement  took  on  a  politi- 
cal aspect.  In  1895  a  memorial  was  presented 
to  Parliament  against  the  secularization  of 
the  clergy,  against  the  combination  of  secular 
and  ecclesiastical  office  in  one  person,  against 
celibacy,  against  the  doctrines  to  which  the 
Lollards  objected,  and  against  luxury  and 
war.  But  the  party  which  might  have  sup- 
ported the  memorial  was  cowed  by  the  meas- 
ures of  king  and  prelates,  and  the  fall  of 
Richard  and  elevation  of  Henry  IV.,  who 
needed  the  support  of  the  clergy  to  make  his 
hold  upon  the  crown  secure  (1399),  destroyed 
every  possibility  of  success.  Now  began  the 
third  period,  which  was  one  of  persecution. 


LOMBARDS 


(511) 


LORD 


and  closed  willi  the  execution  of  Lord  Cob- 
ham  (1417).  In  1400  the  clergy  secured  the 
passage  of  an  act  de  comhurendo  lieretico,  by 
which  for  the  first  time  in  England  heresy 
was  made  punishable  with  death.  William 
Sautre  was  the  first  to  suffer  under  it,  Feb. 
24,  1400.  A  visitation  of  the  University  of 
Oxford  in  1408  purified  it  and  brought  it  back 
to  Romish  orthodoxy.  Oldcastle  (see  art. 
Cobham),  who  had  been  protected  by  Henry 
IV.,  could  be  apprehended  under  Henry  V., 
and  was  burned.  The  fourth  period  extends 
to  1431,  when  the  last  Lollards  were  executed. 
It  was  a  period  of  bitter  persecution.  The 
political  character  of  the  party  had  ceased 
with  the  execution  of  Oldcastle,  and  now  the 
great  assemblies  under  the  travelling  preach- 
ers were  suppressed,  and  the  faithful  met 
only  in  little  assemblies  in  obscure  spots. 
During  the  fifth  period  (1431-1535)  it  has 
generally  been  supposed  that  the  Lollards 
had  been  entirely  rooted  out  ;  but  this  is  an 
error.  We  find  a  tract  of  Pecock,  bishop  of 
Chichester,  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, in  which  ho  combats  certain  errorists, 
as  then  existing,  and  mentions  as  their  lead- 
ing peculiarities  those  of  the  Lollards,  even 
giTOS  this  name  to  them,  and  then  adds  a 
name  of  his  own  invention— Bible-men !  They 
are  evidently  identical  with  the  old  Lollards. 
Even  later  than  this  there  are  many  indications 
of  continued  existence  among  the  Lollards. 
In  1476  the  government  is  informed  that  many 
members  of  the  University  of  Oxford  are  at- 
tached to  the  opinions  of  Wiclif  ;  in  1485  a 
certain  Hilman  is  accused  before  the  bishop 
of  Coventry  of  having  books  of  the  Bible  in 
English  in  his  possession  ;  in  1494  Lollards 
are  arrested  in  Kyle,  Scotland  ;  in  1506  30 
persons  in  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln  ;  and  in 
1517  a  great  activity  in  spreading  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Bible  is  evident.  Add  to  this  the 
eagerness  with  which  the  Scriptures  were 
seized  upon  and  read  in  the  two  universities 
as  soon  as  made  accessible  by  the  edition  of 
Erasmus,  and  evidence  enough  of  the  con- 
tinued existence  and  influence  of  the  Lollards 
has  been  given. 

(See  Life  of  Wiclif,  by  Yaughan,  London, 
1831,  2  vols.,  and  by  Lechler,  translated  by 
Lorimer,  London,  n.e.,  1882.)         F.  H.  F. 

Lombeurds,  a  German  tribe,  which  had  their 
seat  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Elbe,  and  which 
entered  Italy  as  conquerors  in  568.  They 
were  at  this  time  Arians,  with  a  considerable 
admixture  of  heathenism.  The  process  of  re- 
ducing Italy  was  a  long  one,  and  indeed  the 
Lombards  never  gained  the  control  of  the  en- 
tire peninsula.  The  process  of  transfer  to  the 
communion  of  the  Catholic  Church  began 
with  the  coming  of  Theodelinda  of  Bavaria 
as  consort  of  Authari.  After  his  death,  in  590, 
she  CO  operated  with  Gregory  the  Great,  who 
became  pope  the  same  year,  in  gradually 
drawing  the  Loml)ards  near  to  Rome.  The 
difficulties  of  the  time  and  the  manv  suffer- 
ings of  the  Catholics  made  the  Church  of 
Rome  more  prominent  throughout  all  Italy, 
and  gave  it  the  opportunity  to  act  the  role  of 
helper  of  all.     Agilulf,  the  second  husband 


of  Theodelinda,  gave  rich  gifts  to  the  mon- 
astery of  Bobbio,  which  was  founded  in  his 
reign  (612).  Under  Rothari,  who  died  in 
652,  the  Arian  bishops  of  the  Lombards  were 
replaced  with  Catholic.  His  successor  Ari- 
bert,  was  the  first  Catholic  Lombard  'kin'' 
During  the  troubles  between  Gregory  II.  and 
Constantinople  the  Lombards  were  zealouslv 
upon  the  side  of  the  pope.  It  was  the  char- 
acteristic double  dealing  of  the  papacy  in 
political  matters  which  brought  about  tlie 
difficulties  which  led  Gregory  to  apply  to 
Charles  Martel  for  protection.  Finally,  in 
774,  Pavia  was  taken  by  Charlemagne,  and 
the  Lombard  power  in  Italy  came  to  an  end. 
By  this  time  the  Lombards  were  thoroughly 
Italianized,  and  have  no  separate  history 
afterward.  F.  11.  F. 

Lombardus,  Petrus,  a  famous  theologian  of 
the  Middle  Ages  ("  Master  of  Sentences"),  b. 
at  Novara,  Lombardy,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
12th  century,  who  studied  at  Bologna,  and 
then  transferred  his  residence  to  Paris  for  the 
sake  of  studying  theology.  He  became  in 
time  professor  of  theology  himself  ;  was  made 
bishop  of  Paris  in  1159,  and  died  July  20, 
1160  (others,  1164).  His  fame  rests  upon  his 
writings,  of  which  the  most  important  is  the 
Foiij'  Books  of  Sentcnceii,  which  was  com- 
mended at  the  Lateran  Council  of  1215  as  an 
authoritative  manual  of  theology,  and  which 
served  for  centuries  as  the  basis  of  theological 
lectures  in  the  universities.  The  first  book 
treats  of  God  as  the  a])solute  good,  the  second 
of  the  creatures,  the  third  of  the  incarnation, 
redemption,  and  the  virtues,  the  fourth  of  the 
sacraments  and  eschatology.  The  object  of 
the  work  is  to  gather  toge'ther  the  principal 
utterances  of  the  church  writers  upon  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and 
thus  set  bounds  to  the  course  of  arbitrary 
speculation,  and  then  also  to  prove  the  truth 
of  the  doctrines  of  the  church.  The  division 
of  the  subject  reveals  the  Lombard's  concep- 
tion of  the  aim  of  theology,  which  is  not  so 
much  the  knowledge,  as  the  fruition  of  God, 
whereby  it  is  made  a  practical  rather  than  a 
theoretical  science.  In  discussing  many  of 
the  more  ditficult  questions,  he  does  not  him- 
self pronounce  an  opinion,  which  gives  some- 
thing of  the  appearance  of  uncertainty  to  the 
work.  But  its  fulness  of  treatment  and  the 
clearness  of  its  style  gave  it  a  pre-eminence 
above  every  other"  work  of  the  kind.  One 
point  of  its  teaching  may  be  mentioned.  Peter 
seems  to  incline  to  the  view  that  the  divinity 
assumed  in  the  incarnation  the  human  bod}^ 
as  a  garment,  so  that  the  person  of  the  Logos 
remained  unchanged,  and  became  man  only 
in  appearance.  The  first  edition  of  the  Sen- 
tences was  issued  in  1474.  The  works  are 
found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lnt.  CXCL,  CXCII. 
Life  by  Protois,  Paris,  1881.  F.  H.  F. 

Lord,  the  name  belonging  to  God  by  pre- 
eminence, and  not  to  be  given  to  any  creature. 
In  the  common  version  when  printed  in  capi- 
tals. Lord,  it  stands  always  for  Jkhovaii  in 
Hebrew.  T.  W.  C. 

Lord's  Day,  Rev.  i.  10.  From  the  times 
of  the  apostles  the  first  day  of  the  week  was 


LORD 


(512) 


LORD 


kept  sacred  by  the  Christian  Church  in  com- 
memoration of  the  resurrection  of  Christ  ; 
and  it  is  invariably  designated  as  the  Lord's 
day  by  the  Fatliers  of  the  primitive  church 
up  to  the  time  of  the  edict  of  Constantine 
(321),  wlien  tlie  name  Sunday  became  com- 
mon. This  is  the  best  designation  of  the  day, 
because  it  indicates  its  character  aud  suggests 
its  relation  to  the  Mosaic  day  of  rest  and  wor- 
ship. Nor  can  any  reason  for  the  observance 
of  this  day  be  suggested  other  than  that  it 
took  the  place  and  transferred  the  obligations 
of  the  Sabbath.  For  the  weekly  division  of 
time  had  not  then  attained  general  currency, 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  still  retaining,  the 
former  their  decades,  the  latter  their  Nun- 
dinm.  It  was  not  till  the  time  of  Constantine 
that  the  7  days'  cycle  was  officially  intro- 
duced. The  assertion,  therefore,  that  the 
early  Christians  in  their  use  of  the  Lord's  day 
borrowed  a  heathen  custom  or  were  influ- 
enced by  heathen  associations  is  a  mere  pre- 
tence, without  a  shadow  of  support  either  in 
any  patristic  writings  or  in  the  other  literature 
of  the  period.  T.  W.  C. 

Lord's  Prayer.  That  "which  our  Lord 
taught  his  disciples  and  which  is  recorded  by 
Matthew  (vi.  9-13)  and  Luke  (xi.  2-4).  It  is 
the  most  perfect  model  of  supplication  that 
we  can  conceive.  The  address  Our  Father, 
etc. ,  gives  us  the  humility  and  the  encourage- 
ment we  need.  Of  the  six  petitions,  the  first 
three  refer  to  the  name,  the  kingdom,  and 
the  will  of  God,  and  the  second  three  set  forth 
our  temporal  wants,  our  need  of  pardon  for 
the  past  and  of  hope  for  the  future,  the  whole 
concluding  with  a  doxology  which  although 
its  textual  authority  is  contested  yet  is  thor- 
oughly scriptural  in  letter  and  spirit.  The 
order  of  this  prayer,  its  simplicity,  its  beauty, 
its  fulness,  its  brevity,  and  its  comprehensive- 
ness have  endeared  it  to  the  whole  Christian 
world.  It  may  become  a  dead  form  and  be 
used  without  any  conscious  sense  of  its  mean- 
ing, but  this  is  no  argument  against  its  appro- 
priate use  in  public  and  private  worship,  since 
it  was  given  to  us  as  a  model  of  devotion. 
The  assertion  that  the  prayer  is  a  compilation 
from  Rabbinical  sources  has  been  shown  to 
be  without  foundation.  (Cf.  Mnrgoliouth, 
The  Lord's  Prayer  No  Adaptation  of  Existing 
Jeicish  Petitions,  London,  1876.)  Recent 
works  on  the  Lord's  Prayer  are  by  Newman 
Hall,  London,  (1883)  ;  N.  Loraine,  1885  ;  W. 
Gladden,  Boston,  1886  ;  G.  Karney,  Pater 
noster,  London,  1889.  T.  W.  C. 

Lord's  Supper  is  the  ordinance  that  com- 
memorates the  dying  love  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
in  giving  himself  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of 
the  world,  and  which  his  followers  are  com- 
manded to  observe  "  till  he  come."  We  have 
4  accounts  of  its  institution — one  by  each  of 
the  synoptical  evangelists  and  a  fourth  by 
the  Apostle  Paul,  who  received  it  by  express 
revelation  (1  Cor.  xi.  23),  but  all  are  in  sub- 
stantial agreement.  This  memorial  service  is 
one  of  touching  simplicity  and  appropriate- 
ness, and  has  always  been  dear  to  the  Christian 
heart,  presenting  as  it  does  the  emblems  of 
the  great  atoning  work  which  is  the  basis  of 
all  our  hopes,  and  expressing  in  a  very  lively 


way  the  fellowship  which  all  believers  hixwi 
with  their  common  Lord,  and  therefore  with 
each  other,  and  conveying  in  large  measure 
the  grace  for  grace,  of  which  there  is  a  fulness 
in  Christ.  It  is  very  unfortunate  that  an  or- 
dinance which  has  in  it  so  much  of  heaven, 
and  which,  besides  being  the  culmination  of 
Christian  worship,  is  in  its  own  nature  calcu- 
lated to  bind  pious  hearts  together  and  fill 
them  with  holy  and  tender  affection,  has 
been  made  through  human  imperfection  an 
occasion  of  bitter  controversy,  violent  passion, 
and  uncharitable  judgment.  Hence  it  has 
been  suggested  that  however  Christians  may 
differ  as  to  the  meaning  and  intent  of  the 
rite,  yet  they  may,  when  occasion  offers,  sit 
around  the  same  table  and  worship  the  same 
Lord  and  feel  the  tie  which  makes  them  one, 
whatever  view  each  one  may  take  of  the  sym- 
bols that  are  used.  The  differences,  how- 
ever, are  very  great  and  of  such  a  character 
as  to  affect  seriously  both  doctrine  and  life. 

I.  The  Roman  Catliolic  view,  with  which  the 
Greek  Church  is  in  substantial  agreement. 
The  salient  points  of  this  are  two  :  That  the 
elements  of  bread  and  wine  are  by  the  conse- 
cration of  the  priest  transubstantiated — that 
is,  changed  into  the  body  and  blood  and  soul 
and  divinity  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  although  the 
elements  remain  the  same  to  sight  and  touch 
and  taste,  and  that  the  celebration  of  the  or- 
dinance has  the  significance  not  only  of  a 
sacrament,  but  of  a  sacrifice  which  the  priest 
offers  for  the  living  and  the  dead  aud  in 
which  the  atoning  sacrifice  of  Christ  on  the 
cross  is  daily  repeated.  This  view  began  at 
an  early  period  and  grew  constantly  in  defi- 
niteness  until,  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  it  was 
carefully  elaborated  and  defined.  It  is  re- 
jected by  all  Protestants  as  not  required  by 
the  words  of  the  institution,  but  rather  in 
conflict  with  them  and  with  other  Scriptures  ; 
as  involving  a  perpetual  series  of  astounding 
miracles  and  magical  transmutations  ;  as  di- 
rectly opposed  to  the  testimony  of  the  senses  ; 
as  materializing  the  divine  ;  as  really  dero- 
gating from  the  high  office  of  the  glorified 
Christ  by  making  mere  men  as  efficacious 
priests  as  he  ;  as  tying  down  the  grace  of  God 
to  an  outward  rite  ;  and  as  giving  to  the 
priesthood  a  dangerous  power  nowhere  au- 
thorized in  Scripture.  Of  course  there  is  a 
precious  truth — viz. ,  that  Christ  is  the  bread 
of  heaven  that  nourishes  his  people,  under- 
lying this  gross  error,  and  hence  its  power 
over  millions  of  devout  hearts  to  this  day,  but 
none  the  less  is  it  carnal,  superstitious,  un- 
scriptural,  aud  leading  to  idolatry. 

II.  The  Lutheran  view  rejects  transubstan- 
tiation  utterly,  but  insists  that  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  are  mysteriously  and  super- 
naturally  united  with  tlie  elements,  so  as  to  be 
received  whenever  the  bread  and  wine  are. 
This  union  of  the  earthly  and  heavenly  ele- 
ments is  called  a  sacramental  union,  is  essen- 
tial to  the  ordinance,  and  is  not  present  when 
the  ordinance  is  not  observed  according  to 
Christ's  appointment.  Lutherans  prefer  to 
say  that  in.  with,  and  under  the  bread  and 
wine  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord  are  re- 
ceived. Nothing  depends  upon  the  spiritual 
condition  of  the  recipient.     He  may  receive 


LORD 


(513 


LORD 


the  sacrament  unworthily — that  is,  without 
faith,  without  repentance,  without  any  sin- 
cere desire  to  lead  a  holy  life  ;  nevertheless  he 
receives  the  body  and  blood,  but  only  to  his 
own  condemnation,  as  one  guilty  of  the  body 
and  blood  (1  Cor.  xi.  27).  The  adherence  of 
the  great  Reformer  to  this  view  of  the  sacra- 
ment led  to  the  first  great  division  among  the 
Protestants  of  Europe,  and  its  ill  ell'ects  con- 
tinue to  our  own  day.  The  Lutherans  of 
America  are  divided  into  various  bodies,  but 
it  is  believed  that  they  all  agree  as  to  the  ob- 
jective force  of  the  sacraments.     (See  below.) 

III.  TJie  Reformed  view  emphasizes  the  sig- 
nificance and  importance  of  the  ordinance. 
While  it  is  a  symbolical  sign,  yet  it  is  not  an 
empty,  meaningless  sign  ;  nor,  on  the  other 
hand,  does  it  in  and  of  itself  confer  grace. 
There  is  a  true  and  real  presence  of  Christ, 
but  it  is  sacramental,  not  local  or  corporal. 
This  presence  is  the  glory  of  the  service,  for 
he  comes  laden  with  gifts,  but  only  to  the 
believing.  Without  faith  in  the  recipient  the 
sign  is  destitute  of  significance  and  power. 
There  is  no  spiritual  presence  of  the  Lord, 
only  the  presence  of  a  symbol.  To  humble 
believers  the  supper  is  blessed,  not  by  any 
miraculous  influence,  but  simply  a  working 
of  grace  according  to  tlie  measure  of  faith  in 
the  participants.  Where  there  is  no  faith 
there  is  no  communion.  The  unworthy  re- 
cipient eats  and  drinks  judgment  ;  he  does 
not  and  cannot  receive  Christ. 

IV.  T/te  Zwiiigllan  view,  as  commonly  un- 
derstood, is  that  the  Supper  simply  represents 
by  appropriate  symbols  and  symbolical  ac- 
tions the  great  fact  of  redemption,  that  Christ 
is  not  specially  present,  and  the  ordinance 
gets  all  its  value  from  the  fact  that  it  secures 
in  so  striking  a  form  the  objective  presenta- 
tion of  the  truth  of  w^hich  it  is  the  symbol. 
This  view  of  the  nature  and  efficacy  of  the 
sacraments  is  considered  by  the  Reformed  as 
low,  as  overlooking  the  truth  that  a  sacra- 
ment is  a  seal  as  well  as  a  sign  (Rom.  iv.  11), 
as  inconsistent  with  the  terms  by  which  the 
Scripture  sets  forth  the  worth  of  these  ordi- 
nances (Acts  ii.  38,  xxii.  16,  Gal.  iii.  37, 
Titus  iii.  5). 

V.  Mode  of  Administration.  Nearly  all 
Protestants  agree  that  as  the  Lord's  Supper 
is  not  only  a  proclamation  of  Christ's  death, 
but  a  seal  of  his  covenant  and  a  badge  of  his 
disciples,  it  should  be  administered  only  bv 
those  church  officers  who  are  recognized  as 
called  of  God  to  minister  in  his  church.  In 
non-Episcopal  churches  the  minister  conse- 
crates the  elements  by  prayer  and  then  hands 
them  to  the  proper  persons,  who  distribute 
them  to  the  congregation  sitting  in  pews  or 
at  tables  in  the  aisles.  In  the  Episcopal  and 
Methodist,  and  also  in  many  Lutheran 
churches  the  communicants  kneel  at  the 
chancel  railing  in  little  companies,  and  re- 
ceive the  elements  there.  In  tiie  German  Re- 
formed churclies  they  stand.  Tiie  Friends 
consider  both  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
as  spiritual  or  figurative,  and  therefore  have 
no  such  outward  ordinances.  (See  G.  A. 
Jacob,  Lord's  Supper  Ilistoricallii  Considered, 
Oxford,  1884  ;  J.  J.  S.  Perowne,  Dortrineofthe 
Lord's  Supper,  London,  1887.)        T.  W.  C. 


The  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per passed  through  several  stages  of  develop- 
ment before  it  reached  dogmatic  and  confes- 
sional statement.  So  early  as  the  year  1518 
Luther  renounced  the  Romish  opus  opera- 
turn,  and  declared  that  the  sacrament  justifies 
not  because  it  has  been  administered,  but 
because  faith  is  exercised  in  the  word  of 
Christ.  This  is  the  chief  thing  in  the  sacra- 
ment because  the  sacrament  is  a  visible  word. 
In  The  Babylonish  CaptiTittj  of  the  Church 
(1520)  Luther  indi(;ates  the  right  of  the  laity 
to  the  cup,  and  bases  the  right  on  the  exam- 
ple of  Christ,  and  on  the  words,  "  This  is  my 
blood,  shed  for  you  and  for  many  for  the  re- 
mission of  sins.  Drink  ye  all  of  it."  In  this 
same  writing  he  attacks  transubstantiation, 
and  calls  it  "  a  figment  of  human  opinion, 
which  rests  on  no  supjiort  of  Scripture  or  of 
reason."  He  also  assails  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass,  "  the  third  tyranny  which  is  by  far  the 
most  impious. ' '  The  sacrament  con  ains  a 
promise  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  There- 
fore it  is  not  a  work,  or  a  sacrifice,  or  some- 
thing which  w^e  offer  to  God.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  a  promise  from  God  which  we  re- 
ceive by  faith.  In  the  reply  to  Henry  VIII. 
Luther  rejects  the  errors  of  Rome  with  still 
greater  emphasis,  and  asserts  in  the  most 
positive  way  the  presence  of  the  body  of 
Christ  in  and  with  the  bread.  But  he  uses 
the  words  in  and  with  to  assert,  as  against 
transubstantiation,  the  real  and  true  presence 
of  the  bread,  along  with  which,  but  not  in 
substance  mixed  or  mingled  with  which  is 
the  body  of  Christ,  lie  bases  his  view  on  the 
words  of  Institution  and  on  the  words  of 
Paul  (1  Cor.  X.  16)  which  make  distinct  men- 
tion of  bread  and  of  body.  The  bread  i.s 
bread.  The  body  is  body.  In  the  sacramen- 
tal act  neither  bread  nor  body  suffers  any 
change  in  substance  or  properties,  yet  wlien 
they  are  brought  together  in  the  sacramental 
act  they  constitute  vnum  aliquid— that  is, 
one  thing— viz.,  the  sacrament  of  the  body  of 
Christ,  or  "the  comnmnion  of  the  body  of 
Christ."  Hence,  whoever  receives  the  bread 
in  the  sacrament  receives  at  the  same  time  the 
body  of  Christ.  All  this  was  brought  out 
still  more  fully  in  the  controversy  with  Carl- 
stadt  and  Zwiugli  (1525-29),  in  which  Luther 
maintained  with  the  utmost  tenacity  that  ioTi 
(esti)  means  is,  and  not  sif/nifes,  and  that 
Tovro  (touto)  is  that  which  Christ  gives  in  the 
sacrament— not  bread  only,  but  also  body. 
The  body  is  jiresent  wherever  the  sacrament 
is  administered,  not  because  of  any  abxolute 
u1)i(iuity  wliich  the  divine  nature  of  Clirist 
has  imparted  to  his  human  nature,  but  be- 
cause Christ  has  power  to  fulfil  his  word  and 
to  be  present  bodily  wherever  he  wills  to  be 
thus  present.  Philosophy  cannot  explain  this, 
presence  because  the  body  of  Christ  is  spirit- 
ual, heavenly,  and  not  siibject  to  the  laws  of 
matter.  The  real  presence  must  he  accepted 
on  the  ground  of  the  divine  word.  In  the 
Small  Catechism  (1529)  Luther  states  his  doc- 
trine didacticallv  thus  :  "  \V7iat  is  the  Sncra- 
inent  of  the  Altar?  Answer.  It  is  the  true 
body  and  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
under  bread  and  wine,  given  to  us  Christians 
to  eat  and  to  drink  as  it  was  instituted  by 


liORETO 


(514) 


LORIMER 


Christ  himself."  In  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion Mehiuchthon  has  presented  the  same 
doctrine  in  language  substantially  identical 
with  tiiat  of  the  Catechism  :  "  Concerning 
the  Supper  of  the  Lord  it  is  taught  that  the 
true  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  truly  pres- 
ent under  the  form  of  bread  and  wine  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  are  there  distributed  and 
received."  Article  X.  This  is  the  funda- 
mental confessional  article  of  the  Lutheran 
faith  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper.  _  Anal- 
yzed according  to  Lutheran  conceptions,  it 
contains  the  following  elements  :  («)  A  pro- 
test against  the  Romish  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  which  the  Lutheran  Church  re- 
jects both  in  name  and  in  reality.  This  pro- 
test is  implied  in  the  words  "  form  of  bread 
and  wine,"  by  which  is  meant  that  form  of 
bread  and  wine  which  exists  in  connection 
witli  the  substance  and  all  the  qualities  of 
bread  and  wine  ;  or,  as  Melanclithon  explains, 
in  the  Apology  :  "  The  visible  things,  to  wit, 
bread  and  wine."  (b)  The  affirmation  of  the 
presence  of  the  true,  real  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  which  now  exist  in  inseparable  union 
with  tlie  divine  nature  of  Christ.  This  pres- 
ence is  in  no  sense  gross,  nor  carnal,  nor  ma- 
terial, but  spiritual  and  immaterial  ;  although 
the  word  spiritual  in  this  connection  has  no 
reference  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  is  used  in 
antithesis  to  gross  or  carnal.  Neither  is  this 
presence  local  in  the  sense  that  it  is  circum- 
scribed by  space,  but  illocal  and  without  the 
occupancy  of  space.  It  is  a  real,  true,  but 
supernatural  presence  of  the  ichole  Christ ;  of 
the  divine  nature  which  is  present  by  virtue 
of  the  inherent  attribute  of  omnipresence  ;  of 
the  human  nature  which  is  rendered  present 
by  the  divine  with  which  it  is  personally 
united,  (c)  The  bread  and  the  wine  are  the 
media,  by  which  the  body  and  blood  are  really 
administered  to  and  received  by  the  communi- 
cant. But  there  is  no  union  of  the  substances, 
neither  is  there  the  formation  of  a  third  sub- 
stan  .e,  which  consists  partly  of  the  substance 
of  bread  and  partly  of  the  substance  of  body. 
Each  substance  remains  unchanged  in  the  act 
of  communion,  which  consists  of  blessing, 
administering,  eating,  drinking.  Hence  con- 
substantiation,  a  term  invented  by  Guitmund, 
has  always  been  rejected  by  Lutherans  because 
the  word,  as  it  is  defined  in  theological  dic- 
tionaries and  by  Reformed  authors  generally, 
does  not  describe  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of 
the  Lord's  Supper.  Buddajus  says  :  "  All 
who  understand  the  doctrines  of  our  church 
know  that  witJb  our  ichole  soul  we  abhor  the 
doctrim  of  consubstantiation."  With  equal 
emphasis  do  Lutherans  protest  against  im- 
panation  and  subpanation,  and  the  local  in- 
clusion of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in  or 
with  or  ^inder  the  bread  and  wine,  for  they 
use  these  prepositions  not  for  the  purpose  of 
setting  forth  the  viode  of  the  supernatural 
presence,  but  to  express  its  reality  in  connec- 
tion with  the  visible  elements,  the  bread  and 
the  wine.  Or,  as  Luther  has  explained,  to  set 
forth  that  Christ  also  is  there,  and  not  mere 
bread  and  wine,  and  that  when  we  receive 
the  bread  and  wine  in  the  Holy  Supper  we 
also  receive  the  whole  Christ,  but  with  this 
difference,  the  mode  of  receiving  the  bread 


and  wine  is  natural,  visible,  comprehensive. 
The  mode  of  receiving  Christ  is  mysterious, 
supernatural,  incomprehensible,  but  not  on 
that  account  the  less  true  and  real.  What 
Lutherans  principally  contend  for  is  the  pres- 
ence of  true  and  natural  bread  and  wine  in 
the  Lord's  TJupper,  as  over  against  the  Romish 
transubstantiation,  and  the  real  substantial 
presence  of  the  whole  Christ  as  over  against 
the  merely  efficacious  or  representative  pres- 
ence advocated  by  the  Reformed. 

J.  W.  Richard. 
Literature.— Besides  the  appropriate  sec- 
tions in  the  standard  theological  treatises  of 
Calvin,  Hodge,  and  Shedd  for  the  Calvinistic  ; 
Dorner  and  Martensen  for  a  speculative ; 
Schmid  for  the  Lutheran  •  Watson  for  the  Ar- 
minian,  and  Burnett  for  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land view,  see  the  historical  and  arcligeological 
treatises  of  W.  E.  Scudamore,  Notitia  Eucha- 
ristica,  London,  1873-75  ;  Charles  Hebert,  The 
Lord's  Supper;  History  of  Uninspired  Teaching, 
1880,  3  vols. ;  G.  A.  Jacob,  The  Lord's  Stq)- 
per  Historically  Considered,  1884. 

Loreto,  or  Loretto  {Latiretum),  a  city  of 
Italy,  southeast  of  Ancona,  3  m.  from  the 
Adriatic,  was  from  the  14th  to  the  18th  cen- 
tury the  centre  of  the  Mary  worship,  and  con- 
tains a  magnificent  church  built  over  the 
"holy  room."  According  to  Baptista  Man- 
tuanus,  BedemiJtoris  mundi  Matris  Eccleim 
Lauretanm  historia  (Op.  vol.  iv.,  Antwerp, 
1576),  which  is  not  the  first  but  the  most  com- 
jDlete  representation  of  the  legend,  that  room 
In  which  the  Virgin  was  born  and  Christ 
grew  up  was  by  the  apostles  made  into  a 
church  and  used  as  such  ever  since  their 
time.  But  when  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
was  overthrown  by  the  Turks,  the  angels 
took  the  holy  room,  casa  santa,  carried  it 
away  through  the  air,  and  deposited  it  at 
Tersato  in  Dalmatia,  1291.  Hence  it  was  in 
1294  brought  in  the  same  manner  across  the 
Adriatic  to  the  estate  of  a  rich  and  pious 
lady,  Laureta.  The  truth  of  this  story  was 
vouchsafed  for  by  Sixtus  IV.  in  a  bull  of 
1471  and  by  Julius  II.  in  a  bull  of  1507. 
Clement  VII.,  1523-34,  commenced  and  Six- 
tus v.,  1585-90,  finished  the  grand  church. 
Innocent  XII.,  1691-1700,  instituted  a  special 
officiujn  cum  missa  in  honor  of  the  Holy  Vir- 
gin of  Loreto,  and  Benedict  XIV.,  1740-58, 
gave  the  church  the  most  extraordinary  priv- 
ileges. In  the  17th  century,  partially  on  ac- 
count of  the  zeal  of  the  Jesuits,  the  Institu- 
tion reached  the  acme  of  its  fame  and  wealth. 
Every  year  over  200,000  pilgrims  visited  the 
place,  over  $40,000  were  paid  the  priests  for 
special  masses,  over  14,000  pounds  of  oil 
were  used  for  the  lamps,  etc.  The  treasures 
which  the  church  contained —massive  statues 
of  silver  and  gold,  crowns  set  with  gems  and 
diamonds,  etc. — were  fabulous.  But  in  1798 
Napoleon  took  it  all,  and  only  very  little  of  it 
was  returned  in  1800. 

Lorimer,  Peter,  D.D.  (Princeton,  1857). 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  June  27, 
1812  ;  d.  at  Whitehaven,  35  m.  s.w.  of  Car- 
lisle, July  28,  1879.  He  was  educated  at 
Heriot's  Hospital  and  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  in  1836  became  minister  at  Prince's 


LOT 


(515) 


LOWTH 


Terrace,  London.  In  1843  he  and  his  con- 
gregation seceded  from  the  Established 
Church  of  Scotland  and  joined  the  Free 
Kirk.  From  1845  he  was  professor  of  He- 
brew and  biblical  criticism  in  the  Presbyte- 
rian theological  college  at  London  ;  in  1878 
he  became  its  principal.  He  wrote  Life  of 
Patrick  Hamilton,  Edinburgh,  1857  ;  The 
Scottish  Reformation,  London,  1860  ;  John 
Knox  and  the  Ghnrch  of  England,  London, 
1875  ;  Preci/rsors  of  Knox,  1883  ;  and  trans- 
lated Lechler's  Wi'dif  1878.  F.  M.  B. 

Lot  (a  covering).  The  nephew  of  Abraham 
(q.v.). 

Lot,  a  method  ot  determining  chances  or 
preferences.  As  according  to  Scripture  the 
lot  is  an  appeal  to  God  (Prov.  xvi.  83),  it 
should  not  be  done  on  trivial  occasions.  In 
the  Old  Testament  the  land  of  Canaan  was 
distributed  by  lot  (Num.  xxvi.  55)  and  the 
choice  of  priests  and  of  the  scapegoat  in  the 
same  way  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  5,  Lev.  xvi.  8). 
So  Matthias  was  chosen  (Acts  i.  26).  Among 
the  Moravians  formerly  ministers  were  as- 
signed and  marriages  contracted  by  lot. 

T.  W.  C. 

Lotze,  Hermann  Rudolf,  b.  at  Bautzen. 
May  21,  1817  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  July  1,  1881. 
Professor  successively  at  Leipzig,  Gottingen, 
and  Berlin.  During  his  long  course  he  was 
an  effective  opponent  of  Hegel's  Pantheism 
and  equally  of  the  Materialism  which  suc- 
ceeded. His  mastery  of  natural  science,  criti- 
cal acumen,  and  force  of  logic  made  him  a 
power  in  argument.  His  whole  conception  of 
the  universe  was  essentially  ethical.  Admit- 
ting that  God's  existence  could  not  be  demon- 
strated nor  his  nature  determined— so  far  he 
was  agnostic — he  yet  confessed  a  belief  in  God 
as  the  living  centre  of  the  universe,  and  held 
that  the  kosmos  as  actuated  by  him  cannot 
be  purposeless,  but  must  have  a  moral  aim, 
and  this  aim  is  best  set  forth  in  Christianity. 
Lotze 's  published  writings  are  voluminous 
and  cover  a  wide  range  ;  translated  are  Logic, 
London,  1884  ;  Metaphysic,  1884 ;  Microcos- 
mus,  Edinburgh,  1885-6,  2  vols. ;  Outlines  oftJte 
Philosophy  of  Religion,  London,  1887. 

T.  W.  C. 

Louis,  St.,  king  of  France,  Louis  IX.,  b. 
April  25,  1215  ;  d.  Aug.  25,  1270  ;  ascended 
the  throne  Nov.  15,  1226,  and  has  a  place  in 
church  history  because  he  led  two  crusades, 
1249  and  1269  ;  because  he  pursued  with  great 
consistency  a  church  policy  of  his  own,  burn- 
ing the  Cathari,  but  abolishing  altogether  the 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  civil  cases  and 
forbidding  the  Roman  Curia  to  levy  money 
in  France  without  his  consent,  and  finally 
because  he  is  one  of  the  most  complete  types 
of  medijeval  piety  known  to  history.  He 
was  canonized  by  Boniface  VIII.,  Aug.  11, 
1297.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Le  Nain 
de  Tillemont,  Guizot,  Verdiere,  Wallon, 
Verlaque,  etc. 

Love,  a  chief  attribute  of  Jehovah  (1  John 
iv.  16),  and  one  whose  extent  passoth  knowl- 
edge (Eph.  iii.  18).  Between  the  persons  of 
the  Godhead  it  is  unutterably  full  and  bliss- 


ful ;  toward  angels  and  saints  it  is  a  bound- 
less complacency  ;  toward  sinners  immeasu^ 
rable  compassion.  It  is  shown  in  all  God's 
works,  but  especially  in  the  gospel  (1  John 
iv.  9).  The  same  affection  in  man  rightly 
directed  comprehends  the  whole  of  our  duty,, 
for  "  Love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law"  (Rom. 
xiii.  10).  Wo  are  to  love  God  supremely  and 
our  neighbor  as  ourselves.  Love  therefore  i* 
the  chief,  the  indispeiis;il)le  grace,  for  the  lack 
of  which  nothing  can  compensate.  It  is  itself 
the  fruit  of  faith  (Gal.  v.  6)  and  the  mother 
of  obedience  (John  xiv.  15,  1  John  ii.  5).  The 
glowing  encomium  on  love  in  the  lotii  chap- 
ter of  1  Corinthians  should  be  in  the  memory 
and  in  the  heart  of  every  believer.  Upon  it 
see  Henry  Drummond,  The  Greatest  Thinqin 
the  World,  New  York,  1890.  T.  W.  C. 

Love,  Family  of.     See  Familists. 

Love-feast.     See  Ag.vpe. 

Low  Church,  the  name  of  a  school  or  party 
in  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Protestan't 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  wliich 
emphasizes  justification  by  faith,  dcni.s  Ijap- 
tismal  regeneration,  and  holds  the  Reformed 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  polity  it 
holds  episcopacy  as  essential  to  the  well-being, 
but  not  to  the  existence  of  a  church.  In 
worship  it  rejects  such  innovations  as  elevat- 
ing the  host,  the  use  of  candles,  etc.  Blunt, 
Dictionnry  of  Sects.  T.  W.  C. 

Lowder,  Charles  Fuge,  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  at  Bath,  June  22,  1820  ;  d.  at  Zell- 
am-See,  Austria,  Sept.  9,  1880.  He  studied 
at  King's  College,  London,  and  at  Oxford, 
graduating,  1843  ;  was  ordained  deacon,  1843, 
and  priest,  1844  ;  curate  at  Tetbury,  1845, 
and  at  St.  Barnabas,  London,  1851.  In  1856  he 
began  a  most  fruitful  mission  at  St.  George's- 
in-the-East.  Here  the  parish  of  St.  Peter's. 
London  Docks,  was  formed  in  1866,  and  he 
became  its  vicar,  laboring  with  extraordinary 
devotion  and  success  among  the  wor.st  ele- 
ments of  London.  His  vows  of  celibacy  and 
poverty  were  religiously  kept  ;  he  was  noted 
alike  for  extreme  ritualism  and  for  missionary 
zeal.  Whether  his  advanced  views  and  jjrac- 
tices  helped  or  hindered  his  work  is  a  ques- 
tion ;  but  modern  times  have  produced  no 
more  self-sacrificing  and  efficient  helper  of 
the  lowest  class  in  cities.  Three  thousand  of 
his  friends  and  converts  attended  his  funeral. 
His  Biography  appeared,  London,  1882. 

F.  M.  B. 

Low  Sunday,  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter, 
so  called  because  formerly  part  of  the  Easter 
services  was  repeated  \ipon  it,  and  hence  it 
was  a  feast  of  a  lower  degree  than  Easter. 
T.  W.  C. 

Lowth,  Robert,  D.D.  (Oxford.  1754), 
F.R.S.  (1765),  bishop  of  London  ;  1).  at  Win- 
chester, or,  as  some  say,  at  Buriton,  Hamp- 
.shire,  Nov.  27,  1710  :  d.  at  Fulham  Pahice. 
Nov.  3,  1787.  His  father  was  Dr.  William 
Lowth  (q.v.).  He  entered  New  College.  Ox- 
ford, 1730  ;  Iwame  fellow,  1734.  and  pro- 
fessor of  poeiry,  1741  ;  rector  of  Ovington, 
Hamp.shire,  1744  ;  archdeacon  of  Winclifster. 
1750 ;    rector  of    Ea>-t    Woodhay,    1753  ;    of 


LOWTH 


(516) 


LUCIUS 


Sedgfield,  and  prebendary  of  Durham,  1755, 
after  declining  the  see  of  Limerick  ;  bishop 
of  St.  David's,  1766  ;  translated  to  Oxford 
the  same  year,  and  to  London,  1777.  In 
1783  he  declined  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
bury. His  great  work,  J)e  sacra  poesi  Heb- 
rceorum  prcelectio?ies,  Oxford,  1753,  consisted 
of  his  lectures  at  Oxford  ;  it  went  through 
many  editions,  was  translated  into  English  by 
G.  Gregory,  London,  1787,  and  into  French, 
Lyons,  18i2,  2  vols.  His  metrical  translation 
of  Isaiah,  1778,  also  won  great  repute.  He 
wrote  also  a  Life  <>f  William  of  Wykeham, 
1758.  His  memoir  appeared  1787  ;  another  by 
P.  Hall,  is  prefixed  to  his  Sermons  and  other 
Remains,  1834.  F.  M.  B. 

Lowth,  William,  D.D.  (Oxford,  17-), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  in  London,  Sept.  11, 
1661  ;  d.  at  Buriton,  Hampshire,  May  17, 
1733.  He  entered  St.  John's  College,  Ox- 
ford, 1675;  became  M.A.,  1683,  and  B.D., 
1688  ;  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Winchester  ; 
prebendary  there,  1696  ;  rector  of  Buriton  and 
Peterstield,  1699.  His  eminent  learning  was 
shown  in  contributions  to  Potter's  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,  1715  ;  Hudson's  Josephvs,  1720, 
and  Reading's  Historic^,  Ecclesiasticm,  1720  ; 
as  well  as  in  his  Vindication  of  the  Divine 
AutlioHty  and  Inspiration  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  1692  ;  Commentary  on  the  Proph- 
ets, 1714-23,  4  vols.,  usually  reprinted  with 
those  of  Patrick  and  Whitby,  and  Directions 
for  the  Profitable  Beading  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
hires.  1708.'  A  7th  ed.  (1799)  of  the  latter  has 
a  life  of  tlie  author.  F.  M.  B. 

Loyala,  Ignatius.     See  Ignatixjs  Loyola. 

Lucian  the  Martyr  was  born  at  Samosata. 
the  present  Someisat,  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the 
Euphrates,  and  educated  at  Edessa,  at  that 
time  the  most  celebrated  theological  school 
next  to  Alexandria.  From  275  to  his  death, 
in  312,  he  lived  in  Antioch,  and  he  is  the 
real  founder  of  the  Antiochian  school  of  the- 
ology ;  among  his  pupils  were  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia  and  Arius.  But  as  he  formed  the 
transition  between  Paul  of  Samosata  and 
Arius,  and  was  the  real  father  of  Arianism, 
he  maintained  no  connection  with  the  ortho- 
dox church  in  Antioch,  though  a  reconcili- 
ation seems  to  have  taken  place  before  his 
death.  In  311  he  was  dragged  to  Nicomedia 
by  Maximin,  and  suffered  martyrdom  there 
in  the  following  year.  Of  his  works  nothing 
lias  come  down  to  us.  The  most  important 
seems  to  have  been  his  rescension  of  the  text 
of  the  Bible,  which  Jerome  has  no  praise  for, 
but  wliich  was  in  use  all  over  Greece  and 
Asia  ]\Iinor,  while  that  of  Hesychius  was 
used  in  Egypt  and  Syria. 

liucian  of  Samosata,  a  Greek  satirist ;  b. 
about  120  at  Samosata,  in  Syria  ;  d.  at  an 
advanced  age  in  Egypt.  He  was  a  lawyer  by 
profession,  but  gave  his  attention  principally 
to  literature,  and  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  literary 
man.  His  principal  writing  coming  here  into 
consideration  is  his  Concerning  the  Death  of 
Peregrinus,  a  satire  against  the  cynics.  Per- 
egrinus,  a  criminal  of  the  lowest  kind,  is  said 
to  have  attached  himself  to  the  Christians,  to 
have  become  a  great  authority  among  them. 


and  even  to  have  written  some  of  their  sacred 
books.  He  finally  left  them,  joined  the 
cynics,  and  after  journeying  through  the 
world,  preaching  their  doctrines,  died  volun- 
tarily, out  of  a  morbid  desire  for  notoriety, 
upon  the  pyre.  Such  a  person  as  Peregrinus 
may  have  "lived.  The  occasion  of  bringing 
the  Christians  into  the  satire  seems  to  have 
been  that  Lucian  confused  them  with  the 
cynics.  He  was  altogether  a  superficial 
writer.  Complete  translation  by  Dryden, 
London,  1711,  4  vols.  ;  Dialognes,  by  Howard 
Williams,  London,  1888.  F.  H.  F. 

Lucidus,_  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  of 
Gaul,  who,' in  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury, represented  Augustinism,  the  orthodoxy 
of  the  church,  but  by  Faustus  Rejensis  and 
the  Synod  of  Aries,  475,  where  semi-Pelagian- 
ism  prevailed,  was  compelled  to  recant.  (See 
Mansi,  Con.  Coll.  vii.) 

Lu'-ci-fer  {light-biHnger),  the  Latin  name  of 
the  morning  star.  It  occurs  only  once  in  the 
Bible  (Isa.  xiv.  12),  and  then  is  applied  to  in- 
dicate his  glory  as  "  a  son  of  the  morning." 
It  is  now  commonly,  but  inappropriately, 
given  to  tlie  prince  of  darkness.      T.  W.  C. 

Lucifer,  Lviciferians.  Lvicifer  was  bishop 
of  Cagliari,  in  Sardinia,  in  the  time  of  Con- 
stantius  ;  d.  there  in  371.  After  the  Council 
of  Aries  had  rejected  Athanasius  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  was  sent  by  the  bishop  of  that 
city  to  the  emperor  to  obtain  a  new  and  im- 
partial council.  The  council  (of  Milan),  how- 
ever, pronounced  again  against  Athanasius, 
and  Lucifer  was  banished.  He  was  first  at 
Germanicia,  in  Commagene,  and  then  at  Eleu- 
theropolis,  in  Palestine,  from  which  place  he 
wrote  a  number  of  bitter  controversial  tracts 
against  the  emperor.  "With  the  accession  of 
Julian,  he  was  permitted  to  return  from  exile, 
and  paused  on  his  way  at  Antioch  long 
enough  to  ordain  a  bishop  of  the  old  Nicene 
party,  which  step  put  off  the  day  of  peace 
somewhat.  The  Synod  of  Alexandria  (362) 
decided  in  favor  of  the  return  to  their  dio- 
ceses of  all  bishops  of  the  Arian  tendency 
who  had  not  been  leaders  of  that  party.  But 
Lucifer  could  admit  no  such  mildness,  and 
so,  retiring  to  his  bishopric,  separated  him- 
self more  and  more  from  the  church  as  guilty 
of  apostasy  from  the  purity  of  the  faith. 
The  party  of  the  Luciferians  at  one  time  had 
considerable  extension,  and  even  a  church  in 
Rome.  But  it  did  not  long  survive  those 
who  founded  it.  F.  H.  F. 

Lucius,  popes  of  that  name.  1.  Pope  June 
25,  253,  to  March  5,  254.  He  agreed  with 
his  predecessor,  Cornelius,  in  teaching  that 
the  lapsed  upon  evidence  of  true  repentance 
should  be  readmitted  to  the  church.  Canon- 
ized, his  day  is  March  4.  2.  (Gherardo  Cac- 
cianemici)  pope  from  March  12,  1144,  to  Feb. 
15,  1145.  Before  his  accession  he  had  been 
employed  upon  many  important  embassies 
with  success,  and  was  the  most  promising 
candidate  for  election  in  the  difficult  time  in 
which  the  papacy  then  found  itself.  But  in 
his  short  pontificate  he  accomplished  noth- 
ing. 3.  (Ubaldo  AUueingoli)  pope  Sept.  1, 
1181,  to  Nov.  25,  1185.     His  reign  was  largely 


IiUCKE 


(517) 


liUKE 


taken  up  with  disputes  with  the  emperor, 
Frederick  I. ,  about  the  estate  of  Matilda,  in 
which  no  agreement  was  arrived  at.  He 
secured,  however,  from  the  emperor  the 
promise  to  go  upon  the  crusade.      F.  H.  F. 

Lacke,    Gottfried     Christian     Friedrich, 

Lutheran,  b.  at  Egehi,  near  Magdeburg,  Aug. 
24,  1791  ;  d.  at  Gcittingen,  Feb.  14,  1855, 
where  he  became  professor  in  1827.  His  best 
work  is  his  commentary  on  tlie  writings  of  St. 
John,  partial  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh ,1837. 

Lud,  Ludim.  Lud  was  the  fourth  son  of 
Shem  (Gen.  x.  22),  from  whom  the  Lydians 
are  thought  to  have  descended.  Ludim  was 
a  son  of  Mizraim  (Gen.  x.  13),  whose  descend- 
ants dwelt  in  Africa  and  were  famous  bow- 
men (Isa.  Ixvi.  19,  Jer.  xlvi.  9,  Ezek.  xxviii. 
10,  XXX.  5).  T.  W.  C. 

Lukas  Tudensis,  bishop  of  Tuy,  Galicia, 
Spain,  1239-50  ;  wrote  a  chronicle  of  Spain, 
<570-12o6,  which  was  edited  by  Schott,  Frank- 
fort, 1603,  4  vols,  fol.,  and  a  life  of  St.  Isi- 
dore, of  which  the  first  part,  the  biography, 
is  found  in  Act.  Sanct.,  April  4,  and  the  sec- 
ond part,  polemics  against  the  Cathari,  in 
Bib.  Pair.  Max.  XXV. 

Luke  (Greek,  Lucas,  Philemon  24),  an  ab- 
breviation of  Lucanus,  called  by  Paul  "  the 
beloved  physician"  (Colos.  iv.  14),  and  distin- 
guished from  those  "of  the  circumcision." 
He  was  not  an  eye-witness  (Luke  i.  2)  of  the 
gospel  facts.  He  comes  into  notice  as  a  com- 
panion of  Paul  in  his  later  journejs.  Join- 
ing him  at  Troas  (Acts  xvi.  10),  he  accom- 
panied him  to  Philippi,  where  they  separated. 
Rejoining  him  some  years  later  at  the  same 
place  (Acts  xx.  5),  he  remained  with  him  to 
the  close  of  the  first  imprisonment  at  Rome. 
His  personal  history  before  and  after  his  con- 
nection with  the  apostle  is  entirely  unknown, 
but  by  common  consent  he  is  the  author  of 
the  third  gospel  and  of  the  Book  of  Acts. 

Gospel  of. — Written  primarily  for  one  The- 
ophilus,  to  whom  it  aud  the  Book  of  Acts  were 
both  dedicated.  It  is  supposed  that  he  wrote 
under  the  direction  of  Paul.  "There  is  a 
striking  resemblance  between  the  stjle  of 
Luke  and  that  of  Paul,  which  corresponds  to 
their  spiritual  sympathy  and  long  intimacy." 
Some  200  phrases  are  common  to  them  and 
foreign  to  other  New  Testament  writers. 
The  literary  merits  of  the  gospel  are  great. 
Renan  says  that  "  Luke  displays  a  genuine 
skill  in  composition.  His  book  is  a  beautiful 
narrative,  iniiting  the  emotion  of  the  drama 
with  the  serenity  of  the  idyl."  He  is  the 
best  writer  of  tlie  evangelists.  His  construc- 
tion is  rythmical  and  his  vocabular}'  rich  and 
well  selected.  His  stjde  is  clear,  animated, 
and  picturesque.  That  he  was  a  physician 
appears  very  clearly  from  his  descriptions  of 
disease  and  his  use  of  medical  terms,  in  both 
of  which  he  is  remarkably  accurate.  His 
close  observation  and  retentive  memory  are 
shown  in  his  references  to  civil  and  political 
affairs  {e.g.,  never  confoimding  a  proconsul 
with  a  propnrtor  or  a  governor),  and  in  his 
use  of  navitical  terms  in  regard  to  the  voyage 
and  shipwreck,  in  whicli  Ik;  was  Paul's  asso- 
ciate.    His  is  the  xoiiversnl  gospel,  intended 


for  the  Gentiles,  and  dwelling  on  what  would 
be  especially  interesting  to  them  ;  the  gospel 
of  womanhood,  for  the  word  woman  occurs  in 
Matthew  and  Mark  49  times,  but  in  Luke 
alone  43  times  ;  the  prayer  gospel,  for  he  re- 
cords our  Lord's  i)rayers  at  his  baptism,  after 
cleansing  the  leper,  before  the  call  of  the 
twelve,  at  his  transfiguration,  and  on  the  cross 
for  his  enemies,  and  to  him  alone  belong  the 
prayer-parables  of  the  Friend  at  Midnight  and 
the  Unjust  Judge  ;  the  Gospel  of  sowj,  for 
to  him  we  owe  the  Benedictus  of  Zac;harias, 
the  Magnificat  of  IMary,  the  Nunc  Dindttis, 
of  Simeon,  the  Ave  Maria  of  the  angel,  and 
the  Gloria  in  Bxcelsis  of  the  angelic  host  ; 
and  the  Gospel  of  infancy,  for  he  alone  tells 
of  the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist,  the  details  of 
Christ's  birth  and  circumcision,  and  presenta- 
tion in  the  temple  and  subjection  to  his  par- 
ents, and  his  questioning  with  the  doctors. 

The  narrative  is  more  complete  than  the 
others,  and,  as  has  been  said,  has  portions 
peculiar  to  it.  Among  these,  beside  the  in- 
teresting details  in  the  first  and  second  chap- 
ters, are  the  miraculous  draught  of  fishes,  the 
sermon  at  Nazareth,  the  healing  of  10  Iciut.s, 
the  refusal  to  call  down  fire  upon  the  inhos- 
pitable Samaritans,  the  mission  of  tlie  seventy, 
the  parables  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  the  Bar- 
ren Fig-tree,  the  Lost  Sheep  and  Coin  and 
Son,  the  Unjust  Steward,  Dives  and  Lazarus, 
aud  the  Pharisee  and  the  Publican,  the  jour- 
ney of  the  two  disciples  to  Emniaus,  to  whom 
the  risen  Saviour  revealed  himself. 

The  gospel  was  written  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  before  the  Book  of 
Acts,  but  for  any  closer  determination  of  its 
date  the  materials  are  wanting. 

Recent  works,  besides  the  general  commen- 
taries, are  especially  Godet,  rev.  trans.,  New 
York,  1881  :  Cornelius  a  Lapide,  Commentary, 
translated  by  Ross,  London,  1887  ;  M.  F.  Sad- 
ler, Notes,  Critical  or  Practical,  London,  1886  ; 
G.  R.  Bliss,  Commentary,  Philadelphia,  1885  ; 
F.  W.  Farrar,  Gospel  According  to  St.  Luke. 
with  notes,  Cambridge,  1884.  T.  W.  C. 

Luke  of  Prague,  a  bishoj)  of  the  Uidtas 
Fratrum,  or  Church  of  the  Buliemian  and 
Moravian  Brethren  ;  b.  about  the  year  14C(i, 
in  Bohemia;  d.  at  Juugbunzlau,  Dec.  11, 
1528.  He  studied  at  Prague  ;  was  originally 
a  Utraquist,  but  joined  the  Unitas  Fratrum 
in  1480,  and  helped  to  prevent  a  schism  in 
this  body  between  tlie  cultured  and  the  illiter- 
ate. A  tour  of  exploration,  undertaken  in 
1491  with  4  others,  to  Constantinople  and  the 
Orient,  in  search  of  primitive  Christians  with 
whom  he  and  his  brethren  might  have  fellow- 
ship, proving  unsuccessful,  on  his  return  he 
devoted  him.self  to  literary  work.  He  visited 
Italy  and  France  to  confer  with  the  "Walden- 
ses,  1497-99  ;  witnessed  the  execution  of  Sa- 
vonarola ;  was  cliosen  bishop,  1500  ;  devel- 
oped the  ritual  of  the  Brethren,  ami  wrote 
controversial  tractates  against  tlie  Roman 
Catholics  and  I'tnuiuists.  He  was  firm  amid 
persecutions.  In  1505  lie  published  a  Cati- 
cliism  and  a  Uyinn-Bool-,  the  first  e^'anirelical 
publications  of  this  description  in  tlie  31i(l(lle 
Ages.  In  1515  arrested  and  thrcatcnt'd  with 
torture  and  the  stake,  he  was  released  through 


LULLUS 


(518) 


LUTHER 


the  intervention  of  Baron  Krajek.  He  be- 
came senior  bishop  of  his  church  in  1518,  and 
sent  deputations  to  Luther,  1522  and  1524, 
without  satisfactory  result.  Besides  polemi- 
cal writings  he  published  various  doctrinal 
and  exegetical  works  in  Latin  or  in  Bohe- 
mian, in  all  more  than  80.  (See  De  Schwei- 
nitz.  History  of  the  Uiiitas  Fratrum,  Bethle- 
hem, Pa.,  1885.)  J.  T.  Hamilton. 

Lullus,  Raymundus,  Spanish  nobleman, 
poet,  philosopher,  theologian,  and  mission- 
ary ;  b.  about  1235  at  Palma,  Island  of  Ma- 
jorca ;  d.  at  sea,  near  the  Island  of  Cabrera, 
June  30,  1315.  The  first  30  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  at  the  court  of  King  James,  the 
Conqueror,  as  a  complete  man  of  the  world. 
Suddenly  awakened  to  the  unsatisfying  char- 
acter of  such  a  life  (1265),  he  renounced  the 
world,  divided  his  superfluous  property 
among  the  poor,  and  retired  from  family  and 
friends  to  a  mountain  to  live  the  life  of  a  her- 
mit. Six  years  later  he  had  a  vision  which 
implanted  in  his  mind  the  idea  that  proved  to 
be  the  guiding  one  of  his  life,  that  of  Chris- 
tian missions  among  the  heathen  and  Sara- 
cens. He  sought  first  to  gain  a  method  by 
which  truth  could  be  most  readily  made  ac- 
cessible to  the  minds  of  men,  then  to  acquire 
the  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
then  to  preach  the  gospel  personally  to  heathen 
and  Moslems.  He  sought  to  interest  others 
in  his  plans,  founded  schools  for  the  study  of 
the  Oriental  languages,  and  in  1286  journeyed 
to  Rome  to  lay  his  plans  before  the  pope. 
He  met  with  little  success  at  Rome,  and  finally 
himself  went  upon  a  mission  to  Tunis,  em- 
barking at  Genoa  (1292).  At  Bugia,  Tunis, 
he  began  to  preach,  having  first  laid  down 
the  condition  that  if  he  proved  Christianity 
to  be  superior  to  Islamism,  his  hearers  were 
to  adopt  it,  and  promising  in  the  reverse  case 
to  do  accordingly.  His  sermons  showed  the 
superiority  of  the  Christian  conception  of 
God  as  a  being  of  love  so  clearly  that  the  au- 
thorities began  to  be  alarmed  for  Islamism, 
and  he  was  banished.  He  returned  to  Eu- 
rope, and  was  active  in  many  places  teaching 
his  philosophic  system,  and  seeking  to  gain 
adherents  to  his  ideas.  He  succeeded  in  get- 
ting chairs  for  the  Oriental  languages  estab- 
lished at  the  universities  of  Paris,  Oxford, 
and  Salamanca.  Meantime  he  made  one  mis- 
sionary journey  to  the  East,  going  as  far  as 
Armenia.  And  now  his  first  love  drew  him 
back  to  the  Moslems  of  Tunis,  and  he  reap- 
peared in  Tunis  and  preached,  but  was  driven 
out  of  Bugia,  was  nearly  killed  by  stoning, 
and  died  on  the  journey  home.  His  philo- 
sophical ideas  have  not  been  fully  studied  or 
understood.  His  works  are  in  an  incomplete 
edition,  published  at  Mayence.  1721-42,  in  8 
vols.  (See  Neander,  Church  History,  and  the 
philosophical  histories  of  Ritter  "and  Erd- 
mann.)  p.  H.  F. 

Lupus,  Servatus,  b.  about  805  ;  d.  after 
862  ;  was  educated  in  the  monastery  of  Fer- 
rieres  in  the  diocese  of  Sens  ;  studied  at  Fulda 
under  Rabanus  Maurus,  827-37  ;  lived  for 
some  time  at  the  court  of  Louis  the  Pious, 
and  was  by  Charles  the  Bald  made  al)bot  of 
Ferrieres,   842.     He  sided  with   Gottschalk, 


whom  he  defended  both  in  letters  and  in  large 
treatises.  His  works  were  first  edited  by 
Baluze,  Paris,  1664  ;  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  CXIX. 
(See  Nicolas,  Mudes  sur  les  lettres  de  Servat 
Loup,  Paris,  1861  ;  F.  Sprotte,  Servatus 
Lupus,  Ratisbon,  1880.) 

Lust  originally  meant  any  longing  desire 
(Deut.  xii.  15,  xiv.  26),  but  in  tacit  acknowl- 
edgment of  man's  sinful  passions,  it  came  to 
denote  carnal,  lascivious  desire  (Matt.  v.  28). 
and  in  the  epistles  all  the  native  evil  desires 
of  men  (Gal.  v.  16,  17,  24,  James  i.  14,  15). 
Ljusty  in  Judges  iii.  39  means  vigorous. 

T.  W.  C. 

Luthardt,  Ohristoph  Ernst,  Lie.  Theol., 
Ph.D.,  D.D.  (Erlangen,  1852,  1854,  1856), 
Lutheran ;  b.  at  Maroldsweisach,  Bavaria, 
March  22,  1823  ;  studied  at  Erlangen  and 
Berlin,  1841-45,  and  was  ordained  at  Miinden. 
1846  ;  teacher  in  the  Munich  gymnasium, 
1846-51  ;  privat  docent  at  Erlangen,  1851-54  ; 
professor  extraordinary  at  Marburg,  1854-56  ; 
professor  of  systematic  theology  and  New 
Testament  exegesis  at  Leipzig,  1856.  Of  his 
writings  have  been  translated  and  published 
in  Edinburgh,  Vnmhunndid  Truths, >f  Chris- 
tianity, 1865  ;  Suvin(j  Truths  of  Christianity, 
1868  ;  Moral  Truths  of  Christianity ,  1878  ;  St. 
John,  the  Author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  1875  ;  St. 
John's  Qospel  Described  and  Explained  accord- 
ing to  its  Peculiar  Character,  1878,  8  vols.; 
History  of  Christian  Ethics  for  the  Reformation , 
1890,  2  vols.  The  most  useful  of  his  writings 
is  his  Kompendium  der  Dogmatik,  Leipzig, 
1865,  7th  ed.,  1886,  which  is  a  text-book 
throughout  Germany. 

Luther,  Martin,  the  son  of  Hans  Luther 
and  Margaret  Lindeman,  his  wife,  was  born 
at  Eisleben,  Nov.  10,  1483  ;  d.  there,  Feb.  18, 
1546.  He  was  baptized  on  the  day  following 
his  birth  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul.  His  parents  were  very  poor  and  worked 
hard  for  a  living  and  for  tlie  accumulation 
of  means  with  which  to  educate  their  chil- 
dren. The  family  discipline  was  severe,  but 
the  children  were  brought  up  in  the  fear  of 
God.  When  Martin  was  a  few  years  old  the 
family  removed  to  Mansfeld,  where  the  father 
improved  his  fortune  antl  became  alderman. 
Here  Martin  received  the  rudiments  of  his 
education.  At  the  age  of  14  he  was  sent  to 
a  famous  school  at  ^lagdeburg.  The  next 
year  he  went  to  Eisenach  as  a  charity  scholar, 
where  he  sang  in  the  streets  for  bread  until 
he  was  taken  into  the  house  of  Madame 
Cotta,  who  had  been  attracted  by  his  fine 
voice.  He  now  surpassed  all  his  fellow- 
students  in  acquiring  knowledge.  At  the 
age  of  18  (1501)  he  entered  the  University  of 
Erfurt,  where  he  was  made  a  Bachelor  in 
1503,  and  a  Master  of  Philosophy  two  years 
later.  His  father  had  intended  that  he  should 
study  law.  But  anxiety  about  his  soul  and 
the  sudden  death  of  his  friend  Alexius  led 
him  to  enter  the  Augustinian  cloister,  July 
17,  1505.  As  a  novitiate  he  performed  with 
great  cheerfulness  all  the  menial  services 
which  his  superiors  imposed  upon  him  in 
order  to  overcome  his  pride.  But  he  found 
time  to  make  diligent  study  of  the  Bible  and 


LUTHER 


(519) 


LUTHER 


of  the  works  of  Augustine.  Bernard,  and 
other  mystics.  In  1507  he  was  ordained  a 
priest.  In  his  troubles  about  his  soul  and  in 
his  conflicts  with  sin  he  gained  much  com- 
fort and  strength  from  the  article  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed.  "  I  believe  in  the  forgiveness 
of  sins,"  to  which  his  attention  was  called  bv 
a  fellow-monk.  In  the  j'ear  1508,  on  the  rec- 
ommendation of  John  von  Staupitz,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  the 
newly  established  University  of  Wittenberg. 
But  the  philosophy  then  in  vogue  did  not 
satisfy  the  craving  of  his  deep,  earnest  soul. 
He  longed  to  exchange  it  for  the  study  of  the- 
ology. Accordingly  he  made  preparation 
for  taking  the  difCerent  theological  degrees. 
In  1509  he  was  made  Bachelor,  and  in  1513 
Doctor  of  Theology.  He  now  began  to  lec- 
ture on  the  Psalms,  then  on  Romans  and 
Galatians.  In  1517  he  translated  the  7  peni- 
tential Psalms  and  published  them  with  a 
commentary.  In  this  same  year  he  also  pub- 
lished an  explanation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer 
and  the  German  Theology.  Meanwhile,  in 
1510,  he  had  made  a  journey  to  Rome,  where 
he  improved  his  knowledge  of  Hebrew  under 
Elias  Levita,  and  made  many  observations  in 
regard  to  the  corruptions  of  the  papacy,  which 
were  subsequently  of  great  value  in  his  work 
of  reform.  He  was  wont  to  say  :  "  Whoever 
goes  to  Rome  for  the  first  time  is  looking  for 
a  rogue  ;  whoever  goes  again  will  find  him  ; 
and  whoever  goes  a  third  time  will  return 
with  him."  When  Tetzel  came  to  Witten- 
berg and  began  the  sale  of  indulgences  Luther 
warned  against  the  traffic  in  the  confessional, 
preached  against  it  from  the  pulpit,  and 
through  letters  to  the  bishops  of  Brandenburg 
and  Mainz  sought  to  put  an  end  to  it.  Finally, 
on  Oct.  31,  1517,  he  posted  95  theses  against 
indulgences  on  the  door  of  the  Castle  Church 
in  Wittenberg.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  great  Protestant  Reformation  of  the  16th 
century.  In  these  theses,  or  plain  proposi- 
tions drawn  from  the  evident  sense  of  the 
word  of  God,  Luther  denounces  the  papal  in- 
dulgences and  declares  that  "  The  true  treas- 
ure of  the  church  is  the  holv  gospel  of  the 
glory  and  grace  of  God."  The  theses  spread 
rapidly  through  Germany,  and  in  a  couple  of 
weeks  were  read  by  the  pope  himself,  who 
declared  that  the  author  was  a  very  clever 
German,  but  was  drunk  when  he  wrote  them. 
Tetzel  burned  Luther's  theses  and  prepared 
counter-theses.  £ck  wrote  the  Obolisci,  to 
which  Luther  replied  in  the  Asterisci.  Hoog- 
straten  raised  the  cry  of  heresy.  Prierias 
sent  out  a  Dialogue  against  the  Presumptuous 
Conclusions  of  Martin  Luther,  which  Luther 
ignored  for  a  time,  but  effectually  refuted  in 
Aug.,  1518.  The  bold  monk  was  now  sum- 
moned to  Rome  within  60  days,  but  at  the 
solicitation  of  the  university  and  of  the  Elec- 
tor Frederick  the  pope  agreed  to  settle  the 
diflicult}'  through  Cardinal  Cajetan,  whom 
Luther  was  ordered  to  meet  at  Augsburg. 
But  refusing  to  recant,  and  appealing  to  the 
Bible  and  to  the  pope  better  informed,  he  was 
haughtily  dismissed,  and  happily  escaped  back 
to  VVittenberg,  where  he  continued  to  attack 
the  corruptions  of  the  church  and  to  preach 
and  teach  evangelical   doctrine.     The  pope 


now  instructed  Miltitz  to  hold  an  interview 
with  Luther.  The  latter  still  refused  to  re- 
cant, though  he  consented  to  write  a  letter  of 
humble  apology  to  the  pope  for  hi»  .seeming 
disrespect  to  the  Holy  li'ather.  In  July,  1519, 
Luther  engaged  in  a  public  disputation  with 
Eck  at  Leipzig.  He  denied  the  prmiacy  of 
the  pope  and  the  infallibility  of  councils,  and 
declared  that  even  some  of  the  doctrines  of 
Hu3  were  unrighteously  condenmed.  This 
widened  the  "breach  w  itii  Rome.  Both  parties 
claimed  the  victory.  Eck  had  the  advantage 
from  the  witness  of  the  church,  Luther  from 
tlie  witness  of  the  Bible.  Hence  learning 
now  wherein  his  strength  lay,  he  began  to 
study  the  Bible  still  more  earnestly.  But  he 
also  increased  the  activity  of  his  pen.  In  the 
year  1520  appeared  the  3  great  Reformation 
treatises.  The  Appeal  to  the  Gevmun  ^'ohiUtu, 
The  Freedom  of  the  GhriHtian  Man,  and  The 
Babylonish  Caytirity  of  the  Church.  The  fir.'-t 
is  the  political  manifesto  of  the  Reformation  ; 
the  second  applies  the  principle  of  faith  to 
the  church  and  to  the  individual  ;  the  third 
sweeps  away  the  mighty  sacramental  system 
of  Rome.  The  effect  of  these  writings  on 
the  German  people  and  on  the  church  was 
tremendous.  They  stirred  the  spirit  of  free- 
dom and  broke  the  yoke  of  ecclesiastical 
tyrann}'.  But  the  arch-heretic  had  now  gone 
so  far  that  he  could  no  longer  be  tolerated  ©r 
be  owned  as  a  son  of  the  church.  Early  in 
Oct.  he  is  excommunicated  by  a  papal  bull 
which  Eck  brings  from  Rome.  On  Nov.  10 
Luther  burns  this  bull  and  a  copy  of  the 
canon  law  at  the  Elster  gate  of  Wittenberg 
with  the  words  :  "  Because  thou  hast  offended 
the  Holy  One  of  the  Lord,  be  thou  consumed 
with  everlasting  fire."  Henceforth  he  is  an 
ecclesiastical  outlaw.  All  hope  of  reconcili- 
ation with  the  pope  is  at  an  end.  He  nuist 
now  appear  before  the  emperor  at  Worms, 
whither  he  would  go  though  there  were  as 
many  devils  there  as  tiles  on  the  roofs  of  the 
houses.  Even  before  the  emperor  he  refuses 
to  recant,  ami  leaves  the  city  an  acknowledged 
hero.  But  as  his  friends  anticipate  that  he 
will  now  be  put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire, 
they  take  him  into  friendly  captivity  and  con- 
ceal him  in  the  Wartburg'  Here  he  has  time 
to  meditate  and  to  grow  into  that  deeper  spir- 
itual apprehension  of  the  gospel  which  after- 
ward characterized  his  work.  His  enemies 
and  many  of  his  friends  who  supposed  that 
he  had  been  murdered  soon  found  out  by  his 
powerful  writings  that  he  still  lived.  During 
this  confinement  he  translated  tiie  New  Testa- 
ment, and  in  March,  1522,  he  returned  to 
Wittenberg  and  restored  order,  which  had 
been  greatly  disturbed  by  Carlstadt  and  the 
Zwickau  fanatics.  In  this  same  year  he  re 
plied  to  the  book  of  Henry  YIII.  of  England 
on  The  /Seven  Sacramc/its,  lectured  in  the  uni- 
versity, preached  and  made  journeys  in  the 
interest  of  the  evangelical  cause.  From  1524 
to  1529  Luther  was  engaged  in  contro\ersy 
with  Carlstadt,  Zwingli,  and  others  over  tlic 
matter  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  But  it  was 
also  (luring  this  period  that  he  lays  asiile  the 
monks  cowl,  marries  Catharine  von  Bora, 
becomes  a  father,  writes  a  reply  to  Erasmus 
on  the  freedom  of  the  will,  composes  his  Ger- 


i 
i 


LUTHERAN 


(520) 


LUTHERAN 


man  liturgy  and  the  two  catechisms,  and 
visits  many  of  the  churches  of  Saxony  in 
order  to  instruct  the  pastors  in  the  true  doc- 
trine ;  linally,  Oct.  1-3,  1529,  attending  the 
JIarhurg  Conference,  where  he  refused  full 
concord  with  Zwingli,  because  the  latter  held 
a  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  which  Luther 
believed  in  his  conscience  to  be  contrary  to 
the  teaching  of  the  word  of  God.  But  Luther 
cordially  shook  hands  Avith  Zwingli  when 
they  separated,  and  both  promised  to  abstain 
from  further  controversy  on  the  subject,  nor 
was  Luther  the  first  to  break  the  promise. 
In  the  year  1530  occurred  the  memorable 
Diet  of  Augsburg,  where  the  Protestants 
offered  their  confession  of  faith.  Luther, 
who  was  still  under  the  ban  of  the  empire, 
would  not  have  been  safe  at  Augsburg. 
Consequently  he  accompanied  the  Saxon  dele- 
gation as  far  as  Coburg,  where  he  lodged 
in  the  castle  from  April  to  Oct.  But  he 
greatly  encouraged  and  strengthened  the 
hearts  of  his  confessing  brethren  by  his  fre- 
quent letters,  which  breathe  the  tenderest 
solicitude  for  his  cause  and  show  his  confi- 
dence in  its  final  triumph.  Here  also,  it  is 
thought,  he  wrote  his  famous  battle  hymn, 
"  Ein  feste  Burg  ist  unser  Gott."  The  Con- 
fession delivered  at  Augsburg  he  cordially 
approved.  To  the  elector  he  wrote  :  "It 
pleases  me  very  well,  and  there  is  nothing 
that  I  could  change  or  improve.  Nor  would 
it  be  expedient  for  me  to  do  so,  for  I  cannot 
tread  so  softly  and  quietly."  On  his  return 
home  to  Wittenberg  in  Oct.  he  took  the  place 
of  Bugenhagen  as  pastor  of  the  principal 
church,  while  the  latter  was  absent  establish- 
ing the  church  at  Lubeck.  But  not  the  less 
was  he  active  with  his  pen.  In  1536  he  en- 
tered into  full  concord  with  Martin  Bucer 
and  other  South  German  theologians  in  re- 
gard to  all  the  doctrines  which  had  been  in 
dispute.  Bucer  and  Capito  shed  tears  of  joy, 
and  all  joined  in  partaking  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  But  scarcely  had  this  concord  been 
established  when  Luther  was  called  on  to 
prepare  to  meet  a  general  council  at  Mantua. 
He  now  wrote  the  Smalcald  Articles,  which 
are  among  the  most  positive  and  defiant  of  all 
his  an ti- papistical  writings.  He  denounces 
the  mass  as  "  the  dragon-tail  which  has  multi- 
plied abominations  and  idolatries."  He  con- 
demns purgatory,  the  invocation  of  saints,  the 
papacy,  and  refuses  to  yield  a  single  iota  in 
regard  to  justification  by  faith.  These  arti- 
cles were  signed  by  nearly  all  the  represent- 
ative theologians  of  Germany,  and  are  still 
held  in  high  lionor  as  a  confession  of  the 
Lutheran  Church.  Luther  now  began  to 
feel  the  approach  of  old  age,  but  he  did  not 
cease  to  labor  with  voice  and  pen.  He  still 
preached  much  and  wrote  some  of  his  most 
valuable  treatises,  as  On  the  Councils  of  the 
Church,  in  which  he  developed  the  idea  that 
the  church  is  the  congregation  of  believers, 
whom  the  Holy  Ghost  evermore  sanctifies  and 
perfects  in  the  faith  ;  and  Against  the  Papacy 
of  Rome  Founded  by  the  Devil.  Amid  trials, 
persecutions,  and  sicknesses  he  has  now 
reached  tlie  63d  year  of  his  age  and  longs  for 
death.  In  Jan.  he  went  to  Eisleben  to  at- 
tempt a  reconciliation  of  the  counts  of  Mans- 


feld.  In  this  city  of  his  birth  he  died,  on  the 
morning  of  Feb.  18,  1546,  aged  62  years,  3 
months,  8  days.  His  last  words,  spoken  in 
Latin  3  times,  were  :  "  Father,  into  thy  hands 

1  commend  my  spirit  ;  thou  hast  redeemed 
me,  thou  faithful  God."  His  body  was  laid 
to  rest  in  the  Castle  Church  at  Wittenberg. 
The  German  people  have  honored  him  with  a 
monument  of  brass  at  "Worms  (1868),  but  nis 
true  monuments  are  the  open  Bible,  the  Prot- 
estant Church,  the  liberated  conscience  of 
Christendom.  He  was  a  great  moral  hero,  a 
man  of  sublime  faith,  a  profound  mystic,  a 
practical  worker.  His  vices  of  temper  and 
manner  were  but  the  shadows  of  great  vir- 
tues. He  was  God's  own  chosen  instrument 
for  purifying  the  temple  and  for  building 
anew  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  His  hymns 
kindle  the  devotions  of  millions  of  worship- 
pers. His  theology  is  regenerating  and  re- 
storing the  whole  race  of  man.  ' '  Four  poten- 
tates ruled  the  mind  of  Europe  in  the  Refor- 
mation— the  emperor,  Erasmus,  the  pope, 
and  Luther.  The  pope  wanes,  Erasmus  is 
little,  the  emperor  is  nothing,  but  Luther 
abides  as  a  power  for  all  time."  Best  edi- 
tions of  works,  Leipzig,  23  vols.,  German; 
Walch,  24  vols.,  German  ;  Erlangen,  67  vols. 
German  and  37  vols.  Latin.  The  great  critical 
edition  is  that  edited  by  Knaake,  and  pub- 
lished at  Weimar,  1883  sqq.,  which  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  the  late  Emperor  "William 
and  the  Prussian  Government.  Luther's  life 
has  been  written  by  Melanchthon,  Matthesius, 
[Jkert,  Muerer,  Kostlin,  Bayne,  Rae,  F.  H. 
Hedge,  and  many  others.  '[Of  his  writings 
have  been  translated  his  95  Theses,  his  Ad- 
dress to  the  Nobility  of  the  German  Nation, 
Christian  Liberty  and  Babylonish  Captivity  of 
the  CMtrcJi,  by  Wace  and  Buchheim,  London, 
1883 ;  his  commentaries  on  Galatians  (n.e. 
1878),  on  the  first  five  chapters  of  Genesis 
(Edinburgh,  1855),  and  on  Epistles  of  Peter  and 
Jude ;  his  Hymns,  Table  Talk,  Way  to  Prayer 
(1846),  Poj)e  Confounded  (1836),  Letters toWom- 
en  (1865),  and  selections  from  his  voluminous 
miscellaneous  works.]         J.  "W^.  Richakd. 

Lutheran  Church,  The.     I.  In  General. 

1.  OjiiGiN.^The  Lutheran  Church  as  such 
began  her  distinct,  historical  life  at  Augs- 
burg, in  Germany,  June  25,  1530,  when  7 
evangelical  princes  and  the  representatives  of 

2  imperial  cities  presented  to  the  emperor, 
Charles  Y.,  a  confession  of  faith,  which  em- 
bodied the  teaching  of  Luther  on  the  chief 
articles  of  the  Christian  religion.  The  nail- 
ing up  of  the  95  theses  by  Luther,  Oct.  31, 
1517  ;  the  disputation  with  Eck  at  Leipzig, 
June  27-July  16,  1519,  in  which  he  assailed 
the  primacy  of  the  pope  and  the  infallibility 
of  councils  ;  the  Diet  of  "\Yorms,  April  17, 
18,  1521,  where  he  refused  to  recant;  the 
exile  in  the  "Wartburg,  May  4,  1521-March, 
1522,  where  he  formed  and  partly  executed 
the  plan  of  translating  the  whole  Bible  into 
German  ;  his  controversy  (1524-29)  with 
Carlstadt  and  Zwingli  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  ;  his  visitation  of  the  Saxon 
churches  (1527-28)  and  the  preparation  of 
the  two  catechisms  in  1529  ;  the  colloquy  at 
Marburg,  Oct.  1-3, 1529,  where,  on  account  of 


LUTHERAN 


( 521  ) 


LUTHERAN 


radical  difierence  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  he  refused  alliance  with  Zwingli— 
these  events,  together  with  what  transpired 
at  the  two  diets  of  Spever,  1536,  1529,  ren- 
dered the  Augsburg  Confession  both  possible 
and  necessary.  As  the  first  Diet  of  Speyer 
had  secured  legal  recognition  to  the  followers 
of  Luther,  as  the  second  had  completed  their 
separation  from  the  Roman  communion,  so 
the  delivery  of  their  confession  established  a 
new  ecclesiastical  body  with  a  distinct  bond 
of  union.  But  this  confession  did  not  sepa- 
rate the  Lutherans  from  the  Church  Catholic, 
for  it  claims  to  be  "  drawn  from  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  the  word  of  God,"  accepts  the 
doctrines  taught  in  the  Nicene  Creed,  rejects 
the  heresies  which  the  ancient  Catholic 
Church  rejected,  and  appeals  to  the  Fathers 
in  support  of  its  doctrine.  In  itself  consid- 
ered, the  Augsburg  Confession  is  in  part  a  re- 
assertion  of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  as 
taught  in  and  by  the  Historical  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church,  and  in  part  a  protest 
against  the  corruptions  of  Rome.  The  first 
21  articles  are  positive  and  doctrinal,  and 
cover  the  chief  subjects  of  the  Christian  faith  ; 
the  remaining  7  are  negative  and  controver- 
sial, and  refer  to  the  abuses  which  had  been 
corrected.  In  sentiment  firm  and  evangelical, 
it  exhibits  the  theology  of  Luther,  who,  as 
Kahnis  says,  is  the  author  of  its  contents  ;  in 
tone  mild  and  conciliatory,  it  reflects  the 
gentle  spirit  of  Melanchthon,  who,  as  like- 
wise Kahnis  says,  is  the  author  of  its  form. 
Because  of  its  doctrinal  contents  and  of  its 
historical  position  and  relations,  it  is  now  and 
has  ever  been  considered  the  fundamental 
confession  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  is 
the  only  universally  recognized  bond  of  union 
common  to  all  who  bear  the  Lutheran  name. 
But  in  addition  to  it  the  great  majority  of 
Luthei'ans  recognize,  and  with  varying  de- 
grees of  stringency  subscribe,  the  Apology  of 
the  Confession  (1531),  the  Smalcald  Articles 
(1537),  the  two  catechisms  of  Luther  (1529), 
and  the  Formula  of  Concord  (1577),  which, 
"ogether  with  the  Augsburg  Confession  and 
the  three  cecumenical  creeds,  constitute  the 
Book  of  Concord,  which,  with  a  preface  signed 
by  51  princes  and  the  delegates  of  35  cities, 
was  promulgated  by  the  Elector  Augustus  of 
Saxony,  June  25,  1580,  the  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

3.  Doctrines.— The  central  doctrine  of 
all  the  distinctive  Lutheran  confessions  is, 
that  we  are  justified  by  faith  alone  in  the 
merit  and  righteousness  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  without  works.  Around  this  funda- 
mental "  article  of  a  standing  or  falling 
church"  are  grouped  the  propositions  that 
man  is  totallj^  depraved,  in  the  sense  that  sin 
affects  and  corrupts  all  his  moral  powers  ; 
that  man's  will  is  in  bondage,  unable  to  do 
anything  positive  or  meritorious  in  the  matter 
of  salvation  ;  that  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  true 
God  and  true  man,  offered  a  suflicient  sacri- 
fice for  ail  the  sins  of  men,  both  original  and 
actual  ;  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  imparted 
through  the  word  and  sacraments,  "  who  in 
his  own  time  and  place  works  faith  in  those 
who  hear  the  gospel  ;"  that  faith  brings  forth 
good  works  ;  that  the  church  is  the  congre- 


gation of  believers,  who  maintain  the  preach- 
ing of  the  word  and  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments  ;  that  repentance  consists  in  ter- 
ror on  account  of  sin  and  faith  in  the  gospel  ; 
that  at  the  last  day  Christ,  who  now  sits  at 
the  right  hand  of  the  Father  on  high,  will  re- 
turn to  give  eternal  life  to  the  righteous  and 
to  assign  the  wicked  to  everlasting  punish- 
ment :  that  the  cause  of  sin  is  the  perverted 
will  of  the  devil  and  of  wicked  men.  "  Re- 
specting Ijaptism,  it  is  tauglit  that  it  is  neces- 
sary ;  that  grace  is  offered  through  it,  and 
that  children  ought  to  be  baptized,  who 
through  baptism  are  presented  to  God  and 
become  acceptable  to  him."  Article  IX., 
Augsburg  Confession.  This  article,  according 
to  Lutheran  interpretation,  contains  4  propo- 
sitions :  {a)  That  baptism  is  necessary — that 
is,  baptism  is  enjoined  by  the  divine  com- 
mand, which  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  obey. 
No  Lutheran  creed  and  no  standard  Lutheran 
theologian,  from  Luther  down  to  the  present 
time,  has  ever  taught  that  the  necessity  of 
baptism  is  absolute,  in  the  sense  that  it  binds 
God,  or  that  baptism  is  absolutely  indispensa- 
ble to  salvation.  In  the  universal  Lutheran 
teaching  the  necessity  of  baptism  is  limited 
by  the  possibility  of  securing  it.  {b)  Tiiat 
grace  is  offered  through  baptism.  By  this  is 
meant  that  baptism  is  a  means  of  grace 
through  which  the  Holy  Ghost  offers,  coti- 
veys,  and  seals  salvation  ;  that,  in  fact,  the 
grace  offered  in  baptism  is  conveyed  and 
sealed  when  there  is  faith  in  the  recipient. 
This,  at  least,  is  the  Lutheran  interpretation 
of  the  article.  But  no  Lutheran  creed  teaches 
"baptismal  regeneration"  in  the  sense  bap- 
tized, therefore  regenerated,  (c)  That  children 
ought  to  be  baptized.  This  obligation  is 
based  on  the  universality  of  human  corrup- 
tion (John  iii.  5),  on  the  all-embracing  char- 
acter of  Christ's  command  (Matt,  xxviii.  19), 
on  the  perpetuity  of  the  covenant  of  grace 
iGen.  xvii.  7,  Acts  ii.  39).  on  the  purpose  of 
Christ  to  save  children  (Mark  x.  14).  (d)  That 
baptized  children  are  acceptable  to  God- 
that  is,  they  are  brought  into  the  covenant  of 
grace,  are  made  members  of  the  body  of 
Christ,  and  have  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  But  it  has  always  been  the  tfaching 
of  the  Lutheran  theologians  that  "  infants  who 
are  cut  off  from  baptism  by  death,  and  con- 
sequentlv  die  unbaptized,  are  by  no  means 
lost."  Luther  and  the  whole  "Wittenberg 
faculty  left  themselves  on  record  on  this  sub- 
ject. (See  Corpus  Reformatorum,  v.,  687.) 
See  art.  Lord's  Supper  for  the  Lutheran 
teaching  on  this  subject. 

3.  Controversies.— During  the  period 
1517-30  Luther  and  his  followers  were  en- 
gaged mainly  in  controversies  with  the  pai)ists. 
the  Anabaptists,  and  the  Sacramentariaiis. 
With  these  the  main  subjects  of  dispute  were 
grace,  the  Scriptures,  the  sacraments,  in 
whicli  the  Lutherans  sought  to  establish  both 
the  principles  and  the  bounds  of  their  faitli. 
The  chief  internal  strifes  of  the  Lutherans 
were  the  Antinomian,  begun  (1537)  by  John 
Agricola,  who  maintained  that  the  gosptl 
slioulil  be  the  only  theme  of  preaching  ;  tlie 
Osiandriaii,  begun  (1549)  by  Andrew  ()s- 
iauder,   who   confounded    justification    with 


LUTHERAN 


(522) 


LUTHERAN 


> 


sanctification,  maintaining,  contrary  to  the 
doctrine  of  Luther,  that  justification  is  not  a 
judicial  act  of  pardon  and  adoption,  but  a 
sanitary  act,  an  infusion  of  the  righteousness 
of  Christ  ;  the  Majoristic,  begun  (1551)  by 
George  Major,  who  affirmed  that  good  M'orks 
are  necessary  to  salvation,  in  opposition  to 
Amsdorf,  who  took  the  position  that  good 
works  are  detrimental  to  salvation  ;  the  IStan- 
carian,  begun  (1552)  by  Francis  Stancar,  who 
asserted  that  man's  redemption  depended 
wholly  upon  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  and 
not  upon  the  two  natures  of  Christ  as  em- 
braced in  the  one  personality  ;  the  Synergistic, 
begun  (1555)  by  certain  of  Melanchthon's  fol- 
lowers, who,  in  opposition  to  Luther  and  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  taught  a  certain  co- 
operation of  the  human  will  in  conversion  ; 
the  Flacidii,  begun  (1560)  by  Matthias  Flacias, 
who  declared  that  original  sin  was  a  part  of 
the  substance  of  human  nature,  and  not  a 
corruption  of  that  substance  ;  the  Crypto- 
Calcinistic  (1553-74),  which  had  regard  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  held  by  Cal- 
vin. To  these  must  be  added  the  AdiopTior- 
istic  controversy  (1548)  about  admitting  Catho- 
lic forms — things  in  themselves  indifferent— 
into  the  constitution  and  worship  of  the 
church.  But  this  long  period  of  internal 
strife  found  its  close  in  the  composition  and 
promulgation  of  the  Formula  of  Concord  (see 
above),  in  which  the  strict  Lutheranism  of 
Brentz,  Andreae,  and  others,  known  as  the 
Swabian  school,  triumphed  and  obtained 
official  recognition  and  wide  prevalence. 
"  The  Formula  was  adopted  by  the  imperial 
diet,  and  all  who  held  office  in  the  several 
schools  or  churches  under  it  were  required  to 
subscribe  it.  It  was,  however,  rejected  by 
Hesse,  Nassau,  Anhalt,  Pomerania,  Holstein, 
Bremen,  Nuremberg,  Strasburg,  and  others, 
on  the  ground  that  in  some  respects  it  was 
too  rigid,  especially  wiien  it  separated  two 
such  much-loved  heroes  as  Luther  and  Me- 
lanchthon  by  canonizing  the  one  and  making 
the  very  name  of  the  other  offensive,  and  yet 
many  pastors  despised  it  because  they  regarded 
it  as  too  lenient  and  too  fluctuating  in  its 
meaning"  (Hase,  Ghurch  History). 

4.  Worship. — In  1523  Luther  revised  the 
Roman  mass  service  and  purged  it  of  all  its 
superstitious  ceremonies  and  idolatries,  but 
retained  the  hymns,  collects,  and  other  parts 
in  so  far  as  they  agreed  with  the  Scriptures. 
In  1526  he  greatly  simplified  this  same  service, 
and  published  it  in  the  German  language. 
These  two  orders  of  divine  service  became 
the  basis  of  all  subsequent  Lutheran  liturgies, 
which  are  recommended  to  the  churches  as 
guides  and  helps  in  the  worship  of  the  sanc- 
tuary, but  are  by  no  means  enjoined  as  a  law. 
Nor  has  uniformity  in  the  use  of  the  same 
liturgy  ever  been  insisted  on  as  a  mark  of 
the  unity  of  the  church.  Hence  even  in  Ger- 
many in  the  16th  century  nearly  every  prin- 
cipality and  city  had  its  own  liturgy.  Yet 
these  liturgies  are  in  the  main  of  similar  type, 
and  provide  for  much  singing  and  chanting 
and  reading  of  the  Scripture,  while  preaching 
in  the  language  of  the  people  has  always  been 
insisted  on  as  "  the  greatest  and  most' impor- 
tant part  of  the  divine  service"  {Luther).     In 


Europe  the  clergyman  always  appears  before 
the  altar  and  in  the  pulpit  in  a  distinctive 
dress,  usually  a  black  robe  with  bands,  though 
in  the  Scandinavian  countries,  where  about 
95  per  cent  of  the  population  is  Lutheran,  the 
surplice  and  cope  are  worn.  In  Sweden  the 
archbishop  wears  a  mitre  and  carries  the 
crozier  on  solemn  occasions.  Auricular  con- 
fession, which  required  an  enumeration  of 
sins,  was  rejected  from  the  beginning  ;  but 
private  confession,  as  a  purely  voluntary  dis- 
cipline, was  retained  by  the  Reformers  as 
something  still  serviceable  in  that  period  of 
ignorance,  on  account  of  the  opportunity  it 
afforded  the  pastor  of  making  a  personal  ap- 
plication of  the  gospel  to  each  individual. 
But  long  ago  the  whole  practice  fell  into 
oblivion.  Persons  are  admitted  to  member- 
ship after  instruction  and  examination  in  the 
elements  of  the  Christian  religion,  by  the  sol- 
emn rite  of  confirmation,  which  is  always 
performed  by  the  pastor  of  the  church.  The 
communion  is  frequently  celebrated  preceded 
by  special  services  of  preaching,  prayer,  con- 
fession, and  exhortation.  In  all  these  se^rvices 
in  w-ell-regulated  Lutheran  churches  there  is 
quiet  solemnity,  and  such  a  just  harmonizing 
of  the  various  parts  as  will  best  satisfy  both 
the  aesthetic  taste  and  the  spiritual  wants  of 
the  worshipper.  Hence,  as  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Schaff  says,  "  The  Lutheran  Church  draws 
the  fine  arts  into  the  service  of  religion,  and 
has  produced  a  body  of  hymns  and  chorals 
which  in  richness,  power,  and  unction  sur- 
passes the  hymnology  of  all  other  churches  in 
the  world." 

5.  Government. — The  Lutheran  Church 
was  from  the  beginning  necessarily  connected 
with  the  civil  power.  Hence  she  could  not 
realize  in  constitution  and  government  the 
ideal  involved  in  her  doctrine  of  the  universal 
priesthood  of  believers,  and  of  the  essential 
independence  of  the  church.  "  In  the  exi- 
gency of  the  church  the  princes  and  magis- 
trates assumed  unavoidable  episcopal  power, 
managed  the  affairs  of  the  church,  and  ap- 
pointed consistories,  composed  of  laymen  and 
clergy,  to  execute  their  orders  and  plans,  and 
to  take  special  charge  of  the  clergy,  church 
discipline,  and  matrimonial  questions" 
(Kurtz,  GJiurch  History).  This  makes  the 
civil  ruler  snmmus  episcoipus  ecclesiiv,  though 
the  practice  is  utterly  antagonistic  to  the  the- 
ory of  Lutheran  Church  polity.  In  Germany 
there  have  been  modifications  of  the  old  prac- 
tice. Pastors  are  nominated  by  the  civil  au- 
thorities, but  congregations  have  the  right  of 
rejecting  the  nominees.  In  the  main  the 
church  is  governed  by  superintendents  and 
consistories,  but  the  tendency  now-  is  toward 
government  by  synods.  Different  ranks  or 
grades  in  the  ministry  are  all  regarded  as  of 
human  origin,  and  are  instituted  and  toler- 
ated for  the  sake  of  good  order.  The  regu- 
larly called  clergy  are  all  essentially  on  the 
same  level,  and  are,  according  to  Kurtz, 
"  servants  of  the  church,  of  the  w-ord,  of  the 
altar,  enjoying  equal  rights  in  spiritual 
things."  Even  in  Denmark  and  Sweden, 
where  the  church  is  governed  by  bishops,  the 
doctrine  of  the  parity  of  the  ministry  is  fully 
recognized,  and  episcopacy,  which  as  a  form 


LUTHERAN 


(523) 


LUTHERAN 


of  government  was  retained  from  Catholic 
times,  is  held  to  be  only  of  human  origin,  and 
as  not  essential  to  the  ordering  of  the  min- 
istry or  to  the  regulation  of  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  In  the  United  States  there  are  not 
e  ^ea  any  human  gradations  in  the  ministry  ; 
and  the  congregation — that  is,  the  pastor,  the 
officers  elected  by  the  members,  and  the  mem- 
bers, is  the  ultimate  source  of  power.  Each 
congregation  elects  and  dismisses  its  own  pas- 
tor and  manages  its  own  concerns.  Members 
are  amenable  to  the  congregation  and  minis- 
ters to  the  synods  to  which  they  belong. 
Synods,  which  are  an  aggregate  of  so  many 
congregations,  have  only  those  powers  which 
are  delegated  to  them  by  the  congregations. 
These  synods  may  unite  themselves  into  larger 
bodies,  which  likewise  have  only  delegated 
powers.  No  particular  form  of  church  gov- 
ernment, whether  episcopacy,  presb3-tery,  or 
democracy,  is  held  to  be  of  divine  right. 

6.  Theological  Science.— The  Lutheran 
Church  is  pre-eminently  the  church  of  theo- 
logians. Her  schools  of  theology  have  been 
the  best  and  the  most  numerously  attended 
of  any  in  the  Protestant  world.  Her  theo- 
logians have  been  numerous  and  distinguished 
and  have  cultivated  every  field  of  theological 
science.  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Cruciger, 
Bugenhagen,  Brentz,  Chemnitz,  Andrete, 
CbytriBus  adorn  the  16th  century.  In  the 
17th  century  we  have  in  dogmatics  Hutter, 
Gerhard,  Quenstedt,  Calovius,  Baier,  Musf^us, 
Calixtus,  Brochmaud  of  Copenhagen  r  in  his- 
tory, Rechenberg,  Kortholt,  Ittig,  Sagittarius, 
Seckendorf  ;  in  philology,  Glassius,  W^alther, 
Erasmus,  Schmidt,  Hakspan.  In  the  18tii 
century  flourished  Buddfeus,  Carpzov,  Walch, 
Pf aff ,  Mosheim,  ' '  the  father  of  modern 
church  history  ;"  Bengel,  the  author  of  the 
G.iomou  of  the  New  Testament,  and  "the 
father  of  New  Testament  criticism."  The 
chief  representatives  of  the  stricter  Lutheran 
theology  of  the  19th  century  are  Claus  Harms, 
Sartorius,  Rudelbach  of  Denmark,  Guericke, 
Thomasius,  Philippi,  Franck  Lohe,  Luthardt, 
Delitzsch,  Oehler,  Kurtz.  The  works  of  al- 
most all  these  great  men  of,  the  several  cen- 
turies are  still  esteemed  of  high  value,  and 
are  in  the  hands  of  nearly  all  Lutheran  theo- 
logians in  Europe  and  America.  The  Luther- 
an Confession  alongside  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  the  Reformed  is  represented  at  this 
time  in  the  universities  of  Tubingen,  Giessen, 
Breslau,  Bonn,  with  the  Reformed  at  Heidel- 
berg, Griefswald,  Marburg,  Konigsburg, 
Halle,  Erlangen,  Berlin  ;  exclusively  at  Leip- 
zig, Rostock,  Jena,  Kiel,  Gottingen,  Copen- 
hagen, in  Denmark,  Christiania,  in  Norwaj', 
Upsala  and  Lund,  in  Sweden,  Helsingfors,  in 
Finland,  Dorpat,  in  Russia. 

7.  Statistics  — The  following  statistics  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  world,  prepared 
by  an  expert  for  this  article,  are  deemed  very 
approximately  correct  : 

Minmers.   Churclus.  ^fP^^ft 

Germany 13,5.50  20,450  28,309,000 

Scandinavian  Lands 5,1S4  3,690  6,.569,9i)2 

Russian  Lands 1,392  2,2:«  4,6ir,.T00 

Austria  and  Hungarj'. . .       608  1,139  1,416.374 

France 124  90  80,0tX) 

Holland 67  58  68.070 

Great  Britain 24  27  24,000 


Italy--.... 11  11  .3,089 

Roumania 12  12  7  ■576 

Switzerland 8  9  110% 

Total  in  Europe 22,879  29.644  43,084;59li 

Asia 203  142  90,969 

Africa 314  2:^7  103.821 

"      "  Oceauica 133  .310  12.5.794 

"      "N.America 4,710  7,964  6,511. .500 

'      "S.America 47  61  95,.5(X) 

Jewish  Missions 20  2;J 

Grand  Total, 28,408         38,381  50,001,280 

II.  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United 
States.— Lutherans  from  Holland  settled  in 
New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York)  in  the  year 
1623.  They  did  not  enjoy  the  services  of  a 
pastor  of  their  own  faith  until  after  the  colony 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British  (1664).  In 
the  year  1638  two  shiploads  of  Swedish 
Lutherans  entered  the  Delaware  and  founded 
Fort  Christina,  near  where  Wilmington  now 
stands.  Having  brought  with  them  a  pastor, 
the  Rev.  Reorus  Torkillus,  they  erected  a 
house  of  worship  and  began  to  hold  divine 
services.  In  the  year  1640  their  second  pas- 
tor, Campanius,  translated  Luther's  Small 
Catechism  into  the  language  of  the  neighbor- 
ing Indians.  The  book  was  printed  in  Upsala, 
Sweden.  A  copy  of  this  rare  literary  curi- 
osity is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Luther- 
an Hi.storical  Society  at  Gettysburg,  Pa. 
During  the  fourth  quarter  of  the  17th  century 
large  numbers  of  German  Lutherans  came  to 
this  countr}',  but  we  have  no  account  of  the 
organization  of  Lutheran  congregations  or 
of  the  labors  of  a  Lutheran  pastor  prior  to  the 
year  1703,  when  the  Rev.  Justus  Falkner  be- 
gan to  preach  in  Montgomery  County,  Pa. 
Prom  1708  to  1713  colonies  of  German  Lutlier- 
ans  settled  along  the  Hudson  River  and  or- 
ganized congregations,  some  of  which  still 
exist.  In  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century  the 
spiritual  destitution  of  the  Lutheran  settlers 
in  Pennsylvania  was  so  great,  that  in  the  year 
1733  they  sent  a  deputation  to  Germany  with 
the  report  that  they  were  "in  a  land  full  of 
sects  and  heresy,  without  ministers  and  teach- 
ers, schools,  churches,  and  books."  In  1734 
a  colony  of  persecuted  Lutherans  fled  from 
Saltzburg,  in  Germany,  with  two  ministers, 
and  settled  on  the  Savannah,  in  Georgia.  A 
little  later  Lutherans  .settled  and  organized 
congregations  in  Virginia,  Nortli  Carolina, 
and  Maine.  But  there  was  no  bond  of  union 
between  these  widely  scattered  congregations, 
which  were  generally  sadly  destitute  of  the 
proper  means  of  grace.  In  the  year  1742  the 
Rev.  Henry  ]\Ielchior  ^Muhlenberg,  a  mission- 
ary from  lialle,  a  man  of  trueai)ostolic-  spirit, 
began  his  labors  among  the  scattered  Luther- 
ans in  Pennsylvania,  and  continued  to  organ- 
ize congregations,  to  build  houses  of  worship, 
and  to  preach  the  gospel  for  4.5  years.  In 
the  year  1748,  when,  so  far  as  is  now  known, 
there  were  only  11  Lutheran  ministers  in  the 
country.  Muhlenberg,  with  5  other  pastors 
and  a  few  laymen,  organized  tlic  ^linister- 
ium  of  Penn.sylvania,  which  on  January  1, 
1890,  had  265  ministers,  442  congrega- 
tions, and  101,846  members.  Growtli  was 
very  slow.  But  few  ministers  came  from  the 
Fatherland,  and  there  were  no  institutions  ()f 
learning  for  the  education  of  a  native  min- 
istry.    Tlu!   German   language  was  used  al- 


i 


LUTHERAN 


(524) 


LUTHERAN 


most  exclusively  in  the  services  of  the  sanc- 
tuary, and  the  young  people  who  became 
Anglicized  in  speech  were  advised  by  pastors 
and  church  councils  to  connect  themselves 
with  the  Episcopal  Church,  which  at  that 
time  was  regarded  as  the  English  Lutheran 
Church.  As  a  result  of  these  and  other  un- 
toward influences  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  there  were  scarcely  7()  Luther- 
an ministers  and  not  more  than  25,000  Luther- 
an communicants  in  the  United  States,  with 
no  schools,  no  periodicals,  and  with  almost  no 
preaching  in  the  English  language.  Statis- 
tics of  the  year  1820  report  103  ministers,  sepa- 
rated into  5  distinct  synods.  In  this  year  4 
of  these  sj'uods  united  in  forming  the  General 
Synod.  But  2  of  them  soon  withdrew  into 
independency.  Growth  now  began  to  be 
more  rapid,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following 
decennial  exhibits  : 
Date.      Ministers.     Congregations.       Communicants. 


1833 

337 

1,017 

59,358 

1843 

mi 

1,371 

147,0(X) 

ia53 

900 

1,750 

200,000 

1863 

1,4.31 

2,677 

285.217 

1873 

3.309 

4,115 

485  085 

1883 

3,504 

6,171 

80i:236 

1890 

4,692 

7,948 

1,099,808 

This  rapid  growth  is  due  in  large  measure 
to  foreign  immigration,  although  it  is  com- 
monly thought  that  not  more  than  two  fifths 
of  the  foreign  Lutherans  who  land  on  these 
shores  find  their  way  into  connection  with 
the  Lutheran  Church,  which  in  this  country 
is  divided  into  4  general  bodies  and  several 
independent  synods,  each  of  which  claims 
for  itself  and  allows  to  the  others  the  common 
historical  name  and  title,  The  Evangelical 
Latlieran  Church;  and  all  ahke  "believe, 
teach,  and  confess  that  tlie  only  rule  and 
standard  according  to  which  all  doctrines  and 
teachers  alike  ought  to  be  tried  and  judged, 
are  the  prophetic  and  apostolic  Scriptures  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  alone."  All 
alike  also  acknowledge  the  3  oecumenical 
creeds,  and  ' '  reject  all  heresies  and  doctrines 
which,  in  opposition  to  these,  have  been  in- 
troduced into  the  Church  of  God."  Their 
differences  arise  mainly  from  the  relation 
which  each  has  assumed  to  the  Lutheran  con- 
fessional writings  of  the  16th  century. 

The  General  Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Church  in  the  United  States  was  organ- 
ized at  Hagerstown,  Md.,  in  the  year  1820. 
It  reached  its  greatest  strength  in  the  year 
1860,  when  it  numbered  864  ministers  "and 
164,000  communicants,  or  "  two  thirds  of  the 
entire  Lutheran  Church  in  this  country." 
In  1861,  4  synods  in  the  Southern  States 
withdrew  in  consequence  of  the  civil  war 
In  1866-68,  5  others  left  for  alleged  doc- 
trinal reasons.  The  present  (a.d.  1890) 
strength  of  the  body  is  979  ministers,  1437 
congregations,  151,404  communicants.  Its 
confessional  basis  is  as  follows  :  "  We  receive 
and  hold,  with  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  of  our  fathers,  the  word  of  God  as 
contained  in  the  canonical  Scriptures  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  as  the  only  infallible 
rule  of  faith  and  practice,  and  the  Augsburg 
Confession  as  a  correct  exhibition  of  the  fun- 
damental doctrines  of  the  divine  word,  and  of 


the  faith  of  our  church  founded  upon  that 
word."  This  body,  while  holding  fast  the 
historical  Lutheran  faith  as  expressed  in  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  maintains  an  attitude 
of  Christian  fraternity  toward  other  denomi- 
nations, freely  co-operating  with  them  in  tem- 
perance reform,  in  Bible  distribution,  and  in 
meetings  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance.  It  con- 
ducts missionary  operations  in  India  and  in 
Liberia,  and  supports  about  100  missionaries 
in  the  home  field. 

Tlie  General  Council  began  its  organization 
at  Heading,  Pa.,  in  1866,  and  completed  it  at 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  in  1867.  The  doctrinal 
basis  of  the  General  Council  is  the  entire  Book 
of  Concord  "  in  the  perfect  harmony  of  one 
and  the  same  scriptural  faith. "  The  formula 
of  subscription  to  this  confessional  basis  is  as 
follows  :  "  That  confessions  may  be  such  a 
testimony  of  unity  and  bond  of  union,  they 
must  be  accepted  in  every  statement  of  doc- 
trine in  their  own  true,  native,  original,  and 
only  sense.  Those  who  set  them  forth  and 
subscribe  them  must  not  only  agree  to  use 
the  same  words,  but  must  use  and  understand 
those  words  in  one  and  the  same  sense." 
This  body  has  promulgated  "  The  Rule  : 
Lutheran  pulpits  are  for  Lutheran  ministers 
only.  Lutheran  altars  are  for  Lutheran  com- 
municants only."  The  German  ministers  be- 
longing to  the  General  Council  for  the  mo.st 
part  interpret  the  rule  with  the  literal  strict- 
ness implied  in  the  word  "  only. "  The  Scan- 
dinavians and  the  English-speaking  admit 
exceptions,  and  practise  a  moderate  and 
judicious  pulpit  and  altar  fellowship  with 
other  Christians.  The  General  Council  is 
composed  of  8  district  synods,  and  contains 
910  ministers,  1522  congregations,  259,801 
communicants.  The  body  supports  a  small 
missionary  work  in  India,  and  is  beginning  to 
take  active  interest  in  the  work  of  missions 
at  home. 

The  8y nodical  Conference,  or  "  Missouri- 
ans. "  This  body  originated  in  a  small  colony 
of  German  Lutherans  who  settled  in  Perry 
County,  Mo.,  in  1888.  In  1847,  15  ministers 
and  12  congregations  organized  thtir  first 
synod  in  Chicago,  111.  They  are  now  scat- 
tered over  large  portions  of  the  United  States, 
and  are  famiharly  known  among  Lutherans 
as  "  the  Missourlans."  The  Synodical  Con- 
ference in  its  present  form  was  organized  at 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  in  1872,  with  a  confessional 
basis  as  follows  :  "  The  Synodical  Conference 
acknowledges  tlie  canonical  Scriptures  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  as  God's  word,  and 
the  Confession  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  of  1580  called  'the  Concordia  "  [that 
is,  Book  of  Concord]  as  its  own."  Every 
person  seeking  admission  to  the  Synodical 
Conference  as  a  minister  is  required  to  sub- 
scribe the  Book  of  Concord  as  his  own  con- 
fession, and  to  promise  that  he  will  "  exercise 
his  office  faithfully  and  diligently  according 
to  it."  The  body  contains  1297  ministers, 
1842  congregations,  374,524  communicants, 
and  is  very  active  in  missionary  operations, 
chiefly  among  the  Germans. 

The  United  Synod  of  the  South  was  organ- 
ized at  Roanoke,  Va.,  in  1886.  Its  confes- 
sional basis  is  almost  identical  with  that  of 


LUZ 


(525) 


LYNCH 


the  General  Council,  inasmuch  as  it  accepts 
the  word  of  God  as  the  rule  of  faith,  and  all 
the  symbolical  books  as  "  in  the  perfect  har- 
mony of  one  and  the  same  pure,  scriptural 
faith."  It  numbers  201  ministers,  385  con- 
gregations, 37,528  communicants. 

In  addition  to  these  4  general  bodies  there 
are  14  independent  synods,  which  are  charac- 
terized by  strict  confessional  status,  but  it 
would  be  difficult  to  state  exactly  wherein 
one  differs  from  another.  These  independent 
synods,  with  a  few  independent  pastors  and 
congregations,  report  1305  ministers,  2762 
congregations,  276,611  communicants. 

General  Statistics  of  the  Evangelical  Luther- 
an Church  in  the  United  States  :  Ministers, 
4693  ;  congregations,  .  7948  ;  communicants, 
1,099,868.  There  are  26  theological  semi- 
naries (including  several  theological  depart- 
ments connected  with  colleges),  having  74 
theological  professors  and  nearly  1000  stu- 
dents ;  25  colleges  with  198  professors  and 
teachers  and  above  3000  students  ;  37  classi- 
cal academies,  11  ladies'  seminaries,  and  56 
orphans'  homes,  asylums,  etc.  There  are  140 
periodical  publications,  of  which  48  are  Eng- 
lish, 51  German,  15  Norwegian,  16  Swedish, 
4  Danish,  1  Icelandic,  3  Finnish,  2  French. 
This  last  item  suggests  the  polyglot  character 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States. 
But  the  descendants  of  the  foreign-horn 
Lutherans  soon  adopt  the  language  of  the 
country.  Schools  and  colleges  very  generally 
use  the  English  language,  and  there  is  a 
growing  demand  for  ministers  to  preach  the 
gospel  in  English.  Unity  in  language  will 
assist  in  promoting  unity  of  organization. 
At  present  all  the  Lutheran  bodies  in  the 
United  States  stand  together  on  the  inspired 
word  of  God  as  the  only  infallible  rule  of 
faith  and  practice,  and  on  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession of  1530  as  a  correct  exhibition  of  the 
chief  doctrines  of  the  rule.  They  differ 
mainly  in  reference  to  the  later  confessions, 
which  some  regard  as  a  harmonious  develop- 
ment of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  but  which 
others  hold  to  be  too  elaborate,  theological, 
and  scholastic  for  a  creed.  At  this  time 
(1890)  no  doctrinal  controversy  rages  as  be- 
tween any  of  the  general  bodies  or  indepen- 
dent .synods,  but  neither  do  any  very  encour- 
aging signs  of  union  appear. 

Literature.— Up  to  this  time  the  Luther- 
an Church  in  America  has  depended  mainly 
on  the  Fatherland  for  literature.  Walther's 
Baier's  Compend  of  Lutheran  Theology  (in 
Latin),  St.  Louis,  1879,  3  vols.,  is  valuable  to 
those  who  can  read  Latin  and  German  with 
profit.  Schmid's  Doctrinal  Tlieology  of  the 
Lutlieran  Church,  Philadelphia,  1876,  trans- 
lated by  Drs.  Hay  and  Jacobs,  gives  a  coni- 
prehensive  view  of  the  older  Lutheran  the- 
ology. To  these  may  be  added  Krauth's 
Corcservativc  Reformntion,  Philadelphia,  1872, 
and  Jacobs'  llie  Book  of  Concord  ;  or.  The 
Symbolical  Books  of  the  Lutlteran  Church, 
Philadelphia,  1882-83,  2  vols.  In  history  and 
biography  we  have  Hazelius'  History  of  the 
American  Lutheran  Church,  Zanesville,  O., 
1846  ;  Schaeffer's  Early  Uistory  of  the  Lv- 
tlieran  Church,  Philadelphia,  1857  ;  Acrelius' 
New  Sweden,  Philadelphia,  1875  ;  Morris'  Fifty 


Tears  in  the  Lutheran  Ministry,  Baltimore, 
1878  ;  Mann's  Life  of  Muhlenberg,  Philadel- 
phia, 1887  ;  Wolf's  The  Lutheransin  America, 
New  York,  1890.  A  large  amount  of  original 
material  for  history  and  biography  may  be 
found  in  the  library  of  the  Lutheran  Historical 
Society  at  Gettysburg,  Pa.  The  represent- 
ative living  Lutheran  theologians  are  Valen- 
tine, of  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  for  the  General  Syn- 
od ;  Jacobs,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  for  the 
General  Council  ;  Pieper,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
for  the  Sy nodical  Conference ;  Horn,  of 
Charleston,  S.  C,  for  the  United  Synod  of 
the  South.  J.  W.  Richard. 

Ijuz  {almond  tree).  1.  The  Canaanite  name 
of  a  place  in  which  Jacob  rested  and  had  a 
prophetic  vision,  and  on  which  afterward  the 
city  of  Bethel  was  built  (Gen.  xxviii.  19, 
XXXV.  6).  2.  A  city  in  the  land  of  the  Hittites, 
founded  by  a  refugee  from  the  old  city  who 
rendered  an  important  service  to  Israel  (Judges 
i.  23).  T.  AV.  C. 

Ly-ca-o'-ni-a,  a  small  province  in  the  heart 
of  Asia  Minor,  not  fertile  but  well  adapted  to 
sheep  pasturage.  Its  chief  towns  were  Derbe, 
Iconium,  and  Lystra,  which  Paul  visited 
(Acts  xiv.  1-23,  xvi.  1-6,  xviii.  23,  xix.  1). 
The  "speech  of  Lycaonia"  (xiv.  11)  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  dialect  of  Greek  cor- 
rupted by  a  mixture  of  Syriac.       T.  W.  C. 

Ly'-ci-a,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor  extending 
along  the  Mediterranean.  Paul  visited  it, 
and  preached  the  gospel  at  Patara  (Acts  xxi. 
1,  2)  and  at  Myra  (xxvii.  5).  T.  W.  C. 

Lyd'-da  (Hebrew,  Lod),  once  a  flourishing 
town,  9  m.  e.  of  Joppa.  Here  Peter  liealed 
the  paralytic  ^neas  (Acts  ix.  32).  It  is  now 
a  miserable  village  called  Ludd.     T.  W.  C. 

Lyd'-i-a,  a  Jewish  proselyte  from  Thyatira, 
who  resided  temporarily  at  Philippi  as  a 
dealer  in  the  purple  trade.  She  was  Paul's 
first  European  convert,  was  baptized  witli 
her  household,  and  tendered  liim  hospitality 
(Acts  xvi.  14,  15,  40  with  Phil.  iv.  3). 

T.  W.  C. 

Lynch,  Thomas  Toke,  Congregationalist  ; 
b.  at  Dunmow,  Essex,  38  m.  n.e.  of  London, 
July  5,  1818  ;  d.  in  London,  May  9,  1871. 
He  was  pastor  at  Highgate,  1847,  and  from 
1849  in  London,  where  ]Mornington  cluircli, 
Hampstead  Koad,  was  built  for  him  in  1862. 
His  chief  prose  works  are  Tlieopltilus  Triiml, 
London,  1850  ;  Essays,  1853  ;  Lectures  in  Aid 
of  Self  Improvement,  1854  ;  The  Mornington 
Lecture,  1870,  and  Sermons,  1871.  His  Bivu- 
let,  a  Contribution  to  Sacred  Song,  1855,  was 
violently  attacked  by  James  Grant  and  Dr. 
John  Campbell,  and  thereon  aro.se  tlie  most  re- 
markable controversy  in  the  recent  liistory  of 
British  di.ssent.  The  enlarged  edition,  1868, 
contains  some  of  our  finest  liymns,  and  is  re- 
markable for  fresh  thought,  delicate  feeling, 
and  deep  experience.  He  had  an  original, 
subtle,  powerful,  and  poetic  mind,  with 
peculiar  modes  of  expression  ;  his  views  were 
akin  to  those  of  Robertson,  Maurice,  and 
Bushnell.  Always  in  delicate  health,  his 
spirit  was  mighty  and  fearless  :  he  endured 
and  survived  much  odium  for  what  he  held 
to  be  the  cause  of  truth  and  righteousness. 


LYON 


(526) 


McALIi 


His  memoir,  edited  by  W.  White,  appeared 
1874.  F.  M.  B. 

Lyon,  Mary,  educator ;  b.  at  Buckland, 
Franklin  Coimtv.  Mass.,  Feb.  28,  1797  ;  d.  at 
Soutli  Hadley, 'Mass.,  March  5,  1849.  She 
began  to  teach  at  17,  completed  her  education 
at  Byfield  and  Amherst,  Mass.,  and  assisted 
Miss  Grant  in  the  Adams  Academy  at  Lon- 
donderry, N.  Y.,  1824-28,  and  at  Ipswich, 
Mass.,  1828-34.  Her  great  work  was  tlie  es- 
tablishment of  Mount  Holyoke  Female  Semi- 
nary, a  school  of  distinctively  Christian  and 
missionary  character,  in  which  the  domestic 
labor  was  to  be  performed  by  the  pupils,  and 
a  thorough  education  could  be  attained  at  a 
minimum  of  expense.  The  plan  called  forth 
many  objections,  but  also  much  favor  ;  the 
corner-stone  was  laid  at  South  Hadley,  Oct. 
3,  1836,  and  the  seminary  opened  l^ov.  8, 
1837.  Here  Miss  Lyon  trained  over  3000 
pupils,  many  of  whom  went  to  the  foreign 
fields.  (See  her  life  by  Dr.  E.  Hitchcock, 
Northampton,  Mass.,  1851  ;  New  York,  re- 
vised ed.,  1858,  and  Ikeollections  of  her  by  F. 
Fiske,  1866.)  F.  M.  B. 

Lyra,  Nicolaus  de,  b.  at  Lyre,  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Evreux,  Normandy,  France,  the  date 
unknown  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Oct.  23,  1340  ;  en- 
tered the  Franciscan  order  in  1291,  and  was 
made  a  provincial  in  1325.  His  commentary 
on  the  Bible,  Postilloi  perpetucB,  printed  in 
Rome,  1471,  in  Venice,  1540,  etc.,  is  by  far 
the  most  successful  attempt  at  biblical  ex- 
egesis made  during  the  Middle  Ages.  He 
understood  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  at  every 
point  his  first  problem  was  to  ascertain  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  word  or  passage  ; 
Luther  used  to  say,  8i  Lyra  non  lyrasset,  Lu- 
therus  non  saltasset  ("  had  Lyra  not  sung.  Lu- 
therhad  not  danced  ").  C.  P. 

Ly-sa'-ni-as,  a  Roman  officer  who  in  the 
time  of  John  the  Baptist  was  tetrarch  of 
Abilene,  a  small  district  on  the  slopes  of  Anti- 
Libanus,  of  which  Abila  was  the  capital 
Luke  iii.  1).  T.  W.  C. 

Lys'-i-as,  or  Claudius  Lysias,  commander 
of  the  Roman  guard  at  Jerusalem  during 
Paul's  last  visit  there.  He  repeatedly  saved  the 
apostle  from  the  malice  of  the  Jews  (Acts  xxi 
27-40,  xxii.  23).  T.  W.  C. 

Lys'-tra,  a  city  in  the  eastern  part  of  Lyca- 
onia,  twice  visited  by  Paul,  the  first  time  in 
company  with  Barnabas  (Acts  xiv.),  when  he 
was  saluted  as  the  god  Mercury,  but  after- 
ward stoned,  the  second  time  in  company 
with  Silas  (Acts  xvi.  1).  Timothy  was  prob- 
ably born  liere.  T.  W.  C. 

Lyte,  Henry  Francis,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Kelso,  38  m.  s.e.  of  Edinburgh,  June  1 
1793  ;  d.  at  Nice,  Nov.  20,  1847.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ;  was  ordained, 
1815  ;  held  curacies  at  Wexford,  Marazion 
and  Lymington  ;  and  in  1823  became  per- 
petual curate  of  Low^er  Brixham,  Devonshire. 
His  Poems  Chiefly  Religions,  1833  (enlarged 
edition.  New  York,  186-),  and  8j)irit  of  the 
Psalms,  1834,  contain  sundry  hymns  of  great 
merit  and  wide  acceptance  ;  of  these,  "  Abide 
with  Me"  is  of  the  very  first  rank,  and 
familiar  wherever  the   English   languafe  is 


used  in  Christian  worship.  It  was  written 
just  before  the  author  left  home  in  a  vain 
search  for  health.  Lyte  was  an  evangelical 
High  Churchman.       '  F.  M.  B. 

Lyttleton,  George,  first  Baron  Lyttleton  ; 
b.  at  Hagley,  Worcestershire,  Jan.  17,  1709  ; 
d.  there,  Aug.  22,  1773.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Oxford,  entered  Parliament  at  21, 
and  became  prominent  in  the  opposition  to 
Walpole's  ministry  ;  succeeded  to  his  father's 
baronetcy  and  fortune,  1751  ;  became  privy 
councillor  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1756.  His 
Observations  on  the  Conversion  and  Apostleship 
of  St.  Paul,  London,  1747,  won  much  repute, 
and  has  been  credited  wuth  great  evidential 
value.  His  Dialogues  of  the  Bead  appeared 
1760  ;  his  Miscellaneous  Works,  1774,  and  his 
Memoirs  and  Correspondence,  London,  1845,  2 
vols.  F.  M.  B. 

M. 

Mabillon  (ma-be-yon),  Jean,  b.  at  St. 
Pierremont,  in  the  diocese  of  Reims,  France 
Nov.  23,  1632  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Dec.  27,  1707  ; 
entered  the  Benedictine  congregation  of  St. 
Maur  in  1654,  and  spent  most  of  his  life  in 
the  abbey  of  St.  Germain  des  Pres,  in  Paris. 
His  first  work  w^as  an  edition  of  St.  Bernard, 
1667,  which  became  the  model  of  the  cele- 
brated St.  Maur  editions  of  the  Fathers. 
Then  followed  Act.  Sanct.  Ord.  8.  Bened., 
1668-1701,  9  vols.,  which  made  quite  a  sen- 
sation on  account  of  its  sharp  criticism  ;  An7i. 
Ord.  St.  B.,  1703-39,  of  which  he  finished  4 
vols.,  etc.  One  of  his  most  famous  works 
is  his  De  re  diplomatica  Libri  VI.,  1681,  an 
answer  to  an  attack  by  the  Jesuit  Papbroch 
and  the  foundation  of  the  science  of  diplo- 
matics. His  life  was  written  by  Malon,  Paris, 
1843 :  Jadart,  Reims,  1879  ;  and  by  E.  de 
Broglie,  Paris,  1888,  2  vols. 

Macarians.     See  Mokothelites. 
Macarius  the  Elder,  or  the  Egyptian,  a 

native  of  Thebais,  a  pupil  of  St.  Antonius, 
lived  for  60  years  as  a  hermit  in  the  Scetic 
desert,  and  died  391.  His  homilies  were 
edited  by  Pritius,  Leipzig,  1698  ;  his  letters 
by  Floss,  Cologne,  1850.  Macarius  the 
Younger,  or  the  Alexandrian,  was  a  pres- 
byter, but  retired  into  the  Nitrian  desert, 
where  he  died  in  404.  A  monastic  rule,  a 
homily,  and  some  apophthegmata  by  him  are 
found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Or.  XXXI V .  Macarius 
Magnes,  bishop  of  Magnesia  in  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  century,  left  an  apology  of  Chris- 
tianity, Apokritikos,  which  was  discovered  at 
Athens  in  1869  and  edited  by  Blondel,  Paris, 
1876.  ^ 

McAll  Mission.  An  undenominational, 
evangelistic  mission  to  the  working  people  of 
France,  founded  in  Paris  in  1871  by  Robert 
Whitaker  McAll  (b.  at  Macclesfield,  Eng., 
Dec.  17,  1821  ;  B.A.,  London  University, 
1847),  an  English  Congregational  pastor,  and 
his  wife,  and  within  16  years  extended 
through  all  the  provinces  of  France  and  into 
Corsica  and  Algeria.  Utterly  free  from  sec- 
tarianism, it  has  reached  Roman  Catholics 


MaoARTHUR 


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McAULEY 


( 


and  Protestants  with  equal  success,  but  its 
signal  efficacy  has  been  shown  in  meeting 
that  spirit  of  libre  pensee,  which  in  France  has 
long  meant  not  so  much  atheism  as  indepen- 
dence of  thought  and  revolt  against  ecclesi- 
asticism.  Thus,  while  standing  as  completely 
aloof  from  political  and  social,  as  from  eccle- 
siastical complications,  it  soon  came  to  be 
recognized  by  the  French  Government  as  a 
strong  power  for  order,  and  every  possible 
facility  has  been  extended  to  it.  The  intel- 
lectual world  soon  recognized  the  value  of 
the  work,  and  two  learned  and  philanthropic 
societies  of  Paris  conferred  gold  medals  upon 
Mr.  McAll.  The  Protestant  churches  of  all 
denominations  welcomed  the  mission  from 
the  first,  frankly  owning  to  the  service  it 
renders  them  as  a  feeder  to  their  churches, 
and  by  the  inspiration  of  its  methods.  Though 
large  numbers  of  Roman  Cathohcs  have  been 
drawn  within  its  influence,  it  has  never,  ex- 
cept for  a  brief  period,  in  Corsica,  been  an- 
tagonized by  the  Roman  Church.  Many  of 
its  methods  have  been  engrafted  upon  city 
mission  work  in  England,  America,  and  other 
countries. 

A  distinguishing  feature  of  the  mission  is 
its  inexpensiveness,  no  money  being  invested 
in  buildings  or  spent  for  administration  be- 
yond necessary  olfice  expenses,  and  compar- 
atively little  being  paid  for  salaries.  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  McAll  have  always  served  the  mission 
at  their  own  charges,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  work  is  wholly  or  in  part  gratuitous,  a 
method  rendered  possible  only  by  Mr.  Mc All's 
marvellous  genius  for  organization.  The 
places  of  meeting  are  rented  shops,  fitted  up 
to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the  work,  and  util- 
ized daily  and  nightly  for  religious  meetings 
of  all  varieties,  philanthropic  works,  such  as 
a  medical  mission  and  industrial  schools,  and 
such  social  purposes  as  reading-rooms,  frater- 
nal and  mothers'  meetings.  Psalmody  classes, 
and  occasional  tea  meetings  and  festive 
gatherings. 

The  work  was  opened  in  a  small  shop,  con- 
taining 100  sittings,  in  the  Belleville /aw^^^M/-^ 
of  Paris.  There  are  now  28  stations  in  Paris, 
and  13  in  the  environs,  82  in  the  provinces, 
1  in  Corsica,  and  5  in  Algiers  :  a  total  of  128 
stations  with  18,696  sittings.  In  1889,  21,706 
religious  (exclusive  of  philanthropic  and 
social)  meetings  were  held  with  an  aggregate 
attendance  of  1,185,042.  The  total  expendi- 
ture for  all  works  for  the  year,  including 
20,673  domiciliary  visits  and  the  distribution 
of  1,099,113  Bibles,  Testaments,  Scripture 
portions,  tracts,  and  illustrated  papers,  and 
exclusive  of  a  great  special  work  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Exposition  was  £18,495  5«.  M. 
Mr.  McAll  estimates  that  between  four  and 
five  dollars  provides  for  the  cost  of  one  sitting 
for  a  year,  including  all  expenses,  and  each 
sitting  is  occupied  on  the  average  60  times  a 
year.  There  are  58  men  and  women  who 
give  their  entire  time  to  the  work  of  the  mis- 
sion, and  550  who  give  a  portion  of  time,  a 
small  proportion  of  both  classes  being  sal- 
aried. Of  the  volunteer  workers  are  many 
French  pastors,  tlie  late  Pastor  Ber.sier  hav- 
ing given  one  Sunday  and  one  week  evening 
in  the  month  for  many  years,  besides  sitting 


on  the  board  of  direction,  and  Pastor  E.  de 
Pressense,  senator  of  France,  Theodore  Mo- 
nod,  Fisch,  Lorriaux,  and  many  others  having 
long  been  identified  witli  it.  Other  workers 
are  French  professional  men,  journalists,  men 
of  affairs,  and  men  of  leisure,  with  women 
of  all  ranks.  A  large  numl)er  of  workers  are 
volunteers  from  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  with  a  few  from  Switzerland  and 
other  European  countries.  The  expenses  of 
the  mission  are  entirely  met  by  voluntary  con- 
tributions from  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  Canada,  France,  Switzerland,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  Germany,  Italy,  Sweden, 
India,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Egypt,  Algiers, 
and  South  Africa,  by  far  tlie  largest  part 
being  contributed  by  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  Both  of  these  countries  main- 
tain a  number  of  auxiliary  societies  for  the 
dissemination  of  intelligence  and  the  col- 
lection of  funds.  The  68  auxiliaries  of  the 
United  States  being  united  in  an  association, 
with  its  board  of  direction  at  Philadelphia. 
The  American  McAll  Association  contributed 
in  1889,  $35,201.94. 

The  administration  of  the  mission  is  by  a 
board  of  direction,  of  which  Mr.  McAll  is 
president,  the  other  members  being  pastors 
and  laymen  of  the  French,  English,  and 
American  churches. 

Literature.— HoratiusBonar,  The  White 
Fields  of  France,  London  and  New  York, 
1879  ;  the  same,  Life  of  Rev.  G.  T.  Bods  (his 
son-in-law,  who  died  in  the  service  of  the  mis- 
sion), .1884  ;  Louise  Seymour  Houghton, 
Fiflne,  Xew  York,  1879  ;  the  same.  Mere  Mer- 
chaud,  1884;  (anonymous)  A  Voice  from  the 
Land  of  Calrin  arid  Voltaire,  1887  ;  Lydia 
Hoyt  Farmer,  A  Knight  of  Faith,  1889  ; 
What  France  Thinks  of  the  McAll  Mission 
(papers  by  MM.  de  Pressense,  Bersier,  Reveil- 
laud,  Lorriaux,  and  other  Frenchmen),  pub- 
lished by  the  American  McAll  Association, 
which  also  pubUshes  many  pamphlets  and 
tracts  by  Bishop  Whipple,  'Mr.  j\IcAll,  Rev. 
Drs.  E.  Hitchcock,  and  A.  F.  Beard,  JMadame 
Pasteau,  Louise  Seymour  Houghton,  and 
others.  The  mission  issues  a  quarterly  record 
and  an  annual  report,  the  American  McAll 
Association  publishes  a  quarterly  record,  and 
the  larger  auxiliaries  ])ublish  annual  reports. 
Louise  Seymour  HouGnTON. 

MacArthur,  Robert  Stuart,  D.D.  (Univer- 
sity of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1880),  Baptist;  b. 
at  Dalesville,  Argenteuil  County,  Quebec, 
Canada,  Aug.  31,  1841  ;  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Rochester,  1867,  and  from 
Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  1870  ;  has 
since  that  time  been  pastor  of  Calvary  Baptist 
Church,  New  York.  He  issued  Christ  and 
Him  Crucified  (sermons).  New  York,  1890. 

McAuley,  Jeremiah  (commonly  called 
"  Jerry"),  lavman  ;  b.  in  Ireland,  1839  ;  d. 
in  New  York  City,  Sept.  18,  1884.  He  came 
to  America  at  the  age  of  13,  and  grew  up 
ignorant,  vicious,  and  criminal.  In  1857  he 
was  sent  to  Sing  Sing  for  15  years  on  the 
false  charge  of  higliway  robbery.  In  1862 
he  was  converted.  In  1864  pardoned,  lie  re- 
turned to  his  evil  ways,  but  in  1872  he  again 
entered  on  a  religious  life,  and  till  his  death 


MACCABEES 


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McCOOK 


labored  earnestly  and  very  successfully  among 
the  degraded,  immoral,  and  criminal  classes. 
His  life  by  R.  M.  Offord.  New  York,  1885, 
is  a  remarkable  proof  that  the  grace  of  God 
can  reclaim  even  the  vilest. 

Mac'-ca-bees,  the  name  given  to  the  As- 
monffians,  a  Jewish  family,  which  led  the 
popular  revolt  against  Antiochus  (IV.)  Epi- 
phanes,  who,  intent  uponHellenizing  all  native 
populations,  was  active  and  persistent  in 
thrusting  Greek  customs  upon  the  Jews. 
Mattathias  of  Modin  began  tlie  armed  resist- 
ance. Upon  his  death  (166  B.C.)  a  younger 
son,  Judas,  became  leader.  For  6  years  he 
kept  the  field,  shunning  decisive  engagenients, 
but  succeeding  in  innumerable  skirmislies, 
and  his  followers  called  him  "  Maccabi" 
(hammerer  or  extinguisher).  But  at  last 
Jerusalem  was  retaken  by  Demetrius  and 
Judas  was  slain.  At  once  his  brother  Jona- 
than took  his  place  and  carried  on  a  guerilla 
warfare  for  a  time,  but  there  being  two  com- 
petitors for  the  throne  of  Antiochus,  Jonathan 
by  favor  from  both  gained  possession  of  the 
temple  and  was  made  high-priest.  In  150 
B.C.,  he  was  master  of  Judfea,  and  4  years 
afterward  added  Philistia  to  his  kingdom. 
Though  not  a  briUiant  man,  he  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  independence  of  the  Jews. 
He  was  treacherously  murdered  in  143  B.C., 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Simon,  who 
in  143  declared  the  nation  independent,  and 
by  his  wisdom  and  courage  consolidated  the 
people,  planting  schools  and  securing  recog- 
nition from  the  Romans.  But  in  136  he  was 
murdered,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Jolm,  or  Hyrcanus  I.,  who  proved  to  be  a 
just  and  enlightened  ruler,  at  least  compar- 
atively, and  the  country  enjoyed  great  pros- 
perity during  his  reign,  which  continued  till 
his  death,  107  b.c.  Of  his  5  sons  Aristobulus 
seized  the  reins  and  assumed  the  title  of  king, 
which  he  held  only  a  year.  Upon  his  death 
his  widow  married  Alexander  Jannseus,  who 
then  became  king  and  ruled  longer  tlian  any 
of  his  family,  dying  in  78  B.C.,  when  his 
widow  ruled  for  the  next  9  years.  After  her 
death,  69  b.c,  her  son,  Hyrcanus  II.,  suc- 
ceeded, but  was  soon  supplanted  by  his  dar- 
ing brother,  Aristobulus  II.  After  which 
time  the  fortunes  of  the  family  became  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  ambitions  and  suc- 
cesses of  the  Herodian  house. 

The  materials  for  the  Maccabean  history 
are  slender,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the 
general  result.  The  sons  of  the  aged  priest 
Mattathias  began  witli  a  few  personal  fol- 
lowers, and  they  ended  with  a  strong  and  well- 
organized  nation.  As  Milman  says,  "  None 
have  surpassed  them  in  accomplishing  a  great 
end  with  inadequate  means  ;  none  ever  united 
more  generous  valor  with  a  better  cause." 
(See  Conder,  Judas  Maccabmus,  London  and 
New  York,  1880.)  T.  W.  C. 

Maccabees,  Books  of.  See  Pseubepigra- 
PHA  AND  Apocrypha. 

Maccabees,  Festival  of.  A  festival  dating 
from  the  14tli  century  commemorates  the 
heroic  constancy  of  the  7  brothers  who,  with 
their  mother,  were  tortured  and  slain  at  An- 


tioch  under  Antiochus  IV.,  as  recorded  iu 
the  7th  chapter  of  2  Maccabees.      T.  W.  C. 

McCheyne,  Robert  Murray,  Presbyte- 
rian  ;  b.  at  Edinburgh,  May  21,  1813  ;  d.  at 
Dundee,  March  25,  1843.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  after 
serving  a  year  at  Larbert,  near  Falkirk,  was 
ordained  pastor  of  St.  Peter's,  Dundee,  Nov. 
24,  1836.  In  1838  he  was  sent  with  others  on 
a  mission  of  inquiry  to  the  Jews  in  Palestine, 
of  which  a  narrative  appeared,  1839.  After 
this  he  travelled  much  through  Scotland  and 
Ireland  as  an  evangelist,  till  his  promising 
career  was  cut  short  by  typhus- fever.  He 
possessed  great  unction  and  fair  poetical  tal- 
ents ;  two  of  his  hymns,  "  When  this  passing 
world  is  done"  and  "  I  once  was  a  stranger 
to  grace  and  to  God,"  are  widely  used.  His 
Remains,  with  memoir,  by  A.  A.  Bonar, 
Dundee,  1845,  went  through  more  than  100 
editions.  His  works  appeared,  Edinburgh, 
1847,  in  2  vols.  F.  M.  B. 

McClintock,  John,  D.D.  (University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1848),  LL.D.  (Rutgers.  1866), 
Methodist ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  27,  1814  ; 
d.  at  Madison,  N.  J.,  March  4,  1870.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
1835,  and  joined  the  Philadelphia  Confer- 
ence ;  was  professor  of  mathematics  at  Dick- 
inson College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1836-40,  and  of 
Gre'-.k  and  Latin,  1840-46;  editor  of  the 
Methodist  Quarterly  Beview,  1848-56  ;  pastor 
of  St.  Paul's,  New  York,  1857-60  and  1864- 
65  ;  pastor  of  the  American  chapel  in  Paris, 
1860-64  ;  first  president  of  the  Drew  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  1867-70.  In  1857  he  was  a 
delegate  to  the  English  Wesleyan  Conference 
and  to  the  Evangelical  Alliance  at  Berlin. 
He  was  probably  the  foremost  scholar  of  his 
communion,  and  one  of  her  best  preachers. 
The  series  of  classical  text-books  which  he 
and  Dr.  Crooks  began  in  1846  have  been  very 
extensively  used.  Of  the  Cyclopedia  of  Bibli- 
cal, Theological,  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature, 
undertaken  by  himself  and  Dr.  J.  Strong  in 
1853,  appeared  4  vols.,  New  York,  1867-71, 
under  his  superintendence.  Besides  these  he 
wrote,  edited,  or  translated  several  religious 
works,  and  left  in  manuscript  Living  Words, 
1871,  and  Lectures  on  Theological  Encyclopcedia 
and  Methodology,  1873.  His  Life  and  Letters, 
by  Dr.  G.  R.  Crooks,  appeared,  New  York, 
1876.  F.  M.  B. 

McCIoskey,  John,  Cardinal,  D.D.,  b.  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  March  10,  1810  ;  d.  in  New 
York,  Oct.  10,  1885 ;  graduated  from  St. 
Mary's  College,  Emmettsburg,  Md.,  1828; 
was  ordained  priest,  1834  ;  studied  two  years 
in  Rome  and  one  in  France  ;  was  appointed 
pastor  of  St.  Joseph's  Church,  New  York, 
1837  ;  consecrated  bishop  of  Axiere  in  parti- 
bus,  and  coadjutor  to  the  bishop  (later  arch- 
bishop) of  New  York  ;  succeeded  to  tlie  see 
in  1864  ;  attended  the  Vatican  Council,  1869- 
70,  and  was  created  a  cardinal — the  first 
American  cardinal— iu  1875.  He  built  the 
Cathedral  of  New  York,  and  under  him  the 
number  of  churches  rose  from  70  to  170,  and 
the  number  of  clergymen  from  150  to  400. 

McCook,  Henry  Christopher,  D.D.  (La- 


McCOSH 


( 529 


McILVAINE 


fayette  College,  Easton,  Pa.,  1880),  Presbyte- 
rian ;  b.  at  New  Lisbon,  O.,  July  3,  1837; 
graduated  from  Jefferson  College,  Canons- 
burg,  Pa.,  1859,  and  from  Western  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  Allegheny,  Pa.,  1861  ;  took 
part  in  the  war  as  chaplain  of  a  regiment  ; 
acted  as  home  missionary  at  St.  Louis,  1863- 
70,  and  has  since  that  time  been  pastor  of  the 
Tabernacle  Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadel- 
phia. He  has  written  much  on  the  American 
ants  and  spiders,  and  is  vice-director  of  the 
American  Entomological  Society.  He  pub- 
lished The  Last  Year  of  Chrut's  Ministry, 
Philadelphia,  1871  ;  The  Last  Days  of  Jesus, 
1872  ;  Garfield  Memorial  Sermons,  1881,  and 
several  scientific  works — e.g.,  Tenants  of  an 
Old  Farm,  New  York,  1884. 

McOosh,  James,  S.T.D.  (Brown  Univer- 
sity, Providence,  R.  I.,  1868),  LL.D.  (Har- 
vard College,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1868  ;  Wash- 
ington and  Jefferson  College,  Washington, 
Pa.,  1868),  D.  Lit.  (Queen's  University,  Ire- 
land), Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Carskeach,  Banks 
of  the  Doon,  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  April  1, 
1811  ;  studied  at  Glasgow,  1834-29,  and  Edin- 
burgh, 1829-34  ;  became  minister  of  Ar- 
broath, Scotland,  1835,  but  entered  the  Free 
Church  in  1843  ;  was  appointed  professor  of 
logic  and  metaphysics  in  Queen's  College, 
Belfast,  Ireland,  1851,  and  elected  president 
of  Princeton  College,  N.  J.,  1868  ;  resigned, 
1889.  Among  his  numerous  writings  are 
The  Method  of  the  Divine  Government,  Edin- 
burgh, 1850,  5th  ed.,  revised,  London,  1856  ; 
The  Scottish  Philosophy,  New  York,  1874  ; 
treatises  in  the  Philosophical  Series,  1882-86, 
etc. 

McCrie,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1813), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Dunse,  Berwickshire,  40 
m.  e.s.e.  of  Edinburgh,  Nov.,  1772  ;  d.  in 
Edinburgh,  Aug.  5.  1835.  He  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh,  1791  ;  taught  3 
years  at  Brechin,  and  in  1796  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Second  Associate  Congregation 
in  Edinburgh.  In  1806  he  and  others  left 
the  synod  and  formed  a  "  Constitutional 
Presbytery  ;"  in  1827  this  was  merged  in  the 
"  Synod  of  Original  Seceders. "  His  congre- 
gation removed,  in  1806,  from  Potter-row  to 
the  south  side,  and  here  he  ministered  till 
death.  His  Life  of  John  Knox,  Edinburgh, 
1811,  enlarged,  1813,  gave  an  impulse  to  the 
study  of  Scottish  ecclesiastical  history.  In 
1817  he  attacked  Scott's  account  of  the  Cove- 
nanters. His  later  works  are  The  Life  of 
Andrew  Melcille,  1819  ;  T^co  Discourses  on  the 
Unity  of  tJie  Church,  1821  ;  Reformation  in 
Italy,  1827  ;  Reformation  in  Spain,  1829  ;  Ser- 
iiwns,  1836  ;  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Esther, 
1838  ;  Miscellaneovs  Writinrjs,  1841.  His 
works  were  edited  in  4  vols.,  1855-57,  by  his 
son,  who  also  wrote  liis  life,  1840.    F.  M.  B. 

McCrie,  Thomas,  Jr.,  D.D.  (  ), 

LL.D.  (  ),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  in  Edin- 

burgh, 1798  ;  d.  in  London  (?),  1875  ;  succeed- 
ed to  his  father's  charge,  1836  ;  joined  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  1852,  and  was  professor 
)f  divinity,  first  in  Edinburgh,  and  from  1856 
it  the  Presbyterian  college  in  London.  He 
vrote   STcetches  of  Scott i-ih    Church    History, 


1841  ;  Annals  of  English  Presbytery,  1872  • 
Story  of  the  Scottish  Church,  1875,  etc.,  and 
edited  The  British  and  Foreign  Fkannelical 
RerieiP,  1862-70.  F.  M.  B. 

McDowell,  John,  D.D.  (Union,  1818  ;  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina,  1818),  Presbyte- 
rian ;  b.  at  Bodminster,  Somerset  Coimty, 
N.  J.,  Sept.  10,  1780;  d.  in  Philadelphia, 
Feb.  13,  1863.  He  graduated  at  Princeton, 
1801,  and  was  pastor  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J., 
1804-33,  and  thenceforth  in  Philadelphia,  at 
the  Central  and  (from  1846)  at  the  Spring 
Garden  Church.  He  was  long  a  trustee  of 
Princeton  College  and  Seminary  ;  moderator 
of  the  General  Assembly,  182()  ;  permanent 
clerk,  1825-40  (Old  Scliool,  1836-40).  He 
published  the  first  Bible-class  questions, 
Elizabethtown,  1814  ;  A  Bible- Class  Manual, 
1819,  and  a  System  of  Theology,  1826,  2  vols. 
(See  memoir,  by  W.  B.  Sprague,  New  York, 
1864.)  F.  M.  B. 

Macduff,  John  Ross,  D.D.  (University  of 
New  York,  1857  ;  Glasgow,  1859),  Church  of 
Scotland  ;  b.  at  Bonhard,  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, May  23,  1818  ;  studied  in  E(linl)unrh, 
^.835-42  ;  was  minister  of  Kettins,  1843-49  ; 
St.  Madoes,  1849-55;  Sandyfonl  Church, 
Glasgow,  1855-70,  and  resides  now  in  Eng 
land.  }lev,'vot.&,  Moi'mng and  Isight  Watches, 
London,  1852  ;  Brighter  than  the  Sun,  1877, 
4th  ed.,  1886  ;  Parables  of  the  Lake,  1885, 
etc.,  generally  reprinted  in  New  York. 

Ma-ce-do'-ni-a,  a  large  country  north  of 
Greece  proper,  which  became  famous  under 
Philip  and  his  son  Alexander  the  Great, 
whose  power  was  foretold  by  Daniel  (viii.  3-8) 
under  the  symbol  of  a  goat  with  one  horn. 
It  was  the  first  part  of  Europe  to  receive  the 
gospel.  Paul  vi.sited  it  3  or  4  times,  and 
founded  the  churches  of  Philippi  and  Mace- 
donia (Acts  xvi.  10-xvii.  15).  T.  W .  C. 

Macedonius,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
semi-Arians,  fought  from  336  to  360  with 
Paulus,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Athanasians, 
about  the  episcopal  see  of  Constantinople, 
being  alternately  enthroned  and  depo.sed, 
according  to  circumstances.  But  the  fight 
finally  closed  with  victory  for  the  Athana- 
.sians.  The  subject  of  the  controversy,  how- 
ever, was  during  the  latter  part  of  the  contest 
not  the  question  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  the 
semi-Arians  being  willing  to  accept  the  ortho- 
dox definition,  but  a  repetition  of  it  with  re- 
spect to  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Ma-chae'-rus,  a  strong  fortress  9  m.  e.  of 
the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  but  Josephus  (Ant. 
xviii.  V.  2)  says  it  was  the  place  on  wliich 
John  the  Baptist  was  imprisoned  and  be- 
headed (.Mark  vi.  21-29).  T.  W.  C. 

Mach-pe'-lah(^«'/W('),  a  field  at  Hebron  con- 
taining the  cave  which  Abraham  bouglit  for 
a  family  tomb  (Gen.  xxiii.),  and  which  1k'- 
camc  the  burial-place  of  himself  and  Sarah, 
Isaac  and  Hebekah,  Jacol)  and  Leah.  It  is 
one  of  the  few  Bible  sites  alx)Ut  which  tliere 
is  no  doubt.  T.  W.  C. 

Mcllvaine,  Charles  Pettit,  D.D.  (Prince- 
ton,  1832  ;    Brown,    1H32),    D.C.L.    (Oxford, 


McEENDREE 


(530) 


MAONEILE 


1853),  LL.D.  (Cambridge.  1858),  bishop  of 
Ohio:  b.  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  June  18, 
1799  ;  d.  at  Florence,  March  14,  1873.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton,  1816  ;  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1820,  and  priest  in  1823  ;  minister 
of  Christ  Church,  Georgetown,  D.  C,  1820- 
25  ;  chaplain  to  the  Senate,  1822  and  1824  ; 
chaplain  and  professor  of  ethics  at  West 
Point,  1825-27  ;  rector  of  St.  Ann's,  Brook- 
lyn, 1827-32  ;  professor  of  evidences  and  sa- 
cred antiquities  in  New  York  University, 
1831  ;  bishop  of  Ohio,  1832,  with  presidency 
of  Kenvon  College  and  of  Gambler  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  The  diocese  then  had  17 
clergy.  40  parishes,  and  900  communicants. 
A  diligent  worker,  an  able  executive,  and  a 
natural  leader  of  men,  his  labors  co-operated 
with  the  growth  of  the  state,  and  at  his  death 
there  were  108  clergy,  123  parishes,  and 
10,000  communicants.  During  the  civil  war 
lie  was  a  member  of  the  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion, and  with  others  undertook  an  informal 
mission  to  England.  His  episcopal  labors 
were  lightened  by  the  election  of  Dr.  Bedell 
as  his  assistant  in  1859.  In  doctrine  he  was 
a  Calvinistic  evangelical.  He  published  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  New  York,  1831  ;  Ox- 
ford Divinity,  Philadelphia,  1841  ;  The 
Truth  and  the  Life,  1854  ;  The  True  Temple, 
1860,  and  sundry  charges  and  sermons.  Me- 
morials of  him  appeared,  Cleveland,  O., 
1882.  F.  M.  B. 

McKendree,  William,  b.  in  King  William 
County,  Va.,  July  6,  1757  ;  d.  near  Nashville, 
Tenn.,'  March  5,  1835  ;  bishop  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  ;  served  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary Army  ;  joined  the  Methodists  in  1787  ; 
was  made  an  itinerant  preacher  in  1788,  pre- 
siding elder  in  1796,  general  superintendent 
of  the  Western  Conference  in  1801,  and  bishop 
in  1808.  He  was  one  of  the  truly  informing 
powers  in  the  religious  education  of  the  West. 
(See  his  life  by  Bishop  R.  Paine,  Nashville, 
1869,  2  vols.,  n.e.,  1875.) 

Mackenzie,  Charles  Frederick,  mission- 
ary bishop  ;  b.  at  Portmore,  Peebleshire, 
April  10,  1825  ;  d.  in  Africa,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Shir6  and  Ruo  rivers,  Jan.  31,  1862. 
He  graduated  at  Cambridge,  1848  ;  became 
fellow  of  Caius  College ;  went  to  Natal, 
1855,  with  Bishop  Colenso,  and  was  arch- 
deacon of  Pietermaritzburg  till  1859,  when 
he  returned  to  England  to  urge  the  establish- 
ment of  more  African  missions.  Sent  out 
with  the  Universities'  mission,  he  was  conse- 
crated at  Capetown,  Jan.  1,  1861  ;  sailed  with 
others  for  the  Zambesi,  and  began  operations 
at  Magomero,  but  soon  succumbed  to  the 
climate.  His  memoir,  by  Dr.  H.  Goodwin, 
^appeared,  Cambridge,  1864.  F.  M.  B. 

MacKnight,  James,  D.D.  (Edinburgh, 
1764),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Irvine,  24  m.  s.w. 
of  Glasgow,  Sept.  17,  1721  ;  d.  at  Edinburgh, 
.Jan  13,  1800.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  and 
Leyden,  and  was  minister  at  Maybole,  Ayr- 
shire, 1753-69  ;  at  Jedburgh,  1769-72,  and  at 
Edinburgh,  1772-1800.  He  published  A  Har- 
mony of  the  Four  Oospels,  London,  1756,  2 
vols.,  of  which  a  Latin  version  by  A.  F. 
Huckersf elder  appeared  in  3  vols.,  1772-79  ; 


The  Truth  of  Gospel  History,  1763,  and  A 
NeiD  Literal  Translation  of  all  the  Apostolical 
Epistles,  1795,  4  vols. ,  which  has  been  greatly 
praised  for  its  learning,  and  blamed  by  some 
for  alleged  defective  orthodoxy  and  lack  of 
spirituality.  The  editions  from  1806  contain 
a  life  by  his  son.  F.  M.  B. 

McLeod,  Alexander,  b.  in  the  island  of 
Mull,  Scotland,  June  12,  1774  ;  d.  in  New 
York,  Feb.  17,  1833  ;  came  to  America  in 
1792  ;'  graduated  at  Union  College,  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  1798,  and  was  from  1801  till  his 
death  pastor  of  the  First  Reformed  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  New  York.  He  published 
Slavery  Unjustifiable,  New  York,  1802,  n.e., 
1860  ;  Lectures  on  the  Principal  Prophecies  of 
the  Revelation,  1814  ;  The  Life  and  Power  of 
True  Godliness,  1816,  etc.  A  memoir  of  him 
was    written    by    Samuel    B.    Wylie,    New 

York,  1855. His  son,  Xavier  Donald,  b.  in 

New  York,  Nov.  17,  1821  ;  d.  near  Cincin- 
nati, July  20,  1865;  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  ;  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
and  became,  in  1857,  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  belles-lettres  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College, 
near  Cincinnati.  He  published  Life  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  New  York,  1857  ;  Eistoi-y  of 
Devotion  to  the  Virgin  Mary  in  North  Ameii- 
ca,  1866,  5th  ed.,  1868  (with  memoir  by  J.  B. 
Purcell.) 

Macleod,  Norman,  D.D.  (Glasgow,  1858), 
Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Campbeltown, 
Argyleshire,  June  3,  1812  ;  d.  in  Glasgow, 
June  16,  1872.  He  studied  at  Glasgow, 
Edinburgh,  and  in  Germany,  and  was  minister 
of  Loudoun.  1838-43  ;  of  Dalkeith,  1843-51, 
and  of  the  Barony  parish  at  Glasgow  from 
1851.  His  overflowing  vitality,  his  wide  and 
warm  sympathies,  his  earnest  but  broadly 
tolerant  spirit,  made  him  eminently  efficient 
as  a  pastor  and  preacher.  He  edited  the 
Edinburgh  Christian  Magazine,  1850-60  with 
no  especial  success  ;  but  Good  Words,  begun 
under  his  charge,  in  1860,  attained  rapid  and 
immense  popularity,  to  which  his  own  writ- 
ings contributed  largely.  Among  his  books 
are.  The  Earnest  Student,  London,  1847  ;  The 
Home  Scliool,  1855  ;  Parish  Papers,  1862  ; 
Eastward,  1866  ;  Peeps  at  the  Far  East,  Rem- 
iniscences  of  a  Highland  Parish,  and  stories 
like  The  Old  Lieutenant  and  his  Son,  The 
Gold  Thread,  The  Starling.  Dr.  Macleod 
was  rather  an  orator  than  a  writer  ;  he  had 
little  pretension  to  scholarship,  but  great 
fluency,  versatility,  and  impressibility.  As 
chairman  of  the  Foreign  Missions  Committee 
from  1864,  he  visited  India  in  1867,  and  was 
warmly  received.  His  liberal  views  upon 
the  Sabbath,  freely  expressed  in  1865,  brought 
him  into  disfavor  for  a  time  ;  but  this  pas.sed, 
and  in  1869  he  was  made  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly.  He  was  dean  of  the 
thistle,  dean  of  the  chapel  royal,  and  chap- 
lain in  ordinary  to  the  queen.  Few  men 
have  done  more  work  or  been  more  beloved. 
(See  his  memoir  by  his  brother,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1876  ;  also  a  sketch  in  J.  C.  Shairp's 
Portraits  of  FrieyuU,  1889.)  F.  M.  B. 

Macneile,  Hugh,  D.D.  (Dublin[?],  1878[?]). 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Ballycastle,  near 


MACLEAR 


(531) 


MAGI 


Belfast,  in  1795  ;  d.  at  Bournemouth,  Hamp- 
shire, Jan.  28,  1879.  He  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  1815,  and  entered  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn,  but  was  ordained,  1820,  and  held 
charges  in  Liverpool,  1834-68  ;  canon  of 
Chester,  1860  ;  dean  of  Ripon,  1868-75.  He 
was  a  warm  adherent  of  the  Evangelical 
school,  and  enjoyed  great  repute  as  a  preach- 
er. He  published  many  sermons  and  lec- 
tures, and  sundry  tracts  against  Rome,  the 
Oxford  movement,  Unitariauism,  etc. 

F.  M.  B. 
Maclear,  George  Frederick,  D.D.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1872),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Bedford,  Eng.,  Feb.  3,  1833  ;  studied  in 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge  ;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1857 ;  held  various  ministerial 
charges,  and  was  appointed  warden  of  St. 
Augustine's  Cdllege,  Canterbury,  in  1880. 
He  wrote  Class  Books  of  Old  and  Neic  Testa- 
ment History,  London,  1861,  2  vols.,  15th  ed., 
1880;  Class  Book  of  the  Catechism,  1868, 
6th  ed.,  1878;  The  Conversion  of  t?^  Celts, 
the  English,  the  Northmen,  and  tlie  Slavs, 
1878-79,  4  vols.,  etc. 

MacmiUan,  Hugh,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1879), 
LL.D.  (St.  Andrew's,  1871),  F.R.S.E.  (1871), 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Aberfeldy, 
Perthshire,  Scotland,  Sept.  17,  1833  ;  studied 
theology  at  Edinburgh,  held  various  ministeri- 
al charges,  and  has  been  pastor  of  Free  West 
Church,  Greenock,  since  1878.  He  wrote  Bible 
Teachings  in  Nature,  London,  1866,  24th  ed., 
1886,  translated  into  Danish,  Swedish,  Ger- 
man, etc.  ;  Sabbath  of  the  Fields,  1875,  5th  ed. , 
1886,  Danish  and  Norwegian  trans.  ;  The 
Marriage  of  Cana,  1882,  2d  ed.,  1886,  etc. 

McVickar,  John,  S.T.D.  (Columbia  Col- 
lege, New  York,  1825),  b.  in  New  York,  Aug. 
10,  1787  ;  d.  there,  Oct.  29,  1868  ;  graduated 
at  Columbia  College  ;  took  orders  in  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  ;  became,  in  1817, 
professor  of  moral  philosophy,  rhetoric,  and 
belles-lettres  in  Columbia  College,  and  retired 
in  1864  as  professor  .emeritus.  He  published 
memoirs  of  Samuel  Bard,  1822  ;  Edmund  D. 
Griffin,  1831  ;  Bishop  Hobart,  1834  and  1836, 
etc.  His  life  was  written  by  his  son.  New 
York,  1872. 

Madagascar,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
separated  from  Africa  by  the  ^Mozambique 
Channel,  980  m.  long  and  350  in  greatest 
breadth,  extending  from  12°  to  25°  35'  s.  lat. 
The  people,  called  Malagasy,  are  of  different 
tribes,  but  seem  to  be  mostly  of  Malayo-Poly- 
nesian  stock.  Here  Chri.stian  missions  have 
met  with  eminent  success,  and  cruel  persecu- 
tions been  endured  with  exemplary  con- 
stancy. In  1818  the  London  ^lissionary  So- 
ciety sent  out  2  evangelists  with  2  print- 
ing-presses. King  Radama  encouraged  their 
efforts,  and  helped  in  founding  schools,  till 
his  death,  in  1828.  His  successor,  Ranavalona 
I.,  expelled  the  mi.ssionaries,  re-established 
idolatry,  and  punished  the  native  Christians 
with  chains,  slavery,  and  death.  The  first 
martyr,  Rasalama,  suffered  Aug.  14,  1887. 
The  "persecution  raged  20  years.'and  in  1857 
200  were  slain.  Yet  the  number  of  believers 
increased,  and  under  Radama  II.  the  mission- 


aries returned  in  1861,  and  churches  were 
erected  in  memory  of  the  martyrs.  In  1882 
the  missions  of  the  London  Society  had  71 ,585 
communicants.  The  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  came  'in  1874,  and  sup- 
ports a  resident  bishop.  The  Friends  bcirun 
a  mission  in  1871,  and  the  Norwegians,  Luther- 
ans, and  French  Romanists  have  others.  Re- 
cent sovereigns  have  been  friendly,  and  great 
progress  has  been  made.  Slavery  was  abol- 
ished in  1877.  Ranavalona  II.,  soon  after 
her  accession  in  1882,  publicly  recognized 
Christianity,  received  baptism,  erected  a 
chapel  royal,  and  destroyed  idols  throughout 
the  central  provinces.  There  arc  now"  some 
1200  congregations  and  900  schools,  with  col- 
leges for  the  training  of  teachers,  pastors,  and 
evangelists.  Several  printing-presses  are  kept 
at  work  ;  the  suppression  of  polygamv,  the 
restraints  placed  on  arbitrary  divorce",  and 
the  efforts  to  remove  other  abuses  have  im- 
proved the  moral  standards  of  the  people. 
(See  Freeman  and  Johns'  Narrtitiir  of  the  Per- 
secutions, London,  1840  ;  Front's  Maihiqasrar, 
1863  ;  Ellis,  Madagascar  Revisited,  1867  ;  The 
Martyr  Church,  1869  ;  and  Ten  Tears'  Re- 
view of  Mission  Work,  1880.)  F.  M.  B. 

Mag'-da-la  {tower),    now   a   mean    villa«»e 

called  el-Mejdel.     It  lay  on  the  shore  of  th« 

Sea  of  Galilee,   3  m.   n.  of  Tiberias.     Mary 

Magdalene  was  born  or  resided  at  Magdala. 

T.  W.  C. 

Magdalen,  Order  of.  Under  this  or  some- 
what similar  names  there  arose  very  early,  at 
different  places,  and  probably  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  associations,  congre- 
gations, orders,  convents  ;  in  short,  institu- 
tions for  the  rescue  of  fallen  women.  The 
Magdalen  Convent  of  Metz  dates  back  its 
origin  to  1005.  In  1249  Innocent  IV.  con- 
firmed several  such  associations  in  Germany. 
In  1372  Johann  3Iilicz,  the  precursor  of  Hus, 
built  a  large  house  for  fallen  women,  "  Little 
•lerusalem,"  in  Prague.  (See,  so  far  as  Ro- 
manism is  concerned,  Helyot,  Ilistoire  des 
ordrcs  monastiques,  Paris,  1714-19,  8  vols, 
[vol.  3,  426-55],  and  for  Protestantism, 
Herb-st,  Die  Magdalenen  Sache,  Elberfeld, 
1867  ;  Schafer,  I)ie  weibliche  Biakohie,  Ham- 
burg, 1880.  Uhlhorn  :  Bie  christliche  Liebes- 
thdtigkeit,  Stuttgart.  1881-90,  3  vols.) 

Magi,  a  word  of  uncertain  origin,  denoting 
a  sacerdotal  ca.ste  among  the  ancient  nations, 
who  devoted  them.selves  to  the  study  of  the 
moral  and  physical  sciences,  and  especially  to 
astrology  and  medicine.  They  alone  i)er- 
formed  the  public  religious  rites,  and  pro- 
fes.sed  to  divine  future  events  througli  mys- 
terious agencies.  They  were  held  in  great 
honor  and  became  the  counsellors  of  kings 
and  princes.  During  the  captivitN'  the  Jews 
became  well  acquainted  with  them'  and  Dan- 
iel describes  them  as  men  of  wisdom  (i.  20), 
interceded  for  tliem  with  Nebuchadnezzar 
(ii.  24),  and  accepted  a  position  as  their  chief 
or  master  (v.  11).  But  tliey  arc  spoken  of 
disparaging!}'  by  Isaiah  (.\lvii.  13,  14). 

It  is  not  "easy  to  determine  whence  the 
maci  C4ime  who  "worshipped  tlie  infant  .Te.sus 
(Matt.  ii.  1-12).     It  is  probal)le  that  thr  e.\iled 


MAGIC 


(532) 


MAIMBOURG 


Jews  liarl  told  them  of  the  Messiah  whom 
they  expected,  of  Balaam's  prediction  of  the 
star  (Num.  xxiv.  17)  and  of  Daniel's  prophetic 
utterances  (ix.  25-37).  Thus  influenced,  they 
were  led  by  a  special  i)rovideuce  to  the  cradle 
at  Bethlehem,  where  they  stood  as  forerun- 
ners of  an  innumerable  multitude  of  heathen 
converts.  Tradition  represents  theru  as  three 
kings,  one  of  whom  is  blacli,  and  gives  them 
names  which  are,  of  course,  conjectural. 
(See  F.  W.  Upham,  The  Wise  Men,  New 
York,  1873.)  T.  W.  C. 

Magic,  the  art  of  influencing  future  events 
by  the  secret  aid  of  demons  or  evil  spirits.  It 
was  a  part  of  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians, 
Chaldeans,  Persians,  etc.,  but  was  forbidden 
among  the  Hebrews  under  penalty  of  death 
(Lev.  xix.  31).  It  crept  in,  however,  from 
their  neighbors,  as  we  see  from  the  instance 
of  the  sorceress  of  Endor  (1  Sam.  xxviii.). 
Exodus  (vii.  11,  12,  22,  viii.  7)  gives  a  vivid 
account  of  the  conflict  of  Moses  with  the 
Egyptian  magicians.  The  New  Testament 
refers  to  the  custom  (Acts  viii.  9,  10,  xiii. 
6-13,  xix.  13-19).  There  is  no  evidence  of 
supernatural  power  in  any  case.  (See  Enne- 
moser,  History  of  Magic,  Eng.  trans,  by 
W.  Howitt,  London,  1854.)  T.  W.  C. 

Magister  Sacri  Palatii,  an  officer  of  the 
papal  court,  whose  original  duty  was  to  in- 
struct and  superintend  the  members  of  the 
papal  household,  his  servants,  but  whose 
office  gradually  changed  into  that  of  a  censor 
for  the  city  of  Rome  and  the  papal  states. 
It  was  instituted  in  1318  by  Honorius  III., 
and  first  held  by  St.  Dominic  ;  it  is  still  a 
privilege  in  the  Dominican  order.  In  1456 
CaUxtus  III.  charged  his  M.  S.  P.  with  select- 
ing the  preacher  for  the  papal  chapel  and 
supervising  the  sermons — that  they  should 
contain  no  disagreeable  things.  In  1515  Leo 
X.  made  liim  censor  of  all  boolis,  pamphlets, 
engravings,  etc.,  issued  in  Rome.  At  present 
he  is  a  born  member  of  the  Inquisition,  the 
Congregation  on  the  Index,  and  the  Congre- 
gation de  vitibus.  He  is  ReveremUssimus  and 
has  a  papal  coach  ai  his  disposal. 

Magistrate,  a  term  applied  in  the  Bible  to 
various  civU  and  military  rulers  (Ezek.  vii. 
25,  Titus  iii.  1).  In  Acts  xvi.  20,  22,  25,  etc., 
it  signifies  the  Roman  colonial  officers,  the 
duum  viri,  corresponding  nearly  to  the  Prae- 
tors. T.  W.  C. 

Magnificat,  the  first  word  and  thence  the 
liturgical  designation  of  the  hymn  of  Maria 
in  the  house  of  Zacharias  (Luke  1.  46-55),  ac- 
cording to  an  old  Latin  translation,  "  Mag- 
nificat anima  mea  Deum. "  It  is  sung  every 
day  in  the  Roman  Catholic  churches  at  Ves- 
pers, and  its  use  seems  to  date  back  to  the  first 
centuries. 

Magog.    See  Gog. 

Mahan,  Asa,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (Adrian  Col- 
lege, Mich. ,  1877),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at 
Vernon,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  9,  1800  ;  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1824,  and 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  Mass.,  1827  ; 
pastor  at  Pottsford,  N.  Y. ,  1829-31  ;  in  Cin- 
cinnati (Presb.),  1831-35  ;  president  of  Oberlin 


College,  O.,  1835-50  ;  of  Cleveland  Univer- 
sity, Jackson,  Mich.,  1850-54  ;  pastor  (Cong.) 
there,  1855-57,  and  at  Adrian,  Mich.,  1857- 
60  ;  president  of  Adrian  College,  1860-71  ; 
resides  in  England.  He  wrote  ISystem  of  In- 
tellectual Philosophy,  New  York,  1857  ;  Phe- 
nomena of  Spiritualism  Scientifically  Ex- 
plained and  Exposed,  1876  ;  Critical  History 
of  Philosophy,  1883,  2  vols.,  etc. 

Mahan,  Milo,  D.D.  (William  and  Mary, 
1852),  Episcopalian  ;  b.  at  Suffolk,  Va.,  Mar 
24,  1819  ;  d.  in  Baltimore,  Sept.  3,  1870.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  College,  Flushing, 
L.  I.,  and  ordained  1845  ;  rector  of  Grace 
Church,  Jersey  City,  1848  ;  assistant  at  St. 
Mark's,  Philadelphia,  1850  ;  prof essor  of  eccle- 
siastical history  in  the  General  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York,  1857-64  ;  rector  of  St. 
Paul's,  Baltimore,  1864-70  ;  elected  professor 
of  divinity  in  the  General  Seminary  shortly 
before  his  death.  His  chief  work  is  a  Church 
History  of  the  First  Seven  Centuries,  New 
York,  i860;  n.e.,  1873.  His  works,  T.dth  a 
memoir,  by  J.  H.  Hopkins,  were  collected  in 
3  vols.,  1872-75.  F.  M.  B. 

Ma-ha-na'-im  {two  camps),  a  town  east  of 
the  Jordan,  where  a  host  of  angels  met  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxxii.  1,  3).  It  became  a  Levitical  city 
(Josh.  xiii.  26),  and  was  of  some  size,  for  Ish- 
bosheth  lived  there  during  his  short  reign 
and  David  took  refuge  in  it  during  Absalom's 
rebellion.  T.  W.  C. 

Mahomet.    See  Mohammed. 

M^i  (ml),  Angelo,  cardinal  ;  b.  at  Schil- 
pario,  Bergamo,  Lombardy,  March  7,  1782  ; 
d.  at  Castelgandolfo,  near  Albano,  Sept.  9, 
1854.  The  sou  of  poor  peasants,  he  was  edu- 
cated by  a  Jesuit  priest,  and  received  into  the 
order,  1799  ;  taught  at  Naples,  1804,  and 
completed  his  studies  at  Rome.  In  1813  he 
became  custodian  of  the  Ambrosian  library  at 
Milan  ;  here  he  discovered  and  published 
several  ancient  manuscripts  of  Philo,  Por- 
phyry, etc.  Thus  gaining  deserved  reputa- 
tion, he  was,  in  1819,  calfed  to  Rome  as  chief 
keeper  of  the  Vatican  library,  and  there  con- 
tinued his  explorations  with  important  re- 
sidts.  He  was  made  secretary  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Propaganda,  1833,  and  cardinal, 
Feb.  12,  1838.  "His  services  to  scholarship 
were  those  of  a  laborious  and  persevering 
pioneer  ;  as  a  textual  critic  he  does  not  rank 
high,  either  for  sagacity  or  for  accuracy." 
His  editorial  labors  extended  over  four  series, 
Scriptorum  Veterum  nova  collectio,  Rome. 
1825-38.  10  vols.;  Glassici  auctores,  1828-38, 
10  vols.;  Spicilegium  Romanum,  1839-44,  » 
vols.;  Nova  patrum  bibliotheca,  1844-71,  8 
vols. ;  with  an  appendix,  1879.  His  life  was 
written  by  B.  Prina,  Bergamo,  1882. 

F.  M.  B. 

Maimbourg  (man-boor),  Louis,  b.  at  Nan- 
cy, 35  m.  s.  of  Metz,  France,  1610  ;  d.  in 
Paris,  Aug.  13,  1686  ;  entered  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits  in  1636  ;  became  famous  as  a 
preacher  and  writer,  but  was  expelled  from 
his  order  because  he  sided  with  Louis  XIV. 
against  the  pope,  and  was  made  royal  histori- 
ographer.    He  wrote  a  number  of  historical 


MAIMONIDES 


(533  ) 


MAKEMIE 


■works  on  Calvinism,  Lutheranism,  the  Greek 
schism,  etc.,  which  were  very  much  read  in 
their  time,  but  his  books  had  generally  some 
special  purpose  v^'hich  had  more  to  do  "uith 
the  morals  of  the  author  than  with  the  truth 
of  his  subject. 

Maimonides  (mi-mon-e-des),  Moses  (Moses 
ben  Maimun),  a  great  Jewish  theologian  ;  b. 
in  Cordova,  Spain,  March  30,  1185  ;  d.  at 
Cairo,  Dec.  13,  1304.  His  father  left  Cordova 
at  its  capture  in  1148,  and  went  tirst  to  Fez, 
and  then  in  search  of  greater  religious  freedom 
to  Cairo,  where  he  died  in  1166.  He  had  al- 
ready instructed  his  son  in  the  Talmud,  and 
had  had  liim  taught  medicine  and  philosophy 
by  Mohammedan  teachers.  Moses  became 
early  noted  for  learning,  and  in  1177  became 
chief  rabbi  in  Cairo,  though  he  continued  to 
support  himself  by  the  practice  of  medicine. 
He  was  made  court  physician  to  Saladin  in 
1187,  and  about  the  same  time  the  civil  head 
of  all  the  Jewish  communities  in  Egypt.  His 
reputation  for  learning  was  so  great  that  he 
was  constantly  resorted  to  from  all  quarters 
for  advice  and  instruction. 

Maimonides'  literary  activity  began  at  an 
early  age.  His  first  great  work  was  his  Com- 
mentary upon  the  Mishna,  completed  in  1168, 
which  by  means  of  clear  and  intelligible  in- 
troductions and  explanations,  and  by  the  in- 
troduction of  principles  drawn  from  the  sci- 
ences, strives  to*  make  the  Mishna  clear  to 
inquirers.  His  main  idea  was  that  Judaism 
was  a  revealed  philosophy,  and  must  embrace 
within  itself  all  truth  which  men  could  dis- 
cover by  any  method.  He  also  began  in  this 
work  the  formulation  of  a  system  of  Jewish 
doctrine,  which  he  summarized  in  about  13 
main  dogmas,  among  which  he  introduced 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  His  second 
gi'eat  work  was  the  reproduction,  in  a  new 
arrangement,  under  a  series  of  general  heads, 
of  the  contents  of  the  entire  Talmud  (finished 
1180).  It  makes  the  main  idea  of  Jewish 
theology — viz.,  the  knowledge  of  God,  the 
basis  of  the  work,  and  brings  to  a  proper 
apex  the  entire  Jewish  theology  up  to  Mai- 
monides' day.  The  third  great  work  (1190)  is 
the  Guide  of  the  Perplexed,  designed  for  Jews 
who  had  become  sceptical  as  to  their  religion. 
In  all  these  works  it  was  the  purpose  of 
Maimonides  to  make  the  learning  and  doc- 
trines of  Judaism  accessible  to  the  great  body 
of  the  people,  and  thus  to  deliver  them  from 
dependence  upon  their  rabbis.  He  has,  how- 
ever, only  added  another  authority  to  the 
many  who  preceded  him,  with  whi<h  it  is 
necessary  to  be(;ome  familiar.  The  contents 
of  his  s^-stem  do  not  altogether  agree  with 
those  of  the  Bible,  for  his  conception  of  God 
is  of  a  being  who  is  so  far  removed  from  all 
likeness  to  men,  the  cause  of  motion,  but 
himself  unmoved,  as  to  have  scarcely  free 
will  or  point  of  contact  with  the  universe. 
He  acknowledges  the  creation,  but  it  is  com- 
posed of  four  spheres,  of  which  the  lowest  is 
that  of  the  earth,  in  which  motion  and  change 
are  produced,  not  by  God  himself  directly, 
but  by  tlie  spheres  above.  ^Miracles  and 
prophecy  are  also  acknowledged,  but  prophecy 
is  explained  in  such  a  way  as  to  exclude  the 


necessity  of  much  divine  intervention.  It  is 
really  a  process  of  self -exaltation  by  the  soul, 
which  thus  tills  itself  with  the  divine.  Provi- 
dence, rewards,  and  punishments  are  reallj- 
unknown  in  his  system.  Even  the  resurrec- 
tion is  a  supertluous  element,  not  needed  to 
make  the  system  consistent. 

His  works  have  been  often  published  in 
part.  The  most  complete  edition  is  that  pub- 
lished at  Jessnitz,  1740,  4  vols.  (See  Joel. 
Beitrdf/e  ztir  Geschirhte  der  Philoftophie,  Bres- 
lau,  1876  ;  Onide  to  the  Perplexed  of  Maimon- 
ides, translated  and  annotated  by  Friedlandcr, 
London,  1885,  3  vols.)  F.  H.  F. 

Maistre  (metr),  Marie  Joseph,  Count  de, 
b.  at  Chambery,  Savoy,  April  1,  1754  ;  d.  in 
Turin,  Feb.  26,  1821  ;  one  of  the  leaders  of 
that  reaction,  political  and  religious,  which 
set  in  during  the  second  decade  of  the  19th 
century.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits, 
studied  law,  entered  the  civil  service  of  Pied- 
mont, lived  in  St.  Petersburg,  1803-17,  as  the 
diplomatical  representative  of  Charles  Em- 
manuel IV.,  and  afterward  in  Turin  as  minis- 
ter of  state.  His  two  most  famous  books  are 
Du  Pape,  1820,  and  Soirees  de  iSftint  Peters- 
boiirg,  1821,  2  vols.,  in  which  he  tries  tore- 
construct  the  whole  social  order  of  Europe  in 
accordance  with  a  mediaeval  dream,  as  a  the- 
ocracy with  the  pope  at  the  top.  His  letters 
were  edited  by  his  son  in  1829.  (See  Sainte- 
Beuve,  Portraits  litteraires  II.,  and  life  by  A. 
de  Margerie,  Paris,  1889.) 

Maitland,  Samuel  Rofifey,  D.D.  (Cam- 
bridge, 18—),  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  b.  in  London, 
1792";  d.  at  Gloucester,  Jan.  19,  1866.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  ; 
called  to  the  bar.  1816  ;  ordained,  1821  ;  per- 
petual curate  of  Christ  Church,  Gloucester, 
1823-29  ;  keeper  of  manuscripts  at  Lambeth 
and  librarian  to  the  archbisliop  of  Canter- 
bury. 1838-48.  Some  of  the  chief  of  his  many 
publications  deal  with  the  Albiqenses  and 
Waldenses,  London,  1832  ;  The  Dark  Afjes, 
1844;  The  Reformation  i)i  England,  1849. 
F.  M.  B. 

Major  and  the  Majoristic  Controversy. 
Georg  Major  (pro])erly  ^leier),  b.  at  Xurtni- 
berg  m  1502  ;  d.  at  "Wittenberg,  Nov.  28. 
1574  ;  a  pupil  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon  ; 
was  appointed  profes.sor  of  theology  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  1536  ;  took  part  in  the  disputation 
of  Kegensburg,  1541  ;  subscribed  to  the  Leip- 
zig Interim,  1548,  etc.  In  his  controversy 
with  Amsdorf  he  maintained  that  good  works 
were  necessary  to  salvation,  and  was  sup- 
ported by  Menius  and  others,  wliile  Amsdorf, 
sui^ported  by  Flacius  and  otliers,  held  that 
good  works  were  detrimental  to  .salvation. 
The  For  nulla  Co  ncoi-di(e  rejects  both  opinions 
as  extravagant. 

Makemie,   Francis,   b.    near   Rathmelton, 

County    Donegal,    Ireland,   in   the   17th   cvu 

tury  ;  d.  in  Accomac  County,  \'a.,  1708  ;  the 

founder  of  the  Pre.sl)yteria"n  Church  in  the 

United    States.       Hav"ing    been    licerised    to 

preach  by  the  presbytery  of  Laggan  in  1681, 

I  he  went  as  a  missionary  to  Barbadoes,  came 

I  in  16X4  to  Somerset   County.  Md.,  wliere  he 

1  founded  the  churi  li  in  Snow  Hill  ;  removed 


MASKEDAH 


(534) 


MALAY 


to  Virginia  ;  obtained  in  1699  a  formal  license 
to  preach  agreeably'  to  tbe  requirements  of 
the  Toleration  Act,  and  aided  in  1706  in  form- 
ing the  Philadelphia  presbytery  of  which  he 
was  moderator.  He  published  Truths  in  a 
New  Light,  Edinburgh,  1699  ;  A  Plain  and 
Loving  Persuasive  to  the  Inhabitants  of  Indi- 
ana and  Virginia,  London,  1704  ;  Letter  to 
Lord  Cornbury,  Boston,  1707  (as  he  had  been 
arrested  in  New  York  for  preaching  without 
having  a  proper  license),  etc. 

Mak-ke'-dah  (Jierdsman's  place),  a  royal 
city  of  the  Canaanites  where  Joshua  executed 
the  5  confederate  kings  (Josh.  x.  10-28).  _  It 
lay  to  the  southwest  of  Jerusalem  in  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  but  its  site  has  not  been  identified. 
T.  W.  C. 

Makrina,  a  sister  of  Basil  the  Great  and 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  the  oldest  of  9  children, 
and,  as  it  would  seem,  the  typical  character 
in  that  grand  family,  was  born  about  327,  re- 
tired about  357  to  an  estate  on  the  Iris,  Pon- 
tus,  and  formed  there  a  kmd  of  monastic 
community  practising  an  ascetic  life.  Her 
life  was  written  by  her  brother,  Gregory,  and 
she  is  commemorated  both  in  the  Greek  and 
Roman  churches  on  July  19. 

Mal'-a-chi  {messenger  of  Jehovah),  the  last 
of  the  prophets.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
personal  life.  He  prophesied  after  Zechariah 
and  Haggai,  at  a  time  when  the  temple  was 
completed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  Nehemiah.  He  inveighed  against 
prevailing  vices.  He  rebuked  the  priests  for 
their  unfaithfulness.  He  reproved  the  people 
for  their  murmurings,  for  their  neglect  of  the 
altar,  for  intermarriage  with  foreign  wives, 
for  inhumanity,  for  divorcing  their  own 
wives,  for  withholding  tithes  and  first  fruits, 
and  forewarns  them  of  approaching  judg- 
ments. At  the  same  time  he  foretells  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  (iii.  1-4),  and  at  the 
close  of  his  prophecy  speaks  of  Elijah  as  his 
forerunner,  a  prediction  which  found  its  ful- 
filment in  John  the  Baptist  (Mai.  iv.  6,  Matt, 
xi.  10,  14,  xvii.  10-13).  Thus  the  Old  Testa- 
ment closes  with  predictions  of  the  Messiah 
and  the  New  opens  with  the  record  of  their 
fulfilment.  T.  W.  C. 

Malachy,  St.,  b.  at  Armagh,  Ireland,  1095  ; 
d.  at  (.'lairvaux,  France,  1148  ;  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1120,  and  became  successively  ab- 
bot of  Bangor,  bishop  of  Connor,  and  arch- 
bishop of  Armagh.  He  has  done  more  than 
any  one  else  to  bring  Ireland  under  the  au- 
thority of  Rome.  He  introduced  the  canon 
law,  the  confessions,  the  confirmation,  the 
canonical  hours,  the  psalmody,  and  many 
other  Roman  rules  and  regulations  into  the 
Church  of  Ireland.  The  actual  incorporation, 
which  began  with  the  invasion  of  the  Nor- 
mans, took  place  a  few  years  after  his  death. 
He  was  the  first  Irislmian  created  a  saint  by 
the  pope.  His  name  has  incidentally  been 
connected  witli  the  so-called  Prophecies  Con- 
cerning tlie  Popes  by  St.  Malachy,  first  pub- 
lished hj  A.  Wion  in  his  Lignum  Vitce,  1595, 
and  still  believed  in  by  many,  though  their 
fraudulent  character  has  been  completely  ex- 
posed.    (See  Dcillinger,  Fables  Respecting  the 


Popes,  translated  by  H.  B.  Smith,  New  York, 
1872.) 
Malakanes.     See  Russian  Sects. 

Malan  (mil-Ion),  Cesar  Henri  Abraham, 
D.D.  (Glasgow,  1826),  b.  at  Geneva,  July  7, 
1787  ;  d.  there.  May  18,  1864  ;  studied  theol- 
ogy and  was  ordained  in  1810,  but  experi- 
enced a  kind  of  revival  under  the  influence  of 
Robert  Haldane,  and  became  a  revivalist 
preacher  himself  in  1817.  On  account  of 
some  discrepancies,  both  of  ideas  and  meth- 
ods, the  Venerable  Company  of  Pastors  at 
Geneva  forbade  him  the  pulpits  of  the  city, 
dismissed  him  from  his  position  as  headmaster 
in  the  Latin  school — because  he  refused  to  use 
the  Company's  somewhat  Socinian  catechism 
and  in  its  stead  used  the  Bible — and  finally 
struck  his  name  from  the  church  register.  In 
the  mean  time  he  had  gathered  a  small  flock, 
and  now  he  became,  very  much  against  his 
own  will,  the  pastor  of  a  dis.sident  congrega- 
tion, Les  Momiers,  in  the  Ghapelle  du  Temoign- 
age.  He  also  made  missionary  or  revivalist 
journeys  to  other  parts  of  Switzerland,  to 
France,  Holland,  and  Scotland,  which  he  has 
described  in  his  Quatre-Tingts jours  d'unmis- 
sionaire,  Geneva,  1842.  He  was  a  very  pro- 
lific writer,  also  a  poet  ;  his  Chants de  Sionsxe 
widely  used.  His  life  was  written  by  one  of 
his  sons,  Geneva,  1869. 

Malan,  Solomon  Caesar,  D.D.  (University 
of  Edinburgh,  1880),  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  April  22,  1812  ; 
studied  in  St.  Edmund  Hall,  Oxford  ;  was 
ordained  a  priest,  1843  ;  appointed  senior 
classical  professor  at  Bishops'  College,  Cal- 
cutta, 1838  ;  secretary  to  the  Asiatic  Society 
of  Bengal,  1839  ;  vicar  of  Broadwindsor,  Dor- 
setshire, 1845,  and  retired,  1886.  He  has 
translated  and  annotated  a  great  number  of 
literary  documents  and  monuments  from  the 
Ethiopic,  Coptic,  Armenian,  Chinese,  Jap- 
anese, etc. 

Malay  Archipelago,  a  group  of  islands 
s.w.  of  Asia.  The  chief  are  Sumatra,  1200 
m.  by  200  ;  Java,  700  by  100  ;  Borneo,  1000 
by  750  ;  Celebes ;  the  Moluccas,  and  the 
Philippine  islands.  The  people  are  of  mixed 
race,  and  generally  of  low  character  and  con- 
dition ;  Mohammedanism  and  Buddhism  have 
found  entrance,  but  failed  to  supplant  the 
native  forms  of  paganism.  Portugal  once 
had  a  nominal  sovereignty  over  many  of  these 
islands,  but  in  the  17th  century  possession 
was  gained  by  the  Dutch,  who  proceeded  to 
extend  the  Reformed  faith  by  perfunctory 
and  wholesale  conversions  after  the  early 
mediaeval  method.  Many  were  baptized  in 
Java  and  elsewhere,  with  little  previous  in- 
struction ;  and  this  sacrament  was  in  some 
places  enforced  by  political  penalties  for 
neglecting  it.  This  mode  of  evangelization 
has  left  little  permanent  result,  and  whatever 
has  been  accomplished  of  real  benefit  has 
come  mainly  from  the  recent  labors  of  other 
nationalities.  These  efforts  are  attended  with 
difficulty  and  sometimes  with  danger  :  two 
missionaries  of  the  American  Board  to  Suma- 
tra, in  1833.  were  murdered  (see  Memoir  of 
Henry  Lyman,  New  York,  1856),  as  were  seven 


MALCOM 


( 535 ) 


MAN 


sent  by  the  Rhenish  Society  to  Borneo  in  1859. 
The  latter  Society  has  since  gathered  some 
moderate  fruit  among  the  Dyaks,  and  is  doing 
good  work  with  tlie  Battas  of  Sumatra.  The 
S.  P.  G.  has  a  mission  in  n.w.  Borneo.  Java 
has  but  4000  Christians  in  a  population  of 
18,000.000  ;  but  the  Miraliassa  mission  in 
Celebes  has,  since  1826,  formed  200  congrega- 
tions with  80,000  native  members.  The  Dutch 
Government  appears  to  have  shown  more 
favor  to  Mohammedanism  than  to  Christian- 
ity. F.  M.  B. 

Malcom,  HoTvard,  D.D.  (University  of 
Vermont,  1841  ;  Union,  1841),  LL.D.  (Lewis- 
burg,  1859),  Baptist  ;  b.  in  Pliiladelphia,  Jan. 
19,  1799  ;  d.  there,  March  25, 1879.  He  grad- 
uated at  Dickinson,  1818,  and  in  theology  at 
Princeton,  1821  ;  was  pastor  at  Hudson, 
N.  Y.;  in  Boston  (1827-35),  and  in  Philadel- 
phia ;  president  of  Georgetown  College,  Ky., 
1839-49,  and  of  Lewisburg  University,  Pa., 
1851-58,  teaching  mental  and  moral  philoso- 
phy in  both.  He  was  a  founder  of  the  Ameri- 
can Sunday-school  Union  and  of  the  Tract 
Society,  and  president  of  the  Peace  Society 
and  Baptist  Historical  Society.  In  1835  he 
inspected  the  Baptist  missions  in  India,  Bur- 
mah,  Siam,  and  China.  Among  his  works 
are  a  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Boston,  1828, 
n.e.,    1853;     The    Atonement,    Philadelphia, 

1829  ;    Christian   Rule  of  Marrimie,  Boston, 

1830  ;  Travels  in  Southeastern  Asia,  1839,  and 
Index  to  Religious  Literature,  1869. 

F.  M.  B. 

Maldonatus,  Joannes,  Jesuit  theologian  ; 
b.  at  Las  Casas,  Estremadura,  Spain,  1533  ; 
d.  in  Rome,  Jan.  5,  1583.  He  Wiis  professor 
of  theology  at  Salamanca,  1556-62  ;  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Italy,  and  was  sent, 
1563,  to  Paris,  where  he  taught  theology  with 
success  unparalleled  since  the  days  of  Abe- 
lard  ;  was  accused  of  heresy  by  jealous  col- 
leagues, and  acquitted,  but  removed  to 
Bourges,  1576  ;  appointed  visitor  of  his  order, 
1578,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  University 
of  Pont-^-Mousson,  founded  1573  ;  taught  at 
Rome,  1580-83.  He  wrote  various  treatises 
and  commentaries,  including  that  on  the 
gospels,  published  1596,  and  often  reprinted. 
His  Opera  varia  tJieologica  were  collected  in  3 
vols,  at  Paris,  1677.  A  sketch  of  his  connec- 
tion with  the  University  of  Paris,  bv  I.  il. 
Prat,  appeared  in  Paris,  1856.         F.  M.  B. 

Malebranche  (mal-bronsh),  Nicolas,  b.  in 
Paris,  Aug.  6,  1638  ;  d.  there,  Oct.  13,  1735  : 
studied  theology,  entered  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory,  and  devoted  his  whole  life  to 
literary  pursuits.  His  system,  "  Occasional- 
ism," or  better,  the  peculiar  manner  in  which 
he  explained  the  harmony  between  the  spirit- 
ual and  the  material  world,  which  he  other- 
wise, as  a  disciple  of  Cartesius,  separated  very 
sharply  from  each  otlier,  is  demonstrated  in 
his  be  la  Recherche  de  la  Verite,  1674.  Tlie 
latest  edition  of  his  collected  works  appeared 
in  Paris,  1837,  2  vols.  (See  memoirs  on  his 
life  and  philosophy  by  Blampe(juon,  Paris, 
1862,  and  OUfe  Laprune,  Paris,  1870,  2  vols.) 


Malthus,  Thomas  Robert,  an  English  clcr-     tlii 


gyman,  b.  at  Alburj',  near  Dorking,  Surrey, 
29  m.  s.s.w.  of  London,  1766  ;  d.  at  Balii] 
Dec.  29,  1834,  who  gained  great  celebrity 
by  his  book,  first  issued  in  1798,  An  Essay 
on  tlie  Principles  of  Population  as  it  A;[fWis 
the  future  Improvement  of  Society,  lie  wrote 
other  works,  but  they  are  forgotten.  The 
essay,  whiclx  was  in  subsequent  editions 
greatly  enlarged,  argued  that  while  popula- 
tion was  found  to  increase  in  geometrical 
progression,  the  fertility  of  land  increased 
only  in  arithmetical  proportion.  Hence  he 
inferred  the  duty  of  applying  preventive 
checks  to  population,  for  otherwise  it  would 
outrun  the  means  of  subsistence,  which  occa- 
sioned a  loud  outcry.  In  1805  he  was  made 
professor  of  political  economy  in  the  college 
at  Harleyburg,  where  he  remained  till  hi.s 
death.  See  his  memoir  by  Otter,  prefi.xed  to 
2d  ed.  of  iu.«  Principles  of  Political  Ecoiwmy, 
London,  1836.  T.  W.  C. 

Mamertus.     See  Rogations. 

Mam'-mon,  a  Chaldee  word  signifying 
riches,  used  twice  by  our  Lord  (Matt.  vi".  24, 
Luke  xvi.  9-11).  It  was  never  the  name  of 
a  personal  being,  though  to  those  who  set 
their  hearts  on  it,  wealth  is  as  much  an  idol 
as  Baal  or  Astarte.  T.  W.  C. 

Mam'-re  {stoutness).  The  name  of  an 
Amorite  chief  (Gen.  xiv.  13),  also  the  name 
of  a  grove  at  Hebron  where  Abrahani  enter- 
tained three  angels  (xviii.  1),  and  near  which 
was  the  cave  of  iVIachpelali,  which  he  pur 
chased  jfor  a  cemetery.  T.  W.  C. 

Man  consists  of  a  rational  soul  and  a  phy 
sical  body.  He  is  the  head  of  the  animal  cre- 
ation and  at  the  same  time  separated  from  it 
by  his  spiritual  nature,  by  which  he  is  capa- 
ble of  communion  with  God  and  has  domin- 
ion orer  all  other  earthly  creatures.  On  his 
physical  side  we  inquire  : 

I.  Of  His  Origin. — The  Scripture  repre- 
sents him  as  the  product  of  a  new  creative 
thought  (Gen.  i.  26,  ii.  7).  "With  this  the 
traditions  of  nearly  all  nations  agree.  But 
many  scientists  affirm  that  he  is  the  result  of 
a  process  of  development  from  the  lower  ani- 
mals, some  species  of  ape  that  is  now  extinct 
being  his  immediate  ancestor.  But  this  is  de- 
nied on  the  ground  of  anatomical  differences, 
especially  in  the  conformation  of  the  skull 
and  the  weight  of  tlie  brain,  between  him  and 
the  highest  types  of  the  chimpanzee  family. 
This  gap,  so'far  as  our  knowledge  extends, 
has  alwavs  existed.  Xor  has  any  one  case  of 
a  definite  and  abiding  change  of  an  organic 
structure  by  means  of  natural  selection  been 
proved,  but  it  is  still  true  that  God  created 
"  everything  after  its  kind."  "What  is  more 
important  is  that  man's  intellectual  and  moral 
nature  represents  an  entirely  new  stage  of 
being,  one  that  could  not  by  possibility  have 
been  developed  out  of  a  mere  animal  exist- 
ence. 

II.  The  Unity  of  the  Race.— The  Scripture 
declares  that  the  human  family  has  descended 
from  a  sinirle  pair  (Gen.  i.  27)'and  all  men  are 
of  one  blood  (Acts  xvii.  26).  The  early  natu- 
rahsts   (Buffon,    Linnitus,    Cuvier,   etc.)    ac- 

■pted   tliis  view,   but  in  the  former  part  of 
lis  century  it  was  vehemently  denie<l.     Now, 


{ 
i 


MANASSEH 


(536) 


MANI 


however,  it  seems  to  be  generally  conceded 
save  by  those  who  have  revived  the  theory  of 
Isaac  La  Peyrere  (1655)  that  there  was  &pre- 
Adamic  race.  The  doctrine  of  unity  rests 
upon  the  common  physiology  of  the  different 
races,  their  power  of  procreation  by  inter- 
marriage, the  fact  that  their  differences  of 
color  and  of  language  may  be  accounted  for 
by  climatic  and  other  influences,  the  simi- 
larity of  their  religious  traditions,  and  above 
all,  the  ethical  and  spiritual  features  which 
obtain  among  all  nations  and  in  all  quarters 
of  the  globe. 

III.  The  Antiquity  of  Man. — Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  settle  this  by  an  appeal  to 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  but  this  is  now  in  a 
large  measure  given  up  by  the  best  authori- 
ties. There  is  much  in  the  chronological 
tables  of  the  Old  Testament  to  make  any  cal- 
culation based  upon  them  of  questionable  ac- 
curacy. Many  agree  with  Bishop  Browne 
{Speaker's  Commentary,  i.,  64)  tliat  there  is 
great  reason  to  think  that  the  genealogies 
given  in  Genesis  (which  are  the  basis  of  all 
chronological  computations)  neither  were,  nor 
were  intended  to  be  complete,  just  as  we 
know  that  the  genealogies  of  our  Lord  given 
in  the  gospels,  while  presenting  the  form  of 
great  completeness,  yet  beyond  a  doubt  have 
some  links  omitted.  The  question  may  there- 
fore be  left  for  settlement  by  scientific  re- 
search elsewhei-e.  Valuable  help  has  been 
gained  from  the  records  of  Egyptian  history, 
although  even  here  caution  is  necessary  lest 
contemporary  dynasties  be  confounded  with 
such  as  were  successive.  The  same  caution 
is  still  more  needful  in  accepting  conclusions 
Imsed  upon  geological  calculations,  as  these 
have  been  altered  again  and  again  within  the 
memory  of  men  now  living.  T.  W.  C. 

Manasseh,    Prayer*  of.       See   Pseudepi- 

OKAPHA. 

Manasseh,  Tribe  of.  See  Tribes  op 
Israel. 

Mandseans.     See  Mend^aks. 

Mandrake  (Hebrew,  love-plants),  a  plant  to 
which  was  attributed  the  power  of  rendering 
barren  women  fruitful,  a  superstition  that 
survived  in  liachel's  time  (Gen.  xxx.  14-16). 
It  is  a  stemless  plant  with  a  root  like  a  beet, 
white  and  reddisli  blossoms,  and  a  yellow- 
pulpy  fruit  of  a  sweet  and  agreeable  flavor 
(Cant.  vii.  13).  T.  W.  C. 

Mandyas,  a  garment  somewhat  similar  to 
a  cope,  reaching  almost  to  the  feet  and  fast- 
ened at  the  tlu-oat,  is  worn  in  the  Greek  Church 
by  the  monks  and  also  by  the  bishops,  who  are 
taken  from  among  the  monks. 

Manetho.     See  Egypt. 

Mani,  Manichaeism.  Mani,  the  founder 
of  that  independent  religion  known  as  Mani- 
chaeism, was  a  Persian  ;  b.  in  Mardinu,  Baby- 
lon, 215-16  A.D.,  crucified  in  Gundesapur, 
276-77.  His  father's  name  was  Fatak  Babak, 
who  was  himself  something  of  a  sect-founder, 
and  under  whose  special  supervision  the  son's 
education  took  a  religious  turn.  At  a  very 
early  age  he  was  brought  under  the  influence 
of  the  South  Babylonian  "  Mughtasilah,"  or 
Baptists,  but  when  about  12  he  formed  inde- 


pendent religious  ideas  which  separated  him 
from  them.  Tlie  following  12  years  were 
spent  in  study  and  thought,  and  then  an 
angel  appeared  to  him  and  commanded  him 
to  begin  the  preaching  of  his  doctrine.  The 
precise  date  of  the  beginning  of  his  public 
work  was  the  1st  of  Nisan,  or  March  20,  242, 
and  the  place,  the  Persian  capital  city.  His 
success  was  not  great,  and  the  disfavor  with 
which  his  ideas  met  on  the  part  of  the  king 
led  him  to  leave  Persia  and  spend  a  long 
period — said  to  be  40  years — in  foreign  parts. 
He  sent  out  in  this  period  some  representa- 
tives to  the  northern  part  of  the  Persian 
Kingdom,  and  was  possibly  himself  in  Tur- 
kestan and  India  a  portion  of  the  time.  At 
least,  at  the  time  of  the  recommencement  of 
his  labors  in  Persia  congregations  had  been 
gathered  in  those  countries,  and  a  consider- 
able increase  of  his  followers  in  Persia  had 
been  made.  He  had  given  himself  out  at  this 
period  as  the  "  Messenger  of  the  true  God," 
and  later,  among  Christians,  he  styled  him- 
self tlie  Paraclete,  whom  Jesus  promised, 
thus  reckoning  Jesus  among  the  continuous 
line  of  propliets,  though  at  other  times  he 
spoke  of  him  as  a  devil.  At  the  close  of  this 
period  of  wanderings  and  labors  elsewhere 
Mani  returned  to  Persia  itself.  He  gained 
over  the  brother  of  the  king,  and  then  sought 
to  gain  the  king  himself.  But  the  power  of 
the  reigning  house  was  so  dependent  upon 
the  existing  religious  organization,  that  the 
king  could  but  regard  the  mission  of  Mani  as 
a  threat  to  himself.  Yet  he  was  so  over- 
come by  the  appearance  and  words  of  Mani, 
when  they  came  face  to  face,  that  he  granted 
him  full  toleration,  and  even  promised  to  be- 
come a  convert  to  his  system.  But  this  favor 
did  not  last.  Mani  was  at  one  time  obliged 
to  flee,  and  was  finally  crucified.  After  his 
death  his  followers  were  subjected  to  a  fear- 
ful persecution,  but  Manicliseism  spread  on 
every  side  with  great  rapidity.  In  India  the 
sect  flourished  vigorously  and  produced  many 
able  writers.  In  the  West,  where  it  assumed 
somewhat  of  a  Christian  complexion,  it  spread 
in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  though  the 
principal  seat  of  its  power  w-as  North  Africa. 
As  early  as  290  measures  seem  to  have  been 
taken  against  the  Manichseans  there,  and  after 
377  repeated  edicts  were  issued  against  them. 
For  9  years  Augustine  belonged  to  the  ' '  hear- 
ers" of  the  sect.  Among  their  leaders  was 
Faustus,  who  was  a  man  of  great  influence, 
though  shallow  in  his  knowledge.  Felix  was 
another  leader,  who  was  converted  by  Augus- 
tine. Augustine  made  great  efforts  against 
the  sect  by  various  writings,  but  accom- 
plished little.  It  was  the  coming  of  the  Van- 
dals in  429  which  began  their  destruction. 
But  they  reappeared  in  various  forms  in  Euro- 
pean countries,  in  Italy,  in  Spain  as  Priscil- 
lianists,  and  in  Gaul.  The  Manichjeans  of 
the  Middle  Ages  are  the  Cathari,  the  Pau- 
licians,  and  the  Bogomiles(q.v.). 

Manichgeism  was  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
enemies  of  the  Christian  Church.  It  was  as 
fully  a  distinct  religion  as  Mohammedanism 
is.  It  was  at  bottom  the  same  as  Gnosticism 
(q.v.),  but  it  carried  out  the  dualism  of  that 
group  of  systems  in  a  much  more  consistent 


MANZFLE 


(537) 


MANSI 


manner.  The  two  eternal  and  equally  inde- 
pendent existences  are  termed  light  and  dark- 
ness. The  regions  of  light  and  darkness  are 
not  clearly  demarcated.  Each  being  is  com- 
posed of  series  of  elements.  The  earth  is 
formed  by  a  mingling  of  the  two  essences, 
and  the  occasion  of  this  is  the  development  of 
Satan  within  the  kingdom  of  darkness,  who, 
ascending  to  the  region  of  light,  became  aware 
of  its  existence  for  the  tirst  time,  was  seized 
with  horror  of  it,  and  sought  its  destruction. 
Against  him  were  sent  forth  spirits  of  light, 
but  the  first,  the  archetypal  man,  was  de- 
feated by  Satan,  though  later  set  free  by  other 
spirits  of  light.  The  mingling  of  the  auxil- 
iary spirits  of  light  and  darkness  sent  out 
into  this  contest  formed  this  world.  As  in 
Gnosticism,  the  wliole  object  of  the  creation 
of  the  world  was  the  liberation  of  the  light 
elements  from  those  of  darkness.  Man  com- 
bines in  himself  both  elements  of  light  and  of 
darkness,  and  to  the  liberation  of  the  light, 
the  archetypal  man  is  sent  down  (the  Sa- 
viour), who  substantially  redeems  by  impart- 
ing knowledge.  The  end  of  the  world  comes 
by  fire,  and  the  consummation  is  the  return 
of  all  things  to  their  place.  In  practical  life, 
Manichteism  separated  its  devotees  into  two 
classes,  the  perfect,  upon  whom  were  laid 
severe  restrictions,  and  the  hearers,  whose 
manner  of  life  did  not  dilfer  specially  from 
that  of  men  about  tlieni.  There  were  numer- 
ous fasts.  The  system  excluded  all  sacrifices, 
and  the  worship  consisted  chiefly  in  prayers. 

The  original  literature  of  Manichaeism  is 
great.  For  an  excellent  account  of  it  see  Kess- 
ler,  in  Herzog,  Renlencyclopildie,  vol.  ix.,  p. 
249  ff.  (See  also  Geyler,  System  des  Mani- 
cluvismus  U.S.W.,  Jena,  1875,  and  Kessler, 
UiitersucJmngen  zur  Genesis  des  mdnichdisclteii 
Heligionssystems,  1876  ;  3Iani,  1882.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Maniple,  mappula,  manipula,  was  origi- 
nally merely  a  handkerchief  held  in  tiie  hand 
— perhaps  with  a  reference  to  the  eucharistic 
vessels — but  became  in  the  8th  and  9lh  cen- 
turies a  sacred  vestment,  suspended  from  the 
wrist  and  often  of  very  costly  materials. 

Man'-na  (Hebrew,  w7int  is  this?),  the  food 
miraculously  given  to  Israel  on  their  journey 
through  the  desert.  It  was  like  a  small 
grain,  round,  and  of  the  size  of  coriander- 
seed  (Ex.  xvi..  Num.  xi.).  It  fell  every  morn- 
ing with  the  dew  and  in  such  (imxntities  as 
during  40  years  to  supply  Israel  with  a  sub- 
stitute for  bread.  It  did  not  fall  on  the  Sab- 
bath, but  a  double  quantity  fell  the  day  be- 
fore, and  when  gathered  remained  fresh  till 
the  first  day.  It  cea.sed  when  the  people 
reached  Gilgal,  but  Moses  laid  up  a  golden 
vase  of  it  near  the  ark  as  a  memorial.  It  ob- 
viously was  not  the  manna  of  commerce.  It 
is  called  "  angels'  food"  and  "  corn  of  heaven" 
(Ps.  Ixxviii.  24,  25),  and  offers  many  analogies 
of  the  true  Bread  which  came  clown  from 
heaven  (John  vi.  47-58),  and  is  represented  in 
Revelation  (ii.  17)  "hidden  manna,"  as  an 
emblem  of  that  nutriment  of  which  the  world 
does  not  know  and  cannot  partake. 

T.  ^y.  c. 


Manning,  His  Eminence  Henry  Edward, 
Cardinal,  D.I).  (Rome,  1854),  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  at  Totteridge,  Hertfordshire,  Eng., 
July  15,  1808  ;  B.A.  at  Oxford  (Balliol  Col- 
lege), 1830  ;  became  rector  of  Lavinglon  and 
Graffham,  1834,  and  archdeacon  of  Chiches- 
ter in  1840  ;  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Oxford  movement,  imd  resigned  his  ecclesias- 
tical preferments  in  1851,  and  entered  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  After  studying  in 
Rome  for  several  years  lie  returned  to  Eng- 
land, founded,  in  1857,  a  congregation  of  the 
Oblates  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  and  in  1874 
a  Roman  Catholic  university  at  Kensington  ; 
was  made  prothonotary  and  domestic  prelate 
to  the  pope  in  1860  and  archbishop  of  West- 
minster, 1865  ;  attended  the  Vatican  Council, 
1869-70,  and  was  created  a  cardinal  in  1875. 
He  published  :  Sermons,  London,  1863-73,  3 
vols.  ;  The  Vatican  Council  and  its  Dcjini- 
tions,  1870  ;  Vatican  Decrees  in  their  Bcarixfj 
on  Civil  Allegiance,  1875  ;  IVvc  Story  of  the 
Vatican  Council,  1877  ;  Miscellanies,  1877, 
2  vols.  ;  The  Catholic  Church  and  Modern 
Society,  1880,  etc.  (See  W.  S.  Lilly's  Cardi- 
nal Manning,  London,  1885.) 

Mansel,  Henry  Longueville,  D.  D.  (Ox- 
ford, 18—),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Cos- 
grove,  Northamptonshire,  Oct.  6,  1820  ;  d.  in 
London,  July  31,  1871.  He  was  educated  at 
Merchant  Tsiylor's  School  and  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  of  which  he  became  fellow  and 
tutor  ;  ordained,  1845  ;  reader  in  moral  and 
metaphysical  philosophy  at  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, 1855  ;  Waynflete  professor  of  philoso- 
phy, 1859  ;  regius  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history,  1867  ;  canon  of  Christ  Church,  1807  ; 
dean  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  1868.  He  was 
chiefly  eminent  as  a  logician,  and  wrote  Pro- 
legomena Logicd,  London,  1851.  His  most 
noted  work.  The  Limits  of  lieligious  Thmight 
(the  Bampton  Lecture  for  1858),  applies  Sir 
W.  Hamilton's  Philosophy  of  the  Conditioned 
to  theology,  and  aims  to  refute  objections  to 
dogma  by'showing  that  divine  things  are  be- 
yond the' province  of  human  reason.  But  the 
argument  went  too  far  and  worked  both 
ways  ;  it  was  welcomed  by  those  who  would 
make  all  knowledge  dependent  on  sensation, 
and  soon  discovered  to  favor  agnosticism 
rather  than  Christianity.  Mansel's  good  faith 
was  unquestioned,  but  his  weapon  was  ill 
chosen  for  the  defence  of  the  faith.  He  after- 
ward wrote  Metti physics  ;  or.  The  Phenomena  of 
Consciousness,  1860  (reprinted  from  the  Ency- 
clojmdia  Britannica,  1857)  and  The  Philoso- 
phy of  the  Conditvwcd,  1866,  a  defence  of 
Hamilton's  position  against  J.  S.  Mill.  His 
Letters,  Lectures,  and  Ptvicics  appeared  1873, 
and  Gnostic  Jleresies,  edited  bv  J.  B.  Liglit- 
foot,  1875.  F-  >I.  B. 

Mansi  (man-see),  Giovanni  Dominico,  arch- 
bishop of  Lucca  ;  b.  at  Lucca,  Feb.  10.  1092  ; 
d.  there,  Sept.  27,  1769.  He  was  a  diligent 
worker  in  ecclesiastical  literature,  editing 
Baronius,  Fabricius,  and  others,  and  adding 
6  vols.,  1748-52,  to  the  Labbe-Cossart-Coleti 
collection  of  councils,  besides  preparing  his 
own  monumental  work,  Socronim  Concilio- 
rvm  nora  et  amplissima  collertio.  in  31  vols, 
folio,  Florence   and  Venice,  1759-98.  It  ex- 


MANT 


(538) 


MARCEIiLUS 


tends  to  a.d.   1450.     Vol.  xix.  contains  his 
life,  by  Zatta.  F.  M.  B. 

Mant,  Richard,  D.D.  (Oxford,  18—),  Irish 
bishop  ;  b.  at  Southampton,  Feb.  12,  1776  ; 
d.  at  Ballymoney,  Nov.  2,  1848.  He  was 
educated  at  Winchester  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford  ;  became  fellow  of  Oriel,  1798  ; 
vicar  of  Great  Coggeshall,  Essex,  1810  ;  of 
St.  Botolph's,  London,  1815  ;  of  East  Hors- 
ley,  Surrey,  1818  ;  bishop  of  Killaloe,  1820  ; 
translated  to  Down  and  Connor,  1823,  to 
which  Dromore  was  added,  1842.  His  Anno- 
tated Bible,  prepared  in  conjunction  with 
G.  D'Oyly,  1814,  3  vols.,  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful. Among  his  many  works  are  :  The 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  with  Notes,  London, 
1830,  and  a  History  of  the  Church  of  Ireland, 
1889-41,  2  vols.  He  also  wrote  much  verse, 
including  a  version  of  the  Psalms,  1824,  and 
Ancient  Hymns  from  the  Roman  Breviary, 
with  Original  Hymns,  1837.  The  latter  are 
better  than  his  translations,  and  sometimes  of 
great  merit.  Mant  was  a  conservative  High 
Churchman  and  a  useful  writer.     F.  M.  B. 

Manton,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Oxford  [?].  16—), 
Nonconformist ;  b.  at  Laurence-Lydiard,  Som- 
ersetshire, Eng.,  1620 ;  d.  in  London,  Oct. 
18.  1677.  He  entered  Wadham  College,  Ox- 
ford, at  15,  and  when  not  20  was  ordained 
deacon  by  Bishop  Hall  ;  considering  this 
sufficient,  he  never  received  priest's  orders. 
He  was  pastor  at  Stoke-Newington,  and  at 
Covent  Garden,"  London  ;  chaplain  to  Crom- 
well, and  in  1660  to  Charles  II.,  but  ejected  in 
1662  and  imprisoned  six  months,  after  declin- 
ing the  deanery  of  Rochester.  He  was  an  emi- 
nent preacher  and  writer.  Among  his  books 
are  several  commentaries  and  CXG.  Sermons 
on  the  CXIX.  Psalm,  London,  1681  ;  the  8d 
ed.  of  this,  1841,  has  a  life.  His  collected 
works  appeared  in  5  vols,  folio,  1681-1701, 
and  were  reprinted  by  J.  C.  Ryle  in  22  vols. , 
1870-75.  F.  M.  B. 

Manuel,  Niklaus,  b.  at  Bern,  Switzerland, 
1484  ;  d.  there,  April  30,  1530  ;  was  a  paint- 
er, carver,  architect,  local  magistrate,  captain 
of  a  regiment  under  Francis  I.,  and  a  poet. 
His  "  moralities,"  Vom  Papst  und  seiner 
Priesterschaft  and  Von  Papsts  und  Christi 
Oef/ensatz,  and  his  satires,  Testament  der  Messe, 
Ecks  und  Fabers  Badenfahrt,  etc.,  proved 
sharp  and  effective  weapons  on  the  side  of  the 
reformers.  They  were  edited  by  Bachtold, 
Frauenfeld,  1878.  (See  memoir  by  Gruneisen, 
Stuttgart,  1837.) 

Ma'-rah  (bitterness),  a  place  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Shur  or  Etham  (Num.  xxxiii.  8),  three 
days'  journey  from  the  place  where  Israel 
crossed  the  Red  Sea.  Its  well  of  bitter  water 
was  sweetened  by  a  certain  tree  which  "  the 
Lord  showed  Moses."  It  cannot  now  be  cer- 
tainly identified.  T.  W.  C. 

Mar'-an-ath'-a,  two  Syriac  words  signifying 
"  Our  Lord  cometh."     See  Anathp:ma. 

T.  W.  C. 

Marback(mar'-bak),  Johann,  b.  at  Lindau, 
on  Lake  Con.stance,  Aug.  24,  1521  ;  d.  at 
Strassburg,  March,  17,  1581  ;  studied  theol- 
ogy at  Wittenberg,  and  was  appointed  pastor 


in  1545,  and  professor  of  theology  in  1552  at 
Strassburg,  where  he  caused  considerable  dis- 
turbances by  reorganizing  the  Reformed 
Church  on  a  Lutheran  basis.  (See  Treuss, 
^glise  Lutherienne  de  Strassbiirg  sous  Mar- 
bach,  Strassburg,  1857.) 

Marburg  Bible,  The,  a  precursor  of  the 
Berleburg  Bible,  consists  of  Luther's  trans- 
lation, somewhat  improved,  and  explanations 
gathered  from  various  places,  for  instance. 
Madam  Guyon,  but  tending  in  a  mystical 
direction,  appeared  at  Marburg  in  1712. 

Marburg  Conference,  The,  between  the 
German  and  Swiss  reformers,  was  held  Oct. 
2-Oct.  5,  1529,  for  the  purpose  of  accomplish- 
ing a  consolidation  of  the  two  movements. 
Luther,  who  was  the  spokesman  of  the  Ger- 
mans, was  hard  and  unyielding,  and  the  15 
articles  of  agreement  which  were  drawn  up 
and  subscribed  to  by  all  present  contain 
nothing  about  the  question  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. They  form,  however,  the  basis  of  the 
Confessio  Augustann.  (See  J.  Kradolfer, 
D.  M.  PiMigionsgesprdch,  Berlin,  1871.) 

Marcelllnus,  bishop  of  Rome,  June  30, 
296- Oct.  25,  305,  is  by  some  called  Marcel- 
lianus  and  by  others  confounded  with  his 
successor,  Marcellus.  During  the  persecu- 
tion of  Diocletian  he  became  a  tlmrificatus — 
that  is,  he  offered  incense  on  an  idol's  altar 
in  order  to  escape  prosecution  ;  even  Roman 
Catholic  writers  feel  compelled  to  accept  the 
fact,  and  it  has  been  used,  for  instance,  by 
Gerson  as  an  argument  against  the  infallibility 
of  the  pope. 

Marcellus.  1.  Popes.  (l)His  dates  are 
given  by  Lipsius  as  May  24  ('?),  307,  to  Jan. 
15,  309.  His  history  is  very  obscure  and  un- 
certain. (2)  Pope  April  10  to  May  1,  1555, 
b.  May  6,  1501  (Marcello  Cervini),  at  Monte- 
fano.  2.  Marcellus,  Bishop  of  Ancyra  in 
Galatia,  died  at  an  advanced  age,  373  or  374. 
He  first  appears  at  the  provincial  synod  at 
Ancyra  in  314,  and  then  at  the  Council  of 
Nice,  325,  where  he  was  a  zealous  defender 
of  the  Athanasian  doctrine.  His  book  Be 
Subjectione  Domini  Christi  was,  however, 
thought  to  fall  into  the  error  of  Sabellius,  and 
was  condemned,  336,  and  he  was  deposed. 
After  the  death  of  Constantine  he  was  re- 
stored to  his  bishopric,  but  maintained  him- 
self there  but  a  short  time  His  doctrine  was 
opposed  by  Athanasius,  who  respected  his 
person  and  did  not  mention  him  by  name. 
After  the  Synod  of  Sardica  we  know  little 
more  about  his  fortunes.  About  346  he  re- 
turned to  his  bishopric,  but  soon  retired,  pos- 
sibly having  never  fairly  gained  possession  of 
it.  The  point  of  his  doctrine  which  was  so 
objectionable  was  that  he  assigned  to  the 
Logos  no  personal  existence  before  the  incar- 
nation. In  this  we  are  to  see  only  the  active 
display  of  the  divine  power  directed  to  the 
salvation  of  man.  3.  There  were  several 
martyrs  of  the  name  of  ]\Iarcellus  :  (1)  the  one 
Avho  was  martyred  at  Chalons  in  140  (Sept. 
4),  probably  not  an  historical  character  ;  (2) 
one  martyred  at  Tingis  in  270,  not  historical ; 


MAROION 


(539) 


MARCUS 


(3)  the  martyr  of  Argenton  (June  29)  ;  (4) 
bishop  of  Apamea  under  Theodosius  the 
Oreat  ;  (5)  bishop  of  Die,  in  France,  martyred 
at  the  end  of  the  6th  century  (April  9).  Of 
these  last  as  little  is  really  known  as  of  the 
first.  F.  H.  F. 

Marcion  was  born  in  Sinope,  Bithynia  ;  is 
said  by  some  to  have  been  the  son  of  a  bishop, 
but  by  TertuUian  supposed  to  have  been  con- 
verted from  heathenism.  He  fell  out  with 
the  church  of  his  region  on  account  of  its 
worldliness,  and,  excommunicated,  went  to 
Rome.  Here  he  founded  a  church  of  his 
own,'  which  he  extended  into  all  parts  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  himself  making  extensive 
journeys  in  the  prosecution  of  the  work.  He 
was  in  Rome  at  the  height  of  his  career  be- 
tween 154  and  166.  In  his  old  age  he  is  said 
to  have  sought  readmittance  into  the  church, 
but  thi*  is  doubtless  untrue. 

His  system  was  not  properly  a  form  of 
Gnosticism  (q.v.),  since  the  prime  emphasis 
is  laid  in  it  upon  faith.  The  corruptions  of 
the  church  he  traced  back  to  Judaism,  and 
was  thus  led  to  reject  the  Old  Testament  and 
its  God,  the  God  of  justice,  whom  he  taught 
created  the  world  in  alliance  with  the  powers 
of  evil.  The  true  God  is  the  God  of  good- 
ness revealed  in  Jesus  Christ.  When  Christ 
appears,  the  God  of  the  Jews  takes  him  for 
the  Messiah  which  he  had  himself  promised 
his  people,  but,  undeceived,  he  causes  him  to 
be  crucified.  The  power  of  the  redemption 
consists  in  the  acts  of  love  which  Jesus  per- 
forms and  the  sufferings  which  he  under- 
goes. The  means  of  salvation  is  faith,  which 
divides  men  into  two  classes,  instead  of  the 
three  of  Gnosticism.  The  supposition  of  two 
gods,  good  and  evil,  and  of  tlie  docetic  char- 
acter of  the  body  of  Christ  are  the  chief  ele- 
ments taken  by  jMarcion  from  Gnosticism. 
In  accordance  with  his  general  position  tow- 
ard the  Jews,  the  Xew  Testament  is  "puri- 
fied "  of  Jewish  elements,  and  thus  reduced 
to  the  gospel  of  Luke  and  the  epistles  of 
Paul.  The  principal  writer  against  Marcion 
is  TertuUian  (q.v.),  whose  treatise  is  trans- 
lated in  vol.  iii.  of  the  Aute-Nicene  Library, 
Christian  Literature  Publishing  Company, 
New  York.  F.  H.  F. 

Marcus,  bishop  of  Rome,  Jan.  18-Oct.  7, 
336,  was  a  Roman  by  birth.  During  his  reign 
Arius  died  and  Athanasius  was  sent  into  ex- 
ile, but  the  letter  from  Athanasius  to  him, 
concerning  the  Council  of  Nice,  and  his  an- 
swer are  both  spurious. 

Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  Roman  em- 
peror and  sage  ;  b.  April  26,  a.d.  121,  at 
Rome  ;  d.  in  Pannouia,  ]\Iarch  17,  180.  Of 
a  noble  family,  he  was  adopted  by  his  uncle 
Antoninus  Pius,  when  the  latter  was  adopted 
by  Hadrian.  His  early  education  was  very 
carefully  conducted,  and  he  formed  then  an 
attachment  for  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics, 
which  he  always  retained.  Their  main  idea 
of  self-control  and  of  equanimity  as  the  goal 
of  moral  attainment  was  the  dominating  idea 
of  his  system  of  ethics.  He  advanced  rapitlly 
in  public  position,  was  consul  in  140,  suc- 
ceeded to  tlie  empire  in  161,  in  connection  with 
his  adoptive  brother  Verus,  and  became  sole 


ruler  in  169.  His  public  career  was  one  of 
unintermitted  struggle  against  the  barbarian 
enemies  of  the  empire  upon  every  side,  in 
which  he  won  many  victories,  but  finally  him- 
self succumbed  to  the  pest.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  character,  which  was  one  of  elevated 
morality,  and  is  best  expressed  in  his  Medita- 
tions, which  were  written  at  various  times  as 
occasion  offered,  and  which,  while  contaim'ng 
no  system  of  morality,  are  full  of  lofty  moral 
sentiment.  He  distinguishes  between  God 
and  matter  as  between  the  soul  and  the  body, 
but  gives  no  speculations  upon  the  real  nature 
of  God,  or  of  the  future  state. 

Under  this  wise  and  noble  emperor  the 
Christians  suffered  great  persecutions,  and  it 
becomes  a  question  of  imjxjrtance  how  he 
could  have  been  led  to  persecute  tlicni.  The 
answer  probably  is  that,  wliilc  his  ethical  sys- 
tem had  many  points  of  contact  with  that  of 
Christianity,  Aurelius  was  himself  ignorant 
of  the  fact.  He  misconceived  the  Christians 
as  fanatics.  Then  he  may  have  been  under 
the  control  of  influences  about  him  too  strong 
for  him  to  overcome.  He  must  have  regard 
to  the  senate  and  to  precedent.  Hence  the 
increasingly  severe  edicts,  under  which  Polj-- 
carp  and  Justin,  among  others,  died.  The 
best  translation  of  the  Meditations  is  that  of 
George  Long,  London,  1863.  (See  also  Far- 
rar's  Seekers  after  God,  London  and  New- 
York,  1869,  n.e.,  1877;  Aube,  Eist.  desper- 
seimtions,  Paris,  1875  ;  E.  Renan,  Marc- 
Aurele,  1881.)  F.  H.  F. 

Marcus  Eremita,  an  Egyptian  hermit 
about  the  end  of  the  4th  century.  Many 
legends  have  gathered  about  his  name,  and 
he  has  been  revered  as  a  saint  in  both  the 
Eastern  (day,  March  25)  and  the  "Western 
(day  in  October)  churches.  He  is  said  to  have 
died  about  410,  at  the  age  of  more  than  100 
years.  Nine  treatises  of  his  have  come  down 
to  us  (found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Or.  LXV.)  which 
deal  with  various  topics  of  a  mystic  and  as- 
cetic character.  In  them  are  found  in  close 
juxtaposition  the  spiritual  doctrines  of  justi- 
fication by  faith,  and  of  the  necessity  of  union 
of  soul  with  God,  and  the  Roman  doctrine  of 
justification  by  works.  Still  their  general 
tendency  is  to  spiritualize  and  deepen  the 
monastic  system.  Catholics,  like  Bellar- 
mine,  have  thought  them  interpolated  by 
Protestants  ;  but  the  explanation  of  their 
peculiarities  is  rather  that  they  belong  to  an 
early  .stage  in  the  history  of  the  churcli,  wl>rn 
the  doctrine  of  the  appropriation  of  salvation 
had  not  been  maturely  considered. 

F.  II.  F. 

Marcus  Eugenicus,  archbishop  of  Ephcsus, 
was  one  of  the  representatives  of  the  Greek 
Church  at  the  Council  of  Ferrara-Florence, 
1438,  but  strongly  opposed  to  the  i)ai)al  scheme 
of  a  union,  and  he  finally  refused  to  sign  the 
formula  of  concord,  July  6,  1439.  After  his 
r(;turn  to  Epiiesus  he  continued  to  work 
au^ainst  the  union,  and  on  his  death-bed.  1447, 
he  took  an  oath  of  Gennadius.  who  afterward 
became  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  tliat  he 
would  never  accept  the  plan.  A  list  of  his 
works  is  found  in  Labbe,   Con.    Coll.  xil:.. 


MARESIUS 


(540) 


MARK 


Maresius.     See  Des  Marets. 

Margarita  (Greek,  a  pearl)  is  the  name  of 
the  vessel  in  which  in  the  Greek  Church  the 
consecrated  host  is  preserved,  and  also  of  that 
piece  of  the  host  which  the  priest  carries  to 
the  sick. 

Marheineke  (mar  lilnneh-keh),  Philipp 
Konrad,  b.  at  Hildesheim,  May  1,  1780  ;  d. 
in  Berlin,  May  31,  1846  ;  studied  theology  at 
Gottingen,  and  became  professor  at  Erlangen, 
1805;  Heidelberg,  1807,  and  Berlin,  1811. 
His  first  works,  System  d.  Katholicismus  in 
seiner  sy nibolischen  Entwickelung,  Heidelberg, 
1810-13,  3  vols.,  and  OeschicMe  d.  deutsrhen 
Reformation,  Berlin,  1817,  2d  ed.,  1831-84,  4 
vols.,  have  considerable  historical  interest. 
Later  on  he  concentrated  himself  on  systematic 
theology,  and  his  Dogmatics,  Berlin,  1819,  is 
the  representative  work  on  the  right,  the  ortho- 
dox side  of  the  Hegelian  influence.  His  The- 
ologische  Vorlesungen  appeared,  1847-49,  4 
vols.     (In  vol.  i.  is  a  biographical  sketch.) 

Maria  Angelica.     See  Arnauld. 

Ma-ri-am'-ne  (Greek  form  of  Hebrew, 
Miriam),  a  favorite  wife  of  Herod  the  Great, 
to  whom  she  bore  two  sons,  Alexander  and 
Aristobulus,  and  two  daughters,  Salampso 
and  Cypros.  In  a  fit  of  jealousy  he  ordered 
her  to  be  put  to  death.  T.  W.  C. 

Mariana  (ma-re-a'-na),  Juan  de,  Jesuit  ;  b. 
at  Talavera  de  la  Reina,  1536  ;  d.  at  Toledo, 
Feb.  17.  1624.  He  studied  at  Alcala  ;  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  at  17,  and  taught  theol- 
ogy at  Rome,  1561,  in  Sicily,  1565,  and  at 
Paris,  1569,  returning,  1574,  to  Spain,  where 
he  led  a  literary  life  in  the  house  of  his  order 
in  Toledo.  His  De  rege,  Toledo,  1598,  justi- 
fies the  killing  of  a  king  who  opposes  the 
church,  and  for  this  was  burned  by  the  hang- 
man at  Paris.  Another  book  of  his,  exposing 
the  secrets  of  the  Jesuits,  was  published  in 
four  languages  by  an  enemy,  1625,  and  con- 
demned by  the  pope.  A  better  fate  attended 
his  Ristorioi  de  Rebus  Hispanic,  in  20  books, 
1592-1605  ;  this  the  author  translated  into 
Spanish,  1601-9.  F.  M.  B. 

Marianists,  Fratres  gaudentes,  Frati 
godenti,  Freres  joyeux  ("  Knights  of  tlie 
Holy  Virgin")  was  the  name  of  an  order  of 
knights  founded  at  Bologna  in  1233  by  a 
Dominican  monk,  Bartolomeo,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protecting  widows  and  orphans  against 
the  general  insecurity  and  violence  of  the  times. 
It  was  confirmed  by  Urban  IV.,  and  com- 
manderies  were  established  at  Modena,  Man- 
tua, Treviso,  and  other  cities  of  Northern 
Italy,  where  the  contest  between  the  Guelfs 
and  Ghibellines  raged.  As  the  brethren  were 
allowed  to  marry,  hold  private  property,  etc., 
they  were  called  gartdentes,  godenti.  In  the 
16th  century  the  order  disappeared.  (See 
Helyot,  Ordres  Monastiques,  iv.,  456-59.) 

Marie  Alacoque  (ma-re  a-lakok),  Roman 
Catholic  ;  b.  at  Lauthecourt,  July  22,  1647  ; 
d.  in  the  convent  of  Paray-le-Monial,  Oct.  17, 
1690  ;  both  places  in  the  diocese  of  Autun, 
Central  France.     She  took  the  veil  in  1672, 


and  on  her  visions,  some  of  which  she  put 
down  in  writing  and  accompanied  with  mir- 
acles, are  founded  the  festival  and  the  order  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  Her  life  was 
written  by  Joseph  Languet,  Paris,  1729,  and 
by  Daras,  Paris,  1875. 

Marinus,  the  name  of  two  popes.  See 
Martin  II.  and  III. 

Mariolatry,  the  worsliip  of  JNlary,  the 
mother  of  our  Lord.  The  New  Testament 
gives  no  sanction  to  this,  but  rather  a  warn- 
ing against  anything  of  the  kind  (Luke  xi. 
27,  28).  The  disposition  to  an  ascetic  life  in 
the  early  church  led  to  the  assertion  of  her 
perpetual  virginity  and  to  a  good  deal  of 
legendary  literature  as  to  her  early  history 
{The  Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary,  The 
Passing  of  Mary,  etc.).  This  was  further 
strengthened  by  the  results  of  the  Aijan  con- 
troversy. Our  Lord's  deity  was  made  so 
prominent  that  his  humanity  fell  into  the 
background,  and  hence  a  tendency  to  exalt 
his  mother  to  a  place  at  his  side  as  one  who 
could  feel  sympathy  with  all  human  sorrows. 
Nestorius  denied  to  her  the  title  "  mother  of 
God,"  but  he  was  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Ephesus,  431,  and  this  greatly  increased 
her  worship.  The  same  thing  followed  the 
iconoclastic  disputes.  Churches  were  dedi- 
cated to  her,  orders  founded  and  festivals  in- 
stituted in  her  honor,  and  her  cultus  assumed 
an  importance  which  it  has  never  lost  in  the 
Roman  communion.  In  1854  Pius  IX.  pro- 
claimed the  doctrine  of  her  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, which  is  now  accepted  as  an  article 
of  faith.  There  is  scarcely  an  epithet  of 
Christ  which  devout  Romanists  do  not  apply 
to  the  Virgin.  She  is  made  the  fountain  of 
grace,  and  as  mediatrix  between  Christ  and 
the  believer  is  virtually  put  in  the  place  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  T.  W.  C. 

Marius  Mercator,  a  layman,  but  an  able 
theologian  who  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
Pelagian  and  Nestorian  controversies  of  the 
5th  century.  Of  his  life  very  little  is  known. 
He  was  probably  a  native  of  Africa  and  a 
friend  of  Augustine.  He  lived  in  Rome 
about  418  and  in  Constantinople  about  429. 
His  last  work  dates  from  449.  He  was  a 
staunch  defender  of  orthodoxy,  and  his  works 
consist  partly  in  original  treatises  against 
Pelagianism  and  Nestorianism,  partly  in 
translations  from  Greek  in  the  same 'line. 
They  were  first  edited  by  Garnier,  Paris,  1673, 
and 'then  by  Baluze,  Paris.  1684.  In  Migne, 
Pat.  Lat.  XLVIIL,  is  found  an  elaborate  expo- 
sition of  all  facts  pertaining  to  his  life  and 
works.  It  appears  that  his  works  were  nuich 
used  in  the  9th  century  in  the  Gottschalk  con- 
troversy and  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  fabrication, 
and  as  nothing  was  known  about  his  life,  the 
fable  about  Isidorus  Mercator  arose. 

Mark,  or  John  Mark,  as  he  was  also  called 
(Acts  xii.  12,  25,  xv.  37),  was  probably  a  na- 
tive of  Jerusalem,  where  his  mother.  Mar}',  re- 
sided. To  her  house  Peter  came  when  re- 
leased from  prison,  and  he  would  naturally 
instruct  the  youth  whom  in  his  epistle(  I.  v. 
13)  he  speaks  of  as  "  Mark,  my  sou."  It  is 
thought  that  in  the  mention  of  the  young  man 


MARLORAT 


(541) 


MARONITES 


who  hurried  after  Clirist  clad  ouly  in  liis 
tunic  (Mark  xiv.  51,  52),  the  evan.t;elist  is  re 
countini?  his  own  experience.  He  Wiis  the 
companion  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  who  was 
his  cousin  (Col.  iv.  10),  on  their  tirst  mission- 
ary journey,  but  left  them  at  Perf!;a(Acts  xiii. 
13)  and  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and  in  conse- 
quence occasioned  a  "sharp  contention"  be- 
tween them  (Acts  xv.  89),  as  to  the  propriety 
of  taking  him  aloni:;  on  Paul's  second  mis- 
sionary journey.  But  he  labored  faithfully 
with  Barnabas  in  Cyprus,  and  aft(!rward  nj)- 
pears  as  a  companion  of  Paul  in  Rome  ((!()!. 
iv.  10,  Phile.  24).  He  was  with  Peter  when 
that  apostle  wrote  his  tirst  epistle  (v.  18),  but 
subsequently  was  with  Timothy  at  Epiiesus 
(2  Tim.  iv.  11).  Trailition  from  a  very  early 
date  spoke  of  him  as  the  "  interpreter"  of 
Peter,  meaning  doubtless  that  liis  gospel  rej)- 
resented  Peter's  views — a  view  which  is  con- 
tirmed  by  numerous  details  in  the  work. 

The  gospel  of  Mark,  although  the  shortest 
of  the  four,  is  in  no  way  inferior  to  the  others. 
It  relates  facts  rather  than  discourses.  The 
style  is  concise,  simple,  and  rapid.  Even 
when  reciting  the  same  things  as  the  others, 
it  is  distinguished  by  the  addition  of  minute 
graphic  circumstances  that  give  liveliness  to 
the  narrative.  It  was  written  for  Gentiles 
primarily  (as  the  frefpiont  explanation  of  Jew- 
ish customs,  etc.,  shows),  and  perhaps  with 
particular  reference  to  tlie  Romans,  as  Latin 
terms  (centurion,  etc.)  are  introduced,  and 
even  Roman  money  (xii.  42),  where  the  Greek 
word  for  farthing  is  simply  the  transliter- 
ation of  a  Roman  term.  One  of  jNIark's  pecu- 
liarities is  his  use  of  a  Greek  word  variously 
rendered  in  the  Authorized  Version,  but  al- 
ways "  straightway"  in  the  Revi.sed,  which  oc- 
curs forty  times  oftener  than  in  the  other  three 
gospels  together.  He  is  a  chronicler  rather 
than  a  historian,  and  his  is  the  pi(;torial  gos- 
pel. The  old  notion  that  Mark  was  an 
abridgment  of  Matthew  is  now  uecessaril}^ 
abandoned.  Besides  the  commentaries  in  the 
general  works,  such  as  Lange,  The  Spenker's, 
SchafT's  PopuUtr  C'onimentnry,  Meyer,  Aineri- 
can  Jiaptist ;  cf.  J.  Morison,  London,  1873, 
6th  ed.,  1889.  T.  W.  C. 

Marlorat  (mar-lo-ra),  Augustin,  b.  about 
150G  at  Bar-le-Duc,  the  old  capital  of  tlie 
duchy  of  Bar,  Lorraine  ;  hanged  at  Rouen, 
in  front  of  his  church-door,  Oct.  81,  1562  ;  a 
celebrated  Protestant  pastor.  He  w:us  edu- 
cated in  an  Augustine  convent,  ordained 
priest  in  1524,  and  in  1588  appointed  prior  of 
an  Augustine  monastery  at  Bourues — the  city 
in  %vhich  Cahin  and  Be/.a  made  tlicir  studies. 
It  soon  became  apparent  that  he  leaned  toward 
Protestantism,  and  in  1585  he  had  to  flee  for 
his  life  to  Geneva.  In  1559  lu;  returned  to 
France  ius  pastor  to  the  Reformed  congrega- 
tion in  Paris,  and  in  15G0  he  moved  to  Rouen. 
After  the  ma.s.sacre  of  Vossy,  March  1,  1562, 
the  Reformed  party  in  Rouen  took  ]ios.se.ssion 
of  the  city,  April  i6,  but  Oct.  26  tliey  had  to 
surrender  to  tiie  Roman  Catholics,  and  Mar- 
lorat was  condemned  to  death.  Of  his  Xori 
Te^itamenti  Cutholira  Exjwititu),  Genera,  1561, 
one  part  was  tninslated  into  English,  London, 
1570,  and  another,  1583. 


Marniz  (mar-neks),  Philipp  van,  baron  of 
St.  Aldegonde,  Dutch  Calvinist  ;  b.  at  Jirus- 
sels,  1588  ;  d.  at  Leyden,  Dec.  15,  1598.  He 
was  thorouglily  educatecl  at  Geneva  and  vhv- 
where,  and  imbibed  tlie  principles  of  C'alvin 
alike  in  theology  and  politics.  Returning  to 
the  Low  Countries  in  15()0,  he  took  an  active 
part  with  pen  and  sword  against  the  ))!ii)al 
encroachments.  After  describing  in  Duldi 
and  French  the  disturbances  at  Antwerp  in 
Aug.,  1566,  and  vainly  attcmi)ting  to  re-en- 
force Valenciennes,  he  escaped  to  Gitrmany, 
and  served  the  elector-palatine  for  some  years. 
He  was  ])r()mincnt  in  tlie  synods  of  Ant- 
werp, 1566,  Wcsel,  15(i8,  and'Enulcn,  1571  ; 
became  intimate  with  tiie  prince  of  Orange, 
and  wrote  the  ])()i)ular  and  elTective  "WiUutni'it 
Lull ;  headed  embassies  to  England,  1575-76, 
aiul  France,  1580  ;  was  involved  in  discredit 
by  the  duke  of  Anjou's  misconduct.  1583, 
and  his  own  surrender  of  Antwerp  to  the 
prince  of  Parma,  1587.  After  this  he  lived 
in  retirement  till  the  states-general,  in  1596, 
appointed  him  to  translate  the  Scrijjtures  ;  he 
removed  to  Leyden,  1597,  where  the  task  was 
cut  short  by  death.  Among  his  works  are 
I)e  Biencarfs  der  heUr/e  roomncJie  kecrke,  a 
satire  on  Rome,  1569,  and  a  Traiie  da  Sacra- 
ment, 1599.  A  selection  in  8  vols. ,  by  Quinet, 
was  published,  1857-60,  and  a  volume  of  his 
theological  writings  in  1871.  His  life  has 
been  written  by  Prins,  Leyden,  1782  ;  W. 
Broes,  Amsterdam,  1888  ;  E.  Quinet,  Brus- 
sels, 1854  ;  J.  Van  Hare,  Harlem,  1854  ;  T. 
Juste,  Brussels,  1858  ;  Volkman,  Harlem, 
1875  ;  and  Allieidingk-Thijm,  Harlem.  1878. 
F.  M.  B. 

Maronites,  a  Christian  sect,  or  nation,  as 
they  jtrefer  to  cjil!  tlieinselves,  in  communion 
with  Home,  hut  holding  many  peculiarities 
of  ritual.  They  occujiy  the  Lebanon  range 
for  about  56  square  miles,  reaching  from 
Tripoli  in  the  north  to  Tyre  and  even  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  on  the  .south.  '  There  are  also  scat- 
tered members  of  the  .'^ect  in  the  villages  of 
Syria,  in  Damascus,  and  even  in  Cvprus. 
They  number  all  told  probably  about  20(1,000 
souls.  Thev  are  an  agricultural  jxople. 
They  maintain  a  certain  independeiK-e  of  the 
Turkish  power.  Their  connection  with  Rome 
is  somewhat  loose,  but  there  are  not  wanting 
writers  who  claim  an  unbroken  orthodo.xy 
for  their  people  from  the  beginning.  It  is, 
however,  scarcely  .sul)jett  to  doubt  that  they 
were  originally  'Monolhelites,  for  whatever 
their  origin  niay  be,  whether  from  a  saint 
jVlaro,  wiio  lived"  about  the  year  400.  or  from 
a  much  earlier  saint,  the  tirst  menti.iii  of  their 
name,  which  is  by  writers  of  the  8th  century, 
designates  them  as  heretics,  and  thev  are  soon 
identilied  with  the  Monothelifes.  Yhe  .Alar- 
onite  writers  of  later  times  themselves  ap- 
peal, in  refutation  of  this  view,  to  the  liistory 
of  their  alleged  founder.  John  .Maro.  whom 
they  say  to  have  been  born  mar  Antioch.  to 
have  l>een  e(liicate<l  in  Constantinople,  to 
have  become  l)ishoi)  of  liotrus  in  676.  and  to 
have  converted  the  whole  range  of  Lrltanon, 
Monophvsites.  Monotlieliles.  etc.,  to  the  Ro- 
man faith,  and  appointed  ])riests  and  bishops. 
S(jme  modern  writers  d<iiy  that  there  is  even 


MAROT 


(542) 


MARRIAGE! 


an  atom  of  historical  trutli  in  this  account. 
That  there  has  been  some  connection  with 
Monothelitism,  the  Maronites  tliemselves  do 
not  wholly  deny.  From  it  tliey  say  they  re- 
turned to  the  Roman  Church  in  1182.  If  so, 
they  were  soon  estranged  again.  The  Roman 
Church  made  great  efforts  to  win  them  back 
after  the  Council  of  Florence,  in  1445.  Again, 
in  1596,  a  national  council  of  the  Maronites 
was  held,  and  after  the  concession  of  certain 
departures  from  the  Roman  customs — com- 
munion under  both  kinds,  marriage  of  priests, 
etc. — their  submission  to  the  papal  see  was 
obtained.  In  1736  another  national  council 
was  held,  and  here  the  Maronites  were  brought 
into  much  closer  connection  with  Rome. 
They  nominally  accepted  thejilioque,  kneeling 
at  the  consecration  of  the  host,  the  Council  of 
Trent  and  the  Roman  Catechism,  the  incor- 
poration of  a  prayer  for  the  pope  into  the 
liturgy,  and  the  confirmation  of  their  patri- 
arch by  the  pope,  and  his  responsibility  to 
him.  The  pope  had  already,  in  1584,  founded 
the  Maronite  College  in  Rome.  In  recent 
years  they  have  been  engaged  in  many  con- 
flicts with  the  Druses,  and  in  1860,  in  particu- 
lar, their  violence  led  to  a  general  massacre 
of  Christians  in  that  region.  (See  Dandini's 
account  of  the  mission  of  1596  in  French 
translation,  Voyage  du  Mont  Lebanon,  Paris, 
1685,  also  Robinson's  Researches,  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  for  1843,  and  Thomson,  in  the  Mission- 
ary Herald,  1845.)  F.  H.  F. 

Marot  (ma-ro),  Clement,  b.  at  Cahors, 
Central  France,  about  1497  ;  d.  at  Turin  in 
1544  ;  was  educated  at  the  court  of  Margue- 
rite of  Valois  and  led  a  very  adventurous  life  ; 
always  in  favor  with  Francis  I.,  because  he 
was  a  spirited  poet,  and,  nevertheless,  always 
persecuted  because  lie  was  a  Protestant.  He 
translated  the  Psalms  into  French  verses  : 
first  part  in  1541,  and  second  part,  with  a 
preface  by  Calvin,  in  1543  ;  and  they  were 
sung  both  in  the  Reformed  churches  and  at 
the  French  court.  Beza  completed  the  trans- 
lation in  1560.  (See  his  life  by  Douen,  Paris, 
1878-79,  3  vols.) 

Marriage  and  Divorce.  Marriage  is  the 
inseparable  union  of  one  man  and  one  woman 
for  the  happiness  and  perpetuation  of  the 
human  race.  Its  origin  in  Paradise  is  re- 
corded in  Genesis  (ii.  18-24),  and  the  record 
was  confirmed  by  our  Lord  (Mark  x.  2-9). 
This  record  implies  the  vinity  of  man  and 
wife,  indissoluble  save  by  adultery  (Matt. 
xix.  9),  their  social  equality  and  the  subordi- 
nation of  the  wife  to  the  husband  as  the  head 
of  the  household  (Ephes.  v.  22-33,  1  Peter 
iii.  1-7).  Marriage  by  prompting  parental 
love  and  the  sense  of  responsibility  secures 
provision  for  the  welfare  of  the  children  and 
their  proper  training,  and  is  indispensable  to 
what  is  included  in  the  idea  of  home.  Polyg- 
amy appeared  first  among  the  descendants 
of  Cain  (Gen.  iv.  19),  and  though  it  was  re- 
buked by  the  example  of  Noah  and  his  sons, 
it  prevailed,  nor  did  the  restrictions  Moses 
placed  upon  it  hinder  the  practice  from  con- 
tinuing up  to  the  time  of  the  Captivity.  But 
among  the  Hebrews  polygamy  was  never  so 
degrading  as  among    pagans,   a  distinction 


being  made  between  the  chief  wife  and  the 
secondary  wives,  and  the  rights  of  the  latter 
being  carefully  guarded  (Ex.  xxi.  10,  11). 
After  the  Captivity  no  cases  of  polygamy  are 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  we  find 
earnest  warnings  against  mixed  marriages 
with  heathen  women.  Before  Christ's  advent 
there  had  arisen  among  some  a  doubt  as  to 
the  propriety  of  marriage,  as  we  see  in  the  sect 
of  the  Essenes.  This  ascetic  view^  reappeared 
in  the  Christian  Church,  and  from  an  early 
period  until  the  Reformation  the  unmarried 
state  was  held  to  be  the  more  honorable,  not- 
withstanding .the  example  of  apostles  and 
such  Scriptures  as  Col.  ii.  16-23,  1  Tim.  iv. 
3,  Heb.  xiii.  4. 

The  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  marry 
within  certain  specified  degrees  (Lev.  xviii.), 
the  prohibitions  being  based  on  moral  pro- 
priety, social  expediency,  and  distinction  from 
heathen  practices.  Tliey  do  not  appear  to 
have  existed  in  patriarchal  times.  For  a  pe- 
culiar case,  see  Levihate.  The  priests  were 
expected  to  marry,  and  the  priesthood  was 
perpetuated  only  in  priests'  sons  (Ex.  xxviii. 
1,  43).  The  high  priest  could  marry  only  a 
virgin,  nor  could  any  priest  marry  a  divorced 
woman  or  a  harlot  (Lev.  xxi.  13,  7).  An 
heiress  was  forbidden  to  marry  out  of  her 
own  tribe  (Num.  xxxvi.  5-9).  Jewish  parents 
were  accustomed  to  negotiate  marriages  for 
their  children,  without  regard  to  the  young 
folks'  wishes  (Gen.  xxiv.  3,  4),  as  is  still  the 
case  in  the  Orient.  Sometimes  the  bride- 
groom exercised  some  influence  in  the  choice, 
but  there  is  no  record  of  a  case  in  which  the 
consent  of  the  bride  was  asked.  "  From  this 
humiliating  subjection  Christianity  alone  has 
succeeded  in  elevating  woman"  (Schaff). 

After  the  selection  of  the  bride  followed 
the  betrothal,  a  contract  made  under  oath, 
not,  however,  in  writing  until  after  the  Cap- 
tivity. The  marriage  dowry  was  given  not 
by  the  father  to  his  daughter,  but  by  the 
suitor  to  the  parents  of  the  bride  (Gen.  xxix. 
30),  the  primitive  idea  being  that  the  bride 
was  bought  by  money  or  by  service,  as  in  the 
cases  of  Jacob,  Joseph,  Moses,  and  Othniel. 
After  betrothal  the  bride  was  considered  a 
wife,  and  any  vmfaithfulness  on  her  part 
adultery  ;  yet  she  remained  in  her  parents' 
house,  and  all  communication  with  her  was 
carried  on  by  "  the  friend  of  the  bridegroom. " 
When  the  wedding  was  to  take  place  the 
groom  came  to  the  house  of  the  bride,  arrayed 
in  festal  garments,  with  the  nuptial  turban  on 
his  head  (Ps.  xlv.  8,  Cant.  iv.  10,  11,  Isa.  Ixi. 
10),  and  with  a  number  of  his  friends,  "  the 
children  of  the  bride -chamber"  (Matt.  ix.  15). 
The  bride  was  veiled,  adorned  with  jewels 
and  the  bridal  chaplet,  and  surrounded  by 
her  maiden  friends  (Isa.  xlv.  13,  14,  Isa.  xlix. 
18,  Ixi.  10,  Rev.  xix.  8,  xxi.  2).  Then  in  a 
great  procession  with  torchlights  and  lamps 
(Matt.  XXV.  1-10)  he  carried  her  to  his  house, 
where  a  feast  was  prepared,  and  often  this 
feast  lasted  for  seven  days  (Judges  xiv.  17,  18). 
Throughout  the  Scriptures  the  marriage  feast 
and  marriage  have  given  rise  to  numerous 
figurative  and  typical  allusions,  the  point 
of  comparison  in  the  Old  Testament  being 
the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  his  covenant  peo- 


MARROW 


(543) 


MARSH 


pie,  and  in  the  New  that  of  Christ  to  his 
church. 

Christianity  gives  peculiar  sacredness  to  the 
domestic  tie  ;  makes  true  love  its  basis,  and 
mutual  preference  of  each  other's  happiness 
its  rule,  and  even  likens  it  to  the  ineffable 
union  between  Christ  and  his  church  (Eph. 
V.  23-33).  Nowhere  is  woman  so  honored, 
happy,  and  useful  as  in  a  Christian  laud  and 
a  Christian  home.  The  Holy  Spirit  describes 
marriage  as  honorable  in  all  (Heb.  xiii.  4),  and 
desirable,  unless  in  exceptional  cases  (Matt. 
xix.  10-13,  1  Cor.  vu.  8,  26),  but  some 
branches  of  the  church  put  dishonor  upon  it 
by  extolling  celibacy  in  the  laity  and  forbid- 
ding marriage  to  the  clergy,  for  which  things 
there  is  no  excuse.  In  the  Old  Testament  a 
large  family  was  deemed  an  honor  and  a 
blessing.  The  contrary  view  which  now  ob- 
tains, that  children  are  an  evil  or  an  encum- 
brance, and  some  of  the  practices  to  which 
this  view  leads,  are  every  way  lamentable. 

Divorce  among  the  Jews  "was  not  an  act  of 
the  civil  judicature,  based  on  evidence  fur- 
nished by  the  injured  party,  but  was  the  act 
of  the  husband  alone,  who  could  put  away 
his  wife  if  he  "  found  any  unseemly  thing  in 
her."  To  prevent  this  from  being  a  sudden 
caprice,  he  was  required  to  give  her  ' '  a  bill  of 
divorcement"  (Deut.  xxiv.  1-4),  a  written  and 
formal  document  stating  the  grounds  of  his 
action.  Bat  the  right  even  with  this  limita- 
tion was  so  inconsistent  with  the  nature  and 
design  of  marriage,  that  our  Lord  said  ex- 
pressly (Matt.  xix.  8)  that  it  was  tolerated 
simply  because  of  their  "  hardness  of  heart." 
That  is,  considering  the  state  of  society  then 
and  the  harshness  of  the  race,  it  was  better 
for  the  wife  on  the  whole  that  this  liberty  of 
divorce  should  be  allowed,  seeing  that  with- 
out it  she  would  suffer  more  severely  in  other 
ways.  Christianity,  however,  has  made  a 
great  change,  our  Lord  admitting  only  one 
sufficient  reason  for  a  divorce — viz.,  adultery, 
and  adding  (Matt.  xix.  9),  "  And  he  that  mar- 
rieth  her  when  she  is  put  away  committeth 
adultery."  It  is  generally  considered  that 
to  this  cause  stated  by  the  Saviour,  the  apos- 
tle has  added  another  in  the  case  where  a 
Christian  convert  has  a  wife  still  an  unbe- 
liever (1  Cor.  vii.  11-15)  ;  he  is  not  to  sepa- 
rate from  her  if  she  will  remain  with  him  ; 
but  if  she  will  depart,  he  is  not ' '  under  bond- 
age, "a  very  strong  expression  to  denote  the 
state  of  one  still  held  by  a  tie  which  the  other 
party  repudiates.  But  apart  from  the  occur- 
rence of  adultery  or  final  desertion  the  Scrip- 
tures gave  no  warrant  for  allowing  the  disso- 
lution of  the  marriage  bond.  A  mere  sepa- 
ration from  bed  and  board,  the  living  apart, 
but  without  liberty  for  either  to  marry  an- 
other, is  proper  enough  under  certain  circum- 
stances ;  only  these  should  be  very  clearly 
established  to  justify  the  parties  in  pursuing 
a  course  so  liable  to  lead  to  evil  results. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  divorces  are 
not  allowed  in  any  case,  but  there  are  numer- 
ous circumstances  which  enable  the  authori- 
ties to  pronounce  a  marriage  void  ab  initio. 
Marriage  being  in  the  church's  view  a  sacra- 
ment, entire  control  of  it  is  claimed  by  its 
heads,  who  look  with  great  disfavor  upon 


what  is  called  civil  marriage.  Protestant 
churches  and  states  have  varied  much  in  their 
views.  In  Europe  all  matters  connected  with 
marriage  and  divorce  are  under  the  control 
of  the  state.  The  same  is  true  in  America, 
the  law  varying  in  almost  every  state  of  the 
Union.  In  South  Carolina  a  divorce  has 
never  been  granted.  In  New  York  and  New- 
Jersey  it  is  allowed  only  in  case  of  adultery. 
In  other  states  for  a  number  of  causes  which 
are  specified,  and  in  one  whenever  the  judge 
thinks  that  the  happiness  of  the  marriage  re- 
lation requres  it  (!).  There  is  a  growing  feel- 
ing among  jurists  and  moralists  that  divorce 
laws  should  be  more  strict  in  theory  and  ap- 
plication, seeing  that  the  number  of  divorces 
has  increased  so  much  of  late  years.  This 
cannot  go  on  without  undermining  the  whole 
social  system.  IMarriage  is  a  life  union,  and 
must  be  regarded  as  such  to  obtain  its  full 
benefits.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  rigid 
enforcement  of  New  Testament  law  in  some 
cases  would  work  great  hardship,  but  this 
ought  to  be  cheerfully  endured  in  view  of  the 
vast  evil  of  making  the  marriage  contract  to 
read  "  as  long  as  we  agree"  instead  of  "  until 
death  do  us  part. ' '  T.  W.  C. 

Marro-w  Controversy,  The,  thus  called 
after  the  book  which  caused  it,  The  Marrow 
of  Modern  Divinity,  by  Edward  Fisher,  of 
Oxford,  1644.  The  book  was  reprinted  in 
Scotland  in  1718,  and  soon  became  very  popu- 
lar. But  in  1719  it  was  directly  attacked  in 
the  sermon  opening  the  Synod  of  Fife,  and  in 
1720  it  was  formally  condemned  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly.  Then  its  admirers,  "  the 
Marrow  men,"  drew  up  a  "  representation." 
subscribed  to  by  12  pastors,  and  denouncing 
the  verdict ;  and  in  1722  these  "  representers" 
were  summoned  before  the  General  Assembly. 
As  the  a.ssembly,  however,  felt  that  it  was 
not  supported  by  the  church  in  general,  the 
question  was  quietly  dropped  ;  but  the  prin- 
ciple at  issue  in  this  controversy  was  essen- 
tially the  same  as  that  which  finally  caused 
the  secession  of  1734. 

Marsden,  Samuel,  apostle  of  New  Zealand  ; 
b.  in  England.  1764  ;  d.  in  Au.stralia.  May  12, 
1838.  At  first  a  Wesley  an  and  a  tradesman 
in  Leeds,  he  studied  at  St.  Joseph's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  in  1794  went  to  Australia  as 
chaplain  to  the  penal  colony  at  Paramatta, 
near  Sydney  ;  here  he  trained  the  convicts  on 
a  model  farm.  In  1809  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land for  help  to  found  amission  to  the  Maoris. 
Three  laymen  joined  hi)n  ;  he  bought  a  ves- 
sel, and  began  his  work  in  New  Zealand, 
which  thenceforth  he  often  visited  in  person. 
His  labors  were  attended  with  the  happiest 
results  in  civilizing  and  Christianizing  the 
island.  (See  C.  il.  Yonge's  Pioneers  and 
Founders,  pp.  216-40.)  F.  31.  B. 

Mars'  Hill,  the  seat  of  the  ancient  court  of 
Areopagus,  a  rocky  height  in  Athens  opposite 
the  western  end  of  the  Acropolis.  Hero  Paul 
delivered  his  famous  address  to  the  men  of 
Athens  (Acts  xvii.  19-34).  T.  W.  C. 

Marsh,  Herbert,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  18 — ), 
bishop  of  Peterborough  ;  b.  at  Faversham, 
Kent,  45  m.  s.e.  of  London,  Dec.  10,  1757  ; 


MARSHALL 


(544) 


MARTENSEN 


d.  at  Peterborough,  81  m.  n.  of  London,  May 
1,  1839.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  became  a  fellow,  1782  ; 
studied  further  at  Gottingen  and  Leipzig,  and 
by  German  pamphlets  won  notice  and  a  pen- 
sion at  home  ;  translated  Michaelis'  Introduc- 
tion to  the  JSfeio  Testament,  London,  1793- 
1801,  4  vols.  ;  became  Lady  Margaret  profes- 
sor of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  1807,  and  lec- 
tured in  English  instead  of  Latin  ;  bishop  of 
Llandaflf,  1816,  and  of  Peterborough,  1819. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  theologians  of  his  day, 
and  active  in  polemics  against  Rome  and 
Geneva.  Among  his  works  are  :  Authenticity 
of  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  London,  1792  ; 
Uriticism  and  Interpretation  of  the  Bible, 
1828  ;  Authenticity  and  Credibility  of  the  New 
Testament,  Cambridge,  1840.  F.  M.  B. 

Marshall,  Stephen,  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Godmanchester,  near  Huntingdon,  59  m.  n. 
by  w.  of  London,  date  not  known  ;  d.  in 
London,  1655.  He  studied  at  Emmanuel  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  was  settled  at  Wethers- 
field  and  at  Finchingfield,  in  Essex,  till 
silenced  by  Laud  ;  lecturer  at  St.  Margaret's, 
Westminster,  1640.  With  the  rise  of  the 
popular  party  he  came  to  the  front ;  was 
prominent  in  the  Smectymnuan  controversy, 
1641  ;  a  leading  member  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  1643,  and  accounted  the  greatest 
preacher  of  his  time.  He  was  active  in  politi- 
cal affairs,  and  repeatedly  a  commissioner  of 
the  Long  Parliament.  His  body  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  but  disinterred,  1660. 
He  published  many  sermons  and  A  Defence 
of  Infant  Baptism,  London,  1646.  His  life 
appeared,  1680.  F.  M.  B. 

Marshman,  Joshua,  D.D.  (Brown  Univer- 
sity, 1811),  Baptist  missionary  ;  b.  at  West- 
bury  Leigh,  Wiltshire,  98  m.  w.  of  London, 
April  20,  1768  ;  d.  at  Serampore,  India,  Dec. 
5,  1837.  He  was  a  weaver  till  1794,  and  then 
a  teacher  at  Bristol,  but  always  an  indefatiga- 
ble student.  In  1799  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  sent  him  to  India,  where  he  labored 
40  years  with  eminent  success,  establishing  in 
1800  schools,  which  brought  revenue  to  the 
mission,  and  in  1818  a  college.  His  talent 
for  languages  bore  abundant  fruit ;  he  was 
able  to  begin  preaching  in  Bengali  as  early  as 
Oct.  1,  1800  ;  with  the  aid  of  his  colleagues 
he  prepared  dictionaries  of  that  tongue  and 
of  the  Mahratta,  besides  a  Sanscrit  grammar 
and  a  native  newspaper  and  periodical.  He 
edited  The  Friend  of  India  as  a  monthly 
from  1818,  and  as  a  quarterly  from  1820. 
Not  content  with  these  labors,  he  turned  his 
attention  to  Chinese,  in  1806,  and  published 
a  Dissertation  on  the  Characters  and  Sounds 
of  the  Chinese  Language,  1809  ;  The  Works 
of  Confucius,  Containing  the  Original  lext, 
with  a  Tramlation,  1811  ;  Clavis  Sinica ;  or, 
Key  to  ths  Chiiuse  Language,  1814.  He  also 
wrote  a  Defence  of  the  Deity  and  Atonement 
of  Jesus  Christ,  1822,  in  answer  to  Rammohun 
Roy.  His  influence  secured  the  sympathy 
and  protection  of  Hastings,  Bentinck,  and 
other  governors  for  Serampore.  His  visit  to 
England,  1826-29,  and  his  later  years  were 
(embittered  by  the  unfriendly  attitude  of  the 
missionary  society,  which  sought  to  gain  pos- 


session of  the  large  mission  property  acquired 
by  him  and  his  colleagues.  After  Carey's 
death,  in  1834,  he  became  broken  in  bodily 
and  mental  health.  One  of  his  daughters  was 
the  wife  of  General  Havelock.  (See  J.  C 
Marshman's  Life  and  Times  of  Carey,  Marsh- 
man,  ami  Ward,  London,  1859,  2  vols.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Marsilius  of  Padua,  b.  between  1270  and 
1280 ;  d.  about  1342.  He  occupied  various 
important  positions  ;  was  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  in  1312.  physician  to  the  Ger- 
man emperor,  Lewi^IV.,  and  under  him  pa- 
pal vicar  in  Rome.  His  principal  importance 
arises  from  the  treatise  he  wrote,  entitled  De- 
fensor Pads  (Basel,  1522,  _  Frankfort,  1592). 
against  the  secular  pretensions  of  the  Roman 
Church,  which  rests  upon  the  thought  that 
Christ  is  the  head  of  the  church,  and  the 
Bible  the  only  source  of  doctrine,  thus  antici- 
pating the  Protestant  Reformation  long  before 
the  Reforming  Councils.  (See  Lechler's 
Wiclif)  F.  H.  F. 

Martene  (mar-tan),  Edmond,  b.  at  St.  Jean- 
de-Losne,  in  the  diocese  of  Langres,  Dec.  22, 
1654  ;  d.  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Germain-des-Pres, 
Paris,  June  20,  1739  ;  entered  the  Benedictine 
congregation  of  St.  Maur  ;  worked  under  and 
together  with  d'Achery  and  Mabillou,  and 
edited  Thesaurus  Novus  Anecdotorum,  Paris, 
1717,  5  vols.  fol.  ;  Veteruni  Scriptorum  AinpL 
Collectio,  Paris,  1724-33,  9  vols.  foL 

Marteiisen,  Hans  Lassen,  Lie.  Theol.  (Co- 
penhagen, 1837),  D.D.  (Kiel,  1840),  Lutheran 
bishop  ;  b.  at  Flensburg,  in  the  duchy  of 
Sleswick,  Aug.  19,  1808  ;  d.  in  Copenhagen, 
Feb.  3,  1884.  He  studied  theology  and  phi- 
losopliy  in  Copenhagen,  1827-32  ;  travelled, 
1834-36  ;  began  to  lecture  on  pliilosophy  in 
the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1838  ;  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  1840,  and 
became  bishop  of  Sealand — that  is,  primate 
of  the  Danish  Church  in  1854.  He  grew  up 
and  developed  in  close  contact  with,  and  yet 
entirely  independent  of  the  various  move- 
ments in  the  Danish  Church  and  their  rep- 
resentatives— Mynster,  Clausen,  Grundtvig, 
etc. — and,  though  he  never  became  a  leader 
himself  of  any  party,  he  brovight  into  the 
Danish  Church  a  strong  but  thoroughly  di- 
gested influence  from  Hegel  and  Schelling  on 
the  one  side,  and  Fr.  Baader  and  the  mystics 
on  tlie  other,  which  leavened  its  whole  life. 
His  first  lectures  in  the  university  created 
great  enthusiasm,  the  natural  result  of  the 
novelty  of  his  standpoint  and  the  charm  of 
his  talent.  Later  on  he  met  with  sharp  op- 
position on  account  of  the  delusiveness  of  this 
very  standpoint,  it  was  said,  and  the  danger 
of  his  talent.  But  neither  the  one  circum- 
stance nor  the  other  seems  to  have  had  any 
effect  upon  him  personally.  In  his  quiet  and 
reserved  way  he  continued,  uninterrupted  and 
undisturbed,  to  unfold  his  ideas,  and  as  he 
reached  onward  the  attention  widened  and 
deepened  around  him. 

He  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  representa- 
tives of  what  is  called  speculative  theology. 
A  natural  and  inborn  opposition  between 
faith  and  science,  theology  and  pliilosophy. 


MARTHA 


(545) 


MARTIN 


he  absolutely  denied,  and  where  a  discrepancy 
actually  occurred,  he  presupposed  a  mistake, 
an  error  as  its  origin.  Science,  he  said,  can 
never  reach  a  complete,  all-encompassing  con- 
ception of  existence,  of  nature  and  history, 
unless  it  starts  from  the  divine  revelation  in 
Holy  Scripture  as  its  centre  and  faith,  though 
in  its  innermost  kernel  a  simple  movomeut  of 
conscience  ;  the  relation  between  God  and 
man  feels  itself  with  necessity  driven  toward 
a  scientific  and  systematic  demonstration  of 
its  contents.  But  Holy  Scripture  is  and  mu.st 
always  remain  the  authoritative  guide  and 
absolute  norm  for  such  a  demonstration,  and, 
in  spite  of  its  many  resplendent  novelties  in 
details,  his  Dogmatics,  published  in  Danish  in 
1849,  and  afterward  in  two  German  trans- 
lations, keeps  strictly  within  the  pale  of  the 
doctrinal  system  of  the  old  Lutheran  Church. 
In  Denmark  this  book  and  the  standpoint  it 
represents,  this  complete  union  between  faith 
and  science,  between  theology  and  philoso- 
phy, and  the  speculative  principle  on  which 
it  was  founded,  was  vehemently  attacked  by 
Soren  Kierkegaard,  to  whom  every  and  any 
scientific  conception  was  utterly  indifferent, 
as  it  has  and  can  have  no  bearmg  whatsoever 
upon  man's  relation  to  God,  and  by  Rasmus 
Nielsen,  who  protested  that  it  was  not  the 
union,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  opposition 
between  faith  and  science  which  made  it  pos- 
sible for  the  human  consciousness  to  hold 
them  both  by  the  same  grip.  But  upon  Mar- 
tensen  those  attacks,  continued  through  years, 
seem  to  have  made  only  a  very  slight  impres- 
sion. 

With  his  speculative  standpoint  he  con- 
nected several  elements  of  mysticism  and  the- 
osophy.  While  travelling  as  a  young  man 
in  Germany  he  studied  the  mystics  with  great 
enthusiasm,  and  the  result  of  those  studies 
was  the  publication,  in  1840,  of  his  Meister 
Eckart,  translated  into  German  in  1842.  They 
are  also  quite  conspicuous  in  his  Dogmatics, 
in  his  idea  of  Christ  as  the  new  Adam,  wiiose 
apparition  is  not  only  of  spiritual  but  also  of 
cosmic  import  ;  of  the  miracle  as  the  key  to 
the  last  understanding  of  nature  ;  of  the  effect 
of  the  sacraments  on  the  natural  part  of  man 
as  building  up  within  him  the  body  of  resur- 
rection, etc.  And  they  are  even  recognizable 
in  his  last  great  w^ork,  Christian  Ethics,  1871- 
78,3  vols.,  immediately  transluted  into  Ger- 
man, and  often  reprinted,  more  especially  in 
vol.  2,  Individi(((l  Ethics.  The  theosophical 
elements  developed  later,  under  the  influence 
of  Schelling'slast  writing,  though  he  received 
the  first  impulse  in  that  direction  from  Baader. 
They  are  principally  met  with  in  his  Eaith 
and  Science,  published  in  1867  against  Rasmus 
Nielsen,  translated  into  German^in  Jahrbucher 
f'llr  dsufsche  Theologie,  xiv.,  1869,  and  Jakob 
Bohi/te,  1881.  translated  into  German,  1882  ; 
in  his  development  of  the  logical,  physical, 
and  etliical  idea  of  God  ;  in  Jiis  idea  of  the 
glory  of  God  as  the  uncreated  heavens,  etc. 
His  "mysticism  and  llieosophy  were,  however, 
very  far  from  drawing  him  away  from 
the  world  in  which  he  lived.  On  the  con- 
trary, some  of  the  best  things  wiiich  came 
from  his  pen  are  a  number  of  memoirs  on 
Mynster,   Gruudtvig,   Rasmus  Nielsen,   etc., 


not  seldom  of  a  polemical  character,  and  al- 
ways intended  for  some  practical,  instantane- 
ous effect.  By  the  sharp,  just,  and  noble  light 
which  tliey  throw  both  on  persons  and  prob- 
lems they  have  proved  invaluable  contribu- 
tions to  Danish  culture.  Of  a  somewhat  sim- 
ilar  character  are  also  his  sermons,  of  which 
he  published  several  collections  ;  they  are 
more  contemplative  than  stirring,  they  in- 
.struct  without  exciting.  Shortly  before  he 
died  he  published  his  autobiography,  also 
translated  into  German,  Aus  -meineii  Lchcn, 
1883.  (Condensed  translation  of  the  article 
of  P.  Madsen  in  supplement  to  2d  ed.  of  Pler- 
zog,  RealencyklopMie.) 

In  English  have  appeared  of  IMartensen's 
works  his  Christian  Dogmatics.  Edinburgh, 
1866  ;  Christian  Ethics,  1873-82,  3  vols.  ;  in 
German,  besides  those  mentioned  al)ove,  his 
correspondence  with  Dorner,  Briefwechsel, 
Berlin,  1888,  2  vols.  C.  P. 

Martha,  sister  of  Lazarus  and  Mary  of 
Bethany.  Unlike  her  sister  in  temperament, 
she  was  a  devoted  friend  of  Christ  and  be- 
loved by  him  (John  xi.  5),  nor  does  his  gentle 
reproof  (Luke  x.  38-42)  imply  that  she  was  a 
stianger  to  renewing  grace.  T.  W.  C. 

Martin,  popes  of  that  name.  1.  Pope  649 
to  6o3.  lie  was  born  in  Todi  in  Umljria.  He 
did  not  wait  for  the  imperial  confirmation  of 
his  election  before  consecration,  for  which  the 
emperor  sent  an  army  against  him.  He  was 
finally  taken  and  brought  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  treated  with  great  cruelty,  and 
at  last  banished  to  Cherson,  March,  655,  where 
he  died  the  following  Sept.  16.  2  and  3.  The 
popes  Marinus  I.  and  II,  are  reckoned  under 
the  name  of  3Iartin  also  in  some  catalogues. 
The  dates  of  their  pontificates  are,  respectively, 
882-84  and  942-46.  4.  Pope  1281-85.  Si- 
mon de  Brion,  b.  in  Touraine  ;  was  made  car- 
dinal in  1261,  and  performed  several  diplo- 
matic missions  in  France.  Elected  pope,  he 
was  entirely  dependent  upon  Charles  of  An- 
jou,  for  the  sake  of  whose  interests  in  Greece 
he  excommunicated  the  Greek  emperor,  and 
thus  broke  up  the  efforts  which  Nicholas  III. 
had  made  for  the  reunion  of  the  two  churches. 
5.  Pope  1417-31.  Oddo  Colonna,  as  cardi- 
nal, had  had  the  appeal  of  Hus  against  the 
order  to  burn  Wiclif 's  writings  and  to  cease 
preaching  in  chapels  to  examine,  and  had  re- 
ported unfavorably  upon  it.  At  the  Council 
of  Constance,  after  the  3  existing  popes  had 
all  been  deposed,  he  was  elected  pope,  before 
any  steps  had  been  taken  to  reform  tlie 
church.  Martin  appointed  a  commi.-sion  for 
that  ostensible  purpose,  but  his  measures  were 
really  hostile  to  the  effort,  and  nothing  came 
of  it.  He  stirred  up  repeated  crusades  against 
the  Hussites.  He  finally  called  the  council 
promised  at  Constance  to  meet  at  Pa  via,  and 
opened  it  in  1423,  but  transferred  it  to  Siena, 
and  dissolved  it  in  1424.  He  also  called  the 
Council  of  Basel,  but  did  not  live  to  sec  it 
assemble,  dying  Feb.  20,  1431.        F.  H.  F. 

Martin  of  Braga,  or  Dunxia,  b.   in   Pan- 

noiiiatnow  llimgary),  about  510  ;  d.  at  Braga, 
Portugal,  35  m.  n.el  of  (Oporto,  about  585  ;  be- 
came a  monk  ;  trav(>lled  in  the  East,  where 


MARTIN 


(546) 


MARTYR 


he  acquired  great  learning,  and  went  from 
the  Holy  Land  to  Spain,  where  he  labored  to 
convert  the  half-pagan,  half-Arian  Sueves  of 
Gallicia  ;  founded  the  monastery  of  Dumium, 
and  was  made  archbishop  of  Braga  by  King 
Theodemir,  559-70.  His  works  are  partly 
canonical,  CoUectio  orientalium  canonum  or 
Gapltula  Martini  (Mansi,  Con.  Coll.  ix.);  part- 
ly ethical.  Formula  honestm  vitcB,  Libellus  de 
morihus,  De,  superbia,  De  ira,  etc.  Some  of 
the  latter  have  been  often  reprinted  as  works 
of  Seneca.  (See  Haase  in  his  edition  of  Sene- 
ca's works,  Leipzig,  1853.  See  Gams,  Kirch- 
engeschiclite   Spaniens,  ii.)  C.  P. 

Martin  of  Tours,  b.  at  Sabaria,  Pannonia, 
319  ;  d.  at  Candes,  Gaul,  400.  His  parents 
were  pagans,  but  he  became  a  catechumen 
when  10  years  old,  and  was  baptized  in  his 
18th  year.  His  father  was  a  tribunus  militum, 
and  compelled  him  to  enter  the  army,  and  he 
served  in  Gaul  until  he  was  21,  when  he  left 
the  army  ;  was  ordained  a  deacon  by  Hilary 
of  Poitiers,  and  took  up  an  ascetic  life.  After 
a  visit  to  his  home  and  a  short  stay  at  Milan 
he  settled  near  Poitiers  as  a  hermit  ;  other 
hermits  joined  him,  and  a  monastic  institu- 
tion, the  oldest  in  Gaul,  monasterium  Lococia- 
gense,  Liguge,  was  formed.  In  875  he  was 
elected  bishop  of  Tours,  but  he  continued  to 
live  as  a  monk,  and  founded  Marniontier. 
As  a  bishop  he  took  no  part  in  the  theological 
controversies  of  the  time,  and  he  has  written 
nothing  ;  he  addressed  liimself  exclusively  to 
the  pagans,  and  he  has  done  more  for  the 
Christianization  of  Gaul  than  any  other  single 
man.  His  life  became  a  legend  even  before 
he  died.  It  was  written  by  Snlpicius  Seve- 
rus,  a  pupil  of  his,  and  by  Gregory  of  Tours, 
and  he  is  the  patron  saint  of  France.  (See 
Chamard,  Saint  Martin,  Paris,  1878.) 

Martin,  William  Alexander  Parsons,  D.  D. 
(Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa.,  1860),  LL.D. 
(University  of  New  York,  1870),  Presbyte- 
rian ;  b.  at  Livonia.  Ind.,  April  10,  1837; 
graduated  at  the  State  University  at  Bloom- 
ington,  Ind.,  and  at  the  Presbyterian  Theo- 
logical Seminary  of  New  Albany  ;  was  mis- 
sionary at  Ningpo,  1850-60,  and  in  Peking, 
1868-68  ;  became  president  of  the  Imperial 
Tungweu  College  of  Peking  in  1869,  and  was 
made  a  mandarin  in  1885.  He  has  written  in 
Eaglish,  The  Chinese,  London,  1880,  New 
York,  1881,  etc.,  and  in  Chinese,  Evidences 
of  Christianity,  which  has  also  been  trans- 
lated into  Japanese,  etc.  He  has  also  trans- 
lated works  of  Wheaton,  Woolsey,  Blunt- 
schli,  etc.,  into  Chinese. 

Martin    Marprelate    Controversy,    The, 

thus  called  after  the  pseudonym  under  whicli 
was  printed,  in  1588-89,  a  series  of  seven 
tracts,  which  attacked  the  prelacy  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church  with  great  vigor  and  wit.  Their 
circulation  was  very  wide  and  the  controversy 
they  caused,  very  angry,  but  their  authorship 
was  never  discovered  ;  by  some  it  is  ascribed 
to  Henry  Barrowe,  by  others  to  the  Jesuits. 

Martineau,  James,  LL.D.  (Harvard  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  Mass.,  1873),  Th.D.  (Ley- 


den,  Holland.  1875),  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, 1884),  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  Norwich,  Eng., 
April  21,  1805  ;  a  younger  Ix-other  of  Harriet 
Martineau  ;  was  professor  of  philosophy  in 
Manchester  New  College,  London,  1857-85, 
and  minister  of  Little-Portland-St.  Chapel, 
1859-72,  and  wrote  The  Rationale  of  Belig- 
ioits  Enquiry,  London,  1836,  4th  ed.,  1858; 
JJnitarianism  Defended,  1889  ;  Hymns,  1840, 
38d  ed. ,  1885  ;  Tyjws  of  Ethical  Theory, 
1885,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1886  ;  A  Study  of  Re- 
ligion,  1888,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1889;  The  Seat 
of  Authority  in  Religion,  1890. 

Martyn,  Henry,  missionary  ;  b.  at  Truro, 
Cornwall,  Eng.,  Feb.  18,  1781  ;  d.  at  Tokat, 
Persia,  Oct.  16,  1812.  He  was  educated  at  a 
grammar  school  at  Truro,  1788-97,  and  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
senior  wrangler,  1801,  and  fellow,  1802. 
Becoming  a  disciple  of  Simeon,  he  served  as 
his  curate,  1808-5,  and  set  liis  heart  on  the 
foreign  work.  In  July,  1805,  he  sailed  as  a 
chaplain  of  the  East  India  Company  for  Cal- 
cutta, which  he  reached  April  21.  He  was 
stationed  at  Dinapore  from  Oct.,  1806.  to 
April,  1809,  and  then  at  Cawnpore,  where  he 
preached  to  the  heathen  "  amid  groans,  hiss- 
ings, curses,  blasphemies,  and  threatonings,'" 
trusting  that  God  "  might  design  by  his  pa- 
tience and  continuance  in  the  wojk  to  encour- 
age other  missionaries."  Meantime  his  hn- 
guistic  talents  were  diligently  exercised.  He 
had  finished,  in  Feb.,  1807,  a  translation  of 
part  of  the  Prayer-Book  into  Hindustani,  and 
in  March,  1808,  one  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  now  made  a  Persian  version,  but  the  work 
required  revision  ;  his  health,  never  strong, 
was  failing,  and  his  physician  ordered  a  voy- 
age ;  so  he  sailed  for  Persia  in  1811,  mean- 
ing to  go  also  to  Arabia  and  translate  the 
New  Testament  into  Arabic.  At  Shiraz  he 
revised  his  Persian  Testament,  made  a  ver- 
sion of  the  Psalms,  and  engaged  in  disputa- 
tion with  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and  Arme- 
nians. Thence  he  went  to  Tebriz  to  lay  his 
translation  before  the  Shah.  The  journey 
and  further  discu.ssions  prostrated  him,  and 
he  turned  toward  Constantinople,  Sept.  12, 
seeking  escape  to  a  milder  climate,  but  died 
on  the  way  among  strangers.  His  fervid  and 
devoted  spirit  have  endeared  his  memory  to 
multitudes  ;  Ward  called  him  the  most  suc- 
cessful missionary  who  had  then  visited  India. 
His  posthumous  publications  were  XX.  Ser- 
mons;  Controversial  Tracts  on  Christianity 
and  Mohammedanism,  edited  by  Dr.  S.  Lee, 
Cambridge,  1824  ;  Journals  and  Letters,  edited 
by  S.  Wi'lberforce,  London,  1887,  2  vols.  His 
life  was  written  by  J.  Sargent,  London,  1819, 
and  again  hy  C.  D.  Bell,  New  York.  1881,  and 
J.  Hall,  Philadelphia,  1883.  F.  M.  B. 

Martyr  {a  witness)  occurs  thrice  in  the 
New  Testament  (Acts  xxii.  30,  Rev.  ii.  18, 
xvii.  6).  In  other  places  the  Greek  word  is 
rendered  "  witness"  (Matt,  xviii.  16,  Luke 
xxiv.  48),  which  is  its  original  meaning. 
After  the  apostolic  age  it  came  to  denote,  as 
it  now  does,  a  witness  who  seals  his  testimony 
with  his  blood.  "  The  noble  army  of  mar- 
tyrs" is  one  of  the  most  precious  possessions 
of  the  Christian  Church.  T.  W.  C. 


MARTYROLOGIUM 


1 547) 


MASON 


Martyrologium  is  a  list  of  martyrs,  with 
notices  about  tlieir  lives  and  death.  Jerome 
is  said  to  have  made  such  a  compilation,  but 
the  fragments  of  it  now  in  existence  seem  to 
belong  to  a  later  date.  There  is  one  from  the 
7th  century  by  Bede,  several  from  the  8th  by 
Rhabanus  Maurus,  Ado  of  Vienne,  and  after 
the  time  of  Charlemagne  they  became  very 
frequent.  Generally  they  were  confined  to  the 
martyrs  of  one  place  or  one  country,  but  in  1586 
Sixtus  V.  charged  Baronius  with  tlie  compila- 
tion of  a  Martyrologinm  Universale.      C.  P. 

Martyrs,  The  Forty,  were  40  soldiers  in 
the  Roman  army  stationed  at  Sebaste,  in  Ar- 
menia, during  the  winter  of  320,  who,  be- 
cause they  were  Christians  and  would  not 
offer  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  were  placed  naked 
on  a  pond  covered  with  ice  and  kept  there  the 
whole  night,  after  which  their  corpses  were 
burned.  Basil  of  Ctesarea,  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
Chrysostom,  and  others  often  allude  to  the 
event  in  their  homilies. 

Mary,  the  Miriam  of  the  Hebrews.  1.  The 
mother  of  our  Lord,  "  blessed  among  women," 
was  of  the  lineage  of  David.  After  the  re- 
turn from  Egypt  she  is  mentioned  only  five 
times  in  the  sacred  history— at  Christ's  appear- 
ance in  the  temple  (Luke  ii.  48),  the  marriage 
in  Cana  (John  ii.  3),  the  attempt  to  speak  with 
Jesus  while  he  was  teaching  (5jatt.  xii.  46),  at 
the  crucifixion  (John  xix.  26),  and  with  the 
disciples  after  the  ascension  (Acts  i.  14). 
Thenceforth  no  reference  or  allusion  is  made 
to  her.  The  legends  which  have  clu.stered 
around  her  name  are  all  fabulous  and  of  in- 
jurious tendency.  2.  The  mother  of  John 
Mark  and  aunt  of  Barnabas  (Acts  xii.  12,  Col. 
iv.  10),  a  godly  woman  residing  in  Jerusalem, 
at  whose  hou.se  the  disciples  were  met  the 
night  of  Peter's  miraculous  deliverance.  3. 
The  wife  of  Alphfeus  or  Clopas,  and  mother 
of  James  the  Jess  and  Joses  (Matt,  xxvii.  56, 
61,  Mark  xv.  40,  Luke  xxiv.  10,  John  xix. 
25).  She  believed  early  on  Jesus  Christ,  ac- 
companied him  on  some  of  his  journeys,  fol- 
lowed him  to  Calvary,  and  was  with  his 
mother  at  the  foot  of  the  cross.  She  was 
present  at  his  burial,  was  among  those  who 
went  to  embalm  him,  and  among  the  earliest 
to  receive  the  news  of  his  resurrection,  and 
while  going  to  tell  the  news  met  the  Lord  and 
worsliipped  him.  4.  The  sister  of  Lazarus 
and  Martha,  a  devoted  disciple  of  our  Lord, 
who  said  she  had  chosen  the  good  part  which 
should  not  be  taken  from  her  (Luke  x.  41, 
42).  Contemplative,  confiding,  and  affection- 
ate, it  was  her  joy  to  sit  at  the  Master's  feet. 
She  anointed  liis  feet  with  precious  spikenard 
(John  xii.  8)  and  received  an  encomium  yet 
more  precious  (Matt.  xxvi.  10,  13).  5.  Mary 
Magdalene  or  of  Alagdala  on  the  Sea  of  Gali- 
lee. There  is  no  ground  for  the  common 
opinion  that  she  was  an  unchaste  woman. 
Relieved  by  Christ  of  a  demoniacal  possession, 
she  became  his  faithful  follower  (Luke  viii. 
2,  3),  and  showed  her  attachment  to  him  and 
his  cause  to  the  very  end.  Last  at  his  cross 
and  earliest  at  his  grave,  slie  was  the  first  to 
whom  the  risen  Redeemer  appeared,  and  his 
conversation  with  her  (John  xx.  11-181  is  won- 
derfully pathetic  and  touching.     T.  W.  C. 


Ma-sa'-da,  a  strong  fortress  on  the  shore  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  south  of  Engedi,  built  by  Jona- 
than Maccabeus  and  strengthened  by  Herod 
the  Great.  It  was  captured  by  Flavius  Silva 
in  the  Jewish  war,  but  the  whole  garrison, 
women  and  all,  killed  themselves  before  he 
entered.  T.  W.  C. 

Mason,  Francis,  D.D.  (Brown  University, 
1853),  Baptist  missionary  ;  b.  at  York,  Eug., 
April  2,  1799  ;  d.  at  Rangoon,  Burmah, 
March  3,  1874.  Coming  to  America,  1818, 
he  worked  as  a  shoemaker  for  9  years  ;  en- 
tered Newton  Theological  Institution,  1827, 
and  sailed  for  Burmah,  1830,  succeeding 
G.  D.  Boardman  at  Tavoy.  Here  he  trans- 
lated the  Scriptures  into  two  native  dialects, 
and  conducted  a  training  school  for  native 
teachers.  In  1853  he  removed  to  Toungoo, 
and  in  1854-56  visited  England  and  America. 
He  published  a  Pali  grammar  and  vocabulary', 
and  in  Karen  The  Sayings  of  the  Elders,  a 
monthly  paper,  etc.,  and  in  English  Te/uts- 
serirn,  Rangoon,  1852,  enlarged  as  Burmah, 
its  People  and  Natural  Products,  1865,  and 
several  memoirs,  among  them  an  autobiog- 
raphy. Story  of  a  Workingman' s  Life,  New 
York,  1870.  F.  M.  B. 

Mason,  John  Mitchell,  D.D.  (University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1804),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  in 
New  York,  March  19,  1770  ;  d.  there,  Dec. 
26, 1829.  He  graduated  at  Columbia,  1789,  and 
studied  divinity  at  Edinburgh,  1791-92  ;  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  associate  Reformed  pastor 
in  New  York,  1793-1810;  published  Litters  on 
Frequent  Communion,  New  York,  1798  ;  was 
founder  and  professor  of  the  first  theological 
seminary  in  America,  1805  ;  edited  and  mainly 
wrote  The  Christian  Magazine,  1807-10,  con- 
ducting a  controversy  with  Bishop  Hobart  ; 
provost,  of  Columbia  College,  1811-16  ;  a 
founder  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  1816, 
and  its  first  foreign  secretary  ;  president  of 
Dickinson  College,  1821-24.  In  1810-12  he 
gathered  a  new  congregation  in  Murray 
Street  ;  accused  of  affiliating  with  Presbj'te- 
rians,  he  defended  his  position  in  ^4  Plea  for 
Sacramental  Communion  on  Catholic  Prin- 
ciples, 1816,  and  in  1822  joined  the  Presby- 
terian Church.  He  was  a  man  of  command- 
ing presence,  eloquence,  and  influence,  and 
was  accounted  the  greatest  prtacher  of  hie 
time.  Robert  Hall  called  him  "  one  of  the 
brightest  ornaments  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere," and  Dr.  J.  "\Y.  Francis  "  this  heroic 
scholar  and  divine,  .  .  .  the  chieftain  of  the 
ecclesiastical  brotherhood  of  those  days." 
His  writings  were  collected  by  his  son  in  4 
vols.,  New  York,  1832,  n.e.,  1849  ;  his  me- 
moir was  written  by  his  son-in-law,  Dr.  J. 
Van  Vechten,  New  York,  1856,  2  vols. 

F.  M.  B. 

Mason,  Lowell,  Mus.  Doc.  (University  of 
New  York,  l^<o5),  b.  at  Medfield,  Mass.,  Jan. 
8,  1792  ;  d.  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  Aug.  11,  1872. 
His  passion  for  music  was  developed  early, 
and  overcame  every  disadvantage.  He  taught 
in  Savannah,  1812-27.  and  then  in  Boston  ; 
in  1829  he  adopted  the  Pestalozzian  method. 
His  first  book,  the  Handel  and  llaydn  Society's 
Collection,  Boston,  1821,  wiis  followed  by  50 


MASS 


(548) 


MASS 


others,  ia  aggregate  circulation  exceeding 
2,000,000.  He  founded  the  Boston  Academy 
of  Music,  1832,  and  greatly  stimulated  musi- 
cal education,  doing,  however,  "  more  to 
make  the  practice  of  vocal  music  popular  than 
to  raise  the  standard  of  musical  culture." 
His  services  to  church  and  Sunday-school 
music  were  great.  In  several  of  his  publica- 
tions he  was  associated  with  Thomas  Hastings 
and  Professors  Park  and  Phelps,  of  Andover. 
F.  M.  B. 

Mass  (Latin,  musn),  the  name  given  in  the 
Roman  Church  to  the  celebration  of  the 
eucharist,  said  to  be  derived  from  the  words 
used  at  the  close  of  the  service,  Ite,  missa  est 
("Go;  the  assembly  is  dismissed").  This 
service  is  held  to  be  a  sacritice  which  the 
priest  offers  for  the  living  and  the  dead.  Now 
it  is  true  that  in  the  New  Testament  mention 
is  made  of  sacrifice,  but  always  in  a  figurative 
or  spiritual  sense,  for  all  believers  are  priests 
(1  Peter  ii.  5,  9),  and  their  good  deeds  and 
holy  services  are  called  sacrifices  (Rom.  xii. 
1,  Heb.  xiii.  15,  16).  Paul  compared  the  faith 
and  the  gifts  of  the  Philippians  to  a  sacrifice 
and  his  own  life  to  a  drink  offering  (Phil.  ii. 
17,  iv.  18).  This  view  continued  to  prevail 
in  the  early  church,  but  in  the  time  of  Cyprian 
the  term  priest  began  to  be  restricted  to  the 
clergy,  and  the  eucharist  to  be  spoken  of  as 
an  oblation  of  Christ's  body  and  blood.  Cyril 
speaks  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  an  atoning 
sacrifice,  and  Augustine  calls  it  "  a  memorial 
of  an  accomplished  sacrifice,"  but  at  the  same 
time  "a  most  true  sacrifice."  In  the  Latin 
Church  as  time  went  on  an  increasing  em- 
phasis was  laid  on  the  sacrificial  notion. 
Gregory  the  Great  held  that  a  victim  was  on 
the  altar  through  which  Christ's  sufferings 
were  repeated,  and  in  his  time  the  custom 
was  established  of  saying  masses  as  expiatory. 
But  in  the  beginning  of  the  13tli  century, 
when  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  was 
fixed,  the  sacrificial  character  of  the  mass  was 
determined  by  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Albert 
the  Great.  And  their  view  was  fully  adopted 
and  rigidly  defined  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
which  made  the  mass  the  central  idea  of  the 
whole  system,  seeing  that  in  it  the  incarna- 
tion and  sufferings  of  Christ  are  repeated 
every  day.  No  participation  of  communi- 
cants is  required,  but  simply  an  act  of  con- 
secration by  the  priest,  who  thus,  in  the  name 
of  the  church,  atones  and  intercedes  for  the 
living  and  the  dead.  The  only  difference  be- 
tween this  expiation  and  that  on  the  cross  is 
that  the  former  is  bloodless. 

There  are  two  main  parts  of  the  mass,  the 
introit,  or  preparatory  celebration,  and  the 
sacramental,  or  offering  of  the  Ijody  and 
blood.  Gregory  the  Great  established  the 
liturgy  of  the  Latin  Church,  but  various 
usages  prevailed  until  a  revision  was  made  by 
Pius  V.  in  1570,  and  17  years  later  Sixtus  V. 
appointed  a  congregation  of  rites  to  guard 
the  purity  of  the  i-itual.  Certain  prayers  con- 
tinue to  be  of  universal  observance.  After 
these  occurs  the  canon  missa,  in  which  the 
priest,  having  uttered  the  words,  "  This  is  my 
body,"  bows  his  knees  in  prayer  to  the  Christ 
present  in  the  host,  and  then  shows  it  to  the 


congregation,  that  they  may  do  the  same  ; 
after  which  he  places  it  upon  the  corporale 
(altar-cloth),  and  again  kneels.  He  does  the 
same  with  tlie  cup,  and  the  whole  proceeding 
is  called  "  the  elevation  and  adoration  of  the 
host. "  A  usage  first  made  by  Cardinal  Guido 
and  afterward  enjoined  hy  llonorius  III.,  in 
1527,  requires  that  at  the  elevation  of  the 
host,  which  is  signified  by  the  ringing  of  a 
bell,  the  people  should  fall  on  their  knees  and 
remain  so  until  the  consecration  of  the  cup. 
This  part  of  the  service  ends  with  the  priest's 
breaking  off  a  piece  of  the  host  and  letting  it 
fall  into  the  cup  (which  signifies  both  Christ's 
suffering  and  the  reunion  of  his  soul  and 
body),  and  communicating  himself  wivh  the 
words,  "  The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
keep  my  soul  unto  eternal  life."  Then  the 
host  is  given  to  the  communicants,  if  any  are 
present.  The  post-communion  service  con- 
sists of  prayers,  responses,  and  the  reading  of 
John  i.  1-14. 

The  general  division  of  masses  is  into  high, 
in  which  the  service  is  sung,  and  loio,  which 
is  without  singing.  Private  masses  are  those 
said  at  side-altars.  Public  and  solemn  masses 
are  said  in  all  churches  on  Sundays  and  feast 
days,  and  in  cathedrals  every  day.  Votivm 
masses  are  those  celebrated  on  special  occa- 
sions, either  by  ecclesiastical  appointment  or 
at  the  request  of  private  parties.  Pro  de- 
functis  are  for  the  dead,  to  alleviate  the  pains 
and  curtail  the  duration  of  purgatorial  pun- 
ishment. The  mass  of  the  presanctified  occurs 
only  on  Good  Friday,  when  there  is  no  con- 
secration, and  the  priest  communicates  of  a 
host  consecrated  the  previous  day.  In  cele- 
brating mass  the  priest  wears  peculiar  vest- 
ments, 5  in  number,  2  of  linen  {amice  and 
alb)  and  3  of  silk  or  precious  stuffs  {maniple, 
stole,  and  chasuble).  The  color  of  these  vest- 
ments varies  with  the  occasion,  as  many  as 
5  colors  (white,  red,  green,  purple,  and  black) 
being  employed  at  various  times.  The  priest 
is  required  to  celebrate  the  mass  fasting,  and 
is  allowed  to  offer  it  only  once  a  day  save  on 
Christmas,  when  3  may  be  celebrated.  The 
Mozarabic  mass  is  that  which  was  used  by 
the  Goths  when  they  were  masters  of  Spain, 
and  is  still  kept  up  at  Toledo  and  Salamanca  ; 
the  Ambrosian,  that  prepared  by  Ambrose  and 
used  at  Milan  the  Gallic,  that  of  the  ancient 
Gauls. 

Among  Romanists  the  mass  occupies  the 
place  which  is  given  to  prayer  and  meditation 
among  Protestants.  It  binds  tLd  people  in- 
dissolubly  to  the  priest,  without  whom  this 
chief  part  of  worship  cannot  be  pei formed. 
Its  highly  wrought  ritual  contrasts  strongly 
with  the  simplicity  of  Protestant  worship,  but 
what  is  gained  in  appeal  to  the  senses  and 
imagination  is  lost  in  the  domain  of  reason 
and  conscience,  for  the  service  is  conducted 
in  an  unknown  tongue,  and  is  magical  rather 
than  spiritual  in  its  character.  Besides,  the 
whole  service  is  founded  upon  the  impossible 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  ;  it  derogates 
from  the  sacrifice  on  the  cross,  in  regard  to 
which  the  Scripture  says  that  by  the  one 
offering  of  himself  Christ  has  forever  per- 
fected them  that  believe  (Heb.  ix.  26,  x.  11)  ; 
it  adds  other  mediators  and  other  priests  to 


MASS  A. 


(549) 


MATERIALISM 


tlio  one  Mediator  and  one  Highpriest  of  the 
Christian  ;  and  in  effect  it  substitutes  tlie 
church  in  the  place  of  Christ.  (For  a  most 
elaborate  work  on  the  mass  see  Ch.  Rohault 
de  Fleury,  La  Messe  Etudes  archmologiqve 
sur  les  monuments,  Paris,  1883  sqq.,  10  vols.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Massa  Candida,  a  term  applied  by  ecclesi- 
astical writers  of  the  4th  and  5th  centuries  to 
a  great  number  (300)  of  Christian  martyrs  who 
in  258  were  put  to  death  at  Utica,  Africa,  by 
being  thrown  into  a  burning  lime  kiln.  Au- 
gustine explains  the  term  from  the  great  num- 
ber, massa,  and  the  heroism.  Candida,  of  the 
sufferers  ;  Baronius  from  their  being  burned 
in  a  lime  kiln. 

Massalians,  or  Messalians,  is  the  Syriac 
name  of  a  sect  of  monks  who  by  the  Greeks 
were  called  Euchites  (praying  friars),  Cho- 
rentcTB  (dancing  friars),  etc. ,  and  who  in  the  4th 
and  5th  centuries  caused  considerable  scandal 
in  Armenia',  Asia  Minor,  and  Syria.  Unlike 
other  monks  of  the  East,  they  had  no  fixed 
abode,  and  refused  to  work.  They  roamed 
about  begging,  and  protested  that  the  one 
thing  necessary  was  prayer,  because  prayer 
alone  could  deliver  that  part  of  human  nature 
which  originated  from  the  demons.  Both 
their  name  and  their  principles  were  after- 
ward connected  with  the  Paulicians,  the 
Bogomiles,  and  other  sects. 

Massilienses,  with  the  Latin  Fathers  means 
semi-Pelagians,  because  Massilia,  the  pres- 
ent Marseilles,  for  a  long  time  was  the  chief 
seat  of  semi-Pelagianism. 

Massillon    (ma-se-yong'),    Jean    Baptiste, 

b.  at  Hyeres,  France,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
opposite  the  Hyeres  Islands,  June  24,  1663  ; 
d.  at  Clermont,  Southeastern  France,  Sept. 
18,  1743,  one  of  the  greatest  pulpit  orators  of 
France.  He  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory  in  1681  ;  became  director  of  the 
seminars^  of  St.  Magloire,  in  Paris,  the  most 
celebrated  school  of  rhetoric  in  France  in 
1699  ;  was  made  court  preacher  to  Louis 
XIV.  in  1704,  and  bishop  of  Clermont  in 
1717.  Among  his  best  sermons  are  Le  Petit 
Careme,  10  Lenten  sermons  preached  before 
Louis  XV..  and  Oraisons  funebres,  6  funeral 
orations,  among  which  that  over  Louis  XIV. 
His  (Euvres  Completes  have  often  been  edited. 
Translated  into  English  are  Sermons  on  the 
Duties  of  the  Oreat,  by  Dodd,  London,  1776, 
and  Sermans,  London,  1839,  with  a  life  of 
him  by  d'Alembert.  (See  Sainte-Beuve,  Cau- 
teries du  Lundi,  and  Campignon,  Massillon, 
Paris,  1879.) 

Mass'-o-rah  {tradition),  the  name  techni- 
cally given  to  a  collection  of  notes  on  the 
Hebrew  text  designed  to  determine  its  di- 
visions, grammatical  forms,  letters,  vowel- 
marks,  and  accents.  Tliis  was  required  by 
the  fact  that  originally  the  Hebrew  was  writ- 
ten with  the  consonants  alone  and  without 
separation  between  the  words.  The  authors 
of  the  work,  called  Massoretes,  are  unknown. 
It  is  supposed  to  liave  begun  in  the  schools  of 
Tiberias  and  Babylon  in  the  2d  century  of 
our  era,  and  existed  onlv  in  an  oral  form"  un- 


til at  some  time  between  the  6th  century  and 
the  9th  it  was  committed  to  writing  There 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  good  faith  of  these 
guardians  of  the  sacred  text.  The  chief  por- 
tion of  their  work  is  given  in  the  foot-notes 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  What  is  found  in  the 
text  is  called  Kthib  (written),  what  is  added 
as  a  various  reading  is  called  Q^'ri  (read). 
The  number  of  these  various  readings  is  vari- 
ously estimated.  Some  are  merely  ortho- 
graphical, while  others  are  important  to  the 
sense.  The  best  treatise  on  the  subject  is 
that  of  the  eminent  Hebraist  Ginsburg,  en- 
titled The  Massorah,  Compiled  from  Manu- 
scripts Alphabetically  and  Lexically  Arranged, 
Loudon,  1880-86,  3  vols.  T.  W.  C. 

Matamoros,  Manuel,  Spanish  Protestant  ; 
b.  at  Lepe,  in  Andalusia,  Spain  Oct.  8,  1835  ; 
d.  at  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  July  31,  1866. 
Converted  under  the  preaching  of  F.  Ruet,  he 
entered  the  employ  of  foreign  committees  for 
the  evangelization  of  Spain,  labored  at  Grana- 
da, Seville,  and  Barcelona,  and  was  imprison- 
ed, 1861-63,  sentenced  to  nine  years  in  the  gal- 
leys, and  finally  banished.  Warmly  received 
in  England,  he  studied  at  Lausanne  ;  began  a 
Spanish  school  at  Pace,  and  when  about  to  re- 
ceive ordination  died  of  consumption,  contract- 
ed during  his  confinement.  His  fate  aroused 
an  interest  in  his  cause  and  contributed  to  the 
opening  of  Spain  to  Protestant  missions  in 
1868.  F.  M.  B. 

Mater  Dolorosa,  a  kind  of  technical  term 
designating  such  pictures  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
as  represent  her  alone,  without  the  child,  the 
anxious  mother,  tiie  mourning  mother.  (See 
Mrs.  Jameson,  Legejids  of  the  Madonna,  Lon- 
don, 1852.) 

Materialism,  the  speculative  theory  which 
resolves  all  existence  into  a  modification  of 
matter.  It  has  appeared  in  different  countries 
from  a  very  early  period,  and  Lange,  the 
best  historian  of  the  doctrine,  affirms  that 
modern  thinkers  have  added  nothing  to  the 
positions  of  Democritus  and  Epicurus.  It 
affirms  that  there  is  but  one  substance  in  the 
universe  and  that  all  phenomena  can  be  ex- 
plained in  terms  of  atoms  and  force.  Intelli- 
gence, feeling,  will,  conscience,  etc.,  are  only 
properties  of  matter,  or  functions  of  the  phys 
ical  organization,  or  modifications  of  converti- 
ble energy.  To  a  superficial  observer  there 
is  something  attractive  in  the  simplicity  of 
the  monistic  theory,  but  it  soon  appears  that 
the  objections  to  it  are  insurmountable.  It 
opposes  consciousness.  From  the  beginning 
we  see  and  feel  two  classes  of  phenomena, 
which,  although  intertwined,  are  perfectly 
di.stinct — thought,  feeling,  will  on  one  hand, 
and  extension,  inertia,  etc.,  on  the  other. 
One  class  we  come  to  know  through  con- 
sciousness, the  other  through  sensation,  and 
in  both  cases  the  knowledge  is  direct  an(l  cer- 
tain. The  attempt  to  resolve  either  one  of 
these  into  the  other  must  necessarily  fail. 
The  materialistic  theory  is  one-sided  and  un- 
reasonable, for  our  knowledge  of  the  soul 
and  its  powers  is  more  clear  and  precise  tiian 
tlie  scientist's  knowledge  of  matter.  What 
does  he  know  of  the  real  nature  of  atoms,  of 


MATHER 


(550) 


MATTER 


force,  of  gravity,  etc.  ?    It  is  far  more  rational 
to  explain  matter  and  force  by  mind  and  will 
than  to  consider  mind,  will,  etc.,  as  modes  of 
matter  or  force.     We  know  that  the  soul  of 
man  is  an  absolute  cause,  whereas  matter  is 
simply  the  vehicle    of    force.       Intelligence 
produces  organization,  but  organization  does 
not  produce  intelligence.     Materialism,  more- 
over, gives  the  lie  to  our  moral  nature.     It 
puts  an  end  to  freedom,  to  duty,  toconscience. 
Men  are  bound  in  an  inexorable  chain  of  phys- 
ical sequences  which  leave  no  room  for  truth, 
honor,    hope,    morality,   or    religion.       (See 
F.   A.   Lange,   History  of  Materialism,   Eng. 
trans.,  by  Thomas,  London,  1874-76,  3  vols.) 
T.  W.  C. 
Mather  Family  (The).     Richard  Mather 
(1596-1669),  b.  at  Lowton,  Lancashire,  Eng.  ; 
was  minister  at  Toxteth  Park  till  his  emigra- 
tion in  1635,  and  from  1636  at  Dorchester. 
Mass.     Four  of  his  sons,    all   graduates   of 
Harvard,    followed    in    his    steps.      Samuel 
(1626-71)  and  Nathaniel  (1630-97)  returned 
to  England  in  1650,  and  settled,  tlie  former  in 
Dublin,  the  latter  successively  in  Devonshire, 
Rotterdam,   Dublin,   and   London.     Eleazer 
(1637-69)  was  minister  at  Northampton,  Mass. 
Increase  Mather,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1692),  b.  at 
Dorchester,   June  21,    1639  ;    d.    in   Boston, 
Aug.  23.  1723  ;   graduated  at  Harvard.  1656, 
and   at  Trinity   College.    Dublin,   1658  ;    re- 
turned to  America,  1661,  and  was  pastor  of 
the   Second  or   North    Church,    1664-1723  ; 
president  of  Harvard,   1685-1701  ;    agent  of 
the  colony  in  England,  1688-92  ;   author  of 
160  books  or  tracts,  and  the  foremost  Ameri- 
can of  his  time.     In  1662  he  married  Maria, 
daughter    of    John    Cotton.      Their    eldest 
son.  Cotton  Mather,  D.D.  (Glasgow,  1710), 
F.R.S.,  b.  in  Boston,  Feb.  22,  1663  (n.  s.)  ; 
d.  there,  Feb.  23.  1729.     He  graduated,  1678  ; 
overcame  an  impediment  of  speech  ;  began  to 
preach,   1631,   and  in  1684  was  ordained  as 
colleague  to  his  father  ;  this  charge  he  held 
till  death.     He  was  a  masterful  man,  abun- 
dant in  labors,  the  organizer  of  ov^er  20  chari- 
table societies,  a  leader  of  all  movements  in 
church  and  state,  an  omnivorous  reader,  and 
the  author  of  382  separate  publications,  be- 
sides his  enormous  Bihlia  Americana,  which 
remains  to  this  day  in  manuscript.     He  sur- 
mounted the  prejudices  of  his  age  in  defend- 
ing inoculation,  but  not  with  regard  to  witch- 
craft and  some  other  matters.  '  His  character 
was  marred  by  certain  restless  infirmities  ; 
"  it  was  his  unconcealed  grief  that  he  was 
never  elected  to  preside  over  Harvard."     His 
greatest  work,  Magnalia  Christi  Americana, 
1702,  was  reprinted  in  2  vols.,  with  memoir, 
and  translations  of  the  numerous  Hebrew, 
Greek  and  Latin  quotations,  Hartford,  1855. 
His  son  Samuel  (1706-85)  was  co-pastor  of  the 
North   Church,    1732-42,    and    then   formed 
another  congregation  ;  he  wrote  a  life  of  his 
father,  1729,  and  other  books.     (See  Dr  C. 
Robbins,  History  of  Old  North  Church  in  Bos- 
ton,  Boston,  1852.)  F.  M.  B. 

Matheson,  George,  D.D.  (Edinburgh, 
1879),  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Glasgow 
March  27,  1842  ;  lost  his  sight  in  vouth '; 
graduated  at   the    University  of  Edinburgh, 


M.A.,  1862,  B.D.,  1866  ;  became  minister  at 
Innellan,  1868,  of  St.  Bernard's,  Edinburgh, 
1886,  and  wrote  Aids  to  the  Study  of  German 
Theology,  Edinburgh,  1874,  2d  ed.,  1876  ;  Can 
the  Old  Faith  live  with  the  New  f  or,  The  Prob- 
lem of  Evolution  and  Revelation,  1885,  2d  ed., 
1886  ;  Psalmist  and  Scientist,  1887  ;  Land- 
marks of  JVeio  Testament  Morality,  1888  ; 
Sacred  Songs,  1889. 

Mathew,  Theobald,  apostle  of  temperance 
in  Ireland  ;  b.  at  Thomastown,  5  m.  w.  of 
Cashel,  Oct.  10,  1790  ;  d.  at  Queenstown, 
Dec.  8,  1856.  He  was  educated  at  Maynooth 
and  Dublin  ;  ordained  priest,  1814  ;  entered 
the  Capuchin  order,  and  was  soon  stationed 
at  Cork.  In  April,  1838,  he  began  a  crusade 
against  intemperance,  which  attained  wonder- 
ful success,  owing  to  his  winning  personal 
qualities  ;  200,000'  signed  the  pledge  in  less 
than  a  year.  He  travelled  ov^er  Ireland,  vis- 
ited England,  1844,  and  America,  1849-51, 
winning  numerous  recruits  everywhere.  He 
was  a  bad  financier,  and  became  heavily  in- 
volved in  debt,  from  which  a  pension  of  £300, 
granted  in  1847,  imperfectly  relieved  him. 
(See  Father  Mathew,  by  J.  F.  Maguire,  M.P., 
London,  1863,  people's  ed.,  1865.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Mathurins,  or  Trinitarian  Brethren,  was 
the  name  of  a  religious  order,  founded  in 
1197  by  St.  John  of  Matha  and  Felix  of  Va- 
lois,  for  the  purpose  of  ransoming  Christians 
who  were  captured  by  the  infidels.  The 
name  Trinitarians  was  given  them  because  all 
their  churches  were  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Trinity,  but  in  France  they  were  called 
Mathurins,  because  the  first  church  they  oc- 
cupied in  Paris  had  St.  Mathurin  for  its  pa- 
tron saint.  (See  Helyot,  Hist.  d.  ordres  milit. 
et  relig.,  ii.,  49,  iii.,  45.)  C.  P. 

Matilda,  Countess,  b.  1046  ;  d.  1114  ;  was 
the  daughter  of  Duke  Boniface  the  Rich  of 
Tuscany  and  Beatrice  of  Lorraine,  and  in- 
herited, when  she  was  8  years  old,  Lombardy, 
Modena,  Ferrara,  etc.,  and  besides  these  huge 
landed  estates  an  immense  wealth  in  money 
and  chattels.  She  was  twice  married,  first  to 
Duke  Godfrey,  the  Humpback  of  Lorraine, 
then  with  Duke  Guelpli,  of  Bavaria,  but  her 
marriages  were  simply  political  shifts,  and  she 
never  lived  with  her  husbands.  As  the  inti- 
mate friend,  however,  of  Gregory  VII.,  his 
never  daunted  political  ally,  the  staunch  de- 
fender of  his  ideas,  she  played  a  part  in  the 
history  of  Italy  and  the  Church  of  Rome 
which  makes  her  out  one  of  the  typical  char- 
acters of  the  age  beside  William  the  Con- 
queror, Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  and  Hildebrand 
himself.  Her  property  she  bequeathed  to 
the  papal  see,  and  it  forms  the  principal  bulk 
of  the  so-called  Patrimonium  Petri.  There 
is  a  life  of  her  by  Amedee  Renee,  La  Grande 
Italienne,  Paris,  1859. 

Matins,  matutinim,  or  horse  matutiuae,  the 

first  service,  or  the  morning  service,  celebrated 
every  day  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 


Matter,  as  opposed  to  mind  or  spirit,  is 
that  which  occupies  space  and  with  which 
we  become  acquainted  by  our  bodily  senses. 


MATTHEW 


(551) 


MAURICE 


The  properties  essential  to  matter  are  exten- 
sion, impenetrability,  divisibility,  inertia, 
weight.  Des  Cartes,  Locke,  and  others  held 
the  qualities  o"f  matter  to  be  either  primary, 
such  as  extension,  of  which  our  knowledge  is 
clear  and  absolute,  or  seconilary,  such  as 
sound  and  smell,  of  which  our  knowledge  is 
obscure  and  relative.  But  this  distinction 
was  rejected  by  Kant,  who  maintained  that  all 
our  knowledge  is  relative.  T.  W.  C. 

Matthew  {gift  of  God),  an  apostle  and  au- 
thor of  the  first  canonical  gospel,  was  a  Gali- 
liean  by  birth,  a  Jew  by  religion,  and  a  pub- 
lican by  profession  (Matt.  ix.  9,  x.  3,  Luke 
vi.  15).  His  original  ■  name  was  Levi  (Mark 
ii.  14,  Luke  v.  ""37),  but  this  was  changed 
when  he  was  called  to  be  an  apostle.  His  or- 
dinary abode  was  at  Capernaum  and  his  office, 
as  tax  collector,  probably  on  the  main  road 
near  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  Here,  in  the  midst 
of  his  business,  he  was  called  by  Christ  to 
follow  him,  which  he  did,  after  making  a 
feast  in  his  honor  (Luke  v.  29).  He  was  with 
Christ  after  the  resurrection '  and  with  tlie 
other  apostles  after  the  ascension  (Matt, 
xxviii.  16,  Acts  i.  13). 

The  gospel  of  Matthew  was  probably  writ- 
ten in  Palestine  and  certainly  for  Jewish 
Christians.  It  represents  Christ  as  the  great- 
est of  the  prophets,  the  promised  Messiah, 
the  true  king  of  Israel.  Its  arrangement  is 
not  chronological,  but  topical,  grouping  to- 
gether the  works  and  the  discourses  of  Christ 
according  to  their  similarity.  An  old  and 
widespread  tradition  maintains  that  it  was 
originally  written  in  Hebrew,  and  that  what 
we  now  have  is  a  translation  ;  but  if  so  Mat- 
thew himself  must  have  been  the  translator. 
The  point  is  still  in  dispute,  but  the  drift  of 
scholarly  opinion  is  in  favor  of  a  Greek  orig- 
inal. It  being  his  object  to  show  how  the 
law  and  the  prophets  were  fulfilled  in  Christ, 
he  abounds  in  references  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment— his  direct  citations  being  more  than  60 
in  number.  His  is  eminently  the  didactic 
gospel,  one  quarter  of  the  whole  being  occu- 
pied with  the  actual  words  of  the  Lord 
Jesus.  His  diction  and  construction  are  more 
Hebraistic  than  is  found  in  Mark  and  Luke, 
but  less  so- than  John's.  His  favorite  particle 
of  transition  is  tJien  (ron),  which  occurs  90 
times  to  6  in  Mark  and  14  in  Luke.  (Cf.  the 
commentaries  in  the  series,  Lange  ;  Tlie  Speak- 
er's ;  The  Popular  Commentary;  American 
Baptist  Commentary,  etc.)  T.  W.  C. 

Matthew  of  Paris,  thus  called  either  be- 
cau.se  he  was  born  there  or  becau.se  he  studied 
there  ;  entered  the  order  of  the  Cluniacenses 
at  St.  Albans  in  1217,  and  wrote  a  History  of 
England.  1066-1259,  of  which  the  first  part, 
1066-1235,  is  only  a  transc-ription  of  the 
chronicle  of  Roger  of  Wendover,  and  which 
was  continued  to  1273  by  William  Kishanger. 
The  whole  composition  is  known  as  Jlistoria 
anglica  i/utjor,  in  contradistinction  from  the 
Ilistoria  minor,  which  is  an  extract  from  it. 
It  wixs  edited  by  Luard,  London,  1872-83, 
7  vols.,  Eng.  trans,  in  Bohn's  library,  5  vols., 
and  forms  the  principal  source  of  the  hi.story 
of  England  and  the  history  of  the  churcli  in 
that  period. 


Maulbronn,  a  Cistercian  monastery  in  the 
diocese  of  Spires,  Germany,  was  founded  in 
1148,  and  in  1557  transformed  into  a  cloister- 
school.  Two  conferences  were  held  here  be- 
tween the  Lutherans  of  Wurtemberg  and  the 
Reformed  of  the  Palatinate  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  a  union.  The  first,  April  10-15, 
1563,  made  the  split  only  deeper,  but  the  sec- 
ond, Jan.  19,  1576,  resulted  in  the  Formula 
Maulhrunnensis,  the  basis  of  the  Formula 
Concordia. 

Maundy  Thursday,  the  day  before  Good 
Friday,  probably  from  tnandatum  norum, 
"  the  new  commandment,"  given  by  our  Lord 
in  connection  with  the  washing  of  feet. 


Maur,  Congregation  of.  See  Benedict 
and  Benedictines. 

Maurice  (mau'-riss),  John  Frederic  Deni- 

son.  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Normanston, 
Suffolk,  Eng.,  Aug.  29,  1805  ;  d.  in  London, 
April  1,  1872.  The  son  of  a  Unitarian  minis- 
ter, his  studies  at  Cambridge  led  to  no  degree, 
but  coming  under  the  influence  of  Coleridge, 
he  entered  the  English  Church,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford,  1831.  He  soon  became  a  de- 
voted churchman,  though  of  no  common 
type — equally  removed  from  Tractarian  and 
Evangelical.  After  writing  for  the  Athencevm 
and  producing  a  novel,  Eustace  Conyers,  he 
was  ordained,  1834,  and  soon  made  chaplain 
of  Guy's  Ho.spital,  London.  From  1840  he 
was  professor  of  history  and  literature  in 
King's  College,  and  from  1846  of  divinity  ; 
these  posts  he  lost  in  1853,  because  of  the 
supposed  unsoundness  of  his  llieological  Es- 
says, and  especially  of  his  tract  on  the  Word 
"Eternal."  He  was  chaplain  of  Lincoln's 
Inn,  1846-60  ;  incuml)ent  of  St.  Peter"s,  Vere 
street,  1860-69,  and  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy at  Cambridge,  1866-72.  Shrinking 
from  the  idea  of  leading  or  following  an  eccle- 
siastical party,  he  abhorred  the  name  "  Broad 
Church,"  but  scarcely  objected  to  that  of 
"Christian  Socialist."  An  earnest  social  re- 
former, he  bore  part  in  schemes  for  which 
the  time  was  perhaps  not  ripe.  The  Working 
Men's  College  (1854)  and  Queen's  College  for 
the  Education  of  Women  owed  their  being 
largely  to  him  ;  few  clergymen  have  been  so 
widely  honored  and  trusted  by  workingmen, 
apart  from  creeds. 

But  it  was  as  a  theological  and  philosophic 
thinker  that  his  influence  was  deepest.  His 
books  were  seldom  popular,  but  he  taught 
the  teachers.  The  lovely  purity  of  his  char- 
acter, his  profound  piety,  the  intensity  of  liis 
convictions,  and  his  Sf)cratic  power  of  stimu- 
lating thought  in  others  attracted  an  inner 
circle  of  warm  disciples  and  re-enforced  his 
mental  originality  and  independence.  His 
Kingdom  of  Clirist  (1838  ;  written  for  a  Quaker 
and  revised  1842)  affected  the  views  and  lives 
of  many.  His  reasoning  is  sometimes  pro- 
vokingly  obscure  and  intricate  ;  his  thoughts 
often  seem  to  proceed  in  a  spiral  rather  than 
directly,  but  lie  always  readies  his  end  sooner 
or  later,  and  with  much  uplifting  and  quicken- 
ing on  the  way.  Truth  with  him  was  not  a 
formula  or  a  tradition,  but  a  mighty  living 


MAURITIUS 


(552) 


MAY 


force,  to  be  sought  and  served  with  one's  best 
powers  of  intellect  and  soul.  His  Moral  and 
Metaphysical  Philosophy  (1850-63,  4  vols. ,  re- 
printed in  2  vols.,  1872)  reviews  and  interprets 
the  whole  range  of  human  thought  from  the 
beginning,  often  so  vividly  and  acutely  as  to 
be  in  happy  contrast  with  most  histories  of 
and  treatises  upon  this  large  subject. 

Maurice  was  a  most  diligent  and  volumi- 
nous writer,  always  seeking  to  combine  illu- 
mination and  edification  as  few  have  done. 
Among  his  books,  other  than  the  3  of  highest 
importance  already  mentioned,  are  Chnstmas 
Day,  and  Other  Sermons,  1842  ;  Unity  of  the 
New  Testament,  1844  (American  reprint, 
1879)  ;  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  1846  ;  Religions 
of  the  World  (Boyle  Lectures),  1847  ;  The 
Lord's  Prayer,  1848  ;  The  Prayer-Book,  1849  ; 
The  Church  a  Family,  1850  ;  Patriarchs  and 
Laiogivers,  1851  ;  Prophets  and  Kings  of  the 
Old  Testament,  1853  ;  The  Doctrine  of  Sacri- 
fice, 1854  ;  Lectures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory of  the  First  and  Second  Centuries,  1854; 
Learning  and  Working,  1854  ;  Religion  of 
Rome,  1854  ;  Oosi)el  of  St.  John,  1856  ;  Epis- 
tles of  St.  John,  1857  ;  Sermons,  1857,  and 
other  dates  ;  On  Family  ■  Worship,  1862  ;  The 
Commandments,  1866  ;  The  Workman  and  the 
Franchise,  1866  ;  The  Conscience,  1868  ;  Cos- 
pel  of  St.  Luke,  1868.  His  orthodoxy  was  at- 
tacked by  Dr.  Candlish  (1854)  and  others  ;  per 
contra,  Kingsley  wrote,  "  I  owe  all  that  I  am 
to  Maurice.  I  aim  only  to  teach  to  others 
what  I  get  from  him.  I  live  to  interpret 
him."  Matthew  Arnold  thought  Maurice 
"  spent  his  life  in  beating  the  bush  with  pro- 
foundly devout  emotion,  and  never  starting 
the  hare."  He  was  mistaken  ;  Maurice  cer- 
tainly started  the  hare.  His  life,  by  his  son, 
London,  1884,  2  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1885,  made 
him  known  to  many  who  had  missed  his 
meaning  before.  F.  M.  B. 

Mauritius.     See  Legion,  The  Theban. 

Maury  (mo-re),  Jean  Siffrein,  cardinal  ; 
b.  June  26,  1746,  at  Valreas,  in  Venaissin,  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Rhone,  France  ;  d. 
May  11,  1817,  at  Monteliascone,  Central 
Italy  ;  was  educated  in  the  theological  semi- 
nary of  Avignon  ;  took  holy  orders  ;  attracted 
attention  by  his  eloquence,  and  was  in  1783 
appointed  court  preacher  to  Louis  XVI.  As 
a  member  of  the  States  General  and  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  he  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  extreme  right,  and  his  impassioned 
eloquence  and  great  power  of  repartee  made 
him  a  match,  not  altogether  unequal,  for 
Mirabeau.  In  1792  he  fled  to  Rome,  and  Pius 
VI.  made  him  bishop  of  Montefiascone,  and, 
in  1794,  a  cardinal.  In  1806  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  in  1810  Napoleon  made  him  arch- 
bishop of  Paris.  But  both  the  Chapter  and 
the  pope  protested  ;  his  enthusiastic  devotion 
to  Napoleon  made  him  suspicious.  On  the 
return  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  expelled  from 
his  see,  and  when  he  again  fled  to  Rome  he 
was  imprisoned  in  St.  Angelo  and  not  released 
until  he  resigned  all  his  dignities.  His  works 
— specimens  of  eloquence — appeared  in  Paris, 
1827,  5  vols.  His  life  was  written  by  Ponjou- 
lab,  Paris,  1835.  (See  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries 
du  Lundi.) 


Maximinus  Thrax,  Roman  emperor,  235- 
38,  was  the  first  Barbarian  who  wore  the  im- 
perial purple,  being  born  in  Thrace  from  a 
Gothic  father  and  an  Alan  motller.  Eusebius 
states  that  Maximinus  promulgated  an  edict 
ordering  all  the  leaders  of  the  Christian 
churches  to  be  decapitated.  No  martyrs  are 
heard  of,  however,  and  Sulpicius  Severus 
designates  the  whole  period  from  Septimius 
Severus  to  Decius  as  one  of  peace,  skipping 
the  7th  persecution  altogether  and  character- 
izing the  relation  of  Maximinus  to  the  Chris- 
tian Church  as  merely  chicanery. 

Maximus  Confessor,  b.  in  Constantinople 
about  580  ;  became  secretary  to  the  Emperor 
Heraclins,  but  resigned  that  position  ;  en- 
tered the  monastery  of  Chrysopolis,  near  Con- 
stantinople, and  stands  in  history  as  the  ener- 
getic defender  of  orthodoxy  in  the  Monothelite 
controversy.  He  went  first  to  Africa,  where 
he  arrayed  the  whole  African  Church  on  the 
orthodox  side,  then  to  Rome,  where  he  in- 
duced Pope  Martin  to  reject  the  Tyjws,  but 
he  was  dragged  back  to  Constantinople,  con- 
demned by  a  Monothelite  synod,  mutilated, 
and  shut  up  in  the  castle  of  Shemari,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  where  he  died, 
Aug.  13,  662.  Though  a  pupil  of  Aristotle, 
he  is  the  last  representative  of  the  Neo-Pla- 
touic  mysticism  among  the  Greek  Fathers, 
and  his  numerous  works,  besides  being  the 
principal  documents  of  the  Monothelite  con- 
troversy, have  an  additional  interest  from  the 
influence  which,  through  Scotus  Erigina, 
they  exercised  on  the  Western  Church.  They 
were  edited  by  Combefis,  Paris,  1675,  and  are 
found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Or.  XC. 

Maximus,  bishop  of  Turin,  was  present  at 
the  Council  of  Milan,  451,  and  at  the  Council 
of  Rome,  465,  and  left  a  number  of  homilies 
and  sermons  which  are  of  great  interest  for 
the  history  of  the  time,  ecclesiastical  and  gen- 
eral. Thus  his  homilies  86-94  refer  to  the 
invasion  of  Attila,  the  destruction  of  the 
cathedral  of  Milan,  the  heartless  smartness  of 
the  Italians  in  buying  the  prisoners  of  the 
Huns  and  selling  them  as  slaves,  etc.  They 
are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.Lat.  LVII. 

Maxwell,  Lady  Darcy,  b.  in  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  1742  ;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  July  2, 
1810.  In  1759  she  married  Sir  William  Max- 
well, who  died  1761.  She  became  a  Metho- 
dist, 1764,  and  gave  herself  to  good  works, 
founding  (1770)  and  su^Dporting  a  charity 
school  in  Edinburgh.  (See  her  life  by  Lan- 
cester,  New  York,"  1837.)  F.  M.  B. 

May,  Samuel  Joseph,  Unitarian  ;  b.  in 
Boston,  September  12,  1797  ;  d.  at  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  July  1,  1871.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard, 1817';  was  pastor  at  Brooklyn,  Conn.. 
1822-35,  South  Scituate,  Mass.,  1836-42,  and 
Syracuse,  1845-68  ;  principal  of  a  normal 
school  at  Lexington,  Mass. ,  1842-45  ;  general 
agent  of  the  Massachusetts  Anti-Slavery  So- 
ciety, 1835.  He  was  a  fearless  reformer  and 
a  zealous  abolitionist.  His  greatness  was 
wholly  moral  ;  Gerrit  Smith  called  him  "  the 
most  Christlike  man  I  ever  knew."  (See  his 
Recollections  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Conflict,  Bos- 
ton, 1868  and  T.  J.  Mumford's  memoir  of 
him,  Boston,  1873.)  F.  M.  B. 


MAYHEW 


(553) 


MEAT-OFFERING 


Mayhew  Family.  Thomas  (1592-1682) 
obtained,  in  1641,  a  grant  of  Martha's  Vine- 
yard, Mass.,  where  he  and  his  son  Thomas 
(1621-57)  organized  a  mission  and  did  niucli 
for  tlie  Indians.  The  latter  had  3  sons.  Mat- 
hew  (d.  1710),  governor  ;  Thomas,  a  judge, 
and  John  (d.  1689),  an  active  missionary. 
John's  son.  Experience,  b.  Jan.  27,  1673  ;  d. 
Nov.  29,  1758  ;  lived  and  died  on  the  island, 
continued  his  father's  work  there,  transhited 
for  tlie  S.  P.  G.  the  Psahns  and  St.  John's 
gospel  (1709),  wrote  a  book  on  Iiulicm  Con- 
verts, 1727,  and  sundry  sermons  and  tracts. 
His  son,  Zecharia  (1717-1806),  was  a  mission- 
ary of  the  Massachusetts  Society  from  1767. 
Another  son,  Jonathan  Mayhew,  D.D. 
(Aberdeen,  1749),  b.  at  ]\Iartha's  Vineyard. 
Oct.  8,  1720  ;  d.  in  Boston,  July  9,  1766  ;  was 
the  tirst  to  leave  the  island,  lie  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1744,  and  was  pastor  of  the  "West 
Church,  in  Boston,  from  1747.  An  ardent 
lover  of  liberty,  both  civil  and  religious,  his 
opinions  so  far  anticipated  the  Unitarian  seces- 
.sion  of  the  following  century  that  his  ordina- 
tion was  delayed.  A  sermon  of  his  in  1750 
"unriddled"  the  "martyrdom"  of  Charles 
I.  and  defined  the  limits  of  allegiance,  setting 
forth  the  principles  of  the  Revolution.  He 
opposed  the  S.  P.  G.  and  episcopacy,  preached 
against  the  Stamp  Act  m  May,  1766,  and 
wrote  from  his  death-bed  to  Otis,  urging  the 
union  of  the  colonies  in  the  interests  of  lib- 
erty. His  sermons  appeared,  1749,  1756, 
1767.  A.  Bradford  wrote  a  memoir  of  him, 
Boston,  1838.  F.  M.  B. 

Maynooth,  County  Kildare,  15  m.  w.n.w. 
of  Dublin,  Ireland,  is  the  seat  of  St.  Patrick's 
college  for  the  education  of  Roman  Catholic 
priests,  which  was  established  by  the  Irish 
Parliament  of  1795. 

Mazarin  Bible,  The,  or  Gutenberg  Bible, 

Mentz,  1450-55,  the  first  book  printed  with 
movable  types.  It  was  discovered  by  De 
Bure  in  the  Mazarin  Library  at  Paris  about 
1760.  Six  copies  on  vellum  are  known  and 
21  on  paper.  One  of  the  latter  is  in  the  Lenox 
Library,  New  York,  and  is  valued  at  about 
$15,000.  (See  a  paper  by  Dr.  AUibone  in  the 
Literary  World  of  Nov.  18,  1882.)  F.  M.  B. 

Mazarin,  Jules,  cardinal  ;  b.  at  Piscina  in 
the  Abruzzi,  Italy,  July  14,  1602  ;  d.  at  Vin- 
ceunes,  France,  March  9,  1661.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Rome  and  Alcala,  in  Spain,  took  the 
degree  of  U.  J.D.,  and  was  a  captain  in  Colon- 
na's  regiment.  After  negotiating  several 
treatises  for  the  pope,  and  being  nuncio  at 
the  French  court.  1634-36,  he  was  natural- 
ized in  France,  1639  ;  made  cardinal,  1641, 
and  succeeded  Richelieu  as  prime-minister, 
Dec,  1642.  As  a  statesman  he  was  not  verv 
successful  in  his  home  policy.  He  allowed 
the  Fronde  to  grow  into  a  powerful  and  dan- 
gerous movement,  and  he  suffered  himself 
considerably  on  that  account.  But  his  for- 
eign policy  was  very  brilliant.  It  always 
l)rought  him  into  alliances  with  the  Protes- 
tant powers,  Cromwell,  Holland,  Sweden, 
etc..  and  he  was  consequently  compelled  to 
show  some  favors  to  tlie  Huguenots  ;  he  re- 
newed the  edicts  of  toleration,  and  allowed 


them  to  hold  the  Synod  of  Loudun,  1659. 
(See  Clieruel,  lEstoire  de  France  pendant  la 
minorite  de  Louis  XIV.,  Paris,  1879-80,  4 
vols.  ;  Histoire  de  France  pendant  le  Ministere 
de  Cardinal  Mazarin,  Paris,  1881-83,  and  his 
edition  of  Mazarin's  Letters,  1883,  et  seq.) 
F.  M.  B. 

Meade,  William,  D.D.  (William  and  Mary, 
1827).  third  bishop  of  Virginia  ;  b.  near  Mill- 
wood, Frederick  (now  Clarke)  County,  Va., 
Nov.  11,  1789  ;  d.  at  Richmond,  March  14, 
1862.  The  son  of  a  Revolutionary  officer,  lie 
graduated  at  Princeton,  1808  ;  was  ordained 
deacon,  1811,  and  priest,  1814,  and  had  charge 
at  Alexandria  and  elsewhere,  doing  much  to 
raise  the  low  estate  of  his  church  in  Virginia. 
He  founded  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Alexandria,  1823.  In  1829  he  was  elected  as- 
sistant to  Bishop  Moore,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  1841.  He  was  a  Low  Churchman  and  an 
opponent  of  secession.  Besides  several  doc- 
trinal and  devotional  works,  he  published  Old 
Churches,  Ministers,  and  Families  of  Virginia, 
Philadelphia,  1857,  2  vols.  (See  his  memo- 
rial by  Bishop  Johns,  Baltimore,  1867.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Meals  among  the  Hebrews.  The  Egyp- 
tians took  their  principal  meal  at  noon  (Gen. 
xliii.  16),  but  the  Jews  followed  the  custom, 
still  prevailing  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  of 
making  it  after  sunset,  having  made  a  lighter 
one  at  about  10  o'clock  a.m.  The  posture 
was  in  the  oldest  time  sitting  (Gen.  xxvii.  19, 
Judges  xix.  6,  1  Sam.  xx.  5),  not  on  chairs, 
but  probably  squatting  on  the  ground  around 
a  table  of  a  very  slight  elevation.  The  first 
trace  of  the  custom  of  reclining  on  couches 
while  eating  is  found  in  Amos  iii.  12.  At 
the  time  of  our  Lord  it  had  become  general, 
three  persons  occupying  the  same  couch,  one 
overlapping  the  other  and  the  one  placed  lower 
leaning  on  the  bosom  of  the  other  (John  xiii. 
23).  Before  the  meal  grace  was  said  (Matt. 
XV.  36,  Luke  ix.  16,  John  vi.  11)  and  also 
after,  in  conformity  with  Deut.  viii.  10. 

Means  of  Grace.  A  technical  term  to  de- 
note the  institutions  which  God  has  appointed 
to  be  the  ordinary  channels  by  which  the  in- 
fluences of  the  Holy  Spirit  are  communicated 
to  the  souls  of  men.  These  are  the  Word, 
the  sacraments,  and  prayer,  and  without  the 
diligent  and  faithful  use  of  them  men  cannot 
reasonably  expect  to  grow  in  grace. 

T.  W.  C. 

Measures.     See  W^eights. 

Meat  in  the  English  Bible  usually  signifies 
food  in  general,  and  ncvcv  flesh,  which  is  now 
its  usual  acceptation.  T.  W.  C. 

Meat-Offering  in  the  R.  V.  is  alwa.vs  ren- 
dered "  muni  offering,"  a  very  proper  change, 
since  this  oblation  in  Scripture  is  always  a 
vegetable,  and  never  an  animal  offering,  a 
cake  made  of  flour  and  oil  (Lev.  ii.,  vi.  14- 
23).  These  bloodless  sacrifices  never  (with 
one  exception  in  case  of  the  poor.  Lev.  v.  11) 
had  any  element  of  atonement,  but  were  sim- 
plv  a('ts  of  worship,  grateful  presentations  to 
God  of  the  fruits  of  toil.  T.  W.  C. 


MECCA 


(554) 


MEDICINE 


Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  hence 
the  chief  holy  city  of  Islam  and  the  great  place 
of  pilgrimage,  is  in  Southern  Arabia,  near  the 
Red  8ea.  In  it  is  the  Kaabah  (q.v._).  It  has 
been  several  times  visited  by  Christians,  who 
passed  for  Mohammedan  pilgrims.  The  best 
account  is  by  R.  F.  Burton,  El-Medinah  and 
Meccali,  London,  1855-56,  3  vols.,  3d  ed., 
1879.  3  vols. 

Mechitarists  is  the  name  of  an  order  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  thus  called  after  its 
founder,  Mechitar  or  Mekhitar,  b.  at  Se- 
baste,  Lesser  Armenia,  Feb.  7,  1676  ;  d.  in 
Venice,  April  27,  1749.  He  early  entered  an 
Armenian  monastery,  but,  deeply  impressed 
with  the  decay  of  the  Armenian  Church — its 
learning,  discipline,  and  spirit — he  decided  to 
go  to  Europe  to  lind  the  proper  remedies.  In 
Constantinople,  however,  where  he  tried  to 
found  a  school  for  Armenian  youths,  he  was 
discovered  making  propaganda  for  Rome  and 
compelled  to  flee.  He  then  moved  his  school 
to  Modon,  in  Morea,  under  Venetian  author- 
ity, and  gave  it  a  monastic  rule,  which  was 
confirmed,  in  1712,  by  Clement  XI.  "When 
Morea  was  conquered,  in  1715,  by  the  Turks, 
the  school  had  to  be  removed  to  Venice. 
The  republic  gave  the  order  the  island  of  St. 
Lazaro,  where  a  monastery  and  church  were 
built,  and  here  the  Mechitarists  have  devel- 
oped a  very  great  and  important  literary  ac- 
tivity, translating  into  Armenian  numerous 
classical  works  of  the  European  literatures, 
and  publishing  iu  excellent  editions  several 
works  of  the  ancient  church  which  exist  only 
in  Armenian  versions.  (See  Haroutiun  Au- 
kerian,  A  Brief  Account  of  the  Mechitaristican 
Society,  Founded  in  the  Island  of  St.  Lazaro 
[Trans,  by  Alexander  Goodej,  Venice,  1825, 
2ded.,  1835  ;  Eugene  Bose,  *S'^.  Lazare ;  ou, 
Histoire  de  la  Societe  Religieuse  Armenienne  de 
Mechitar,  Venice,  1835.) 

Mede,  Joseph,  b.  at  Berden,  Essex,  Eng., 
in  1586  ;  d.  Oct.  1,  1638,  at  Cambridge,  as 
fellow  of  Christ  College  ;  published  Vlavis 
Apocalyptica,  Cambridge,  1627,  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  R.  More,  London, 
1643,  and  again  by  B.  Cooper,  London,  1833. 
His  works,  mostly  consisting  of  apocalyptic 
studies,  were  published  in  London,  1648-52, 
2  vols,  fol.,  2d  and  best  ed.,  1664,  5th  ed., 
1686. 

Medhurst,  Walter  Henry,  D.D.  (Univer- 
sity of  New  York,  1843),  missionary  ;  b.  in 
London,  1796  ;  d.  there,  Jan.  24,  1857.  As  a 
printer  lie  was  sent,  in  1816,  by  the  London 
Missionary  Society  to  Malacca,  India,  where 
his  great  linguistic  talents  were  developed. 
Ordained,  1819.  he  labored  at  Batavia  and  in 
Borneo.  1822-30,  and  thenceforth  in  China, 
living  at  Shanghai  from  1843.  His  book  on 
China,  appeared  in  London,  1838,  and  his 
Chinese  dictionaries,  Batavia,  1843  and  1848, 
2  vols.  He  also  revised  the  Chinese  Bible 
and  translated  several  works  into  that  lan- 
guage. He  died  two  days  after  the  end  of  a 
voyage  undertaken  for  his  failing  health. 
F.  M.  B. 

Me'-di-a,  Mede.  Media  was  called  by  the 
Hebrews  Madai  {middle  land),  after  one  of 


Japheth's  sons  (Gen.  x.  2).  It  extended  west 
and  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea  from  Armenia 
and  Assyria  on  the  north,  and  west  to  Persia 
on  the  south,  covering  a  territory  larger  than 
Spain,  much  of  it  very  fertile.  Its  early  his- 
tory is  obscure.  After  centuries  of  conflict 
with  Assyria  the  Medes  became  powerful 
and  wealthy,  and  not  only  maintained  their 
independence,  but  under  Cyaxares  conquered 
Assyria  (625  B.C.),  and  afterward  became 
united  with  Persia  under  Cyrus  (588  B.C.). 
Thus  arose  the  Medo-Persian  kingdom,  re- 
ferred to  in  Scripture  (Dan.  v.  28,  vi.  8,  12, 
15),  and  certainly  a  large  and  mighty  mon- 
archy (Esther  i.  1).  The  only  city  of  Media 
mentioned  in  Scripture  is  Achmetha(Ez.  vi. 
2)  or  Ecbatana.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
the  Medes  and  Persians  are  intended  by  the 
breast  and  arms  of  the  colossal  image  seen  in 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  (Dan.  ii.).  Their 
country  was  absorbed  in  the  en)pire  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  after  the  Christian  era 
became  tributary  to  the  Parthians.  Medes  are 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Parthians  as 
among  the  crowds  present  in  Jerusalem  (Acts 
ii.  9)  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.         T.  W.  C. 

Mediation,  Mediator.  Persons  who  are  at 
variance  often  need  the  intervention  of  a 
third  party  to  reconcile  them,  and  this  party 
is  styled  a  mediator.  Sin  having  caused  vari- 
ance between  God  and  man.  there  is  need  of 
some  one  to  bring  about  reconciliation  by  a 
satisfaction  for  sin.  This  is  done  by  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  who,  being  a  sinless  man  and 
at  the  same  time  a  divine  person,  is  able  at 
once  to  offer  the  needful  sacrifice  and  to  give 
it  the  requisite  value.  He  is  therefore  the 
one  Mediator  between  God  and  man  (1  Tim. 
ii.  4),  nor  is  there  any  other.  ' '  No  man  com- 
eth  to  the  Father  but  by  me"  (John  xiv.  6). 
The  mediatorial  work  is  performed  by  the 
functions  which  our  Saviour  exercises  as 
prophet,  priest,  and  king.  See  Jesus  Christ, 
Offices  of.  T.  W.  C. 

.Medicine,  Hebrevr.  Our  knowledge  of 
the  healing  art  as  practised  among  the  Jews 
is  scanty.  It  appears  to  have  belonged  mainly 
to  the  priests,  who  cared  both  for  private  ail- 
ments and  public  hygiene,  though  there  were 
some  physicians  who  were  not  of  the  priestly 
order  (2  Chron.  xvi.  12).  As  it  was  declared 
to  be  pollution  to  touch  a  dead  body,  the  Jews 
had  no  means  of  studying  anatomy  and  pa- 
thology. Many  of  the  directions  of  the  Mosaic 
ritual,  although  designed  primarily  as  object 
lessons  in  regard  to  moral  purity,  nevertheless 
subserved  important  sanitary  uses.  Fevers, 
agues,  inflammations,  boils  and  blains,  hemor- 
rhoids, sunstroke,  elephantiasis  (Job)  and  pes- 
tilence are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  dropsy,  paralysis,  epilepsy,  uterine  hem- 
orrhage, atrophy  of  muscles  (withered  hand), 
dysentery,  and  gangrene  in  the  New.  The 
materia  medico,  was  limited.  We  read  (2 
Kings  XX.  7)  of  a  cake  of  figs  applied  to  a 
boil  successfully,  but  wiiether  as  a  natural 
remedy  or  merely  in  the  way  of  s3'mbol  does 
not  appear.  The  medical  portion  of  the  Tal- 
mud is  quite  full  but  of  extremel}'  little  value, 
yet  long  after  the  destruction  of  the  people  as 
a  nation  Jewish  physicians  were  held  iu  high 


MEDINA 


(555) 


MELANCHTHON 


repute,  and  became  prominent  at  the  court  of 
moi'e  than  one  might}'  monarch.  (See  K.  J. 
Wunderbar,  Biblisch  ■  Tnlmudische  Mediciit, 
Riga,  1860  ;  J.  R.  Bennett,  Diseases  of  the 
Bible,  London,  1888.)  T.  W.  C. 

Medina,  the  burial  place  of  Mohammed,  and 
only  second  to  Mecca  a.s  a. shrine.  It  contains 
the' mausoleum  of  Mohammed.  (See  Burton, 
El-Mediiiah  and  Meccah,  London,  1855-56,  3 
vols.,   3d  ed.,  1879,  2  vols.) 

Medley,  Samuel,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Cheshunt, 
Herts,  June  23,  1738  ;  d.  in  Liverpool,  July 
17.  1799,  where  he  became  a  pastor,  1772.  He 
wrote  many  hymns,  and  several  are  still  very 
popular,  especially  "  Awake,  my  soul,  to  joy- 
ful lays,"  and  "  Oh,  could  I  speak  the  match- 
less worth."     (See  Duffield,  Encjlish  Hymns, 

I.C.). 


a  temper  of  mind  not  easily  pro- 
voked to  resentment.  This  is  a  peculiarly 
Christian  grace  and  finds  its  highest  pattern 
in  Him  who  was  meek  and  lowly  in  heart. 
Difficult  to  attain,  it  brings  a  blessing  of  the 
greatest  value,  for  the  meek  Jehovah  will 
beautify  with  salvation  (Ps.  cxlix.  4),  and 
they  shall  inherit  the  earth  (Matt.  v.  5). 

T.  W.  C. 

Megapolensis,  or  Van  Mekelenburg, 
Joannes,  first  Protestant  missionary  to  the 
Indians  ;  b.  at  Koedvck,  Holland,  1603  ;  d. 
at  New  Tork,  Jan.  24,  1670.  The  first  pa- 
troon  Van  Rensselaer  brought  him  to  America 
in  1642  as  a  frontier  missionar}-  ;  preceding 
Eliot,  he  labored  with  good  results  among  the 
Mohawks  for  6  years,  and  saved  3  Jesuit  cap- 
tives. From  1649  he  was  minister  of  the  Dutch 
Church  in  New  York.  He  wrote  in  Dutch  ^1 
Short  Account  of  tlte  Mohawk  Indians,  Amster- 
dam, 1651  ;  translated  in  the  New  York  His- 
torical Society's  Collections,  vol.  lii. 

F.  M.  B. 

Me-gid -do,  a  town  of  Manasseh.  It  lay 
on  the  southwest  border  of  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon  and  south  of  the  Kishon,  which  is 
probably  meant  by  "  the  waters  of  Megiddo" 
in  the  Song  of  Deborah  (Judges  v.  19).  It 
was  fortified  by  Solomon  (1  Kings  ix.  15). 
Ahaziah  died  there  (2  Kings  ix.  27),  and  there 
Josiali  was  defeated,  .slain,  and  sorely  lament- 
ed (2  Chron.  xxxv.  23-25).  T.  W.  C. 

Me-gil'-loth  {rolls).  The  Hebrew  manu- 
scripts, written  on  parchment,  usually  on  one 
side,  but  sometimes  on  both  (Ezek.  ii.  10). 
In  later  usage  the  term  was  applied  to  the  5 
books  (Rutlii  Canticles,  Lamentations,  Eccle- 
siastes,  and  Esther)  which  were  read  in  the 
synagogue  on  certain  festivals.       T.  C.  W. 

Mekhitarists.     See  ]MEcniTARiSTS. 

Melanchthon,  Philipp,  b.  at  Bretten,  in 
the  Palatinate,  Feb.  16,  1497  ;  d.  in  Witten- 
berg, April  19,  1560.  Ilis  family  name  was 
Schwarzerd,  "  black  earth,"  which,  in  accord- 
ance; with  the  custom  of  the  time,  he  trans- 
lated into  the  Greek,  Melanchthon,  when  he 
ad'jpted  the  learned  profession.  His  father 
was  an  armorsmith,  which  at  that  time  was 
not  simply  a  profitable  trade,  but  the  highest 
and  most  esteemed  of  all  the  arts.     He  died 


in  1507,  and  the  boy  was  then  educated  in  the 
house  of  his  grandmother,  who  was  a  sister  to 
Reuchlin.  When  he  was  12  years  old  he  en- 
tered the  University  of  Heidelberg,  and  when 
he  was  14  he  graduated  there  as  abaccalau- 
reus.  Not  so  very  well  off,  he  became  the 
tutor  of  the  young  Counts  Lowenslein,  and 
from  the  exercises  of  that  office  spring  his 
celebrated  Greek  grammar.  As  the  Univer- 
sity of  Heidelberg  would  not  make  him  a 
inuffister,  because  he  was  too  young,  he  re- 
moved to  Tiibingen,  and  there  he  obtained  the 
degree  in  1514,  and  began,  when  only  16  years 
old,  to  lecture  on  Greek  grammar,  Cicero, 
Terence,  etc.  In  1518  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, and  his  inaugural  address,  Decorriijoulis 
adoiescentiie  studies,  denotes  a  new  issue  in 
the  history  of  higher  education  in  Germany. 

As  a  true  humanist  Melanchthon  studied 
literature,  philosophy,  theology,  jurispru- 
dence, medicine — in  short,  everything.  It 
was  first  Erasmus'  edition  of  the  Greek  text 
of  the  New  Testament  and  then  his  friend- 
ship with  Luther  which  led  him  to  concen- 
trate his  whole  attention  upon  theology,  and 
he  became  a  theologian,  learned  and  acute  as 
few  in  his  time,  patient  and  tolerant  as  none. 
While  Luther  lived  they  shared  the  burdens 
and,  in  due  measure,  also  the  honors  of  the 
Reformation  with  each  other.  Melanchthon 
was  present  at  all  the  disputations  and  con- 
ferences between  the  contending  parties— at 
Marburg,  1529 ;  Spires,  1529 ;  Augsburg, 
1530  ;  Cassel,  1535  ;  Wittenberg,  1536  ; 
Schmalkalden,  1537 ;  Hagenau,  1540 ;  Worms, 
1541  ;  Regensburg,  1541,  etc.  He  wrote  the 
first  systematical  expositions  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  new  church,  some  of  which  became  its 
.symbolical  books,  Loci  Communes,  1521  ; 
Epitome  Doctrime  Christ,  1524 ;  Unterricht 
der  Visiiatorcn.  1528;  T7ie  Augsburrj  Coifes- 
sion  and  its  Ajwlogy,  1530  ;  De  Pot  estate  Papfe, 
1537,  etc.  He  was  practically  engaged  in  the 
reorganization  of  the  church  in  Saxony, 
Mesnia,  etc.,  and  in  the  reform  of  the  school 
and  the  university  throughout  the  Protestant 
countries.    He  was  an  exceedingly  busy  man. 

His  relation  to  Luther  was  one  not'unfre- 
quent  between  man  and  man,  though,  of 
course,  very  variously  individualized  in  each 
case  and  gen,?rally  on  a  luinor  scale.  Like  all 
powerful  natures  bound  with  full  sincerity  to 
some  grand  ideal,  Luther  was  sometimes 
afraid  of  himself,  and  Melanchthon  became  a 
piece  of  his  conscience.  He  demanded  ]\ie- 
lanchthon's  assent  to  everything  he  did  or  said 
or  thought,  and  when  ]\Ielanchthon  could  not 
or  would  not  give  that  a.ssent  Luther  got 
angry.  Thus,  when  it  became  apparent  that 
Melanchthon  felt  no  special  antipathy  for  the 
Reformed  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
while  Luther's  aversion  to  it  became  more 
and  more  vehement,  silence  and  coolness 
settled  down  l)ctwecn  them.  But  when  Me- 
lanchthon fell  ill— dangerously  ill,  Luther  felt 
at  once  that  he  could  not  live  without  that 
man.  He  fiew  to  his  sick  bed,  and  he  stayed 
there,  rapt  in  ardent  prayer,  till  the  danger 
was  over.  When  Luther  became  a  little 
domineering  Melanchthon  would  become  a 
little  peevi.sh  ;    utterances  of  that  kind  have 


\ 


MELCHIASES 


(556)  MELETIUS 


escaped  him.  But  all  the  while  he  knew 
very  well  that  his  own  splendid  gifts  received 
from  Luther  a  new  value,  and  he  came  to 
know  that  only  too  well. 

After  the  death  of  Luther,  1546,  not  only 
the  whole  moral  responsibility  of  the  situation 
devolved  upon  Melanchthon,  but  also  the  en- 
tire management  of  all  the  diverging  tenden- 
cies and  interests  which  had  developed.  He 
loved  peace  and  he  had  a  talent  for  making 
peace.  But  there  are  cases  in  human  life  in 
which  peace  can  be  established  only  by  a 
word  of  command,  and  that  was  not  in  him. 
Dragged  from  one  controversy  into  another, 
the  adiaphoristic,  the  synergistic,  etc.,  he  al- 
ways seemed  to  come  out  the  loser.  He  and 
his  immediate  pupils  and  followers  assumed 
the  appearance  of  being  only  one  party  (Phil- 
ippists)  among  all  the  other  parties.  He  was 
accused  of  Crypto-Calvinism  by  the  theolo- 
gians of  Jena,  and  the  attacks  upon  him  were 
often  made  in  a  most  unseemly  manner.  No 
wonder  that  he  discovered  a  new  disease  to 
which  human  tlesh  is  heir,  and  that  it  bears 
to-day  the  name  he  gave  it  three  centuries 
ago,  rabies  theologorum. 

There  are  several  collected  editions  of  Me- 
lanchthon's  works  ;  the  best  and  most  com- 
plete is  that  by  Bretsclmeider  and  Bindseil  in 
Corpus  Reformatorum,  Halle,  1832-50,  28 
vols,  of  his  Loci  communes,  ed.  by  G.  L.  Plitt, 
Erlangen,  1864;  2d  ed.,  by  Kolde,  Leipzig, 
1890.  There  are  also  a  number  of  biographies, 
one  by  Ledderhose,  Heidelberg,  1847,  Eng. 
trans,  by  Krotel,  Philadelphia,  1855  ;  another 
by  Meurer,  Leipzig,  1860,  appeared  in  a  2d  ed. 
in  1869.  C.  P. 

Melchiades,  or  Miltiades,  pope,  July  2, 
310-Jan.  10,  314,  was  an  African  by  birth. 
A  letter  to  him  from  Constantine,  written  in 
Gaul,  313,  is  found  in  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  v., 
17,  but  the  decrees  ascribed  to  him  by  the 
Lib.  Pont,  are  spurious. 

Melchites,  or  Melekites  (from  the  Hebrew, 
melek,  "  king"),  is  the  name  of  those  Chris- 
tians in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  the  Orient  gener- 
ally who,  though  almost  in  every  respect  pro- 
fessed Greeks,  recognize  the  authority  of  the 
pope.  They  represent  the  fruit  of  the  labors 
of  the  Jesuits  in  the  17th  century. 

Mel-chiz'-e-dek  {king  of  ricjldeotisness), 
king  of  Salem  and  priest  of  the  Most  High 
God,  in  vC'hich  capacity  he  blessed  Abraham 
and  received  tithes  from  him  (Gen.  xiv. ).  Of 
unknown  origin  and  end  he  was  a  type  of 
Christ  (Ps.  ex.  4),  who  was  a  priest  not  of  the 
order  of  Aaron.  He  was  not  Enoch,  nor 
Shem,  nor  an  angel,  nor  the  Holy  Ghost,  nor 
the  Son  of  God,  but  a  pious  Canaanite  wliom 
God  called  and  chose  as  king  and  priest  to 
preligure  him  who  was  to  be  a  Priest  upon 
his  throne  (Heb.  vi.,  vii.).  T.  W.  C. 

Meldenius,  Rupertus,  is  the  name  of  the 
author  of  the  Parmnesis  votiva,  pro  pace  Eccle- 
siiB,  ad  tlteologos  Augustanm  Cojifessionis,  pub- 
lished about  1630  in  Germany.  Nothing  is 
known  about  him.  But  the  book  is  interest- 
ing on  account  of  its  pacifying  tendency.  It 
contains  the  famous  sentence,  "  In  necessary 
things  unity,  in  unnecessary  liberty,  in  both 
charity,"  quoted  by  Baxter  in  1679. 


Meletian  Schism.     See  below. 

Meletius  of  Antioch.  Eustathius,  bishop  of 
Antioch,  who  adhered  to  the  symbol  of  the 
Council  of  Nice,  lost  his  place  in  330  through 
the  efforts  of  his  opponents.  His  party  main- 
tained an  existence,  and  was  recognized  by 
Athanasius  as  the  true  church  of  Antiocl/;: 
but  the  bishopric  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Oriental  mediating,  or  Arianizing  party.  Eu- 
doxius,  one  of  these  bishops,  became  bisliop 
of  Constantinople  in  359,  and  thus  there  was 
an  episcopal  election  at  Antioch  (360j.  Un- 
der the  influence  of  Acacius,  an  extreme 
Ariau,  Meletius  was  elected,  but  he  was  soon 
found  to  belong  rather  to  the  mediating  party 
than  either  to  the  Nicene  or  the  Arian.  So 
much  displeasure  was  excited  by  this  fact 
that  in  a  month  his  enemies  had  secui  ed  his 
removal  and  had  put  Euzoius,  a  strong  Ariau, 
in  his  place.  A  small  party  still  adhered  to 
him,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  church, 
and  thus  constituted  llie  Meletian  iSchis/u. 
Paulinus  now  stood  at  the  head  of  the  old 
Eustathian  party,  but  no  union  could  be 
brought  abouc  between  the  Eustathians  and 
the  Meletians,  who  really  stood  for  the  same 
thing.  Tlie  Synod  of  Alexandria  sought  to 
unite  them,  and  miglit  have  succeeded,  had 
not  Lucifer  consecrated  Paulinus  as  bisliop. 
Paulinus  was  now  acknowledged  by  the  West 
as  tJie  true  bishop  of  Antioch,  while  the  or- 
thodox East  ranged  itself  upon  the  side  of 
Meletius.  In  363  a  synod  at  Antioch  undtr 
the  guidance  of  Meletius  acknowledged  the 
symbol  of  Nice,  and  Basil  gave  his  counte- 
nance to  Meletius.  But  in  spite  of  all  his 
efforts  Basil  could  not  get  the  West  to  ac- 
knowledge Meletius,  and  in  375  Paulinus  was 
declared  the  true  bishop  by  Rome,  and  in  317 
Meletius  and  Eusebius  of  Samosata  together 
declared  heretics.  Under  Valens  Meletius 
had  been  banished.  In  378  he  returned.  The 
two  parties  at  Antioch  now  approached  one 
another,  and  an  agreement  was  entered  into 
by  which  no  new  bishop  was  to  be  elected  to 
succeed  either  schismatic  bishop.  Meletius 
died  in  381  while  absent  at  the  Council  at 
Constantinople,  and  was  buried  with  great 
honors.  Paulinus  should  now  have  been  rec- 
ognized by  all  as  bishop,  but  this  opportu- 
nity was  lost,  and  Flavian  elected.  Pope 
Damasus  in  382  recognized  Paulinus  again, 
and  when  he  died  Evagrius  was  elected  to 
succeed  him.  But  after  his  death  the  Eus- 
tathians had  no  head,  and  were  brought  into 
the  communion  of  tlie  remainder  of  tlie  Anti- 
ochian  Church  by  Alexander,  the  second  suc- 
cessor of  Flavian  (415).  Thus  the  schism 
lasted  85  years.  F.  H.  F. 

Meletius,   bishop  of    Lycopolis,   was    the 

originator  of  the  Meletinii  Hchism  of  Alexait- 
dria,  which  antedated  that  of  Antioch^  and 
had  no  connection  with  it.  It  arose  from  a  dif- 
ference between  Meletius  and  Peter,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  about  the  proper  treatment  of 
the  lapsed  in  the  persecutions.  Peter  repre- 
sented the  milder,  Meletius  the  stricter  view. 
The  beginning  and  early  course  of  the  schism 
is  involved  in  obscurity,  and  the  accounts  of 
it  conflict.  It  seems,  however,  evident  that 
Meletius  was  guilty  of  some  encroachment 


MELITA 


(557) 


MENCIUS 


upon  the  rights  of  the  bishop  of  Alexandria 
in  the  matter  of  ordinations.  Meletius  was 
deposed  by  Peter,  and  thus  made  a  schismatic 
bishop,  since  he  refused  to  recognize  the  sen- 
tence. The  Synod  of  Nice  (325)  sought  to 
heal  the  schism,  and  ordered  that  no  one 
should  be  recognized  as  bisliop  without  the 
consent  of  the  metropolitan.  It  thus  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  patriarchal  power  of  Alex- 
andria. The  Meletian  bishops  were  treated 
with  mildness,  and  were  only  ordered  to  ab- 
stain from  the  performance  of  the  functions 
of  their  office.  Meletius  consented  for  a  time, 
but  when  Athanasius  proceeded  with  more 
strictness  against  the  Meletians,  Meletius 
chose  a  successor,  and  thus  perpetuated  the 
schism.  Gradually  the  Meletians,  though 
having  at  first  nothing  in  common  with  the 
Arians,  assisted,  and  possibly  came  to  sym- 
pathize with  that  party,  and  in  one  of  Atha- 
nasius' absences  the  Meletian  bishop  was  rec- 
ognized by  the  Arians  as  bishop  of  Alexandria 
(386).  Tliey  succeeded  in  maintaining  a  sepa- 
rate existence  till  some  time  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury. F.  H.  F. 

Mel'-i-ta  {honey),  an  island  south  of  Sicily, 
on  which  Paul  was  shipwrecked  during  his 
voyage  to  Rome.  Here  he  was  protected 
aniid  perils  on  shore  as  well  as  on  the  sea,  and 
abode  three  months,  during  which  he  wrought 
many  miracles  and  received  many  honors 
(Acts  xxviii.).  T.  W.  C. 

Memphis.     See  Noph. 

Melito,  bishop  of  Sardes,  the  capital  of 
Lydia,  the  only  bishop  of  that  place  mention- 
ed in  the  literary  documents  of  the  three  tirst 
centuries,  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  2d 
century,  and  occupied  a  prominent  position 
among  the  Asiatic  bishops,  both  on  account 
of  his  personal  influence  and  his  literary  ac- 
tivity. But  of  his  works,  among  which  his 
apology  of  Christianity  as  the  true  philosophy, 
presented  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  was  the  most 
renowned,  only  fragments  have  come  down 
to  us,  collected  by  Routh,  liel.  sacra,  vol.  i. 
(See  Harnack,  Texte  uiul  Uutersuchungen, 
Leipzig,  1882,  vol.  i..  240-78.) 

Melvill,  Henry,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Pendenuis  Castle,  Cornwall,  Eng.,  Sept.  14, 
1798  ;  d.  in  London,  Feb.  9,  1871.  He  gradu- 
ated, 1821,  at  St.  Peter's  College,  Cambridge  ; 
became  fellow  and  tutor  ;  minister  of  Camden 
Chapel,  Camberwell,  London,  1829-43  ;  chap- 
lain to  the  Tower,  1840  ;  principal  of  the  East 
India  College  at  Haileybury,  1843-59  ;  Golden 
lecturer  at  St.  Margaret's,  Lothbury,  1847-56  ; 
chaplain  to  the  queen,  1853  ;  canon  of  St. 
Paul's,  1856  ;  rector  of  Barnes  and  rural 
dean,  1863.  His  sermons  appeared  in  at  least 
20  separate  publications  from  1832  on  ;  some 
of  them  were  edited  in  America  by  Bishop 
Mcllvaine,  New  York,  1870,  2  vols.  He  was 
of  the  Evangelical  school,  and  had  a  great 
though  transitory  reputation,  due  rather  to 
his  rhetoric  and  oratory  than  to  his  matter. 
F.  M.  B. 

Melville,  Andrew,  Scottish  scholar  and 
reformer  ;  b.  at  Baldovy,  near  j\Iontrose, 
Scotland,  Aug.  1,  1545  ;  d.  at  Sedan,  France, 
1622.     At  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's  he 


alone  knew  Aristotle's  Greek  text,  and  was 
accounted  "  the  best  poet,  philosopher,  and 
Grecian  of  any  young  master  in  the  land.'' 
He  spent  two  years  in  Paris  under  Ramus  and 
Turnebus,  two  at  Poitiers  in  the  study  of  civil 
law,  and  live  at  Geneva  as  professor  of  human- 
ity. Returning  in  1574,  he  became  principal 
of  Glasgow  University,  which  he  raised  from 
a  nearly  ruined  condition,  and  in  1580  was 
transferred  to  St.  Mary's,  the  new  theological 
college  of  St.  Andrew's.  A  steady  opponent 
of  prelacy,  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  au- 
thorities, and  escaped  imprisonment  by  exile 
in  England,  1584-85.  Returning,  ho  was 
moderator  of  the  Assembly  in  1587,  1589,  and 
1594,  and  in  1592  saw  Presbyterianism,  of 
which  he  was  the  most  powerful  exponent  and 
champion,  ratified  by  Parliament.  He  was 
rector  of  St.  Andrew's,  1590-97.  King  James, 
dreading  so  formidable  an  opponent,  excluded 
him  from  the  Assembly  of  1600.  To  get  him 
out  of  the  way,  he  was  summoned  to  London 
with  others  in  1606,  ostensibly  to  confer  on 
church  affairs.  Here,  for  an  epigram  on  a 
service  in  the  chapel  royal,  he  was  tried  by 
the  Privy  Council,  Nov.  30,  convicted  of 
scandaium,  marjiuitum,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower,  1607-11,  pen,  paper,  and  society  being 
for  some  time  denied  him.  On  his  liberation, 
forbidden  alike  to  return  to  Scotland  or  to 
take  the  chair  of  divinity  at  Rochelle,  he  was 
allowed  to  accept  a  similar  position  in  the 
Protestant  college  at  Sedan  ;  there  his  last 
eleven  years  were  spent.  His  writings  were 
chiefly  poems,  of  which  the  best  is  (Jarmcii 
Mosis,  Basel,  1574.  His  life  was  written  in  2 
vols.,  Edinburgh,  1819,  by  Dr.  T.  McCrie, 
who  calls  him  the  greatest  benefactor  of  Scot- 
land after  Knox.  F.  M.  B. 

Memento  mori  {rememher  thou  shall  die)  is 
the  device  of  several  monastic  orders,  as,  for 
instance,  the  Carthusians,  the  Camaldulenses, 
the  Trappists,  etc. 

Men  of  Understanding  {Homines  intelli- 
gentio'),  a  branch  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit  (q.v.),  which  appeared  in  Flanders, 
especially  in  Brussels,  about  1411,  under  the 
leadership  of  ^gidius  and  William  of  Hil- 
denissem  (Hildesheim).  » 

Men'-a-hem  {comforter),  sixteenth  king  of 
Israel,  who  slew  Shallum  and  reigned  in  his 
stead.  His  reign,  which  lasted  ten  years  (n.c. 
771-760),  was  distinguished  for  cruelty  and 
oppression  (2  Kings  xv.  14-22).      T.  W'.  C. 

Menander,  one  of  the  earliest  Gnostics,  was 
a  native  of  Samaria,  a  pupil  of  Simon  3Iagus, 
the  teacher  of  Basilides.  and  the  link  between 
the  Oriental  and  the  Greek  gnosis. 

Mencius  (Chinese,  Meng-tse).  He  was  a 
noble  of  the  jirovince  of  Lu,  and  lived  from 
371  to  288  B.C.  He  is  regarded  as  the  chief 
philosopher  of  the  school  of  Confucius,  and 
as  having  overcome  all  its  opponents.  He  is 
less  typical,  more  individual  than  Confucius, 
and  his  doctrine  was  better  systematized. 
His  dialogues  are  a  sacred  book.  '  The  virtues 
recommended  by  him  as  cardinal  are  wisdom, 
humanity,  ju.stice  and  decorum.  He  regard- 
ed human  nature  as  originally  and  essentially 
good.  W.  R.  Martin. 


MEND23ANS 


(558) 


MENNO 


Mendseans,  or  Mandaeans,  a  Gnostic  sect, 
which  still  maintains  an  existence  in  South 
Babylonia.  The  name  has  the  same  signifi- 
cance as  Gnostic  ;  and  though  they  are  also 
known  by  the  name  of  "  Christians  of  St. 
John,"  they  are  in  no  sense  a  Christian  sect. 
They  are  remarkable  as  being  the  only  Gnos- 
tic sect  which  has  any  considerable  literature. 
Of  this  the  principal  is  the  "  great_  book, " 
which  is  largely  liturgical,  and  which  con- 
tains their  ideas  in  an  unsystematic  form. 
This  body  of  literature  is  important  not  only 
for  the  study  of  the  Gnostic  systems  in  gen- 
eral, but  also  for  the  language,  a  dialect  of 
Aramaic.  (See  the  edition  of  Petermaun, 
Thesaurus  seu  Liber  Magnus,  Berlin,  1867  ; 
Noldeke's  Mandchsclie  Grammatik,  Halle, 
1875  ;  full  catalogue  of  literature  in  Herzog, 
Realencydopddie,  vol.  ix.,  p.  205  ff.) 

Like  the  other  Gnostic  sects,  the  Mendseans 
begin  with  the  most  abstract  idea  of  divinity, 
which  they  entitle  the  "  great  glory."  With 
him  is  associated  the  aether,  or  king  of  light, 
the  source  of  the  development  of  the  world. 
From  these,  by  successive  emanations,  pro- 
ceed "the  great  Jordan;"  "the  first  Life," 
which  is  the  real  God  of  the  Menda^ans  ; 
"  the  second  Life,"  which  becomes  a  fallen 
spirit  ;  then  a  group,  of  which  one  is  "  the 
third  Life  ;"  then  the  demiurge,  by  which  the 
world  is  created.  In  all  this,  and  in  much 
more,  the  closest  relation  with  Gnosticism,  and 
particularly  with  Manich;eism,  is  at  once  evi- 
dent. The  prophets  of  Judaism  are  all  called 
false  prophets,  and  Jesus  is  reckoned  in  the 
same  category.  A  characteristic  utterance, 
illustrating  their  attitude  toward  Christianity, 
is  this  :  "  Beware  of  the  God-carpenter.  To 
the  carpenter  belongs  the  axe  ;  not  incense." 
Asceticism  plays  a  smaller  part  with  them 
than  is  usual  with  the  Gnostics,  for  they  are 
polygamous  and  permit  the  marriage  of  their 
clergy. 

The  organization  of  the  Mendseans  is  quite 
complete.  They  have  a  regular  hierarchy  of 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  above  which 
stands  a  patriarch,  of  which  rank  there  have, 
however,  been  but  two  representatives  in  the 
entire  history  of  the  people,  and  which  is 
nov^  vacant.'  The  ceremonies  of  ordination 
are  long  and  severe.  Among  their  rites  bap- 
tism plays  a  large  part.  They  have  also  a 
eucharist.  Their  number,  which  in  the  17th 
century  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  20,000 
families,  is  now  reduced  to  about  1500  souls. 
E.  Babelon,  Les  Mendaites,  leur  histoireet  leur 
doctrines,  Paris,  1882.  F.  H.  F. 

Mendelssohn,  Moses,  b.  at  Dessau,  67  m. 
s.w.  of  Berlin,  Sept.  6,  1729  ;  d.  in  Berhn, 
Jan.  4,  1786  ;  studied  rabbinical  lore  and 
afterward  literature  and  philosophy  ;  con- 
tributed very  much  to  improve  the  state  of 
the  Jews  in  Germany,  especially  in  Berlin, 
and  acquired  a  certain  name  in  German  liter- 
ature by  his  half-philosophical  writings, 
Phcedon,  Morgensttinden,  etc. ,  and  by  his  con- 
nection with  Lessing,  Lavater,  etc.  His  life 
was  written  by  Samuels,  London,  1822,  and 
Kayserling,  Berlin,  1862. 

Mendicant  Orders,  or  Begging  Priars, 
comprise  those  four  monastic  orders  which,  at 


least  in  the  first  time  after  their  foundation, 
realized  their  vow  of  povert}^  by  actually  sub- 
sisting on  alms — the  Franciscans,  Dominicans, 
Carmelites,  and  Augustinian  Hermits.  See 
those  arts. 

Mene,  Mene,  Tekel,  Upharsin,  the  enig- 
matical passage  supernaturally  written  upon 
the  plaster  of  the  wall  in  Belshazzar's  palace 
in  Babylon  (Dan.  v.  5-25),  which  the  astrolo- 
gers, the  Chaldseans,  and  the  soothsayers 
could  neither  read  nor  interpret,  but  which 
Daniel  read  and  interpreted  as  a  warning  to 
the  king,  that  his  time  was  up. 

Meni,  the  name  of  a  divinity  mentioned 
once  in  the  Bible  (Isa.  xlv.  11),  and  by  some 
identified  with  the  Greek  moongod,  Mene,by 
others  with  one  of  the  minor  divinities  of 
Babylon,  Manu. 

Menno  and  the  Mennonites.  Menno, 
Simons,  b.  at  Witmarsum,  Friesland,  1492  ; 
d.  at  Oldeslohe,  Holstein,  Jan.  13,  1559.  He 
became  a  priest  about  1516.  After  earnest 
study  of  the  New  Testament  he  began  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  an  evangelical  spirit. 
The  martyrdom  of  an  Anabaptist,  in  1531,  led 
Menno  to'seek  the  views  of  leading  reformers 
upon  the  subject  of  infant  baptism.  This  in- 
vestigation resulted  in  his  firm  conviction  that 
the  practice  was  not  warranted  by  either  the 
New  Testament  or  the  arguments  of  theolo- 
gians. In  1536  Menno  withdrew  from  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  and  became  an  Ana- 
baptist minister.  He  labored  earnestly  to  ad- 
vance his  opinions  until  his  death.  During 
much  of  this  time  he  was  subject  to  severe 
persecution,  and  labored  with  a  price  offered 
for  his  arrest.  Many  churches  in  Friesland, 
Northern  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands 
took  his  name.  He  abhorred  the  excesses  at 
Miinster  and  disclaimed  all  sympathy  with 
that  movement.  He  adopted  many  views  of 
the  evangehcal  Anabaptists  (q.v.),  and  in  the 
Low  Countries  his  followers  afliliated  with 
those  Dutch  Anabaptists  who  derived  their 
views  from  the  devout  and  peaceable  Ana- 
baptists of  Switzerland.  jNleuno  did  not  hold 
to  a  comnumity  of  goods,  but  he  was  influ- 
enced by  Melchior  Hoffman's  peculiar  views 
of  the  person  of  Christ  (see  p.  28). 

The  early  followers  of  Menno  emphasized 
the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  a  personal  re- 
ligious experience  and  consistent  conduct. 
They  rejected  infant  baptism  and  oatlis,  be- 
lieved in  non-resistance,  and  refused  to  hold 
oifice  as  civil  magistrates.  They  were  loyal 
citizens  and  held  that  magistrates  should  be 
obeyed  in  everything  not  contrary  to  the 
word  of  God.  They  settled  all  differences 
among  themselves  by  arbitration  ;  never  by 
reference  to  courts  of  law.  They  forbade 
divorce  except  for  adultery,  and  insisted  upon 
strict  morality  and  church  discipline,  but  they 
soon  divided  into  parties  on  the  subject  of  the 
proper  measure  of  strictness  in  church  dis- 
cipline. The  frequent  assertion  that  Menno 
taught  and  -practised  immersion  cannot  be 
supported  and  ought  not  to  be  made.  The 
early  Mennonites  agreed  with  modern  Bap- 
tists concerning  the  proper  subjects,  but  not 
concerning  the  act  of  baptism.  The  Dutch 
Anabaptists,  like  the  Swiss,  anticipated  by 


MENNO 


(559] 


MENTAL 


nearly  a  century  the  principles  of  Roger  Will- 
iams and  William  Penn  in  their  advocacy  of 
civil  and  religious  liberty  and  of  the  separa- 
tion of  church  and  state.  It  is  not  usually 
conceded  thtit  the  contest  in  England  which 
led  to  the  colonization  of  America  was  the 
natural  and  logical  issue  of  the  doctrines 
which  were  held  by  the  better  class  of  Ana- 
baptists of  the  16th  century.  Yet  such  a  high 
claim  is  made  for  the  views  of  Menno,  f lub- 
meier,  and  others  of  like  spirit.  Though  for 
a  time  religious  toleration  was  granted  to  the 
Anabaptists  by  William  the  Silent,  bitter  per- 
secutions drove  the  Mennonites  up  the  Rhine 
and  into  Prussia,  and  at  a  later  date  they 
went  to  Southern  Russia  and  large  numbers 
came  to  America.  Thus  they  were  widely 
scattered  There  is  a  marked  resemblance 
and  a  close  historical  relation  between  many 
views  and  practices  of  the  Friends  and  the 
doctrines  and  usages  of  the  Mennonites. 
*'  We  are  compelled,"  says  Barclay  in  his 
Inner  History  of  the  Ileligious  Societies  of  the 
Uommomcealth,  '  to  view  George  Fox  as  the 
unconscious  exponent  of  the  doctrine,  prac- 
tice, and  discipline  of  the  ancient  and  stricter 
party  of  the  Dutch  Mennonites."  The  early 
English  General  Baptists  were  the  connecting 
link  between  the  Dutch  Anabaptists  and  the 
Friends.  (See  George  Tallack,  George  For, 
the  Friends,  and  the  Early  Baptists,  London, 
1868.) 

The  indebtedness  of  the  Friends  to  the  Ana- 
baptists of  Holland  was  amply  repaid  by  the 
cordial  welcome  given  to  the  Mennonites  in 
the  colony  of  Pennsylvania.  The  mother  of 
William  Penn  was  a  native  of  Rotterdam, 
and  he  made  not  less  than  three  journeys 
among  the  Mennonites  of  the  continent  before 
he  became  the  founder  of  Pennsylvania. 
Doubtless  the  lirst  German  immigrants  came 
to  Penn's  colony  by  the  founder's  special  in- 
vitation. They  were  Mennonites  who  reached 
Pennsylvania  in  1683  and  gave  the  name  to 
Germantown.  Their  first  minister  was  Will- 
iam Rittenhouse.  He  built  the  first  paper- 
mill  in  America,  in  1690.  on  a  branch  of  the 
Wissahickou  Creek.  Early  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury many  Mennonites  settled  in  Lancaster 
County,  and  until  the  present  day  Menno- 
nites have  been  among  the  most  industrious 
and  worthy  residents  of  the  state.  By  re- 
movals and  later  immigration  their  settle- 
ments have  extended  to  Virginia  and  to  sev- 
eral of  the  central  and  western  states. 

The  present  Mennonites  of  Holland  and 
Friesland  belong  chiefly  to  the  milder  school 
in  both  discipline  and  doctrine.  They  num- 
ber about  40,000.  They  support  a  flourishing 
theological  school  at  Amsterdam,  which,  not- 
withstanding the  prejudices  of  many  early 
Mennonites,  was  founded  in  1735. 

Mennonites  of  German  descent  were  at- 
tracted to  Russia  by  privileges  granted  by 
Catharine  H.  and  confirmed  by  Paul.  Rus- 
sian Mennonites  became  very  jjrosperous,  and 
numbered  nearly  40,000  in  1874,  when,  on 
account  of  the  unwise  action  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  withdrawal  of  previous  exemp- 
tions, about  10.0(10  ^Mciuionites  emigrated  to 
America  and  settled  in  Minnesota,  Kansas, 
and  Manitoba.     The  Russian  policy  was  soon 


modified  by  the  substitution  of  civil  for  com- 
pulsory military  service,  and  the  Mennonite 
settlements  continued  to  flourish,  so  that  to- 
day they  contain  about  40,000  soids,  even 
after  the  large  emigration  to  America. 

In  Switzerland  and  France  there  are  about 
2500  Mennonites,  and  in  Germany  18,000,  of 
whom  10,000  are  in  Prussia.  These  figures 
include,  however,  the  whole  number  of  souls 
in  Mennonite  families— i.f.,  the  members  in 
full  fellowship,  who  are  usually  received  at 
about  14  years  of  age,  and  the  unbaptized 
children  of  the  households. 

According  to  the  same  method  of  computa- 
tion, there  are  about  150,000  Mennonites  in  the 
United  States,  and  about  50,000  in  British 
America.  Of  these  the  so-called  "  Old  Men- 
nonites" are  by  far  the  most  numerous. 
Their  principal  paper,  The  Herald  of  Truth, 
is  issued  at  Elkhart,  Ind.,  where  they  have  a 
flourishing  publishing  house. 

Mennonites  of  the  "  General  Conference," 
with  organs  at  Berne,  Ind.,  and  Philadelphia, 
seek  to  foster  union  on  the  basis  of  what  is 
essential  to  truth  and  salvation  and  in  accord- 
ance with  ilie  fundamental  views  of  the 
Mennonite  fellowship. 

The  very  strict  "  Old  Amish"  Mennonites 
are  not  very  numerous.  They  are  opposed  to 
special  houses  of  worship,  but  observe  a  fixed 
order  of  service  in  private  houses,  wear  long 
hair  and  beards,  and  are  marked  by  other 
peculiarities.  The  "  Reformed  Mennonites" 
originated  in  Lancaster  County,  Pa.,  in 
1811,  under  the  leadership  of  John  Herr,  with 
the  avowed  purpose  of  restoring  primitive 
doctrine  and  practices. 

Literature. — The  works  of  Menno  Simons 
and  the  Martyr's  Mirroi',  by  T.  J.  van 
Braght,  are  among  the  most  approved  speci- 
mens of  Mennonite  literature.  English  trans- 
lations have  been  issued  by  the  publishing 
company,  Elkhart,  Ind.  Much  useful  infor- 
mation is  given  in  Barclay's  Inner  History  of 
the  Religious  Societies  of  the  Commonwealth, 
London,  1876.  (See  also  Brons,  Ursprnng, 
Enticickelung,  vnrl  Schicksale  der  Taufgesinnt- 
en  Oder  Mennoniten,  Norden,  1884  ;  H.  G. 
Mannhardt,  Jahrbuch  der  Altevangelischen 
Tanfgesinnten  oder  Mennoniten- Gemeinden, 
Danzig,  1888  ;  Cassel,  History  of  the  Menno- 
nites, Elkhart,  Ind.,  1889,  and  especially  the 
articles  Menno  and  Mennonites  [with  refer- 
ences] in  Herzog-Plitt  and  in  Schaff-Herzog. 
These  articles  are  by  Professor  J.  G.  de  Hoop 
Scheffer,  of  Amsterdam,  perhaps  the  best 
living  authority  concerning  the  history  of  the 
Mennonites.)  B.  O.  True. 

Menologium,  in  the  Greek  Church  is  the 
name  for  the  martyrologium  of  the  Latin 
Church. 

Menses,  Papales  {papal  montJis)  are  the  un- 
even months  of  the  year,  and  are  thus  called 
because,  according  to  an  old  custom  not  now 
in  existence  any  more,  the  pope  had  a  right  to 
appoint  to  all  benefices  falling  vacant  in  those 
months. 

Mental  Reservation  means  a  premeditated 
concealment  of  some;  ])art  of  the  truth  in  giv- 
ing a  statement,  which  really  makes  the  re- 
port utterly   false    and   misleading    without 


MEPHIBOSHETH 


(560) 


MERIVAIiE 


making  the  reporter  a  liar,  or  a  latent  con- 
dition in  giving  a  promise,  which  should 
make  the  contract  absolutely  null  and  void 
without  making  the  contractanl  a  scoundrel. 
It  is  an  invention  of  the  Jesuit  morals,  and 
was  at  one  time  very  much  admired  on  ac- 
count of  the  intellectual  subtlety  it  presup- 
poses, but  it  is  so  repugnant  to  human  nature, 
when  in  a  healthy  state,  that  it  is  to  be  most 
vigorously  reprehended. 

Me-phib'-o-sheth  {exterminator  of  shame, 
i.e.,  idols),  a  grandson  of  Saul,  a  cripple  from 
his  youth,  who  received  his  grandfather's  es- 
tate" from  David,  but  lost  part  of  it  through 
the  treachery  of  Ziba  (3  Sam.  ix.  13,  xvi.  1-4, 
xix.  34-80).  He  was  exempted  from  the  de- 
scendants of  Saul  given  up  to  the  Gibeonites 
(xxi.  7),  though  another  bearing  tlie  same 
name  was  hanged.  T.  W.  C. 

Mercersburg  Theology  denotes  a  move- 
ment within  the  German  Reformed  Church 
of  the  United  States,  and  is  thus  called  be- 
cause it  originated  in  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary of  Mercersburg,  Pa.  The  movement  was 
caused  simply  by  the  contact  between  modern 
German  theology  and  Anglo-American  church 
life,  and  ran  through  three  successive  phases 
— a  philosophical,  1886-43  ;  a  theological, 
1843-58,  and  a  liturgical,  1858-66,  after  which 
it  came  to  rest  not  without  having  brought 
some  good  fruit.  The  chief  points  may  be 
thus  stated  :  1.  "  The  divine-human  person 
of  Jesus  Christ  is  the  primordial  truth  of 
Christianity,  both  of  revelation  and  redemp- 
tion. From  the  Christ  idea,  as  the  funda- 
mental principle,  are  to  be  developed  all 
scriptural  doctrines."  "  Mercersburg  was 
the  first  theological  school  in  America  which 
propounded  and  vindicated  what  has  since 
been  called  the  '  Christo-ceutric '  idea  of 
Christianity."  3.  The  church  is  the  mysti- 
cal body  of  which  Christ  is  the  head  and  true 
believers  are  the  members,  extending  through 
all  ages,  and  passing  through  experiences  of 
growth  similar  to  those  of  an  individual. 
"  Different  phases  of  the  fulness  of  her  spirit- 
ual life,  including  doctrine  and  morals,  cultus 
and  ecclesiastical  polity,  appear  at  different 
epochs  in  her  wonderful  history.  Hence  no 
statements  of  doctrine  formulated  in  any  past 
age  need  be  final,  and  no  form  of  organization 
can  be  fixed  and  unchangeable.  But  the 
church  modifies  doctrinal  formula  according 
to  her  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  Christian 
truth,  and  adjusts  her  organization  to  the  ad- 
vanced status  of  her  life  and  to  her  altered 
connection  with  the  world.  On  this  principle 
Mercersburg  could  recognize  propriety  and 
wisdom  in  the  papal  hierarchy  of  mediaeval 
Romanism,  and  yet  affirm  the  necessity  of 
the  Reformation,  and  vindicate  the  anti-hie- 
rarchical organizations  of  the  Protestant 
churches."  3.  An  elevated  conception  of 
the  spiritual  dignity  of  the  ministry.  4.  The 
sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
were  considered  ' '  the  significant  signs  and 
seals  of  God's  covenant  with  us. "  5.  A  litur- 
gical worship  was  urged,  and  (6)  the  diligent 
instruction  of  the  baptized  youth  inculcated. 
(Of.  art.  Mercersburg  Theology  in  Schaff-Her- 
zog.     Also  see  J.  H.  Dubbs,  Historic  Manual 


of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States. 
Lancaster,  1885  ;  Theodore  Appel,  The  Life 
ami  Work  of  John  Williamson  Nevin,  D.D., 
LL.D.  [the  great  leader  of  the  movement], 
Philadelphia,  1889.) 

Mercy,  the  disposition  which  inclines  us  to 
show  kindness  to  the  undeserving.  It  is  a 
Christian  grace,  and  eminently  becomes  those 
who  owe  life  and  all  things  else  to  the  mercy 
of  God  (Matt.  V.  7.  44-46).  The  divine  mercy 
is  infinite  and  eternal,  but  its  exercise  is  op- 
tional, and  therefore  while  the  chief  of  sin- 
ners may  ask  it  the  best  of  men  cannot  de- 
mand it.  T.  W.  C. 

Mercy,  Sisters  of,  a  religious  order  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded  in  Dublin 
by  Miss  Catharine  McAuley  in  1834,  formally 
confirmed  by  Gregory  XVI.,  in  1840,  and  de- 
voted to  the  aid  and  rescue  of  suffering  and 
tempted  women.  It  spread  rapidly  through- 
out the  English-speaking  world.  In  the 
United  States  the  first  house  was  established 
at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  1843.  (See  Leaves  from 
the  Annals  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  New  York, 
1881,  3  vols!) 

Mercy-Seat.     See  Ark  op  Covenant. 

Mer'-i-bah  (*^nj<?).  1.  A  place  in  Rephidim 
where  the  people  chided  Moses  and  he  smote 
the  rock,  also  called  Massah,  "  temptation" 
(Ex.  xvii.  1-7,  Deut.  vi.  16).  3.  A  place  near 
Kadesh,  where,  35  years  later,  a  like  miracle 
was  wrought  and  a  like  sin  committed  in- 
volving both  Aaron  and  Moses  (Num.  xx. 
1-18,  xxvii.  14).  T.  W.  C. 

Merici,  Angela.     See  Urstjlines. 

Merit  signifies  desert  or  that  which  is 
earned,  and  hence  there  is  no  merit  in  our 
best  obedience.  The  most  faithful  servant 
has  done  only  what  it  was  his  duty  to  do 
(Luke  xvii.  10),  and  tlierefore  has  no  claim 
on  God.  T.  W.  C. 

Merits  of  Christ  is  a  term  used  to  denote 
the  active  and  the  passive  obedience  of  Christ ; 
all  that  he  did  and  all  that  he  suffered  for  the 
salvation  of  his  people.  His  mediation  being 
voluntary  gave  him  a  right  to  expect  and  to 
claim  its  due  reward.  T.  W.  C. 

Meritum  de  Condigno,  a  distinction  made 
by  Thomas  Aquinas  and  adopted  in  the  Rom- 
an Church  in  order  to  save  the  meritorious- 
ness  of  believers'  works.  See  Congruity, 
CoNDiGNiTY.  All  Protestants  reject  alike  the 
distinction  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
invented.  T.  W.  C. 

Merivale,  Very  Rev.  Charles,  D.D.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1870;  Durham,  ad  eund.,  1883), 
D.C.L.  (hon.,  Oxford,  1866),  LL.D.  (hon., 
Edinburgh,  1884),  dean  of  Ely,  Church  of 
England  ;  b.  in  Bloomsbury,  London,  March 
8,  1808  ;  studied  at  Cambridge  ;  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1834  ;  became  rector  of  Lawford, 
1848  ;  dean  of  Ely,  1869,  and  wrote  Uistm-y 
of  the  Romans  Under  the  Empire,  London, 
1850-62,  7  vols,  (a  standard  work)  ;  Conver- 
sion  of  the  Roman  Empire,  London,  1864  ; 
Conversion  of  the  Northern  Nations,  1865  ;  St. 
Paul  at  Rome,  1877 ;  Conversion  of  the  West, 
1877  ;  Epochs  of  Early  Church  Histai-y,  1879. 


MERLE 


(561) 


MESSIANIC 


Merle  d'Aubigne  (nierl  do-ben-ya'),  Jean 
Henri,  b.  at  Eaux-Vives,  on  Lake  Leman, 
Switzerland,  Aug.  16,  1794  ;  d.  at  Geneva, 
Oct.  21,  1873  ;  studied  tlieology  at  Geneva, 
and  became  pastor  of  the  French  Reformed 
congregation  in  Hamburg,  1818 ;  court 
preacher  in  Brussels,  1834,  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Geneva,  1831.  The  tirst  division 
of  his  celebrated  work.  History  of  the  liefor- 
mation,  that  on  the  Reformation,  in  the  time 
of  Luther,  was  published  in  French  at  Paris, 
1835-47,  4  vols.  ;  the  second  on  the  Reforma- 
tion in  the  time  of  Calvin,  1863-78,  8  vols. 
Each  division  has  been  translated,  London 
and  New  York,  and  the  flret  has  been  enor- 
mously popular,  owing  to  its  picturesque  and 
dramatic  style  and  its  enthusiastic  and  Prot- 
estant tone.  He  also  wrote  La  Repuhlique 
d'Angleterre  aux  Jours  de  CroinweU,  1848,  and 
lyois  Siecles  de  Luttes  en  £lcosse,  1849.  (See 
the  memoir  by  J.  Bonnet,  Paris,  1874.) 

C.  P. 

Mer'-o-dach  {death),  the  name  of  an  idol- 
god  of  the  Babylonians,  their  chief  divinity 
in  their  later  hi.story.  T.  W.  C. 

Mer'-o-dach  'Bsl'-A-da.n  {worshipper  of  Bel), 
a  king  of  Babylon,  who  sought  a  friendly  al- 
liance with  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah  (Isa. 
xxxix.,  3  Chron.  xxxii.  31)";  In  2  Kings  x.x. 
13  lie  is  called  Berodach  Baladan.  He  is 
named  in  the  Khorsabad  inscriptions  as  hav- 
ing been  twice  defeated  and  exiled  by  Sen- 
nacherib. T.  W.  C. 

Me'-rom  {heif/ht).  "The  waters  of  Me- 
rom"  (Josh.  xi.  5)  is  the  name  of  the  most 
northern  of  the  three  lakes  supplied  by  the 
Jordan.  It  is  six  miles  long  by  four  broad,  very 
shallow  and  largely  covered  with  aquatic 
plants.  Near  it  Joshua  routed  the  confeder- 
acy under  Jabin.  T.  W.  C. 

Me'-roz  {asylum),  an  unknown  place  in 
Galilee,  cursed  in  the  Song  of  Deborah 
(Judges  V.  33)  for  not  joining  with  her  and 
Barak  against  the  foes  of  Israel.  Sins  of 
omission  may  be  as  ruinous  as  sins  of  com- 
mission. T.  W.  C. 

MerriU,  Selah,  D.D.  (Iowa  College,  Grin- 
nell,  la.,  1875),  LL.D.  (Union  College, 
Schenectady,  N.  Y. ,  1884),  Congregationalist ; 
b.  at  Canton  Centre,  Conn.,  May  3,  1837  ; 
studied  theology  in  New  Haven  Theological 
Seminary  ;  was  chaplain  of  the  Forty-ninth 
United  States  Colored  Infantry  at  Vicksburg, 
Miss.,  1864-65  ;  studied  in  Germany,  1868- 
70  ;  was  archasologist  of  the  American  Pales- 
tine Exploration  Society,  1874-77,  and  United 
States  consul  in  Jerusalem,  1883-86.  He 
published  East  of  Jordan,  New  York  and 
London,  1881  ;  Galilee  in  the  Time  of  Christ, 
Boston,  1881,  London,  1885,  etc. 

Merswin.     See  Rulman  Merswin. 

Me'-sha  {del  ire  ranee),  a  king  of  Moab,  who, 
liaving  been  tributary  to  Ahab,  revolted  upon 
his  death  and  was  attacked  by  Jehoram  with 
Judah  and  Edom.  and  his  country  desolated. 
Besieged  and  hopeless  of  escape,  he  sacrificed 
his  own  son  openly  on  the  wall,  and  the  be- 
siegers withdrew.     In  1868  a  block  of  black 


basalt  was  found  at  Dibon  on  which  are  in- 
scribed in  Phoenician  letters  the  exploits  of 
Mesha  and  his  war  with  Israel.  This  is  the 
famous  Moabite  stone.  T.  W.  C. 

Me'-shach.  One  of  the  three  companions  of 
Daniel  wlio  were  trained  in  Babylon  for  the 
royal  scuvice  (Dan.  i.  7).  *T.  W.  C. 

Me-so-po-ta'-mi-a  {between  the  rivers).  The 
Greek  name  of  the  tract  lying  between  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  called  by  the  He- 
brews Aram-naharaim.  Syria  of  the  two  rivers. 
It  extended  from  Mt.  Taurus  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  was  about  800  miles  long  and  360 
broad.  Its  plains,  once  fertile,  are  now  barren 
for  lack  of  irrigation.  It  was  the  home  of 
the  patriarchs  who  preceded  Abraham,  and 
of  the  wives  of  Isaac  and  Jacob  (Gen.  xi., 
XXV.,  etc.).  It  was  the  abode  of  Balaam  and 
of  Chushan-rishathaim,  the  first  oppressor  of 
Israel  in  the  time  of  the  Judges  (iii.  8-10). 
When  the  Ammonites  were  at  war  with  David 
they  hired  chariots  and  horsemen  out  of  j\Ieso- 
potamia.  The  country  furnished  a  delegation 
of  Jew^s  and  proselytes  to  attend  the  Passover 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  ii.  9).  T.  W.  C. 

Messalians.     See  M.\ssalians. 

Mesrob,  b.  at  Ilasecasus,  now  Mush,  Turk- 
i.sh  Armenia,  83  m.  s.s.e.  of  Erzroom,  854  ; 
took  holy  orders,  386  ;  became  the  patriarch 
Sahag's  (Sahak's)  coadjutor,  390  ;  invented 
the  Armenian  alphabet,  406  ;  gave  wonderful 
impetus  to  religion  and  literature  among  the 
Armenians  ;  through  his  labors  a  vernacular 
edition  of  the  Bible  appeared  in  410  ;  also  in- 
vented the  Georgian  alphabet  ;  succeeded 
Sahag,  440  ;  d.  at  Walarshapat,  Feb.  19,  441. 
(See  his  life  bv  Goriun,  Ger.  trans.,  bv  Welte, 
Tubingen,  1841.) 

Messiah  {anointed).  The  Jews  were  accus- 
tomed to  anoint  their  kings,  high  priests,  and 
prophets  (Lev.  iv.  3,  v.  16,  1  Sam.  ii.  10,  35) 
when  they  were  set  apart  to  their  offices,  and 
hence  the  word  got  a  technical  sense.  Thus 
Cyrus  is  called  (La.  xlv.  1)  "  the  anointed  of 
the  Lord, "and  in  Ezek.  xxviii.  14  the  epithet 
is  given  to  the  king  of  Tyre.  But  one  per- 
son specially  (Dan.  ix.  35)  is  iNIessiah  the 
prince. 

Messianic  Prophecy.  This  person  is  the 
central  theme  of  prophec}',  the  whole  object 
of  the  Old  Testament  being  to  prepare  the 
way  for  his  coming.  The  testimony  of  Jesus 
is  the  spirit  of  prophecy.  The  u.sage  of  the 
nation  made  it  very  clear  when  the  future  de- 
liverer was  annoimced  as  ^lessiah,  anointed, 
that  the  qualities  and  functions  of  prophet, 
priest,  and  king  would  find  their  fullest  de- 
velopment in  him.  The  great  hope  of  tlie 
nation  was  set  forth  by  all  the  prophets,  and 
more  and  more  distinctly  even  to  the  last. 

The  work  began  in  wliat  is  called  the  pro- 
teranrjeliiim,  the  promise  couched  in  the  sen 
fence  pronounced  on  the  serpent  just  after 
the  fall— viz.,  that  the  seed  of  the  woman 
should  bruise  the  serpent's  head.  This  prom- 
ise received  a  closer  .specification  in  the  projih- 
ecv  of  Noah  (Gen.  ix.  36).  wliere  Jchovaii  is 
called  "  the  God  of  Shem"— that  i<,  as  stand- 


METALS 


(562) 


METHODISM 


ing  to  liim  and  his  posterity  in  a  relation  of 
mutual  possession.  The  general  statement  is 
further  detined  in  the  promise  made  to  Abra- 
ham, and  repeated  to  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvi.  4)  and 
to  Jacob  (xxviii.  14),  that  in  their  seed  should 
"  all  the  families  of  the  earth  be  blessed. "  It 
is  in  and  through  a  single  nation  that  the 
world-wide  blessing  is  to  be  bestowed.  Jacob 
had  12  sons,  but  in  his  prophetic  benediction 
he  singled  out  one  whose  sceptre  was  not  to 
depart  "till  Shiloh  come,"  and  though  the 
interpretation  of  this  phrase  is  disputed,  still 
we  may  accept  the  belief  of  Jewish  antiquity 
that  here  Judah  is  indicated  as  the  ancestor 
of  the  Messiah.  In  the  same  direction  points 
the  reference  of  Balaam  to  the  star  out  of 
Jacob  and  the  sceptre  out  of  Israel  (Num. 
xxiv.  17)  which  he  saw  far  off  in  time  and 
not  near  in  space.  Similar  was  the  assurance 
to  Moses  (xviii.  15)  of  a  prophet  to  come  like 
unto  himself — words  which  primarily  refer 
to  the  whole  order  of  prophets,  yet  include 
One  who  should  sum  up  all  that  went  before. 

Under  the  monarchy  the  family  as  well  as 
the  tribe  from  which  the  Messiah  should 
spring  is  set  forth.  David  received  the  prom- 
ise of  a  descendant  whose  throne  should  en- 
dure forever  (2  Sam.  vii.  11).  In  the  Psalms 
we  tind  two  forms  of  the  prophecy.  In  one 
Messiah  is  set  forth  as  a  king,  triumphant, 
glorious,  and  of  boundless  empire  (ii.,  xlv., 
Ixxii.,  Ixxxvii.,  ex.).  In  the  other  he  is  a 
sufferer,  persecuted,  smitten,  and  derided 
(xxii.,  xli.,  xlix.),  and  yet  the  ends  of  the 
earth  are  to  fear  and  serve  him.  The  same  con- 
trasted representation  is  found  in  the  Proph- 
ets, though  here  the  decay  of  Israel  is  stated 
as  the  cause  of  overthrow,  the  recovery  from 
which  in  the  fullest  sense  is  to  come  only  the 
Branch  that  is  to  spring  out  of  David's  roots. 
Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  and  Micah,  and  all  4  of 
the  greater  prophets  give  significant  intima- 
tions of  the  future  deliverer,  and  after  the  re- 
turn from  exile  the  same  strain  is  resumed  by 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  From  this 
long  line  of  prophetic  utterances  grew  up  a 
general  expectation  of  the  appearance  of  One 
who  would  be  the  welcome  ruler  and  saviour 
of  all  the  world.  It  is  true  that  we  look  in 
vain  in  the  Apocrypha  for  explicit  references 
to  this  confldent  assurance.  But  we  find 
them  certainly  in  our  Lord's  time.  See  the 
answer  of  the  priests  to  Herod's  question,  the 
words  of  the  woman  of  Samaria  to  Christ,  or 
of  Andrew  to  his  brother,  the  cry  of  the  blind 
beggars  by  the  roadside,  and  of  the  children 
in  the  temple  to  Jesus  as  ' '  the  Son  of  David, ' ' 
not  to  speak  of  the  song  of  Zacharias  and  that 
of  Mary,  Simeon's  address  to  the  mother  of 
Jesus,  and  the  repeated  references  of  the 
priests  and  scribes  to  "  the  Christ"  as  a  well- 
defined  person  of  royal,  if  not  divine  claims 
(Luke  xxii.  67,  xxiii.  2).  The  worldly-minded 
cherished  the  expectation  as  a  national  hope, 
hut  the  humble  and  devout  looked  for  the 
fulfilment  of  a  great  spiritual  promise  which 
would  make  an  end  of  sins  and  bring  an  ever- 
lasting righteousness. 

The  ideas  of  the  former  class  were  em- 
bodied in  Judas  the  Galilean  (Acts  v.  37)  and 
in  the  Zealots.  The  vital  power  of  such  con- 
victions was  shown  in  the  frequent  outbreaks 


of  the  Jews  against  the  Romans,  nor  was  it 
overcome  even  by  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem. On  the  contrary,  from  that  time  the 
expectation  became  an  accepted  article  of 
Jewish  faith,  as  the  story  of  Bar  Chochba 
shows.  Tlie  manner  and  the  time  of  Mes- 
siah's coming  was  much  disputed,  but  that 
he  would  come  was  firmly  believed.  It  is 
now,  as  it  has  been  through  the  ages,  the 
conviction  of  every  earnest  Israelite. 

Literature. — Drummond,  The  Jewish 
Messiah,  London,  1877  ;  Edersheim,  Prophecy 
and  History  in  Relation  to  the  Messiah,  1885  ; 
Briggs,  Messianic  Prophecy,  New  York  and 
Edinburgh,  1886  ;  Delitzsch,  Messianic  Proph- 
ecy, Edinburgh,  1890.  T.  W.  C. 

Metals,  Bible.  The  mountains  of  Pales- 
tine contained  metals  (Deut.  viii.  9),  but  the 
Jews  do  not  appear  to  have  worked  them. 
The  references  to  mining  in  Job  xxviii.  may 
have  been  taken  from  the  experience  of  other 
nations.  Gold  abounded,  but  it  was  brought 
from  Ophir,  Uphaz,  Havilah,  Sheba,  and 
Parvaim.  Copper  and  iron  were  found  in  the 
Wady  Maghara  in  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula. 
Before  the  exile  gold  and  silver  were  not 
coined  into  money,  but  used  mainly  for  orna- 
ments (bracelets,  chains,  etc.)  or  for  embroid- 
ery. Silver  was  lavishly  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  tabernacle.  Copper  was 
in  common  use  ;  so  also  were  tin  and  lead, 
both  furnished  from  Phoenicia.      T.  W.  C. 

Metaphrastes,  Simeon,  a  diligent  Byzan- 
tine hagiologist  of  the  9th  and  10th  centuries, 
whose  works  are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Gr. 
CXIV.-CXVI. 

Metempsychosis,  or  the  transmigration  of 
souls.  It  was  an  early  and  widespread  belief 
that  the  soul  after  death  passed  into  another 
body.  It  existed  among  several  tribes  in 
Africa  and  America,  but  only  because  they 
thought  that  the  soul  must  dwell  somewhere 
on  earth.  Among  the  old  Mexicans,  the 
Druids,  the  Egyptians,  and  the  Hindus  it 
was  based  on  ethical  grounds.  The  soul  hav- 
ing lost  its  original  purity  must  be  reborn 
again  and  again  until  its  depravity  is  done 
away  by  expiation.  Among  the  Brahmans 
this  notion  was  worked  out  into  many  fantas- 
tic forms.  In  Greece  the  doctrine  never  pre- 
vailed among  the  people,  but  was  confined  to 
the  philosophers,  who  derived  it  no  doubt 
from  Egypt.  Plato  gave  it  a  prominent 
place  in  his  system.  Among  the  post-biblical 
Jews  it  found  entrance  through  the  Cabbal- 
ists,  and  among  early  Christians  was  adopted 
by  the  Manicha3ans.  In  our  own  day  it  has 
found  advocates  in  the  Theosophists,  who 
have  much  to  say  about  reincarnation. 

T.  W.  C. 

Meth,  Ezechiel  (d.  Oct.  26,  1640)  and 
Stiefel,  Esaias  (d.  Aug.  12,  1627),  leaders  of 
a  sect  of  mystical  enthusiasts  in  Thuringia. 

Methodism.  The  name  given  to  what  at 
first  was  a  religious  revival,  chiefly  in  Great 
Britain,  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century, 
but  which  resulted  in  a  formal  doctrinal  sys- 
tem and  in  a  distinct  church  organization.  It 
may  be  conveniently  studied  under  the  divi- 


MSTHODISM 


(563) 


METHODISM 


sions  of  1.,  British  Methodism  ;  II.,  American 
Methodism. 

I.  British  Methodism. 

History. — The  centre  of  the  first  Methodist 
movement  was  Oxford  University  ;  tlie  movers 
were  a  band  of  J'oung  men,  students  of  the 
university  ;  the  motives  were  conviction  of 
the  need  of  greater  spirituality  in  tlie  mem- 
bers of  the  Establislied  Cliurch,  of  a  liigher 
tone  of  morality,  and  of  greater  care  for  the 
unfortunate  classes.  The  prevalent  deistic 
and  materialistic  philosophy  had  resulted  in 
a  widespread  indifference  to  religion  and  in 
a  corresponding  decline  in  morality.  The 
spiritual,  moral,  and  social  condition  of  Great 
Britain  was  most  deplorable.  The  ordinances 
of  religion  were  generally  neglected  or  openly 
contemned. 

In  1729  Charles  "Wesley  induced  a  few  stu- 
dents of  Christ's  Church  to  observe  the  weekly 
communion  and  to  study  with  greater  dili- 
gence the  sacred  Scriptures.  To  this  band 
John  Wesley,  the  elder  brother,  on  his  return 
from  assisting  his  father  as  curate  in  Lincoln- 
shire, joined  himself,  and  became  the  real 
leader.  There  was  no  bond  of  union  be- 
tween the  members  of  this  club  except  the 
common  study  of  the  Greek  Testament,  the 
observance  of  fasting  at  stated  seasons,  the 
care  for  prisoners  and  the  sick,  and  the  teach- 
ing of  neglected  children.  The  members  of 
the  Holy  Club  were  Churchmen  of  the 
strictest  type.  Soon  after,  however,  patristic 
literature  became  a  subject  of  earnest  study, 
and  for  a  time  was  regarded  as  almost  co- 
ordinate in  authority  with  the  Scriptures 
themselves.  In  1786  John  "Wesley  went  to 
Georgia  as  missionary  of  the  Propagation 
Society.  Here  his  life  was  characterized  by 
ascetic  severity  and  a  most  rigid  adherence 
to  the  forms  of  the  church.  But  by  associa- 
tion with  the  Moravians,  especially  with 
Peter  Bolder,  whom  he  met  on  shipboard  on 
his  return  from  America,  "Wesley  became 
dissatisfied  with  liis  traditional  faith.  The 
faith  then  commonly  accepted  was  a  union 
of  intellectual  belief  in  the  accepted  creeds 
and  of  a  complete  submission  to  the  revealed 
laws  of  Christ  and  to  the  rules  and  services 
of  the  church.  Through  the  instruction  of 
Bolder,  "Wesley  was  led  to  see  that  such  faith 
did  not  adequately  represent  tliat  which  was 
revealed  in  the  Scriptures  as  of  supernatural 
origin  and  power.  This  may  be  regarded  as 
the  second  stage  in  the  Methodist  movement. 

This  experience  of  a  new  life  in  himself 
was  accompanied  by  a  desire  that  others 
should  receive  a  like  blessing,  and  led  to  his 
earnest  preaching  of  salvation  by  simple 
faith,  and  the  witness  of  the  divine  Spirit  to 
the  adoption  of  the  believer.  These  doctrines 
and  this  earnest  preaching  were  distasteful  to 
the  authorities  of  the  Established  Church,  and 
resulted  in  open  and  persistent  opposition, 
whicii  manifested  itself  in  the  withdrawal  of 
sympathy  and  ir  closing  the  churches  agamst 
him.  The  meeting-places  of  the  Moravians 
and  the  private  rooms  of  friends,  to  wdiich 
they  betook  themselves,  soon  became  entirely 
too  limited  for  the  congregations  which  the 
zeal  of  the  two  brothers,  John  and  Charles 


"Wesley,  attracted  to  their  preaching.  George 
Whitefield,  a  member  of  the  original  Holy 
Club,  had  gathered  immense  throngs  of" 
people  to  his  open-air  services,  and  the  Wes- 
leys  were  soon  led  to  follow  his  example. 
The  results  were  wonderful.  Large  nuin- 
bers  of  hearers  in  London,  in  Bristol,  and  in 
the  colliery  districts  were  converted,  aiul 
sought  spiritual  guidance  from  the  new  evan- 
gelists. The  exigencies  led  to  the  purchase 
of  buildings,  where  the  converts  could  receive 
proper  instruction  and  centralization  of  in- 
fluence could  be  realized.  The  first  building 
thus  secured  was  in  Moorfields,  an  old  ruined 
cannon  foundry,  which  was  remodelled  into 
a  convenient  place  for  preaching  and  for 
other  religious  instruction.  This  was  the  be- 
ginning of  a  series  of  chapels,  which  rapidly 
multiplied  at  the  chief  centres  of  this  revival 
movement. 

Down  to  1739  Wesley  and  his  coadjutors 
had  labored  in  close  alliliation  with  the  Mora- 
vians of  London,  but  through  an  increasing 
antinomian  spirit,  which  began  to  invade  this 
church,  "Wesley  was  led  to  withdraw  from 
their  associations  and  to  establish  an  indepen- 
dent society  in  London  at  the  foundry, 
where  he  had  already  preached.  Meantime, 
other  societies  had  been  formed  at  several 
centres,  as  Bristol,  Newcastle,  etc.  To  bring 
these  various  societies  into  closer  union,  in 
1743  Wesley  published  his  celebrated 
"  Rules."  T'hese,  which  have  continued,  al- 
most unchanged,  as  a  part  of  the  organic  law 
of  Methodism  in  all  its  branches,  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  real  beginning  of  an  indepen- 
dent and  separate  church.  A  further  step  tow- 
ard a  compact  organization  was  the  division 
of  the  societies  into  classes,  which  consisted 
of  ten  or  twelve  members  under  the  spir- 
itual direction  of  one  called  a  "  leader,"  and 
a  provision  for  financial  aid  by  the  contribu- 
tion of  a  penny  a  week  or  a  .shilling  a  quarter 
by  each  member  of  these  classes.  The  re- 
ceiver and  disburser  of  these  funds  was  called 
a  "  steward."  Afterward  there  were  two  of 
this  name  in  each  society.  These  initial  steps 
toward  the  founding  of  a  separate  church 
were  further  hastened  by  the  harsli  conduct 
of  some  of  the  clergy  in  excluding  the  Wes- 
leys  from  the  churches  and  their  converts 
from  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  led,  in  1740, 
to  the  independent  aclministration  of  the  sac- 
raments, in  Bristol  and  in  London,  by  the 
Wesleys  and  by  clergymen  who  were  friendly 
to  the  evangelistic  movement. 

The  next  step  in  the  development  was  taken 
on  the  demand  of  those  converted  persons 
who  had  been  gathered  into  •'  classes"  for 
their  own  full  Sunday  services,  conducted  by 
their  own  preachers.  Wesley  had  earnestly 
advised  his  converts  to  attend  faithfully  upon 
the  parish  churches,  and  had  been  careful  to 
hold  his  own  services  at  a  time  which  could 
not  interfere  with  the  regular  worship  of  the 
Established  Cliurcli.  There  was,  however,  a 
growing  spirit  of  independence  and  separa- 
tion. The  movement  assumed  more  and 
more  the  form  of  an  independent  cliurch. 
Moreover,  the  early  High  Churchism  of  Jf)hn 
Wesley  had  been  \uidergoing  very  serious 
modification.     Through  more  careful  bit)lical 


METHODISM 


(564) 


METHODISM 


and  historical  study,  and  very  strongly  influ- 
enced by  Lord  Chancellor  King's  account  of 
the  early  church,  he  was  convinced  that  the 
primitive  bishop  and  presbyter  were  identical 
in  office  and  duties,  and  that  the  dogma  of 
apostolic  succession  was  a  mere  fable.  The 
logical  conclusion  was  that  he  himself  was  as 
much  a  real  episcopos  as  any  mitred  bishop 
of  England,  and,  therefore,  that  in  him, 
equally  as  in  them,  was  vested  the  right  to 
ordain  ministers  who  might  administer  the 
sacraments  to  the  numerous  societies  which 
had  been  gathered  through  the  untiring 
labors  of  himself  and  his  appointed  ' '  help- 
ers."  These  "  helpers,"  whom  John  Wesley 
had  from  time  to  time  appointed,  were  al- 
most absolutely  under  his  own  direction  and 
control.  For  years  they  were  only  laymen 
who  held  simple  services  consisting  of  sing- 
ing, prayer,  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  ex- 
hortation. Wesley  met  these  helpers  iu  con- 
ference for  the  first  time  in  1744,  and  yearly 
sessions  were  held  thereafter.  They  were  oc- 
cupied chiefly  in  the  settlement  of  doctrine 
and  discipline,  in  the  instruction  of  his  preach- 
ers, in  the  careful  examination  of  new  help- 
ers, and  in  appointing  these  to  their  several 
fields  of  labor.  In  all  this  work  Wesley  was 
the  inspiring  and  directing  spirit.  Not  until 
late  in  life,  1784,  was  he  induced  to  provide 
for  the  perpetuity  of  the  work.  The  rapid 
extension  and  growing  complexity  of  the 
movement,  the  accumulation  of  property  in 
chapels,  etc.,  made  necessary  a  legal  organi- 
zation which  should  hold  in  trust  the  preach- 
ing places  and  manage  the  affairs  of  the  so- 
cieties after  Wesley's  death.  This  corporate 
body  consisted  of  100  itinerant  preachers, 
selected  by  Wesley  himself,  to  whom  were 
entrusted  the  control  of  the  chapels,  the  ad- 
mission and  expulsion  of  preachers,  and  their 
appointment  to  work  from  year  to  year. 
The  firm  adherence  of  Wesley  to  the  Estab- 
lishment is  seen  in  the  fact  that  he  did  not 
recognize  this  legal  organization  as  a  distinct 
church,  but  it  was  characterized  as  a  "so- 
ciety," or  "the  society  of  the  people  called 
Methodists,"  all  the  members  of  this  "so- 
ciety," except  professed  dissenters,  being  re- 
garded as  still  belonging  to  the  Anglican 
Church. 

The  achieved  independence  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  compelled  the  abandonment  of 
this  principle.  The  Methodist  movement  in 
America  had  been  widespread  and  successful. 
The  creation  of  a  new  government  in  America 
necessitated  the  formation  of  an  independent 
church.  To  superintend  the  American  work 
Wesley  ordained  Thomas  Coke,  a  presbyter 
of  the  Church  of  England,  who  in  turn  or- 
dained Francis  Asbury  as  presbyter  and  asso- 
ciate superintendent — these  two  ordaining 
the  American  preachers  and  assuming  super- 
vision and  direction  of  American  Methodism. 
This  act  of  Wesley  respecting  the  American 
churches  led  him,  in  1785,  to  ordain  men  for 
the  work  in  Scotland,  and  3  years  later  to  or- 
dain a  number  of  preachers  to  assist  himself 
in  administering  the  sacraments  in  the  rap- 
idly multiplying  churches  of  England.  Thus, 
at  the  time  of  Wesley's  death,  in  1791,  nearly 
a  score  of  ministers  had  thus  been  ordained 


in  England  and  Scotland,  and  the  former 
"  society"  had  assumed  the  form  and  func- 
tions of  a  distinct  church  organization.  By 
the  time  of  Wesley's  death  Methodism  had 
been  introduced  into  England,  Scotland,  Ire- 
land, Wales,  the  British  Isles,  France,  the 
United  States,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Foundland, 
and  the  West  Indies.  It  then  numbered  233 
circuits,  540  travelling  preachers,  and  184,599 
members.  Its  great  organizer  and  director 
had  been  John  Wesley.  Among  his  ablest 
Arminian  helpers  in  England  were  his  brother 
Charles  and  John  Fletcher,  a  Swiss  by  birth  ; 
in  Ireland,  Thomas  Williams  and  Thomas 
Waich  ;  in  America,  Thomas  Coke  and  Fran- 
cis Asbury.  In  the  Calvinistic  branch  were 
George  Whitefield,  who  had  separated  from 
Wesley  iu  1741  ;  Howell  Harris,  of  Wales, 
and  Romaine,  Madan,  Venn,  and  Berridge. 

Doctrine. — Wesleyan  Methodism  at  first 
aimed  only  at  a  revival  of  spiritual  life  within 
the  churcli.  To  spread  scriptural  holiness 
over  the  land  was  declared  to  be  its  one  pur- 
pose. Its  founder  framed  no  elaborate  creed 
as  the  Tridentine,  the  Heidelberg,  the  Augs- 
burg, or  the  Westminster.  Its  distinctive 
theology  became  formulated  from  the  Scrip- 
tures by  the  discussions  of  Weslej^  with  his 
helpers  in  the  annual  conferences,  by  careful 
study  of  tlie  Fathers,  and  by  replying  to  the 
attacks  of  the  oppo.sers  of  the  movement. 
The  Twenty-five  Articles  prepared  by  Wes- 
ley, and  afterward  adopted  by  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  of  America,  were  taken 
substantially  from  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
of  the  Church  of  England.  It  is,  however, 
generally  held  that  the  Wesleyan  theology  is 
to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Wesley  (espe- 
cially in  his  sermons  and  his  notes  on  the 
New  Testament),  of  Fletcher,  and  in  the 
quite  uniform  teaching  of  the  Methodist  pul- 
pit. It  has  been  systematized  in  the  treatises 
of  Watson,  Pope,  Raymond,  Foster,  and 
others.  W4iile  Methodism  is  in  substantial 
agreement  with  the  so-called  oithodox 
churches  with  respect  to  most  of  the  cardinal 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  it  is  Arminian  in 
distinction  from  Calvinistic.  Its  material 
principle  is  that  the  salvation  or  non-salvation 
of  every  individvial  depends  on  his  free  action 
with  respect  to  the  enlightening,  renewing, 
and  sanctifying  infiuence  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
If  he  willingly  receives  these  infiuences,  he 
will  be  saved  ;  if  he  rejects  them,  he  will  be 
lost.  With  this  fundamental  principle  har- 
monize other  doctrines  of  the  system,  as  the 
rejection  of  absolute  foreordination  and  un- 
conditional election  and  reprobation,  the  self- 
determinative  power  of  the  human  will,  the 
supreme  importance  of  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  personal  assurance  of  the  salvation 
of  the  believer  by  the  witness  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  the  perfection  of  the  believer  in 
love  and  obedience.  While  holding  that  the 
race  has  become  depraved  through  the  trans- 
gression of  the  first  pair,  and  that  unaided  by 
divine  grace  fallen  man  is  unable  to  attain  a 
state  of  purity  and  holy  obedience,  Method- 
ism teaches  that  this  divine  grace  in  Christ  is 
universal,  in  that  God  wills  the  salvation  of 
all  since  Christ  died  for  all  ;  that  the  objec- 
tive operation  of  grace  is  universal,  and  that 


METHODISM 


(565) 


METHODISM 


the  subjective  work  of  grace  is  likewise  uni- 
versal, thus  putting  all  men  on  probation. 
]klelh^iisni  therefore  teaches  that  none  of 
Adam's  deseemlanfs  arc  guilty  of  Xdam's  sin, 
tliat  no  man  ])e(onu's  guilty  until  he  has  wil- 
fiiTlv  rejected  this  grace  whicli  is  proffered  to 
aTir  Hence,  tln-ough  the  atoning  work  of 
rKnst.jill  men  under  the  new  covenant  stand 
in  a  gracious  and  not  merely  a  natural  rela- 
tion lo  God,  and  that  thev'continue  in  this 
gracious  relation  until  excfuded  by  virtue  of 
voluntary  tran:>gression.  AVith  this  view 
agrees  its  teaching  witii  respcc't  to  infant  bap- 
tism and  salvation,  and  the  resi^onsibility  cf 
each  individual  for  his  own  salvation  or  loss. 
In  harmony  with  most  Protestant  churches 
Metliodism'recognizes  two  sacraments — Bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  holds  that 
infants  and  believers  are  eligible  to  the  first, 
while  believers  and  penitent  seekers  of  salva- 
tion are  admitted  to  the  second.  While  it 
emphasizes  the  doctrines  of  assurance  and 
perfect  love  as  the  privilege  of  believers, 
it  does  not  make  these  a  test  of  member- 
ship. 

Geiural  Poliii/.— Wesley  had  no  more  in- 
tention of  instituting  a  separate  church  polity 
than  of  developing  a  distinct  doctrinal  sym- 
bol. Both  are  to  be  explained  and  under- 
stood only  by  regarding  jMethodism  as  a  re- 
vival movement,  and  by  studying  it  in  its  de- 
velopment. As  before  stated,  Wesley  most 
earnestly  advised  his  followers  to  adhere  to 
tlie  forms  and  usages  of  the  Established 
Ciuirch.  He  rebuked  the  tendencies  to  seces- 
sion. While  as  early  as  1744  a  large  part  of 
England  had  been  divided  into  "circuits," 
and  preachers  had  been  appointed  to  them, 
far  a  long  time  thereafter  Wesley  seems  to 
have  had  no  thought  of  an  independent  or- 
ganization. The  conversations  held  with  his 
preachers  at  the  annual  conferences,  how- 
ever, clearly  show  that  his  opinions  were 
slowly  undergoing  a  change.  Especially  the 
provisions  made  for  the  progress  and  govern- 
ment of  the  American  churches  led  him  to 
devise  a  method  for  the  perpetuation  of  his 
work  in  England,  after  his  death.  Doubtless 
the  personal  supervision  of  the  work  during 
his  lifetime,  the  special  provisions  for  sup- 
plying the  circuits  with  preachers,  and  the 
annual  conferences  for  considtation  and  ad- 
vice contain  the  germs  of  that  itinerant  and 
supervisory  system  which  became  somewhat 
characteris"tic"of  Methodist  polity.  Method- 
ism, therefore,  holds  to  no  divinely  instituted 
church  ]iolity.  While  it  finds  in  the  New 
Testament  and  early  church  certain  types  of 
church  organization,  it  regards  no  one  type 
or  form  as  obligatory,  but  believes  that  the 
church  is  free  to  adapt  its  polity  to  its  shifting 
environment.  So  with  the  orders  of  the 
clerg}'.  It  finds  very  early  in  the  historj-  of 
the  "church  the  recognition  of  three  orders, 
but  denies  that  these  are  scripturally  enjoined, 
but  teaches  that  the  church  is  permitted  to 
exercise  Christian  liberty  in  the  creation  of 
church  otticers.  While,  therefore,  there  lias 
been  a  substantial  agreement  in  doctrine 
among  all  the  branches  of  ^lethodism,  each 
branch  has  felt  free  to  frame  its  own  polity. 
Indeed,   the  divisions  in    this  church  have 


chiefly    resulted    from     divergent    views    of 
church  government. 

WESLEYAN    METHODISM. 

While  Methodism  had  a  de  facto  existence 
from  the  formation  of  the  "  United  Societies" 
in  1739,  its  de  jure  life  dates  from  the  enrol- 
ment, in  the  High  Court  of  Chancerj-,  of  the 
"Deed  of  Declaration,"  in  1784.  This  in- 
strument recognizes  100  travelling  preachers, 
appointed  by  Wesley,  as  the  legal  conferenci'. 
Hence  they  are  known  as  the  "  Legal  Hun- 
dred.' '  Their  duties  and  prerogatives,  clearly 
defined  in  the  Deed,  have  remained  sul)- 
stantially  unchanged  to  the  present  day. 
As  before  stated,  during  Wesley's  life  the 
societies,  which  consisted  of  one  or  more 
classes,  were  grouped  into  circuits,  each  of 
which  was  placed  under  the  supervision  of 
one  or  more  of  Wesley's  preachers,  called 
"  assistants"  or  "  helpers" — the  chief  preach- 
er being  called  au  assistant  and  his  under  col- 
league a  helper.  These  assistants  were  di- 
rectly responsible  to  Wesley,  who  exercised 
direction  during  the  intervals  of  conferences 
and  at  the  conferences  tliemselves.  During 
the  latter  part  of  his  life,  however,  he  was  ac- 
customed to  take  free  counsel  with  his  assist- 
ants in  all  matters  pertaining  to  their  per- 
sonal welfare,  as  well  as  to  the  interests  of 
tlie  various  circuits.  After  his  death  these 
duties  and  prerogatives  pertained  to  the 
"  Legal  Hundred."  But  the  question  of  per- 
sonal supervision  became  a  serious  one.  This 
was  secured  by  dividing  the  country  into 
"districts"  and  appointing  district  commit- 
tees who,  in  the  interim  of  conferences,  should 
exercise  discipline  within  their  several  dis- 
tricts, subject,  however,  to  an  appeal  to  the 
conference.  The  preachers  enjoyed  equal 
rights  in  the  conference,  and  the  Legal 
Hundred  formally  sanctioned  and  confirmed 
the  decisions  of  tlie  whole  assembly.  At  first 
the  preachers  of  a  district  elected  their  own 
chairman,  and  the  district  meetings  consisted 
exclusively  of  preachers  ;  but  soon  the  chair- 
men of  the  districts  were  elected  by  the  whole 
conference,  and  circuit  stewards  and  district 
lay  otlicers  were  associated  with  the  preachers 
in  all  business  not  strictly  pastoral. 

From  1792-95  the  Wcsle^an  body  was  great- 
ly agitated  by  the  (juestion'of  the  independent 
adniinistration  of  the  sacraments  to  the  so- 
cieties. The  great  majority  insisted  on  re- 
ceiving the  sacraments  from  "their  own  preach- 
ers, but  many  of  the  wcaltliier  membeis  and 
church  ollicers  resisted  this  demand.  This 
led,  in  1795,  to  the  adoption  of  the  Articles 
of  Agreement  for  General  Pacification,  by 
which  it  was  provided  that  the  sacraments 
should  be  administered  wherever  the  majority 
of  the  trustees  and  of  the  stewards  and  leaders 
of  any  chapel  should  so  vote.  The  sacramenta- 
rian  controversy  was  followed  by  that  respect- 
ing the  represelitation  and  rights  of  laymen. 
Alexander  Kilham  was  prominent  as  a  leader 
of  a  party  which  advocated  the  equal  authority 
of  preachers  and  laymen  in  the  government  of 
the  church,  that  the  laymen  .should  appoint 
their  own  leaders  and  stewards,  and  that  the 
preachers  should  be  the  mere  executive  of 


METHODISM 


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METHODISM 


the  leaders'  meetings.     On  his  expulsion  Kil- 
ham  drew  with  him  about  5000  members. 

This  agitation  led  to  a  modification  of  the 
earlier  policy,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  ad- 
mission of  probationers  remained  the  exclu- 
sive prerogati/e  of  the  "  superintendent,"  or 
preacher,  while  the  admission  to  full  mem- 
bership could  be  determined  by  the  leaders' 
meeting,  and  no  member  could  be  expelled 
for  immorality  until  such  immorality  was 
proved  at  a  leaders'  meeting.  Also  the  ap- 
pointment and  removal  of  leaders  and  stew- 
ards, instead  of  being  tlie  cxclusivre  preroga- 
tive of  the  superintendent,  were  now  lodged 
with  the  leaders'  meeting,  the  superintendent 
having  only  the  right  of  nomination.  In 
1797  the  principal  rules  respecting  preachers 
and  laity  were  put  into  codified  form  and 
published  under  the  title  of  the  Large 
Minutes.  This  document  is  accepted  by  the 
ministers  on  entering  the  conference,  and 
has  been  recognized  by  the  civil  courts  as  a 
part  of  the  organic  law  of  Wesleyanism. 
After  this  amendment  of  its  polity  Wesleyan- 
ism spread  rapidly,  and  conferences  were  or- 
ganized in  Ireland,  France,  Australia,  Canada, 
and  other  British  provinces,  while  missions 
were  established  in  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Continental  India,  Ceylon, 
China,  Western  and  Southern  Africa,  the 
West  Indies,  Australia,  and  many  islands  of 
Oceanica.  It  devised  an  efficient  financial, 
missionary,  and  publishing  policy.  Through 
the  labors  of  Thomas  Coke,  Jabez  Bunting, 
Adam  Clarke,  Robert  Newton,  Joseph  Ben- 
son, Richard  Watson,  Thomas  Jackson,  and 
others  its  educational,  literary,  and  theolog- 
ical systems  ha^^e  been  wisely  and  rapidly  de- 
veloped. In  common  with  other  churches  of 
Great  Britain,  Wesleyanism  has  felt  the  dis- 
turbing influence  of  political  agitations.  The 
French  Revolution,  the  great  reform  of  1838, 
the  Chartist  movement  of  1840-48,  and  the  rev- 
olutions of  1848-50  strongly  affected  its  laity. 
This  branch  of  the  church  had  become  increas- 
ingly influential  in  the  government  of  the 
body.  There  had  also  been  a  growing  jeal- 
ousy on  the  part  of  a  portion  of  the  member- 
ship of  the  innovations  which  had  been  intro- 
duced, such  as  the  special  training  of  the 
clergy,  the  use  of  organs  in  the  churches,  etc. 
This  led  to  a  second  secession  in  1828,  to  a 
third  in  1836,  and  to  the  withdrawal  of  more 
than  100,000  members  between  1850-55. 
Since  1850  there  has  been  a  further  liberaliza- 
tion of  its  church  government,  till  at  the  pres- 
ent time  the  conference  consists  of  an  equal 
number  (340)  of  ministers  and  laymen.  These 
meet  in  a  pastoral  union,  which  is  composed 
of  ministers  alone,  and  a  connectional  or  rep- 
resentative union,  both  ministers  and  laymen. 
The  former  is  for  the  stationing  of  the  minis- 
ters and  for  the  supervision  and  review  of 
strictly  pastoral  work  ;  the  latter  for  the  dis- 
cussion and  determination  of  all  financial  in- 
terests, or  which  are  of  a  connectional  char- 
acter, as  missions,  education,  chapel  exten- 
sion, support  of  worn-out  preachers,  and  of 
the  wido\vs  and  orphans  of  deceased  minis- 
ters, etc.  All  conclusions  reached  must  be 
formally  ratified  by  the  Legal  Hundred,  any 
vacancies  in  •which  body  must  be  tilled  prior 


to  the  election  of  a  president  of  the  con- 
ference by  the  ministers  on  the  opening  of  the 
pastoral  session.  Wesleyan  Methodism  has  in- 
stituted various  connectional  enterprises  which 
have  been  most  serviceable  in  its  develop- 
ment. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
Contingent  Fund,  1756,  for  the  support  of 
home  missionaries  and  to  make  up  the  de- 
ficits of  salaries  of  preachers  on  poor  cir- 
cuits ;  the  General  Chapel  Fund,  1818,  to 
relieve  embarrassed  chapels  and  stimulate 
chapel  extension  ;  the  Children's  Fund,  1819, 
to  equalize  the  support  of  the  children  of 
preachers  ;  the  Preachers'  Auxiliary  Fund, 
for  aiding  worn-out  preachers  and  the  widows 
and  orphans  of  deceased  ministers  ;  the  Gen- 
eral Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  1818,  in 
which  its  missionary  Interests  are  consoli- 
dated ;  the  Wesleyan  Book  Concern,  for  the 
publication  and  dissemination  of  denomina- 
tional literature,  its  theological  and  literary 
schools  and  colleges,  etc.  Its  statistics  are  : 
Preachers,  itinerant  and  supernumerary, 
2,897  ;  members  in  full  and  on  probation, 
605,437. 

OTHER  BRANCHES   OF   BRITISH   METHODISM. 

The  Calinnistic  ami  Welsh  Methodists. — 
Wesley  and  Whitefield  separated  on  various 
doctrinal  points — Whitefield  holding  to  the 
Calvinistic  theology.  By  the  aid  of  his  pa- 
tron, the  Countess  of  Huntington,  he  built 
his  Tabernacle  near  tlie  site  of  Wesley's 
Foundry,  in  Loudon,  and  Avas  also  infiuen- 
tial  in  founding  societies  in  various  parts  of 
England.  This  branch  of  Methodism  after- 
ward became  divided  into  three  parts  :  The 
Lady  Huntington  Connection,  which  adhered 
to  the  liturgy  of  the  Established  Ciiurch  and 
had  a  settled  pastorate  ;  the  Whitefield  Meth- 
odists, of  whom  nearly  all  have  been  absorbed 
into  the  Independent  Church  ;  and  the  Welsh 
Calvinistic  Methodists,  who  have  still  a  vigor- 
ous organization  and  life.  The  Welsh  revival 
movement  began  even  earlier  than  the  Wes- 
leyan, and  was  entirely  independent  of  it. 
Under  the  powerful  preaching  of  Harris, 
Rowland,  and  Davies  evangelical  "  societies" 
were  founded  in  various  parts  of  the  princi- 
pality as  early  as  1743.  But  owing  to  the 
lack  of  efficient  organization,  these  societies 
became  largely  disintegrated,  until,  in  1785, 
Thomas  Charles,  a  clergyman  of  the  Estab- 
lishment, against  whom  the  doors  of  the 
church  had  been  closed,  on  account  of  his 
peculiar  style  of  preaching,  joined  the  Welsh 
Methodists,  pushed  forward  the  revival  effort, 
and  laid  a  strong  organizing  hand  on  the 
whole  movement.  By  this  means  Welsh 
Methodism  put  on  new  strength,  and  has  de- 
veloped a  distinct  form  of  church  govern- 
ment more  nearly  allied  to  the  Presbyterian 
than  to  the  Wesleyan.  It  has  two  separate 
theological  colleges,  a  vigorous  missionary 
society,  and  during  the  few  past  years  has 
made  rapid  progress  in  all  branches  of  church 
activity. 

The  Methodist  New  Connection. — As  before 
stated,  the  Deed  of  Declaration  had  vested 
the  supreme  government  in  the  preachers. 
This  was  highly  unsatisfactory  to  a  consider- 
able number  of  the  preachers  and  laymen,  and 


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METHODISM 


led  to  earnest  discussion  of  tlie  abuse  of  power 
by  the  clergy.  Connected  witii  this  cause  of 
dissatisfaction  was  the  hesitation  of  a  large 
body  of  Wesleyaus  to  have  the  sacraments  ad- 
ministered by  their  own  preachers.  Alexander 
Kilham  (b.  at  Epworth,  Lincohishire,  July  10, 
1763  ;  admitted  by  Wesley  into  the  regular 
itinerant  ministry,  1785  ;  d.  in  London[V], 
July  20,  1798),  a  member  of  the  Wesleyan 
Conference,  had  written  very  pointedly  on 
both  these  topics,  advocating  the  independent 
administration  of  the  sacraments  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  governmental  powers  equally  be- 
tween the  clergy  and  laity.  In  1796  he  was 
tried  for  alleged  defamation  of  the  conference 
and  expelled.  About  5000  members  of  the 
Wesleyan  bod}-  followed  him,  whom  he  or- 
ganized under  a  distinct  constitution  in  1797. 
The  doctrines  and  ordinances  are  the  same  as 
the  parent  body.  The  polity  is  characterized 
by  the  introduction  of  tiie  lay  element  into 
church  government.  The  conference  consists 
of  an  ecpial  number  of  ministers  and  laymen. 
It  elects  its  own  chairman  each  year,  appoints 
a  committee  of  live,  clerical  and  laj''.  to  sta- 
tion the  preachers,  and  an  Annual  Commit- 
tee, clerical  and  lay,  which  becomes  the  su- 
pervising and  executive  power  in  the  interim 
of  conferences.  It  has  power  to  make  laws 
and  rules  every  7  years,  but  any  proposed 
changes  in  the  general  rules  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  quarterly  conferences  and  must 
be  approved  by  two  thirds  of  the  ensuing  con- 
ference. This  church  supports  missions  in 
Ireland,  Canada,  Australia,  and  China.  Its 
progress  has  not  been  rapid  during  recent 
years.  Following  are  the  estimated  statistics  : 
"Churches,  256 ;  ministers,  210 ;  members, 
29,700. 

Tfie  Primitive  Methodist  Coaiiectioa. — Influ- 
enced by  the  accounts  of  the  success  of  camp- 
meetings  in  America,  such  meetings  had  been 
held  in  Staffordshire  in  1807.  Prominent 
among  the  promoters  of  this  movement  was 
Hugh  Bourne,  then  a  local  preacher  in  the 
Wesleyan  Connection.  At  the  Wesleyan 
Conference  of  1807  the  subject  of  camp-meet- 
ings was  discussed,  and  a  minute  was  passed 
declaring  them  highly  improper  in  England, 
and  disclaiming  all  connection  with  them. 
In  1808,  on  his  refusing  to  declare  against 
camp-meetings.  Bourne,  without  warning, 
notice,  or  trial,  was  expelled  by  his  super- 
intendent from  the  Methodist  Society.  Will- 
iam Clowes,  who  had  co-operated  with 
Bourne,  had  a  similar  experience.  In  1810, 
through  the  labors  of  Bourne,  Clowes,  and 
others,  10  preachers  and  136  members  had 
united  in  a  new  organization — the  Primitive 
Methodist  Connection.  Notwithstanding  the 
preachers  were  mostly  poor,  uneducated 
workingmen,  and  the  leaders  had  but  slender 
experience  in  church  organization,  in  1823, 
three  years  after  their  first  conference,  45  cir- 
cuits, 202  preachers,  and  29,472  members 
were  reported.  It  luis  developed  a  system  of 
chapel  extension,  has  founded  connectional 
schools,  has  a  book  establishment  in  London, 
and  maintains  its  own  magazines  and  reviews. 
Its  mi.ssionary  society,  organized  in  1843,  be- 
sides home  and  colonial  work,  supports  labor- 
ers in  West  and  South  Africa. 


Its  doctrines  and  ordinances  agree  with 
those  of  the  parent  body.  The  pohty  is  sub- 
stantially Presbyterian.  The  leaders'  meet- 
ing, composed  of  the  class-leaders,  the  society 
stewards,  and  the  travelling  preachers  of  the 
circuit,  corresponds  (juite  closely  to  the  kirk 
session  ;  the  (juarterly  meeting  to  the  Pres- 
bytery ;  the  district  meeting,  composed  of  one 
delegate  from  each  circuit,  to  the  Provincial 
Synod,  and  the  conference,  which  meets  an- 
nually, to  the  General  Assembly.  The  con- 
ference is  composed  of  4  persons  elected  by 
the  previous  conference  and  12  deed  poll 
members  ;  the  remainder  being  chosen  by  the 
district  meetings,  two  thirds  of  whom  are  lay- 
men and  one  third  travelling  preachers.  The 
conference  constitutes  the  highest  court  of  the 
connection.  This  church  licenses  females  to 
preach.  It  is  distinguished  for  the  large 
gratuitous  labor  of  its  preachers,  the  superior 
influence  of  the  laity  in  church  government, 
and  the  zealous  attention  given  to  the  poorer 
classes  of  society. 

Its  statistics  for  1890  are  :  Chapels,  4460  ; 
preachers,  travelling  and  local,  17,366  ;  mem- 
bers, 193,658. 

The  U Kited  Methodist  Free  Churches. — This 
organization  was  effected  in  1857.  It  resulted 
from  the  union  of  several  smaller  bodies  of 
Christians,  chiefly  INIethodistic,  as  the  Protes- 
tant Methodists,  who  were  formed  from  the 
secession  of  the  Leeds  Methodists,  in  1828, 
occasioned  by  the  introduction  of  organs  in 
the  churches  ;  the  Arminian  Methodists  of 
Derby,  Nottingham,  Leicester,  and  Red- 
ditch  ;  the  Welsh  Independent  Methodists  ; 
the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Association,  which 
seceded  from  the  Wesleyan  body  under  Sam- 
uel Warren,  in  1835,  on  the  occasion  of  found- 
ing theological  schools,  but  really  on  account 
of  the  exclusive  judicial  and  administrative 
authority  given  to  the  clergy  ;  and  the  Wes- 
leyan Reformers,  who  organized  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  expulsion  of  James  Everett,  Sam- 
uel Dunn,  and  William  Griffith  from  the 
Wesleyan  Conference,  in  1849.  Their  expul- 
sion, without  formal  charges,  specifications, 
or  trial,  produced  a  profound  sensation,  and 
awakened  lively  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the 
British  public,  the  tory  proclivities  of  the 
majority  of  the  Wesleyans  and  the  dictato- 
rial and  repressive  policy  of  the  leaders,  which 
had  led  to  quite  unconstitutional  measures, 
caused  widespread  agitation  in  the  body,  re- 
sulting in  the  loss  of  more  than  100,000  mem- 
bers and  the  severe  crippling  of  the  Wesleyan 
Church  for  several  years.  In  doctrine,  ordi- 
nances, and  institutions  the  United  Methodist 
Free  Churches  are  in  substantial  harmony 
with  the  parent  body.  Its  system  of  local 
government  is  based  on  the  congregational 
rather  than  the  connectional  principle.  As 
regards  their  internal  affairs,  the  circuits  are 
independent,  being  bound  only  by  the  con- 
nectional regulations  made  by  their  own  dele- 
gates in  conference  assembled.  The  circuit 
courts  arc  supreme  and  final,  instead  of  being 
subject  to  review  and  revision  by  the  confer- 
ence or  annual  as.sembly.  Its  local  courts  are 
the  church  meetings,  of  fully  acrredited  mem- 
bers, for  the  election  of  society  stewards,  etc.  ; 
the  leaders'  meeting,  which  has  the  manage- 


METHODISM 


(568) 


METHODISM 


ment  of  the  affairs  of  the  several  churches  ; 
the  preachers'  meetiug,  for  the  examination 
of  preacliers  and  candidates  for  the  ministry  ; 
the  circuit  quarterly  meeting,  in  which  are 
vested  all  legal  powers  for  local  government  ; 
and  the  annual  assembly,  consisting  of  4  ex 
officio  members,  and  members,  lay  and  cleri- 
cal, elected  by  the  quarterly  meetings,  which 
considers  the  connectional  interests  of  the 
body. 

Statistics  are  as  follows  :  Preachers,  travel- 
ling and  local,  3718  ;  members,  85,461. 

Bible  Christiam. — This  body  was  organized 
in  1815  by  William  0 'Bryan,  a  Wesleyan  lo- 
cal preacher  in  Cornwall.  Eng.,  hence  they 
are  sometimes  known  as  Bryanites.  Their 
doctrines  are  identical  with  those  of  the  Wes- 
leyan body.  Their  government  and  methods 
are  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  Primitive 
Methodists,  and  like  them,  they  license  women 
to  preach.  Their  influence  is  quite  limited. 
Daring  the  past  twenty  years  their  progress 
has  been  slow,  seven  years  showing  a  de- 
crease from  the  preceding.  Statistics  :  Preach- 
ers, 142  ;  members,  25,217. 

Methodism  in  Ireland. — The  first  Methodist 
society  was  formed  in  Dublin  by  Thomas 
Williams,  in  1747.  Soon  after  John  Wesley 
visited  Ireland,  preaching  and  organizing  the 
work.  On  his  return  to  England  he  sent 
over  his  brother  Charles,  who  was  accom- 
panied by  Charles  Perronet.  They  labored 
for  several  months  with  considerable  success, 
but  encountered  much  opposition  from  their 
papal  hearers.  From  1747  to  1752  vigorous 
societies  had  been  formed  in  Dublin,  Cork, 
Limerick,  and  other  places,  and  John  "Weslev 
held  the  first  conference  of  10  preachers  in 
Limerick  the  latter  year.  Notwithstanding 
the  stubborn  opposition  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  population  and  the  large  depletion 
by  emigration  to  America,  at  the  death  of 
"Wesley  there  were  in  Ireland  15  circuits,  67 
preachers,  and  14,000  members.  For  more 
than  20  years  after  Wesley's  death  Thomas 
Coke  was  the  superintendent  of  Irish  Method- 
ism. He  took  a  most  lively  interest  in  the 
spiritual  needs  of  the  Irish  people,  visiting 
the  country  25  times  at  his  own  expense,  giv- 
ing largely  of  his  private  means  for  the  erec- 
tion of  chapels,  and  often  preaching  8  and  5 
times  a  day.  Like  the  Weslej'ans  in  England, 
the  Irish  Methodists  were  greatly  agitated 
by  the  sacramental  controversy,  many  being 
content  to  be  a  mere  society,  dependent  on 
the  Established  Church  for  the  sacraments, 
while  others  were  desirous  to  have  their  own 
ministers  recognized  as  competent  to  care  for 
their  people.  This  controversy  resulted  in 
the  secession,  in  1818,  of  "  The  Primitive 
"Wesleyan  Methodists,"  who  continued  their 
separate  organization  until  1878,  when  they 
returned  to  the  parent  body.  "While  Irish 
Methodists  constitute  a  distinct  conference, 
they  are  intimately  associated  with  the  "Wes- 
leyans  of  England.  The  chairman  of  the 
conference  is  a  representative  of  the  Wesleyan 
Conference,  and  10  of  the  Irish  ministers 
are  members  of  the  Legal  Hundred,  whose 
sanction  is  necessary  to  the  validity  of  meas- 
ures. Owing  to  the  agitations  of  1849-51  and 
to  the  continuous  emigration,  the  Irish  Con- 


ference has  for  many  years  had  very  slight 
numerical  increase.  Its  doctrines  and  polity 
are  identical  with  those  of  the  Wesleyan 
Methodists. 

Affiliated  Conferences. — Formerly  there 
were  more  than  a  score  of  conferences  in  the 
various  colonial  possessions  of  Great  Britain 
which  were  affiliated  with  the  "Wesleyan 
Church.  These  have  gradually  assumed  an 
independent  standing,  with  the  exception  of 
the  French  Wesleyan  Conference  and  that  of 
South  Africa  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
work  in  Australasia,  which  began  in  1812, 
has  rapidly  developed,  and  has  an  independ- 
ent standing.  The  General  Conference  of 
Australasia  includes  the  annual  conferences 
of  New  South  "Wales  and  Queensland,  Vic- 
toria and  Tasmania,  South  Australia,  and 
New  Zealand.  Their  doctrines,  ordinances, 
and  general  polity  are  quite  in  harmony  with 
the  original  Wesleyan  body. 

II.  American  Methodism. 

THE  METHODIST   EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 

This  is  the  original  and  largest  body  of 
Methodists  in  America. 

Historical. — During  their  missionary  visits 
to  America  neither  "Wesley  nor  Whitefield 
founded  any  Methodist  societies.  The  former 
labored  under  the  auspices  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  had  not  yet  begun  his  special  re- 
vival movement,  while  the  evangelistic  efforts 
of  the  latter  were  in  connection  with  existing 
churches  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  first 
class  of  American  Methodists  was  formed  in 
New  York  by  Philip  Embury,  in  1766.  It 
was  composed  chiefly  of  Irish  immigrants, 
who  had  been  members  of  Wesley's  societies 
at  home.  Classes  were  soon  after  formed  in 
Long  Island,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and 
Philadelphia  by  Captain  Thomas  "Webb  and 
others,  "Webb  having  been  licensed  as  a  local 
preacher  by  Wesley  in  1765.  In  1768  the  first 
preaching-place  was  dedicated  in  John  street, 
New  York  City  ;  two  years  later  the  first 
church  was  built  at  Philadelphia.  Nearly 
contemporary  with  Embury's  work  was  that 
of  Robert  Strawbridge  in  Maryland,  and  of 
Robert  Williams  in  Virginia  and  North  Caro- 
lina. Receiving  an  appeal  from  the  Meth- 
odists of  New  York  for  preachers  at  the  Leeds 
Conference  of  1769,  Richard  Boardman  and 
Joseph  Pilmoor  volunteered  to  go  to  America, 
the  former  to  New  York,  the  latter  to  Phila- 
delphia. In  1771  two  others,  Francis  Asbury 
and  Richard  Wright,  followed.  In  1778 
Thomas  Rankin,  one  of  Mr.  Wesley's  most 
experienced  preachers,  held  the  first  confer- 
ence in  Philadelphia,  when  10  preachers  and 
1160  members  were  reported.  During  the 
War  of  the  Revolution  all  the  English  preach- 
ers except  Francis  Asbury  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  nearly  all  the  clergy  of  the  Angli- 
can Church  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States, 
in  which  was  the  larger  number  of  Methodists, 
deserted  their  parishes.  The  membership  was 
thus  left  without  pastoral  care,  and  was  de- 
prived of  the  opportunity  of  celebrating  the 
sacraments.  Thus  large  numbers  in  the 
Methodist  societies  had  not  been  baptized, 
and  some  of  the  preachers  had  never  partaken 


METHODISM 


(569) 


METHODISM 


of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  this  exigency  Wes- 
ley earnestly  requested  the  bishop  of  Loudon 
to  ordaiu  at  least  one  presbyter  to  administer 
the  sacraments  to  the  American  Methodists, 
but  this  request  was  decliued.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  there  was  urgent  need  to  provide 
for  these  societies,  which  were  destitute  of 
properly  ordained  pastors.  Thereupon,  in 
1784,  Wesley,  assisted  by  Rev.  Thomas 
Creighton  and  Rev.  Richard  Whatcoat,  pres- 
byters, ordained  Rev.  Thomas  Coke,  M.A., 
of  Oxford  University,  an  English  presbyter, 
as  superintendent  of  the  Methodist  churches 
in  America.  Instruction  was  also  given  that 
Asbury  should  be  assistant  superintendent. 
In  the  "so-called  Christmas  Conference,  held  in 
Baltimore,  Dec.  24, 1784,  which  consisted  of  60 
ministers.  Coke  presided  and  read  the  letter 
of  Wesley,  in  which  the  grounds  and  reasons 
of  his  action  respecting  the  American  work 
were  set  forth.  The  recommendations  of 
Wesley  touching  an  episcopal  form  of  gov- 
ernment, and  to  make  the  superintendent's 
eleciion  by  the  body  of  the  ministers,  and 
amenable  "thereto,  were  approved.  There- 
upon Coke  and  Asbury  were  unanimously 
elected  superintendents,  the  Sunday  service 
and  the  'Twenty-live  Articles  prepared  by 
Wesley  were  adopted,  and  thus  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  assumed  organic  form. 
From  this  time  the  progress  of  the  church  was 
rapid.  Before  the  close  of  the  century  so- 
cieties had  been  formed  in  tlie  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, in  the  Eastern  British  provinces  and  Can- 
ada, in  New  England,  and  there  were  very 
numerous  adherents  in  the  Middle  and  South- 
ern States.  It  had  developed  its  polity,  had 
divided  its  territory  into  annual  conferences, 
had  commenced  i"ls  benevolent  and  educa- 
tional enterprises,  had  introduced  the  Sunday- 
school  into  America,  had  founded  its  publish- 
ing house,  and  had  made  pronounced  utter- 
ance against  intemperance  and  slavery.  In 
1800  Richard  Whatcoat  was  elected  bishop, 
and  in  1808  William  ]\IcKendree.  In  1808 
the  plan  of  a  delegated  General  Conference 
was  adopted,  and  tliis  body.,  consisting  of  90 
ministerial  delegates,  held  its  first  session  in 
May,  1812.  It  was  now  reported  that  the 
church  had  688  preachers  and  195,357  mem- 
bers. Space  will  not  permit  even  an  outline 
of  its  history.  Since  1812  the  progress  of 
this  church  has  been  unprecedentedly  rapid. 
It  has  been  almost  entirely  free  from  doctrinal 
controversy.  Its  ministry  and  members  have 
been  uniformly  hearty  in  the  acceptance  and 
maintenance  o"f  its  theology.  The  few  defec- 
tions of  its  ministry  have  been  upon  the  more 
obscure  and  unsettled  points  of  Christian  doc- 
trine, respecting  which  the  Methodist  Church 
has  made  no  creed  statemeut.  Like  the  Wes- 
leyan  Church  of  England,  from  time  to  time 
it  has  experienced  agitations,  and  has  suffered 
secession  on  account  of  certain  features  in  its 
polity,  but  more  especially  from  the  earnest 
controversies  over  African  slavery. 

Docti-ine. — Its  doctrine  is  Arminian  as  op- 
posed to  Calvinistic,  and  agrees  in  all  essen- 
tials with  the  AVesleyan  theology  of  Great 
Britain.  Tiie  "  Articles  of  Religion"  were, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Twenty-third, 
abridged  by   Wesley  from  the    Thirty-nine 


Articles  of  the  Church  of  England.  There  is 
scarcely  anything  distinctive  in  these  articles, 
the  design  of  Wesley  being  to  prepare  a  broad 
platform  upon  which  a  body  of  Christian  be- 
lievers might  stand  and  work  in  love  and 
charity.  'They  do  not  once  refer  to  his  pecul- 
iar Arminian  views,  nor  to  the  doctrines 
which  Wesley  had  greatly  emphasized  in  his 
preaching,  since  the  design  of  the  Articles 
was  irenic  rather  than  polemic.  Aside  from  tlie 
Articles,  the  doctrines  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  like  those  of  the  British  Wes- 
leyan,  are  to  be  found  in  Wesley's  doctrinal 
sermons,  his  notes  on  the  New  Testament, 
and  in  other  writings  which  have  come  to  be 
recognized  as  standards.  Upon  these  doc- 
trines all  candidates  for  the  ministry  are  care- 
fully examined,  and  their  unqualified  subscrip- 
tion thereto  is  a  condition  of  being  received 
among  travelling  preachers. 

Polity  and  Government. — These  are  con- 
tained in  its  Book  of  Discipline.  The  Articles 
of  Religion,  the  General  Rules,  and  the  Six 
Restrictive  Rules  are  generally  regarded  as 
the  constitution  of  the  church.  Its  courts  and 
law-making  bodies  are  the  following  : 

1.  The  General  Conference.  Prior  to  1872 
this  was  composed  solely  of  ministerial  dele- 
gates, but  since  that  time  it  has  consisted  of 
one  minister  for  every  45  members  of  each 
annual  conference,  chosen  by  ballot  at  the 
session  of  the  annual  conference  next  preced- 
ing the  meeting  of  the  General  Conference, 
and  of  two  laymen  from  each  annual  confer- 
ence, chosen  by  lay  electors  from  the  several 
quarterly  conferences  of  the  same.  Provision 
is  made  that  no  conference  shall  have  less 
than  one  ministerial  and  one  lay  delegate. 
The  General  Conference  meets  quadrennially 
on  the  first  day  of  May,  the  bishops  presiding 
in  turn,  but  having  no  voice  in  the  delibera- 
tions. The  ministerial  and  lay  delegates  meet 
as  one  body,  though  a  separate  vote  can  be 
taken  on  the  call  of  one  third  of  either  order. 
The  General  Conference  is  the  sole  legisla- 
tive body,  limited  only  by  the  Restrictive 
Rules,  all  of  which  rules  are  subject  to  re- 
vision except  the  first,  which  forbids  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  to  revoke,  alter,  or  change 
the  Articles  of  Religion  or  establish  any 
other  standards  or  rules  of  doctrine  than 
those  already  recognized.  It  has  entire  su- 
pervision of  all  general  interests  and  work  of 
the  denomination,  and  is  the  real  bond  of  the 
whole  connectional  system.  It  elects  bishops 
and  all  other  General  Conference  officers,  as 
missionar}',  church  extension  and  educational 
secretaries,  editors  of  official  journals,  etc. 
It  also  reviews  the  administration  of  the  bish- 
ops, taking  notice  of  any  cases  of  maladmin- 
istration, and  also  examines  the  journals  of 
the  various  annual  conferences. 

2.  The  Judicial  Conference.  This  is  for 
the  trial  of  bishops  and  of  appeals  of  mem- 
bers convicted  Ijy  an  annual  conference.  The 
members  comjjosing  this  conference  are  called 
Triers  of  Ajipeals,  seven  being  chosen  by  each 
annual  conference.  The  triers  from  three  con- 
fi-rences  contiguous  to  the  one  from  which 
the  appeal  comes  constitute  the  Judicial  Con- 
ference for  the  trial  of  appeals,  in  case  of  a 
convicted  member  of  an  annual  conference, 


METHODISM 


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METHODISM 


and  from  five  contiguous  conferences  for  llie 
trial  of  a  bishop.     A  bishop  presides. 

3.  Tlie  Annual  Conference.  This  is  com- 
posed solely  of  travelling  preachers.  The 
place  of  meeting  is  determined  by  the  con- 
ference, the  time  is  appointed  by  the  bishop 
■who  is  to  preside.  It  has  no  legislative  func- 
tion, its  power  being  simply  administrative. 
It  stations  the  preachers,  gathers  statistics, 
and  reviews  the  character  of  its  preachers, 
over  whom  it  holds  disciplinary  power.  Its 
action  is  subject  to  review  by  the  General 
Conference  through  the  examination  of  its 
journal. 

4.  The  District  Conference.  This  embraces 
the  charges  of  a  presiding  elder's  district,  and 
is  composed  of  the  preachers  in  charge,  tlie 
local  preachers,  exhorters,  and  one  steward 
and  one  Sunday-school  superintendent  from 
each  pastoral  charge.  It  licenses  local  preach- 
ers, recommends  candidates  to  the  annual 
conference  for  orders  or  for  admission  on 
trial,  and  supervises  the  temporal  and  spir- 
itual interests  of  the  district. 

5.  The  Quarterly  Cooference.  This  is 
composed  of  the  pastor  of  a  church,  its  local 
preachers,  exhorters,  stewards,  and  class-lead- 
ers, together  with  the  Sunday-school  super- 
intendent and  trustees,  if  these  are  members 
of  the  church.  It  has  the  general  functions 
of  a  district  conference,  and  cares  for  the  in- 
terests of  the  local  society  or  charge. 

6.  The  Leaders'  and  Stewards'  Meeting. 
This  is  presided  over  by  the  pastor,  and  is  com- 
posed of  the  stewards  and  class-leaders  of  the 
charge.  It  recommends  probationers  for  full 
membership,  candidates  to  exhort  or  preach, 
and  cares  for  the  sick,  needy,  and  those  who 
need  admonition. 

The  bishops  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  are  neither  prelatical  nor  diocesan, 
but  are  regarded  as  only  presbyters  appointed 
to  exercise  a  joint  superintendence  over  the 
whole  church.  Since  1873  their  residences 
for  the  succeeding  quadrennium  have  been 
determined  by  the  General  Conference.  They 
preside  over  the  general,  annual,  judicial,  and 
missionary  conferences,  arrange  the  presid- 
ing elders '_  districts,  appoint  the  presiding 
elders,  station  the  preachers  annually,  and 
exercise  general  oversight  of  the  interests 
of  the  church.  The  presiding  elders  are 
superintendents  of  districts  in  the  interim 
of  the  annual  conference,  and  form  an  ad- 
visory board  of  the  presiding  bishop.  The 
ministry  is  itinerant,  no  minister  being  per- 
mitted to  remain  in  the  same  pastoral  charge 
more  than  five  consecutive  years.  Admission 
to  the  annual  conference  is  preceded  by  a 
probation  of  two  years  and  the  completion  of  a 
prescribed  course  of  study.  Admission  to 
membership  is  after  a  probation  of  six  months 
and  on  the  recommendation  of  a  leaders' 
meeting,  but  members  in  good  standing  in 
other  churches  are  directly  received. 

Connectional  Institutions.— This  church 
made  early  provision  for  supplying  its  mem- 
bership with  religious  literature.  Its  Book 
Concern,  started  in  1789  on  a  borrowed  capital 
of  $600,  has  now  (1890)  a  net  capital  of  over 
$3,000,000,  and  during  the  last  forty  years 
its  sales  have  amounted  to  more  than  $45,000,- 


000.  Of  its  gains  for  1890,  $100,000  go  to  the 
support  of  superannuated  preachers  and  to 
the  widows  and  orphans  of  deceased  ministers. 
The  Missionar}^  Society,  organized  in  1819, 
besides  caring  for  destitute  peoples  withiri 
the  United  States,  supports  missions  in  South 
America,  Mexico,  Africa,  China,  India,  Jii]ian, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Bulgaria,  and  Italy.  In  1889  it 
raised  and  disbursed  $1,130,137.  The  Wom- 
an's Foreign  Missionary  Society  supports 
missionaries  and  teachers  in  several  foreign 
fields,  having  made  appropriations  in  1890  of 
$247,454.  The  Woman's  Home  Missionary 
Society  has  more  especial  care  for  destitute 
regions  within  the  bounds  of  the  United 
States.  Its  receipts  for  1889  w^ere  $109,604. 
The  Board  of  Church  Extension,  organ- 
ized in  1864,  has  for  its  object  the  building 
of  churches  in  destitute  regions.  Its  receipts 
for  1889  were  $277,779,  and  its  disbursements 
from  the  beginning  amount  to  $3,725,900. 
The  Freedman's  Aid  Society  was  organized 
in  1866  to  aid  in  the  education  of  the  freed- 
men  of  the  Southern  states.  It  now  cares  for 
poor  whites  as  well.  It  has  already  expended 
$2,425,082,  and  has  established  numerous 
schools  and  colleges  in  tlie  South.  The  Edu- 
cational Society,  organized  in  1868,  has  for  its 
object  the  promotion  of  theological  and  gen- 
eral education.  Its  aim  is  to  place  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
under  strictly  connectional  supervision,  like 
all  her  other  departments  of  effort.  Since  its 
organization  over  2200  students  have  received 
aid,and  $224,439  have  been  expended.  This 
church  has  9  theological  seminaries,  including 
1  each  in  Germany  and  India,  with  about  800 
students,  numerous  academies,  colleges,  and 
universities,  some  of  which  are  generously 
endowed.  The  Sunday-school  Union,  organ- 
ized in  1840,  has  for  its  aim  to  establisli  and 
encourage  Sunday-schools,  publish  suitable 
books  and  supplies  for  the  same,  and  main- 
tain new  schools  in  destitute  parts.  This 
church  has  about  25,000  schools.  270,000  offi- 
cers and  teachers,  and  over  2,000,000  scholars. 
During  1889  it  issued  about  363,000,000  pages 
of  Sunday-school  literature. 

The  General  Conference  of  1888  recognized 
and  revived  the  order  of  deaconnesses  and 
made  provision  for  their  orderly  induction  to 
their  work  and  for  the  regulation  of  their  ac- 
tivities. Already  deaconnesses'  homes  have 
been  established  in  several  cities,  and  the  work 
is  rapidly  multiplying. 

Recently  (1890)  the  organization  of  the 
young  people  of  this  church  in  Christian 
work,  under  the  name  of  the  Epvvorth 
League  has  been  effected.  It  has  now  more 
than  250,000  enrolled  members. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  22,103  ;  travelling 
ministers,  13,279  ;  members,  2,236,463. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  Sovth. — 
This  body  had  its  origin.  May,  1845,  in  a  con- 
vention of  delegates  from  the  annual  confer- 
ences of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
within  the  slave-holding  states.  Almost  from 
the  beginning  of  the  Methodist  movement  in 
America  the  question  of  negro  slavery  had  re- 
ceived attention.  In  1780  advisory  measures 
had  been  adopted    looking  to  the   gradual 


METHODISM 


(571) 


METHODISM 


emancipation  of  slaves  by  its  members.  The 
succeeding  conferences  became  even  more 
pronounced  in  tlieir  opposition,  and  warned 
ciiurch  officials  against  holding  slaves  where- 
ever  the  laws  permitted  mauumission,  and 
threatened  expulsion  of  such  as  should  in  any 
manner  be  connected  with  the  slave  trade. 
At  the  organization  of  the  Metiiodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  in  1784,  clear  and  positive  in- 
structions were  adopted  relative  to  the  relig- 
ious care  of  the  negroes  and  their  gradual 
emancipation.  The  traffic-  in  slaves  was  for- 
bidden on  pain  of  summary  expulsion.  The 
conference  of  1796  caused  to  be  inserted  in 
the  Book  of  Discipline  a  more  carefully 
prepared  and  discriminating  paragraph  re- 
specting the  crying  evil.  The  yearly  confer- 
ences were  authorized  to  make  whatever  regu- 
lations they  might  judge  proper  respecting  the 
admission  of  persons  to  official  stations.  No 
less  urgent  recommendations  for  manumis- 
sion were  made,  but  the  laws  of  the  states  and 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  churches 
were  to  be  regarded.  The  conference  of  1800 
recommended  the  preparation  of  addresses  by 
annual  conferences,  urging  upon  the  legisla- 
tures of  states  the  duty  of  emancipation. 
The  utterances  of  General  Conferences  from 
1800  to  1840  were  uniformly  clear  as  to  the 
evil  of  slavery  and  the  duty  of  manumission 
whenever  it  was  practicable  ;  yet  the  legal 
impediments  to  emancipation  were  recog- 
nized, and  slave-holding  was  not  held  to  be  a 
bar  to  admission  to  membership  or  the  min- 
istry of  the  church-.  In  1844  the  General 
Conference  met  in  New  York.  An  appeal 
was  taken  to  the  General  Conference  from 
the  decision  of  the  Baltimore  Conference, 
which  had  suspended  Rev.  Francis  A.  Hard- 
ing for  failure  to  manumit  slaves  belonging  to 
his  wife,  it  being  held  by  the  Baltimore  Con- 
ference that  the  laws  of  ^Maryland  permitted 
such  manumission.  The  General  Conference, 
acquiescing  in  this  opinion,  confirmed  the  de- 
cision of  the  Baltimore  Conference.  Also 
Bishop  James  O.  Andrew,  residing  in  Georgia, 
was  found  to  be  connected  with  holding  of 
slaves,  whom  he  claimed  would  either  not  ac- 
cept freedom  or  could  not  be  legally  emanci- 
pated. The  connection  of  a  general  super- 
intendent witb  slave-holding  caused  a  profound 
sensation  in  the  Nortliern  Church,  and  it  was 
claimed  that  this  relation  would  infract  the 
provision  forbidding  the  General  C-onference 
to  destroy  the  plan  of  the  itinerant  general 
superintendency,  since  it  would  be  impossible 
for  a  slave-holding  bishop  to  preside  over  the 
Northern  conferences.  The  solution  of  the 
dilfic-ulty  was  for  Bishop  Andrew  to  dispose 
of  his  slaves — persons  standing  ready  to  re- 
lieve him — or  to  resign  his  office.  The  latter 
he  was  willing  to  do,  but  Southern  delegates 
would  not  consent.  After  protracted  debate 
a  preamble  and  resolution  were  adopted  de- 
claring ' '  the  embarrassment  to  the  church 
thus  caused  to  be  so  serious,  that  the  bishop 
desist  from  the  exercise  of  his  office  so  long 
as  this  impediment  remains."  After  tliis  ac- 
tion the  delegates  from  conferences  within  tiie 
slave  states  presented  a  "  Declaration"  tliat 
this  action  relative  to  Bisho])  Andrew  and 
the  continued  agitation  of  tlie  slavery  ques- 


tion made  the  jurisdiction  of  the  General 
Conference  over  the  conferences  in  the  slave- 
holding  states  inconsistent  with  the  success  of 
the  ministry  in  those  states.  Also  a  protest 
against  this  action,  as  extrajudicial  and  un- 
constitutional, was  allowed  to  be  spread  upon 
the  Journal.  Tlie  Declaration  was  referred 
to  a  comnuttee  of  nine,  who  were  instruct- 
ed to  report  some  constitutional  plan  for 
peaceful  and  equitable  division,  if  such  di- 
vision were  found  necessary.  Such  jilan  was 
almost  unanimously  adopted.  It  provided 
for  defining  tlie  boundary  of  the  Northern 
and  Southern  conferences,  for  the  exclusive 
ministrations  of  each  church  within  its  own 
territory,  for  the  equitable  division  of  all 
property  of  the  Methodist  Book  Concern,  for 
the  creation  of  connnissioners  from  each 
branch.  North  and  South,  to  carry  these  in- 
structions into  effect,  and  for  the  early  vote 
of  the  annual  conferences  on  the  Plan  of 
Separation.  In  compliance  with  the  call  of 
the  Southern  delegates,  a  convention,  consist- 
ing of  the  clergy  of  conferences  within  the 
bounds  of  the  slave-holding  states,  in  the  ratio 
of  1  to  11,  was  called  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  in 
May,  1845.  The  church  South  had  aimo.st 
unanimously  adopted  the  Plan  of  Separa- 
tion, and  the  convention  declared  the  body 
thus  represented  at  Loui.sville  as  a  distinct 
organization,  under  the  title  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  Soiith.  Its  first 
General  Conference  was  appointed  for  May, 
1846,  at  Petersburg,  Va.  This  conference 
w^as  chiefly  occupied  in  the  election  of  bishops 
and  editors,  the  revision  of  the  Discipline, 
the  appointment  of  commissioners,  etc.,  the 
doctrines,  politj',  and  ordinances  remaining 
the  same  as  those  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
having  in  a  measure  repudiated  the  Plan  of 
Separation,  refused  to  make  over  an  equitable 
proportion  of  the  property  of  the  Book  Con- 
cern, but  the  question  was  settled  by  a  decree  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in 
favor  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South.  Since  its  recovery  from  the  ravages  of 
the  Civil  War  tlie  progress  of  this  church  has 
been  rapid,  and  the  development  of  its  mission- 
ary,educational,  and  literary  interests  has  been 
encouraging.  Several  overtures  toward  the  re- 
union of  the  two  bodies  have  been  made,  but 
hitherto  they  have  been  unsuccessful.  Its  doc- 
trines are  identical  with  those  of  other  ]\Ieth- 
odist  bodies.  Its  polity  is  very  like  that  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  admits, 
however,  4  la}'  members,  1  of  whom  may  be 
a  local  preacher,  to  each  of  its  annual  con- 
ferences, while  its  General  Conference  is  com- 
posed of  an  equal  number  of  ministerial  and 
lay  delegates.  It  does  not  require  a  six  months' 
probation  of  those  who  desire  to  become 
members. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  11.767  ;  preachers  : 
travelling,  4862,  local,  6269  ;  members, 
1,166,019. 

'Ihe  Methodist  Protestant  Church.— The 
secessions  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Churcli  have  been  occasioned  by  circuni- 
stanees  quite  similar  to  tliose  which  gave  rise 
to  seceding  bodies  from  the  "Wesleyan  Church 
of  England.     The  refusal  of  the'ministry  of 


METHODISM 


(572) 


METHODISM 


the  parent  church  to  admit  the  laity  to  its 
law-making  councils  and  the  opposition  of  a 
respectable  number  to  a  life  tenure  of  the  gen- 
eral superintendents  caused  early  discontent 
and  agitation.  Efforts  were  made  from  time 
to  time  to  effect  changes  in  church  govern- 
ment. A  society,  called  the  Union  Society, 
which  had  been  formed  in  1826  in  the  inter- 
ests of  change,  presented  a  united  petition  to 
the  General  Conference  of  1828,  praying  for 
lay  representation  and  other  important  modi- 
fications of  polity.  The  rejection  of  this 
petition  provoked  much  unpleasant  feeling, 
and  resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  some  of  the 
most  prominent  agitators.  This  resulted  in 
the  calling  of  a  convention  in  Baltimore,  in 
1830,  to  prepare  px'ovisional  articles  of  associ- 
ation. Another  convention,  composed  of  an 
equal  number  of  ministers  and  laymen,  met 
in  Baltimore  in  1830,  adopted  a  constitution 
of  17  articles,  and  prepared  a  Book  of  Dis- 
cipline for  a  new  organization  under  the  title 
of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.  Tiiis 
body  was  greatly  agitated  by  the  slavery 
question.  Secessions  were  from  time  to  time 
threatened,  and  forbearance  was  oftentimes 
well-nigh  exhausted.  At  length  the  dele- 
gates from  the  conferences  of  the  Northern 
states  petitioned  the  General  Conference  of 
1858  to  pass  an  ordinance  excluding  slave- 
holders from  the  church.  On  its  refusal  to 
grant  this  petition  19  annual  conferences  sent 
delegates  to  a  convention  Mdiich  met  at  Spring- 
field, O.,  in  1858.  This  convention  voted  to 
cease  all  official  connection  with  other  por- 
tions of  the  church  so  long  as  they  tolerated 
slave-holding.  Soon  after  the  conferences 
represented  in  this  convention  seceded  from 
the  Methodist  Protestant  Church,  and  with 
some  members  of  other  non-episcopal  Meth- 
odist bodies  formed  the  Methodist  Church. 
These  bodies  have,  however,  been  recently 
reunited  under  the  original  title.  Its  doc- 
trines differ  in  no  respect  from  the  parent 
body.  Its  polity  differs  from  that  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  that  it  does 
not  recognize  the  episcopal  office  or  the  gen- 
eral superintendent,  chosen  for  life,  hnt  each 
annual  conference  elects  its  own  chairman. 
Its  General  Conference,  which  meets  quad- 
rennially, is  composed  of  equal  numbers  of 
ministers  and  laymen,  elected  by  the  annual 
conferences,  in  the  ratio  of  one  delegate  each 
for  every  one  tliousand  members.  In  ordi- 
nances, discipline,  and  worship  it  resembles 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  2003 ;  ministers, 
1441  ;  members,  147,604. 

Canadian  Methodism. — Methodism  was  in- 
troduced into  Upper  Canada  as  early  as  1778. 
Tlie  first  itinerant  Methodist  preacher  was 
William  Losee,  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Conference,  who  began  preaching  about  1790. 
Thereafter  the  work  was  supplied  by  mission- 
aries from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of 
the  United  States.  Until  the  war  of  1812  the 
relations  between  the  churches  in  Canada  and 
the  parent  body  continued  amicable,  but 
thereafter  the  work  was  hindered  by  the  op- 
position from  members  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  of  missionaries  from  the  British 
Wesleyans.     In  1820  an  agreement  was  en- 


tered into  between  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  and  tlie  English  Conference,  whereby 
the  former  was  to  withdraw  from  Lower 
Canada  and  the  latter  from  Upper  Canada, 
each  leaving  the  other  in  exclusive  control  of 
the  societies  and  church  property  in  its  own 
territory.  The  Canada  Conference  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  organized 
in  1824,  and  had  a  prosperous  history  until 
the  violation  of  the  agreement  by  the  English 
Conference  in  1832,  when  large  numbers 
joined  the  Wesleyan  body.  Notwithstand- 
ing this  large  withdrawal,  the  original  organ- 
ization was  continued  with  three  annual  con- 
ferences, and  had  a  slow  but  steady  growth 
for  half  a  century.  In  1873  the  Wesleyan 
body  became  independent  of  the  British  Con- 
ference. It  was  divided  into  three  confer- 
ences, but  in  1874  it  united  with  East  British 
American  and  New  Connectional  Methodists 
under  the  name  of  the  Methodist  Church 
of  Canada.  From  time  to  time  efforts  had 
been  made  to  unite  all  the  Methodist  bodies 
of  Canada  under  one  organization.  In  Sept., 
1882,  a  delegated  committee  of  86,  appointed 
by  the  Methodist  Church  of  Canada,  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  Canada,  the 
Primitive  Church,  and  the  Bible  Christian 
Church,  adopted  a  basis  of  union  to  be 
presented  to  their  respective  churches.  This 
was  adopted  by  these  4  bodies,  and,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  recommendation  of  the  commit- 
tee, the  first  General  Conference  of  the 
"Methodist  Church"  convened  at  Bellville, 
in  Sept.,  1883.  The  act  of  union  was  sanc- 
tioned by  appropriate  legislative  action  in 
1884.  At  the  time  of  the  union  the  Meth- 
odist Church  of  Canada  had  a  membership  of 
128,644  :  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
25,671  ;  the  Primitive  Methodist  Church, 
8090  ;  the  Bible  Christians,  7398— or  a  grand 
total  of  169,803.  Since  the  union  the  prog- 
ress of  the  church  has  been  rapid  in  all  de- 
partments of  effort.  Its  doctrines  are  entirely 
Wesleyan.  Its  General  Conference  is  quad- 
rennial. It  is  composed  of  an  equal  number 
of  ministerial  and  lay  delegates,  and  is  pre- 
sided over  by  a  general  superintendent,  whose 
term  of  office  is  eight  years  and  is  eligible  to 
re-election.  Its  eleven  annual  conferences  are 
also  composed  of  an  equal  number  of  lay  and 
ministerial  delegates.  Each  elects  its  own 
president,  who  is  ex  officio  president  of  the 
district  in  which  he  may  be  stationed.  They 
also  elect  a  superintendent  for  each  district. 
The  ministers  are  stationed  by  a  committee- 
composed  of  the  chairmen  of  districts  and  the 
presiding  elders.  The  ministerial  term  is 
three  years. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  3754  ;  ministers,  trav- 
elling and  local,  3436  ;  members,  233,868. 

T/ie  American  Wesleyan  Church. — This  or- 
ganization originated  in  a  secession  from  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1843.  The 
cause  of  this  withdrawal  was  the  alleged  laxity 
of  the  parent  body  witii  respect  to  the  admis- 
sion of  slave-holders  to  membership.  These 
seceders  held  that  not  only  slave-holders,  but 
those  who  claimed  that  slavery  was  right 
should  be  excluded  from  the  Christian  Church. 
They  have  occupied  extreme  ground  on  intem- 
perance  and   fellowship  with  Masonry  and 


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METHODISM 


other  oath-bound  societies,  positively  refusing 
fellowship  to  members  of  such  societies.  In 
doctrines,  discipline,  and  ordinances  it  is 
Methodistic.  Its  polity  combines  the  connec- 
tional  and  the  congregational  principles.  Re- 
specting local  interests,  the  churches  are 
independent,  but  connectional  interests  are 
supervised  by  annual  and  general  conferences, 
in  which  ministers  and  laymen  have  equal 
representation. 

Statistics  :  Churches  (about),  600  ;  minis- 
ters (about),  300  ;  members  (about),  18,000. 

Tlw  Free  Methodist  Church. — This  church 
originated  in  1860,  in  a  convention  of  minis- 
ters and  laymen,  formerly  members  of  tlie 
iiethodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  immediate 
occasion  of  its  organization  was  the  expul- 
sion of  Kev.  B.  T."  Roberts  and  Rev.  J.  Mc- 
Creery  from  the  the  Genesee  Conference  on 
tlie  charge  of  contumacy.  Its  adherents  jus- 
tified its  origin  on  the  assumed  departure  of 
the  parent  body  from  its  early  doctrines  and 
discipline,  and  the  necessity  of  returning  to 
the  simplicity  and  purity  of  early  ]\Iethodism. 
Especial  opposition  is  made  to  secret  or  oath- 
bound  societies,  to  rented  pews  in  churches, 
to  choir  singing,  to  extravagant  church  build- 
ings, etc.  It  has  seven  annual  conferences.  Its 
doctrines  are  those  of  general  Methodism.  In 
polity  it  recognizes  a  general  superintendent, 
elected  every  four  years,  instead  of  a  bishop. 
In  all  its  conferences  laymen  have  an  equal 
voice  with  the  ministry. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  952  ;  ministers,  513  ; 
members,  19,998. 

The  African  MetJwdist  Episcopal  Church. 
— From  its  origin  the  Methodist  Church  had 
given  much  attention  to  the  spiritual  improve- 
ment of  the  colored  population,  North  and 
South,  and  large  numbers  were  enrolled 
among  its  members.  There  had  been  a  grow- 
ing conviction  that  greater  self-respect,  free- 
dom, and  opportunity  for  improvement  would 
be  secured  to  the  coloreil  membership  under 
an  independent  organization.  To  secure  this 
result  a  convention  of  colored  delegates  met 
in  Philadelphia  in  1816,  and  organized  under 
the  above  title.  Richard  Allen  was  elected 
first  bishop.  This  independent  movement 
has  resulted  in  securing  all  the  benefits  which 
were  anticipated.  The  progress  of  the  church 
has  been  rapid  and  steady,  developing  all  the 
departments  of  a  vigorous  church  organiza- 
tion. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  4150  ;  ministers,  3160  ; 
members,  410,000. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church. 
— This  church  originated  in  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Zion  congregation  of  colored  people,  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  Its  first  annual  confer- 
ence of  22  members  was  held  in  1821.  Since 
its  organization  it  made  rapid  progress,  and 
has  become  an  influential  and  useful  l)ody  of 
colored  peojile,  developing  all  tlie  elements  of 
a  healthy  church  life.  Its  doctrine,  discip- 
line, ordinances,  and  polity  agree  with  tlie 
parent  body,  except  that  its  general  super- 
intendents are  elected  every  4  years. 

Stati.stics  :  Churches,  3500  ;  ministers  (esti- 
mated), 3000  ;  members.  412,513. 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. — Tliis 


body  of  colored  Methodists  was  organized  by 
the  authority  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  in  1870.  It  has  its  own  dis- 
tinct conferences,  and  is  developing  all  the 
agencies  of  an  independent  church  organiza- 
tion. In  doctrine  and  polity  it  agrees  with 
the  church  which  founded  it. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  2100 ;  ministers, 
1800  ;  members,  170,000. 

Other  Bodies. — The  smaller  bodies  of  the 
American  ]\Iethodist  Church  are  the  Congre- 
gational Methodists,  holding  to  Methodist 
doctrine,  but  accepting  a  Congregational  pol- 
ity, who  have  50  churches,  100  preachers,  and 
about  4000  members  ;  the  Independent  ^leth- 
odists,  dilTeriiig  ])ut  slightly  from  the  Congre- 
gational Methodists,  who  have  35  churcIiLs,  30 
ministers,  and  about  5000  members ;  the 
Primitive  Methodists,  differing  in  no  essen- 
tial particular  from  those  of  England,  who 
number  147  churches,  63  ministers,  and  5502 
members  ;  and  the  Union  American  Methodist 
Episcopal  (colored),  who  have  about  50 
churches,  112  ministers,  and  3500  members. 

Small  secessions  other  than  those  mentioned 
have  occurred,  but  they  have  been  reabsored 
or  have  joined  other  bodies. 

Closely  affiliated  with  the  Methodist  Church 
are  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ  and  the 
Evangelical  Association.  These  are  mostly 
of  German  membership. 

Hie  Ewinqelical  Association. — This  body  i.s 
sometimes  known  as  the  "  Albrights,"  from 
their  founder,  Jacob  Albright.  He  had  been 
a  member  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
and  undertook  the  labor  of  reform  among  the 
German  churches  about  1790.  With  no  pur- 
pose of  forming  a  separate  church,  he  con- 
tinued his  gratuitous  labors  in  parts  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  was  successful  in  inducing  many 
of  his  hearers  to  seek  a  higher  spiritual  life.  He 
was  set  apart  as  their  spiritual  overseer,  and  by 
degrees  his  adherents  were  organized  into  a 
distinct  church.  Its  labors  have  been  abun- 
dant and  its  success  marked.  Its  doctrines, 
ordinances,  and  modes  of  worship  are  Metho- 
distic. Its  polity  resembles  that  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  with  respect  to  the 
various  conferences  and  their  functions,  but 
differs  from  it  in  that  its  bishops  are  elected 
by  the  General  Conference  for  4  years,  and  its 
presiding  elders  are  elected  by  the  annual 
conferences. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  2043  ;  ministers,  1864  ; 
members,  148,506. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ. — This  name  is 
borne  by  a  society  of  Christians  which  was 
originated  and  fostered  by  the  labors  of  Philip 
William  Otterbein,  a  missionary  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  to  Pennsylvania,  and  Rev. 
]Martin  Boehm,  a  minister  of  the  Mennonites. 
These  men  had  felt  the  need  of  a  deeper  spir- 
itual life  on  the  part  of  themselves  and  of 
the  people  to  whom  they  ministered.  They 
Ixcame  colaborers,  travelling  in  Pennsylvania, 
^Maryland,  and  Virginia,  and  forming  societies 
in  each  of  these  states.  The  superior  s(-liolar- 
ship  and  sanctity  of  Otterbein  eminently 
fitted  him  for  the  headship  of  the  cluirch  to 
which  he  wa.s  chosen.  In  1800  Otterbein 
and  Boehm  were  elected  superintendents. 
Since  its  members  had  been  gathered  from 


METHODISM 


(574; 


METHODISM 


cluirclies  of  varied  doctrine  and  polity,  a  gen- 
eral Conference  was  assembled  in  June,  1815, 
to  formulate  a  common  doctrine  and  frame 
a  discipline.  Since  that  time  the  church  has 
had  a  healthy  growth,  and  its  teachings  on 
the  great  moral  and  social  questions,  as  in- 
temperance, impurity,  slavery,  etc.,  have  been 
radical  and  reformatory.  Its  doctrines,  ordi- 
nances, and  forms  of  worship  are  essentially 
like  those  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Its  courts  or  conferences  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Its  bish- 
ops are,  however,  elected  every  four  years, 
and  lay  representation  holds  in  both  general 
and  annual  conferences.  It  has  also  the  itin- 
erant system  of  supplying  churches  with  pas- 
tors. 

Statistics  :  Churches,  4265  ;  ministers,  1455  ; 
members,  199,709. 

LITERATURE. 

I,  For  British  Methodism. 

Works  of  John  Wesley,  numerous  editions  ; 
critica]  edition  by  Thomas  Jackson,  London, 
1831,  14  vols.,  Bvo  ;  New  York,  1831,  7 
vols.,  8vo. 

Complete  Works  of  John  Fletcher,  London, 
1815,  10  vols.,  8vo  ;  New  York,  1881,  4  vols., 
Svo. 

Annual  Minutes  of  the  Methodist  Conference, 
from  the  first  held  in  London  by  the  late  Rev, 
John  Wesley,  in  the  year  1744,  various  vol- 
umes. 

Arminian  Magazine,  from  1778,  now  called 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Magazine,  London. 

London  Quarterly  RevietD,  since  1853. 

John  Hampsen,  Memoirs  of  the  late  John 
Wesley,  with  a  Remetc  of  Ids  Life  and  Writ- 
ings, and  a  History  of  Methodism  from  its 
Commencement,  in  1729,  to  the  Present  Time, 
Sunderland,  1791,  3  vols.,  12mo. 

John  Whitehead,  Life  of  John  Wesley,  col- 
lected from  his  Private  Papers  and  printed 
Works,  and  roritten  at  the  request  of  his  Exec- 
utors, to  which  is  prefixed  some  account  of  his 
Ancestors  and  Relations;  with  the  Life  of 
Charles  Wesley,  collected  from  his  jmvate 
Journal,  and  never  before  published,  the  whole 
forming  a  History  of  Methodism,  in  which  the 
Principles  and  Economy  of  Methodism  are  un- 
folded, Dublin,  1805,  2  vols.,  8vo. 

Sermons  of  Charles  Wesley,  with  a  Memoir 
of  the  Autlior,  London,  1816. 

Thomas  Jackson,  Memoirs  of  Charles  Wes- 
ley, comprising  notices  of  Jiis  Poetry,  and  the 
Rise  and  Progress  of  Methodism,  and  of  Con- 
temporary Events  and  Characters,  London, 
1841,  2  vols.,  8vo. 

Robert  Southey,  Life  of  Wesley,  and  Rise 
and  Progress  of  Methodism ,  2d  American  ed., 
with  notes,  etc.,  by  Rev.  Daniel  Curry,  D.D., 
New  York,  1847,  2  vols.,  12mo. 

Luke  Tyerman,  Life  and  Times  of  John 
Wesley,  Founder  of  the  Methodists,  London 
and  New  York,  1872,  3  vols.,  8vo. 

Luke  Tyerman,  The  Oxford  Methodists, 
London  and  New  York,  1878,  Bvo. 

Joseph  Benson,  Life  of  Rev.  John  William 
de  la  Flechere,  London,  1817,  8vo. 

Samuel  Drew,  TAfe  of  Rev.  Thomas  Coke, 
D.D.,  including  in  detail  his  various  Travels 


and  extraordinary  Missionary  Exertions  in 
England,  Jreland,  America,  and  the  West 
Lndies,  with  an  Accotmt  of  his  Death,  London, 
1817,  8vo  ;  New  York.  1847,  12mo. 

John  Gillies,  Life  of  Rev.  George  WJiitefield, 
Loudon,  1772,  n.e.,  1813,  Bvo. 

George  Smith,  History  of  Methodism,  Lon- 
don, 1857-62,  3  vols.,  Bvo. 

Abel  Stevens,  History  of  the  Religious  Move- 
ment of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  called  Method- 
ism, etc..  New  York  and  London,  1858-61. 
8  vols.,  Bvo. 

II.  For  American  Methodism. 

Journals  of  the  Rev.  Francis  Asbury,  Bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Ejnscopal  Church,  New 
York,  1854,  8  vols.,  8vo. 

Journals  of  the  General  Conference  of  the 
MetJwdist  Episcopal  Church,  New  York,  18 
vols.,  Bvo. 

Minutes  of  the  Annual  Conferences  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  New  York,  52 
vols.,  Bvo. 

The  Methodist  Magazine  and  Metlvodist 
Quarterly  Review,  from  1818  to  1884  ;  since 
1884  The  Methodist  Review. 

W.  P.  Strickland,  Life  of  Bishop  Asbury, 
New  York,  1868,  12rao. 

Abel  Stevens,  Life  and  Times  of  Nathan 
Bangs,  New  York,  1863,  12mo. 

W.  C.  Larrabee,  Life  and  Letters  of  Bishop 
Hamline,  New  York,  12mo. 

H.  B.  Ridgaway,  Life  of  Bishop  Janes,  New 
York,  1882,  12mo. 

G.  R.  Crooks,  Life  of  BisJiop  Simpson, 'New 
York,  1890,  Bvo. 

Nathan  Bangs,  History  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  from  the  Year  1766  to  1840, 
New  York,  1839-41,  4  vols.,  12mo. 

Abel  Stevens,  History  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  New  York,  1865-67,  4  vols., 
Bvo. 

W.  P.  Strickland,  History  of  the  Missions 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  Cincinnati, 
1849,  Bvo. 

J.  M.  Reid,  Missions  and  Missionary  Society 
of  trie  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  New  York, 
1879,  2  vols.,  12mo. 

R.  Emory,  History  of  the  Discipline  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  New  York,  1856, 
Bvo. 

Charles  Elliott,  History  of  the  Great  Seces- 
sion from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
Cincinnati,  1855,  8vo. 

A.  H.  Redford,  History  of  the  Organization 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South, 
Nashville,  1871,  Bvo. 

G.  F.  Playter,  History  of  Methodism  in 
Canada,  Toronto,  1862,  12mo. 

R.  Emory,  Defence  of  our  Fathers,  New 
York,  1838,  Bvo. 

T.  E.  Bond,  Economy  of  Methodism,  New 
York,  1852,  Bvo. 

Abel  Stevens,  Church  Polity,  New  York, 
1847,  12mo. 

J.  H.  Rigg,  Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Meth- 
odism, London,  1869,  12mo. 

F.  Hodgson,  Ecclesiastical  Polity  of  Meth- 
odism Defended,  London  and  New  York. 

Richard  Watson,  Theological  Institutes, 
New  York,  1836,  2  vols..  Bvo. 


METHODIUS 


(575) 


William  B.  Pope,  A  Compendium  of  Chris- 
tian Iheology,  New  York,  1880,  3  vols.,  8vo. 

Miner  Raymond,  Systematic  TJieology,  Cin- 
cinnati, 1877-79,  3  vols.,  8vo. 

Randolph  S.  Foster,  Studies  in  Tlteology, 
New  York,  1888-90,  3  vols.,  8vo. 

President  W.  F.  Warren,  of  Boston  Univer- 
sity, in  his  Systematische  Theologie  einheitlich 
behandeU,  Bremen,  1865,  8vo,  has  given  a 
very  elaborate  compilation  of  Methodist  liter- 
ature to  that  date. 

For  a  copious  exhibit  of  Wesleyan  liter- 
ature see  George  Osborn,  Wesleyan  Bibliog- 
raphy, London,  1869,  8vo. 

Chaules  W.  Bennett. 

Methodius,  the  apostle  of  the  Slavs.  See 
Cykillus. 

Methodology  corresponds,  in  the  theologi- 
cal system,  to  encyclopa'dia  as  theory  to  prac- 
tice, and  has  for  its  object  to  furnish  the  best 
method  by  which  to  study  that  system  so  as 
to  grasp  it  in  its  entirety. 

Metropolitan  means  in  the  ancient  church 
the  bishop  of  the  metropolis  of  the  province. 
It  was  not  a  mere  title  or  rank,  but  had  some 
real  rights  and  duties  of  supervision  and  juris- 
diction in  the  province.  Metropolitans  are 
first  spoken  of  in  the  canons  of  the  Council 
of  Nicica,  325. 

Mexico,  Missions  in.  Religious  toleration 
■was  decreed  by  Juarez  in  1857,  but  Protes- 
tantism gained  no  firm  foothold  in  the  country 
till  after  the  fall  of  Maximilian  in  1867.  Pre- 
vious to  this  a  priest,  Aquelar  (who  soon 
died),  and  a  layman,  Hernandez,  founded  the 
"  Church  of  Jesus"  (1865),  and  Miss  Rankin 
started  schools  at  Monterey  and  elsewhere. 
These  came  into  the  charge  of  the  American 
and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  which  in  1869 
sent  out  Henry  C.  Riley,  who  was  born  in 
Chili  of  American  parents.  In  1873  the  work 
came  under  the  patronage  and  support  of  the 
American  Episcopal  Church.  Dr.  Riley  was 
made  bishop,  and  at  one  time  reported  13  na- 
tive presbyters.  Complications  arose,  he 
withdrew,  and  since  1886  the  Constitution  of 
the  Mexican  Church  has  been  "temporarily 
in  abeyance,"  and  the  mission  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  presiding  bishop  of  the  American 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  In  1889  Rev. 
W.  B.  Gordon  was  its  superintendent,  and 
had  under  his  care  4  native  priests,  6  native 
lay  preachers,  6  native  and  3  foreign  teach- 
ers, 29  mission  stations,  with  about  700  com- 
municants and  2700  adherents. 

A  Presbyterian  mission,  founded  in  Zacate- 
cas,  1872,  makes  a  better  showing  ;  it  had  in 
1882,  8  missionaries,  30  native  preachers  and 
helpers,  and  over  6000  conmmnicants.  Oper- 
ations were  begun  about  the  same  time  by 
the  Congregalionalists,  Methodists.  Southern 
Methodists,  Southern  Presl)yterians,  and 
Friends.  In  some  ca.ses  these' have  been  at- 
tended with  danger  ;  a  Congregationalist, 
Stephens,  was  murdered  at  Ahualulco, 
March  2,  1874,  and  a  native  Methodist,  E. 
Monroy,  at  Santa  Anita,  April  8.  1881.  (See 
G.  Haven's  Our  Next-door  Keighhor,  New 
York,  1875.)  F.  i[.  B. 


Meyer  (mi'-er),  Heinrich  August  Wil- 
helm,  b.  at  Gotha,  Jan.  10,  1800  ;  d.  in  Han- 
over, June  21,  1873  ;  studied  theology  at  Joua, 
held  various  pastoral  charges,  but  resided 
since  1841  in  Hanover  as  member  of  the  con- 
sistory. His  great  work  is  his  Kritisch- Exe- 
getischer  Komiuentar  zum  N.  T.,  of  which  an 
English  translation  appeared  in  Edinburgh, 
1873-82,  20  vols.,  American  revised  ed., 
1884-88,  11  vols. 

Meyfart  (ml-fart),  Johann  Mattheeus,  b. 
at  Jena,  1590  ;  d.  at  Erfurt,  Jan.  26,  1642  ; 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  was  in 
1616  appointed  professor  at  Coburg,  and  in 
1631  at  Erfurt.  Besides  some  Latin  works, 
dogmatical  and  polemical,  he  published  in 
German  some  eschatological  works,  in  the 
form  of  sermons,  which  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion on  his  contemporaries,  and  some  memoirs 
on  witchcraft,  the  universities,  etc.,  whiclv 
have  considerable  historical  interest. 

Mezuzah  (Hebrew,  door-post\  is  the  name 
of  a  hollow  cylinder  of  lead  or  brass  or  silver 
with  a  hole  in  front  covered  with  glass. 
This  cylinder  contains  a  piece  of  parchment 
on  which  are  written  passages  of  Scripture 
(Deut.  vi.  9,  ix.  20)  and  which  is  then  rolled 
up  in  such  a  manner  that  the  word  Shaddai, 
"Almighty,"  is  visible  behind  the  glass. 
This  mezuzah  is  fastened  on  the  right-hand 
doorpost  of  every  door  in  a  Jewish  house, 
and  is  supposed  to  guard  the  house  against 
evil  influences. 

Mezzofanti  (met-zo-fan'-tee),  Giuseppe 
Gaspardo,  cardinal  ;  b.  at  Bologna,  Sept.  17, 
1774  ;  d.  in  Rome,  March  15,  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  Bologna,  and  in  1797  ordained 
priest  and  made  professor  of  Arabic  in  the 
university,  where,  after  sundry  vicissitudes, 
he  held  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages  and 
of  Greek,  1814-31.  Then  he  went  to  Rome, 
succeeded  Mai  1833  as  keeper  of  the  Vatican 
library,  and  in  1838  was  made  cardinal  and 
director  of  studies  in  the  Congregation  of  the 
Propaganda.  He  was  a  phenomenal  linguist, 
speaking  over  50  divers  tongues,  and  having 
some  acquaintance  with  as  many  more  ;  but 
he  produced  nothing  of  importance.  His  life 
was  written  in  English  by  C.  W.  Russell, 
London,  1857,  and  in  German  by  A.  Belles- 
heim,  Wurzburg,  1880.  F.  M.  B. 

Mi'-cah  (lohois  like  Jehovah).  1.  An  idola- 
ter in  Mt.  Ephraim  (Judges  xvii.,  xviii.)  who 
persuaded  a  Lcvite  to  be  his  priest,  but  had 
his  idols  and  his  priest  taken  away  by  a  troop 
of  Danites. 

2.  The  Morasthite,  i.e.,  of  Moresheth,  a  vil- 
lage in  the  west  of  Judah  ;  the  sixth  of  the 
minor  prophets.  He  prophesied  under  Jo- 
tham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah 
(750-698),  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah, 
whom  he  somewhat  resembles.  (Cf.  Isa.  ii. 
2  with  ]\Ii(Mh  iv.  1,  and  Isa.  xli.  15  with  Miciih 
iv.  13.)  His  bold  fidelity  was  a  shield  to 
.Jeremiah  a  century  afterward  (Jcr.  xxvi.  18, 
19).  He  wrote  in  an  elevated,  poetic  style, 
rich  in  images  and  plays  upon  words,  with 
frequent  transitions,  and  occasionally  abrupt 
and  obscure.  There  are  three  sections  in  his 
prophecy,  each  beginning  with  the  call  "  Hear 


MICHAIAH 


(576) 


MISDLETON 


ye"  (i.  2,  iii.  1,  vi.  1).  He  denounces  the  sins 
of  the  people,  and  threatens  the  utter  deso- 
lation of  Samaria  and  the  overthrow  of  Jeru- 
salem and  the  captivity  of  its  inhabitants. 
He  predicts  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  bon- 
dage and  the  punishment  of  their  foes.  He 
proclaims  the  coming  of  Messiah,  and  specifies 
Bethlehem  as  the  place  of  his  birth  (v.  2,  3), 
a  prediction  thus  understood  by  the  Jews 
(Matt.  ii.  5,  John  vii.  41,  42).  Recent  com- 
mentaries are  by  P.  Kleinert  in  Lange,  Eng. 
trans.,  New  York,  1875  ;  T.  K.  Cheyne,  Cam- 
bridge, 1882.  T.  W.  C. 

Mi-cha'-iah,  a  fearless  prophet  of  Samaria, 
who  foretold  to  Ahab  (1  Kings  xxii.)  his  de- 
feat and  death  at  Ramoth  Gilead. 

T.  W.  C. 

Mi'-cha-el  (who  is  like  God?).  The  name  of 
nine  men  of  Israel,  and  also  of  the  archangel 
(Jude  9)  described  in  Daniel  (x.  13,  21,  xii.  1) 
as  standing  in  a  special  relation  to  the  Jewish 
nation,  and  in  Rev.  xii.  7,  8  as  leading  the 
hosts  of  the  angels.  T.  W.  C. 

Michael  (Palaelogus)  VIII.,  Greek  emperor 
of  that  name  ;  b.  1234  (?)  ;  d.  in  Dec,  1282  ; 
guardian  with  the  Patriarch  Arsenius  of  the 
young  emperor,  John  Lascaris  ;  finally  had 
himself  crowned,  and  in  1261  blinded  his 
young  colleague  and  banished  him.  For  this 
Arsenius  excommunicated  him.  In  1269 
Charles  of  Sicily  made  war  upon  him  with 
the  design  of  restoring  Baldwin,  Latin  em- 
peror, to  the  throne  of  Constantinople,  and 
Michael  was  so  hard  pressed  that  he  consented, 
in  order  to  secure  the  help  of  the  pope,  to  ap- 
pear by  deputy  at  Lyons  (1274)  and  accept  the 
filioqu-e  and  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  But 
this  resulted  in  nothing  to  either  party. 

F.  H.  F. 

Michaelis  (me-ka-alis),  Johann  David,  b. 

at  Halle,  Feb.  27,  1717  ;  d.  at  Gottingen, 
Aug.  22,  1791  ;  studied  theology,  philosophy, 
and  Oriental  languages  at  Halle  ;  travelled  in 
England  and  Holland,  and  was  in  1745  ap- 
pointed professor  at  Gottingen,  where,  by  lay- 
ing out  new  lines  of  research  and  pursuing 
them  with  great  energy,  he  exercised  a  widely 
spread  and  long-felt  influence.  His  Commeii- 
taries  on  the  Ldws  of  Moses  appeared  in  Ger- 
man {Erkldrang  des  mosaischen,  Bechts),  at 
Frankfort,  1770-75,  6  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1776-80, 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1810,  4  vols.,  and  his 
Introduction  to  the  Neio  Testament  (Mnleitung), 
Gottingen,  1750,  much  enlarged  in  later 
editions,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1823,  6  vols. 
Of  his  introduction  to  the  Old  Testament 
only  the  first  part  was  completed,  Hamburg, 
1787.  He  also  published  commentaries  on 
the  three  most  strongly  Messianic  Psalms, 
Gottingen,  1759,  and  Ecclesiastes,  1751,  and 
two  volumes  of  Supplem.  ad  Lexic.  Ilebr., 
Gottingen,  1786,  etc.  His  autobiography  was 
edited  by  J.  M.  Hassencamp,  Rinteln,  1793, 
and  his  letters  appeared,  Leipzig,  1794-96,  3 
vols. 

Michaelmas,  or  the  Festival  of  St.  Michael 
and  all  the  Holy  Angels,  is  celebrated  not 
only  by  the  Roman,  but  also  by  the  Greek 
and  several  Protestant  churches  on  Sept  29. 


The  custom  is  very  old  ;  in  the  Roman  Church 
it  dates  back  to  the  8th,  in  the  Greek  to  the 
12th  century.  It  probably  originated  from 
various  provincial  or  local  festivals  which  by 
the  church  were  modified  with  respect  to 
their  character  and  fixed  with  respect  to  their 
time. 

Mi'-ch.Jil,  the  second  daughter  of  Saul, 
married  to  David,  whose  life  she  saved  by 
stratagem  (1  Sam.  xix.  12)  ;  then  given  to 
Phaltiel,  but  restored  to  David,  whom  s^he 
alienated  by  her  contempt  of  his  pious  zeal 
(2  Sam.  vi.  20-23).  T.  W.  C. 

Mich'-mas  {something  ?iidderi),  the  present 
Mickmas,  a  village  5  m.  n.  of  Jerusalem,  was 
a  town  of  Benjamin,  and  is  mentioned  in  the 
Pliilistine  war  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (1  Sam. 
xiii.  11)  and  in  connection  with  the  invasioa 
of  Sennacherib  (Isa.  x.  28).  After  the  cap- 
tivity it  was  resettled,  and  under  Jonathan 
Maccabaeus  it  became  the  seat  of  government 
(1  Mace.  ix.  73).  In  the  time  of  Eusebius  and 
Jerome,  however,  it  was  nothing  but  a  large 
village. 

Middleton,  Conyers,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
1717),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Richmond, 
40  m.  n.w.  of  York,  Dec.  27,  1683  ;  d.  at 
Hildersham,  near  Cambridge,  July  28,  1750. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge ;  fellow,  1706  ;  librarian  of  the  univer- 
sity, 1723  ;  Woodwardian  professor,  1731. 
He  engaged  in  fierce  controversies  with  Dr. 
Bentley,  and  wrote  against  Waterland,  Sher- 
lock, and  others.  His  Life  of  Cicero,  London, 
1741,  won  and  deserved  high  praise,  and 
its  profits  procured  him  an  estate  at  Hildes- 
ham,  to  which  he  soon  retired  ;  but  his 
permanent  fame  rests  iipon  two  of  the  great- 
est controversial  works  of  the  18th  century, 
A  Letter  from  Rome  showing  an  exact  Con- 
formity between  Popery  and  Paganism,  1729, 
and  A  Free  Inquiry  into  the  Miraculons 
Powers  Supposed  to  have  Subsisted  in  the 
Christian  Church,  1749.  These,  with  two 
minor  publications  in  1731,  caused  Mid- 
dleton to  be  assailed  by  some  as  an  infidel. 
He  was  an  indifferent  churchman,  an  eager 
and  sometimes  bitter  polemic,  and  an  able 
and  indepeiident  thinker,  who  by  his  applica- 
tion of  the  scientific  spirit  to  theological  in- 
quiry rendered  eminent  service  to  the  cause 
of  unsectarian  Protestantism.  His  works,  ex- 
cepting the  Life  of  Cicero,  were  collected  in 
4  vols.,  1752.  F.  M.  B. 

Middleton,     Thomas      Fanshaw,      D.D. 

(Cambridge,  1808),  F.R.S.,  first  bishop  of 
Calcutta  ;  b.  at  Kedleston,  5  m.  n.n.w.  of 
Derby,  Jan.  26,  1769  ;  d.  at  Calcutta,  July  8, 
1822.  He  graduated  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, 1792,  and  after  various  preferments 
became  archdeacon  of  Huntingdon,  1812,  and 
bishop  of  Calcutta,  1814.  Here  he  founded  a 
missionary  college  (1820)  and  other  useful  in- 
stitutions. He  wrote  IJie  Doctrine  of  the 
Greek  Article  applied  to  the  triticism  and 
Illustration  of  the  New  Testament,  London, 
1808.  His  Sermons,  Charges,  etc.,  with 
a  memoir  by  Dr.  Bonney,  appeared,  1824, 
and  his  life,  by  C.  W  Le  Bas,  1830,  2  vols. 
F.  M.  B. 


MIDIAN 


(577) 


MILITARY 


Mid'-i-an  (strife),  a  territory  stretching 
from  the  Elanitic  Gulf  to  Moab,  inhabited  by 
a  nomad  race,  numerous  and  rich  in  flocks, 
herds,  and  camels  (Isa.  Ix.  6),  and  also  active 
in  commerce.  They  were  idolaters,  and  often 
led  Israel  astray.  They  sought  to  destroy 
Israel  by  Balaam's  sorceries,  by  enticing  them 
to  sin  and  by  open  war  (Num.  xxii.,  xxv., 
xxxi.).  Afterward  they  oppressed  the  He- 
brews, but  were  defeated  by  Gideon  (Judges 
vi.  7,  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10-12).  Thenceforward 
they  became  gradually  incorporated  with  the 
neighboring  Moabites  and  Arabians. 

T.  W.  C. 

Midrash  {commentary).  Found  in  R.  V., 
2  Chron.  xiii.  27,  xxiv.  37.  The  term  used 
by  the  post-biblical  Jews  to  denote  the  expo- 
sitions of  Holy  Writ  or  portions  of  the  same, 
in  which  lirst  the  Halacha  (q.v.)  method 
was  followed  and  afterward  the  Haggada 
(q.v.).  Tiie  oldest  parts  belong  to  the  period 
of  the  Mishna,  i.e.,  about  the  3d  century  a.d. 
T.  W.  C. 

Mig'-dol  {Uncer),  a  frontier  town  of  North- 
ern Egypt  (Jer.  xliv.  1,  xlvi.  14,  Ezek.  xxix. 
10),  "from  Migdol  to  Syene" — the  northern 
and  southern  limits  of  Egypt.  The  Migdol 
of  Ex.  xiv.  2,  Num.  xxxiii.  7  is  probably  a 
different  place,  perhaps  Bir  Suweiss,  2  m. 
from  Suez.  T.  W.  C. 

Migne  (mCn),  Jacques  Paul,  b.  at  St.  Flour, 
Central  France,  south,  Oct.  25,  1:J00  ;  d.  in 
Paris,  Oct.  25,  1875  ;  was  educated  in  the 
theological  seminary  of  Orleans  ;  ordained 
priest  in  1824,  and  appointed  curate  of  Pui- 
seaux,  but  removed  in  1833  to  Paris  on  ac- 
count of  a  disagreement  with  his  bishop  ; 
founded  V  Uiiieers,  which  he  sold  in  1836  ; 
settled  then  at  Petit  Montrouge,  near  Paris, 
where  he  established  an  immense  factory 
for  church  furniture— organs,  statuaries,  pic- 
tures, etc. — and  a  still  more  immense  printing 
establishment,  from  which  issued  Pidrologw' 
CursHS  Completux,  Latin  series,  221  vols., 
Greek  series,  I.  104  vols.,  II.  58  vols.  ;  En- 
cyclopedie  Thmloqiqne,  171  vols.  ;  Collection 
des  Orateurs  Sacres,  100  vols. ,  etc. 

Milan,  The  Church  of,  pretends  to  have 
been  founded  by  Barnabas,  but  its  real  im- 
portance it  derived  from  Ambrose,  374-97. 
From  his  time  and  down  to  the  days  of  Greg- 
ory VII.,  1073-85,  it  occupied  a  peculiar  posi- 
tion in  the  history  of  the  church,  intermediate 
between  Rome  and  Constantinoi)le.  The 
liturgy  which  Ambrose  introduced  in  his  dio- 
cese was  modelled  after  the  Greek  pattern  and 
deviated  considerably  from  the  Roman,  but 
for  centuries  no  changes  were  made  or  siig- 
gested.  Ambrose  had  been  elected  bishop  by 
the  people,  and  for  centuries  the  independence 
of  the  episcopal  election  was  vindicated  by 
the  Milanese  ;  tin;  pope  had  even  not  the 
right  of  contirmadon.  Tims  it  was  quite 
natural  that  the  archbi.shop  of  Milan  should 
act  as  mediator  between  Rome  and  Constanti- 
nople both  in  doctrinal  and  in  political  con- 
troversies, and  his  secidar  position  was  such  as 
to  give  weight  to  his  advice.  He  had  the 
right  to  crown  the  king  of  Lombardv  with 
the  iron  crown,  and  that  .single  circumstance 


could  in  those  days  liardly  fail  to  make  him 
the  political  leader  of  the  Lombards.  That 
which  finally  stopped  the  independent  devel- 
opment of  the  Church  of  Milan  and  merged 
its  history  into  that  of  the  papacy  was  the 
question  of  the  celibacy.  The  Milanese 
clergy,  even  the  bishops,  married,  but  after 
the  preaching  of  Petrus  Damiani  and  the 
direct  appeal  of  Gregory  VII.  to  the  luity, 
their  power  was  utterly  wrecked  on  this  rock. 
It  is  quite  characteristic,  however,  that  in  the 
contest  between  Ultramontanism  and  the  na- 
tional cause  in  Italy  in  the  present  century, 
the  Church  of  Milan  espoused  the  latter. 
(See  for  the  earlier  history,  Arnulf  and  Lan- 
dulf  in  Pertz,  Monumenta  JScriptores,  viii.) 

Milcom.     See  jMoi.ech. 

Mildmay  Conference  was  held,  Oct.  21- 
25,  1878,  at  Conference  Hall,  Mildmay  Park, 
London,  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  the 
ways  and  means  of  the  Christian  mission  in 
the  different  parts  of  the  world.  An  account 
of  the  proceedings  was  published  in  1879,  and 
the  conferences  have  been  continued  from 
time  to  time. 

Mi-le'-tus,  an  ancient  city,  capital  of  Ionia, 
36  m.  s.  of  Ephesus,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mfvander  ;  the  parent  of  many  colonies  and 
the  birthplace  of  Thales  and  other  famous 
men.  Paul  on  his  return  from  the  third  tour 
stopped  here  to  meet  the  Ephesian  elders 
(Acts  XX.),  and  revisited  the  place  with  Tro- 
phimus  (2  Tim.  iv.  20).  At  that  time  it  had 
four  harbors  and  a  large  commerce,  but  sedi- 
ment from  the  river  has  so  filled  up  the  gulf 
that  the  ancient  site  is  now  10  m.  inland. 

T.  W.  C. 

Milicz  {m&'-litch— dearest),  a  predecessor 
of  Hus  ;  b.  at  Kremsier,  south  of  Olmlitz,  in. 
Moravia  ;  admitted  to  some  clerical  position 
in  1350  ;  in  the  imperial  cabinet  as  secretary 
as  early  as  1360,  at  the  same  time  canon  and 
archdeacon  at  Prague.  His  special  career  be- 
gan when,  in  1363,  he  resigned  all  these  offices 
and  began  to  preach  to  and  labor  for  the 
common  people,  at  first  in  the  country  and 
then  in  Prague,  where  his  Bohemian  sermons 
soon  brought  great  crowds  to  hear  him,  and 
led  to  the  conversion  of  multitudes  high  and 
low.  So  many  fallen  women  were  won  tO' 
purity  and  religion  that  he  was  obliged  to 
found  a  special  institution  for  them.  His 
studies  in  the  Scriptures  led  him  to  the  belief 
that  Antichrist  was  already  come,  and  he 
called  boldly  upon  pope  and  emperor  to  re- 
form the  church.  Such  doctrine  led  to  sus- 
picion, and  in  1367  he  went  to  Rome,  was  for 
a  time  imprisoned,  but  finally  released  by 
Urban  V.  He  returned  to  Prague,  where  he 
had  greater  success  than  ever.  But  jealou.sy 
of  his  popularity  created  trouble  lor  him 
ag.iin,  and  he  went,  in  1374,  to  Avignon,  to 
tiie  papal  court,  where  he  cleared  himself  of 
all  suspicion,  but  died  June  29  of  the  same 
year.  (See  Neander's  Church  History,  and 
Lechler,  Life  of  Wiclif.)  ■    F.  H.  F. 

Military  Religious  Orders,  a  term  applied 
to  the  Knights  Templars,  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  and  the  Knights  of  St.  Jolin,  which 
see  under  their  respective  titles.      F.  II.  F. 


MILL 


(578) 


MILLSR 


Mill,  John,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1681),  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  at  Shap,  Westmoreland,  280 
m.  n.u.w.  of  London,  about  1645  ;  d.  at  Blech- 
ingdon,  Oxfordshire,  June  23,  1707.  He  en- 
tered Queen's  College,  Oxford,  1661  ;  became 
fellow,  1669,  and  tutor  ;  rector  of  Bleching- 
don,  1681,  and  chaplain  to  Charles  II.  ;  prin- 
cipal of  St.  Edmund's  Hall,  1685  ;  prebendarj 
of  Canterbury,  1704.  His  celebrated  Greek 
Testament,  with  30,000  various  readings,  was 
the  fruit  of  30  years'  labor,  and  appeared  two 
weeks  before  his  death.  F.  JVI.  B. 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  b.  in  London,  May  20, 
1806  ;  d.  at  Avignon,  France,  May  8,  1873! 
He  was  educated  by  his  father,  James  Mill 
(1773-1836),  on  a  peculiar  system,  beginning 
Greek  at  three,  and  having  the  analytic  powers 
elaborately  trained,  while  the  imagination  and 
emotions  were  ignored  ;  he  did  not  "  throw 
off  religious  belief,  but  never  had  it."  The 
result  was  a  Utilitarian  materialist  of  the 
Bentham  school,  with  noble  powers,  intense 
sincerity,  and  high  character,  but  a  one-sided 
development  ;  his  idealistic  tendencies,  se- 
verely restrained  in  youth,  found  vent  in  ma- 
turity in  a  romantic  worship  of  his  wife.  He 
was  in  the  employ  of  the  East  Indian  Com- 
pany, 1823-58,  and  in  Parliament,  1865-68, 
but  his  life  was  mainly  literary.  He  began 
writing  for  the  Westminster  Review  on  its 
foundation  in  1823,  and  edited  it.  1836-40.  His 
System  of  Logic,  London,  1843,  Principles  of 
Political  Economy,  1848,  and  On  Liberty,  1859, 
gained  great  reputation,  though  he  had  no 
charm  of  style.  Among  his  other  books  are 
Representative  Oovernment,  1860  ;  Utilitarian- 
ism, 1861  ;  Examination  of  Hamilton's  Phi- 
losophy, 1865  ;  Subjection  of  Women,  1869  ; 
Three  Essays— Nature,  The  Utility  of  Religion, 
and  Theism,  1874.  (See  his  Autobioqraphy, 
1873,  and  A.  Bain's  J.  S.  Mill,  1882.)' 

F.  M.  B. 

Milledoler  (mil-dol'-ar),  Philip,  S.T.D. 
(University  of  Pennsylvania,  18—),  b.  at 
Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  22,  "1775;  d.  on 
Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  22,  1852  ;  gradu- 
ated from  Columbia  College,  New  York, 
1793  ;  studied  theology,  held  various  pastoral 
charges  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  and 
was  professor  of  theology  in  the  seminary  and 
president  of  Rutgers  College,  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  1825-41.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  Bible  Society  in 
1816,  and  president  of  the  General  Synod  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  1823,  and  has  pub- 
lished several  dissertations,  sermons,  and  ad- 
dresses. 

Millenary  Petition,  The,  thus  called  be- 
cause it  was  signed  by  nearly  1000  Puritan 
ministers,  was  presented  to  James  I.  on  his 
way  to  London,  1603,  and  resulted  in  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference  (q.v.). 

Millenarianism.  The  view  which  holds 
that  at  the  second  advent  the  pious  dead  will 
be  raised  up  and  reign  with  Christ  on  the 
earth  for  a  thousand  years.  There  does  not 
appear  ever  to  have  been  a  time  when  this 
opinion  was  not  held  by  more  or  less  of  the 
followers  of  Christ,  yet  never  did  it  obtain 
such  general  prevalence  as  to  be  incorporated 


in  any  of  the  established  creeds.  Its  first  ap- 
pearance was  in  the  primitive  church,  where 
it  bore  the  name  of  Chiliasm.  It  seems  to 
have  been  held  by  Justin  Martyr,  as  it  was 
by  the  heretic  Cerinthus,  and  is  found  in 
most  of  the  Apocryphal  books  of  Jewish 
Christians.  Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  set 
forth  the  doctrine  in  a  very  sensuous  form, 
and  the  so-called  Epistle  of  Barnabas  derives 
it  from  a  symbolical  view  of  the  six  days  of 
creation,  which  are  to  be  followed  by  a  Sab- 
bath which  is  to  continue  a  thousand  j'ears. 
Irenseus  and  TertuUian  advocated  millenarian- 
ism, the  former  from  Scripture  and  tradition, 
the  latter  from  the  new  prophetic  impulse  of 
Montanism.  But  widely  extended  as  the  view 
was,  it  did  not  become  universal,  but  was  op- 
posed by  Caius,  a  Roman  presbyter  about 
200,  and  by  the  Alexandrian  School  with 
energy,  particularly  by  Origen.  From  this 
time  it  began  to  decline.  Jerome  and  Augus- 
tine gave  a  tone  to  the  interpretation  of 
prophecy  which  prevailed  from  their  time 
on,  being  interrupted  for  a  season  by  the  gen- 
eral agitation  of  ^ristendom  at  the  approach 
of  the  year  1000. 

At  the  Reformation  millenarianism  revived 
in  a.gross  form  in  John  of  Munster  and  the 
Anabaptists,  but  in  milder  form  among  emi- 
nent men  such  as  the  learned  and  pious  Ben- 
gel.  At  the  present  time  it  is  held  by  many 
in  this  country  and  still  more  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. The  subject  is  treated  in  most  of  the 
works  on  dogmatics.  The  ablest  single  work 
against  the  premillcnarian  view  is  that  of  Dr. 
David  Brown  on  the  Second  Coming  of  our 
Lord,  London,  1846,  while  on  the  other  side 
is  the  work  of  Dr.  A.  J.  Gordon,  Ecce  venit : 
beJwld  lie  cometh,  Chicago,  1890.     T.  W.  C. 

Millennium.  This  term  signifies  a  period 
of  a  thousand  years,  and  in  its  religious  use 
is  applied  to  the  prophetic  era  mentioned  in 
the  Apocalypse  (xx.  1-7).  All  expositors 
agree  that  the  description  indicates  a  state  of 
great  spiritual  prosperity,  but  they  differ 
much  as  to  its  chronological  date. 

T.  W.  C. 
Miller,  Hugh,  layman  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Cromarty,  16  m.  n.n.e.  of 
Inverness,  Oct.  10, 1802  ;  d.  at  Portobello,  near 
Edinburgh,  Dec.  24,  1856.  He  was  a  stone- 
mason till  1836,  then  a  bank-clerk,  and  from 
1840  editor  of  the  TRY/jess  at  Edinburgh.  His 
books  of  popular  geology.  The  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone, Edinburgh,  1841,  Footprints  of  the  Cre- 
ator, 1849,  and  'Testimony  of  the  Rocks,  1857, 
attracted  many  readers,  but  brought  needless 
imputations  on  his  piety  because  of  his  inter- 
pretation of  "  day"  in  Gen.  i.  He  shot  him- 
self in  a  fit  of  insanity  brought  on  by  over- 
work. (See  My  Schools  and  Schoolmasters, 
1854;  his  Life  and  Times,  by  Dr.  T.  N. 
Brown,  London,  1858  ;  Life  and  Letters,  by 
P.  Bayne,  1871,  2  vols.)  F.  M.  B. 

Miller,  Samuel,  D.D.  (University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1804),  LL.D.  (Washington,  Pa. 
1847),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  near  Dover,  Del., 
Oct.  31,  1769;  d.  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Jan. 
7,  1850.  He  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1789,  and  was  pastor  in 
New  York,  1793-1813  ;  professor  of  ecclesias- 


Mn.T.FR 


(579) 


MIIiNER 


tical  history  at  Princeton  Seminary,  1813-49. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works  {1  he  Christian 
Ministry,  Philadelphia,  1807  ;  Primitive  and 
Apostolical  Constitution  of  the  Church,  1835, 
etc.)  to  prove  that  the  Presbyterian  system 
•was  ordained  by  Christ  and  established  by  the 
apostles.  His  life,  by  his  son,  appeared  in 
2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1869.  F.  M.  B. 

Miller,  William,  founder  of  the  sect  of 
Millerites  or  Adventists ;  b.  at  Pittstield, 
Mass.,  Feb.  5,  1782  ;  d.  at  Low  Hampton, 
Washington  County,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  20,  1849. 
The  son  of  a  Revolutionary  soldier,  he  was  a 
captain  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  afterward 
sheriff  and  justice  of  the  peace.  A  farmer  of 
little  education,  he  evolved  from  his  inner 
consciousness  explanations  of  the  most  myste- 
rious portions  of  the  Bible,  and  in  1831  pre- 
dicted the  end  of  the  world  in  1843  or  1844. 
He  gained  many  thousand  converts,  whose 
faith  in  some  cases  survived  disappointment. 
His  memoir  was  written  by  S.  Bliss,  Boston. 
1853.  F.  M.  B. 

Millerites.     See  Adventists. 

Mills  among  the  Hebrews.  The  oldest 
contrivance  for  reducing  grain  to  meal  was 
the  mortar  with  the  pestle  (Num.  xi.  8,  Prov. 
xxvii.  22).  It  was  gradually  supplanted  by 
the  hand-mill  (Ex.  xi.  5),  -which  consisted  of 
a  nether  millstone  with  a  somewhat  convex 
upper  surface  and  an  upper  millstone  or  rider 
-with  a  correspondingly  concave  nether  sur- 
face. The  upper  millstone  was  kept  in  posi- 
tion on  the  nether  millstone  by  a  shaft  or 
standard  run  through  a  hole  in  the  centre, 
through  which  the  mill  was  fed,  and  was 
made  to  revolve  bv  means  of  a  handle  near 
the  outer  rim.  As  bread  was  baked  every 
day,  perhaps  for  every  meal,  and  as  grain 
was  ground  for  every  baking,  the  noise  o^f  the 
hand  mill  was  one  of  the  most  familiar  sounds 
in  a  Hebrew  town,  and  is  often  alluded  to  in 
the  Bible.  In  New  Testament  times,  how- 
ever, the  hand-mill  was  gradually  being  sup- 
])lanted  bv  a  larger  mill,  worked  by  an  ass 
(Matt,  xvili.  6).  C.  P. 

Mills,  Samuel  John,  "father  of  foreign 
missions  in  America ;"  b.  at  Torringford, 
Conn.,  April  21,  1783  ;  d.  off  the  African 
coast,  June  16, 1818.  While  at  Williams  Col- 
lege, 1806-9,  he  devised  a  plan  of  sending  the 
gospel  to  the  heathen.  At  Audover  (1809-12) 
he  with  Judson  and  two  fellow-students  ad- 
dressed the  General  Association  of  Massachu- 
setts, June,  1810,  on  the  claims  of  the  foreign 
field  ;  the  result  was  the  immediate  forma- 
tion of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  31.  After  graduating. 
Mills  labored  in  Bible  distribution  through- 
out the  Southwest,  and  suggested  a  national 
Bible  society,  whic-h  -was  organized.  May  8, 
1816.  Ordained  ivs  a  Presbyterian,  June  21, 
1815,  he  urged  on  the  Synod  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey  the  education  of  negroes  as 
missionaries  and  teachers.  The  Colonization 
Society,  founded  Jan.  1,  1817.  sent  him  to 
explore  the  coast  regions  of  Western  Africa 
and  choose  a  site  for  settlement.  After  spend- 
ing two  months,  March-Maj-,  1818,  in  and 
about  what  is  now  Liberia,  he  died,  and  was 
buried  at  sea.  His  memoir,  by  G.  Spring, 
appeared,  New  York,  1820.  F.  M.  B. 


MUman,  Henry  Hart,  D.D.  (Oxford,  18—), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  in  London,  Feb.  10, 
1791  ;  d.  at  Sunninghill,  near  Ascot,  Sept.  24,, 
1868.  His  father  was  physician  to  the  king. 
Educated  at  Eton  and  at  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford,  he  gained  the  Newdigate  prize  for 
poetry,  1812,  and  became  a  fellow,  1815  ;: 
vicar  of  St.  Mary 's,  Reading,  1816-35  ;  pro- 
fessor of  poetry  at  Oxford,  1821-31  ;  Bampton 
lecturer,  1827  ;  rector  of  St.  Margaret's  and 
canon  of  Westminster,  1835  ;  dean  of  St. 
Paul's,  London,  1849.  His  earlier  books  were 
poetical  :  Fazio,  London,  1815  ;  Samor,  1818  ; 
The  Fall  of  Jerusalem,  1820  ;  The  Martyr  of 
Antioch,  1822  ;  Behhazzar,  1822  ;  Anne 
Boleyn,  1826,  and  tran.slations  from  the  Sans- 
krit, 1834.  Several  of  his  hymns  (which  ap- 
peared with  Bishop  Heber's,  1827)  are  much 
used  and  valued.  His  Poetical  and  Dramatic 
'SVorks  were  collected  in  3  vols.,  1839.  But 
his  chief  fame  was  gained  in  another  field. 
His  History  of  the  Jews,  1829,  3  vols.,  which 
now  appears  rather  colorless,  incurred  much 
odium  by  its  supposed  rationalism.  The  His- 
tory of  Christianity  to  the  Abolition  of  Pagan- 
ism, 1840,  -won  less  attention  ;  but  his  History 
of  Latin  Christianity,  1854-56,  6  vols.,  is  a 
monumental  and  delightful  -work,  which  has 
not  yet  been  superseded  nor  rivalled.  His 
Historical  U'ori-s reappeared  in  15  vols.,  1866- 
67.  He  also  edited  Gibbon,  1838-39,  and 
Horace,  1849,  and  -wrote  Annals  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  1868,  and  Savonarola,  Erasmus, 
and  other  Essays,  1870.  By  his  talents,  ac- 
complishments, and  virtues.  Dean  Milman 
was  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the 
English  Church  in  his  day,  and  greatly  hon- 
ored and  beloved  in  and  out  of  London.  He 
was  the  first  (and  is  still  the  chief)  English 
ecclesiastical  historian  who  wrote  simply  in  a 
fair,  scientific  spirit,  not  holding  a  brief  for 
any  party  or  set  of  opinions.  F.  JVI.  B. 

Milner,  two  brothers.  Evangelicals  of  the 
English  Church,  and  ecclesiastical  historians. 
Joseph,  b.  near  Leeds,  Jan.  2,  1744  ;  d.  at 
Hull,  Nov.  15,  1797  ;  educated  at  Catharine 
Hall,  Cambridge  ;  head  master  of  the  gram- 
mar school,  and  lecturer  at  Hull  ;  vicar  of 
North  Ferriby,  and  in  1797  of  Holy  Trinity, 
Hull.  He  answered  Gibbon,  London,  1781, 
and  wrote  vols,  i.-iii.  of  a  History  of  the 
Church  of  Christ,  1794-99.  His  -works  -were 
edited  by  his  brother  in  8  vols.,  1810.  His 
life  was  wTitten  by  Isaac  in  vol.  i.  of  his  Ser- 
mons, 1801.  Isaac,  D.D. (Cambridge,  1788),  b. 
near  Leeds,  Jan.  11, 1751  ;  d.  in  London,  April 
1,  1820.  He  entered  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1770  ;  fellow,  1775,  and  master,  1788  ; 
Jacksonian  professor  of  philosophy,  1783  ; 
dean  of  Carlisle,  1791  ;  vice-chancellor,  1792 
and  1809.  Besides  other  writings,  he  con- 
tinued his  brother's  Church  History,  adding 
two  more  volumes,  1803-9,  and  doing  fidl 
ju.stice  to  Luther.  The  whole  has  been  trans- 
lated into  German,  often  reprinted  in  Eng- 
lish, and  continued  by  different  hands.  It 
lays  far  more  stress  on  the  subjective  aspects 
or  effects  of  Chri.stianity  than  on  external 
occurrences,  and  is  chielly  a  history  of  emi- 
nent Christians  in  various  ages — according  to 
the  author's  conception  of  the  church  as  the 


MILTIADES 


(580) 


MINISTRY 


"succession  of  pious  persons."  By  tliose 
who  do  not  share  his  views  the  work  is  re- 
garded as  narrowly  partisan  and  of  no  critical 
value.  Milner  and  Milman  are  at  opposite 
extremes  as  church  historians.  See  life  of 
Isaac  Milner,  by  his  niece,  Mary  Milner,  Lon- 
don, 1842.  F.  M.  B. 

Miltiades  (Pope).     See  Melchiades. 

IVIiltiades,  a  converted  philosopher  of  the 
2d  century,  the  author  of  a  Christian  apology 
and  some  polemical  writings  against  the 
Greeks  and  the  Jews,  is  mentioned  by  Euse- 
bius  (//.  E.,  5,  17)  and  Tertullian  {Adv.  Va- 
lent.  5),  but  of  his  works  none  have  come 
down  to  us. 

Miltitz  (mil'-tits),  Karl  von,  b.  about  1490  ; 
d.  in  1529  ;  was  a  son  of  a  Saxon  nobleman  ; 
settled  in  1515  in  Rome  ;  became  papal  no- 
tary, and  was  in  1518  sent  to  Germany  by 
Leo  X.  to  try  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation 
with  Luther.  It  seems  that,  at  one  moment, 
he  had  some  prospects  of  success,  but  all  his 
attempts  were  finally  foiled  by  the  foolish 
arrogance  of  Eck.     See  Luther. 

Milton,  John,  Puritan  layman  and  Chris- 
tian poet  ;  b.  in  London,  Dec.  9,  1608  ;  d. 
there,  Nov.  8,  1674.  His  course  at  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  1625-32,  was  preceded 
and  followed  by  close  studies  at  home.  At 
Horton,  1632-38,  many  of  his  finest  minor 
poems  were  written  ;  they  appeared  together 
in  1646.  After  two  years  abroad  (1637-39)  he 
settled  in  London,  taught,  and  began  his 
career  as  a  polemic  in  1641  with  tracts  Of 
Bfiformatioii,  Of  Prelatical  Episcopacy,  and 
Animadversions  upon  the  Remonstrant' s  De- 
fence against  Smectymnuus.  The  Reason  of 
Church  Oovernment  and  an  Apology  came  in 
1643.  His  first  ill-starred  matrimonial  experi- 
ment led  to  The  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of 
Divorce  and  The  Judgment  of  Martin  Biicer 
Touching  Divorce  (both  1645).  In  1644  he  de- 
fended the  liberty  of  unlicensed  printing 
in  his  mighty  Areopagitica.  Tetrachordon 
and  others  followed,  and  after  the  ex- 
ecution of  Charles  I.  he  cast  his  lot  with 
the  Commonwealth  by  Tenure  of  Kings  and 
Magistrates,  1649,  and  Eikonoklastes,  an  an- 
swer to  Eiko7i  Basilike.  In  March,  1649,  he 
became  secretary  for  foreign  tongues  to  the 
Council  of  State  ;  this  post  he  held  till  1660, 
though  blind  from  1654.  His  Pro  Popiilo 
Anglicano  Defensio,  1651,  anniliilated  Sal- 
masius,  and  a  Defensio  Secunda,  1654,  casti- 
gated Morus.  In  the  last  days  of  the  republic 
he  still  fought  for  liberty  in  a  Ready  and  Easy 
Way  to  Establish  a  Free  Commonwealth,  1660, 
and  other  publications.  At  the  Restoration 
he  was  in  great  danger,  and  for  the  rest  of 
his  life  under  a  cloud.  Paradise  Lost  ap- 
peared, 1667,  and  brought  him  a  few  pounds 
and  a  little  reputation  ;  people  admitted  that 
it  was  fine  verse,  but  then  its  author  had  been 
a  rebel  against  church  and  king,  and  was  still 
unreconstructed.  He  published  a  History  of 
Britain,  1670  ;  Paradise  Regained  and  Sam- 
son Agonistes,  1671,  and  a  pamphlet  Of  True 
Religion,  etc. ,  1673.  His  Doctrina  Chridiana, 
discovered  1823,  shows  his  opinions  to  have 
been    at    least   semi-Arian.     No  writer    has 


served  freedom  more  powerfully,  and  Shake- 
speare only  has  won  a  higher  place  in  Eng- 
lish literature.  Milton's  character  was  rather 
lofty  than  amiable,  and  his  home  life,  unless 
with  his  third  spouse,  was  not  happy  ;  but 
his  domestic  deficiencies  affected  few,  while 
his  noble  independence,  his  severe  purity,  his 
entire  consistency  with  principle,  attain  the 
dignity  of  a  public  and  permanent  example. 
The  best  of  many  lives  of  him  is  by  D.  Mas- 
son,  1859-71,  6  vols.  ;  the  most  recent  is  by 
R.  Garnett,  1890.  His  poems  have  been  editeci 
by  Mitford,  1851,  8  vols.,  Masson,  3  vols., 
and  many  others.  His  prose  works  were  col- 
lected by  Toland,  1697-98,  3  vols.,  and  fill  5 
vols,  in  Bohn's  Standard  Library,  1848-53. 
F.  M.  B. 

Minims,  Minimi  Fratres  {Least  among  the 
Brethren),  is  the  name  of  a  monastic  order 
closely  related  to  the  Franciscans,  but  out- 
doing them  in  austerity  by  abstaining  al- 
ways and  from  all  kinds  of  meat.  It  was 
founded  in  Calabria  in  1436  by  St.  Francis  of 
Paula  (q.v.),  and  was  confirmed  in  1474  by 
Sixtus  IV.  Its  original  name  was  "  Hermits 
of  St.  Francis,"  but  as  the  order  spread  to 
other  countries  the  name  changed  {Les  bons 
hommes  in  France,  "  Pauliner"  in  Germany), 
until  Alexander  VI.,  in  1493,  fixed  it  as 
"  Minims."  In  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century  the  order  numbered  450  convents, 
spread  through  all  Christian  countries,  but  at 
present  it  is  about  to  become  extinct.  (See 
Louis  Dony  d'Attichy,  Histoire  generate  de 
Vordre  sacre  des  Minimes,  Paris,  1824,  2  vols.) 

Mining  among  the  Hebrews.    See  Metals. 

Ministerial  Call,  the  right  or  authority 
which  a  man  receives  to  preach  the  gospel. 
It  is  twofold,  inward  and  outward.  The 
former  comes  from  God,  and  is  usually  in- 
ferred from  the  characteristics  of  the  candi- 
date, his  earnest  piety,  blameless  life,  zeal  to 
do  good,  aptness  to  teach,  self-control,  and 
the  indications  of  Providence  in  his  case. 
The  other  is  the  choice  of  the  people.  Other 
ministers,  whether  in  a  body  or  not,  may  rec- 
ommend a  man,  but  only  the  voice  of  the 
church  can  make  him  a  pastor.  Among 
nearly  all  Protestants  this  is  substantially  the 
rule,  although  there  are  differences  as  to  the 
method  of  applying  it.  T.  W.  C. 

Ministerium,  the  body  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  composed  of  ordained  ministers  and 
charged  with  the  examination,  licensure,  and 
ordination  of  candidates  for  the  ministry  ; 
also  with  the  trial  of  ministers  for  heresy  and, 
on  appeal  from  a  church  council,  of  laymen 
on  a  similar  charge. 

Ministry.  An  institution  of  divine  origin 
for  the  instruction  and  training  of  Christians. 
This  appears  from  the  selection  of  tlie  twelve 
apostles  by  our  Lord  ;  from  the  express  "state- 
ments of  Paul,  mentioning  the  different  offi- 
cers "  God  hath  set  in  the  church"  (1  Cor.  xii. 
28),  calling  the  ministry  one  of  Christ's  ascen- 
sion gifts  to  his  people  (Ephes.  iv.  8,  11),  set- 
ting forth  the  requisite  qualifications  for  the 
several  officers  (1  Tim.  iii.) ;  from  the  names 


MINOR 


(581) 


MIRACLES 


given  to  them,  e.g.,  pastors  and  teachers, 
bishops  or  overseers,  deacons  ;  and  from  the 
injunctions  both  upon  the  ministry  (1  Peter 
V.  1-4)  and  upon  tlie  people  (1  Thess.  v.  12, 
13,  Heb.  xiii.  7,  17).  All  Christians  have  the 
privilege  and  the  duty  of  proclaiming  the 
gospel  as  heralds  whenever  the  opportunity 
is  afforded  ;  but  the  regular  instruction  of  a 
Christian  congregation, "the  administration  of 
the  sacraments,  and  the  maintenance  of  proper 
discipline  require  men  trained  and  commis- 
sioned for  the  purpose.  The  distinction  of 
clergy  and  laity  is  therefore  scriptural  and 
proper.  A  gospel  minister  is  in  no  sense  a 
priest — that  name  is  never  applied  to  him  in 
the  New  Testament — yet  he  has  very  impor- 
tant functions  to  discharge.  Few  greater 
calamities  can  befall  a  church  than  the  re- 
moval of  its  ministry.  A  flock  without  a  shep- 
herd is  always  exposed  to  serious  peril.  (See 
W.  Lefrov,  The  Christian  Ministry,  London 
and  New  York,  1890.)  T.  W.  C. 

Minor  Canon,  a  clergyman  attached  to  a 
cathedral  and  assistant  in  the  daily  choral 
service,  but  lower  in  rank  than  a  canon,  and 
not  a  member  of  the  chapter.  His  stipend  is 
fixed  by  law  as  at  least  £150. 

Minor  Prophets.  These  are  the  last  twelve 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  the  Hebrew- 
Canon  make  only  one  book.  They  take  their 
name  from  the'  fact  that  they  are  briefer 
than  the  four  greater  prophets  (Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel),  and  not  at  all 
because  they  were  less  important.  All  of  them 
together  do  not  equal  Isaiah  in  length.  Yet  it 
is  evident  that  the  greater  prophets  studied 
the  minor,  for  Jeremiah  (xlix.  16)  uses  Oba- 
diah's  (3)  words  to  denounce  the  punishment 
of  Edom,  and  Ezekiel  (xxxviii.  22)  expands  a 
prediction  of  Joel  (iii.  2).  The  lirst  five  of  the 
minor  prophets  antedate  the  earliest  of  the 
greater,  and  Malachi  post-dates  them  all,  so 
that  the  twelve  began  and  closed  the  cycle  of 
written  prophecy  which  stretched  from  the 
9th  to  the  5th  century  B.C.  They  are  ar- 
ranged in  three  groups  chronologically,  though 
the  order  among  tliemselves  cannot  be  de- 
termined. First  come  the  prophets  of  the 
pre-Assyrian  and  Assyrian  time,  Hosea  to 
Nal\um  ;  then  those  of  the  Chahhean  period, 
Ilabakkuk  and  Zcphaniah  ;  and  last,  the  post- 
exile  prophets,  Haggai,  Zcchuriah,  and  Mala- 
chi. They  often  present  peculiar  difliculties 
from  the  obscuritj^  of  their  allusions,  yet  they 
are  full  of  interest  and  attractiveness.  Ho- 
sea's  sudden  transitions  from  righteous  anger 
to  divine  love  are  very  moving  ;  Joel's  de- 
scription of  the  locusts  is  unequalled  ;  Jonah's 
story  is  wonderfully  well  told  ;  Nahum  puts 
us  In  the  midst  of  the  rusliing  attack  on 
Nineveh  ;  Habakkuk's  hymn  exceeds  any- 
thing in  Homer  ;  Zechariah's  visions  are  alike 
impressive  and  instructive  ;  and  ]Malachi  fitly 
closes  the  volimie  of  Hebrew  inspiration  with 
his  dramatic  dialogue  method  of  reproof  and 
scorn. 

Literature. — Sec  the  list  in  Lange  on  the 
Minor  Prophets,  Eng.  trans..  New  York, 
1876,  pp.  45— 19.  Besides  that  volume  see  the 
commentaries  by  Henderson,  London,  1845, 
rep.,  Andover,  is60  ;  Pusey,  Loudon,  1860- 


77,  1  vol.,  rep.,  New  York,  1885,  2  vols.  ; 
Cowles,  New  York,  1867  ;  Keil,  Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1868,  2  vols.;  Ewald,  On  the 
Prophets,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1876-81,  5 
vols.  ;  M.  C.  Hyett,  1885  ;  Plain  Conmuntary 
on  the  Minor  l^ophets,  1888  ;  F.  W.  Farrar, 
1890.  T.  W.  C. 

Minorites.    See  Franciscans. 

Minucius  Felix,  a  Latin  apologist,  whose 
date  is  now  i)ut  in  the  reign  of  the  Antonines, 
and  probably  that  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (161- 
80),  of  whose  life,  however,  little  is  known. 
He  must  have  been  a  man  of  wide  reading 
and  large  cultivation.  His  apology,  entitled 
Octanus,  reviews  in  the  form  of  a  conversa- 
tion the  principal  objections  of  the  heathen 
against  Christianity,  and  refutes  them.  It  is 
not  strong  in  its  positive  presentation  of  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  as  could  scarcely  be 
expected  at  the  time,  "it  has  been  frequent- 
ly published  and  commented  upon,  the  last 
original  edition  being  that  of  Halm,  in  the 
Corpus  Srriptonim  Ecd.  Lat.,  ii.,  Vienna, 
1867.  (See  the  Eng.  trans.,  Ante-Mcene 
Fathers,  edition  of  the  Christian  Literature 
Publishing  Company,  New  York,  vol.  iv.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Miracle  Plays.     See  Mysteries. 

Miracles  (Latin,  miraculum,  tconder).  In 
the  New  Testament  three  terms  are  used  to  de- 
note a  miracle,  and  thrice  are  found  combined 
(Acts  ii.  22,  2  Cor.  xii.  12,  2  Thess.  ii.  9). 
These  are  sign,  a  token  of  divine  agency  ; 
wonder,  a  cause  of  astonishment  ;  and  power 
or  mighty  deed,  the  energy  displayed.  A  mir- 
acle is  a  work  so  superior  to  the  ordinary 
operation  of  the  laws  of  nature  as  to  evince 
the  special  interposition  of  God.  The  pos.M- 
bility  of  such  an  occurrence  cannot  consis- 
tently be  denied  by  any  one  who  believes  in  a 
personal  God.  It  must  have  taken  place  once, 
because  the  material  history  of  the  planet 
.shows  that  there  was  a  time  when  life  began 
where  there  was  no  life  before.  The  observed 
sequences  of  nature,  therefore,  are  not  invari- 
able. Whether  the  interruptions  claimed  by 
revelation  have  occurred  is  a  matter  of  testi- 
mony. On  this  point  faith  has  a  very  solid 
basis.  The  miracles  of  Scripture  are  not  to 
be  confounded  with  wonders  wrought  by 
designing  men  by  means  of  artful  deceptions, 
occiilt  sciences,  or  laws  of  nature  unknown 
except  to  adepts.  The  miracles  of  Christ,  for 
example,  were  such  as  God  only  could  per- 
form ;  were  wrought  in  public  before  friends 
and  foes  ;  were  directed  to  worthy  and  ap- 
propriate ends  ;  were  attested  by  witnesses 
who  by  their  character  and  conduct  claim  our 
belief  ;  and  are  in  many  cases  confirmed  by 
existing  institutions  which  date  from  their 
origin.  The  "lying  wonders"  of  the  magi- 
cians in  Egypt  and  of  false  prophets  in  an- 
cient times  and  modern  (Dent.  xiii.  1,  ]\Iatt. 
xxiv.  24,  2  Thess.  ii.  9,  liev.  xiii.  13,  14)  can- 
not bear  these  tests.  Our  Lord  appealed  to 
his  miracles  as  certain  evidences  of  his  deity 
and  MessialLship  (Matt.  ix.  6,  xi.  4,  5,  John 
X.  24.  25,  XV.  24,  xx.  30,  31).  nor  can  they  be 
separated  from  the  narrative  of  his  life  and 
his  discourses.  They  were  predicted  in  the 
earlier  Scriptures  (Isa.    xxxv.    5,  6,  xiii.   7, 


MIRANDULA 


(582) 


Matt.  viii.  17).  The  greatest  of  miracles  was 
the  divine  human  person  of  the  Lord  Jesus, 
and  the  stainless  and  lofty  character  by  which 
he  was  distinguished  from  all  other  men. 

The  chief  object  of  miracles  having  been 
to  authenticate  the  revelation  God  has  made 
of  his  will,  these  mighty  works  ceased  when 
the  canon  of  Scripture  was  completed  and 
the  church  fairly  established,  though  no  pre- 
cise date  can  be  fixed.  Many  of  the  so-called 
ecclesiastical  miracles  are  ill-authenticated, 
and  of  a  trivial  or  unworthy  character. 
Whether  God  will  at  anytime  renew  the  mir- 
aculous gifts  of  the  apostolic  age  is  known 
only  to  himself. 

The  miracles  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
not  evenly  distributed,  but  were  more  numer- 
ous than  usual  at  three  critical  epochs  :  at  the 
deliverance  from  Egypt  and  the  founding  of 
the  nation  ;  at  the  period  of  the  great  apos- 
tasy in  the  days  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  w^hen 
Baal  was  substituted  for  Jehovah  ;  and  dur- 
ing the  captivity,  when  Daniel  was  in  Baby- 
lon. Besides  these  were  the  flood,  the  over- 
throw of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  the  birth  of 
Isaac,  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan,  the  fall  of 
Jericho,  the  standing  still  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  the  exploits  of  Samson,  the  withering 
of  Jeroboam's  hand,  the  destruction  of  the 
Assyrians,  the  healing  of  Hezekiah,  and  the 
preservation  of  Jonah  in  the  fish's  belly. 

The  miracles  of  Christ  showed  him  victor 
over  nature  in  calming  the  storm  with  a  word 
and  feeding  thousands  once  and  again  with  a 
few  loaves  and  fishes  ;  over  disease  in  healing 
persons  sick  with  fevers,  with  dropsy,  with 
paralysis,  with  issue  of  blood,  with  a  crippled 
limb  or  a  withered  hand,  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
the  blind,  the  lame,  and  the  leprous  ;  over 
death  in  the  restoration  of  Jairus'  daughter, 
the  son  of  the  widow  of  Nain,  and  Lazarus  ; 
over  unclean  spirits,  in  releasing  demoniacs 
from  their  awful  bondage. 

The  miracles  of  the  apostolic  age  wrought 
in  Christ's  name,  the  lame  cured,  the  dead 
restored,  as  in  Dorcas  and  Eutychus,  sinners 
specially  punished,  as  in  the  death  of  Ananias 
and  Sapphira  and  the  blinding  of  Elymas, 
apostles  delivered  from  prison  in  Jerusalem 
and  Philippi,  Paul  unhurt  by  a  viper,  besides 
many  not  recorded  in  detail,  are  all  of  a  piece 
with  those  which  Christ  himself  performed. 

Literature. — The  classical  work  in  Eng- 
lish on  the  miracles  of  our  Lord  is  by  Trench, 
London,  1846,  13th  ed.,  1886,  rep..  New 
York  ;  the  subject  has  also  been  handled  by 
George  Macdonald,  1870,  3d  ed.,  1886  ;  Stein- 
meyer,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1875  ;  W.  M. 
Taylor,  New  York,  1880  ;  John  Laidlaw, 
London,  1890.  (See  on  the  general  subject 
Wardlaw,  Edinburgh,  1852  ;  Bushnell,  Na- 
ture and  the  Supernatural,  New  York,  1858  : 
McCosh,  The  Supernatural  in  Relation  to  the 
Natural,  London,  1862  ;  Mozley,  On  Miracles, 
1865.  6th  ed.,  1883  ;  Duke  of  Argyll,  Reign 
of  Law,  1866  ;  A.  J.  Gordon,  TJie  Ministry  of 
Healing  ;  or.  Miracles  of  Cure  in  All  Ages,  1882, 
3d  ed.,  New  York,  1890.)  T.  W.  C. 

Mirandula,  Giovanni  Pico  della,  youngest 
son  of  a  prince  of  Mirandula,  a  small  territory 
in  the  valley  of  the  Po  north  of  Modena  ;  b. 


Feb.  24,  1463  ;  d.  in  Florence,  Nov.  17,  1494. 
He  was  very  precocious,  and  earl}'  became 
learned  in  all  branches  of  knowledge  then  ac- 
cessible, including  many  very  uncommon.  In 
1487  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  published  a 
list  of  900  questions  in  all  branches  of  theology 
for  disputation,  in  consequence  of  which  his 
enemies  charged  him  with  heresy.  He  left 
Rome,  was  in  Florence,  and  then  several  years 
in  France,  but  finally  returned  to  Florence, 
where  he  died.  He  had  by  this  time  given 
himself  entirely  to  theology.  His  works 
were  numerous,  and  display  great  learning, 
but  little  originality.  They  were  collected, 
and  several  times  reprinted.  (See  Dreydorff, 
Das  System  dcs  Johann  Picus,  Graf  von  Mir- 
andula, Marburg,  1858.)  A  nephew,  Fran- 
cesca  (1469-1533),  also  wrote  a  number  of 
similar  works,  which  have  sometimes  been 
partially  printed  with  his  uncle's.  F.  H.  F. 

Mir'-i-am  (rebellion),  a  sister  of  Moses  and 
Aaron,  supposed  to  have  been  the  one  who 
watched  the  ark  containing  her  infant  brother 
(Ex.  ii.  4-10).  She  led  the  choir  of  women 
who  celebrated  the  crossing  of  the  Red  Sea, 
but  afterward,  murmuring  against  Moses,  was 
smitten  with  temporary  leprosy  (Num.  xii.). 
She  died  at  Kadesh  (Num.  xx.  1). 

T,  W.  C. 

Mirror,  a  plate  of  highly  polished  metal, 
usually  of  a  round  shape  and  furnished  with 
a  handle  (Ex.  xxxviii.  8,  Job  xxxvii.  18,  Isa. 
iii.  23).  Used  in  comparison  in  the  New 
Testament  (1  Cor.  xiii.  12,  2  Cor.  iii.  18, 
James  i.  23).  T.  W.  C. 

Miserere  (have  mercy)  is  the  name  of  a 
musical  compo.sition,  with  text  from  the  51st 
and  57th  psalms,  which  forms  part  of  the 
liturgy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  at  ser- 
vices during  Passion  Week,  and  also  is  used 
at  other  occasions  of  sombre  solemnity.  The 
text,  which  has  the  form  of  a  prayer,  has 
often  been  set  to  music.  There  is  an  old 
Gregorian  melody.  The  melody  always  used 
in  the  Sixtine  Chapel  in  Rome  is  by  Allegri 
(1590-1640).  The  name  is  also  applied  to  a 
peculiar  kind  of  seats  often  found  in  old 
churches,  in  which  the  seat  is  made  to  be 
turned  back  so  as  to  give  more  room  for 
kneeling. 

Mishna.     See  Talmud. 

Missa.  The  introduction  of  the  eucharist 
into  the  ordinary  worship  of  Sunday,  and  the 
establishment  of  the  catechumenate  (see  art. 
Arcani  Disciplina),  led  to  a  division  of  the 
worship  into  a  homiletical  and  a  sacramental 
part,  which  both  closed  with  a  solemn  form 
of  dismissal,  and  hence  were  each  called 
"  missa"  (from  Latin,  mitto,  to  send).  The 
"missa  catechumenortim"  was  open  to  all 
worshippers,  and  consisted  of  reading  the 
Scriptures,  preaching,  and  prayer.  Then  all 
except  the  communicants  were  dismissed,  and 
the  "  missa  fidelium"  began,  which  consisted 
of  the  consecration  and  administration  of  the 
eucharist.  Such  was  the  condition  of  things 
in  the  3d  and  4th  centuries.  The  liturgy  was 
much  developed  and  enriched  as  time  went 
on.  The  "  missa  prmsanctificor'um"  was  an 
ofiice,  resting  upon  canons  of  the  4th  and  7th 


MISSAIi 


(583) 


MISSIONS 


centuries,  which  forbade  the  consecration  of 
the  elements  in  Lent  except  upon  feast  dixys. 
In  it  there  were  no  prayers  of  consecration, 
but  the  bread  previously  consecrated  was 
brought  out  from  its  repository  in  the  altar 
and  employed  as  in  other  iiiissiv.  The  "  nmsa, 
sicca"  was  an  abuse  employed  in  the  Middle 
Ages  for  mercenary  purposes,  to  extort  extra 
contributions  from  the  worshippers,  in  wdiich 
the  whole  mass  was  said  except  the  consecra- 
tion and  communion.  This  was  substituted 
for  the  wiiole  mass  because  the  celebration  of 
the  mass  more  than  once  a  day  by  the  same 
priest  was  forbidden  except  in  cases  of  urgent 
necessity.  F.  H.  F. 

Missal.  An  office-book  of  the  Roman 
Church,  containing  all  the  liturgy  required 
for  the  celebration  of  the  mass,  i.e.,  the  fixed 
and  the  changeable  parts.  It  grew  up  grad- 
ually, and  inlts  full  form  comprises  several 
volumes.  F.  H.  F. 

Mission,  in  the  Roman  and  in  the  Anglican 
Church  usage  is  a  series  of  revival  meetings. 

Mission,  Inner.     See  Inner  Mission. 

Missions,  Christian.  The  history  of  Chris- 
tian missions  is  the  vital  history  of  the  church. 
When  the  missionary  idea  has  flourished  most 
the  church  has  had  its  truest  life.  For  con- 
venience this  record  may  be  divided  into  four 
periods,  which  are  quite  distinctly  marked  : 
(1)  Missions  of  the  Apostolic  Church  to  the 
year  100  a.d.  ;  (2)  the  mission  work  of  the  early 
church  (100  a.d.  to  500)  ;  (3)  mediseval  mis- 
sions (500-1500)  ;  (4)  modern  missions  from 
the  time  of  the  Reformation.  It  is  hard  to 
say  which  period  is  the  most  important.  In 
the  first  the  whole  work  was  outlined  and 
put  on  a  solid  basis  ;  in  the  second  the  centres 
of  civilization  were  completely  brought  under 
the  sway  of  the  cross  ;  in  the  third  the  Teu- 
tonic races  were  converted,  and  in  the  fourth 
the  whole  world  is  being  effectively  reached. 

I.  Ths  Apo-^toUc  Missions. — The  whole  in- 
spired record  of  the  New  Testament  was 
penned  by  men  who  were  in  the  glow  of  an 
unsurpassed  missionary  zeal.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  it  was  written  for  direct  missionary 
purposes,  and  to  the  end  of  this  world-strug- 
gle it  will  remain  the  core  of  mission  litera- 
ture. In  that  upper  room  in  Jerusalem  be- 
tween Thursday,  May  18,  and  Sunday,  May 
28,  30  A.D.,  there  were  gathered  120  believers 
— almost  the  entire  Christian  Church.  On 
the  last  day  named — the  Day  of  Pentecost — 
3000  souls  were  added  to  "their  number — 
"  Parthians,  and  Medes,  and  Elamites,  and 
the  dwellers  in  Mesopotamia,  iu  Judtea  and 
Cappadocia,  in  Pontus  and  Asia,  in  Phrygia 
and  Pamphylia,  in  Egypt  and  the  parts  of 
Libya  about  Cyrene  and  sojourners  from 
Rome,  both  Jesvs  and  proselytes,  Cretans  and 
Arabians."  Cyprus.  Antioch,  Samaria, 
Ethiopia,  Cajsarea,  Damascus,  Pha?Qicia,  the 
whole  of  Asia  Elinor,  Macedonia,  Greece, 
Melita  were  soon  iwlded  to  the  list,  and  by  the 
close  of  the  century  there  was  hardly  a  >Ie(li- 
terranean  city  without  a  representative  of  the 
gospel.  In  to  vears  the  increase  was  from  at 
most  500  to  at" least  250,000  (good  authority 
placing  it  at  500,000). 


This  work  was  confined  largely  to  centres 
of  population.  The  Roman  world  was  a  net- 
work of  municipalities  connected  by  superb 
public  highways.  The  Christian  congrega- 
tions in  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Alexandria, 
Epliesus,  Smyrna,  Philippi,  Corinth,  and 
Rome  stand  out  most  prominentlj".  The 
little  army  dashed  straight  upon  the  heaviest 
fortifications  with  an  unexampled  faith  and 
success.  The  Jewish  synagogue  furnished 
the  convenient  meeting  and  preaching-place 
at  first — about  private  dwellings,  river-banks, 
sea-shores,  ship  decks,  market-places,  bar- 
racks, pri.sons,  and  crucifixion  places  hang 
precious  memories  of  truth  proclaimed.  The 
majority  of  converts  in  this  period  were  Jews. 
The  language  used  was  for  the  greater  part 
the  later  Greek  dialect. 

Simplicity  and  earnestness  marked  the 
methods  of  the  apostolic  missionaries.  They 
lived  as  the  people  lived,  entered  sympatheti- 
cally into  all  the  common  life  of  their  audi- 
tors, worked  for  their  own  livelihood,  set  an 
example  of  patient  suffering,  and  died  for  the 
truth  they  preached.  The  work  of  spreading 
the  gosoel  was  done  very  largely  during  this 
period  by  the  laity — men  and  women.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  well-known  mi.«sion- 
aries — such  as  Peter,  Paul,  Apollos,  John, 
Barnabas,  Timothy,  Titus,  and  a  few  others 
—the  names  of  the  heroes  of  this  grandest  era 
of  Christian  missions  are  unknown.  Mer- 
chants, craftsmen,  sailors,  soldiers,  miners, 
and  even  slaves  did  most  of  the  evangelizing. 
The  work  w^as  voluntary  and  spontaneous. 
Christian  songs  were  heard  in  the  mines  of 
Southern  Spain  and  perhaps  of  Cornwall,  iu 
the  busy  marts  of  North  Africa  and  the 
Rhone,  along  the  Syrian  deserts,  in  the  crowd- 
ed valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  per- 
haps in  distant  India  and  Ceylon,  among  the 
wilds  of  the  Euxine  sea,  and  'in  the  fortresses 
along  the  edge  of  the  German  forests.  Tra- 
ditions of  the  apostles  linger  in  remotest 
lands.  Thomas  is  placed  in  India  and  the 
far  East,  Mark  in  Egypt,  Andrew  is  the  patron 
saint  of  Russia,  Bartholonu'W  is  located  in 
Armenia  and  Persia,  Tliaddeus  in  Mesopota- 
mia and  Parthia,  and  Matthew  in  ^^Ethiopia 
and  Syria. 

The  century  closed  upon  a  compact  church 
with  a  quarter  of  a  million  souls  (some  say 
half  a  million)  ready  for  martyrdom,  with  a 
completed  Scripture  in  its  hands,  with  a  story 
of  success  never  surpassed,  with  the  example 
of  apostles  still  fresh  in  mind,  and  before  ii  a 
world  fast  losing  all  faith  in  the  heathen  re- 
ligions. 

II.  Missions  of  tJte  Early  Church  (100  a.d.- 
500  A.D.). — In  this  second  as  in  the  first  period 
the  church  remained  almost  entirely  a  mission 
church.  By  the  year  325  a.d.  it  i"s  estimated 
that  there  were  l"800  cities  containing  Chris- 
tian clnirches,  and  a  modest  estimate  of  the 
membership  of  the  church  at  large  in  that 
year  places  it  at  10,00(),()(K)  .souls,  one  tcntli  of 
the  entire  yjopulution  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
It  was  good  statesmanship  for  the  Emperor 
Constantine  to  cast  in  liis  lot  with  the  new 
faith.  Asia  Minor  was  "the  garden  of  the 
church. "  There  was  a  splendid  development 
in  Egvpt  and  North  Africa.      The   Britons 


MISSIONS 


(584) 


MISSIONS 


•were  Christians,  and  soon  St.  Patrick  was  to 
preach  the  gospel  successfully  in  Ireland. 
The  era  of  foreign  missions  proper  now  be- 
gins. In  the  new  light  of  imperial  favor,  the 
church  went  forth  to  convert  the  outlying 
world  of  heathendom.  Imperial  legates 
worked  hand  in  hand  with  humble  mission- 
aries at  the  centres  of  national  life.  Chris- 
tians captured  in  frontier  wars  gloried  in 
their  opportunity  to  bring  their  rude  captors 
to  the  foot  of  the  cross.  The  Armenian  na- 
tion, as  a  nation,  submitted  to  the  new  doc- 
trine ;  the  Abyssinians  were  won  over  by  the 
fervent  preacliing  of  Frumentius.  Ulfila  did 
pioneer  work  among  the  Goths  on  the  Lower 
Danube,  and  left  the  Gothic  Bible  as  the 
foundation  of  all  Teutonic  literature.  Then 
followed  the  rapid  expansion  in  the  days  of 
Tlieodosius  the  Great  and  Justinian,  in  which, 
behind  the  veil  of  the  Alps  and  the  Carpa- 
thians, the  rude  northmen  were  made  ac- 
quainted with  Christianity  under  its  Arian 
guise,  so  that  when  the  western  division  of 
the  empire  fell  a  reverence  for  Christian  sym- 
bols controlled  to  some  extent  the  ruthlessness 
of  its  conquerors.  Nestorianism  under  fear- 
ful embarrassments  pushed  eastward  through 
Persia  into  India,  across  the  steppes  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  and  set  up  its  Christian  monuments 
in  China.  From  the  Pacitic  to  the  Atlantic 
Christian  prayer  was  heard. 

The  methods  of  work  during  apostolic  days 
were  carried  into  the  succeeding  period.  For 
over  200  years  the  church  had  to  face  the  bit- 
terest persecution.  There  could  be  no  organ- 
ized work.  Throughout  this  period  of  400 
years  (100-500  a.d.)  spontaneity  and  volun- 
tariness marked  all  real  missionary  advance. 
The  laity  still  did  the  major  part  of  the  work. 
It  was  not  until  398  a.d.  that  lay  preacliing 
was  condemned,  and  even  then  the  rule  was 
not  carried  out  in  foreign  mission  fields. 
The  great  middle  class  of  society  was  reached. 
Persecution  drove  the  Christians  from  the 
cities  into  the  rural  districts  and  across  the 
borders  of  the  empire.  E  v^ery  where  paganism 
went  down  and  the  cross  was  honored.  It 
was  in  this  period  that  the  Bible  came  clearly 
to  the  front  as  a  missionary  agency.  The 
Septuagint  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
(280  B.C. -150  B.C.),  supplemented  by  the  text 
of  the  New  Testament,  was  in  the  Greek  ver- 
nacular of  the  whole  Levant.  Aquila,  Theo- 
dotion,  and  Symmachus  made  useful  trans- 
lations and  revisions.  The  Bible  was  trans- 
lated into  Syriac,  and  the  "  Peshitto"  version 
resulting  was  the  organ  of  the  Nestorian 
Church  in  its  work  in  the  far  East.  The 
' '  Itala"  version,  originating  probably  in  North 
Africa,  was  the  first  attempt  in  Latin.  It  was 
followed  by  several  others,  there  probably 
being  national  versions  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and 
Britain.  These  were  superseded  by  the  so- 
called  "Vulgate"  version,  a  compromise  be- 
tween the  work  of  St.  Jerome  and  the  older 
versions,  which  had  become  entrenched  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people.  The  version  of  the 
Bible  into  the  Gothic  tongue  by  the  Arian 
bishop  Ulfila  has  been  mentioned  as  the  fore- 
runner of  all  the  Teutonic  versions.  It  was 
also  translated  into  the  Coptic,  the  Ethiopic, 
and  perhaps  the  Arabic.     The  Bible  in  the 


vernacular  gave  staying  power  to  Christianity 
wherever  it  was  translated.  No  people  hav- 
ing such  a  version  has  entirely  given  up  its 
faith  in  Christ.  Many  Christian  races  with- 
out such  a  translation  have  been  entirely  lost 
to  the  faith. 

The  close  of  this  period  (500  a.d.)  saw  the 
Christian  Church  over  20,000,000  strong.  It 
dominated  the  centres  of  the  world's  life. 
Other  forces  of  a  pagan  civilization  had 
crumbled  to  pieces  all  about  it,  and  when  the 
western  division  of  the  Roman  Empire  fell 
before  the  Goth,  Christianity  was  enabled  to 
stem  the  tide  of  heathenism  and  conquer  the 
victors.  The  methods  of  work  had  been 
slowly  transformed,  the  church  had  been  or- 
ganized on  the  imperial  sy.stem,  the  leaders 
had  more  and  more  gathered  power  into  their 
hands,  and  the  Christian  faith  was  about  to 
go  through  the  arduous  struggle  for  life  itself 
for  a  thousand  years. 

III.  Medkvval  Missions  {500  A.D.-1500  a.d.). 
— During  the  mediaeval  age  the  church  stood 
between  two  fires — victorious  barbarism  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  conquering  legions  of 
Islam  on  the  other.  Christian  learning  was 
shut  up  in  the  monasteries,  and  intellectual 
life  among  the  masses  stagnated  for  a  thou- 
sand years.  The  church  seemed  stunned  and 
incapable  of  advance.  A  few  brave  spirits, 
however,  pushed  forward.  The  Nestorians 
did  splendid  work  in  Central  and  Eastern 
Asia — Persia,  Media,  Hyrcania,  Bactria,  In- 
dia, Ce^ion,  and  China  were  all  effectively 
reached.  While  the  Angles  and  Saxons  and 
Danes  were  totally  effacing  Christianity  in 
Eastern  and  Southern  Britain,  St.  Patrick 
was  gaining  victories  in  Ireland  and  training 
a  vigorous  young  church  that  for  two  cen- 
turies set  an  example  for  all  Christendom  iu 
its  missionary  zeal.  From  its  monastic  re- 
treats Columba  went  forth  to  complete  the 
conversion  of  the  Picts  and  Scots.  Columban 
and  St.  Gallus  went  to  the  forests  of  Germany 
and  Switzerland  and  did  work  that  is  bearing 
fruit  to-day.  The  Burgundians  were  con- 
verted as  well  as  the  Franks  and  the  Lom- 
bards. St.  Austin  (Augustine)  and  his  fol- 
lowers reintroduced  Christianity  into  England, 
and  slowlv  the  English  race  in  their  island 
home  were  entirely  won  over.  The  Flemish, 
the  Frisians,  the  Franconians,  the  Bavarians, 
the  Danes,  and  the  Croatians  were  reached. 
Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Germany,  did  his 
pioneer  work,  and  died  a  martyr's  death.  The 
Saxons  at  last  gave  up  tlieir  heathen  gods  re- 
luctantly before  the  sword  of  Charles  the 
Great.  In  the  9th  century  the  Moravians 
were  converted,  the  Bulgarians,  Bohemians, 
Norwegians,  and  Swedes  submitted.  Mission 
work  was  done  among  the  Tartar  tribes  in 
the  Crimea.  In  the  10th  century  Hungary 
received  her  St.  Stephen,  Poland  was  con- 
verted, and  in  988  Wladimir  the  Great  and 
all  his  immediate  subjects  went  down  to- 
gether into  the  Dnieper,  at  Kiev,  to  a  Chri.s- 
tian  baptism,  and  Russia  abolished  her  idols. 
Rollo  the  Norman  became  a  Christian,  the 
colonial  principle  was  iised  in  Schleswig  to 
propagate  the  faith. 

During  the  11th  and  12th  and  13th  cen- 
turies the  vigor  of  Christendom  was  turned 


MISSIONS 


(585) 


MISSIONS 


iuto  the  useless  and  hopeless  task  of  recover- 
ing and  keeping  the  "Holy  Land"  from 
the  Turk  and  Saracen.  Mission  work  was 
greatly  obscured,  yet  went  on  with  falter- 
ing step.  Far-off  Iceland  and  Greenland 
were  converted.  The  Finns  and  Pomeranians 
were  brought  under  Christian  influence.  The 
good  work  went  on  in  the  vast  spaces  of  Cen- 
tral and  Eastern  Russia.  A  Tartar  prince, 
the  mysterious  Prester  John,  was  won  over  by 
the  Nestorians.  The  "  Order  of  Christ" 
(swoi-d  brothers)  and  the  "  Order  of  Mary" 
(Teutonic  order)  carried  the  gospel  with  their 
swords  up  along  the  Baltic  shores. 

The  14th  and  loth  centuries  saw  a  decay 
in  missionary  zeal.  Disasters  came  thick  and 
fast.  What  was  lost  at  one  part  of  the  field 
was  gained  at  other  points,  yet  the  Christian 
Church  has  hardly  yet  recovered  from  the 
heavy  adverse  blows  of  those  centuries.  The 
little  light  of  Christianity  in  China  seems  to 
have  gone  entirely  out.  The  ruthless  Tamer- 
lane destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the  Nes- 
torian  Church,  and  sapped  its  vitality  to  such 
a  degree  tliat  it  has  never  since  been  aggres- 
sive. Islam,  which  had  already  taken  the 
fairest  territory  of  the  church— Syria,  Egypt, 
North  Africa,  and  Spain — penetrated  farther 
and  farther  into  Central  Asia.  Russia  fell 
under  the  ^longol  Hordes.  The  Ottoman 
Turk  appeared  upon  the  scene  and  marched 
steadily  westward,  engulfing  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  sweeping  up  to  the  walls  of  Vienna, 
and  laying  desolate  the  Christian  churches  of 
the  entire  Levant. 

As  an  offset  to  all  this,  at  the  very  close  of 
the  period,  we  see  the  armies  of  the  Catholic 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  free  Spain  forever 
from  Muslim  domination.  Russia,  after 
weary  centuries,  comes  out  from  under  the 
sway  of  the  "  (jolden  Horde"  and  becomes 
the  champion  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church. 
Franciscan  monks  made  headway  in  North- 
western Persia.  The  west  coast  of  Africa 
received  missionaries,  as  did  also  the  islands 
newly  discovered  off  the  coast.  Just  at  the 
close  of  the  century  and  of  this  period  of  the 
history  of  Christian  missions  a  new  world, 
with  its  teeming  possibilities,  dawned  upon 
the  vision  of  man,  and  the  church  began  to 
grasp  the  full  geographical  scope  of  the  king- 
dom committed  to  its  care. 

As  already  indicated,  mission  work  in  the 
mediaeval  period  was  carried  on  almost  exclu- 
sively through  religious  orders,  and  the  cen- 
tres of  light  were  monasteries  scattered  all 
over  Europe.  Coming  from  the  East,  the 
monastic  system  was  largely  modified  in  Eu- 
rope, and  from  being  purely  contemplative 
became  aggressive.  Just  at  the  opening  of 
this  period  (509  a.d.)  Benedict  of  Nursia  laid 
broad  the  foundations  of  a  religious  order 
that  was  destiuetl  to  play  a  leading  part  in 
the  forward  movement  in  the  church  for  a 
thousand  years.  The  monasteries  of  Ireland, 
and  especially  that  of  lona  off  the  Scottish 
coast,  were  very  efticient.  Tours,  Clugny, 
and  St.  Gall  were  beacon  liglits  in  AVes'tern 
and  Central  Europe.  The  order  of  St.  Augus- 
tine was  influential.  Close  upon  tlie  crusades 
came  the  military  orders,  already  mentioned, 
together  with  many  others.     In  1084  began 


the  Carthusian  order,  in  1098  the  Cistercian, 
half  a  century  later  the  Carmelite,  the  Alcan- 
tara (1156),  the  Calatrara  (1158),  the  Santiago 
(1175),  and  early  in  the  18th  century  came  the 
Dominicans  (1216)  and  the  Franciscans  (121()- 
23).  The  latter  in  a  few  years  had  spread  so 
that  the  order  had  8000  monasteries  and  200,- 
000  monks.  These  new  orders  sprang  up  as 
protests  against  the  corruption  of  the  day,  and 
drew  to  their  ranks  the  best  spirits  of  the  age. 
They  represented  the  missionary  zeal  of  the 
period.  It  should  here  be  noted  that  the 
original  establishment  of  monastic  life  was  a 
lay  movement,  and  all  through  the  media-val 
age  its  ranks  were  recruited  from  the  laitj'  of 
the  church.  In  those  rude  days  methods  of 
missionary  work  were  adopted  which  seem  to 
us  almost  subversive  of  the  teachings  of 
Christ.  It  was  an  age  of  brutality,  and  the 
appeal  was  constantly  to  the  sword.  By  this 
instrument  many  important  nations  were 
compelled  to  give  up  their  heathen  gods. 
This  work  of  forcing  conversion  by  arms  was 
carried  on  by  laymen  (such  as  Charles  the 
Great)  often  under  the  more  or  less  sincere 
protest  of  the  clergy.  But  in  times  when  all 
sorts  of  questions  were  settled  by  single  com- 
bat, the  successful  issue  of  a  religious  war 
was  an  unanswerable  argument. 

At  the  close  of  this  period  (1500  a.d.)  we 
find  Europe  a  Christian  continent  with  the 
exception  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  Greece. 
Christian  churches  were  found  in  a  state  of 
decadence  throughout  the  Turkish  Empire. 
Nestorianism  held  together  a  few  adherents 
around  Lake  Oroomiah  in  Persia.  The  St. 
Thomas  Christians  remained  in  considerable 
numbers  in  India.  Abyssinia  was  still  an 
oasis  of  Christianity  in  Africa,  besieged  on  all 
sides  by  IVIohammedani.sm.  Iceland,  Green- 
land, the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  adjacent 
islands  had  been  reached  by  zealous  mission- 
aries. The  critical  transitional  age  of  a  thou- 
sand years  was  pasi,  and  enough  of  the  truth 
was  conserved  to  vindicate  Christianity  in 
spite  of  manifold  error.  A  new  hemis- 
phere was  opened  up  to  the  bewildered  gaze 
of  the  church,  and  the  missionary  problem 
approached  its  world-wide  solution. 

IV.  Mmiousofthe  Modern  Age  (1500-1890). 
— It  would  be  hazardous  to  aftirm  that  the 
church  of  this  last  period  of  mission  activity 
has  lived  up  any  more  fully  to  the  light  it  has 
had  than  did  tlie  church  in  the  three  periods 
that  preceded.  Much  has  been  done — super- 
ficially it  might  seem  everything  has  been 
done — since  1500  a.d.  But  it  has  been  easier 
to  do  the  work  than  it  was  to  do  what  was 
done  earlier.  "We  are  still  striving  to  get 
back  to  the  wisdom  and  fervor  and  simplicity 
of  apostolic  days.  The  church  in  the  second 
period  conquered  its  Roman  persecutors  and 
withstood  successfully  the  barbaric  deluge 
from  the  North  of  Europe.  In  the  third 
period  the  TeiUonic  peoples,  which  in  the 
fourth  period  were  to  establish  our  modern 
missionary  organizations,  were  converted, 
and  the  mightiest  organized  enemy  the  cross 
has  met,  Islam,  was  successfully  resisted  and 
driven  back.  Our  work  has  been  of  a  differ- 
ent kind  and,  on  the  whole,  less  formidable. 
It  still  remains  to  be  seen  whether  our  age 


MISSIONS 


(586 


MISSIONS 


will  receive  more  stars  in  its  crown  than  any 
of  the  other  three.  The  narrative  must  be 
broken  up  at  this  point,  and  we  will  deal  first 
with  the  Oriental  churches,  second  with  the 
Latin  Church,  and  finally  with  the  Evangeli- 
cal churches. 

Oriental  Churches. — Little  missionary  work 
has  been  done  since  1500  a.d.  by  the  strictly 
Oriental  churches.  The  Nestorian  Church 
(the  Moravian  Church  of  the  earlier  days)  has 
languished  throughout  this  period.  The  same 
can  be  said  for  the  Abyssinian,  Coptic,  Jaco- 
bite, Armenian,  and  large  sections  of  the  Greek 
Orthodox  churches.  They  have  lost  rather 
than  gained  ground.  However,  the  work 
done  by  the  Russian  Church  should  not  be 
overlooked.  The  story  of  the  expansion  of 
this  church  is  the  story  of  the  expansion  of 
the  Russian  Empire.  By  the  time  of  the 
crusades  all  the  Russians  were  nominally 
Christian.  During  the  Mongol  domination 
(13th  [1205]  to  the  15th  [1473]  century)  the 
struggle  was  for  life  itself.  With  the  waning 
of  the  power  of  the  "  Golden  Horde"  politi- 
cal and  religious  life  had  a  reawakening. 
Contact  with  the  trans-Ural  tribes  brougiit 
information  of  the  vast  regions  now  embraced 
under  the  common  title  Siberia.  In  1580 
Yermak  entered  Asia  with  an  army.  Within 
80  years  the  Amur  and  the  Pacific  were 
reached,  and  over  4,000,000  square  miles  were 
added  to  the  Russian  Empire.  The  national 
church  kept  pace  with  this  conquest.  The 
story  of  the  Christianization  of  the  whole 
northern  part  of  Asia  is  an  obscure  one,  but 
in  the  long  run  this  work  will  be  considered 
one  of  the  most  important  triumphs  of  the 
cross  in  the  whole  period  of  modern  mis- 
sions. At  present,  it  is  true,  there  is  a  mo- 
nopoly in  the  hands  of  the  Russian  Church. 
Bibles,  however,  are  being  circulated  freely, 
and  when  the  day  of  religious  intolerance  in 
the  empire  is  over  vital  Christianity  will  have 
a  firm  footing  in  Asia  with  the  most  progres- 
sive peoples  of  the  continent  under  its  lead- 
ing. The  Russian  Church,  with  the  help  of 
the  secular  arm",  has  been  working  through- 
out this  immense  territory  for  over  a  century. 
The  Aleutian  Islands  and  Alaska  were  also 
reached.  Her  strictly  foreign  mission  work 
to-day  is  in  Japan,  where,  under  Bishop  Nico- 
lai,  are  found  3  foreign  priests,  11  native 
priests,  104  theological  students,  and  native 
adherents  to  the  number  of  22,546. 

Lately  careful  government  reports  have 
brought  to  light  large  masses  of  non-Christian 
peoples  within  the  Russian  Empire.  The 
ecclesiastics  have  been  aroused,  and  efforts  are 
being  made  to  win  over  the  heathen  and  Mo- 
hammedans to  the  orthodox  faith.  With  her 
free  use  of  pictures  in  divine  service  there  is 
little  hope  of  her  success  with  the  followers 
of  Mohammed.  Russia,  in  spite  of  present 
obstructions,  is  a  land  of  promise. 

Roman  Catholic  Missions. — The  history  of 
Roman  Catholic  missions  may  be  considered 
conveniently  under  two  subdivisions :  (1) 
1500-1622  A.D.,  during  which  period  missions 
were  carried  on  as  during  the  mediseval  age 
by  the  religious  orders  working  for  the  most 
part  independently  ;  (2)  1622-1890,  during 
which  period  the  mission  work  of  the  church 


as  a  whole  was  thorouglily  systematized  by 
the  establishment,  at  Rome,  of  the  "  Hacred 
Congregation  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith,"  by  Pope  Gregory  XV.,  July  22,  1622. 

1.  1500-1622  A.D.— As  has  been  indicated 
already,  the  Portuguese  discoveries  late  in  the 
15th  century  had  stimulated  the  imagination 
and  missionary  fervor  of  the  various  religious 
orders  of  the  church,  especially  the  Francis- 
cans and  Dominicans.  The  new  world  gave 
a  field  for  their  romantic  religious  enthusi- 
asm. The  piety  of  Columbus  and  the  best 
spirits  about  him  cannot  be  questioned.  Sav 
what  we  may  about  those  rude  days  of  con- 
quest and  spoliation,  the  only  restraint  to  the 
ruthlessness  of  the  victors  was  the  command 
of  the  church  through  her  representatives,  the 
priests.  It  is  true  that  very  mixed  motives 
often  animated  these  missionaries,  and  meth- 
ods were  employed  which  appear  highly  ob- 
jectionable nowadays  ;  they  were  the  methods 
used  for  the  conversion  of  oiu*  Teutonic  fore- 
fathers. The  union  of  church  and  state  often 
made  any  better  style  of  work  impossible. 
The  rude  acts  of  the  secular  authorities  were 
often  boldly  denounced  by  the  ecclesiastics, 
and  a  papal  bull,  in  1537,  declaring  the  na- 
tives of  America  rational  creatures,  saved  for 
all  time  the  Indian  from  suffering  the  ignomin- 
ious fate  of  the  African.  By  1528  the  Aztecs 
of  Mexico  were  brought  outwardly  to  accept 
Christianity.  Peru  submitted  somewhat 
later  in  the  century.  California  and  Florida 
were  reached.  Champlain,  the  explorer  of 
Canada,  was  a  devout  man.  His  heart  went 
out  toward  the  northern  tribes  of  the  conti- 
nent as  he  found  them  in  the  midst  of  their 
degradation.  Missions  w^ere  organized  in 
many  parts  of  South  and  Central  America. 
The  defeat  of  the  natives  under  the  banners 
of  their  heathen  gods  was  ever^'where  looked 
upon  as  an  unanswerable  argument  for  the 
new  faith,  and  whole  nations  were  won  over 
to  a  nominal  acceptance  of  Christianity. 

The  East  Indies  were  also  reached  by  the 
Franciscans.  In  1520  the  bishopric  of  Goa 
was  established,  and  the  St.  Thomas  Chris- 
tians along  the  Malabar  coast  were  won  over. 
In  1528  the  Capuchin  order  was  instituted 
by  a  papal  bull. 

The  mission  work  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  was  about  to  be  re-enforced  by  the  ad- 
vent of  a  new  corps  of  workers  destined  to 
have  a  far-reaching  influence.  On  Aug.  15, 
1534,  at  Paris,  Ignatius  Loyola  (q.v.)  gathered 
about  him  a  group  of  kindred  spirits,  one  of 
whom  was  Francis  Xavier,  and  an  association, 
was  formed  (confirmed  by  Pope  Paul  III., 
Sept.  27, 1540,  as  the  Societas  Jesu)  whose  single 
aim  was  the  spread  of  the  faith  at  home  and 
abroad.  With  Loyola  as  their  first  general, 
the  Jesuits  entered  upon  their  vast  under- 
taking. Schools  must  be  established  through 
which  to  strengthen  the  faithful,  the  revolt- 
ing Protestants  must  be  reclaimed,  the  Ori- 
ental churches  must  be  won  over,  and  the 
outlying  millions  of  heathendom  must  be 
brought  to  bow  before  the  cross.  Francis 
Xavier  labored  in  India  and  Japan  with  a  zeal 
never  surpassed.  His  converts  caught  his 
enthusiasm,  and  in  turn  left  all  to  proclaim 
Christ.     A  few  years  later  hundreds  of  thou- 


MISSIONS 


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MISSIONS 


sands  of  Christians  in  Japan  sealed  the  faith 
by  tlieir  lives.  Father  Hicci  in  China  was 
equally  successful,  although  his  methods 
were  more  questionable.  A  republic  was  es- 
tablished in  Paraguay  under  this  order  in 
1586.  In  Canada  the  Jesuit  missions  among 
the  Hurons  and  Algonquins,  started  in  this 
period,  will  always  stand  as  monuments  of 
Christian  heroism. 

Roman  Catholic  missions  during  this  era 
(1000-1622),  in  spite  of  such  an  expenditure 
of  precious  life,  were  not  very  successful. 
Several  European  countries  were  reclaimed 
from  Protestantism,  and  Central  and  South 
America  were  gained.  Like  all  unorganized 
w^ork,  it  was  of  especial  service  in  guiding  the 
efforts  of  the  church  along  better  lines.  The 
establishment  of  a  central  organization  at 
Rome,  in  1622,  began  a  new  era. 

2.  162:^-1890.— The  Cunrjregatio  de  Projm- 
gauda  Fide  was  an  outcome  of  tlie  Jesuit 
idea.  Gregory  XV.  was  the  first  pupil  of 
that  order  to  reach  the  papal  dignity.  Dur- 
ing his  brief  supremacy  the  Propaganda  was 
firmly  established,  and  Loyola  and  Xavier 
were  both  canonized.  In  1627  the  Jesuit 
plan  of  establishing  schools  for  the  education 
of  missionaries  was  employed  by  the  Propa- 
ganda. In  1660  the  society  transferred  its 
lieadquarters  from  the  Vatican  to  its  present 
imposing  building  in  the  Piazza  di  Spagna. 
Here  are  found  to-day  all  the  offices  of  the 
society,  its  library  with  its  invaluable  manu- 
script correspondence  preserved  from  the  be- 
ginning, its  extensive  printing  establishment 
for  all  languages,  and  its  missionary  training 
school  (Urban  College)  for  the  whole  world. 
Students  from  every  section  of  the  globe  are 
to  be  found  there — such  a  democratic  mingling 
of  races  and  colors  can  be  seen  nowhere  else. 
With  this  central  college  are  affiliated  a  large 
number  of  national  colleges  established  at 
various  centres  and  at  different  epochs,  some 
dating  back  before  1627.  At  Rome  are  found 
tlie  English  college  (1579),  the  Scotch  (1600), 
the  Irish  (1628),  the  German,  the  Hungarian, 
the  Greek,  the  Armenian,  the  Bohemian,  the 
College  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  that  of 
the  United  States  (1859) ,  under  this  common 
jurisdiction  are  found  also  the  mission  sem- 
inaries at  Lyons,  at  Paris,  at  Milan,  Verona, 
Genoa,  Lisbon,  Valladolid,  Lou%'ain,  Scutari 
(Albania),  Pulo  Penang  (China),  Stiel  (Hol- 
land), Ocana  (Spain),  Sernache  (Portugal), 
Mill  Hill  (England).  In  Ireland  is  found  All 
Halliiws  College.  A  large  number  of  similar 
colleges  are  found  in  Ihe  mission  fields  for 
the  training  of  the  native  clergy.  Thus  a 
good-sized  army  of  picked  men  'is  recruited 
every  year  and  sent  where  the  need  is  great- 
est at  a  merely  nominal  expense  (food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter). 

The  Propaganda  has  the  entire  charge  of 
the  missionary  undertakings  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Its  affairs  are  entrusted  to 
the  care  of  the  cardinals,  with  the  venerable 
Cardinal  Simeon  as  their  "  pnufectus  gener- 
alis."  The  special  department  for  the  rechi- 
mation  of  the  Oriental  churches  was  estab- 
lished by  Pius  IX.  in  1862.  An  annual  pub- 
lication called  Mii*xioii/'n  Catholiav,  giving  a 
yearly  statement  of  the  whole  work  of  the 


Propaganda,  was  set  forth  for  the  first  time 
in  1»86.     The  field  is  divided  contiuentally  : 

1.  Europe  (England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Nor- 
way and  Sweden,  Denmark,  Germanj^  Hol- 
land and  Luxemburg,  Switzerland,  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,    Greece,    Gibraltar,    and    Crete). 

2.  Asia  (Turkey  in  Asia,  Persia,  Arabia,  In- 
dia, Indo-China,  Malaisia,  China,  and  regions 
adjacent  to  China).  3.  Africa  (North  and 
Central,  Southern  and  Insular  Africa).  4. 
America  (British  America,  United  States, 
Antilles  and  Guyana  and  Patagonia).  5. 
Oceania  (Australia,  Pacific  Islands).  The 
Propaganda  considers  every  country  where 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  not  predomi- 
nate a  mission  field,  just  as  the  Protestants 
in  turn  view  such  countries  as  Mexico,  Brazil, 
and  Italy  as  mission  fields.  In  all  the  coun- 
tries above  specified  there  are,  according  to 
Roman  Catholic  statistics  for  1886,  about 
21,000,000  adherents  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
about  5,000,000  of  which  appear  to  be  in 
strictly  mission  fields  (i.e.,  in  heathen  and 
Mohammedan  lands).  Reckoning  according 
to  the  usual  Protestant  method,  a  recent  statis- 
tician (Rev.  James  Johnston)  estimates  that 
in  Roman  Catholic  mission  fields,  strictlv  con- 
sidered, there  are  (1886)  2,742,961  adherents, 
7561  churches  and  chapels,  2822  European 
missionaries,  752  native  missionaries,  4502  ele- 
mentary schools,  and  110,742  elementary- 
scholars. 

The  history  of  Roman  Catholic  missions 
since  1622  forms  a  thrilling  narrative  of  ad- 
venture, discovery,  persecution,  martyrdom, 
failure,  and  success,  in  which  it  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  fact  from  pious  fiction.  But  the 
aureole  that  gathers  about  the  head  and  career 
of  a  zealous  missionary,  who  lives  in  an  at- 
mosphere of  fancied  miracles,  should  not  lead 
us  to  imagine  that  the  sacrifice  of  labor  and 
life  is  fruitless.  The  progress,  on  the  whole, 
has  proved  constant,  and  the  work  has  never 
been  so  extensive  nor  so  well  in  hand  as  it  is 
to-day.  The  Latin  Church  has  all  along  been 
under  the  fancied  or  real  odium  of  mixing 
political  schemes  with  mission  enterprises. 
In  Mohammedan  lands  it  suffers  with  the 
Oriental  churches  in  general  under  the  charge 
of  using  visible  symbols  of  deity,  which  ap- 
pear to  encourage  idolatry.  The  Roman 
Catholic  missionary  has  shown  wonderful 
adaptability  in  dealing  with  all  sorts  of  races, 
and  has  frequently  yielded  to  the  temptation 
of  temporizing  with  heathen  customs.  Hot 
dissensions  between  religious  orders  compelled 
the  central  autlujrities  to  hand  over  the  work 
in  various  fields  to  particular  orders,  just  as 
Protestant  societies  agree  to  leave  certain 
lands  to  certain  churches.  The  Capuchins 
have  allotted  to  them  tiie  prefecture  of  Mar- 
din  (Mesopotamia),  as  tlie  United  Presbyte- 
rians (United  States)  have  Egypt. 

The  printing-press  has  l)een  used  with  con- 
siderable effect  by  the  Roman  Church  in  its 
mission  work.  At  Rome  and  in  the  various 
mission  fields  work  of  the  finest  order  has 
been  put  forth.  The  best  scholars  to  be  found 
in  llie  various  lands  are  brought  to  Rome  and 
utilizeil.  Representative  Roman  Catholic 
books  have  been  translated  and  printed  in 
many    languages.     The    works    of    Thomas 


MISSIONS 


(588) 


MISSIONS 


Aquinas,  a  special  favorite  of  Pope  Leo  XIII., 
are  being  thus  disseminated.  Translations  of 
the  Scriptures  into  the  vernacular  speech  are 
rarely  undertaken.  The  Jesuit  translation  of 
the  whole  Bible  directly  from  tlie  original 
text  into  modern  Arabic  is  an  exceptionally 
good  version,  but  it  is  too  expensive  for  popu- 
lar circulation.  Much  has  been  done  to  pre- 
serve the  ancient  literature  of  the  Oriental 
churches,  such  as  the  Coptic,  Armenian,  and 
Abyssinian. 

Large  sums  of  money  have  been  contrib- 
uted to  the  Propaganda  at  various  times, 
which  are  dispensed  as  occasion  may  require. 
There  are  several  independent  societies  which 
raise  large  amounts  of  money  and  apply 
them  under  the  direction  of  the  Propaganda. 
The  society  at  Lyons  is  the  largest  of  all,  and 
collects  yearly  more  than  all  the  others  put 
together.  A  glance  at  the  reports  given  in 
its  publication  shows  that  France  is  still  the 
devoutest  Roman  Catholic  country  in  Europe. 

Summing  up  the  wiiole  mission  work  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  one  cannot  help 
but  admire  the  compact  organization,  tlie 
shrew^d  foresight,  the  zeal  and  devotion  of  tlie 
individual  missionaries,  the  economy  in  the 
handling  of  men  and  means,  and  tlie  breadth 
of  view  taken  by  its  leaders.  The  wonder  is 
tliat  it  should  not  have  accomplished  more. 
This  is  not  the  place  in  which  to  point  out 
many  and  glaring  defects  that  are  obvious. 
"Wherever  to-day  Protestant  missions  are 
found  there  are  the  Roman  Catholics  in  larger 
numbers  and  with  seemingly  larger  resources. 
Tiiere  is  a  mutual  feeling  of  distrust  and  ac- 
tive opposition  all  along  the  line.  The  in- 
scription on  the  seal  of  the  Propaganda  is 
"  Euntes  docete  omnes  genles,"  tlie  last  com- 
mand of  Him  who  prayed  in  tlie  garden  of 
agony  for  unity. 

Emngelical  Missions. — The  history  of  evan- 
gelical missions  naturally  falls  into  two  peri- 
ods :  (1)  From  the  Reformation  (1517)  to  the 
era  of  the  founding  of  the  great  missionary 
societies  beginning  in  the  last  decade  of  the 
18th  century  (1792).  (2)  The  century  follow- 
ing 1792,  during  which  the  various  Evangeli- 
cal churches  have  been  aroused,  one  after  an- 
other, to  the  full  force  of  Christ's  last  com- 
mand, and  in  which  time  the  work  has  become 
more  and  more  thoroughly  organized  under 
the  lead  of  societies,  some  of  which  are  inde- 
pendent of  church  organizations,  while  the 
majority  are  officially  connected  with  particu- 
lar denominations.  The  first  period  was 
preparatory  to  the  second,  as  the  second 
period  is  preparatory  to  the  third,  upon  which 
we  are  about  entering,  in  which  the  gospel 
will  be  in  reach  of  the  whole  world,  in  which 
the  science  of  missions  will  be  more  and  more 
perfected,  and  in  which,  by  common  consent, 
the  entire  evangelical  movement  will  assume 
a  unity  of  aim  and  method  that  will  make  it 
for  all  practical  purposes  one  movement. 

1.  1517-1792. — The  Reformation  struggle 
was  a  protest  against  the  purely  human  ele- 
ments that  had  crept  gradually  into  the 
Christian  Church  until  the  honest  religious 
sense  revolted  against  them,  and  was  an  at- 
tempt to  get  back  to  the  simplicity  and  fervor 
of  apostolic  days.     A  fair  estimate  of  the  tre- 


mendous spiritual  and  intellectual  task  the 
Reformers  had  in  hand,  a  correct  idea  of  the 
enemies  in  church  and  state  they  had  to  face, 
and  the  limitations  of  their  resources  and  a 
true  notion  of  the  few  geographical  openings 
available  for  aggressive  work  among  the 
heathen,  ought  to  vindicate  them  from  any 
charge  of  neglected  opportunities.  Yet  we 
are  astonished,  and  rightly  so,  that  Luther 
should  have  failed  to  appreciate  the  mission- 
ary obligation  of  the  church,  and  should  have 
said,  "  Let  the  Turks  believe  and  live  as  they 
choose,  just  as  the  pope  and  other  false  Chris- 
tians live,"  and  that  Calvin,  in  commenting 
on  Christ's  last  command  (Matt,  xxviii.  19), 
should  have  said  nothing  of  the  duty  of  the 
church  to  follow  it  out  literally.  The  smoke 
of  the  battle  about  them  obscured  the  distant 
horizon. 

The  first  attempt  of  the  Protestants  to  carry 
the  gospel  into  foreign  lands  was  colonial  in 
its  nature,  and  was  started  under  the  com- 
mendation of  the  great  French  Protestant 
Coligny.  Durand  de  Villegaignon  in  1555 
took  to  Brazil  with  his  colony  two  ministers 
of  the  Reformed  Cliurch  (recommended  to 
him  by  Calvin),  12  Swiss  and  300  Frenchmen. 
The  leader  returned  soon  after  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  fold,  and  the  Protestants  were  driven 
ignominiously  from  the  colony,  three  dying 
for  their  faith.  Another  great  Protestant 
leader  in  the  North  of  Europe,  Gustavus 
Vasa,  in  1559  began  mission  work  in  Lapland. 
Schools  were  opened,  books  were  translated, 
and  much  good  work  was  done  that  long 
after  was  to  bear  important  fruit.  In  1738 
the  money  was  raised  for  the  translation  of 
the  whole  Bible  into  Lapanese.  Nothing 
daunted  by  the  failure  at  Rio  Janeiro,  Admiral 
Coligny,  a  few  years  later,  tried  a  second 
Protestant  colony  under  Ribaut  in  Florida. 
This  attempt  was  eqvially  unsuccessful,  the 
colony  being  wiped  out  of  existence  by  what 
has  been  called  the  "last  crusade,"  under- 
taken by  the  Spaniards. 

As  the  power  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
guese waned  on  the  sea,  Holland  and  England 
came  to  the  front.  The  Dutch  soon  made 
havoc  with  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies.  In  1602  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company  was  chartered,  with  an  avowed  pur- 
pose of  converting  the  heathen  put  in  as  one  of 
the  articles  of  the  charter.  Ceylon  was  taken 
from  the  Portuguese  in  1636,  and  Protestant- 
ism was  forced  upon  the  natives  in  a  manner 
altogether  out  of  harmony  with  all  present 
methods.  Ability  to  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
the  Ten  Commandments,  a  morning  and  even- 
ing prayer,  and  a  grace  before  and  after 
meat,  gave  a  right  to  baptism.  Subscription 
to  the  Helvetic  Confession  was  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  holding  otfice  under  the  gov- 
ernment. In  1795,  when  the  English  super- 
seded the  Dutch,  four  fifths  of  these  converts 
went  back  to  their  idols.  There  seemed  to 
be  an  utter  lack  of  si)irituality  in  the  mis- 
sionary zeal  of  the  Dutch.  The  same  method 
was  used  in  Java  (1619),  Formosa  (1626),  in 
Ambogna  (1647),  in  South  Africa,  in  Sumatra, 
Celebes,  and  other  islands.  The  Dutch  mis- 
sionaries by  1630  had  a  native  Christian  con- 
gregation in  India  near  Madras  (at  Pulicat). 


MISSIONS 


(589) 


MISSIONS 


ajid  in  1660  Baldeus  went  to  Negapatam  on 
the  Coromandel  coast,  wliere  lie  was  followed 
by  Nathaniel  do  Pape.  Attempts  at  mission 
work  in  Brazil  came  to  an  end  in  1667. 

In  Germany  mission  interest  languished. 
Peter  Heiling  went  to  Abyssinia  in  1685  and 
translated  the  New  Testanient  into  the  Am- 
liaric  tongue.  Baron  von  Welz  was  a  zealous 
friend  of  missions.  He  published  stirring 
appeals,  urged  the  erection  of  missionary 
colleges  in  connection  with  every  German 
university,  and  finally,  laying  aside  his  title 
and  setting  apart  $9000  for  missions,  he  was 
consecrated  "an  apostle  to  the  heathen." 
He  died  shortly  after  in  Dutch  Guiana, 
whither  he  had  gone  as  a  missionary.  His 
name  will  always  be  a  revered  one  in  the  an- 
nals of  missions. 

The  earliest  missionary  efforts  of  England 
were  connected  with  her  colonies,  whicli  were 
beginning  in  the  last  part  of  the  16th  century 
to  assume  a  prominent  place.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  in  1585,  sent  his  devout  friend  Hariot 
to  Virginia,  and  when  the  great  voyager  trans- 
ferred the  right  to  colonize  that  region  to  a 
company,  in  1589.  he  gave  £100  to  be  used 
"in  special  regardant!  zeal  of  planting  the 
Christian  religion  in  these  dark  countries." 
In  1606,  in  giving  letters-patent  for  the  same 
colony,  James  I.  distinctly  commended  the 
propagation  of  Christianity  among  the  na- 
tives. Provision  was  soon  made  for  the  edu- 
cation of  Indian  youth.  The  king  wrote  a 
letter,  which  stands  as  the  first  public  docu- 
ment of  the  kind  ever  issued  in  England, 
urging  the  colonists  to  push  the  mission  work 
among  the  natives.  In  the  charter  granted 
by  Charles  I.,  in  1628,  to  the  i\Iassachusetts 
Company,  the  hope  was  expressed  that  "  the 
colony  would  win  the  natives  of  the  country 
to  the  knowledge  and  obedience  of  the  true 
God  and  Saviour  of  mankind."  The  seal  of 
the  colony  bore  the  figure  of  an  Indian  utter- 
ing the  words,  "Come  over  and  help  us." 
The  legislative  authorities  in  the  colony  passed 
acts  encouraging  missions  among  the  Indians. 

In  1646  John  Eliot  commenced  work  among 
the  New  England  Indians,  and  carried  it  on 
with  great  success  until  his  death  in  1690. 
He  was  the  first  great  English  missionary. 
His  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  into  the 
Indian  dialect  shows  the  far-reaching  scope 
of  his  purpose.  The  Mayhews  worked  in 
Rhode  Island  successfully.  By  1680  in  New 
England  there  were  14  Indian  congregations 
with  1100  members.  In  1734  Sargeant  began 
work  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  and  was  followed 
bv  Jonathan  Edwards.  Still  later  Birtland 
was  working  among  the  Oneidas.  The  short 
career  of  David  Braiuerd  (1743-47)  created  a 
profound  impression.  Tiie  Long  Parliament 
in  1648  was  aroused  to  take  an  active  part  in 
encouraging  missions.  (Jn  July  27,  1649,  an 
ordinance  was  passed  legalizing, 

I.  "  A  Corporation  for  Promoting  and 
ProjMfjnting  the  Goxpel  of  Jesus  Christ  ia 
New  England."  The  successes  of  the  devout 
Eliot  began  to  bear  fruit.  Contributions 
flowed  in  from  all  parts  of  England  and 
Wales  to  the  amount  of  .£12,000.  The  cliar- 
ter  was  renewed  under  Charles  II.,  April  7, 
1662,    through   the   efforts   of    Hon.    Robert 


Boyle,  who  started  an  endowment  fund.  The 
work  of  this  society  went  on  continuously 
until  the  War  of  independence.  In  1786 
work  was  commenced  in  New  Brunswick 
and  carried  on  until  1822.  This  society  still 
is  at  work,  having  an  annual  income  of 
£4000  ($20,000),  derived  entirely  from  endow- 
ments. It  lias  four  fields  of  labor  among  the 
Indians  in  Canada,  with  5  stations,  19  foreign 
workers,  5  native  workers,  12  schools,  and 
542  scholars. 

II.  2'he  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knoicledgc  was  established  in  England  in 
1698.  Its  main  work  from  the  first  was  in 
publishing  Bibles,  prayer-books,  evangelical 
tracts,  and  books.  It  aided  Protestant  mis- 
sions in  India  liberallj',  and  for  many  y(  ars 
sustained  the  Trichinopoly  mission,  wLich  is 
connected  with  precious  memories  of  the  self- 
denying  Christian  Frederick  Schwartz,  who 
died  in  1798,  after  forty-eight  years  of  valuable 
service.  By  degrees  this  .society  transfet  red  its 
direct  missionary  work  to  other  societies.  Its 
entire  missionary  income  for  home  and  foreign 
purposes  amounted,  in  1887-88,  to  over  £40,- 
000  ($200,000).  It  publishes  the  gospel  in 
one  form  or  another  in  over  twenty-five  lan- 
guages, working  very  much  through  foreign 
vernacular  sub-committees — in  India  for  the 
Tamil,  Telugu,  Sindh,  Bengali,  and  other 
languages  of  the  Northwest  Provinces — else- 
where for  the  Arabic,  Persian,  Bechuana, 
Swahili,  Malay,  and  North  American  Indian 
languages. 

III.  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  largely  through  the 
influence  of  Dr.  Thomas  Bray  was  incor])0- 
rated  by  William  III.  in  1701  (.supplemental 
charter,  1882)  for  the  purpose  of  "  receiving, 
managing,  and  disposing  of  funds  contributed 
for  the  religious  instruction  of  the  queen's 
subjects  beyond  the  seas,  for  the  maintenance 
of  clergymen  in  the  i)lantations,  colonies,  and 
factories  of  Great  Britain,  and  for  the  propa- 
gation of  the  gospel  in  those  parts."  This 
was  a  joint  action  of  church  and  state. 

It  a.ssisted  English  residents  in  Archangel 
and  Moscow  first.  In  1702  it  sent  George 
Keith  and  Patrick  Gordon  to  Boston,  who 
were  followed  by  many  more,  among  whom 
was  John  Wesley,  and  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States  was  firmly  established. 
In  1703  it  took  under  its  care  Newfoundland, 
in  1749  Canada,  in  1752  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  in  1795  Australia,  in  1818  the  East 
Indies,  in  1820  South  Africa,  in  1889  New 
Zealand,  in  1849  Borneo,  in  1859  British  Co- 
lumbia and  Burmah,  in  1864  Madagascar,  in 
1868  independent  Burmah.  in  1873  Transvaal 
and  Japan,  in  1874  China,  in  1877  British 
Honduras,  and  in  1879  Fiji.  From  the  first 
it  has  reached  out  after  the  heathen  as  well 
as  the  colonists.  Its  total  income  for  1887 
was  about  £110,000  (.$550,000),  one  fourth  of 
which  is  spent  on  Christian  colonies,  five 
eighths  on  the  conversion  of  the  heathen 
within  the  British  Empire,  and  the  re- 
mainder on  foreign  mi.s.sion  work  in  China, 
Japan,  Borneo,  ]\Iadagascar,  and  Honolulu. 
The  earliest  sustained  efforts  of  this  .society 
come  within  the  scope  of  the  next  period 
(1818,  at  Calcutta).     In  13  fields  of  labor  in 


MISSIONS 


(590) 


MISSIONS 


1887  this  society  reported  464  stations,  460 
ordained  foreign  and  colonial  male  workers, 
61  lay  and  79  female  workers,  137  ordianed, 
1970  lay,  and  804  female  native  workers, 
281,620  adherents,  66,593  communicants,  802 
schools,  and  32,092  scholars. 

Protestant  Denmark  in  establishing  colonies 
in  the  East  Indies  (1620)  and  the  West  Indies 
(1672)  had  sliown  zeal  for  orthodoxy  rather 
than  for  the  spread  of  the  gospel.  The  pietist 
movement  in  Grermany,  emanating  from 
Spener  and  Francke,  awakened  a  missionary 
spirit  in  Liitken,  the  courf  preacher  at  Copen- 
hagen, and  through  his  influence  the  Danish 
king,  Frederick  IV.,  sent  Ziegenbalg  and 
Platschau  as  missionaries  to  Tranquebar,  In- 
dia.    In  1714  (for  Greenland  in  1721)  a 

IV.  Danish  Collegium  de  citrsu  evangelii 
promovemU  was  organized.  The  real  centre 
of  the  Tranquebar  mission  was  at  Halle  under 
Francke,  who,  in  1710,  had  begun  to  edit  the 
first  regular  missionary  reports.  Amid  con- 
siderable opposition  the  work  went  on  under 
Ziegenbalg  and  Schwartz,  and  40,000  souls 
were  converted  before  the  work  was  left  to 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  English  societies  at 
the  close  of  the  century.  The  Danish  work 
was  carried  on  also  in  Lapland  (Thomas  von 
Westen,  1716-22)  and  in  Greenland.  The 
apostle  of  Greenland  was  Hans  Egede,  who 
with  liis  family  labored  there  for  fifteen  years 
with  a  heroism  and  patience  rarely  surpassed. 

V.  The  United  Brethren,  or  Moraman,  Mis- 
sions date  from  1732,  when  two  missionaries 
were  sent  to  the  slaves  of  St.  Thomas,  in  the 
Danish  West  Indies.  The  Moravian  is  really 
the  pioneer  mission  church.  Count  Zinzen- 
dorf  had  gathered  about  him,  at  Herrnhut, 
a  devoted  band  of  fugitives  from  intolerance 
who  were  aflame  with  zeal.  In  1731  Zinzen- 
dorf,  returning  from  Copenhagen,  where  he 
had  learned  of  the  work  of  the  Danish  so- 
ciety, brought  with  him  a  negro  who  urged 
the  Brethren  to  send  the  gospeHo  St.  Thomas. 
In  Aug.,  1732,  Dober  and  David  Nitzsch- 
mann  answered  the  Macedonian  call.  In  Jan. , 
1733,  Matthew  and  Christian  Stach  started 
for  Greenland  to  help  Hans  Egede.  The  first 
convert  was  baptized  in  1739.  Others  went 
forth  to  St.  Croix  (1740),  Surinam  (1735), 
Cape  Colony  (1736),  to  the  North  American 
Indians  (1734),  Jamaica  (1754),  Antiqua  (1756), 
Barbadoes  (1765),  Labrador  (1770).  St.  Kitts 
(1777),  Tobago  (1790),  Mosquito  Coast  (1848), 
Australia  (1849),  Himalayas  or  Tibet  (1853), 
Demarara  (1878),  Alaska  (1885).  It  is  said 
that  by  1750  the  Moravians  at  Herrnhut  had 
established  more  missions  than  had  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Protestant  Church  combined 
in  the  200  years  preceding.  Since  1732  over 
2300  missionary  workers  have  gone  forth 
from  the  Moravian  home  churches  in  Great 
Britain,  America,  and  Europe.  In  the  18 
fields  of  labor  to-day  (1887)  there  are  118  sta- 
tions, 299  foreign  workers,  1646  native  work- 
ers, 83,052  adlierents,  29,283  communicants, 
210  day  schools,  17,419  scholars.  The  annual 
income  from  home  sources  is  about  £20,000 
($100,000),  although  this  is  supplemented  by 
£30,000  from  native  churches,  government 
grants  for  schools,  interest  on  endowments, 
and  proceeds  of  industrial  enterprises.     The 


work  in  Georgia,  begun  in  1735,  was  trans- 
ferred in  1740  to  Pennsylvania,  and  located 
at  Bethlehem,  Nazareth,  and  Lititz.  David 
Zeisberger  for  63  years  was  the  master  mind 
in  the  mission  to  the  American  Indians.  Chris- 
tian Erhardt  and  Jens  Haven  did  heroic  work 
in  Labrador.  The  foreign  mission  work  to- 
day of  the  Moravian  Church  is  being  prose- 
cuted in  the  West  Indies,  Greenland,  among 
the  Delawares  and  Cherokees  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  in  Dutch  Guiana  (Suri- 
nam), South  Africa  (western  and  eastern), 
Labrador,  Mosquito  Coast,  Australia,  Tibet 
(Himalayas),  and  Alaska.  They  have  a  most 
useful  leper  hospital  at  Jerusalem. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  sum  up  the  re- 
sults of  evangelical  mission  work  during 
this  first  period  (1517-1792).  It  was  largely 
colonial  or  individual.  Political  ends  were 
chiefly  subserved.  The  methods  are  fre- 
quently as  unpleasant  to  recall  as  those  used 
by  the  Propaganda  at  Rome.  During  this 
wdiole  period  the  stronger  maritime  powers 
were  contending  for  the  mastery.  At  its  close 
all  competitors  were  going  down  before  Eng- 
land. Irreligion,  rationalism,  and  spiritual 
deadness  were  widespread.  The  various 
Protestant  churches  failed  to  imitate  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Moravians.  But  a  new  era  was 
at  hand,  and  William  Carey  heralded  its 
dawning. 

2.  1792-1890.— It  is  difficult  to-day  for  us 
to  credit  the  amount  and  the  bitterness  of  the 
opposition  to  foreign  missionary  work  a  cen- 
tury ago,  when  even  the  large-hearted  Sj'dney 
Smith  (1808)  could  ask,  publicly  and  in  all 
seriousness,  "  Why  are  we  to  send  out  little 
detachments  of  maniacs  to  spread  over  the 
fine  regions  of  the  world  the  most  unjust  and 
contemptible  opinion  of  the  gospel  ?  The 
wise  and  rational  part  of  the  Christian  min- 
istry find  that  they  have  enough  to  do  at 
home  to  combat  with  passions  unfavorable 
to  human  happiness,  and  to  make  men  act  up 
to  their  professions.  But  if  a  tinker  is  a  de- 
vout man,  he  infallibly  sets  off  for  the  East." 
We  here  strike  again  upon  the  ever-recurring 
fact  that  laymen  have  taken  an  initial  part  in 
all  the  great  advances  of  gospel  truth.  The 
brilliant  churchman  goes  on  to  say,  "It  is 
somewhat  strange,  in  a  duty  which  is  stated 
by  one  party  to  be  so  clear  and  so  indispensa- 
ble, that  no  man  of  moderation  and  good 
sense  can  be  found  to  perform  it.  And  if  no 
other  instruments  remain  but  visionary  en- 
thusiasts, some  doubt  may  be  honestlj^  raised 
whether  it  is  not  better  to  drop  the  scheme 
entirely."  There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that 
some  of  the  earlier  missionaries  were  fitted  to 
disgust  the  religious  sensibilities  of  men  like 
Sydney  Smith,  but  William  Carey  was  a  man 
of  hard  sense,  a  shoemaker,  a  school-teacher, 
a  diligent  student  of  history  and  geography, 
and  a  master  of  several  languages  before  he 
urged  upon  the  unsympathetic  Baptist  preach- 
ers of  Nottingham  the  duty  of  doing  .some- 
thing for  the  heathen.  Later  on  in  life  he 
became  an  authority  on  Sanscrit,  and  was 
made  a  professor  in  a  government  college. 
At  last  he  was  ordained  to  the  Christian 
ministry  (1787).  Five  years  later,  on  May  31, 
1792,  his  sermon  before  the  association  stirred 


MISSIONS 


(591) 


MISSIONS 


STATISTICAL    TABLE  OF   FORTY-FIVE    FOREIGN   MISSIONARY    SOCIETIES    AS    THEY  WERE  AT 
THE  TIME   OF  THE  LONDON  CENTENNIAL  CONFERENCE,   1888. 


(See  the  Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Decemher, 


p.  948.) 


Foreign  Workers 

Native 
Workers. 

§ 
2 

1 

i 

g 

8 

Name. 

1 

I 

p 

.2 
.1 

i 

00 

1 
.1 

S2 

a- 

0 

1 

S 
a 

a 
OS 

O 

O 

a    . 

i^ 

1 

1 

1 

3 

.2 

'a 

a 

^ 

&H 

^ 

2 

•J 

0 

33 

0 

0 

>* 

London  Missionary  Society 

1795 

£122.596.00 

136 

18 

157 

1,185 

4,319 

1,9.33 

74,127 

Church  Missionary  Society 

1799 

£227,174.00 

270 

47 

254 

301 

3,700 

305 

566 

48,000 

2,97.3 

American  Board  Com.  For.  Miss 

1810 

$685,152.98 

177 

•  17 

314 

174 

2,209 

1,116 

358 

33,000 

4,.529 

American  Baptist  Miss.  Union.. 
Basel  Evangelical  Miss.  Soc. .. 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Miss.  Soc. . 

1814 

$406,568.33 

95- 

12 

172 

318 

985 

1.286 

688 

78,543 

6,093 

1S1,5 

Fl, 046,610.00 

162 

110 

40 

641 

311 

10,484 

1,188 

1816 

£142,877.00 

159 

'20 

109 

216 

5,990 

357 

'357 

37,77'8 

5..344 

Meth.  Epis.  Church.  U.S.A.  (N.). 
Berlin  Evangelical  Miss.  Soc. .. 
Prot.  Epis.  Church,  'J.  S.  A.,. 

1819 

$566,139.00 

145 

3 

190 

353 

1,921 

324 

1,162 

63.295 

3,027 

1819 

M306,783.00 

57 

10 

57 

2 

357 

147 

10,223 

531 

1831 

$177,205.11 

18 

5 

35 

50 

199 

162 

■32 

2,281 

100 

Leipzig  Evangelical  Miss.  Soc. 

1836 

M;»4.324.00 

24 

205 

23 

4,500 

Presto.  Church  of  Eng.  For.  Miss 
Free  Church  of  Scotland 

1847 

£13,876.00 

18 

'ii 

■46 

'8 

175 

12s 

"44 

3,597 

■2i2 

1827 

£72,868.00 

50 

29 

72 

15 

553 

211 

33 

6,276 

816 

Church  of  Scotland,  Comm 

1827 

£34,421.00 

17 

11 

38 

7 

184 

17 

32 

805 

72 

Unit.  Presb.  Church,   Scotland.. 

1847 

£37,665.00 

64 

89 

20 

508 

228 

86 

14,079 

582 

Southern  Baptist,  U.  S.  A 

184.5 

$101,119.67 

-33 

47 

28 

47 

70 

57 

2,050 

228 

Meth.  Epis.  Church,  U.  S.  A.  (S.) 

184.5 

$226,687.96 

U 

24 

85 

12 

108 

51 

3,971 

185 

Presbyterian  Ch.,  U.  S.  A.  (N.). 

1837 

$848,601.00 

196 

34 

280 

137 

1,034 

886 

295 

23,245 

2,830 

Evan.  Luth.  Gen.  Synod,  U.S.A. 

1839 

$82,932.47 

4 

4 

9 

12 

6 

6,828 

1,001 

Reformed  (Dutch)  Ch.,  U.  S.  A. 

1858 

$109,964.70 
$108,585.13 

23 

30 

'26 

248 

141 

51 

5,089 

762 

United  Presbyterian,  U.  S.  A.. . . 

1858 

20 

37 

21 

434 

175 

34 

8,812 

1,874 

Presbyterian  Church,  U.S.A.  (S.) 

18tJ3 

$94,826.34 

.34 

41 

19 

26 

98 

1,678 

364 

Foreign  Christian  Miss.  Soc ... . 

1849 

$60,092.66 

27 

15 

27 

30 

"30 

2,990 

617 

United  Brethren,  U.  S.  A 

18.53 

$22,250.31 

5 

■32 

8 

1 

32 

841 

3 

1,306 

78 

Meth.  Epis.  Church,  Canada  . . . 
Presbyterian  Church,  Canada  . . 

1824 

$17,838.03 

7 

7 

3 

11 

1,288 

49 

1844 

$9.3,394.44 

25 

'io 

■31 

4 

257 

103 

io 

3,730 

356 

Baptist  Church.  Canada 

1866 

$18,428.00 

7 

9 

7 

80 

4 

16 

2,106 

280 

Reformed  German  Ch..  U.  S.  A. 

1*38 

$19,000.00 

3 

5 

6 

16 

29 

12 

1,438 

236 

Gen.  Bp.  Miss.  Soc,  England.. 
United  Meth.  Fr.  Church,  Eng. 

1816 

£3,940.00 

9 

, 

7 

20 

19 

1,401 

69 

1857 

£8,718.00 

69 

12 

7 

766 

65 

'250 

10,108 

191 

ML'th.  New  Connection,   Eng... 

1860 

£2,751.00 

6 

"5 

25 

18 

51 

4 

1,495 

26 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist... 

1840 

£7,099.00 

10 

8 

21 

200 

136 

60 

1,595 

269 

Friends'  For.  Miss.  Assoc  ,  Eng. 

1867 

£9,020.00 

14 

20 

40 

379 

6 

141 

3,320 

China  Inland  Mis«.,  England. . . 

1865 

£34,531.00 

30 

i26 

182 

11 

133 

145 

80 

2,464 

■472 

United  Brethren  Moravian  Miss. 

18-32 

£20,193.00 

288 

48 

1,613 

127 

29,707 

5,9C3 

Rhenish  Missionary  Society.... 

1840 

M384,762.00 

75 

56 

9 

477 

130 

10,475 

320 

GOssner  Missionary  Society 

1824 

Ml.53,939.00 

19 

185 

12 

11,533 

Herrmansburg  Missionary  Soc. 

1822 

M281,1.36.00 

69 

150 

59 

:::: 

4,.500 

Norwegian  Missionary  Society.. 
Bp.  Missionary  Soc,  England.. 
Soc.  Propagation  Gospel,  Eng.. 

£19,000.00 

42 

'56 

'ie 

1,000 

3^32 

300 

22,000 

4,066 

1792 

£7-3,188.00 

118 

528 

450 

12,406 

966 

1701 

£111,880.00 

498 

'i4 

■75 

iso 

2,286 

464 

66,593 

Univ.  Miss.  C.  Africa,  England. 

ia59 

£17,107.00 

22 

25 

20 

2 

29 

14 

"ii 

700 

Presbyterian  Church,  Ireland. . . 

1840 

£6,786.00 

13 

10 

103 

26 

12 

403 

"75 

North  German  Missionary  Soc. 

1828 

M84,791.00 

4 

"i 

24 

12 

.... 

374 

Danish  Missionary  Society 

1821 

Cr70, 182.00 

5 

6 

3 

4 

4 

175 

"45 

Paris  Society  Ev.  Missions 

1822 

25 

"76 

.... 

5,000 

up  the  matter  eflfectually,  and  in  October  of  the 
same  year  a  missionary  society  was  formed 
and  a  collection  of  £V6  2s.  Qd.  was  taken  up  on 
the  spot.  Carey's  sermon  in  May,  from  Isa. 
liv.  2,  3,  has  since  been  the  watchword  for 
evangelical  missions,  (1)  "  Expect  great  things 
from  God,  (2)  Attempt  great  things /or  God." 
This  sounds  like  the  iloravian  motto,  "  Ven- 
ture in  faith." 

The  world  by  the  last  decade  of  the  18th 
century  was  getting  in  shape  for  a  great  on- 
ward Christian  movement.  The  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  were  pushing  zealously 
forward  in  every  dirertion.  A  dead  ortho- 
do.xy  in  Enirland  and  Scotland  and  America 
had  been  stirred  to  life  by  the  eloquence  of  a 
Whitctield  and  tin-  .^oiigs'of  the  VV(!sleys.  A 
corrupt  and  brutal  East  India  Company  had 
shocked  the  ethical  sen.se  of  all  devout  Eng- 


lishmen. Even  Parliament  was  prodded  on  to 
take  some  action.  The  globe  had  been  re- 
peatedly circumnavigated,  and  the  scope  of 
the  possible  advance  of  the  one  true  faith  had 
been  brought  before  all.  England  was 
branching  out  in  every  direction,  and  was 
building  up  great  colonies  on  every  continent. 
Commerce  was  expanding,  and  the  doctrine  of 
the  brotherhood  of  men  was  on  the  lips  of 
all.  A  renewed  study  of  the  Bible  found  un- 
answerable calls  to  duty,  and,  as  the  new  cen- 
tury moved  on  and  one  church  after  another 
responded,  it  was  found  that  Christian  work 
at  home  ran  parallel  with  Christian  work 
among  the  heathen.  The  history  of  the  mod- 
ern evangelical  movement  is  the  history  of 
the  great  societies  on  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
in  Great  Britain,  and  in  America.  No  Cliris- 
tiau  denomination  which  has  a  spark  of  re- 


MISSIONS 


(592) 


MISSIONS 


ligiousness  about  it  is  without  its  foreign 
mission  work,  and  there  are  also  organiza- 
tions not  connected  officially  with  any  single 
denomination.  The  whole  number  of  these 
societies  to-day  is  over  300,  many  of  which 
are  small.  The  following  table  gives  the 
most  important  statistics  of  forty-five  of  the 
more  influential  of  these  organizations,  as  they 
were  at  the  close  of  the  centennial  year  of 
Protestant  missions,  1888.  The  table  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  brief  statement  of  the  most  im- 
portant societies. 

VI.  T7ie  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (Eng- 
land). Founded  Oct.  2,  1792,  Kettering, 
Eug.  Missions  in  India,  1799  (Bengal  Presi- 
dency, Northern,  Western  India,  Southern 
Presidency),  Ceylon  (1812),  China  (1877), 
Japan  (1879),  Palestine,  West  India  (Trinidad, 
San  Domingo,  Turk's  Island,  Bahamas),  a^d 
on  the  Congo  (see  statistical  table).  Tlie 
Jamaica  Baptist  Union  (fruit  of  this  society) 
in  1886  reported  146  churches,  78  out-stations, 
and  a  total  membership  of  31,776.  Work 
successfully  carried  on  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  from  1843  was  transferred,  in  1880,  to 
the  Basel  Missionary  Society. 

The  history  of  this  initial  modern  mission- 
ary society  has  had  a  most  powerful  effect 
upon  the  whole  missionary  enterprise.  The 
mission  at  Serampore,  where  Carey,  Marsh- 
man,  and  Ward  spent  their  lives,  was  carried 
on  so  sensibly  that,  in  1813,  William  Wilber- 
force,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  commended 
the  learning,  wisdom,  moderation,  and  zeal 
of  "  these  great  and  good  men."  By  1842  the 
Scriptures  had  been  translated  in  whole  or  in 
parts  into  forty-four  languages  and  dialects  of 
India.  Dr.  Marshman  had  also  made  a  trans- 
lation into  Chinese,  prepared  a  grammar  of 
that  language,  and  translated  Confucius  into 
English.  In  1814  Rev.  John  Rowe  was  sent 
to  Jamaica,  in  the  West  Indies,  and  carried 
on  work  started  by  George  Liele,  a  colored 
freedman  from  Georgia.  The  initial  difficul- 
ties were  overcome,  and  by  1831  there  were 
14  English  missionaries,  24  churches,  and  10,- 
838  communicants.  During  an  insurrection 
of  the  slaves  that  followed  the  work  was  in 
jeopardy.  In  1832  IMr.  Knibb  went  to  Eng- 
land (after  suffering  imprisonment)  and 
boldly  declared  that  slavery  must  cease. 
Public  interest  was  aroused.  Two  years  later 
slavery  was  abolished  throughout  the  Britisli 
dominions.  Compensation  was  made  the  so- 
ciety for  chapels  and  other  properties  de- 
stroyed by  mobs  in  Jamaica  in  1831.  The 
work  in  China  was  begun  in  1877,  and  is 
carried  on  in  Shansi  and  Shantung.  A  mis- 
sion was  established  in  Tokio,  Japan,  in 
1879,  and  on  the  Congo  during  the  same 
year. 

VII.  The  London  Missionary  Society  (1795) . 
Missions  in  Polynesia,  China,  India,  Madagas- 
car, Africa,  and  British  Guiana  (see  statistical 
table).  This  society  is  one  of  the  oldest, 
largest,  and  most  interesting  of  any.  An 
earnest  appeal  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bogue,  in 
1794,  led  to  various  conferences  on  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  the  duty  of  ('hristians  to  con- 
vert the  heathen,  and  the  society  came  into 
being  the  next  year.  It  was  undenomina- 
tional from  the  start,  its  founders  and  con- 


stituents being  evangelical  Christians  con- 
nected with  the  Church  of  England,  various 
sections  of  the  Presbyterians,  and  the  Con- 
gregational body.  Owing  to  the  formation 
of  mission  societies  in  most  of  these  churches,, 
the  work  of  this  society  has  fallen  largely 
into  the  hands  of  the  Congregationalists,  al- 
though it  keeps  its  undenominational  char- 
acter, as  does  its  sister  organization  in  the 
United  States  (A.  B.  C.  P.M.).  It  has  had  a 
very  successful  career.  Drs.  Morrison  and 
Legge,  in  China,  are  foremost  names  in  mis- 
sionary records.  The  work  in  IVIadagascar 
has  resulted  in  the  triumph  of  Christianity  in 
that  large  and  important  island.  The  careers 
of  Dr.  Moffat,  David  Livingstone,  and  the 
conversion  of  Africaner  in  South  Africa  are 
bright  spots  in  missionary  annals  in  the  Dark 
Continent. 

VIII.  llie  Church  Missionary  Society  (Eng- 
land). Founded  April  12,  1799,  "to  send 
the  gospel  of  Christ  to  the  heathen  and  Mo- 
hammedan world,  whether  within  or  without 
the  dominions  of  Great  Britain."  It  carries 
on  work  in  East,  West,  and  Central  Africa, 
Egypt  and  Arabia,  Palestine,  Persia,  India, 
Ceylon,  Mauritius,  China,  Japan,  New  Zea- 
land, Northwest  America,  and  North  Pacific 
(see  statistical  table).  It  has  from  the  start 
sent  out  over  1000  missionaries  (not  counting 
wives).  Its  missionary  training  college  is  at 
Islington,  Eng.  Such  men  as  Wilberforce 
and  Bickersteth  were  early  leaders.  Bishop 
Crowther  (Niger),  Dr.  Krapf  (pioneer  in 
Abyssinia),  Bishop  Hannington,  Bishop  Go- 
bat,  and  Mr.  Mackey  are  prominent  names  on 
the  roll  of  this  great  work.  The  whole  Maori 
nation  in  New  Zealand  has  been  brought 
from  paganism  to  Christianity  through  the 
instrumentality  of  this  society.  The  bishop- 
ric of  Jerusalem,  founded  in  1841,  was  re- 
vived in  1887.  This  society  surpasses  in  the 
amount  of  its  moneyed  contribution  to  mission 
causes. 

IX.  The  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions  was  organized  June  29, 
1810,  by  the  general  association  of  Congrega- 
tional ministers  of  Massachusetts,  in  view  of 
the  request  of  several  young  men  who  desired 
to  be  sent  as  missionaries  to  the  heathen.  It 
was  the  first  American  society  to  send  mis- 
sionaries to  foreign  lands.  It  has  always 
been  undenominational,  although  the  forma- 
tion of  denominational  societies  all  about  it 
has  left  it  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of 
the  Congregational  churches.  It  has  its 
work  in  Africa  (3  missions),  Turkey  (4  mis- 
sions), India  and  Ceylon  (3  missions),  China 
(4  missions),  Japan  (2  missions),  and  the 
Pacific  Islands  (2  missions,  not  counting  the 
Sandwich  Islands  churches,  6000  members, 
which  are  now  independent),  as  well  as  in 
Mexico,  Spain,  and  Austria.  The  A.  B.  C. 
F.  M.  was  the  pioneer  mission  society  (1818) 
in  the  Turkish  Empire  and  Persia  (western). 
In  1871  it  handed  over  its  Persian  field  (Oroo- 
miah)  and  the  Syrian  mission  to  the  Presbyte- 
rian Board.  The  Sandwich  Islands  became 
Christian  through  the  agency  of  this  society. 
It  has  sent  out  from  the  first  over  2000  mis- 
sionaries and  assistant  missionaries,  has  re- 
ceived over  100,000  communicants,  and  is  in- 


MISSIONS 


(593) 


MISSIONS 


creasing  now  at  about  the  rate  of  five  per  cent 
annually. 

X.  The  American  Baptist  Mission  Union 
was  organized  in  1814,  and  began  work  in 
Burmali  under  Adouiram  Judsou  and  Luther 
Rice.  The  missions  of  this  society  are  in 
Burmah  proper  (Karens,  Shans,  Kachin, 
Chin),  Assam  (Caro  Naga),  India  (Telugii), 
China,  Japan,  and  Africa.  No  other  mission- 
ary society  has  so  many  communicants  (see 
statistical  table).  The  work  has  had  special 
success  in  Burmah,  and  Africa  is  to-day  re- 
ceiving great  attention.  It  lias  some  work  in 
papal  Europe. 

XI.  The  Basel  Ecanf/elical  Missionary  So- 
ciety was  founded  in  1815  with  the  intention 
of  educating  j^oung  men  for  mission  work  in 
the  service  of  other  foreign  missionary  soci- 
eties (especially  the  Church  Missionary  Soci- 
ety). In  1831  the  society  commenced  foreign 
work  on  its  own  account  in  Southern  Russia 
(expelled  183o).  The  work  has  grown  so 
that  now  it  has  four  fields  of  labor — East 
India  (Malabar,  Canara,  South  Mahratta), 
China  (provinces  of  Canton,  Hong-Kong), 
Gold  Coast  (West  Africa),  and  the  Cameroons 
and  Victoria  (West  Africa).  (See  statistical 
table.)  At  Basel,  Switzerland,  it  has  a  flour- 
ishing mission  training  school  (about  100 
students  in  a  six  years'  course).  This  society 
is  peculiar  in  having  an  industrial  department 
in  its  work,  started  in  1859,  which  brings  in 
a  handsome  profit  to  the  society,  and  enables 
it  to  furnish  employment  to  its  adherents  in 
India  (silk  weaving  and  tile  making)  and  in 
Africa  (carpenters'  and  locksmith  work). 
The  directors  of  the  mission  school  and  the 
whole  mission  undertaking  have  been  Revs. 
Ch.  J.  Blumhardt,  1816-38;  W.  Hoffman, 
1838-49  •  F.  Josenhans,  1849-79  ,  O.  Schott, 
1879-84,  and  Th.  Oehler,  1884-  .  This  so- 
ciety is  undenominational,  and  draws  its  funds 
from  the  various  churches  of  Southwestern 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Eastern  France. 

XII.  The  Wesleyaa  Methodist  Missionary 
Society  (work  begun  1786,  fully  organized, 
1816).  Fields  of  labor  to-day  in  heathen 
lands  are  Ceylon,  India,  China,  West  Africa, 
West  Indies,  Honduras,  Bahamas,  and  South 
Africa  (Transvaal).  (See  statistical  table.) 
This  society  also  conducts  missions  in  Ireland, 
France,  Italy,  Germany,  Austria,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Malta,  and  has  work  under  afilli- 
ated  conferences  in  South  Africa,  the  West 
Indies,  Australasia,  and  Canada.  There  can 
be  traced  to  the  work  of  this  society  (large 
part  of  which  has  become  self-supporting  and 
hence  independent  of  mission  superinten- 
dence) a  constituency  which  represents  about 
2000  circuits,  11,000  chapels  and  preaching 
places,  2592  ministers  and  missionaries,  anil 
430,247  members.  The  most  remarkable 
growth  has  been  in  the  Fiji  Islands.  Out  of 
a  total  population  of  125", 441,  in  1888,  the 
number  of  people  attending  worship  in  the 
native  churches  of  tlie  Wesleyan  mission  was 
104,585.  At  that  time  there  were  in  the  mis- 
sion establishment  10  European  missionaries, 
66  native  preachers,  41  cateciiists,  1016  teach- 
ers, 1889  local  preachers,  3206  class  leaders, 
961  churches,  and  361  other  preaching  places. 

XIII.  Methoduit  Episcopal  Mission  (North, 


U.  S.  A.),  organized  in  1819.  Work  in  Libe- 
ria, South  America  (Argentine  Republic  and 
Uruguay),  China  (Foochow,  Central,  North, 
West  China),  India  (North,  South),  Germany, 
Switzerland,  Norwa3\  Sweden,  Denmark,  Bul- 
garia, Italy,  Japan,  and  Mexico  (see  statis- 
tical table  ;  see  also  Historical  Sketches  of  the 
Foreign  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  to  1880,  published  by  Phillips  &  Hunt, 
New  York  City). 

XIV.  The  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions,  U.  S.  A.  Founded  1837.  Missions 
in  ]\Iexico,  Guatemala,  South  America  (Co- 
lombia, Brazil  and  Chili),  Africa  (Liberia, 
Gaboon,  and  Corisco),  India  (Lodiana,  Fur- 
rukhabad,  Kolhapur),  Siam,  China  (Canton, 
Central,  Shantung,  and  Pekin),  Japan,  Korea, 
Persia  (Eastern  and  Western),  Syria,  as  well  as 
work  among  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  in 
America  and  among  the  Indian  tribes  (Sene- 
cas,  Dakotas,  and  Nez  Perces).  (See  statis- 
tical table.)  This  church  is  the  largest  con- 
tributor to  the  cause  of  foreign  missions  in 
tiie  United  States. 

XV.  The  Free  Chnrch  of  Scotland.  (Work 
begun  in  1827,  missionary  society  organized 
1843.)  This  society  has  work  in  IndTa  (Cal- 
cutta and  Bengal,  Santalia,  Bombay,  Poena, 
3Iadras,  Ce;  tral  Provinces,  Haidaraljad,  and 
Deccan),  Africa  (Kaffraria,  Natal,  East  Cen- 
tral Africa),  New  Hebrides,  Syria,  and  South 
Arabia  (see  statistical  table).'  The  work  in 
most  of  these  fields  was  started  ])efore  the 
Free  Church  separated  from  the  Established 
Church  of  Scotland.  We  connect  with  this 
society  the  names  of  Dr.  Chalmers,  Dr.  Duff, 
and  more  recently  the  lamented  Hon.  Keith 
Falconer. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  compass  of  this  arti- 
cle to  deal  more  at  length  with  the  great  mis- 
sion and  publication  societies  which  have  in 
hand  the  magnificent  enterprise  of  evangel- 
izing the  world.  The  reader  is  referred  to 
the  various  mission  publications  and  to  the 
E/icyclopmlia  of  Missions  (2  vols..  Funk  &, 
Wagnalls.  See  below).  Four  distinct  types  of 
work  can  be  mentioned  :  among  (1)  the  heath- 
en, (2)  the  Mohammedans,  (3)  the  Jews,  and 
(4)  the  decayed  Christian  churches  in  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Americas.  Thus  far 
the  great  successes  have  been  among  the  first 
mentioned.  We  have  seen  in  the  brief  state- 
ment concerning  fifteen  prominent  societies 
how  whole  nations  of  heathen  have  been  won  to 
the  cross,  and  the  work  goes  on  to-day  with 
accelerated  speed.  As  regards  the  second 
class,  the  results  have  been  mostly  indirect. 
With  faith  the  Christian  churclies  have  laid  a, 
broad  foundation  for  the  superstructure. 
Schools,  colleges,  and  the  mission  presses 
have  done  nuich  to  inform  the  IVIoslem  world 
(200,000,000  souls)  as  to  what  a  pure  gospel 
i.S  as  contrasted  with  the  half  idolatrous  prac- 
tices of  the  corrupt  Christian  churches.  In 
most  parts  of  the  world  of  Islam  it  is  still 
death  for  a  ^^lohammedan  to  becomf  a  Chris- 
tian. In  spite  of  this  quite  a  number  in  the 
Levant,  Persia,  India,  and  especially  Sumatra 
and  Java  have  been  emboldened  to  stand  for 
Christ.  There  can  "be  no  doubt  but  that  ]Mo- 
hammedanism  is  to-day  the  mightiest  organ- 
ized foe  Christianity  has,  and  it  deserves  even 


MISSIONS 


(594) 


MISSIONS 


more  attention  than  the  churches  have  yet 
given  it  (see  art.  Mohammedanism). 

There  are  between  7,000,000  and  8,000,000 
Jews  dispersed  over  the  earth.  Tlie  heart  of 
the  Christian  world  has  for  a  century  been 
going  out  with  a  peculiar  tenderness  to  these 
"children  of  the  covenant."  A  large  num- 
ber of  mission  societies  have  been  organized 
in  this  century  for  the  express  purpose  of 
reaching  this  despised  people.  "The  Lon- 
don Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among 
the  Jews"  was  started  in  1808  ;  the  "  British 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
among  the  Jews"  in  1843  ;  the  "  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  Committee  on  the  Conversion  of 
the  Jews"  in  1843  ;  the  "  Mildmay  Mission  to 
the  Jews"  in  1876.  Tlie  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Ireland,  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
England  also  have  work  in  this  line.  In  Ger- 
many there  are  four  such  societies.  There 
are  also  societies  in  Basel  (1831),  Norway 
(1846),  Amsterdam  (1861),  Stockholm  (1874), 
and  New  York  City  in  connection  with  the 
Episcopal  Church  (1878).  It  is  calculated 
that  about  100,000  Jews  have  embraced 
Christianity  since  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury. A  most  efficient  help  has  been  Pro- 
fessor Delitzsch's  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  into  the  modern  Hebrew  vernacu- 
lar. 

The  work  among  the  decayed  Christian 
churches  has  been  more  encouraging.  It  is 
carried  on  in  all  European  countries,  in  Per- 
sia, India,  the  Turkish  Empire,  Egypt,  West 
Indies,  and  in  South,  Central,  and  North 
America.  Its  indirect  influence  has  been  very 
great  indeed.  Enlightenment  has  resulted 
in  every  case.  In  some  few  cases  the  work 
has  been  done  through  the  old  church  or- 
ganization itself ;  in  most  cases  such  efforts 
were  resisted  by  the  various  hierarchies, 
and  the  only  way  open  was  to  establish  dis- 
tinctively evangelical  communities.  Nuclei 
formed  "of  original  and  native  evangelical 
churches  are  found  in  several  countries. 
They  are  powerful  bodies  in  Italy  (Waldenses) 
and  in  Prance  and  Russia.  The  general  spread 
of  education  is  disintegrating  most  of  the  worst 
forms  of  perverted  Christianity.  Providen- 
tial workings  within  the  bodies"of  these  great 
churches  (especially  Greek  and  Latin)  encour- 
age Christians  to  pray  for  their  speedy  evan- 
gelization. 

Medical  missions  with  attendant  hospital 
work  have  attracted  special  attention.  Al- 
most all  the  great  societies  now  send  out 
skilled  physicians  (men  and  women),  and 
hospitals  have  arisen  in  every  land.  "  The 
Edinburgh  Medical  Missionary  Society"  was 
established  in  1841.  This  society  has  a  train- 
ing institution  at  Edinburgh  (the  Livingstone 
Memorial  Medical)  in  connection  with  the 
university,  and  another  institution  at  Agra. 
"The  London  Medical  Missionary  Society" 
was  established  in  1878.  There  arc  also  the 
"Friends'  Medical  Mission"  among  the  Ar- 
menians, the  "  Zenana  Medical  College"  at 
London,  and  similar  institutions  in  America. 
This  work  is  growing  rapidly.  Medical 
schools  are  being  established  in  foreign  lands, 
and  trained  native  physicians  are  impressing 


the  nations  with  the  unselfishness  of  the  re- 
ligion of  the  "  Great  Physician." 

Christian  colleges  of  a  high  grade  are  being 
established  at  various  strategic  points.  The 
pioneer  was  Robert  College  on  the  Bospho- 
rus.  Among  the  others  we  may  mention  the 
Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beyrout,  Syria  : 
Central  Turkey  College  at  Aintab  (1875) ; 
Euphrates  College,  Harpoot  (1878) ;  Anatolia 
College,  Marsovan  (1885)  ;  Assiout  College, 
Egypt ;  Jaffna  College,  Ceylon  (1877) ;  Kyoto 
Training  School,  Japan  (1875) ;  North  Pacific 
Institute,  Sandwich  Islands  (1877).  and  the 
Constantinople  Home  (1870). 

Mission  presses  are  pouring  forth  millions 
of  pages  annually.  To  mention  only  one — 
the  American  press  at  Beyrout,  in  1889, 
printed  in  Arabic  24,569,167  pages.  The 
number  of  volumes  printed  was  52,203.  Ten 
new  books  and  14  tracts  w^ere  printed  ;  while 
11  books  and  21  tracts  were  reprinted.  Five 
different  editions  of  the  Scriptures  w^ere 
printed.  There  are  404  publications  on  the 
catalogue  of  this  press,  and  the  total  number  of 
pages  printed  from  the  beginning  is  418,407,- 
8.54  fr- -n  this  press  alone. 

Henky  Woodward  Hijlbert. 

Literature. — The  following  list  omits 
purposely  all  sketches  and  other  minor  works, 
and  confines  itself  to  what  are  more  properly 
books  of  reference.  The  thesaurus  of  recent 
information  relative  to  foreign  missions  is 
Edwin  M.  Bliss,  Encyclopcedia  of  Missions, 
New  York,  1891,  2  vols,  (in  the  appendix  is 
a  full  bibliography  of  missions)  ;  of  especial 
interest  and  value  is  the  Report  of  the  Cen- 
tenary Conference  on  Protestant  Missions  of 
the  World  held  in  .  .  .  London,  1888,  edited  by 
the  secretary,  James  Johnston,  London,  1888, 
2  vols,  (a  bibliography  fills  pp.  491-538  of 
vol.  i.)  ;  see  also  The  Missionary  Year  Book 
for  1889-90,  New  Tork,  1889. 

Histories— GenersA. — The  following  recent 
comprehensive  works  in  English  can  be  rec- 
ommended :  Theodor  Christlieb,  Protestant 
Foreign  Missions,  Eng.  trans.,  Boston,  1880  ; 
W.  F.  Bainbridge,  Around  the  World  Tour 
of  Christian  Missions,  New  York,  1881,  3d 
ed.,  1882  ;  J.  Croil,  The  Missionary  Problem, 
Toronto,  1883  ;  George  Smith,  SJiort  History 
of  Christian  Missions,  Edinburgh,  1884,  2d 
ed.,  1886  ;  G.  Warneck,  Outline  of  the  His- 
tory of  Protestant  Missions,  Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1884  ;  A.  T.  Pierson,  The  Crisis  of 
Missions,  New  York,  1886,  6th  ed.,  1887  ; 
E.  Storrow,  Protestant  Missions  in  Pagan 
Lairds,  London,  1888  ;  E.  S.  Todd,  Christian 
Missions  in  the  Isineteenth  Century,  New 
York,  1890  ;  Edwin  Hodder,  Conquests  of  the 
Cross,  a  Record  of  Missionary  Work  through- 
out the  World,  vol.  i.,  1890  ;  Pictorial  Africa: 
Its  Heroes,  Missionaries,  and  Martyrs,  New 
York  and  Chicago,  1890;  Mrs.  H.  Grattan 
Guinness,  TJie  New  World  of  Central  Africa, 
tcith  a  History  of  the  First  Christian  Mission 
on  the  Congo,  London,  1890  ;  see  James  Bas- 
sett,  Persia  Eastern  Mission,  Philadelphia, 
1890  ;  also  J.  Lowe,  Medical  Missions,  Lon- 
don, 1886,  2d  ed.,  1887  ;  J.  Liggins,  The  Great 
Value  and  Success  of  Foreign  3Tission8  Proved 
by  Distinguished  Witnesses,  New  York,  1889  ; 
R.  Young,  The  Success  of  Christian  Missions : 


MISSIONS 


(595) 


MITRE 


Testimonies  to  their  Beneficent  Results,  Lon- 
don, 1890  ;  in  French,  Florentin  Loriot,  Ex- 
plorations et  Jlissions  dans  I'Afrique  Equa- 
toriale,  Paris,  1890  ;  Chautard,  Le  Dahomey, 
Lyons,  1890. — Denominational. — For  Roman 
Catholic  missions,  see  T.  W.  M.  Marshall, 
Christian  Missions,  their  Agents  and  Re- 
sults, London,  1863,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1863, 
2  vols.  ;  for  the  American  Board,  Rufus  An- 
derson, History,  Boston,  1870-74,  4  vols.  ; 
for  the  Baptist,  S.  F.  Smith,  Missionary 
Sketches,  Boston,  1879,  2d  ed.,  1883  ;  H.  A. 
Tupper,  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Southern 
Baptist  Convention,  Philadelphia,  1880  ;  for 
the  Methodist,  J.  ]\L  Reid,  Missions  and  Mis- 
sionary Societies  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  New  York.  1879,  2  vols.  ;  for  the 
Moravian,  A.  C.  Thompson,  Moravian  Mis- 
sions, New  York,  1882  ;  for  the  Presbyte- 
rian, J.  C.  Lowrie,  Manual  of  the  Foreign 
Missionsof  the  Presbyterian  Church,  JJ.  8.  A., 
New  York,  1855,  2d  ed.,  1868  (anonymous 
editorship) ;  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Missions 
tinder  the  Care  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia, 
1886  ;  for  the  Reformed  (Dutch),  Mrs.  M.  E. 
JSangster  (editor),  .1  Manual  of  the  Missions 
of  tJte  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  America, 
New  York,  1887  ;  for  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  Emily  Headland,  Brief  Sketches  of 
C.  M.  S.  Missions,  London,  1890. 

Works  in  German. — C.  G.  Blumhardt,  Ver- 
such  einer  allgemeinen  Missionsgfschichte  der 
Kirclie  Christi,  Basel,  1828-37,  5  parts 
(French  trans.,  Valence,  1838.  4  vols.)  ;  G.  E. 
Burkhardt,  Kleine  Missionsbibliothek,  Biele- 
feld, 1858-62.  4  vols.,  2d  ed.,  by  P.  R.  Gruu- 
demann,  1876-81.  4  vols.  ;  G.  Warneck,  Mis- 
sionsstunden,  Giitersloh,  1878-84,  2d  ed., 
1883-86.;  the  same.  Die  Stellung  der  evangeli- 
schenMissionzur  Sklavr-nfragegeschichtlichvnd 
theoretisch  erortert,  1889  ;  C.  H.  Kalkar.  Ge- 
schichte  der  christiichen  Mission  unter  den 
Heiden,  Giitersloh,  1879  ;  H.  Gundert,  Die 
ecanqelische  Mission,  ihre  Lander,  Volker  vnd 
Arb'eiter,  Calw,  1881.  2d  ed.,  1886  ;  Louise 
Cooper,  Aus  der  deutschen  Mission  unter  dem 
iceibliclien    Geschlechte  in   China,   Hannover, 

1889  ;  R.  Grundemann,  Die  Entwickelung  der 
evanqelischen  Mission  im  letzten  JtUtrzelutt 
(1878-88),  Bielefeld,  1890  ;  Grundzuge  der  Mis- 
sion swiasenscJmft ,  Berlin,  1890 ;  Alf.  Hille- 
brand.  Die  Sonmoendfeste  in  Altindien,  Er- 
langen.  1890  ;  A.  Steidl,  Die  Missioncn  d*r 
Kupuzlner  in  der  Gegemcurt,  nach  authen- 
tiscfien    Berichten    zusammengestellt ,     Meran, 

1890  ;  Denkschrift  iiber  die  von  1887-1889  ah- 
gehaltene  Generalrisitation  der  Herman  ns- 
burqer  Mission  in  Sud- Africa,  Hermann.sburg, 
1890  ;  Baron  J.  V.  Welz,  Der  Mission sweckruf 
(reprint  of  original  of  1664),  Loii^/ig.  1890. 

Maps. — The  Church  Missionary  Atlas,  Lon- 
don, 1859,  7th  ed.,  1887  ;  R.  Grundemann. 
Allgemeine  Missions-atlas,  Gotlia.  1867,  and 
Kleiner  Musions-atlas,  Calw,  1883,  2d  ed., 
1886  ;  Vahl,  Missions-atlas,  Copenhagen, 
1883-86;  O.  Werner  (S.  J.).  KathoUscher 
Missions- atlas,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1884,  2d  ed., 
1885. 

Biograph  ies. — Collections. — Andrew  Thomp  - 
eon.  Great  Missionaries,  London,  1862,  2d  ed., 
1868  ;  C.  D.  Yonge,  Pioneers  and  Founders, 


London,  1872  ;  W.  P.  Walsh,  Modern  Heroes 
of  the  Mission  Field,  London  and  New  York, 
1879,  3d  ed.,  1887  ;  A.  H.  Japp,  Master  Mis- 
sionaries, London,  1880,  3d  ed.,  1883;  Mrs. 
E.  R.  Pitman,  Heroines  of  the  Mission  Fields 
Loudon  and  New  York,  1881  ;  Lady  Mission- 
aries in.  Foreign  Lands,  1889  ;  F.  E.  Arnold- 
Forster,  Heralds  of  the  Cross,  London,  1882,  2d 
ed.,  1885. — Separate. — Some  of  the  greater 
missionaries  alone  can  be  mentioned.  W.  C. 
Burns  China),  by  Islay  Burns,  Edinliurgh  and 
New  York,  1870,  6tli  ed.,  1871  ;  John  Camp- 
bell (South  Africa),  by  Ferguson  and  Brown, 
London,  1867  ;  William  Carey  (India),  by 
George  Smith,  1885,  2d  ed.,  1887  ;  Titus  Coan 
(Hawaii),  by  Mrs.  Coan,  Chicago,  1885  ;  Alex- 
ander Duflf  (India),  by  George  Smith,  London 
and  New  York,  1879,  2d  ed.,  1881  ;  William 
Ellis  (Polynesia),  by  J.  E.  Ellis,  London, 
1873  ;  Miss  Fidelia  Fiske  (Persia),  by  Thomas 
Laurie,  Boston,  1863  ;  Samuel  (^obat  (Abys- 
sinia), by  Thiersch,  Eug.  trans.,  London  and 
New  York,  1884  ;  William  Goodell  (Turkey), 
by  E.  D.  G.  Prime.  New  York,  1876  ;  A.-ahel 
Grant  (Persia),  by  Thomas  Laurie,  Boston 
and  Edinburgh,  1853,  3d  ed.,  1856;  James 
Hannington  (E.  E.  Africa),  by  £.  C.  Daw- 
son, London  and  New  York,  1887  ;  Adoni- 
ram  Judson  (Burmah),  by  Francis  Wayland, 
Boston,  1853,  2  vols.,  and  Edward  Judson, 
New  York,  1888  ;  David  Livingstone  (South 
Africa),  by  Samuel  Smiles,  London  and  New 
York,  1885  ;  Henrv  .Martin  (India),  bv  Charles 
D.  Bell,  London  aiid  Isew  York,  1880  ;  Rob- 
ert and  Mary  JMoffat  (South  Africa),  bv  John 
S.  Moflfat,  London  and  New  Y^ork,  1885,  6th 
ed.,  1887  ;  John  Coleridge  Patteson  (Poly- 
nesia), by  Charlotte  M.  Yonge,  London,  1874, 
2  vols.  ;  William  Gottlieb  "Schauffler  (Tur- 
key), by  himself,  New  Y'ork,  1888  ;  Christian 
Friedrich  Schwartz  (India),  by  H.  N.  Pear- 
son, London,  1834  ;  John  Scudder  (India), 
by  J.  B.  Waterbury,  New  Y'ork,  1870  ; 
George  Augustus  Selwyn  (Auckland),  by 
H.  W.  Tucker,  London,  1879  ;  John  Williams 
(Polynesia),  hy  John  C^ampbell,  London, 
1842,  3d  ed.,  1843  ;  Samuel  Wells  Williams 
(China),  bv  F.  W.  Williams,  New  Y'ork, 
1889  ;  Daniel  Wilson  (India),  by  Josiah  Bale- 
man,  London,  1860.  2  vols.  ;  John  Wilson 
(India),  by  George  Smith,  London.  1878,  2d 
ed.,  1879  ;  David  Zeisberger  (Indians),  by 
Edmund  de  Schweinitz,  Philadelphia,  1870. 

Mitchell,  Alexander  Farrier,  D.D.  (St. 
Andrew's.  1862),  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at 
Brechin,  Sept.  10,  1822  ;  graduated  at  St. 
Andrew's,  1841  ;  became  professor  of  He- 
brew at  St.  Andrew's.  1848,  and  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  and  divinity  in  1868.  He  pub- 
lished The  Wcstminstrr^  Confession  ,f  Faith, 
Edinburgh.  1806.  3d  ed..  1867  ;  T/n'Wa/der. 
hums,  1867  ;  The  Wcsdiiinstir  Assembly,  Lon- 
don. 1882.  etc. 

Mite  (Greek,  lepton),  a  thin  Roman  copper 
coin,  in  value  less  than  two  mills  of  our  cur- 
rency (Mark  xii.  42,  Luke  xii.  59,  xxi.  2). 
None  are  too  poor  to  do  something  for  Christ, 
but  mites  from  the  ridi  are  not  an  acceptable 
offering.  T.  W.  C. 

Mitre  is  the  name  of  the  head-dress  worn 
on  certain  solemn  occasions  by  the  pope,  the 


MITYLENE 


^596) 


MOHAMMED 


bishops,  and  some  abbots  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Clmrch.  It  consists  of  the  ring  of  a 
«crown  surmounted  in  front  anu  back  with  a 
high,  tongue-shaped  flap,  referring  to  tlie 
cloven  tongues  of  lire  wliich  rested  on  the 
heads  of  the  apostles  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 
It  is  not  used  in  the  Eastern  Church.  In  the 
Western  Church  it  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
9th  century  ;  in  the  14tli  it  had  come  in  gen- 
eral use.  By  the  Protestant  churches  it  has 
been  retained  only  in  Sweden. 

Mi-ty-le'-ne  (hornless),  capital  of  Lesbos, 
the  seaport  at  which   Paul   touched  on  his 
way  from  Greece  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  14). 
T.  W.  C. 

Mixed  Multitude,  a  crowd  of  people  not 
purely  Hebrews  who  accompanied  Israel  out 
of  Egypt,  and  were  either  the  offspring  of 
mixed  marriages  or  were  idle  camp-followers 
(Ex.  xii.  38,  Num.  xi.  4,  Neh.  xiii.  3). 

T.  W.  C. 

Mizraim.     See  Egypt. 

Miz'-pah  (watch-toicer),  the  name  of  sev- 
eral places  in  Palestine,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  one  named  from  the  stoneheap 
cast  up  by  Laban  and  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxi.  48), 
where  Jephthah  met  his  daughter,  and  an- 
other, a  city  in  Benjamin,  where  Israel  as- 
sembled (Josh,  xviii.  26),  and  Saul  was  elected 
king  (1  Sam.  x.  17).  It  was  fortified  by  Asa 
(1  Kings  XV.  22),  was  the  residence  of  Geda- 
liah  (2  Kings  xxv.  23),  and  was  reoccupied 
after  the  captivity  (Neh.  iii.  19).     T.  W.  C. 

Mo'-ab  {of  the  father),  a  country  east  and 
southeast  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  south  of  the 
Arnon,  but  in  a  wider  sense  including  also 
the  region  once  occupied  by  the  Amorites. 
"  Tiie  land  of  Moab"  (Deut.  i.  5)  lay  between 
the  Arnon  and  the  Jabbok  ;  "  the  field  of 
Moab"  (Ruth  i.  2)  was  a  tract  south  of  the 
Arnon  ;  the  "  plains  of  Moab"  (Num.  xxi.  1) 
a  tract  in  the  Jordan  valley  opposite  Jericho. 
Most  of  Moab  is  a  table-land  3300  feet  above 
the  sea,  well  fitted  for  pasture.  The  Moabites 
had  dispossessed  a  race  of  giants  called  Emim 
(Deut.  ii.  11)  and  had  themselves  been  driven 
south  of  the  Arnon  hy  the  Amorites  (Num. 
xxii.  1).  This  region  remained  in  their  pos- 
session after  Israel  entered  Canaan.  The  re- 
lations of  the  two  peoples  were  at  times  ami- 
cable (Ruth  i.  1,  1  Sam.  xxii.  4),  but  gener- 
ally hostile  (Judges  iii.,  2  Sam.  viii.  2,  2 
Kings  iii.).  The  Moabites  aided  Nebuchad- 
nezzar against  the  Jews  (2  Kings  xxiv.  2),  and 
rejoiced  in  the  overthrow  of  the  latter  (Ezek. 
xxv.  8-11,  Zeph.  ii.  8-10).  Hence  many  pro- 
phetic denunciations  (Isa.  xv.,  xvi.,  xxv.  10, 
Jer.  xxv.  21,  xlviii.,  Amos  ii.  1-3),  all  of  which 
have  been  fulfilled.  Cities  and  buildings  re- 
main, but  are  utterly  deserted.  Desolation 
reigns  over  the  entire  region.  Everywhere 
one  meets  with  ruins.  T.  W.  C. 

Modalism,  the  doctrine  that  the  Persons  of 
the  Trinity  were  not  distinct  personalities,  but 
modes  of  manifestation  of  the  one  God.     See 

MONARCHIANISM. 

Moderatism  is  the  name  of  a  movement 
within  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland, 
which  began  to  show  itself  in  the  third  dec- 
ade of  the  18th  century— the  Marrow  con- 


troversy, the  act  on  the  right  of  patronage, 
the  secessions,  etc.^and  finally  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land, 1843.  The  general  object  of  the  move- 
ment was  a  mitigation  of  tlie  stiff  strictness, 
both  of  doctrine  and  discipline.  Among  its 
representative  men  were  Hugh  Blair  and 
Principal  Robertson. 

Moderator  is  the  name  of  an  ecclesiastical 
officer  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  whose 
duty  is  to  preside  over  the  assembly  of  min- 
isters, to  regulate  the  proceedings  of  the  meet- 
ing, to  declare  the  vote,  etc.  The  phrase, 
"To  moderate  a  call,"  means  to  preside  at 
the  election  of  a  minister. 

Moffat,  Robert,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1872), 
African  missionary  ;  b.  at  Ormiston,  Had- 
dingtonshire, Scotland,  Dec.  21,  1795  ;  d.  at 
Leigh,  near  Tunbridge  Wells,  Aug.  9,  1883. 
A  poor  gardener,  he  offered  himself,  in  1814, 
to  the  London  Missionary  Society,  which  sent 
him  to  Africa,  1816.  He  was  first  stationed 
in  Namaqua  Land,  where  he  converted  the 
chief  Africaner.  In  1820  he  went  to  Griqua 
Town,  and  soon  settled  at  Kuruman  among 
the  Bechuanas,  into  whose  language  he  trans- 
lated the  whole  Bible.  He  made  frequent 
journeys  into  the  Matabele  country,  south  of 
the  Zambesi,  and  taught  the  natives  the  arts 
of  civilized  life,  practising  the  most  necessary 
trades  for  their  benefit.  During  a  visit  home 
he  published  Missionary  Labors  and  Scenes  in 
South  Africa,  1842.  He  retired  in  1870,  was 
warmly  welcomed  in  England,  and  in  1873 
presented  with  £6000.  His  wife,  Mary 
(Smith),  b.  at  New  Windsor,  near  Manchester, 
May  24,  1795  ;  d.  at  Brixton,  Eng.,  Jan.  10, 
1871  ;  was  educated  at  a  Moravian  school ; 
betrothed  to  Moffat  in  England  ;  followed 
him  to  Cape  Town,  where  they  were  married, 
1819,  and  for  50  years  was  his  faithful  and 
invaluable  helper  among  the  Bechuanas. 
Their  daughter  Mary  married  Dr.  Living- 
stone, who  had  received  his  impulse  toward 
Africa  from  the  Mofl'ats,  and  began  his  work 
with  them  at  Kuruman.  (See  John  S.  Moffat, 
The  Lives  of  Robert  and  Mary  Moffat,  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1885,  6th  ed.,  1887.) 
F.  M.  B. 

Mogilas,  Petrus,  metropolitan  of  Kieff, 
1632-47  ;  b.  about  1600  ;  d.  1647.  He  came 
of  a  noble  Wallachian  family,  and  studied  in 
Paris  ;  entering  the  Pechersky  monastery  at 
Kieff,  1625,  he  became  its  archimandrite, 
1628.  In  1640  he  framed  or  caused  to  be 
framed,  by  the  abbot  Kosslowski,  the  Ortho- 
dox Confe'ssion,  which  was  accepted  by  the 
patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Jerusalem, 
Alexandria,  and  Antioch,  1642-43,  and  sanc- 
tioned for  the  whole  Eastern  Church  by  the 
Synod  of  Jerusalem,  1672.  This  document 
was  aimed  at  once  against  Rome  and  Protes- 
tantism, and  has  been  repeatedly  published  in 
Russian,  Greek,  Latin,  etc.  (See  Schaff's 
Creeds  of  Christendom,  i.,  58.)         F.  M.  B. 

Mohammed,  Mohammedanism,  or  Islam 
{resignation).  The  career  of  Mohammed 
sharply  divides  the  history  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula  into  two  periods.  The  Hegira 
(Arabic  Hijrah  =  "  migration,"  the  so-called 
"flight,"   June   20,  622  a.d.)  furnishes  the 


MOHAMMED 


(597) 


MOHAMMED 


most  appropriate  date  for  the  beginning  of 
the  last  and  the  important  era.  The  genius 
of  tlie  prophet  of  Islam  was  as  distinctly 
political  as  it  was  religious.  Before  his  day 
this  isolated  corner  of  Asia  could  hardly  bo 
said  to  have  had  a  history,  certainly  not  a  na- 
tional history.  Out  of  the  chaos  o"f  the  more 
or  less  independent  tribes  that  were  scattered 
all  over  the  vast  tract  stretching  from  Palmyra 
(Tadmor)  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  from 
Egypt  and  Syria  to  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  (884.000  square  miles,  four  times 
the  size  of  France  and  as  large  as  tlie  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi),  Mohammed 
succeeded  for  the  first  time  in  history  in  mak- 
ing a  compact  nation,  which  later  gave  laws 
and  religion  to  one  seventh  of  the  population 
of  the  globe.  There  are  indications  that  this 
extensive  territorj-  may  have  played,  at  an 
earlier  date,  a  much  more  important  part  in 
the  life  of  Asia  than  vre  are  yet  sure  of. 
The  population  at  the  time  of  jMohammed 
cannot  have  been  very  different  in  numbers 
from  what  we  find  in  Arabia  to-daj' — viz., 
about  9,000,000  people,  four  fifths  of  whom 
are  settled  and  one  fifth  are  wandering  Be- 
douins. Not  taking  account  of  the  so-called 
"  lost  Arabs,"  the  inhabitants  of  Arabia  were 
divided  racially  into  two  sections  :  (1)  the  pure 
and  (2)  the  rnixed  Arabs.  The  tribal  di- 
visions were  numerous  and  were  looselj-  con- 
nected by  commercial  and  religious'  ties. 
Sporadic  kingdoms  had  arisen  and  fallen — 
the  Kindites  in  Central  Arabia,  the  Himyarites 
in  the  southeast,  the  Ghassanids  along  the 
borders  of  the  Syrian  desert,  and  dynasties 
had  reigned  at  Hira  and  Anbar.  Just  before 
the  advent  of  ]\Iohammed  the  Abyssinian 
rule  had  been  thrown  ofl:  in  Southern  Arabia. 
The  tribal  leaders  all  over  the  peninsula  had 
ranged  themselves  on  the  side  of  the  Persian 
or  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  which  two  pow- 
ers were  fighting  the  long-standing  duel  in 
Western  Asia.  The  result  was  that  there 
could  be  no  settled  order  or  rule  in  Arabia. 
Mecca  (Arabic,  Makkah  =  "  a  place  of  great 
concourse")  was  the  religious  centre.  An- 
nual fairs  (such  as  that  at  Okatz)  brought 
together  great  crowds  of  Arabs  to  witness 
contests  in  poetry,  and  the  successful  com- 
positions were  posted  up  in  the  Kaaba  at 
Mecca.  On  their  long  caravan  tours  the  Ara])s 
had  become  somewhat  familiar  with  their 
neighbors,  the  Persians  and  the  Grasco-Ko- 
mans,  but  were  still  content  witli  their  old  life. 

Besides  the  Arabs  proper  tliere  were  the 
Jews.  Tlie  terrible  persecutions  begun  in 
Palestine  by  the  Seleucid«  (Greek)  and  con- 
tinued by  the  Romans,  after  tlie  Christian 
era,  had  driven  great  numbers  of  Jews  info 
the  safe  retreats  of  Arabia.  AYe  find  tlum 
scattered  in  compact  communities  over  the 
peninsula  and  exercising  considerable  politi- 
cal and  religious  infiuence.  Several  Arab 
tribes  had  become  converts  to  Judaism,  and 
the  terril)le  Dhu  Nowas  had  usurped  the 
Hiniyarite  throne  and  persecuted  Jieathen  and 
Christians  who  woukl  not  submit  to  his  faith. 

We  are  not  certain  wlien  Christianity  first 
made  headway  in  Arabia.  Doubtless  during 
the  days  of  persecution  at  the  hands  of  the 
Roman   emperors    many    Christians    sought 


refuge  along  the  borders  of  the  desert,  and 
even  penetrated  along  caravan  routes  to  the 
interior  of  the  country.  Soon  after  the  time 
of  Constantine  the  Great  we  hear  of  mission- 
aries in  Yemen,  and  Christianity  seems  to 
have  secured  a  hold  upon  the  southern  tribes 
about  the  time  it  was  winning  over  the  Abys- 
sinians,  just  across  the  Red  Sea.  A  century 
or  so  later  Christian  Abyssinia  championed 
the  cause  of  the  Arabian  Christians  and  put 
down  the  Jewish  usurper  Dhu  Nowas.  By 
this  time  several  of  the  northern  tribes  along 
the  Syrian  border  had  been  converted,  as  well 
as  those  living  near  the  Euphrates  valley. 
By  the  time  of  Mohammed  Cliristianity  seems 
to  have  been  widely  diffused  thrcjughout 
Arabia.  A  number  of  tribes  had  embraced 
it— such  as  the  Banu  Taghlib  of  Mesopotamia, 
the  Banu  Abdul  Qais,  the  Banu  Ilaris  of 
Najran,  the  Banu  Ghassan  of  Syria,  and 
other  tribes  about  Medina  and  Kufa.  Of 
the  quality  of  Christianity  which  found  its 
way  into  Arabia  little  can  be  said  that  is 
favorable.  Jacobite  and  Kestorian  influences 
seem  to  have  predominated.  Certainly  very 
little  vitality  existed  in  these  churches,  for 
they  vanished  without  an  apparent  struggle 
at  the  first  onset  of  the  Muslims.  Their 
beliefs  and  forms  of  worship  seem  to  have 
been  mere  travesties  on  Christianity.  The 
Apocryphal  gospels  seem  to  have  been  cur- 
rent as  on  a  level  with  the  true  gospels,  and 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  so  misrepre- 
sented as  to  give  the  heathen  the  notion  of 
tritheism,  in  which  the  Father,  the  Son,  and 
the  "  Virgin  Mary"  were  given  as  the  three 
persons.  No  wonder  jMohammed  turned  in 
disgust  from  such  a  puerile  representation  of 
divine  things.  As  we  shall  see,  however, 
Christianity  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
upon  his  formative  opinions. 

But  the  native  religion  of  Arabia  was  in 
even  a  worse  condition  than  these  two  ex- 
otics. The  whole  country  was  in  a  state  of 
spiritual  decadence.  The  claim  has  been 
made  that  the  Arabs  in  the  "  times  of  igno- 
rance" were  not  strictly  heathen  idolaters.  It 
is  certain  that  Allah  was  counted  the  supreme 
being,  but  there  were  associated  with  him 
wives  and  children  and  innumerable  under 
gods,  and  these  were  reverenced  and  wor- 
shipped to  such  an  extent  that  for  all  practi- 
cal purposes  the  Arabs  were  idolaters.  The 
Kaaba  at  Mecca  had  as  many  images  of  these 
gods  as  there  were  days  in  the  year.  The 
state  of  religious  degradation  is  apparent 
when  we  consider  the  loose  morals  of  the 
people.  Indifference,  scoffing  at  the  gods, 
intemperance,  gambling,  profanity,  robbery, 
sexual  depravity  utterly  demoralizing  the 
home  and  making  impossible  any  advance  for 
womanhood — all  these  and  their  attendant 
evils  rendered  Arabia  a  spiritual  desert. 

This  extreme  had  begun  to  bring  about  a 
reaction.  A  few  noble  minds,  who  could  not 
accept  Judaism  or  Christianity  of  the  type 
above  described,  were  searching  for  the  truth 
in  the  midst  of  the  conflicting  superstitions 
about  them.  These  were  called  Hanifs,  or 
"  penitents."  The  names  of  a  large  number 
of  tiiese  men  have  come  down  to  us,  several 
of  the  important  ones  being  closely  connected 


MOHAMMED 


(598) 


MOHAMMED 


with  Mohammed.  They  were  not  organized 
into  a  sect  nor  did  they  have  any  fixed  creed. 
At  Medina  they  seem  to  have  been  quite  nu- 
merous. They  rejected  polytheism  and  ac- 
knowledged Allali  as  the  one  and  only  God. 
They  had  ascetic  tendencies,  quite  likely  in 
imitation  of  Christian  hermits,  that  were  not 
uncommon  in  Arabia  ;  "  resignation"  (Islam) 
was  a  prominent  element  in  their  faith,  as  was 
also  "judgment."  While  some  of  them 
leaned  strongly  toward  the  Christian  faith, 
the  majority  reverted  to  an  earlier  type,  and 
sought  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Abraham, 
the  first  "  Hanif." 

Into  this  world  of  conflicting  dogmas  of 
general  religious  indifference  and  of  moral 
laxity  Mohammed  ("  the  Praised  One")  was 
born  at  Mecca  in  the  year  570  a.d.  (some  put 
it  571).  His  father,  Abdallah,  son  of  Abd  al 
Muttahb,  had  died  several  months  before  birth 
of  the  boy,  leaving  Amina,  his  mother,  with 
a  dwelling  house,  five  camels,  and  a  slave  girl, 
0mm  Ayman,  which  made  a  competency  ac- 
cording to  Arab  ideas.  The  boy  seems  at  a 
very  early  age  to  have  been  sent  out  to  be 
nursed,  as  was  the  custom  at  Mecca,  in  one 
of  the  numerous  Bedouin  tribes  in  the 
vicinity,  and  he  was  cared  for  thus  for  four 
years  by  a  woman  named  Halima  of  the 
Banu  Sad  tribe.  This  experience  was  doubt- 
less of  great  value  to  Mohammed,  familiar- 
izing him  with  the  freer  Arab  life  of  the  des- 
ert and  with  a  purer  dialect  than  the  one  used 
in  Mecca.  The  physical  effect  must  have 
been  beneficial  also,  for  the  boy  seems  to  have 
shown  weakness  of  body  at  an  early  date,  and 
even  in  the  healthful  life  of  an  Arab  encamp- 
ment was  subject  to  what  appeared  to  be  fits. 
Although  Mohammed  grew  up  to  be  a  strong, 
well-framed  man,  there  were  undoubtedly  cer- 
tain tendencies  to  nervous  states  which  bor- 
dered on  melancholia  and  epileptic  seizures. 
When  six  years  of  age  he  lost  his  mother, 
who  died  as  they  were  returning  from  a  visit 
to  Tathrib  (called  afterward  el  Medina  = 
"  the  city").  The  boy  was  then  taken  care  of 
by  his  grandfather,  Abd  al  Muttahb,  until  the 
death  of  the  old  man,  two  years  later.  Mo- 
hammed's uncle,  Abu  Talib,  then  succeeded 
to  the  guardianship.  At  twelve  years  of  age 
the  growing  youth  accompanied  his  uncle  on 
a  trading  expedition  to  Syria,  and  received 
his  first  impressions  of  the  outlying  world. 
Little  is  known  of  his  youth  except  that  he 
attended  the  annual  fair  at  Okatz,  tended 
sheep  on  the  hill-sides  about  Mecca,  and  was 
interested  in  tribal  feuds  and  in  the  politics 
of  his  native  city.  He  was  reserved  and  tem- 
perate. As  he  grew  into  manhood  his  pov- 
erty-stricken uncle  sought  occupation  for  his 
nephew,  and  so  the  young  man  was  sent,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five,  with  a  caravan  owned 
by  a  wealthy  widow,  Khadija,  to  Syria.  He 
was  very  successful  in  bartering  the  goods, 
and  gained  the  favor  of  Khadija,  who,  though 
forty  years  of  age,  married  him,  much  against 
the  will  of  her  father.  This  marriage,  which 
turned  out  happily,  was  the  making  of  Mo- 
hammed. It  gave  him  a  standing  in  the  com- 
munity, leisure  in  which  to  work  out  his  mis- 
sion, and  above  all  a  confidante  in  his  spiritual 
struggles.      He  is  represented  as  having  a 


spare  but  commanding  presence,  large,  pierc- 
ing black  eyes,  aquiline  nose,  long,  bushy 
beard,  strong  passions  well  controlled,  de- 
cision, pungency  of  speech,  great  kindness 
of  manner,  bat  with  a  will  tittedto  command 
all  who  came  in  contact  with  him.  Khadija 
was  the  first  one  to  understand  him  and  to 
encourage  him  in  his  aspirations.  She  bore 
him  two  sons  and  four  daughters,  and  Mo- 
hammed remained  true  to  her  until  her  death, 
twenty-five  years  after  their  marriage.  On 
the  death  of  his  infant  son,  Mohammed 
adopted  his  cousin,  Ali,  son  of  Abu  Talib,  and 
later  adopted  Zeid,  a  slave  boy  given  him  by 
his  wife. 

Thus  married  life  went  on  quietly  with 
Mohammed  at  Mecca.  As  he  grew  o'lder  he 
became  more  and  more  disturbed  at  the  laxity 
of  religious  life  about  him.  He  was  approach- 
ing his  fortieth  year.  Oppressed  by  doubt, 
he  spent  days  in  contemplation  in  a  cave  on 
Mount  Hira,  within  three  miles  of  Mecca. 
The  great  realities  of  religious  truth  seized 
more  and  more  firmly  upon  his  ardent  mind. 
He  was  thrown  into  states  of  alternate  dis- 
tress and  ecstasy,  and  at  times  contemplated 
suicide  as  his  only  escape  from  misery.  He 
found  a  helpful  counsellor  in  Khadija,  hi» 
wife,  who  persuaded  him  that  the  strange 
ideas  that  came  to  him  were  inspirations 
from  good  angels  rather  than  from  demons. 
He  gradually  gained  confidence  in  himself. 
The  earlier  suras  (chapters)  of  the  Koran  were 
put  into  writing,  and  seem  to  indicate  that  he 
was  sincere  in  his  earlier  conduct.  His  first 
converts  were  of  those  who  knew  him  best — 
Khadija,  Zeid,  0mm  Ayman,  Ali,  and  Abu 
Bekr.  Now  began  the  public  ministry  of 
Mohammed.  He  called  the  people  to  "Is- 
lam" (submission),  preached  against  image 
veneration  and  polytheism,  and  proclaimed 
the  unity  of  the  godhead  and  the  day  of  judg- 
ment. Persecution  set  in,  and  the  new  con- 
verts, especially  those  that  were  slaves,  suf- 
fered. Fifteen  of  them  fled  for  refuge  to 
Abyssinia,  where  they  were  protected  at  the 
Christian  court  of  the  Negus.  After  a  slight 
wavering  Mohammed  sternly  denounced  idol- 
atry afresh.  Abu  Talib,  imcle  of  the  proph- 
et, although  not  a  convert  to  the  new  faith, 
defended  Mohammed  against  his  Koreish  ene- 
mies. Hamza  and  Omar  joined  his  ranks. 
The  disciples  of  Islam  were  boycotted  and 
close  shut  up  in  a  quarter  of  the  city,  except 
at  the  pilgrimage  season,  for  three  years. 
The  prophet  seems  during  this  time  to  have 
carefully  studied  Jewish  subjects  and  embod- 
ied them  in  the  Koran.  At  last  the  ban  was 
removed  and  the  persecuted  Muslims  let 
loose.  Mohammed  was  now  fifty-one  j^ears 
old.  Khadija  sickened  and  died  and  Abu 
Talib  followed  her  soon.  The  prophet  turns 
to  see  if  he  can  get  a  foothold  outside  of  Mec- 
ca. He  preaches  in  vain  at  Tayif.  He  has 
better  success  with  inquirers  from  Medina 
(Yathrib),  a  city  founded  by  Jews  and  Arabs, 
250  miles  north  of  Mecca.  After  a  year  of 
anxious  waiting  he  pledges  a  dozen  leading 
citizens  of  Medina  at  Acaba,  near  Mecca,  who 
return  and  proclaim  the  new  doctrine.  They 
send  back  to  Mecca  for  a  teacher  of  the  Koran, 
and  the  result  is  a  rapid  spread  of  Islam  in 


MOHAMMED 


(599) 


MOHAMMED 


the  new  soil.  At  Mecca  bitter  antAgonistn 
continues.  The  spread  of  liis  doctrine  to  tlic 
north  directs  Mohammed's  attention  to  the 
still  more  northern  regions,  Byzantine  and 
Persian.  He  now  seems  to  have  come  into 
contact  with  Christian  influences  and  learned 
in  a  distorted  way  many  of  the  facts  of  the 
gospel  story.  He  accepts  Christ  as  the  jMes- 
siah  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  thus  be- 
comes more  Christian  than  Jewish.  The 
famous  nightly  visit  to  Jerusalem  and  the  as- 
cent to  heaven  now  is  spoken  of.  A  second 
deputation  from  ^Medina  and  continued  oppo- 
sition at  Mecca  decides  ^Moliammed  to  remove 
with  his  followers  to  the  more  northern  citj'. 
Stealthily  arrangements  are  made,  and  the  150 
disciples  leave  the  city.  Mohammed,  Abu 
Bekr,  and  Ali  are  the  last  to  go,  and,  although 
closely  pursued,  successfully  make  their  es- 
cape. This  episode  occurred  in  June,  622, 
and  is  called  the  Hegira  ("  immigration"). 

The  Muslims  were  given  a  triumphal  entry 
into  Medina,  and  Mohammed  became  the  lead- 
ing citizen.  A  mosque  was  built,  weekly 
services  set  for  Friday,  the  Kibla,  at  lirst 
Jerusalem,  was  changed  to  Mecca,  and  the 
devout  were  instructed  to  pray  facing  in  that 
direction,  the  voice  of  the  Muezzin  called  the 
people  to  prayer,  the  fast  of  Ramadhan  was 
established,  and  all  the  other  customs  of  the 
Muslim  service  now  first  saw  the  light. 
There  were  four  parties  in  the  city  :  (1)  the 
refugees  from  3Iecca,  (2)  the  converts  in 
Medina,  (3)  the  disaft'ected  ("hypocrites"), 
and  (4)  the  Jews.  For  some  time  Mohammed 
sought  to  win  over  the  last-named  faction, 
but  failing  in  this,  he  began  a  series  of  per- 
secutions that  destroyed  their  wealth  and 
power.  Mohammed  seems  to  have  become 
more  of  a  politician  and  less  of  a  religious  re- 
former. Although  living  in  great  simplicity, 
he  took  to  himself  a  larger  number  of  wives 
than  he  allowed  his  followers  (four),  and  can- 
not be  vindicated  from  the  charge  of  sensual- 
ism. Passing  caravans  from  ilecca  began  to 
tempt  the  cupidity  of  the  "  faithful."  Forays 
took  place  at  the  instigation  of  Mohammed. 
War  against  unbelievers  was  sanctioned  by 
new  revelations  in  the  Koran.  The  battle  of 
Bedr  (Jan.  13,  624)  was  the  first  decisive  con- 
test between  Mohammed  and  the  Koreish 
faction  at  Mecca.  The  Meccan  army,  under 
Abu  Sofian,  fled  1000  before  300,  and  when 
the  head  of  Abu  Jahl  was  cast  at  the  proph- 
et's feet,  he  exclaimed,  "  God,  there  is  none 
other.  The  head  of  his  enemy  is  better  to 
me  than  the  best  camel  in  all  Arabia."  As- 
sassination was  adopted  as  legitimate  in  the 
contests  with  the  Jews.  Tiie  following  year 
Medina  was  besieged  by  a  ^leccan  army,'  the 
Muslims  suffered  a  reverse  inider  the  diffs  of 
Ohud,  but  the  enemy  was  at  leiiixtii  obliged  to 
retire.  These  reverses,  however,  weakened 
Muslim  influence  among  the  surrounding 
Arab  tribes.  Medina  was  again  besieged  (627 
A.D.)  by  a  combined  army  of  Bedouins  and 
Meccans,  but  by  skilful  handling  on  the  part 
of  Mohammed  di.ssensions  broke  out  among 
the  allies  and  the  siege  was  raised.  Various 
e.xpeditions  against  the  Jews  and  hostile  Arab 
tribes  ensued  during  the  next  few  years.  A 
desire  to  revisit  Mecca  grew  strong  in  the 


prophet.  A  treaty  was  made  with  the  Ko- 
reish, which  enabled  him  to  accomplish  the 
lesser  pilgrimage  in  Feb. ,  629  a.d.  Embassies 
were  sent  to  distant  powers — to  Heraclius, 
the  Byzantine  emperor,  to  the  Persian  king,  to 
various  Arab  tribes,  Christian  and  heathen, 
as  well  to  Egypt  and  Abyssinia.  Mohammed 
proclaimed  the  unity  of  God,  himself  as  the 
prophet  of  God,  and  the  necessity  for  all  men 
to  embrace  "  Islam."  The  influence  of  Mo- 
hammed was  spreading  in  every  direction. 
Khalid.  Amru,  and  Omar  led  successful  ex- 
peditions and  trained  the  3Iuslims  to  arm,s. 
In  630  A.D.  ^Mohammed  felt  strong  enough  to 
march  on  ]Mecca.  Bedouin  allies  flocked  to 
3Iedina.  The  army  numbered  10,000  men. 
A  stealthy  move  upon  Meccii  (Jan.  1,  630 
A.D.)  resulted  in  the  utter  surprise  of  the 
Koreish  faction,  and  the  city  surrendered  with 
only  a  slight  struggle.  The  idols  in  the 
Kaaba  were  destroyed  and  the  venerated 
building  was  turned  into  a  mosque,  to  be 
ever  after  the  centre  of  the  faith  of  Islam. 
The  prophet  dealt  magnanimously  with  his 
old  foes,  and  finally  .seems  to  have  won  them 
all  over  to  his  ranks. 

He  now  was  in  a  position  to  seek  a  wider 
horizon.  With  Mecca  and  the  Kaaba  in  his 
hands,  Mohammed  was  ready  to  unify  the 
Arabian  peninsula.  He  first  marched,  with 
an  army  of  12,000,  on  Tayif,  70  miles  east  of 
Mecca.  After  the  hotly  contested  but  suc- 
ces.sful  battle  at  Honein  he  besieged  the  city. 
As  a  matter  of  policy  the  siege  was  raised 
after  a  fortnight,  and  the  prophet  had  to  ap- 
pease his  army  by  large  gifts.  He  retired  to 
Medina.  Rumors  of  a  threatened  attack 
from  the  north  caused  the  sending  of  an  ex- 
pedition in  tliut  direction,  but  no  fighting  was 
done.  A  little  later  Tayif  submitted  volun- 
tarily to  the  faith.  Embassies  came  to  Medina 
from  all  parts  of  the  peninsula,  and  Islam  was 
embraced  l)y  nearly  all  the  tribes.  Jews  and 
Christians  were  made  tributary  and  their  ex- 
clusive claims  contemptuously  thrust  aside. 
Treaties,  however,  were  made  with  Christian 
tribes.  In  March,  632  a.d.,  Mohammed 
made  the  "  farewell  pilgrimage."  About  this 
time  three  pretenders  arose  to  contest  the 
claim  of  Mohammed  to  undisputed  sway 
over  the  peninsula.  They  were  not  put  down 
until  after  the  prophet's  death,  which  oc- 
curred while  preparations  were  being  made 
for  a  campaign  along  the  Syrian  border.  He 
fell  sick  May  27,  632.  He  is  said  never  to 
have  recovered  fully  from  a  case  of  poisoning, 
which  had  occurred  a"few  years  before.  Tlie 
fever  increased  in  violence.  Abu  Bekr  led 
the  prayers  in  the  moisque.  The  prophet  left 
his  bed  and  staggered  to  the  place  of  assem- 
bly. After  a  fesv  words  to  the  people  he  re- 
turned exhausted,  and  expired  soon  after  in 
tlie  arms  of  Ayesha,  his  favorite  wife,  June  8, 
632.  Abu  Bekr  was  chosen  Kaliph  ("suc- 
cessor"), and  led  in  the  solemn  burial  service. 
Thus  was  l)rought  to  a  close  the  life  of  the 
greatest  man  Arabia  ever  produced,  and  who 
was  destined  (as  far  as  numbers  are  concerned) 
to  have  a  greater  personal  influence  in  the 
world  than  any  other  mere  man.  Islam  re- 
ceived its  stamp  from  his  personality,  and 
must  vanish  when  that  personality  loses  its 


MOHAMMED 


(600) 


MOtlAMMED 


force.  "  There  is  no  God  but  God,  and  Mo- 
hammed is  the  prophet  of  God. " 

The  severest  test  of  Islam  came  immediately 
after  the  prophet's  death,  when  revolts  broke 
out  all  over  the  peninsula.  The  firm  govern- 
ment of  Abu  Bekr  and  the  skill  of  Khalid  and 
Amru  restored  order,  while  the  last  warlikij 
command  of  the  prophet,  to  bring  the  whole 
world  to  Islam,  gave  a  new  impetus  to  Arab 
unity.  Under  the  early  Kaliphs,  Abu  Bckr 
(682-34).  Omar  (634-44),  Othman  (644-50), 
and  Ali  (656-61),  the  Arabs  poured  forth 
from  their  desert  home  and  conquered  Persia 
(633-37),  Syria  and  Palestine  (634-38),  Egypt 
(641),  and  made  progress  along  North  Africa. 
Under  the  Omayyad  dynasty  (666-750), 
which  followed,  the  capital  was  changed 
from  Medina  to  Damascus.  The  Muslim 
world  extended  rapidly  in  every  direction. 
The  central  regions  of  Asia  were  penetratetl 
and  various  tribes  of  Turks  converted.  After 
a  sharp  struggle  Christianity  in  North  Africa 
went  down,  and  in  711  the  Arabs  crossed  to 
Spain  and  swept  victoriously  up  to  Totirs 
(733).  Constantinople  was  twice  besieged 
(668  and  717).  Within  eighty  years  after  the 
death  of  Mohammed  Islam  ruled  over  a  ter- 
ritory larger  than  the  Roman  Empire  in  its 
palmiest  days.  The  Abbassid  dynasty  (750- 
1258)  ruled'  at  Baghdad.  Cordova  was  the 
seat  of  the  Western  Kaliphate.  Although 
the  aggressive  force  of  Islam  seemed  spent 
and  the  empire  divided,  conquests  went  on. 
India  was  entered  in  1001,  and  Islam  con- 
trolled the  northern  parts  of  the  peninsula 
until  1526.  In  the  mean  time  the  Seljuk  and 
Ottoman  Turks  began  to  move  westward. 
Constantinople  fell  in  1453,  and  the  victorious 
armies  swept  up  to  Vienna.  By  1492  Islam 
was  crowded  out  of  Spain  by  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic.  After  the  invention  and  use  of  the 
bayonet  the  Turks  began  to  recede  from  the 
Occident,  and  to-day  have  but  a  fragment  of 
Southeastern  Europe.  Since  the  crusades 
(the  motive  of  which  was  to  rescue  Palestine 
from  the  Mohammedans)  great  advance  has 
been  made  by  Islam  in  Northern  and  Central 
Africa.  The  latest  data  place  the  number  of 
Muslims  at  200,000,000—30,000,000  in  China, 
50,000,000  in  India,  10,000,000  in  Southeast 
Asia  and  Afghanistan,  10,000,000  in  Persia 
and  Asian  Russia,  30,000,000  in  Turkey, 
and  the  rest  in  North  and  Central  Africa. 
For  several  centuries  progress  has  been  made 
mainly  by  the  peaceful  measures  of  mission- 
aries, especially  in  India  and  Africa,  where 
considerable  gains  ar  *  being  made  to-day. 
Christianity  has  made  little  or  no  headway  in 
winning  Mohammedans,  although  solid  foun- 
dations have  been  laid  for  future  work.  The 
greatest  progress  in  this  line  has  been  made 
in  Sumatra  by  the  Dutch  missionaries,  and 
the  printing-press  at  Beyrout,  Syria,  is  send- 
ing forth  in  Arabic  a  Christian  literature  that 
grows  more  and  more  effective  as  the  19th 
century  opens  the  way.     See  Missions. 

Islam  is  a  book  religion.  The  Koran  ("  the 
reading")  is  of  about  the  size  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  has  114  suras  or  chapters, 
some  long  and  others  very  short.  These 
were  written  down  by  Mohammed  at  various 
intervals  from  his  fortieth  year  to  his  death. 


He  said'they  were  communicated  to  him  from 
heaven  by  an  angel,  and  are  identical  with  the 
heavenly  Koran  ;  hence  the  Koran  is  ac- 
counted a  divine  book  in  a  different  sense 
than  the  Christian  Bible  is.  Mohammed  left 
these  "  divine"  utterances  in  a  very  fragmen- 
tary condition  at  his  death.  His  devout  fol- 
lowers gathered  the.se  up,  and  during  the  fol- 
lowing decades  they  were  embodied  in  the 
Koran  as  we  have  it  to-day.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  opening  piayer  (the  Fethah)  the 
longest  suras  were  placed  first  and  so  on 
down  to  the  shortest.  It  has  been  a  fine  bit 
of  higher  criticism  to  arrange  the  Koran 
chronologically.  The  Koran  is  at  once  the 
creed,  the  code  of  laws,  and  the  liturgy  of 
Islam.  Its  prominent  doctrines  are  :  (1)  The 
singleness  of  the  personality  of  God  as  con- 
trasted with  polytheism,  pantheism,  and  the 
Christian  Trinity  ;  (2)  the  inspiration  of  the 
Koran  ;  (3)  general  resurrection  and  future 
judgment ;  (4)  future  rewards  and  punishment, 
(5)  absolute  decrees  of  God  and  predestination 
of  good  and  evil  ;  (6)  jMohanmied,  the  prophet 
of  God.  The  four  fundamental  points  of  reli- 
gious practice  are — (a)  prayer,  {b)  alms,  {c)  fast- 
ing, and  {d)  pilgrimage.  The  Koran  forbids 
the  drinking  of  wine  and  spirituous  liquors, 
the  use  of  lots  and  games  of  chance,  usury  and 
infanticide.  It  attempts  to  regulate  polyg- 
amy, to  stop  licentiousness,  to  mitigate 
slavery,  and,  in  fact,  enters  minutely  into  the 
daily  life  of  its  votaries  and  gives  niechanical 
rules  for  almost  every  act  of  life.  It  com- 
mands war  against  infidels,  institutes  Friday 
as  the  sacred  day,  and  regulates  the  fasts  and 
feasts  of  Muslims.  The  whole  system  im- 
proved the  condition  of  the  Arabs,  but  drew 
hard  and  fast  lines,  -which  made  further  prog- 
ress practically  impossible.  The  severe  aspect 
of  God  and  the  inexorableness  of  fate  have 
given  a  stern,  morose,  and  intolerant  cast  to 
the  Muslim  world.  Besides  the  Koran  there 
are  secondary  sources  of  authority,  such  as 
the  "  traditions"  and  the  ancient  commentaries 
on  the  Koran. 

Elements  of  incongruity  and  discord  soon 
appeared,  and  by  the  time  the  Eastern  Kali 
phate  broke  up  the  Muslim  world  was  not 
only  divided  into  two  hostile  theological 
camps,  but  these  divisions  were  minutely  sub- 
divided, so  that  Islam  to-day  has  more  sects 
than  the  Christian  Church,  and  these  are 
much  more  mutually  intolerant  than  are  the 
Christian  sects.  The  two  great  divisions  in 
Islam  are  :  (1)  The  Sunnites  (orthodox)  and  (2) 
the  Shi'ites  ("  sect"  or  "  party").  The  latter 
division,  although  not  comprising  more  than 
one  twentieth  of  the  Muslim  world,  is  subdi- 
vided into  32  distinct  sects,  with  others  less 
distinct.  It  arose  after  the  assassination  of 
Ali,  whose  two  sous  Hasan  and  Hoosain  were 
ruthlessly  killed.  The  Shi'ite  division  dis- 
allows the  Kaliphates  of  Abu  Bekr,  Omar 
and  Othman,  and  claims  that  Ali  was  the 
first  true  "successor"  of  Mohammed.  It 
is  found  mainly  in  Persia  (an  Aryan  nation) 
and  among  the  upper  classes.  The  Turks, 
Africans,  and  Arabs  proper  are  mostly  Sun- 
nites. There  are  to  be  distinguished  over 
forty  sects  in  this  division.  The  Sultan  of 
the  Turkish  Empire  is  the  nominal  Kaliph, 


MOHLER 


(601) 


MOLINOS 


but  he  has  little  or  no  real  control  outside  his 
own  state.  Temporal  power  has  on  the  whole 
proved  injurious  to  Islam.  Muslims  under 
Christian  rule  (as  in  India)  fare  better  than 
under  their  own  rule.  Total  loss  of  temporal 
power  will  probablj-  strengthen  rather  ihan 
weaken  Mohammedanism. 

The  sect  of  the  Wahhabees  in  Central 
Arabia  (the  Protestants  of  Islam)  during  the 
last  century  and  the  early  years  of  this  made 
a  considerable  commotion  until  they  were 
forcibly  put  down  by  the  Khedive  of  Egypt. 
Thev  seek  to  do  away  entirely  with  tradition 
and  go  back  to  the  simplicity  of  the  Koran. 
This  movement,  though  checked,  bids  fair  to 
mov-e  steadily  forward  and  transform  Islam. 
Henky  Woouwaud  IIulbert. 

Literature. — Of  course  the  chief  source 
of  information  in  regard  to  Mohammedanism 
is  the  Koran.  This  the  religion  of  Islam  for- 
bids to  print,  but  lithographed  copies  are 
made  and  freely  used,  even  in  the  great  uni- 
versity at  Cairo.  It  has,  however,  been 
printed  by  Christians,  best  ed.  by  Fliigel, 
Leipzig,  1834,  rev.  ed.  by  Redslob,  1837  sqq.  ; 
Eng.  trans,  by  George  Sale  (London,  1784. 
often  since,  the  standard  translation,  with 
valuable  introduction)  ;  J.  M.  Rod  well  (1861, 
2d  ed.,  1876)  and  E.  H.  Palmer  (1880,  2 
vols.).  Of  the  lives  of  Mohammed,  those  by 
Sir  William  Muir  (London,  1858-61)  and  A. 
Sprenger  (in  German,  Berlin,  1861-65,  2d  ed., 
1869,  S  vols.)  are  the  best.  On  the  religion 
and  history  of  Islam,  E.  A.  Freeman,  History 
and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens,  1856,  3d  ed., 
1876  ;  R.  Bos  worth  Smith,  Mohammed  and 
Mohammedanism,  London,  1874,  3d  ed.,  1889  ; 
Osborn,  Islam  Under  the  Arabs,  1876  ;  Osborn, 
Islam  Under  the  Ehalifs  of  Baghdad,  1877  ; 
Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  1877  ; 
M.  Dods,  Mohammed,  Buddha  and  Christ, 
1877,  4th  ed.,  1887  ;  Koelle,  Mohammed  and 
Mohammedanism,  1889  ;  W.  Muir,  Mahomet 
and  Islam,  1884  ;  T.  P.  Hughes,  Dictionary 
of  Islam,  1885. 

Mohler,  Johann  Adam,  one  of  the  princi- 
pal representatives  of  modern  Roman  Catho- 
lic theology  ;  b.  at  Igersheim,  Wiirtemberg, 
Mav  6,  1796  ;  d.  at  Wurzburg,  April  12, 
1838  ;  studied  theology  at  Tiibingen,  but 
visited  also  other,  even  Protestant  universi- 
ties ;  began  to  lecture  on  church  history  at 
Tubingen  in  1823  ;  was  appointed  professor 
there  in  1828,  and  removed  to  Munich  in  1835. 
His  principal  work  is  Symbolism  ;  or,  the  Doc- 
trinal Differences  between  Catholics  and  Prot- 
estants, Mayence,  1832,  Eng.  trans,  by  J.  R. 
I^obertson,  London,  1843,  New  York,  1844, 
2  vols.,  which  caused  a  long  and  sharp  con- 
troversy with  the  Protestant  theologians,  espe- 
ciallv  F.  C.  Baur.  Among  his  other  works 
are  l>ie  Einheit  der  Kirche  oder  das  Pnncipdes 
Katholicismus,  Tiibingen,  1825  ;  Athanasius, 
Mayence,  1827,  etc.  He  was  entirely  out- 
side of  and  probably  strongly  opposed  to  the 
Hermesian  movement.  (See  Strauss,  Kleine 
Schriften,  Leipzig.  1862.) 

Mo'-Iech  (a  kinq)  (Lev.  xviii.  21),  or  Mil- 
conul  Kings  xi.  5).  or  Moloch  (Acts  vii.  43), 
the  name  of  a  god  worshipped  by  the  Amonites 


with  human  sacrifices,  especially  children. 
The  Israelites  introduced  this  worship,  if  not 
during  the  Error  in  the  "Wilderness  (Amos  v. 
25),  yet  afterward  in  Palestine  (2  Kings  xxiii. 
10,  Ezek.  XX.  26,  Jer.  vii.  31.  xix.  5.  xxxii. 
35,  Ps.  cvi.  37,  38).  The  Rabbins  say  that 
children  were  cast  alive  into  the  red-hot  arms 
of  a  hollow,  brazen,  calf -headed  statue  of  the 
deity.  According  to  the  Scriptures  just  cited, 
the  worship  of  ^Moloch  seems  to  have  been 
closely  associated  with  that  of  the  Moabitish 
Chemosh  and  with  Baal.  'Phe  Pha'niciaus, 
whose  chief  god  was  Baal,  and  the  Carthagin- 
ians, their  colonists,  worshipped  his  image 
with  like  horrid  sacrifices.  T.  W.  C. 

Molina,  Luis,  b.  at  Cuenca,  84  m.  s.e.  of 
Madrid,  Spain,  1535  ;  d.  in  Madrid,  Oct.  12, 
1661  ;  entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  ;  was  for 
20  years  teacher  of  theology  at  Evoia,  and 
became  finally  professor  in  ^Jladrid.  In  1588 
he  published  Liberi  Arbitrii  cum  Oratim 
Bonis  ....  Concordia,  which,  in  the  form 
of  a  commentary  on  certain  propositions  from 
the  Summa  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  attempted  to 
reconciliate  the  views  of  Augustine  with  the 
reigning  semi-Pelagian  conception.  The 
book  made  a  great  sen.sation  and  became  a 
party  issue  between  the  Jesuits  and  the 
Dominicans.  In  1598  the  Conc/regatio  de 
auxiliis  gratia'  w:is  formed  to  decide  the 
question,  but  it  soon  became  evident  that  it 
would  be  as  dangerous  to  the  Roman  Chuich 
to  condemn  Molina's  book  as  to  accept  it,  and 
in  1611  Paul  W  forbade  all  further  strife,  and 
postponed  the  decision  to  some  more  con- 
venient moment.  (See  Schneemann,  Die  Ent- 
stehung  und  Entwickeluny  der  thomistisch- 
violinistischen  Kontroverse,  Freiburg  in  Breis- 
gau,  1880.)  C.  P. 

Molinos,  Miguel  de,  b.  at  Patacina,  near 
Saragossa,  Spain,  Dec.  21,  1640  :  d.  in  Rome, 
in  the  dungeons  of  the  Inquisition,  Dec.  28, 
1697  ;  descended  from  a  noble  Aragonese 
family  :  was  educated  for  the  church  and  or- 
dained priest  ;  settled  in  Rome,  1670,  and  be- 
came the  confessor  of  the  pope,  the  cardinals, 
etc.  In  1675  his  Onida  Spirit uale  was  pub- 
lished in  Spanish  in  Rome,  and  soon  followed 
by  his  Brere  trattalo  della  cottidiana  com- 
viunione  in  Italian.  The  book  made  an  enor- 
mous sensation,  and  was  translated  into  Ital- 
ian, German,  French,  English,  and  Latin  ;  but 
its  object  being  to  reduce  religion  from  an 
ostentatious,  noisy  outwardness  of  ceremonies 
and  forms  to  a  silent  inwardness  of  spiritual 
contemplation,  this  Spanish  "quietism" 
showed  a  certain  affinity  with  French  Jansen- 
ism, German  pietism,  English  Quakerism, 
etc.,  which  startled  the  Jesuits.  They  at- 
tacked the  book,  and  the  Inquisition  was 
compelled  to  take  notice  of  the  controversy. 
Molinos'  social  position,  however,  was  such 
that  the  Inquisition  saw  fit  to  acquit  him. 
But  the  Jesuits  continued  the  attacks,  and 
supplemented  them  with  intrigues.  In  1685 
the  Inquisition  was  compelled  to  take  up  the 
case  a  second  time.  Molinos  was  arrested, 
tortured  until  he  recanted,  condemned  to  life- 
long imprisonment,  etc.  (See  John  Bigelow, 
■  -  ■  ■  —  yf,rk.  1SS2,  and 
itual  Guide  of 


Molinos  the  Quietist,   New  Yorl 
Golden  Tliouglds,  from  the  Spirit 


MOLOKANI 


(602) 


MONARCHIANISM 


Molinos,  ed.  by  J.  H.  Shortliouse,  Neu-  York, 
1883.)  C.  P. 

Molokani.    See  Russian  Sects. 

MSller,  Heinrich,  generally  called  Hein- 
rich  von  Zytphen,  because  he  was  a  native 
of  Zytphen,  Holland,  b.  in  1488  ;  burnt  at  the 
stake  at  Heide,  Holstein,  Dec.  11,  1524  ;  one 
of  the  earliest  Protestant  martyrs.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Augustine  order  ;  visited  the 
University  of  Wittenberg  in  1515,  and  became 
a  friend  of  Luther  ;  was  successively  prior  of 
an  Augustine  convent  at  Dort  and  sub-prior 
of  another  Augustine  convent  at  Antwerp, 
but  had  to  flee  for  his  life  in  1520,  pursued 
by  the  Inquisition.  He  then  became  pastor 
of  Bremen,  and,  having  introduced  the  Refor- 
mation there,  he  went  into  Holstein  and  be- 
gan to  preach  at  Heide.  But  there  he  was  over- 
taken by  a  mob  led  by  the  monks,  fearfully 
mutilated,  and  finally  burnt  as  a  heretic.  (See 
his  life  by  O.  Wiesuer,  Berlin,  1884.) 

Mombert,  Jacob  Isidor,  D.D.  (University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1866),  b.  at  Cassel,  Germany, 
Nov.  6,  1829  ;  studied  at  Leipzig  and  Heidel- 
berg ;  became  curate  at  Quebec,  Canada, 
1857  ;  rector  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1859  ;  Amer- 
ican chaplain,  Dresden,  Saxony,  1869  ;  since 
1875  has  lived  in  America  and  devoted  him- 
self to  literary  work.  He  has  written  Faith 
Victorious  (life  of  Johann  Ebel),  New  York, 
1882  ;  Handbook  of  the  English  Version  of  the 
Bible,  1883,  3ded.,  1890  ;  Great  Lims,  Boston, 
1886 ;  Life  of  Charles  the  Great,  New  York, 
1889;  ihe  Crusades,  1891. 

Momiers,  or  Mummers  {hypocrites),  was 
the  name  given,  in  spite,  to  that  party  in 
Switzerland  which,  in  the  second  decade  of 
the  present  century,  broke  loose  from  the 
reigning  rationalism,  and,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Cesar  Malan,  Robert  Haldaue,  etc., 
returned  to  the  old,  strict  Calvinism.  (See 
Geschichte  des  Momiers,  Basle,  1825   2  parts.) 

Monachism.     See  Monastery. 

Monarchianism,  a  doctrine  emphasizing 
the  unity,  or  monarchy,  of  God,  and  opposed 
in  one  way  or  another  to  the  church  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity.  The  growth  of  theology  in 
the  church  was  conditioned  by  the  circum- 
stances of  the  times.  A  personal  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ  as  Saviour  did  not  necessitate 
complete  views  as  to  his  nature,  and  these 
were  not  found  in  the  earliest  periods  among 
the  teachers  of  the  church.  Justin  Martyr, 
who  was  a  philosopher  as  well  as  a  Christian, 
exhibits  evidence  of  some  reflection  upon  the 
problems  suggested  by  the  exalted  nature  of 
Christ,  but  as  late  as  180  it  may  be  said  in 
general  that  two  things  alone  were  to  be  re- 
garded as  established  .  some  form  of  pre-ex- 
istence  on  the  part  of  Christ  against  those 
who  maintained  an  essentially  Jewish  doc- 
trine, and  the  real  birth  of  Christ  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  against  the  Gnostics.  That  Christ 
was  God  was  the  common  confession  of  the 
church,  but  the  meaning  of  this  phrase  was 
not  entirely  settled.  The  increase  of  the 
speculative  spirit  in  the  church,  wliich  ap- 
pears in  the  writings  of  the  apologists,  led  to 
more  prolonged  consideration  of  the  relation 


of  the  Logos  to  the  creation  of  the  world,  but 
the  main  current  of  thought  upon  this  sub- 
ject was  directed  by  a  purely  theological  in- 
terest. Two  tendencies  were,  in  the  nature  of 
the  case,  necessary,  one  of  which  v/ould  em- 
phasize the  unity  of  God,  from  which  Mon- 
archianism sprung,  the  otlier  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  from  which  the  church  doctrine  was 
developed  ;  and  these  two  tendencies  appear 
also  within  the  monarchian  school  itself,  giv- 
ing us  a  dynamistic  Monarchianism,  which, 
conceives  that  the  special  power,  or  the  spirit 
of  God,  dwelt  in  Jesus,  and  a  modalistic,  which, 
conceives  that  the  deity  itself  was  incarnate 
in  him. 

The  earliest  traces  of  a  monarchian  party 
in  the  church  are  found  in  the  so-called  Alogi, 
who  arose  in  Asia  Minor,  and  whose  chief  sig- 
nificance lies  in  their  opposition  to  the  Mon- 
tanists.  They  were  strongly  opposed  to  the 
prophetic  pretensions  of  that  sect,  and  refused 
them  the  Christian  name.  They  rejected  the 
gospel  and  tlie  epistles  of  John  because  of  the 
emphasis  they  lay  upon  the  Spirit,  and  the 
Apocalypse  because,  as  they  said,  it  was  un- 
intelligible and  absurd,  as  well  as  untrue. 
They  thought  they  also  detected  the  leaven 
of  Gnosticism  in  the  gospel.  As  to  their 
Christology,  we  only  know  that  they  rejected 
the  Logos  speculations  of  certain  teachers, 
and  emphasized  the  reality  of  the  human 
birth  and  life  of  the  Redeemer.  That  they 
denied  the  supernatural  birth,  or  spake  of 
Christ  as  of  a  mere  man,  are  assertions  with- 
out proof. 

The  second  appearance  of  Monarchianism 
is  in  connection  with  Theodotus,  a  currier, 
from  Bj'zantium,  who  came  to  Rome  about 
the  year  190.  His  party  includes  the  names 
of  Asclepiodotus,  Hermophilus,  Apollonides, 
Theodotus  the  money-changer,  Natalius,  and 
the  Artemonites.  He  may  have  had  some 
connection  with  the  Alogi,  was  of  some  cul- 
ture, but  in  general  little  is  known  as  to  his 
history.  Upon  the  person  of  Christ  he  taught 
that  he  was  a  man,  born  of  the  V^irgin,  by 
supernatural  power,  who  received  the  Holy 
Spirit  at  baptism,  and  was  thus  prepared  for 
his  work,  and  in  consequence  of  this  is  now 
"God."  Their  doctrine  the  Theodotians 
sought  to  establish  from  the  Scriptures,  the 
canon  of  which  they  accepted  without  ques- 
tion. They  handled  the  Scriptures  somewhat 
freely,  and  busied  themselves  with  science  in 
connection  with  their  theological  studies. 
Theodotus  was  excommunicated  by  Victor 
(189  to  199),  and  his  followers  attempted  to 
found  a  separate  church,  but  without  success. 
Twentj^  or  thirty  years  later,  Artemas  made 
another  effort  to  establish  this  form  of  Chris- 
tology, but  failed  again. 

The  third  appearance  of  Monarchianism  is 
under  the  lead  of  Paul  of  Samosata,  bishop 
of  Antioch  from  about  260.  Little  is  known 
of  his  life.  He  was  probably  procurator  for 
Zenobia,  to  whose  kingdom  Antioch  belonged 
at  this  time,  and  continued  in  office  till  the 
city  was  taken  by  Aurelian  in  272,  though 
excommunicated  by  a  synod  in  268.  The 
principal  points  in  his  theology  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  God  is  to  be  conceived  as  strictly 
unipersonal,     We  may  distinguish  a  Logos 


MONARCHIANISM 


(603) 


MONASTERY 


(Son)  in  God,  and  a  Wisdom  (Holy  Ghost), 
which  are,  liowever,  not  different  from  God 
or  from  each  other.  The  Logos  is  an  imper- 
sonal power  of  God.  It  has  operated  in  the 
prophets,  in  Moses,  but  most  of  all  in  Christ. 
The  connection  of  the  Logos  with  Christ  is 
that  of  indwelling  by  means  of  inspiration. 
Mary  did  not  give  birth  to  the  Logos,  but  to 
a  man  who  at  his  baptism  was  endued  with 
the  Logos.  He  received  the  Spirit  in  great 
measure,  and  on  account  of  the  unchangeable 
perfection  of  his  character  became  one  with 
God.  Hence  he  received  the  jiowor  of  work- 
ing miracles,  became  the  lledeemer,  was  given 
a  name  above  every  name,  and  is  clothed 
with  divine  honor.  He  has  also  a  certain 
pre- existence  in  the  decree  of  God.  This 
doctrine  disappears  with  the  condemnation  of 
its  author,  except  as  it  reappears  in  those  who 
were  influenced  by  him,  Lucian,  and  some  of 
the  Autiochian  school. 

Tlie  Monarcliianisni  considered  up  to  this 
point  is  dynamistic.  Tiie  modalistic,  which 
appeared  in  Asia  Minor,  Rome,  and  Carthage 
from  about  180  till  240,  was  a  more  danger- 
ous antagonist  of  the  church  doctrine.  JS'oe- 
tus,  who  was  born  in  Smyrna,  propounded 
his  doctrine  in  that  place  or  in  Ephesus,  and 
gained  a  following.  His  pupil,  Epigonus, 
came  to  Rome  about  200,  and  taught  his  doc- 
trine. Cleomenes,  his  pupil,  was  regarded  as 
the  head  of  the  school,  and,  later,  Sabellius. 
Tiieir  principal  opponent  was  Hippolytus, 
and  after  the  whole  controversy  was  brought 
to  an  end  at  Rome,  Noetus  seems  to  have 
been  excommunicated  in  Asia  Minor.  Our 
information  upon  the  exact  doctrine  of  Noetus 
is  scanty.  Tertulliau  mentions  as  the  chief 
representative  of  this  scliool  a  man  whom 
Hippolytus  does  not  mention  at  all,  Praxeas. 
This  teacher  was  also  from  Asia  ]\[inor,  had 
come  to  Rome  before  Epigonus,  and  after  a 
short  stay,  gone  to  Carthage.  Here  he  stirred 
up  some  trouble.  Tertullian's  later  opposition 
against  him  may  have  been  iutensihed  b}' 
Praxeas'  zeal  against  Montanism,  though  at 
the  time  of  Praxeas'  stay  at  Carthage,  Ter- 
tuUiaa  was  still  a  Catholic.  The  treatise 
against  Praxeas  was  written  lifteen  years  sub- 
sequently, when  the  controversy  broke  out 
again  in  "Rome  and  Carthage. 

According  to  Hippolytus,  the  Xoetians 
taught  that  Ciirist  was  the  Father  himself, 
and  tiie  Father  himself  was  born,  suffered, 
and  died.  If  Christ  is  God,  he  must  be  tiie 
Father,  or  he  would  not  be  God.  The  two 
purposes  which  governed  in  the  formulation 
of  this  doctrine  were  to  preserve  the  unit}- 
of  God  and  the  deity  of  Christ.  Hippolytus, 
in  his  reply,  shows  that  an  understanding  of 
the  matter  far  more  in  accord  with  the  later 
church  doctrine  was  already  clearly  taught. 
Praxeas'  teaching  is  somewhat  more  compli- 
cated than  tliat  of  his  predecessors,  but  this 
is  in  consequence  of  the  controversy  amid 
which  it  was  formulated.  The  same  ideas 
are  found  repeated,  but  the  attempt  is  made 
to  show  how  Ciirist  ])ocomes  iu  some  respects 
another  being  from  the  Father.  It  is  the  as- 
sumption of  the  tlcsii  wiiirli  makes  the  Father 
the  Son.  As  Father,  pure  Spirit,  he  cannot 
suffer  ;  but  as  Son— that  is,  God  having  as- 


sumed flesh,  he  has  suffered  along  with  the 
flesh. 

In  the  next  stage,  Monarchianism  appears- 
under  the  lead  of  Sabellius.  He  was  a  Lib- 
yan, from  Pentapolis,  who  came  to  Rome  per- 
haps as  early  as  218,  formed  a  schismatic 
party,  and  exercised  a  great  influence  upon 
the  Eastern  Church,  though  little  upon  tht 
Western.  The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 
His  party  maintained  itself  at  Rome  till  after 
300. 

Sabellius'  doctrine  is  substantially  that  of 
tlie  previous  modalistic  nionarcliians.  Father, 
Son,  and  Spirit  are  the  .same  being,  named 
sometimes  by  Sabellius  the  Son- Father,  to  in- 
dicate that  it  is  the  same  being  who  appears 
as  Father  and  as  Son.  But  this  being  is  not 
simultaneously  Father  and  Son.  These  are 
rather  successive  phenomenal  forms  of  the 
one  essence,  which  appears  as  Creator  and 
Lawgiver,  then  as  Redeemer,  and  then  as 
Giver  of  life.  The  chief  advance  made  by 
SabelLJus  upon  the  older  Monarchianism  lies 
in  the  perfect  similarity  which  he  gives  to 
the  treatment  of  all  three  persons,  and  to  the 
new  emphasis  laid  upon  the  Holy  Spirit.  His 
doctrine  was  soon  recognized  as  dang«"ous, 
and  modified  somewhat  the  course  of  the 
later  development  by  leading  the  church 
teachers  to  insist  upon  the  personal  distinc- 
tion as  well  as  the  identity  of  essence  of  the 
three  persons  in  the  Godhead. 

The  best  comprehensive  treatment  of  the 
topic  is  the  article  by  llarnack  in  Herzog's 
llealencydopddie,  vol.  x.,  pp.  178-213,  though 
it  is  marred  by  the  dogmatic  assumptions  of 
the  Ritschl  school.  (See  also  articles  in  the 
Encydopa'dia  Britdniiicd  by  the  same  writer.) 
The  originals  of  Hippolytus  and  Tertulliau  are 
accessible  in  English  in  the  Ante-Niceue 
Library  of  the  Christian  Literature  Publish- 
ing Company,  New  York,  vols,  iii.,  iv.,  v. 
F.  H.  F. 

Monastery,  Monasticism.     The  traditional 

account  of  the  origin  of  monasticism  is  that 
during  the  Decian  persecution  (249-50)  Paul, 
a  native  of  the  Thebaid,  fled  for  safety  into 
the  Egyptian  desert,  and  having  established 
himself  there,  became  a  perpetual  hermit,  and 
by  his  example  incited  many  others  to  em- 
brace the  same  life.  The  next  famous  monk 
was  Anthony  (q.v.),  who  visited  Paul,  and 
who  became  a  founder  of  monasticism,  w  Inch 
was  developed  by  Pachomius,  who  brought 
the  scattered  monks  together  into  a  monas- 
tery, and  thus  began  the  ccenobitic  life.  The 
early  ideas  upon  which  it  is  claimed  the  insti- 
tution rests  are  disgust  with  the  fearful 
wickedness  of  the  Rornau  world  of  that  day, 
the  desire  to  live  in  the  constant  practice  of 
religion,  and  the  necessity  of  flight  from  the 
allurements  of  the  world  to  secure  these 
ends.  Thus  monasticism  is  conceived  as  a 
natural  and  legitimate  outgrowth  of  the  life 
of  the  church  in  the  3d  century. 

But  monasticism,  resting,  as  it  actually 
does,  upon  an  oriental  confusion  of  the  flesh 
as  such  with  evil,  does  not  appear  to  be  so 
closely  connected  with  a  normally  developing 
Christianity  ;  and  when  we  search  for  the 
evidences  of  the  existence  of  this  early  mo- 


MONASTERY 


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MONASTERY 


nasticism  among  the  historical  monuments  of 
the  3d  and  4th  centuries,  they  are  wanting. 
Eusebius  knows  nothing  of  any  Christian 
monasticism,  and  mentions  no  Anthony, 
though  he  does  mention  that  persecution  in 
Alexandria  in  which  Anthony  is  said  by  his 
biographer  to  have  sought  martyrdom.  We 
are  reduced  for  our  authority  for  the  tra- 
ditional account  to  the  two  works,  the  life  of 
Paul  of  Thebes  by  Jerome,  and  that  of  An- 
thony by  Athanasius.  But  the  former  is  so 
full  of  the  marvellous  as  to  be  unworthy  of 
credit,  and  is  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
unhistorical.  The  life  of  Anthony  is  also  evi- 
dently not  a  work  of  Athanasius,  but  a  didac- 
tic fiction  designed  to  set  forth  the  ideal  of 
monasticism  In  the  person  of  a  reputed 
founder. 

Historically,  then,  the  origin  of  monasti- 
cism must  be  assigned  to  the  4th  century,  and 
the  founder  must  be  taken  as  Pachomius. 
The  influence  of  the  persecutions  in  establish- 
ing it  is,  accordingly,  no  longer  to  be  accept- 
ed, since  their  period  has  now  elapsed.  The 
person  of  Pachomius  points  us  to  the  true  ex- 
planation. Born  about  392,  converted  as  a 
young  man,  he  began  his  monastic  career 
about  330  by  founding  a  monastery  for  the 
common  dwelling  of  a  number  of  monks. 
The  pattern  for  this  establishment  was  given 
by  a  pre-existing  monasticism  connected  with 
the  worship  of  the  Egyptian  Serapis,  located 
in  the  very  region  Mdiere  Pachomius  was 
born.  The  Serapis  monks  had  tlieir  monas- 
teries with  separate  cells,  practised  great 
austerities,  sought  also  "  purity,"  were  di- 
vided into  24  classes,  all  of  which  features, 
and  others  also,  were  copied  in  Pachomius' 
arrangements.  Some  of  the  best  authorities 
upon  this  subject  claim  to  have  shown  that 
Pachomius  had  himself  been  a  monk  of  Ser- 
apis before  his  conversion  to  Christianity. 
Evidently,  then,  monasticism,  which  con- 
tains so  many  heathen  features,  not  only  was 
not  of  Christian,  but  was  of  heathen  origin. 

Monasticism  thus  begun,  and  congenial  as 
it  was  with  Oriental  tendencies,  spread  rap- 
idly throughout  the  East.  There  still  exists 
a  so-called  "  Rule  of  Pfichomius"  (Eng. 
trans,  in  the  Presbyterian  Revieio,  Oct.,  1885), 
which  is  at  least  very  ancient.  Basil  the 
Great,  however,  was  the  one  who  gave  it  the 
"  rule"  upon  which  the  monastic  life  of  the 
East  has  been  modelled  to  the  present  day. 
He  laid  emphasis  upon  the  coenobitic  life 
rather  than  the  anchoretic,  encouraged  the 
contemplative  pietv  characteristic  of  the 
East,  directed  that  the  monasteries  should  be 
built  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns,  drafted  a 
series  of  rules  for  the  government  of  the  daily 
life  of  the  monks,  allotted  different  hours  to 
different  pursuits,  prescribed  a  special  vow 
of  obedience,  and  ordered  that  one  or  two 
clergymen  .should  always  be  connected  with 
a  monastery,  that  the  regular  divine  worship 
should  not  be  omitted.  Thus  he  provided 
against  the  principal  dangers  of  the  system, 
and  gave  it  a  permanent  character.  There 
are  in  the  East  no  "  orders"  to  this  day,  and 
though  hermits  are  common,  monasticism  is 
generally  regulated  by  the  rule  of  Basil. 
Monasticism  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 


into  the  West  by  Athanasius  ;  but  this  story 
falls  with  the  authorship  of  the  life  of  An- 
thony. Jerome  (q.v.)  was  its  true  promoter. 
Augustine,  though  his  doctrines  do  not  natu- 
rally harmonize  with  monasticism,  was  led 
away  by  the  current  of  the  times  to  give  it  a 
modified  support.  Benedict  of  Nursia  (q.v.) 
sustained  the  same  relation  to  Western  mo- 
nasticism as  Basil  to  Eastern.  The  principal 
features  of  his  "  Rule"  are  the  following.  In 
addition  to  the  three  vows  of  obedience, 
chastity,  and  poverty,  already  well  established 
in  monasticism,  he  introduced  the  vow  of 
' '  stability, ' '  by  which  the  monk  was  bound 
to  continue  in  his  profession,  and  to  reside 
for  life  in  tlie  monastery  in  which  he  was  pro- 
fessed. Each  community  was  organized  un- 
der an  abbot,  elected  by  the  brethren,  who 
was  to  rule  by  taking  the  advice  of  the  elder 
brethren  in  ordinary  matters,  but  of  the  whole 
brotherhood  in  more  weighty.  New  mem- 
bers were  admitted  only  after  a  novitiate  of 
a  year,  during  which  they  had  had  repeated 
opportunities  to  withdraw.  They  must  lay 
the  written  vow  of  stability  with  their  own 
hand  upon  the  altar.  Obedience,  silence, 
humility,  and  other  virtues  are  repeatedly 
inculcated.  The  entire  management  of  the 
household  is  minutely  regulated.  The  monks 
are  to  sleep  in  a  common  dormitory,  with 
their  garments  on,  ready  to  rise  instantly  for 
divine  service.  The  charge  of  the  kitchen 
and  the  olfice  of  reading  at  meals  rotate  every 
week.  Two  meals  are  allowed  a  day,  to  be 
eaten  in  silence.  The  occupations  of  the  day 
are  regulated  so  that  regular  work  and  wor- 
ship shall  follow  each  other  throughout. 
The  work  might  be  exchanged  for  reading, 
which  was  also  positively  prescribed  for  des- 
ignated times,  and  this  provision,  though 
only  intended  to  secure  devotional  culture, 
resulted  in  making  the  Benedictines  a  great 
learned  order.  Excessive  austerities  were  for- 
bidden, and  the  character  of  the  whole  rule 
was  sensible  and  moderate. 

Though  monasticism  was  at  first  somewhat 
opposed  in  the  West  {e.g.,  by  Jovinian,  q.v.), 
after  Benedict  (590)  it  spread  with  great  rn- 
pidity.  In  the  end  it  was  to  be  found  in  all 
countries  of  Catholic  Europe,  and  in  England 
especially  it  had  a  great  extension.  At  one 
time  the  number  of  monasteries  of  this  rule 
in  England  is  said  to  have  been  15,000.  Since 
an  abbot  ranked  with  a  bishop,  and  there 
was  in  all  Europe  on  an  average  an  abbot  for 
every  bi.shop,  it  is  immediately  evident  that 
monasticism  exerted  a  prodigious  influence 
upon  the  church  life,  ijuite  determining  its- 
character.  But  it  was  a  form  of  life  so  essen- 
tially unnatural  that  it  fell  inevitably  into  dis- 
ord(!r  and  corruption.  Its  history  is  largely 
that  of  successive  reformations  and  succes- 
sive relapses.  Benedict  of  Aniane  (q.v.)  was 
the  first  famous  reformer  of  the  monasteries. 
Reformation  soon  took  the  form  of  the 
foundation  of  new  orders,  or  societies  estab- 
lished upon  the  basis  of  a  somewhat  modified 
rule.  The  Cluniacs  (see  Clugny)  were  the 
first  of  these,  and  the  order  of  Clugny  had  a 
wide  extension  from  England  to  Palestine. 
The  Cistercians  (see  art.,  and  Beknard) 
formed  another  such  order,  and  others  arose. 


MONASTERY 


( 605  ; 


MONASTERY 


At  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century  a  new 
departure  was  made  by  the  organization  of  the 
mendicant  monks  in  the  two  forms  of  Domin- 
icans and  Franciscans  (see  arts.  Dominic  and 
Francis).  The  crusades  produced  the  mili- 
tary orders,  Knights  Templars,  St.  John,  and 
Teutonic  Knights  (q.v.).  In  general  the 
course  of  development  followed  these  lines 
till  the  Reformation,  when  the  genius  of 
Loyola  gare  the  Jesuits  ((i.v.)  to  the  Roman 
Clmrcli  as  an  entinily  new  creation.  The 
formation  of  new  orders  still  continues,  of 
which  an  illustration  are  the  Paulist  Fathers 
in  America.  For  accounts  of  these,  see  the 
special  articles.  Convents  for  females  are 
found  side  by  side  with  the  monasteries  from 
the  first. 

When  we  consider  monasticism  in  itself, 
we  find  that  the  original  dualistic  idea  which 
appeared  in  its  origin  has  somewhat  modified, 
but  has  maintained  itself  in  all  its  history. 
Instead  of  the  absolute  evil  of  matter  as  such, 
monasticism  has  emphasized  the  evil  of  the 
temptations  arising  from  the  fiesh,  and  has 
inculcated  the  method  of  entire  renunciation 
instead  of  moderation  and  self-control  as  the 
way  of  victory.  Tiie  contemplative  life, 
apart  from  the"  world  with  all  its  entangle- 
ments and  responsibilities,  is  the  ideal  of 
monasticism.  From  this  it  is  but  a  step 
which  is  taken  to  a  distinction  between  two 
grades  of  morality,  a  higher  and  a  lower,  the 
one  attainable  only  by  those  who  specially 
give  themselves  to  a  religious  life,  and  so  out 
of  reach  of  the  mass  of  men.  This  is  the  re- 
appearance in  another  sphere  of  the  distinc- 
tion which  separates  the  clergy  from  the  laity 
by  so  deep  a  gulf.  The  emphasis  laid  upon 
virginity  as  a  peculiarly  holy  estate  is  another 
outcome  of  the  monastic  system,  as  the  rela- 
tions of  such  a  life  demand  entire  abstinence 
from  marriage.  It  was  but  natural  that  from 
the  first  there  should  be  a  morbid  deprecia- 
tion of  the  family  life,  and  of  the  ordinary 
and  necessary  intercourse  of  men.  Entire 
obedience  to  superiors,  even  in  matters  of 
conscience,  is  a  farther  necessity  of  the  sys- 
tem, as  also  individual  poverty. 

In  general,  the  effects  of  the  system  upon 
the  individual  monk  were  injurious.  If  he 
liad  embraced  it,  with  a  true  inward  vocation, 
as  some  did,  it  was  fitted  to  develop  the  con- 
templative type  of  piety.  But  if  there  were 
Bernards  and  Thomas  "a  Kempises,  and  if  in 
times  of  stress  harrassed  souls  found  in  the 
monastery  a  welcome  refuge,  in  the  long  run 
the  life  was  embraced  from  a  variety  of  in- 
suflicient  considerations  by  those  who  were 
not  fitted  for  it,  and  who  derived  little  but 
harm  from  it.  The  excessive  austerities  of 
the  East  in  the  earliest  times  drove  men  from 
one  extreme  to  another,  from  austere  holiness 
to  debauchery,  from  ecstatic  exaltation  to  in- 
sanity. In  the  milder  rule  of  Benedict,  even, 
many  found  a  yoke  they  could  not  bear,  and 
lapses  from  .sexual  morality  bec;ame  so  fre- 
quent that  many  a  convent  was  little  more 
than  a  brothel.  Tlie  travelling  preachers  of 
the  gospel  became  lusty  beggars  and  public 
dangers  ;  or  even  when  all  .seemed  to  go 
well,  the  monotonous  life  of  the  cloister  dead- 
ened the  intellectual  and  the  moral  life  of  its 


inmates,  while  at  the  best  the  morality  se- 
cured was  of  a  negative  kind,  consisting  of 
immunity  from  temptation  rather  than  robust 
and  independent  vigor.  The  neglect  of  the 
ordinary  duties  of  life  was  punished  by  the 
loss  of  all  those  high  and  delicate  fruits  of  its 
discipline  which  God  has  designed  it  to  bring 
forth.  At  most,  the  monastic  life  was  a  con- 
tracted, partial,  and  unsatisfactory  one. 

But  monasticism  performed  some  great  ser- 
vices for  the  church  and  the  world.  It  did 
this,  to  be  sure,  by  abandoning,  so  far,  the 
ideal  of  monasticism  ;  and  3'et,  as  a  narrow  and 
exclusive  ideal  can  never  gain  complete  con- 
trol of  the  minds  of  men,  such  an  extension 
of  the  scope  and  work  of  the  institution  was 
to  be  looked  for,  and  may  rightly  be  reck- 
oned to  its  credit.  The  first  and  greatest  of 
these  services  was  the  extension  of  the  church 
by  monastic  missions.  Little  bands  of  monks 
going  out  from  some  parent  convent  to  estab- 
lish a  new  monastery  in  some  desolate  place, 
converted  the  heathen,  introduced  agricul- 
ture and  the  arts  of  civilized  life,  and  created 
eventually  a  Christian  state.  Thus  Scotland 
was  converted  from  Ireland,  North  England 
from  Scotland,  Germany  from  England, 
Scandinavia  from  Germany.  The  "  reading" 
of  the  monasteries  developed  into  the  culture 
of  literature.  The  manual  toil  of  the  monks 
in  copying  manuscripts  nmltiplied  the  means 
of  instruction  and  often  saved  them  from  an- 
nihilation. Schools  thus  naturally  arose,  and 
these  developed  into  universities,  which,  how- 
ever, as  thej^  became  universities,  ceased  to 
be  monastic.  The  lawlessness  of  the  rough 
barons  of  the  IVIiddle  Ages  was  largelj'  kept 
in  check  by  the  abbots.  Sometimes,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  monastery  Troitza,  in  Russia, 
the  monks  represented  and  defended  the  na- 
tional spirit  and  life. 

And  yet,  by  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
the  system  had  had  its  probation  and  was 
condemned.  In  every  reformed  country  the 
monasteries  were  suspended,  and  their  funds 
and  buildings  turned  to  other  purposes.  As 
property  which  had  often  been  wrung  by  ter- 
rorism from  the  weak  and  dying,  they  were 
too  much  regarded  as  the  lawful  prey  of  the 
strong,  and  much  went  to  waste.  But  out  of 
their  accumulations  valuable  estates  were  de- 
voted to  the  cause  of  education  and  religion, 
and  many  of  the  most  precious  of  European 
institutions  of  the  present  day  are  indebted  to 
monasticism  for  their  existence  and  pros- 
perity. As  at  present  constituted  and  man- 
aged, what  successfid  monasticism  there  is 
niust  be  adjudged  as  essentially  different  from 
media-val  monasticism.  That  has  forever 
passed  away. 

(See  Ilarnack,  Das  Monchthum,  seine  Ideale 
und  seine  Gtschichie,  Giessin,  1882;  "Wein- 
garten,  Dir  Ursprung  dtn  Monchthums, 
Gotha,  1877  ;  Helyot.  Ilistoire  des  Ordres 
Jicligienx,  Paris,  ni4-19,  8  vols.,  often  re- 
printed ;  Montalembert,  Mmnis  d' Occident, 
1860-77,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1861-67, 
3  vols.  For  an  interesting  discussion  of  mo- 
nasticism as  an  institution  in  thel9th  century, 
.«ee  Victor  Hugo's  Lis  }fisirablis.  There  are 
innumerable  accounts  of  Ihe  separate  orders. 
Cf.    A.    Ebner,  Die  kVMeiiichcn  Gebtts-Ver- 


MONEY 


(606) 


MONOPHYSmSM 


bruderungen  Ms  zuin  Ausgange  des  karoling- 
ischen  Zeitalters,  Regeusburg,  1890  ;  Mrs. 
Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders, 
London,  1850,  n.  e.,  Boston,  1886.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Money     among     the      Hebrevrs.        See 

Weights. 

Monita  Secreta  Societatis  Jesu  {Secret 
Instructions  for  the  Jesuit  Order)  is  the  name 
of  a  volume  which  was  first  printed  at  Cracow 
in  1612  by  an  unknown  editor,  and  afterward 
several  times  reprinted  in  other  countries. 
The  Jesuits  have  steadily  declared  it  a  forgery, 
but,  in  spite  of  its  more  than  doubtful  charac- 
ter, it  contains  nothing  which  has  not  been 
put  in  practice  by  the  order,  and  copies  of  it, 
in  manuscript  and  in  print,  have  repeatedly 
been  found  in  Jesuit  convents.  It  was  edited, 
together  with  an  Eng.  trans,  and  an  historical 
sketch,  by  Dr.  W.  C.  Brownlee,  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  1831,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Ameri- 
can Protestant  Society. 

Monk.     See  Monastery. 

Monnica,  or  Monica,  the  mother  of  Augus- 
tine, implanted  in  his  mind  the  seeds  of  Chris- 
tian faith  from  his  earliest  infancy.  She  fol- 
lowed him  with  her  prayers  through  all  his 
wanderings  from  the  way  of  right,  and  at 
last  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  both  her  hus- 
band and  her  son  converted.  She  went  with 
Augustine  to  Italy,  was  with  him  at  Milan  at 
the  time  of  his  conversion,  and  died  at  Ostia 
on  their  return.  May  4,  387.  (See  Braune, 
Moiinika  niul  Avgustinus,  Grimma,  1846  ;  also 
art.  Augustine.)  F.  H.  F. 

Monod  (mo-nod),  Adolphe,  one  of  the  great- 
est preachers  and  pastors  of  the  French  Re- 
formed Church  ;  b.  in  Copenhagen,  Jan.  21, 
1802  ;  d.  in  Paris,  April  6,  1856  ;  was  edu- 
cated at  College  Bonaparte,  in  Paris  ;  studied 
theology  at  Geneva  ;  founded  in  1825  the 
Protestant  Church  in  Naples  ;  accepted  in 
1827  a  call  to  Lyons  ;  was  deposed  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  minister  of  cult  and  educa- 
tion on  account  of  his  sermon.  Qui  doit  Com- 
muiiier?  built  up  an  independent  congrega- 
tion at  Lyons,  now  served  by  two  pastors  ; 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Montauban  in 
1836,  and  settled  in  1847  in  Paris  as  pastor  of 
the  Oratoire.  Of  his  Sermons,  the  4th  ed.  ap- 
peared in  Paris,  1866,  2  vols.  In  Eng.  trans, 
are  Saint  Paul,  5  discourses,  Andover,  1861  ; 
Womaji,  her  Mission  and  Destiny,  London, 
1870  ;  Hie  Parting  Words  of  Monod,  Xew 
York,  1873.  His  life  by  one  of  his  daughters 
was  also  translated  into  Engli-sh,  188."). — His 
brother  Frederic  (b.  at  Monnaz,  Canton  de 
Vaud,  Switzerland,  May  17,  1794  ;  d.  in 
Paris,  Dec.  30,  1863)  was  also  a  distinguished 
preacher  and  pastor  in  Paris  since  1820.  In 
1848  he  founded  with  Count  Gasparin  the 
Union  of  the  Evangelical  Churches  of  France. 


Monophysitism,  the  doctrine  that  after  the 
incarnation  there  is  in  Christ,  in  consequence 
of  the  perfect  union  of  the  divine  and  human, 
but  one  nature.  After  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  (451),  the  extreme  Alexandrian  party  (see 
EuTYCHEs)  could  not  rest  in  the  acceptance 


of  a  formula  which  seemed  to  have  given  the 
victory  in  the  Chi'istological  controversy  to 
the  Antiochian  school.  The  monks,  in  par- 
ticular, both  in  Palestine  and  Egypt,  em- 
braced the  side  of  the  identilication  of  the  two 
natures,  and  great  disorders  arose.  In  Pales- 
tine Theodosius  led  :  in  Egypt,  though  an  ex- 
ternal peace  was  maintained  till  the  year  457, 
the  Monophysites  formed  a  distinct  party, 
which  at  this  time  elected  Timotheus  Ailurus 
as  their  patriarch.  A  definite  schism  was 
thus  produced.  The  Emperor  Leo  sought 
to  put  an  end  to  it  by  force,  and  banished 
Timotheus,  but  this  effected  nothing.  Basil- 
iscus,  who  expelled  the  Emperor  Zeno,  in  his 
brief  reign  pronounced  for  and  against  the 
Monophysite  views,  and  Zeno,  when  he  had 
again  come  to  the  throne,  issued,  in  482,  his 
"Henoticon,"  or  agreement,  in  which  he 
placed  himself  upon  the  basis  of  the  Council 
of  Nice,  employed  ambiguous  terms,  care- 
fully avoided  countenancing  the  result  of 
Chalcedon,  and  adopted  the  twelve  chapters  of 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  (q.v.).  But  this  docu- 
ment increased  the  disturbance  in  Egypt  by 
creating  four  parties  instead  of  two.  The 
Western  Church  also  refused  to  accept  the 
Henoticon,  and  a  schism  with  it  was  therefore 
another  result  of  this  interference  of  the  civil 
power  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Under  the  Em- 
peror Anastasius  there  were  serious  disturb- 
ances in  Egypt,  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Con- 
stantinople. The  ]\Ionophysites  also  now 
found  two  important  leaders  in  the  persons 
of  Xenayas  and  Severus.  To  obtain  peace, 
Anastasius  was  inclined  to  yield  everything 
possible  to  the  Monophysites  ;  but  an  insur- 
rection which  broke  out  (514)  under  Vita- 
lian  compelled  him  to  appease  the  Chalcedon 
party,  and  to  seek  an  agreement  with  Rome, 
which  was  to  be  obtained  only  upon  condi- 
tion of  the  restoration  of  the  Chalcedon  Creed. 
During  the  reign  of  Justin  I.,  which  now  fol- 
lowed (518-27),  the  same  temporizing  policy 
led  to  the  same  confusion.  Justinian  (527-65) 
took  hold  of  the  matter  with  a  stronger  hand, 
but  was  so  ignorant  of  the  real  matters  at 
issue  that  he  rather  promoted  than  quelled 
the  disorder.  His  wife,  Theodora,  was  so  in 
favor  of  Monophysitism  that  she  sought  by 
every  intrigue  to  help  its  cause,  and  often 
partially  succeeded.  But  the  Roman  bishop, 
Agapetus,  opened  Justinian's  eyes,  and  under 
Mennas,  the  patriarch,  a  council  in  Constanti- 
nople (536)  condemned  IMonophysitism,  which 
condemnation  was  confirmed  hj  an  imperial 
decree.  The  intrigues  of  the  empress  con- 
tinued, and  she  tried  to  draw  the  Origenistic 
controversy  into  the  case.  The  Origenists 
favored  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  and  to  con- 
demn them  would  be  to  condemn  that  coun- 
cil. Hence  Justinian  was  induced  to  set  forth 
the  Three  Chapters  (q.v.).  This  plunged  the 
church  into  new  troubles,  and  the  confusion 
seemed  constantly  to  increase.  Justinian's 
last  efforts  were  to  make  Aphthartodocetism 
— an  extreme  of  Monophysitism,  which  main- 
tained that  the  body  of  Christ  during  his 
earthly  life  was  not  subjected,  by  any  neces- 
sity of  nature,  to  sensuous  wants,  such  as 
hunger— the  law  of  the  empire.  But  in  this 
he  was  hindered  by  death.     Monophysitism 


MONOTHEISM 


(607) 


MONTALEMBERT 


lingered  on  in  Egypt  among  the  Copts,  though 
Christianity  was  nearly  effaced  by  Moham- 
medanism. For  its  history  in  other  regions, 
see  art.  Jacobites.  (See  Dorner's  History  of 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  Eng. 
trans.,  1861-63,  5  vols.  ;  Schultz,  Die  Lehre 
von  der  Oottheit  Chrisii,  Gotha,  1881.  Also 
the  article  by  Mciller  in  Herzog,  BeMencyclo- 
2Mdie.)  F.  H.  F. 

Monotheism  is  the  recognition  and  worship 
of  one  God  in  opposition  to  dualism,  which 
holds  two  eternal  I)eings,  one  good,  the  other 
evil,  and  to  Polytheism,  which  maintains  a 
plurality  of  deities.  Judaism,  Christianity, 
and  Mohammcdimism  are  the  only  monotheis- 
tic religions,  although  most  of  the  systems  of 
Hindustan  are  based  upon  a  pantheistic  mo- 
nism. T.  W.  C. 

Monothelitism,  tlie  doctrine  that  there  was 
in  Christ  but  one  will,  the  divine.  As  a  dis- 
tinct movement  in  history,  it  had  its  origin  in 
an  effort  to  heal  the  Mouophysite  scliism. 
The  emperor,  Hcraclius  (640-41),  had  a  polit- 
ical interest  in  bringing  back  the  large  popu- 
lations upon  the  east  and  south  of  the  em- 
pire to  allegiance,  and  thought  this  possible 
only  by  means  of  religious  reunion.  Sergius, 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  also  in- 
terested in  the  attempt.  It  was  thought  that 
the  Monophysites  would  return  to  the  Catho- 
lic Ciuirch  if,  while  retaining  the  result  of 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  the  church  would 
concede  the  doctrine  of  one  energy  and  one 
will.  Union  upon  this  basis  actually  suc- 
ceeded at  the  Synod  of  Charnum.  Cyrus  of 
Phasis,  made  bishop  of  Alexandria  for  the 
purpose,  brought  back  multitudes  of  the 
Egyptian  Monophysites  to  the  communion  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  the  same  way. 

But  the  progress  of  the  plan  was  disturbed 
by  Sophronius,  born  in  Damascus,  at  this 
time  in  Alexandria,  who  thought  the  new 
doctrine  ApoUiuaristic.  Having  journeyed  to 
Constantinople,  he  was  quieted  by  Sergius, 
but  the  dilhculty  led  to  correspondence  be- 
tween Sergius  and  Honorius,  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  The  latter  agreed  entirely  with  Ser- 
gius, would  leave  the  question  about  one  or 
two  energies  to  the  grammarians,  but  taught 
one  will  in  the  distinctest  manner,  since  on 
account  of  the  supernaturally  begotten  human 
nature  of  Christ,  there  could  not  be  a  contra- 
dictory will  in  him  opposing  the  divine  will. 
Sophronius,  now  made  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
could  not  refrain  in  his  circular  letter  an- 
nouncing his  accession  (Synodikou)  from  op- 
posing the  new  doctrine,  but  though  he  pro- 
nounced for  two  energies,  he  does  not  employ 
the  phrase  two  wills.  Finally  the  emperor 
was  induced  to  put  forth  the  '"'  EktKesis,"  in 
which  the  phrases  one  or  two  energies  were 
avoided,  and  one  will  in  Christ  was  taught, 
upon  the  ground  that  there  could  be  no  con- 
tradiction in  him. 

Now  followed  a  long  discussion  in  which 
the  Roman  bishop  favored  the  doctrine  of 
two  wills,  which  more  and  more  gained  the 
upper  hand.  In  078  the  emperor  called  a 
synod  to  meet  in  Constantinople,  and  in  680, 
after  the  pope  had  gained  support  for  his 
plans  in  the   West,  he  sent  an  embassage  to 


Constantinople,  to  demand  the  council.  This 
was  held  in  680-81,  and  the  doctrine  of  two 
wills  and  two  energies  placed  under  the 
same  forms  of  statement  which  had  been  em- 
ployed at  Chalcedon  of  the  two  natures. 
Sergius  and  several  other  Greek  bishops  were 
condemned  as  heretics,  and  with  them  Hono- 
rius was  joined,  which  condemnation  was 
repeated  by  the  synod  of  692,  confirmed  by- 
Leo  II.,  and  subsequently  sworn  to  by  multi- 
tudes of  bishops  of  the  West  in  their  oath  of 
office.  With  these  condemnations  Monotheli- 
tism lost  its  hold  upon  the  chureh,  and  lapidly 
disappeared.  (See  Hefele,  llidorij  of  Coun- 
cils ;  Dorner,  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Person  of  Christ,  Eng.  trans.,  1861-63,  5 
vols.  ;  Moller  in  Herzog,  Realencydopddie. 
See  also  art.  Makonites.)  F.  H.  F. 

Monrad,  Ditlev  Gothard,  Danish  Luther- 
an ;  b.  at  Copenhagen,  Nov.  24,  1811  ;  d.  at 
Naskov,  Lolland,  March  28,  1887.  He  stud- 
ied theology  and  Oriental  languages  in  Copen- 
hagen and  Paris  ;  was  minister  of  cult  in 
1848  ;  became  bishop  of  Lolland-Falster  in 
1849,  againminister  of  cult,  1859  ;  prime-min- 
ister, 1863-64  ;  emigrated  to  New  Zealand, 
1866  ;  returned,  1869,  and  became  again 
bishop  of  Lolland-Falster  in  1871.  He  pub- 
lished World  of  Prayer,  Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1879  ;  Laiirentiiis  Valla,  Gov.  trans., 
1883  ;  a  Danish  trans,  of  Isaiah,  etc.    C.  P. 

Monsell,  John  Samuel  Bewley,  LL.D., 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Loudonderrv,  Ire- 
land, ]\rarch  2,  Isil  ;  d.  at  Guildford.  29  m. 
s.w.  of  London,  April  9,  1875.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  became 
rector  of  Ramoan  and  cliancellor  of  Connor  ; 
vicar  of  Egham,  Surre_y,  1851  ;  rector  of 
Guildford,  1870.  Among  his  publications 
are  Our  Neio  Vicar,  1867,  and  in  verse  Hymna 
and  Poems,  1837  ;  Parish  Musings,  1850  ; 
Hymns  of  Love  and  Praise  for  the  Church's 
tear,  1863,  and  The  Parish  Hymnal,  1873. 
A  number  of  his  hymns  are  extensivelv  used. 
F.  M.  B. 

Monstrance  (from  the  Latin,  monstrare, 
"to  show")  is  the  name  of  the  receptacle 
containing  the  consecrated  host  when,  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  latter  is  exhib- 
ited for  adoration  on  the  high  altar  or  in  a 
procession.  Its  use  dates  back  to  the  13th  or 
14th  century,  when  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation  had  become  fully  developed.  Its 
form  has  varied  from  that  of  a  Gothic  tower 
to  that  of  a  radiant  sun.  But  it  was  alwaj'S 
made  of  the  most  co.stly  materials — gold,  sil- 
ver, precious  stones,  etc.,  and  it  was  always 
considered  a  sacred  vessel  ;  none  but  an  or- 
dained priest  was  allowed  to  touch  it,  and  he 
who  stole  it  was  condemned  to  death. 

Montalembert  (mon'-ta'-lon'-bair'),  Charles 
Forbes  Rene  de  Troyon,  Count  de,  b.  in 
London,  April  15,  1810  ;  d.  in  Paris,  :March 
12,  1870  ;  belonged  to  that  party  in  France 
which,  coml)iningUUramontanism  in  religion 
with  radicalism  in  politics,  proposed  to  use 
the  liberties  establisherl  by  modern  civiliza- 
tion— of  the  press,  of  association,  (tc  — as 
means  of  propaganda  for  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.     Twice  he  entered  practical  life,  try- 


MONTANISM 


608) 


MONTGOMERT 


ing  to  realize  liis  ideas— after  the  revolution 
of  1830  and  after  llie  revolution  of  1848  ;  but 
botli  times  lie  retired  to  his  study  sorely  dis- 
appointed, not  so  much  by  the  Radicals  as 
by  the  Ultramontanes.  The  only  results  of 
his  genius,  his  enthusiam,  his  energy  are  his 
literary  works,  Dit,  Vandalisme  et  du  CathoU- 
Ctsme  dans  les  Arts,  1840  ;  Histoire  de  Ste. 
Elizabeth,  1842,  17th  ed.,  1880  ;  3Ionks  of  the 
West,  7  vols.,  unfinished,  Eng.  trans.,  by 
Mrs.  Oliphant,  Edinburgh,  1860-63,  3  vols., 
etc.  ;  collected  edition  of  his  works,  Paris, 
1861-68,  9  vols.  His  life  was  written  by  A. 
Cochin,  Paris,  1870  ;  A.  Perraud,  1870  ;  C. 
Foisset,  1877  ;  Mrs.  Oliphant,  Edinburgh, 
1872,  2  vols. 

Montanism,  a  movement  which  arose  in 
the  middle  of  the  2d  century  (156  ?)  in  Asia 
Minor  (Phrygia),  under  the  lead  of  a  certain 
Montanus,  who  associated  with  himself  in 
particular  two  female  prophetesses,  Prisca 
and  Maximilla.  The  movement  was  the  fa- 
natical extreme  of  a  laudable  effort  to  lay 
more  emphasis  upon  the  discipline  of  the 
church  and  upon  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  than  the  church,  amid  the  difficulties 
and  temptations  of  the  times,  was  doing. 
Peculiar  severities  were  prescribed,  fastings, 
etc.,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  was  said  to  speak 
immediately  in  the  person  of  the  new  proph- 
ets. The  contents  of  the  prophecy  seem  to 
have  been  mostly  of  a  practical  nature,  and 
in  no  case  to  have  sought  to  pass  beyond  the 
limits  already  set  by  the  canonical  Scriptures. 
A  marked  feature  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Mon- 
tanists  was  the  speedy  coming  of  Christ. 
But  the  suspicion  of  the  church,  and,  no 
doubt,  the  spiritual  pride  of  the  new  party, 
led  to  a  sharp  contest  between  the  bishops 
and  the  Montanistic  leaders,  and  to  ultimate 
excommunication.  They  obtained  some  foot- 
ing in  Rome,  but  got  their  chief  support  in 
North  Africa,  where  they  were  so  fortunate 
as  to  win  the  great  writ'er  Tertullian  (q.v.), 
who,  without  leaving  the  basis  of  essential 
Catholicism,  sympathized  with  their  dis- 
ciplinary rigor,  and  defended  them.  In  these 
particulars  they  find  successors  in  the  Pata- 
reni,  the  Cathari,  and  other  medieval  sects. 
But  they  soon  lost  all  organized  existence. 
They  are  viewed  by  the  Ritschl  school  of  his- 
torical critics  as  the  representatives  of  the 
primitive,  enthusiastic  Christianity,  which  in 
the  Catholic  Church  became  "secularized." 
For  this  view  see  Harnack,  DogmengeschicMe, 
Freiburg,  1886-87,  2  vols.  ;  for  a  more  objec- 
tive one,  Bonwetsch,  Oeschichte  des  Montanis- 
mus,  Erlaniren,  1881.  F.  H.  F. 

Montanus,  the  author  of  Montanism,  was 
a  native  of  Ardabau,  a  Phrygian  village  ;  was 
originally  a  heathen,  and  possibly  a  priest  of 
Cybele,  or  other  heathen  divinity,  but  was 
converted,  and  became  very  zealous  for  the 
parity  of  the  Church.     See  Montanism. 

Monte  Casino,  the  celebrated  Benedictine 
monastery,  was  founded  in  538  by  Benedict 
of  Nursia,  and  stood  on  a  mcnintain  of  the 
same  name,  55  m.  n.w.  of  Naples.  In  the 
9th  century  it  established  the  first  medical 
school  the  world  ever  saw,  and  for  several 
centuries  the  school  also  was  the  best  one. 


In  the  11th  century  its  historical,  canonical, 
and  theological  learning  and  authorship  made 
Monte  Casino  one  of  the  principal  centres  of 
civilization  in  Europe,  and  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury it  was  still  the  wealthiest  institution  of 
its  kind,  in  spite  of  the  pillages  of  Lombards, 
Saracens,  etc.,  the  extortions  of  popes,  kings, 
etc.,  and  the  disastrous  earthquake  of  1849. 
But  in  the  16th  century  a  monastery  had  be- 
come a  useless  thing,  and,  as  everything  use- 
less, so  also  the  monasteries  rapidly  degener- 
ated. In  the  revival  of  the  Benedictine  order 
it  took  no  particular  part.  In  1866  it  was 
secularized.  Its  history  has  been  written  by 
L.  Tosti,  Naples,  1843,  3  vols.  ;  A.  Caravita, 
Naples,  1870,  2  vols. 

Monte  Corvine,  John  of.  See  John  of 
Monte  Corvino. 

Monies  Pietatis  (Italian,  Monte  de  Pietd  ; 
French,  Mont  de  Pi'etl)  were  pawnbroker 
establishments  founded  and  controlled  by  the 
state,  in  which  poor  people  could  borrow 
small  sums  on  pledges  without  paying  any 
interest  or,  at  least,  only  a  nominal  interest, 
sufficient  for  the  working  expenses  of  the  es- 
tablishment. The  first  institution  of  the  kind 
was  founded  at  Perugia,  in  1464,  by  a  Mino- 
rite monk,  Barnabas,  and  confirmed  by  Paul 
III.,  but  thence  they  rapidly  spread  over 
Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  Spain. 

Montfaucon  (mon-fo-kon),  Bernard  de, 
b.  at  Soulatge,  near  Narbonne,  Southern 
France,  Jan.  13,  1655  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Dec.  21, 
1741  ;  descended  from  a  distinguished  noble 
family  ;  received  a  very  careful  education  ; 
served  in  the  army  under  Turenne.  but  en- 
tered, in  1675,  the  Benedictine  congregation 
of  St.  Maur.  and  settled  in  1686  in  St.  Ger- 
main-des-Pres,  Paris.  His  editions  of  Atlia- 
nasius,  Origen,  Chrysostom,  etc.,  are  con- 
sidered models  of  judgment,  taste,  and_  in- 
dustry. His  Pahvographia  Gra'ca,  1708,  is  a 
standard  work  in  its  department. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  Count,  b.  at  Montfort, 
14  m.  w.s.w  of  Versailles  ;  struck  dead  by  a 
stone  thrown  from  a  catapult  at  the  siege  of 
Toulouse,  June  25,  1218,  was  by  Innocent 
III.  commissioned  with  the  suppression  of 
the  Albigenses,  or,  as  the  commission  read, 
made  leader  of  the  cusade  against  them, 
1209.  As  such  he  became  the  horrible  evi- 
dence of  one  of  the  most  monstrous  mistakes 
which  the  Church  of  Rome  has  ever  made, 
for  although  his  fanaticism  developed  into  an 
actual  perversion  of  human  nature  and  hia 
cruelty  grew  into  a  raving  thirst  after  blood, 
the  pope  and  the  church  not  only  continued 
to  use  and  recognize  him,  but  even  tried  to 
throw  a  kind  of'halo  over  his  memory.  (See 
his  biography  in  Guizot,  Memoires  rel.  a 
V Histoire  de  France.) 

Montgomery,  James,  Moravian  layman 
and  sacred  poet  ;  b.  at  Irvine,  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land, Nov.  4.  1771  ;  d.  at  Sheffield,  Eng., 
April  30,  1854.  His  parents,  Moravian^  mis- 
sionaries, died  in  Barbadoes  in  1783,  while  he 
was  at  school  at  Fulneck,  Yorkshire.  He 
drifted  to  Sheffield  in  1792,  founded  in  1794 
the  Iris  newspaper,  which  he  conducted  till 
1825,  and  was  twice  fined  and  imprisoned  for 


MONTGOMERY 


(G09) 


MOON 


tlie  liberal  tone  of  its  conteuts.  Ilis  earlier 
hooks  are  Prison  AMusemtnts,  London,  1797  ; 

27r<f  Oixan,  1805  ;  The  Wanderer  of  iSwitzer- 
luul,  etc.,  1806  ;   The  West  Iiulies,  1810  ;  The 

World  before  the  Flood,  1813,  and  Greenland, 
1819.  As  an  epic  poet  he  is  remote  from 
greatness,  but  his  lyrics  are  spirited,  grace- 
ful, and  tilted  to  toucii  the  popular  heart. 
Tlie  purity  and  sweetness  of  his  cliaracter, 
faithfully  rellected  in  his  verses,  won  him 
great  honor  and  hosts  of  friends.  His  hymns 
were  constantly  sought  by  and  freely  given 
to  the  collections  of  every  denomination,  and 
many  of  them  are  still  'indispensable  ;  they 
appeared  chielly  in  his  Songs  of  Zioii,  1822  ; 
(Jhrtfituni  I\siiliiiist,  1825,  and  Origimil 
Uyiuna,  1853,  covering  over  half  a  century  in 
their  dates.  He  was  confessedly  and  by  far 
the  greatest  hymnist  of  this  period.  His 
Christian  Poet  (a  compilation),  1827,  and 
Lectures  on  Poetry  and  General  Literature, 
1833,  show  extensive  reading,  wide  sympathy, 
and  superior  judgnient.  Strong  humanitarian 
feeling  and  earnest  piety  were  the  mainsprings 
of  his  life  ;  no  literary  man  has  better  illus- 
trated the  precepts  and  spirit  of  Christianity. 
The  general  aiiection  was  shown  in  a  banquet 
on  his  retiring  from  editorial  cares  in  1825, 
in  a  pension  of  £150  granted  1846,  and  in  a 
public  funeral.  His  memoir,  by  Holland  and 
Everett,  Loudon,  1855-56,  tills  7  vols.  ;  an 
abridgment  in  1  vol.,  by  Mrs.  H.  C.  Knight, 
appeared  at  Boston,  1857.  F.  M.  B. 


Sacred. 
I.  Nisan  or  Abib . 

II.  Zif  orZiv 

III.  Sivau  , 


Civil. 

VII 

VIII 

IX  

X IV.  Tammuz 

XI V.  Ab 

XH VI.  Elul 

I VII.  Etlianim  or  Tishri . 

II VIII.  Bui 

Ill IX.  Chislea 

IV X.  Tebeth 

V XI.  Shebat 

VI XII.  Adar 


Monumental  Theology,  a  name  of  recent 
inventiou  to  designate  the  scientific  presenta- 
tion of  the  notions  and  doctrines  of  theology 
as  they  are  expressed  in  the  monuments  which 
successive  ages  of  the  Christian  Church  have 
produced.  It  is  a  result  of  the  ever-increas- 
ing subdivision  of  theological  topics  which 
springs  from  the  advance  of  scientific  study. 
Art  criticism,  art  history,  ecclesiastical  archae- 
ology, etc.,  have  been  regarded  as  auxiliaries 
to  the  one  science  of  church  history  ;  but  as  a 
place  has  been  made  for  a  new  department, 
archiuology,  so  one  has  been  made  for  this, 
which  has  the  relation  to  that  of  genus  to 
species.  According  to  the  proposed  develop- 
ment of  the  science  by  Piper,  it  is  to  include 
the  di.scussion  of  the  essential  nature  of  Chris- 
tian art  and  its  relations  to  the  church,  and 
then  the  history  of  Christian  art,  including 
its  various  species;  its  monuments,  cirii, 
such  as  coins,  or  private,  such  as  gems,  rings, 
or  sepulchral  monuments,  or  ecclesiastical, 
such  as  churches  and  cloisters,  with  the  ves- 
sels and  ornamentation  found  in  them  ;  and 
the  history  and  development  of  Christian  art 
ideas.  He  even  proposes  s\ich  titles  as  monu- 
mental exegesis,  monumental  dogmatics,  and 


Montgomery,  Robert,  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  at  Bath,  1807  ;  d.  at  Brighton,  Dec. 
8,  1855.  His  father  was  a  comedian  named 
Gomery.  lie  graduated  at  Lincoln  College, 
Oxford,  1833  ;  was  ordained,  1835  ;  minister 
of  Percy  Chapel,  London,  1836-38,  and  1843- 
55_;  of  St.  Jude's,  Glasgow,  1838-42.  His 
epics.  The  Omnipresence  of  Deity,  London, 
1828  ;  Satan,  1829  ;  The  Messiah,  1832,  etc., 
sold  largely,  notwithstanding  the  savage  and 
not  undeserved  criticism  of  Macaulay.  Less 
pretentious  and  less  known,  but  more  meri- 
torious, were  The  Christian  TAfe,  1848,  and 
The  Sanctuary,  1855,  made  up  of  devout 
lyrics.  He  produced  no  less  than  30  vols., 
much  of  wliose  contents  were  gathered  in  6 
vols.,  London,  1839-40.  F.  M.  B. 

Month.  The  Hebrew  months  were  lunar — 
i.e.,  from  one  new  moon  to  another  ;  but  as 
12  lunar  months  made  but  354  daj  s  and  6 
hours,  the  Jewish  year  fell  short  of  the  solar 
nearly  11  days.  To  compensate  for  this  dif- 
ference every  three  years  a  thirteenth  month 
was  intercalated,  called  Ve-adar.  tlie  .second 
Adar.  At  the  exodus  frona  Egypt  God  or- 
dained that  that  mouth — the  seventh  of  the 
civil  year — should  be  the  first  of  the  sacred 
year,  by  which  the  religious  festivals  were  to 
be  reckoned.  The  mouths  were  usually  desig- 
nated as  first,  second,  etc.,  and  the  names  by 
which  they  are  now  known  seem  to  have  been 
adopted  during  the  Captivity. 

Con-esponding  with 

March  or  April.    Neh.  ii.  1. 

April  or  May.    1  Kings  vi.  1. 

May  or  .June.    Esther  viii.  9. 

. . .  June  or  July. 

....  July  or  August. 

August  or  September.    Neh.  vi.  15. 

September  or  October.    1  Kings  viii.  2. 

. ...  October  or  November.    1  Kings  vi.  38. 

.  ...  November  or  December.    Neh.  i.  1  ;  Zech.  vli.  1. 

....  December  or  January.    Esther  ii.  16. 

....  January  or  February.    Zech.  i.  7. 

—  February  or  March.    Esther  iii.  7.     1.    > v  .  C. 


ethics.  Unquestionf^bly  the  monumental  re- 
mains of  the  churclMiave  many  a  lesson  to 
teach,  and  their  systematic  study  will  result 
in  new  illustrations  of  truth  ;  but  whether 
such  study  should  be  elevated  to  the  dignity 
of  a  distinct  theological  science  is  a  question 
about  which  there  may  evidenil}^  be  two  opin- 
ions. (See  Piper's  art.  in  Herzog,  Pealencydo- 
pddie,  vol.  xv.,  p.  432,  as  also  his  book,  Ein- 
leitnng  in  die  Monumentale  Theoloqie,  Gotha, 
1867.)  F.  H.  F. 

Moody,  Dwight  Lyman,  Congregational 
layman  ;  b.  at  Northlield,  Mass.,  Feb.  5, 
1837  ;  joined  a  Congregational  church  ;  was 
during  the  Civil  "War  employed  as  a  home 
missionary  by  the  Y.  ^I.  C.  A.  of  Chicago  ; 
engaged  afterward  in  revival  work  togetllier 
with  I.  D.  Sankey,  n  Great  Britain,  1873-75, 
and  1883,  and  in  America.  He  published 
The  Second  Cominq  of  Christ,  Chicago,  1877  ; 
Secret  Poirer,  1881  ;  The  Way  to  God,  1884, 
and  several  collections  of  sermons. 

Moon  (Hebrew,  pale  yellow  or  white).  The 
"lesser  lisrht"  appointed  for  times  and  sea- 
sons (Gen.'i.  14-16.  Ps.  civ.  19).  The  begin- 
ning of   the  mouth,  called  lieomenia,  new- 


MORAL 


(610) 


MORAVIAN 


moon  (lay,  was  celebrated  with  special  sacri- 
Ijces  (Num.  xxviii.  11-15).  The  moon  was 
worshipped  by  most  ancient  nations  either 
directly  (Job  xxxi.  26),  with  cakes  of  honey 
(Jer.  xvu.  18),  or  as  an  idol  goddess  under  the 
name  of  Ashteroth,  Artemis,  Urania,  etc. 
The  Hebrews  were  specially  cautioned  against 
this  form  of  idolatry  (Deut.  Iv.  19,  xvii.  3). 
yot  they  fell  into  it  and  burned  incense  to  the 
moon  (2  Kings  xxiii.  5),  and  their  women  wor- 
shipped her  as  the  queen  of  heaven  (Jer.  vii. 
18,  xliy.  17).  The  withdrawal  of  the  moon's 
light  (Isa.  xiii.  10,  Matt.  xxiv.  29,  Rev.  viii. 
13)  was  a  symbol  of  divine  judgments. 

T.  W.  C. 
Moral  Inability.  See  Inability. 
Moore,  Clement  Clarke,  LL.D.,  Episcopal 
layman  ;  b.  in  New  York,  July  15,  1779  ;  d. 
at"  Newport,  R.  I.,  July  10,  1863.  He  was  a 
sen  of  Bishop  B.  Moore,  of  New  York.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia,  1798,  and  was  edu- 
cated for  the  church,  but  never  ordained. 
He  gave,  in  1818,  the  ground  on  which  the 
General  Theological  Seminary  was  built,  and 
was  professor  of  biblical  learning  there,  1821- 
50.  His  Hebrew  and  Greek  Lexicon  (the  first 
issued  in  America)  appeared,  1809.  and  his 
J'oans,  including  the  famous  "  Night  before 
Christmas,"  1844.  F.  M.  B. 

Moral  Law.  This  differs  from  the  laws 
of  nature,  which  mean  only  the  invariable 
sequences  of  phenomena,  and  from  juridical 
law,  which  confines  itself  to  external  acts  and 
to  motives  as  thus  manifested,  while  moral 
law  takes  cognizance  of  man's  entire  nature, 
lays  hold  of  motive  and  purpose,  and  while  it 
exacts  obedience,  requires  that  this  obedience 
shall  be  voluntary,  shall  be  the  exercise  of 
man's  free  will.  This  "categorical  impera- 
tii'e"  does  not  come  from  without,  but  from 
within,  and  while  it  speaks  with  absolute 
authoritativeness,  yet  does  not  impress  us 
with  a  feeling  of  compulsion.  It  arises  in 
the  depths  of  the  soul,  and  appealing  to  our 
freedom,  insists  that  we  make  a  right  use  of 
that  freedom,  and  develop  our  composite  na- 
ture according  to  its  original  idea  and  pur- 
pose. It  is  not  wonderful  that  Kant  said 
that  there  were  two  things  which,  the  oftener 
and  the  more  steadfastly  he  contemplated 
them,  filled  his  mind  with  an  ever-new  and 
ever-rising  admiration  and  reverence — the 
starry  heaven  above,  the  moral  law  icithin 
T.  W.  C. 
Moral  Obligation  is  that  by  which  we  feel 
bouml  to  perform  what  is  right  and  to  avoid 
what  is  wrong.  Its  ground  is  not  the  fitness 
of  things,  nor  conformity  to  reason,  nor  ex- 
pediency, but  the  will  of  God  as  revealed  in 
nature  and  in  his  Word,  for  he,  as  the  great- 
est and  best  of  beings,  is  the  immutable  stand- 
ard of  rectitude.  T.  W.  C. 

Moral  Philosophy.     See  Ethics. 

Moral  Sense  is  a  term  frequently  used  to 
denote  conscience.  It  is  that  faculty  by 
which  we  perceive  the  moral  quality  of  an 
act,  and  either  approve  or  condemn  it.  It 
always  points  to  a  law  above  itself  which  de- 
termines what  is  good  and  what  is  evil. 

T.  W.  C. 


Moral  Theology.     Sec  Casuistry. 
Moralities.     See  Mysteries. 

Morality  is  the  relation  which  human  ac- 
tions bear  to  a  given  rule  of  right.  It  com- 
prehends only  a  part  of  religion,  but  religion 
comprehends  the  whole  of  morality.  One 
finds  all  its  motives  below  ;  the  other  fetches 
its  motives  from  above.  The  highest  prin- 
ciple in  social  morals  is  a  just  regard  to  the 
rights  of  men  ;  the  first  principle  in  religion 
is  the  love  of  God.  While  religion  covers  the 
whole  life,  present  and  to  come,  morality 
confines  itself  virtually  to  the  existing  world. 
T.  W.  C. 
Moravian  Brethren,  The,  a  body  of  Chris- 
tians whose  organization  dates  back  to  1457, 
as  a  result  of  the  religious  and  political  move- 
ments in  Bohemia  which  followed  the  martyr- 
dom of  John  IIus.  For  convenience  their 
history  is  generally  divided  into  two  periods  : 
that  of  the  Ancient  Moravian  Brethren,  or  the 
Bohemian  Bretiiren,  and  that  of  the  Renewed 
]Moravian  Brethren,  or  Moravian  Church. 
The  more  correct  title  in  each  case  is  the 
Unltas  Fratrum,  or  Unitij  of  the  Brethren. 

I.  The  Ancient   MoRAAaAN  Brethren, 
1457-1722. 

1.  History. — The  Hussite  wars  having  been 
ended  by  the  Compactata  of  Basel  and  the  de- 
feat of  the  Taboiites  and  Orphans  (see  Hus- 
sites),   the    national    Church    of    Bohemia, 
though  enjoying  the  privilege  of  the  use  of 
the  cup  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  of  the 
vernacular  in  public  worship,  did  not  satisfy 
many  pious  people  who   had  accepted  the 
teachings  of  Hus.     With  the  permission  of 
Rokyzana,    the     Calixtine    leader,    and    of 
George  Podiebrad,  the  regent  of  Bohemia, 
they  withdrew  to  Lititz,  a  desolated  estate 
near  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  country,  for 
the  furtherance  of  (heir  own  Christian  life  by 
quiet    meetings    for  Scripture  reading    and 
prayer,  desiring  to  live  an  honest  Christian 
life    apart    from  the    turmoils  of    the  day. 
Their  object  was  not  to  found  a  new  sect, 
but  rather  a  Christian  association.     In  1457. 
calling  themselves  "  Brethren  and  Sisters  of 
the  Law  of  Christ,"  they  adopted  a  formal 
declaration  of  principles  inider  the  leadership 
of  Gregory,  the  nephew  of  Rokyzana.     This 
title  giving  rise  to  misunderstandings,  and 
causing  them  to  be  regarded  by  many  as  a  new 
monastic  order,  the  name   Unitas  Fratrum, 
or  Unity  of  the  Brethren,  was  later  substi- 
tuted.    Ministered  to  in  holy  things  by  Michael 
Bradacius  and  other  like-minded  priests  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  or  the  national  church, 
they  did  not  formally  separate  from  the  fel- 
lowship of  the  Calixtines  until  compelled  by 
persecutions.     This    was    effected    in    1467, 
when  at  a  synod  at  Lhota,  near  Reichenau, 
three  men  were  set  apart  to  the  ministry  by 
lot.     Recognizing  the  validity  of  presbyterial 
ordination    jier   se,   the  Brethren    forthwith 
had   these  three  candidates  ordained  by  the 
priests  who  were  present.     But  in   order  to 
secure   a  ministry  which   even    the  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  Calixiines  must  acknowl- 
edge as  valid,    Michael  Bradacius  and  two 
unnamed    priests    were    sent    to    the    Aus- 
trian Waldenses  with  a  request  for  episcopal 


MORAVIAN 


(611) 


MORAVIAN 


consecration.  These  Waldeuscs  had  received 
the  episcopate  from  Roman  bishops  at  the 
Council  of  Basel.  Two  of  their  bi.shops  now 
consecrated  Michael  and  his  associates,  who 
on  their  return  reorthiiued  the  three  who  had 
previously  received  presbyterial  ordination. 

A  well-arranged  ecclesiastical  government 
having  been  set  in  opei'ation  for  themselves, 
tlie  Brethren  soon  spread  into  every  part  of 
Bohemia.  From  the  lir.st  their  groat  object 
was  Christian  life  rather  than  theoretical  dog- 
ma, and  they  insisted  upon  personal  pietj^ 
and  not  mere  adherence  to  a  creed  as  a  con- 
dition of  membership.  Special  iirominence 
was  given  to  church  discipline.  In  spite  of 
terriblj  persecutions  on  the  part  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  Calixtiues,  who  sought  their 
extinction  by  imprisonment,  conliscation  of 
property,  decrees  of  exile,  tortures  and  death, 
through  the  good  management  and  self-sacri- 
ticing  zeal  of  leaders  like  Luke  of  Prague  (q.v.) 
the  Unitds  made  such  rapid  progress  that  at  the 
commencement  of  the  German  Reformation  it 
counted  about  400  parishes  and  had  a  mem- 
bership of  probably  200,000  souls  in  Bohemia 
and  Moravia'.  It  had  two  flourishing  publi- 
cation offices,  at  Juugbunzlau  and  Leito- 
mischl  ;  and  the  literary  activity  of  its  schol- 
ars was  such  that  out  of  the  GO  works  which 
appeared  in  Bohemia  from  1500  to  1510,  not 
less  than  50  came  from  the  presses  of  the 
Uiiitns.  It  had  a  hymn-book,  a  catechism, 
and  a  confession  of  faith  of  its  own. 

The  commencement  of  the  Lutheran  move- 
ment aroused  a  hearty  sympathy  among  the 
Brethrea,  wdio  sent  several  deputations  to 
Wittenberg.  With  the  Swiss  Reformers  they 
also  corresponded.  In  either  case  mutual 
good  followed,  even  though  actual  union  was 
not  effected.  The  doctrinal  system  of  the 
Brethren  was  purged  of  the  scholasticism 
which  still  clung  to  it  in  a  measure  ;  and  the 
Reformers  were  impressed  with  the  impor- 
tance of  a  scriptural  discipline  and  of  union 
among  themselves.  Calvin  in  particular  de- 
riv'd  certain  principles  from  the  Brethren, 
which  he  introduced  into  his  own  system  of 
discipline. 

In  1549  the  Brethren  commenced  to  estab- 
lish themselves  in  Poland,  in  consequence  of 
persecutions  set  in  motion  against  them  by 
Ferdioand  I.  of  Bohemia.  Manv  who  were 
exiled  from  Bohemia  also  organized  congre- 
g  Uions  in  East  Prussia.  Tlieir  labors  among 
the  Poles  were  so  successful  that  in  1557  the 
Polish  branch  was  formally  recognized  as  a 
province  of  the  Unity  on  an  equal  footing 
with  tiiose  of  Bohemia  and  ]\roravia. 

Though  comparative  toleration  was  enjoyed 
in  their  original  seats  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  16th  century,  and  the  charter  granted 
by  Rudolph  II.  to  his  barons  in  1609  recog- 
nized the  Brethren  as  a  legally  acknowdedged 
church,  the  time  of  peaceful  growth  was  to 
be  short.  Tlie  "  anti-Reformation,"  com- 
menced by  Ferdinand  II.  after  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  came  into  his  possession,  through 
the  defeat  of  the  Protestants  on  the  While 
Mountain  near  Prague  in  1620,  practically 
s-.vept  tlie  Bretliren  from  the  kingdom,  together 
with  the  adlicrcnts  of  the  other  evangelical 
confessions.     Many  were  put  to  death,  thou- 


sands were  exiled,  others  were  compelled  to 
outwardly  conform  to  Romanism.  Nor  did 
the  temporary  revival  of  the  church  at  its 
new  centre,  Lissa,  in  Poland,  with  about  a 
hundred  new  parishes  in  Poland  and  Prussia 
and  Hungary,  endure  permanently.  Lissa 
was  destro\'ed  in  1056  in  the  war  between 
Poland  and  Sweden.  The  Polish  parishes 
gradually  coalesced  with  those  of  the  Re- 
formed. The  governing  board  was  scattered, 
its  presiding  bishop.  Amos  Comenius  (q.v.), 
finding  a  refuge  in  Holland.  After  his  death, 
1070,  though  the  episcopate  was  maintained, 
the  scattered  congregations  were  merged  into 
those  of  other  Protestant  churches.  Yet,  in 
jNIoravia  especiall}'',  a  few  families  continued 
to  secretly  maintain  worship  after  the  manner 
of  their  forefathers,  and  hoped  against  hope 
for  a  renewal  of  their  church. 

3.  CoiiHtitntion  and  Doctrine  of  the  Ancient 
Brethren.. — The  Brethren  recognized  the  three 
orders  of  the  ministry.  The  (Z(?«to;i  instructed 
the  young,  occasionally  preached,  assisted  at 
the  communion,  but  never  administered  it, 
and  occasionally  baptized  at  the  direction  of 
a  priest.  The  2^riest  was  at  the  head  of  a  par- 
ish. Each  bishop  had  his  diocese,  but  all  the 
bishops  together  were  associated  in  a  council. 
This  council  was  responsible  to  the  General 
Synod,  which  convened  at  stated  periods. 
D'iocesan  synods  legislated  for  local  i! flairs. 
In  addition  to  the  bishops,  sometimes  known 
as  seniors,  at  a  later  time  there  were  assistant 
bishops  or  conseniors.  The  Brethren  had  no 
law  respecting  celibacy,  and  toward  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  16th  century  an  unmarried 
priest  or  bishop  became  the  exception. 

In  doctrine  a  development  can  be  traced  in 
the  views  of  the  Brethren.  In  many  matters 
they  stood  for  a  time  between  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  Reformers.  Purgatory 
they  rejected  from  earliest  times,  also  the 
adoration  of  the  saints  and  Mariolatry.  In- 
deed up  to  1530  they  went  so  far  as  to  rebap- 
tize  converts  from  Romanism,  regarding  them 
as  idolaters.  From  that  date,  moreover,  they 
held  to  but  two  sacraments.  Holding  to  in- 
fant baptism,  they  introduced  confirmation 
only  in  1534,  previously  rebaptizing  their 
adult  children.  Human  explanation  of  the 
language  of  Scripture  respecting  the  Lord's 
Supper  they  avoided.  Laying  special  stress 
on  holy  living  as  an  evidence  of  saving  faith, 
their  discipline  was  very  thorough  and  was 
rigorously  enforced.. 

For  the  history  of  the  Ancient  Moravian 
Brethren  see  Cranz,  Ancient  History  of  the 
Brethren,  London,  1780  ;  Holmes,  llistcrt/  of 
the  Protestant  Church  of  the  United  Bnthrcn, 
London,  1825,  2  vols.  ;  Bost,  History  of  the 
Bohemian  and  Moranan,  Brethren,  London, 
1848  ;  Do  Schweinitz,  History  of  the  Vnitaa 
Fratrum,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1885  ;  Benhani, 
Life  of  Comenius,  London,  1858  ;  Pescheck, 
Reform,  and  Anti-Reform  in  Bohemia,  London, 
1845,  2  vols.  ;  Seifferth,  Church  Constitution 
of  the  Bohemian,  and  ^forarian  Brethren,  Lon- 
don, 1866  ;  Gindely,  Cschichteder  Blihmixrhen 
7j')v/(;rZ/^'7',  Prague,  1857,  and  Quellen  zur  Ge- 
srhichte  der  B.  B.,  Vienna,  1859  ;  Croeger, 
I  disrhichte  der  alten,  Bruederkirche,  Gnadau, 
I  1867. 


MORAVIAN 


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MORAVIAN 


II.  The  Renewed  Mokavian  Brethren, 
1722  to  the  present  lime.  Coniinonly  known 
as  "The  Moraviaus,"  or  "The  Moravian 
Church,"  their  own  othcial  designation  being 
"  Unitas  Fratrum,"  or  "  The  United  Breth- 
ren." 

1.  History. — In  1722  a  few  families  of  those 
■who  had  secretly  cherished  the  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  Moravian  Bret?hren  tied  from 
Moravia  in  search  of  some  spot  where  they 
could  enjoy  religious  liberty.  Under  the 
guidance  of  Christian  David,  a  carpenter, 
who  on  his  conversion  from  Komauism  had 
turned  evangelist,  they  made  their  way  to 
Berthelsdorf,  near  Zittau,  in  8axony,  the 
domain  of  the  young  Count  Nicholas  Ludwig 
von  Zinzendorf  (q.v.),  who  offered  them  a 
refuge.  During  the  next  seven  years  about 
300  other  Brethren  from  Moravia  and  Bohe- 
mia emigrated  to  the  same  place,  leaving  their 
property  and  risking  imprisonment  or  worse 
at  the  hands  of  the  Austrian  authorities. 
They  built  a  town  called  Herrnhut,  to  which 
there  gradually  flocked  awakened  persons 
from  various  parts  of  Germany.  It  was  not 
tiie  original  purpose  of  Count  Zinzendorf  to 
renew  the  Moravian  Cliurch  as  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal organization.  Intending  rather  to  found 
institutions  on  his  estate  similar  to  those 
wliich  were  the  outcome  of  Spenerian  pietism 
at  Halle,  it  was  not  until  1727,  when  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  Ratio  Disdplince  of 
Comenius,  and  a  wonderful  religious  revival 
was  experienced  by  the  colony  of  refugees, 
that  he  felt  himself  called  of  God  to  this 
work.  Accordingly,  in  1735,  through  the 
transfer  of  the  episcopate  of  the  Ancient 
Bretliren  to  David  Nitschmann,  the  first 
bishop  of  the  Renewed  Moravian  Church,  at 
Berlin  on  March  13,  by  Daniel  Ernst  Jablon- 
ski  (q.v.)  and  Christian  Sitkovius,  the  two 
survi/ing  bishops  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum, 
the  renewal  was  effected.  Even  yet,  how- 
ever, it  was  Zinzendorf's  ruling  purpose  to 
have  rather  a  Christian  association  of  true 
believers  within  the  various  evangelical 
churches,  ecclesiolm  in  ecclesia.  Only  the 
force  of  providential  circumstances  overruled 
affairs  otherwise.  To  this  day,  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  this  unsectariau  activity 
continues. 

Even  before  the  episcopate  had  been  se- 
cured— viz.,  in  1732,  tlie  missionary  activity 
of  the  Brethren  commenced  with  the  sending 
of  Leonard  Dober  and  David  Nitschmann 
(q.v.)  to  the  negroes  of  St.  Thomas.  Others 
Went  to  Greenland  in  1733.  The  influence  of 
the  Brethren  began  gradually  to  extend 
throughout  the  continent — Denmark,  Livo- 
nia, Sweden,  Holland,  Switzerland.  In 
Britain  the  activity  of  the  Bretliren  com- 
menced in  1738,  and  one  of  their  leaders, 
Peter  Boehler,  was  instrumental  in  the  con- 
version of  John  Wesley.  To  secure  the  need- 
ful legal  protection  for  their  work,  Spangen- 
berg  (q.v.),  one  of  their  chief  theologians,  ob- 
tained a  license  from  Archbishop  Potter  au- 
thorizing them  to  preach  "  as  foreign  Protes- 
tants, known  as  Moravians."  Hence  this 
became  the  designation  by  which  they  were 
known  in  English-speaking  countries.  Their 
movement  ran  to  a  large  extent  parallel  to 


that  of  the  Methodists,  and  tliey  were  very 
useful  in  the  promotion  of  vital  religion  in 
Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  the  West  of  England, 
Wales,  and  the  North  of  Ireland.  In  1749  par- 
liament, with  the  concurrence  of  the  bench  of 
bishops,  acknowledged  them  as  "an  ancient 
episcopal  church,"  and  encouraged  them  to 
settle  in  the  North  American  colonies.  Here 
they  had  endeavored  to  obtain  a  foothold  al- 
ready in  173o,  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  and  had  es- 
tablished a  centre  of  activity  among  the  Ind- 
ians and  the  white  settlers,  at  Bethlehem,  Pa., 
then  a  wilderness.  As  in  Britain,  a  very  ex- 
tended system  of  itineracies  was  soon  in  oper- 
ation, extending  through  seven  of  the  thirteen 
colonies  ;  and  had  the  old  Moravian  element 
been  allowed  to  expand  naturally,  in  both 
Britain  and  America,  it  is  probable  that  the 
Moraviaus  would  have  had  a  history  some- 
wdiat  akin  to  that  of  the  Methodists.  But 
Zinzendorf's  views  prevailed,  by  which  a 
number  of  villages  were  established  atvaii- 
ous  points  in  Christendom,  inhabited  solely 
by  true  and  genuine  Christians,  who  were  to 
be  little  more  than  an  example  to  the  world 
around  them,  but  who  should  devote  Iheir 
energies  to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen 
world,  particularly  giving  attention  to  the 
races  lowest  in  the  scale  of  humanity.  They 
also  recognized  a  providential  call  to  promote 
the  Christian  training  of  the  young  by  their 
numerous  boarding  schools,  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe  gave  their  energies  to  a  vast 
mission  work  by  means  of  evangelists  who 
organize  "  societies"  of  spiritually  minded 
people,  without  endeavoring  to  draw  them 
away  from  the  state  church.  This  missiouaiy 
activity,  known  as  the  Diaspora,  has  for  its 
field  Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  Den- 
mark, Norway,  Sweden,  Poland,  Livonia, 
Esthonia,  and  some  other  parts  of  Russia. 
In  the  event  of  the  disestablishment  of  any  of 
the  state  churches  of  these  lands  the  member- 
ship of  the  Moravian  church  would  be  in- 
creased many  thousands. 

About  the  middle  of  the  present  century 
the  exclusive  system  was  abolished  in  Ameri- 
ca, and  since  then  the  church  has  extended 
considerably,  having  congregations  in  Penn- 
sylvania, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Maryland, 
Ohio,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Michi- 
gan, AVisconsin,  Minnesota,  North  Dakota, 
Virginia,  and  North  Carolina.  Its  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  at  Bethleliem,  Pa.,  was  founded 
in  1807,  reorganized  in  1858. 

2.  Constitution. — The  constitution  of  the 
Moravian  Church  was  thoroughly  revised  in 
1857.  ,  The  Unitas  Fratrum  at  present  em- 
braces three  provinces,  the  German  or  Conti- 
nental European,  the  British,  and  the  Ameri- 
can. Each  prorince  is  governed  by  its  own 
provincial  synod  with  its  provincial  elders  as 
an  executive  board,  but  forms  also  with  the 
other  two  an  organic  whole.  The  highest 
body  is  the  General  Synod,  which  meets  once 
in  ten  years,  being  composed  of  representa- 
tives of  all  the  provinces  and  of  the  missions, 
reviews  the  life,  regulates  the  doctrine  of  the 
church,  and  receives  a  report  of  the  manage- 
ment of  the  missions.  It  also  elects  the  high- 
est executive  board,  the  Unity's  Elders'  Con- 
ference, which  is  charged  with  the  adminis- 


MORAVIAN 


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MORAVIAN 


tration  of  tlie  missions  and  other  joint  affairs 
of  tile  church. 

3.  The  Ministry.— ks  in  the  old  Moravian 
Church,  thu  three  grades  of  tlie  ministry  exist, 
but  the  bisliops  are  not  diocesan.  Tliey  alone 
ordain,  yet  only  at  tlie  request  of  the  execu- 
tive board  of  their  province  or  of  tlie  Unity. 
They  have  seats  officially  in  the  synods  of  the 
province  in  which  they  reside  and  in  tliat  of 
the  unity.  Deacons,  no  less  than  presbyters, 
perf^inn  every  ordinary  ministerial  function, 
administer  tlie  sacraments,  contirm,  etc.  Un- 
ordainc'd  assistants,  as  in  the  case  of  the  An- 
cient M  iraviau  Church,  are  formally  set  apart 
as  acolytes. 

4.  liitiinldiid  Usages. — The  ritual  is  liturgi- 
cal, with  full  provision  also  for  free  prayer. 
There  are  prescribed  forms  for  baptism,  con- 
firmation, tlie  Lord's  Supper,  ordination, 
marriage  and  burial,  and  also  for  tne  chief 
festivals  of  the  Christian  year,  which  are  ob- 
serve 1.  Wlien  practicable  the  Easter  morning 
litany  is  prayed  in  the  open  air  at  the  ceme- 
tery. Love  feasts,  in  imitation  of  the  ayanat 
of  the  early  church,  are  observed.  Certain 
days  commemorating  important  events  in  the 
history  of  the  Moravian  Churcli  are  distin- 
guished by  special  services.  The  congrega- 
tions are  divided  into  "  choirs"  or  "  classes," 
on  the  basis  of  age  and  sex,  that  emphasis 
miybelaid  on  the  special  duties  incumbent 
on  each  station  in  life,  and  that  the  members 
of  each  "  choir"  may  annually  covenant  to- 
gether to  serve  the  Lord  faithfully.  Foot- 
washing  and  marriage  by  lot  were  abol- 
ished in  1818.  The  use  of  the  lot  is  no 
Ijnger  a  part  of  the  official  machinery  of  tlie 
church. 

5.  Doctrine. — The  Moravian  Church  seeks 
to  emphasize  life  before  creed.  It  therefore 
has  no  formal  creed.  Its  doctrine,  as  found 
in  tiie  catechism,  the  Easter  morning  litany, 
and  in  the  Symidal  Besults  (1889)  embraces 
the  following  points  :  (1)  That  Scripture  is 
the  only  rule  of  faith  and  practice  ;  (2)  the 
total  depravity  of  human  nature  ;  (3)  the  love 
of  God  the  Father  ;  (4)  the  real  Godhead  and 
the  real  humanity  of  Jesus  Christ  ;  (5)  our 
reconciliation  unto  God  and  our  justification 
before  him.  through  the  sacrifice  of  Jesus 
Christ  ;  (6)  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  the  operations  of  his  crace  ;  (7)  good 
-work^  as  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit  ;  (8)  the  fel- 
lowship of  believers  with  one  another  in  Jesus 
Christ  ;  (9)  the  second  coming  of  the  Lord  in 
glory,  and  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  unto 
life  or  unto  condemnation. 

6.  Foreign  Missions. — From  (he  time  of  its 
renewal  the  Moravian  Church  has  been  pre- 
eminently a  missionarj'  churcli.  Uu;success- 
fdl  attempts  have  been  made  in  Lapland 
(1734-3.J)  :  among  the  Samoyedos  (1737-38)  ; 
in  Ceylon  (173S-41i  ;  Algiers\l740)  ;  Guinea, 
"West  Africa  (1737-41  and  1767-70);  Persia 
(1747-50)  ;  Egvpt  (1753-83) ;  East  Indies 
(1759-96)  ;  among  the  Calmucks  (183r>-40), 
and  in  D.  inerara  (1835-40),  where  a  later  at- 
tempt has  succeeded.  There  are  at  present 
successful  missions  in  tlie  following  "  ]\Iis- 
sion  Provinces"  :  Greenlmd  (1733)  ;  Labrador 
(1771);  Indians  of  Nortli  America  (173.5); 
St.   Thomas  and  St,   Jan  (1732)  ;    St.    Croix 


(1733)  ;  Jamfiica  (1754)  ;  Antigua  (1756)  ;  St. 
Kilt's  (1775)  ;  Barbadoes  (1705)  ;  Tobago 
(1790,  renewed  1837)  ;  Trinidad  (1890)  ;  Mos- 
kito  Coast  (1848)  ;  Surinam  (1735)  ;  Cape  Col- 
ony (1736,  renewed  1792)  ;  Kaffraria  (1828)  ; 
Australia  (1849)  ;  Kashmir  (1853)  ;  the  lepers 
in  Jerusalem  (1867)  ;  Demerara  (1878)  ;  Alaska 
(1884)  ;  German  Equatorial  East  Africa  (1890). 
The  annual  cost  of  these  missions  is  from 
$250,000  to  $300,000.  The  112  stations  and 
31  out  stations  are  served  by  292  missionaries 
(male  and  female),  51  native  missionaries  and 
1659  native  assistants.  There  are  36,680  com- 
municants from  among  the  heathen,  and  if 
with  them  are  reckoned  baptized  adults  not 
j'et  admitted  to  the  communion,  and  tlie  can- 
ditlates  for  baptism  and  applicants  for  relig- 
ious instruction,  and  the  children,  there 
is  a  total  missionary  membership  of  87,263 
souls. 

7.  The  Bohemian  3Iission. — In  the  year  1869 
the  General  Synod  resolved  to  commence  a 
mission  in  Bohemia  as  a  work  of  the  entire 
Unity.  Not  until  1880  did  it  obtain  legal 
sanction  from  the  Austrian  government  ;  and 
even  now  many  hindrances  are  thrust  in  the 
way  of  the  Brethren.  There  are  now  five 
congregations  and  Glials,  with  two  orphan- 
ages. 

8.  Statistics. — 

Communicants.  Total. 

German  Province,  about....        6,500  8,500 

British           "            3,-300  5  400 

American 11,300  18,100 

21,160  32,000 

Missionaries  and  Children..           292  500 

Bohemian  Mission 2.56  400 

Missions 36,680  87,263 

Diaspora 90,000 

58,388  210,163 

9.  Puhlicatiom.—lTi  Germany,  Uerrnhut 
(weekly)  ;  Der  Bruder-Bote  (bi-monthly)  ; 
Kachnchten  aus  der  Gemeine  (monthly)  ; 
Missiomblatt  (monthly)  ;  M.  B.  fur  Kinder 
(monthly)  ;  in  Switzerland,  Joarnnlde  I'  Unite 
des  Freres  (monthly)  ;  in  Holland,  Berigten 
uit  de  Heidi' n-  Wereld  (monthly)  ;  in  Eng- 
land, TJie  Messenger  (monthly)  ;  Periodical 
Accounts  (quarterly,  101st  year)  ;  Missionary 
Reporter  (monthly)  ;  American  province,  llie 
Moravian  (weekh')  ;  Der  BruderJxdschafter 
(weekly)  ;  The  Little  Missionary  (monthly) ; 
Der  Slissions  Freund  (monthly)  ;  Jamaica, 
The  Jamaica  Moravian  (monthly)  ;  South 
Africa,  De  Bode  (monthly)  ;  De  Kinder  Vriend 
(monthly)  ;  Surinam,  De  Missions  VHend 
(monthly).  In  all  the  provinces  The  Text- 
Book  (annually;,  a  devotional  manual,  100,000 
copies  each  year. 

For  the  history  of  the  Renewed  ]\Ioravian 
Church  see  Cranz,  Ancient  and  Modern  His- 
tory of  the  Brethren,  London,  1780  ;  Holmes, 
History  of  the  United  Brethren,  London,  1825, 
2  vols.;'r//<;  Moravian  Manual,  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  1869;  Bovet,  The  Banislied  Count,  Lon- 
don, 1865  ;  Holmes,  Missi/ms  of  the  United 
Brethren,  London,  1827  ;  Cranz,  Greenland, 
London,  1767,  2  vols.  ;  The  Mornrians  in 
Jamaica,  London.  1854  ;  Loskiel,  History  of 
Indian  Missions,  London,  1794  ;  Heckewelder, 


MORDEOAI 


(614) 


MOREL 


History  of  the  Indian  Mission,  Philadelphia, 
1817  ;  de  Schweinitz,  Life  and  Times  of  IJavid 
Zeisberger,  Philadelphia,  1870  ;  Thompson, 
Moravian  Missions,  New  York,  1883  ;  Croe- 
ger,  Oeschiclite  der  Erneuerten  Bruderkirche , 
Gnadau,  1852-54,  3  vols.  ;  Schrautenbach, 
Zinzendorf  und  die  Bruderffemeine,  Gnadaii, 
1851  ;  Plitt,  Evamjelische  Olaubenslehre  nnck 
Schrift  und  Erfahrung,  Gotha,  1863  ;  Plitt, 
Zinzendorf  s  Theologie,  Gotha,  1869  ;  Reichel, 
The  Early  History  of  the  Church  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  North  America,  Nazareth,  Pa., 
1888  ;  A.  Schultze,  Die  Missionsfelder  der  Er- 
neuerten Bruderkirche,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1890. 
J.  Taylor  Hamilton. 

Mor'-de-cai  {little  man,  or  worshipper  of 
Mars).  A  captive  Jew  of  Saul's  family,  who 
resided  at  the  court  of  Ahasuerus  (b.c.  599). 
He  was  the  cousin  and  guardian  of  iladassah, 
■whose  -^vouderful  history  is  related  in  the 
Book  of  Esther.  T.  W.  C. 

More,  Hannah,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  Eng.,  Feb.  2,  1745  ; 
d.  at  Clifton,  also  near  Bristol,  Sept.  7,  1833. 
She  and  her  sisters  followed  their  father  in 
teaching  school  till,  inheriting  some  money, 
she  led  a  literary  life  in  London,  and  was 
much  petted  by  society.  After  writing  Percy, 
1778,  and  other  plays,  she  turned  to  moral 
and  religious  tales,  as  the  famous  Shepherd 
of  Salisbury  Plain,  and  other  improving 
■works.  From  1786  she  lived  in  retirement, 
chiefly  at  Cowslip  Green  and  Barley  Wood 
(1802-28),  devoting  herself  zealously  to  the 
education  of  poor  children  and  other  philan- 
thropic labors.  Her  character  was  revered 
by  all  classes,  and  her  writings  long  exerted 
a  wide  influence.  Among  them  are  Sacred 
Dramas,  London,  1782  ;  Manners  of  the  Great, 
1788  ;  Religion  of  the  Fashionable  World, 
1790  ;  Female  Education,  1799  ;  Character 
of  a  Young  Princess,  1805  ;  Calebs  in  Search 
of  a  Wife,  1809  ;  Practical  Piety,  1811  ; 
Christian  Morals,  1813;  St.  Paul,  1815. 
Her  complete  works  appeared  in  11  vols., 
London,  1836,  and  a  selection  from  them  in 
9  vols.,  1847-49.  There  are  two  American 
editions  of  her  works.  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia. Her  life  has  been  Avritten  by  W. 
Roberts,  1834,  4  vols.  ;  H.  Thompson, '1838, 
and  Mrs.  R.  Smith,  1844.  F.  M.  B. 

More,  Henry,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  16—), 
F.R.S.  (1661),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Grantham,  Lincolnshire,  110  m.  n.  by  w.  of 
London,  Oct.  12,  1614  ;  d.  at  Cambridge, 
Sept.  1,  1687.  He  was  bred  in  Calvinism,  but 
"could  never  swallow  that  hard  doctrine." 
Going  from  Eton  to  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1631,  he  became  M.A.  and  tutor, 
1639.  Here  he  joined  the  famous  band  of 
Platonists,  and  spent  his  life  in  study  and 
contemplation,  gaining  great  repute  for  learn- 
ing and  piety.  He  declined  all  offers  of  pre- 
ferment, including  a  deanery  and  a  bishopric, 
and  in  1675  accepted  a  prebend  at  Gloucester 
only  to  resign  it  to  another.  His  nature  was 
joyous,  though  his  tastes  were  abstruse  and 
his  habits  secluded.  Tulloch  calls  him  "  the 
most  poetic  and  transcendental"  of  his 
school.  In  later  life  he  spent  much  time  at 
Ragley,  in  "Warwickshire,  the    seat   of   his 


friend  Lady  Conway,  whose  influence  is 
tliought  to  have  made' him  more  my.stical  and 
less  rational.  He  published  Philosophical 
Poems,  London,  1647  ;  Mystery  of  Godliness, 
1660  ;  Mystery  of  Iniquity,  1664 ;  Divine 
Dialogues,  1688,  etc.,  besides  Opera  Theologi- 
ca,  1675,  and  Opera  Philosophica,  1678.  His 
life  was  written  by  W.  Ward,  Loudon,  1710. 
(See  Principal  IvXXoch,  Rational  Theology  in 
Enqland  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  ii.,  303- 
409.)  F.  M.  B. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  Roman  Catholic  mar- 
tyr ;  b.  in  London,  Feb.  7,  1478  ;  executed 
in  the  Tower,  July  7,  1535.  He  was  educated 
in  the  household  of  Cardinal  ]\Iorton  and  at 
Oxford  ;  admitted  to  Lincoln's  Inn,  1496  ; 
entered  parliament,  1503,  but  incurred  the 
wrath  of  Henry  VII.,  and  retired  from  public 
life  for  some  time  ;  married,  1007,  and  re- 
sumed legal  practice  ;  won  the  favor  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  Wolsey  ;  was  knighted,  1514  ;  be- 
came one  of  the  privy  council,  and  was  em- 
ployed on  embassies  ;  treasurer  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, 1521  ;  speaker  of  the  Commons, 
1523  ;  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster, 
1525  ;  succeeded  Wolsey  as  lord  chancellor, 
1529,  but  resigned,  1532,  foreseeing  complica- 
tions. A  conscientious  adherent  of  the  old 
party,  he  could  not  approve  the  divorce  of 
Catharine  nor  the  marriage  with  Anne  Bo- 
leyn.  After  two  years  of  seclusion  he  was 
committed  to  the  'Tower,  in  April,  1534,  and. 
in  1535  tried  and  condemned  with  Fisher  for 
declining  the  oath  of  supremacy.  _  His  char- 
acter, alike  in  private  and  public  life,  was  of 
the  highest  ;  he  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  an 
elegant  scholar,  and  a  man  of  genius,  ham- 
pered in  part  by  the  superstitions  of  his  age. 
His  Utopia,  Louvain,  1516,  is  still  famous. 
There  are  two  English  translations  from  1557 
and  1688  in  Arber's  Reprints,  London,  1859. 
His  life  was  written  by  Roper,  his  son-in-law 
(first  printed  1626,  last  by  Singer,  1822),  and 
several  others.  F.  M.  B. 

Mo'-reh.  1.  The  plain  of  IVIoreh,  near 
Shechem  (Gen.  xii.  6),  and  the  mountains  of 
Ebal  and  Gerizim  (Deut.  xi.  30),  was  the  halt- 
ing place  of  Abram  after  his  entrance  into 
the  land  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xii.  6).  2.  The  hill 
of  Moreh,  situated  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  valley  of  Jezreel,  the  present  Jebel-ed- 
Duhy,  or"  Little  Hermon,  1815  feet  over  the 
Mediterranean,  was  the  camping  ground  of 
theMidianites  and  Amalekites  before  Gideon's 
attack  upon  them  (Judges  vii.  1). 

Morel,  or  Morelli,  Jean  Baptiste,  was; 
bom  in  Paris  in  the  first  half  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury ;  embraced  the  Reformation  ;  sought 
refuge  at  Geneva,  and  published  in  1561,  at 
Lyons,  his  Traite  de  la  DiscijMne  et  Police 
Ghretienne,  in  which  he,  in  accordance  with 
the  custom  of  the  primitive  church  during  the 
first  three  centuries,  vindicated  the  right  of 
the  whole  congregation  to  decide  by  universal 
suffrage  any  point  of  doctrine  or  discipline, 
to  elect  pastors,  elders,  deacons,  etc.  The 
Council  of  Pastors  of  Geneva  condemned  the 
book,  1563,  and  excommunicated  the  author  ; 
but  Morelli  had  left  the  city  before  he  could 
be  given  over  to  the  secular  authorities  for 
punishment.    The  persecutions  did  not  stop. 


MORESHETH 


(615) 


MORMONISM 


however.  The  book  was  repeatedly  con- 
demned by  the  synods  of  Paris,  1569,  Nimes, 
1573,  etc.,  and  tiie  author,  who  had  obtained 
a  phice  at  the  court  of  Navarre,  was  dis- 
missed on  tlie  instance  of  Calvin  and  Beza. 
He  died  some  years  later  an  exile  in  England. 
(See  Waddington,  Ramus,  Paris,  1855.) 

Mo'-re-sheth  Gath  ( ^wsst'mc^/i  of  Gath),  a 
town  in  the  lowland  of  Judah,  the  birthplace 
of  Micah  the  prophet  (Jer.  xxvi.  18,  Micaii  i. 
1),  whence  he  was  called  "  the  Morashtite. " 
T.  W.  C. 

Morgan,  Thomas,  English  deist  ;  d.  in 
London,  Jan.  14,  1743.  He  was  a  Presbyte- 
rian pastor  till  1726,  then  a  physician  at  Bris- 
tol, and  tinally  an  author.  His  chief  work, 
The  Moral  Philosopher,  London,  1737-40,  3 
vols.,  draws  a  sharp  distinction  between  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  would  elimi- 
nate all  Jewish  elements  from  the  gospel,  the 
ethics  and  central  character  of  which  he 
mainly  approves.  He  was  answered  after  a 
manner  in  Letter  X.  of  Lcland's  Views  of  the 
Principal  Deistical  Writers,  London,  1754-56, 
2  vols.,  best  ed.,  London,  1837,  1  vol. 

F.  M.  B. 

Mo-ri'-ah  {shown  by  Jeliovah).  The  hill  on 
wliich  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  was  built 
(2  Chron.  iii.  1).  It  seems  to  have  been  the 
same  place  where  Abraham  was  directed  to 
offer  Isaac  (Gen.  xxii.  2),  and  where  David 
interceded  for  his  people  at  the  threshing-floor 
of  Araunah  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  24).         T.  W.  C. 

Morikofer,  Johann  Kaspar,  b.  at  Fraucn- 
feld,  Thurgau,  Switzerland,  1799  ;  d.  at  Zu- 
rich, Oct.  17,  1877  :  held  various  pastoral 
charges  and  published  Bilder  i^is  dem  kirch- 
liehen  Leheii  der  Schtreitz,  Leipzig,  1864  ;  a 
life  of  Zwingli,  based  on  original  sources 
(the  best  one  yet  written),  1867-69,  2  vols.  ;  a 
life  of  Breitinger,  Zurich,  1874  ;  Geschichte 
der  emnr/elisch<in  Flachtlinge  in  der  Schweitz, 
1876,  etc. 

Morison,  James,  D.D.  (Adrian  College, 
Michigan,  1862  ;  University  of  Glasgow, 
1882),  Evangelical  Union  ;  b.  at  Bathgate, 
Linlithgowshire,  Scotland,  Feb.  14.  1816  ; 
educated  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  ;  at 
first  in  tiie  United  Presbyterian  Church  (1840), 
he  founded  the  Evangelical  Union  (q.v.)  and 
since  1843  has  been  principal  and  professor 
of  New  Testament  exegesis  in  its  Hall  in 
Glasgow.  Of  special  value  are  his  commen- 
taries on  Matthew  (London,  1870,  6th  ed., 
1887)  and  Mark  (1873.  6th  ed.,  1889),  and  his 
expositions  of  the  third  (1866),  sixth  (1886). 
and  ninth  (1849,  2d  ed.,  1888)  chapters  of 
liomans. 

Mormonism.  The  Book  of  Mormon  is  the 
earliest  monument  of  Mormon  history  ;  it  is 
also  in  some  respects  the  most  important  of 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Mormon  Church. 
The  study  of  Mormonism,  therefore,  properly 
commences  with  tlie  Book  of  Mormon.  Its 
literary  form  is  repulsive  to  the  last  degree  ; 
its  thouglit  is  low  and  lacking  in  interest. 
Little  wonder  tliat  it  should  have  been  neg- 
lected.    But  whoever  desires  to  comprehend 


the  history,  doctrines,  and  purposes  of  Mor- 
monism must  give  his  cares  first  of  all  to  the 
Book  of  Mcirmon.  If  he  shrinks  from  that 
ordeal  it  will  be  a  waste  of  time  and  energy 
to  touch  the  subject  at  all. 

Structure  of  the  Book  of  Mormon.— Fiftt^en 
separate  books  arc  contained  in  the  work,  as 
follows  :  I.  Nephi,  II.  Nepiii,  Jacob.  Enos, 
Jarom.  Omni,  Words  of  JMormon,  Mosiah, 
Alma,  Helaman,  III.  Nephi,  IV.  Nephi,  Mor- 
mon, Ether,  Moroni. 

The  plan  of  the  work  represents  that  the 
prophet  Mormon  composed  an  abridgment  of 
the  previous  history  of  the  prophet  Nephi, 
which  he  had  taken  from  the  plates  of  Nephi. 
In  the  above  list  all  the  books,  from  I.  Nephi 
to  IV.  Nephi,  are  included  in  the  so-called 
Abridgment  of  Mormon.  The  Book  of  Mor- 
mon proper,  which  stands  as  Uiirteentli  in  the 
list,  is  not  a  portion  of  the  Abridgment  ;  it 
was  composed  as  an  independent  work  by  the 
prophet  Mormon  and  affixed  as  a  supplement 
at  the  close  of  the  Abridgment. 

The  Book  of  Ether  is  a  separate  and  inde- 
pendent work  that  has  no  connection  with 
the  Book  of  3Iormon.  The  prophet  ]\Iormou 
was  in  no  sense  the  author  of  it,  and  it  was 
included  because  the  editor  took  a  fancy  to  its 
contents. 

The  Book  of  Moroni,  which  stands  last  in 
the  series,  was  produced  entirely  by  the  edi- 
tor, and  appended  to  the  work  for  a  special 
purpose.     It  was  an  afterthought. 

It  therefore  appears  that  the  Book  of  ]\Ior- 
mon  is  composed  of  three  separate  and  inde- 
pendent sections— namely,  the  first  thirteen 
books,  which  are  represented  to  be  the  work 
of  the  prophet  Mormon  ;  the  fourteenth  book, 
called  Ether,  with  which  Mormon  had  no  con- 
nection ;  and  the  fifteenth  book,  that  was  sent 
forth  by  the  editor  under  the  name  of  Moroni, 
the  surviviHg  son  of  jMormon. 

Returning  to  the  first  section,  it  may  be  re- 
marked that  the  Abridgment  of  ]\Iormon  is 
also  divided  into  two  sections.  The  editor 
undertook  to  rewrite  and  recast  the  whole  of 
the  Abridgment,  l)ut  his  industry  failed  him 
at  the  close  of  the  Book  of  Omni.  There  he 
allowed  the  Abridgment  to  stand  pretty 
nearly  in  the  language  of  ^Mormon,  only  in- 
serting here  and  there  such  preachments  and 
reflections  as  suited  the  scope  of  his  enterprise. 
The  first  six  books  that  he  had  rewritten  were 
given  the  special  name  of  the  small  plates, 
tiie  original  upon  v>hich  the  so-called  small 
plates  were  founded  being  retained  for  future 
uses  ;  but  owing  to  circum.stances  that  could 
not  be  controlled,  it  was  never  permitted  to 
see  the  light.  The  book  called  the  Words  of 
Mormon,  in  the  original  v,-0Tk,  stood  at  the 
beginning  as  a  sort  of  preface  to  the  entire 
Abridgment  of  ^lormon  ;  but  when  the  editor 
had  rewritten  the  first  six  books  he  felt  that 
these  were  properly  his  own  performance,  and 
the  Words  of  Mormon  were  assigned  a  jiosi- 
tion  just  in  front  of  the  Book  of  Mo.viah.  where 
the  Aliridgmentof  IVIormon  took  its  real  cnm- 
mencement.  So  much  for  tlie  handiwork  of 
tiie  editor  who  brought  the  Book  e)f  ]\Iormou 
into  the  shape  in  which  it  now  appears. 

Editor  of  the  Book  of  Mormon. — Tiie  (jues- 
tion  may  now  be  raised  as  to  who  was  the 


MORMONISM 


(616: 


MORMONISM 


editor  of  the  Book  of  Mormon.  That  point 
can  De  settled  in  no  other  way  tliau  by  means 
of  a  critical  examination  of  the  doctrinal 
contents  of  the  work.  This  examination 
would  require  much  time  and  space,  and 
here  is  not  the  place  to  prosecute  it  ;  nothing 
but  results  can  be  submitted.  Tlie  tirst  point 
that  is  claimed  to  be  established  is  that  the 
editor  was  a  divine  of  the  Disciple  persuasion. 
In  its  theological  positions  and  coloring  the 
Book  of  Mormon  is  a  volume  of  Disciple 
theology,  by  which,  however,  is  not  meant 
that  the  Disciples  ever  taught  or  practised 
polygamy,  or  any  of  the  errors  commonly  as- 
sociated with  Mormonism.  Tliat  conclusion  is 
capable  of  demonstration  beycid  any  reason- 
able question.  Let  notice  also  be  taken  of 
the  fact  tliat  the  Book  of  Mormon  bears  traces 
of  two  several  redactions.  It  contains  in  the 
first  redaction  that  type  of  doctrine  which  the 
Disciples  held  and  proclaimed  prior  to  Nov. 
18,  1827,  when  they  had  not  yet  formally 
embraced  what  is  commonly  considered  to  be 
the  tenet  of  baptismal  remission,  a  term,  it 
should  be  remarked,  repudiated  by  the  Dis- 
ciples. It  also  contains  the  type  of  doctrine 
•which  the  Disciples  have  been  defending  since 
Nov.  18,  1827,  under  the  name  of  the  ancient 
gospel,  of  which  the  tenet  of  so-called  baptis- 
mal remission  is  a  leading  feature.  All 
authorities  agree  that  Mr.  Smith  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  work  on  Sept.  22,  1827,  a  period 
of  nearly  two  months  before  the  Disciples 
concluded  to  embrace  this  tenet.  The  editor 
felt  that  the  Book  of  Mormon  would  be  sadly 
incomplete— would  fail  to  accomplish  the 
purpose  for  which  he  had  bestowed  his  labor 
upon  it — if  this  notion  were  not  included. 
Accordingly  he  found  means  to  communicate 
with  Mr.  Smith,  and.  regaining  possession  of 
certain  portions  of  the  manuscript,  to  insert 
the  new  item. 

Purpose  of  the  Editor  of  tlie  Book  of  Mor- 
mon.— The  Disciples  were  continually  mak- 
ing the  boast  that  they  and  they  alone  spoke 
wiiere  the  Scriptures  spoke,  and  kept  silent 
where  the  Scriptures  are  silent.  The  editor 
of  the  Book  of  Mormon  was  deeply  impressed 
by  that  sentiment.  He  was  not  even  content 
with  the  extravagances  of  the  Disciples  ;  he 
longed  to  make  the  boast  true  of  them  that 
where  the  Scriptures  spoke  they  always  spoke, 
and  felt  convinced  that  the  so-called"  Current 
Eeformation  would  be  a  failure  unless  its  ad- 
vocates would  consent  to  adopt  also  the  an- 
cient order  of  things,  touching  such  items  as 
the  gift  of  speaking  in  unknown  tongues,  of 
working  miracles,  communing  with  angels, 
the  gift  of  inspiration  and  of  revelation.  His 
design  was  to  bring  tlie  people  with  whom  he 
was  associated  to  adopt  these  changes,  and  sc 
to  fulfil  the  assertions  that  they  enjoyed  so 
much  to  repeat  with  reference  to  their  merits 
as  strict  constructionists. 

A  Limitation  of  the  Editor  of  the  Book  of 
Mormon. — Notwithstanding  his  almost  insane 
devotion  to  false  literalism,  the  editor  of  the 
Book  of  Mormon  was  unwilling  to  speak 
where  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  speak  in 
relation  to  polygamy.  He  introduced  into 
the  w^ork  special  injunctions  that  the  faithful, 
who  should  receive  it  as  a  divine  revelation, 
must  abstain  from  polygamy. 


Mr.  Sidney  Rirjdon. — The  above  specifica- 
tions, which  may  all  be  clearly  demonstrated 
out  of  the  Book  of  Mormon,  point  to  the  Mr. 
Sidney  Rigdon  (q.v.)  as  the  theological  editor 
of  the  book.  Rigdon  was  the  only  Disciple 
minister  who  vigorously  and  continuously  de- 
manded that  his  brethren  should  adopt  the 
additional  points  that  have  been  indicated. 
He  was  also  the  Mormon  leader  who  reso- 
lutely opposed  polygamy  when  Mr.  Smith 
received  his  famous  revelation  in  1843.  His 
opposition  drove  him  from  the  counsels  and 
fellowship  of  that  portion  of  the  Saints 
which  remained  faithful  to  Smith  and  his 
measures.  That. Rigdon  was  a  Disciple  min- 
ister for  a  short  time  is  conceded  by  the 
Disciples  themselves,  and  that  he  was  a  con- 
vert from  Baptist  views,  having  been  a  Bap- 
tist minister  previously,  explains  his  zeal  in 
propagating  his  new  views  as  he  understood 
them. 

Spaulding  and  the  Manuscript  Found. — 
Whatever  may  be  true  in  relation  to  Solo- 
mon Spaulding,  the  conclusion  is  inexpugna- 
ble that  Mr.  Rigdon  had  in  his  possession  the 
manuscript  of  the  Book  of  Mormon  before  it 
was  delivered  to  Joseph  Smith.  To  suppose 
that  Joseph  Smith,  whose  antecedents  were 
Methodistic,  and  who  at  this  period  had  no 
acquaintance  with  the  Disciples  or  their  senti- 
ments, could  have  given  the  work  the  special 
theological  coloring  that  it  displays,  would 
have  been  unreasonable.  Though  none  of  the 
actors  in  the  Mormon  drama  has  chosen  to  re- 
veal the  secret  of  Mr.  Rigdon's  initiative,  the 
Book  of  ]\Iormon  points  to  him  on  almost 
every  page.  Its  testimony  cannot  be  con- 
cealed or  denied. 

Nevertheless  a  measure  of  truth  may  be 
conceded  to  the  stories  that  are  reported  con- 
cerning Spaulding.  Criticism  must  allow 
that  blunders  are  found  in  those  stories,  and 
that  they  cannot  be  accepted  in  all  their  de- 
tails. For  example,  it  is  incorrect  to  affirm 
that  Spaulding  wrote  only  one  Manuscript 
Found  ;  that  was  likely  a  generic  title  for  all 
his  literary  effusions.  The  first  writing  that  he 
produced  vuider  that  title  is  believed  to  be  the 
document  that  several  years  since  was  recov- 
ered in  Honolulu.  The  second  of  his  Manu- 
scripts Found  is  suspected  to  have  been  the 
Book  of  Ether,  and  the  third  the  Book  of 
Mormon.  It  is  affirmed  that  he  continued 
to  drivel  a  Manuscript  Found  even  after 
he  had  quitted  Pittsburg  and  retired  to 
Amity,  Pa.,  where  his  death  befell  in  the 
year  1816. 

It  is  also  a  fable  which  represents  that  Mr. 
Rigdon  was  ever  a  printer  in  Pittsburg. 
Most  probably  he  obtained  the  Manuscript 
Found  from  the  printing  office  of  Butler  & 
Lambdin  upon  the  occasion  of  their  failure 
in  business,  a  number  of  years  after  Spaulding 
had  deposited  it  with  Patterson  &  Lambdin, 
who  had  been  their  predecessors.  He  may  have 
purchased  it  for  a  mere  trifle  at  their  enforced 
sale,  or  it  may  have  been  presented  by  Mr. 
Lambdin,  who  would  be  pleased  to  get  rid  of 
a  bundle  of  useless  rubbish.  Most  of  the 
stories  that  have  been  put  forth  in  the  name 
of  Mrs.  Spaulding,  widow  of  Solomon  Sjjaul- 
ding,  are  unworthy  of  credence.  This  good 
lady  knew  almost  nothing  concerning    the 


MORMONISM 


(617) 


MORMONISM 


literary  occupations  'of  her  worthless  hus- 
band, and  was  hardly  prepared  to  be  a  wit- 
ness in  the  case.  Especially  tlie  statement  that 
appeared  over  her  sij^uature  on  April  1,  1840, 
was  improperly  obtained,  and  she  was  not 
fairly  responsible  for  it. 

Mr.  Joseplt  Smith. — Taking  our  stand  upon 
the  unquestionable  testimony  of  the  Book  of 
Mormon  to  the  elTect  that  Mr.  lligdon  was 
its  editor,  it  may  be  inquired  by  what  proc- 
ess his  attention  was  lirst  directed  to  Mr. 
Joseph  Smith  as  a  suitable  agent  to  bring 
the  work  before  the  public.  Here,  it  must 
be  conceded,  the  investigator  is  much  at  a 
lo.ss.  No  record  has  been  kept  of  the  pe- 
culiar fortune  b}^  which  a  minister  of  relig- 
ion, residing  at  the  moment  in  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  could  have  had  his  thoughts  lirst  drawn 
to  a  smart  Yankee  lad  of  eighteen  years,  who 
resided  at  Manchester,  in  the  northern  por- 
tion of  New  York.  Happily  this  question  is 
not  of  much  consequence  ;  nobody  can  doubt 
the  fact  that  he  did  tind  him.  The  first  in- 
ter vie  »v  of  the  pair  appears  to  have  occurred  on 
Sept.  21,  1823,  when  Sidney  must  have  shown 
himself  at  the  humble  home  of  Joseph  and 
passed  a  niglit  with  him.  In  subsequent 
years  ]\Ir.  Sniith  liked  to  adopt  a  pictorial 
mi;thod  in  acct)rdance  with  which  Sidney  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  angel.  His  mother, 
however,  in  a  contemporary  utterance,  gave 
a  description  of  the  pretended  angel  that 
would  lit  the  figure  of  Mr.  lligdon  very  well. 
In  the  earlier  years  of  Mormon  history  this 
angel  was  represented  to  be  the  angel  Nephi, 
but  upon  subsequent  consideration  his  name 
was  changed  to  Moroni.  That  would  agree 
well  enough  with  tbe  fact  that  Rigdon  in  his 
own  person -as  editor  had  added  the  Book 
of  ]Moronl  at  the  close  of  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon. 

Mr.  Rigdon  had  no  idea  of  committing  such 
a  precious  treasure  and  such  an  important  en- 
terprise to  the  providence  of  a  lad  of  eighteen 
years.  Joseph  was  as  yet  too  young  and  too 
giddy  to  receive  the  golden  plates,  but  he 
nursed  him  assiduously  for  four  years.  It  is 
conceivable  that  upon  every  return  of  Sept. 
22  down  to  the  year  1827,  he  went  to  New 
York  to  confer  with  him  ;  at  any  rate,  Smith 
annually  made  a  demonstration  at  the  Hill 
Cumorah  when  the  day  returned.  He  was 
justly  su.spicious  of  him,  especially  in  view  of 
the  ifact  that  Mr.  Smith  had  become  a  tritle 
addicted  to  strong  drink.  Evidences  are  not 
wanting  of  a  purpose  to  obtain  a  partner  for 
Smith,  so  that  the  one  might  watch  over  and 
assist  the  other.  Finally,  on  Jan.  18,  1827, 
j\[r.  Smith  eloped  and  was  married  to  Miss 
Emma  Hale.  All  thoughts  of  a  different 
partner  were  now  dismissed,  and  Sidney  re- 
solved at  the  next  anniversary  to  proceed 
with  his  project  and  deliver  theBook  of  Mor- 
mon to  liis  colaborer. 

Much  preparation  was  made  for  the  day. 
"Word  had  been  conveyed  to  Joseph  Stowel 
and  Joseph  Knight,  two  silly  old  gentlemen 
whom  Smith  had  brought  under  his  power  in 
the  course  of  one  of  his  money-digging  excur- 
sions in  Pennsylvania,  and  the.se  worthies  had 
traversed  the  entire  breadth  of  tlie  State  of 
Kew  York  in  hopes  of  getting  a  sight  and  a 


share  of  the  coveted  gold  of  the  wonderful 
plates.  The  people  in  the  inunediale  vicinity 
had  also  been  stirred  to  excitement  by  wild 
stories  that  Josei)h  had  put  in  circulation. 

Mr.  Rigdon  kept  his  tryst  and  fulfilled  his 
promise.  After  retaining  the  Book  of  ^lor- 
mon  for  at  least  four  years,  during  which  at 
odd  times  he  had  been  employed  in  the  task 
of  impressing  on  it  a  .system  of  theology  as 
much  as  possible  in  keeping  with  the  scheme 
of  the  Disciples,  the  time  was  felt  to  be  ripe 
to  entrust  it  to  one  who  had  undertaken  to 
get  it  published.  The  requirement  that  it 
sliould  be  copied  before  it  was  exhibited  to 
the  printer  was  a  severe  one,  but  it  was  felt 
to  be  necessary.  The  sheets  were  possibly 
jellow  with  age,  but  no  printer  in  the  land 
would  concede  that  they  were  made  of  gold. 
It  was  indispensable  that  they  should  not  be 
examined.  Besides  it  was  conceivable  that 
in  case  they  were  widely  circulated  some  per- 
son might  examine  them  who  should  recog- 
nize tlie  handwriting  of  Mr.  Rigdon. 

At  first  Mr.  Smith  expected  to  do  the  woik 
of  copying  with  his  own  hand,  and  the  story 
was  given  out  that  the  characters  of  the  orig- 
inal would  be  translated  for  him  by  the  in- 
spiration of  God  bestowed  upon  a  child  that 
he  anticipated  would  shortly  be  born  to  him. 
When  the  period  arrived  it  was  found  that 
the  child  was  still-born.  His  faith  was 
greatly  tried  by  that  disaster,  and  he  was 
seriously  meditating  the  propriety  of  washing 
his  hands  of  the  business  ;  but  the  entreaties 
of  his  friends,  notably  of  Mr.  Martin  Harris, 
availed  to  hold  him  to  the  course  that  had 
been  marked  out. 

Martin  Harris,  Amanuensis. — In  order  to 
help  forward  the  cause,  this  gentleman  con- 
sented to  become  the  amanuensis  of  Smith 
while  he  should  translate  from  the  plates. 
That  was  a  ticklish  aliair.  Martin  wanted 
the  gold  more  than  he  wanted  the  wisdom  of 
the  plates,  and  it  must  have  been  difficult  to 
prevent  him  from  getting  a  sight  of  the  faded 
leaves  of  the  original  ;  but  by  the  aid  of  o. 
blanket  that  was  stretched  between  them,  it 
was  possible  for  the  two  to  work  together. 
Sometimes  Mr.  Smith  would  retire  to  an  up- 
per room  and  dictate  to  Mr.  Harris  down  the 
stairway.  The  connection  between  Smith 
and  Harris  was  of  brief  duration.  Harris  got 
permission  to  carry  away  with  him  his  copy 
of  the  Book  of  Leiii,  and  during  his  absence 
it  was  taken  from  him.  This  catastrophe 
produced  a  strong  sensation,  and  appears  to 
liave  occasioned  a  fresh  visit  from  Mr.  Rig- 
don. Martin  Harris  lost  the  confidence  of 
Smith,  and  his  connection  Avith  the  business 
was  temporarily  interrupted.  The  loss  of  IJUe 
copy  was  especially  regretted,  because  Joseph 
would  seem  to  have  inserted  some  views  of 
his  own  at  various  points,  and  it  was  not  in 
his  power  to  remember  where  ho  had  done 
this,  nor  could  he  reproduce  the  exact  words. 
That  difiiculty  was  later  surmounted  by  alter- 
ing tlie  name' of  the  book  that  liad  been  lost. 
In'Rigdon's  manuscript  it  bore  the  title  of  the 
Book^of  Lelii  ;  in  the  present  Book  of  Mor- 
mon it  bears  the  title  of  I.  Nephi.  By  that 
process  Smith  was  easily  able  to  checkmate 
the  project  of  those  who  expected  to  embar- 


MORMONISM 


(618) 


MORMONISM 


rass  him.  Nothing  has  ever  been  heard  of 
the  pages  that  were  lost  by  Harris. 

OUcer  Cowdery,  Ainaimensis. — Something 
more  than  a  year  after  tliis  accident  Mr. 
Cowdery  came  to  do  service  for  Smitli  in 
tlie  character  of  amanuensis,  and  the  work 
was  pushed  forward  rapidly.  During  the  early 
progress  of  it  Mr.  Rigdon  reappeared  with  the 
new  gospel,  which  the  Disciples  meanwhile  had 
begun  to  proclaim  in  Ohio  and  other  places. 
This  was  now  duly  inserted  in  the  form  of  a 
second  redaction,  and  on  May  15,  1829,  under 
the  designation  of  John  the  Baptist,  Rigdon 
commanded  them  to  immerse  each  the  other, 
after  the  Disciple  fashion  for  the  remission 
of  sins,  and  ordained  them  to  the  Aaronic 
priesthood.  The  terms  of  that  ordination 
formula  could  have  been  given  by  none  but  a 
Disciple,  and  such  are  the  special  features  of 
them  that  no  Disciple  but  Mr.  Rigdon  could 
have  given  them.  The  designation  John  the 
Baptist  was  subsequently  conferred  upon  Mr. 
Rigdon  by  Joseph,  who  had  forgotten  how 
openly  he  was  by  that  selection  revealing  the 
secrets  he  tried  so  hard  to  keep.  The  myste- 
rious John  the  Baptist,  reported  to  be  an 
angel  wha  ordained  Smith  and  Cowdery  on 
May  15,  1S29,  could  have  been  no  other  than 
the  John  the  Baptist  whom  Joseph  hailed  in 
the  person  of  Sidney  Rigdon,  in  the  month 
of  Dec,  1830.  The  two  displayed  the  same 
Disciple  gospel  ;  they  had  the  same  Scripture 
name  ;  they  must  have  been  one  and  the  same 
person.  It  was  not  possible  for  Mr.  Rigdon 
to  conceal  his  individuality  ;  and  Joseph 
Smith,  who  was  a  shrewder  and  abler  man, 
has  likewise  shed  a  clear  light  upon  it. 

Relations  of  Rigdon  and  Smith. — The  re- 
lations that  they  occupied  at  this  early  period 
were  those  of  principal  and  subordinate.  ]Mr. 
Rigdon  had  elaborated  the  doctrine  of  Mor- 
monism  from  the  teachings  of  the  Disciples  ; 
he  had  also  conceived  the  entire  scheme  which 
it  was  proposed  to  carry  into  execution.  But 
he  was  not  prepared  for  the  exceptional 
strength  and  vigor  that  were  displayed  by  his 
colaborer.  Joseph  was  pre-eminently  a  man 
of  affairs  and  a  leader  of  men  ;  Sidney  was 
notably  defective  in  both  those  departments. 
Therefore  it  was  not  many  months  before 
Joseph  was  recognized  as  principal  and  Sid- 
ney as  subordinate.  This  defeat  was  largely 
promoted  by  the  cowardice  of  Sidney.  In- 
stead of  promptly  going  over  to  New  York 
and  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  the  move- 
ment, he  timidly  remained  at  his  home  in 
Ohio,  playing  ihe  role  of  John  the  Baptist  in 
his  exertions  to  prepare  the  Disciple  public 
and  other  people  for  the  new  revelation.  On 
one  occasion  he  covertly  sounded  Mr.  Camp- 
bell himself  to  see  how  he  might  be  disposed 
toward  it.  Every  month  from  May.  1830,  to 
Dec.,  1831,  Smith  was  expecting  Rigdon  to 
come  to  Manchester  and  remove  \\\n\  and  the 
infant  church  to  Kirtland,  O.  Rigdon  was 
afraid  to  put  it  to  the  touch  ;  he  "could  not 
feel  sure  of  the  church  over  which  he  pre- 
sided at  Kirtland.  Finally  he  had  to  resort 
to  the  degrading  expedient  of  causing  Parley 
P.  Pratt  and  Oliver  Cowdery  to  be  sent  over 
from  Mr.  Smith  to  baptize  himself  and  his 
family  and  to  convert  the  Kirtland  commu- 


nity to  the  new  faith.  After  that  shameful 
surrender  the  world  had  no  doubt  that  he  had 
descended  from  his  former  pedestal  ;  hence- 
forth it  was  always  clearly  understood  that 
Smith  was  principal  and  that  Rigdon  was 
subordinate  in  the  Mormon  movement  ;  nay, 
it  has  often  been  insisted  that  Smith  con- 
ceived and  began  the  movement. 

Organization  of  the  Mormon  Church. — 
Shortly  after  the  publication  of  the  Book  of 
Mormon  the  church  was  organized.  Though 
Joseph  was  a  prophet  his  memory  was  defec- 
tive. In  his  accounts  of  that  event  he  asserted 
that  the  organization  took  place  at  the  house 
of  Peter  Whitmor,  in  Fayette  Township, 
Seneca  County,  N.  Y.  The  first  edition  of 
the  Book  of  Doctrine  and  Covenants  demon- 
strates that  the  church  was  organized  in  Man- 
chester Township,  Ontario  County,  N.  Y. 
The  place  of  its  organization  was  likely  the 
hired  house  of  Hyrum  Smith.  Why  Hyrum 
Smith  should  have  consented  to  surrender 
that  honor  to  Whitmer  is  a  question  that  may 
be  debated  ;  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Man- 
chester Township  was  the  place  of  organiza- 
tion. A  small  circle  about  Manchester,  the 
Whitmers  and  some  of  their  family  connec- 
tions in  Fayette,  and  silly  old  Joseph  Knight, 
of  Colesville,  together  with  his  family,  entered 
speedily  into  the  organization.  Happily  for 
him  foolish  old  Joseph  Stowel  escajjed  the 
snare  of  the  fowler.  While  this  was  going 
forward  Mr.  Smith  was  in  daily  expectation 
of  the  moment  when  Sidney  should  give  the 
word  for  him  to  come  to  Ohio.  Evidences 
can  be  found  to  show  that  Rigdon  had  made 
arrangements  for  his  colleague,  who  was  now 
rising  into  notice  as  a  prophet,  to  enter  the 
arena  at  the  session  of  Mahoning  Association, 
at  Austintown,  O.,  in  Aug.,  1830,  where  he 
would  confront  Mr.  Alexander  Campbell  in 
person.  A  passage  at  arms  between  these 
two  brilliant  masters  would  have  been  of  the 
highest  interest,  but  at  the  last  moment  Sid- 
ney's courage  failed  him,  and  he  surrendered 
the  project.  It  must  have  been  distasteful  to 
his  feelings  to  perceive  how  nuicli  Joseph  was 
getting  the  start  of  him,  but  he  was  not  bold 
enough  to  take  an  open  stand. 

The  Prophet's  Ilcgira. — Joseph  was  very 
desirous  of  other  fields  and  new  pastures. 
Shortly  after  his  baptism  Rigdon  made 
a  journey  to  Manchester,  N.  Y.,  and  com- 
pleted arrangements  for  the  removal  to  Kirt- 
land. In  the  closing  days  of  Jan.,  1831,  the 
little  town  got  its  first  sight  of  the  man  for 
whom  Mr.  Rigdon  had  been  making  prepara- 
tions for  a  number  of  months.  His  entrance, 
which  had  been  preceded  several  days  by  the 
return  of  Sidney,  was  highly  successful. 

Second  Sacred  Book  of  Mormonism, — Dur- 
ing the  sojourn  of  Rigdon  in  New  York 
the  now  happily  united  couple  began  to  pre- 
pare the  second  of  the  sacred  bcoks  of  Mormon- 
ism. This  was  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  The  most 
important  feature  in  connection  with  it  was 
the  Swedenborgian  sentiments  that  were  in- 
jected into  the'  earliest  chapters  of  Genesis. 
Which  of  them  was  responsible  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Swedenborgian  element  ?  It 
is  easier  to  ask  than  to  answer  that  inquiry. 


MORMONISM 


(619) 


MORMONISM 


Possibly  Joseph  was  the  leading  spirit.  At 
any  rate  he  subsequently  made  distinct  use 
of  Swedenborgian  ideas  in  the  revelation  in 
favor  of  polygamy  and  in  many  other  places, 
while  Itigdon  i;-.  believed  to  have  embraced 
no  opportunity  to  bring  them  forward.  Per- 
haps he  had  no  lirm  hold  upon  them.  The 
translation  that  was  begun  in  New  York  was 
completed  some  months  later  at  Kirlland  ; 
but  it  was  many  years  before  the  new  Bible 
■was  permitted  to  appear  in  print. 

TJte  Kirtlund  Period. — Abundant  success 
was  bestowed  upon  the  new  sect  at  Kirtland  ; 
the  labor  of  preparation  which  Rigdon  had  so 
earnestly  performed  among  his  Disciple  breth- 
ren ou  the  Western  Keserve  began  to  produce 
fruit.  JVIultitudes  of  them  acknowledged  that 
JMorntonism  was  more  complete  and  more 
thoroutrh-going  than  the  faith  they  had 
formerly  embraced,  and  they  lost  no  time  in 
going  over  to  the  standard  of  their  admired 
and  beloved  friend.  By  consequence  the  ex- 
periences of  the  Mormons  at  Kirtland  were 
peaceful  in  comparison  with  those  thev  en- 
countered at  other  times  and  places.  Yet  op- 
position was  not  lacking  ;  in  fact,  so  much  of 
it  came  to  view  that  it  was  speedily  perceived 
tkey  could  enjoy  no  abiding  home  at  Kirt- 
land. In  June,  1831,  the  prophet  and  his 
le*vling  supporters  set  out  on  a  journey  to 
Missouri,  where  it  was  proposed  to  establish 
the  city  of  Zion.  It  was  hoped  that  here  they 
would  be  beyond  the  reach  of  enemies.  The 
land  of  Zion  was  formally  dedicated  and  con- 
secrated by  the  prayers  of  Rigdon  on  Aug.  2. 

The  hopes  of  the  faithful  were  shortly 
dashed.  It  was  not  long  before  they  encoun- 
tered far  more  serious  and  resolute  opposition 
in  Missouri  than  had  befallen  them  in  Ohio. 
The  most  serious  act  of  violence  that  they  had 
to  complain  of  in  Ohio  was  performed  by  a 
mob  at  lliram,  who  administered  a  coat  of 
tar  and  feathers  both  to  Rigdon  and  Smith, 
with  the  purpose  of  preventing  them  from 
capturing  that  important  centre  for  the  new 
church.  In  Missouri  they  were  threatened 
by  armed  and  organized  bands  of  marauders. 

TJie  Prophet  Turns  Warrior. — The  cries  of 
outraged  believers  in  Missouri  at  length  be- 
came so  urgent  that  Smith  resolved  to  make 
resort  to  force.  In  the  montii  of  May,  1884, 
he  quitted  Kirtland  with  a  band  of  armed 
followers,  which  was  swelled  almost  to  the 
number  of  two  hundred  before  his  arrival  at 
the  scene  of  hostilities.  His  courage  was 
largely  tempered  with  discretion.  When  he 
was  made  aware  of  the  numbers  and  deter- 
mination of  his  adversaries,  he  found  it  ad- 
visable to  patch  up  a  peace  and  submit  as 
cjuietly  as  he  could  to  the  inevitable.  The 
church  had  been  driven  out  of  Jackson 
County,  but  the  people  of  Clay  County,  with 
a  magnanimity  which  was  later  found  to  be 
misplaced,  had  offered  them  shelter.  Jo.seph 
was  unable  to  right  the  wrongs  of  his  ad- 
herents or  restore  them  to  their  homes  and 
possessions.  Tlu-  theocratic  idea  which  these 
people,  iifsane  with  the  suirtrestions  of  false 
literalism,  had  deduced  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment rendered  it  iinpo.ssil)lu  for  llu-m  to  live 
on  terms  of  amity  with  their  neighbors. 
That  idea  has  been  the  baue  of  Mormouism 


from  the  beginning.  In  a  short  while  a 
crestfallen  prophet  found  himself  leading  the 
crestfallen  hosts  of  the  Lord  back  to  their 
place  in  Ohio. 

Name  of  the  Church. — Its  earliest  style  and 
title  was  the  Church  of  Christ.  That  has 
always  been  one  of  tlie  favorite  names  of  the 
Disciples  for  their  church.  It  was  doubtless 
bestowed  upon  the  IMormons  by  Mr.  Rigdon, 
as  a  legacy  of  his  former  training  in  Disciplo 
theology.  The  visitor  to  Kirtland  may  still 
read  it  in  bold  characters  on  the  facade  of  the 
temple  which  was  erected  there  ;  it  is  like- 
wise found  in  munbers  of  the  revelations  de- 
livered by  Mr.  Smith  between  1830  and  1834. 
When  the  camp  of  Zion  was  on  the  verge  of 
setting  forward  to  do  exploits  against  the 
Gentiles  of  Jackson  Count j-,  Mo.,  a  meeting 
was  called,  in  which  an  addition  was  proposed 
and  carried.  From  May  3,  1834,  until  the 
latter  portion  of  the  year  1837  the  <  fficial  des- 
ignation was  the  Church  of  Christ  of  Latter- 
Day  Saints.  This  addition  was  also  the  work 
of  Mr.  Rigdon.  founded  upon  what  he  con- 
sidered a  specially  happy  conceit  which  he 
brought  forward  in  his  Lectures  on  Faith, 
that  had  recently  been  received  with  much 
distinction  in  the  new  temple.  Christians  of 
the  apostolic  age  were  declared  to  be  Former- 
Day  Saints.  The  Mormons,  who  claimed  the 
merit  of  restoring  primitive  Christianity,  were 
designated  Latter-Day  Saints.  The  altera- 
tion supplied  a  convenient  name  for  indi- 
vidual members  of  the  body.  They  were 
weary  of  being  styled  Mormons.  Especially 
they  wished  to  keep  that  name  in  the  back- 
ground during  the  perils  of  their  march  to 
Missouri,  and  to  be  able  to  inform  all  curious 
inquirers  that  they  were  Saints,  and  not  Mor- 
mons. 

In  1887  there  was  a  formidable  schism  from 
the  church,  led  by  Mr.  David  Whitmer,  one 
of  the  three  tirst  witnesses  to  the  Book  of 
Mormon.  This  new  party  claimed  that  they 
were  the  trve  Church  of  Christ  of  Latter-Day 
Saints.  In  order  to  checkmate  them  Joseph 
began  to  call  his  followers  the  Church  of 
Jeans  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints,  and  that 
has  continued  to  be  the  otiicial  title  down  to 
the  present  time. 

Third  Sacred  Book  of  Moi'monisvi. — The 
Doctrine  and  Covenants  of  the  Church  of 
Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints  is  the  third 
sacred  book  of  the  Mormon  Church.  Orig- 
inally its  title  was  A  Book  of  Conunandments, 
but  that  designation,  appearing  a  tritie  too  im- 
perious, the  name  was  altered  to  Covenants 
and  Conunandments.  When  Sidney  Rigdon 
pronoimced  his  Lectures  on  Failh,  these  were 
allowed  a  place  at  the  beginning,  as  an  expres- 
sion of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Saints,  and  the 
work  now  passes  under  the  name  of  Doctrine 
and  Covenants.  Efforts  are  nuide  to  conceal 
the  fact  that  the  Lectures  on  Faith  were  com- 
posed by  Rigdon,  it  being  unpleasant  to  con- 
cede that  one  who  later  fell  away  should  be 
so  much  honored.  The  Covenants  and  Com- 
mandments are  the  revelations  that  were  be- 
stowed upon  Joseph.  It  is  a  curious  and  en- 
tertaining study  to  watch  the  progress  cf 
development  as  exhibited  in  them,  antl  to  ob- 
serve liow  continuously  Sidney,  who  was  a 


MORMONISM 


(620) 


MORMONISM 


Disciple  in  his  theological  preferences,  strug- 
gled with  Joseph,  who  was  a  Methodist,  witli 
a  tincture  of  Swedenborgian  belief.  For 
example,  the  doctrine  of  adult  baptism  was 
conceded  to  Sidney's  unalterable  convictions  ; 
but  Joseph  was  careful  to  provide  that  all 
children  should  be  brought  to  baptism  at 
their  eighth  year,  which  he  was  pleased  to 
consider  the  age  of  accountability.  The  work 
of  developing  the  hierarchy  in  its  various  or- 
ders attracted  a  large  amount  of  study,  but 
in  general  the  notions  of  Rigdon  are  believed 
to  have  prevailed.  He  was  the  first,  and  so 
far  has  been  almost  the  only  theological 
architect  of  the  Mormon  scheme. 

The  Missouri  Period. — The  earliest  settle- 
ment of  Mormons  in  this  state  took  place  in 
the  year  1831,  and  it  was  intended  that  here 
should  ultimately  be  the  centre  of  the  church. 
But  so  much  prosperity  was  bestowed  at 
Kirtland  that  the  leaders  did  not  find  it  indis- 
pensable to  quit  their  work  in  Ohio  until  the 
year  1838.  When  Joseph  and  Sidney  arrived 
in  the  West  they  found  that  the  Saints  who 
had  been  given  a  home  in  Clay  County,  after 
their  expulsion  from  Jackson,  had  now  been 
compelled  to  remove  to  Caldwell.  Their 
numbers  had  become  so  considerable  that  the 
ruling  minds  considered  it  would  be  possible 
for  them  now  to  make  a  stand  against  the 
civil  government,  and  in  the  end  drive  all 
Gentiles  from  Missouri.  Accordingly,  on 
July  4,  Mr.  Rigdon  found  occasion  in  an  ad- 
dress, that  was  widely  published,  to  declare 
the  new  policy  and  to  proclaim  a  war  of  ex- 
termination in  case  the  brethren  suffered  any 
further  interruption.  The  governor  and  other 
officials  of  the  state  of  Missouri  took  up  the 
gage  of  battle.  Hostilities  broke  out  in  tlie 
following  month,  but  in  general  a  more  clem- 
ent policy  prevailed.  The  affair  at  Haun's 
Hill,  on  Oct.  30,  was  the  only  instance  in 
which  the  governor's  orders  for  extermination 
were  formally  executed.  The  continence  of 
the  Missouri  people  in  this  conflict  deserves 
commendation  ;  they  were  content  to  expel 
the  Mormons  from  the  limits  of  the  state. 

2he  lUiiiois  Period. — It  is  more  than  possi- 
ble that  the  Saints  would  have  gone  to  Iowa 
or  to  Nebraska  or  Kansas  for  refuge  but  for 
the  ill-considered  hospitality  of  the  people  of 
Illinois.  By  that  means,  instead  of  journey- 
ing north  or  still  farther  west,  the  Mormons 
were  enabled  to  return  toward  the  east.  At 
Nauvoo,  on  the  Mississippi,  a  splendid  city 
was  founded.  The  theocracy  had  been  tem- 
porarily humbled  by  its  experiences  in  Mis- 
souri, but  its  ever-arrogant  spirit  was  speedily 
revived.  It  obtained  the  balance  of  political 
power  in  Illinois,  and  even  affected  to  enter 
national  politics.  On  May  17,  1844,  a  na- 
tional convention  assembled  at  Nauvoo,  com- 
posed of  representatives  from  twenty-seven 
states,  and  nominated  Joseph  Smith  for  Presi- 
dent and  Sidney  Rigdon  for  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States.  Tlie  theocracy  had 
learned  from  their  sorrows  in  Missouri  to  ab- 
stain from  proclaiming  a  war  of  extermina- 
tion, but  it  was  still  evident  that  they  did  not 
intend  to  submit  to  any  kind  of  civi"l  author- 
ity. The  people  of  Illinois  in  their  turn  were 
soon  thoroughly  aroused.     On  June  27,  1844, 


Joseph  Smith  and  his  brother  Hyrum  were 
killed  by  a  mob,  which  attacked  the  jail  at 
Carthage,  111.  Shortly  afterward  the  Mor- 
mons were  expelled  from  the  state. 

Sidney's  Conflict  xcith  Brigham  Young. — 
After  the  death  of  Joseph,  Mr.  Rigdon  was 
the  natural  leader  of  the  church,  and  he 
aspired  to  the  position.  But  the  issue  about 
polygamy,  that  had  been  assuming  more  and 
more  formidable  proportions  since  the  year 
1S31,  had  lately  been  decided  by  a  formal 
revelation  of  Joseph  in  favor  of  it.  The 
great  body  of  the  faithful  followed  the 
prophet,  and  Mr.  Rigdon  found  himself  in  a 
hopeless  minority.  Even  if  Joseph  had  lived 
a  formal  breach  must  shortly  have  occurred. 
Mr.  Young  had  taken  the  side  of  Smith,  and 
was  already  in  the  practice  of  polygamy  ;  his 
success  was  therefore  a  foregone  conclusion. 

Utah  Period. — The  Saints  might  have  jour- 
neyed westward  as  early  as  1839  but  for  the  too 
effusive'  hospitality  of  the  people  of  Illinois. 
Now  that  their  new  friends  had  turned  against 
them,  there  was  no  other  direction  in  which 
they  might  turn,  and  plunging  into  the  desert, 
they  found  a  home  near  the  banks  of  the 
Great  Salt  Lake.  The  wonders  of  this  march 
have  been  a  favorite  theme  of  historians, 
whether  they  were  friendly  or  unfriendly  to 
the  Saints.  The  first  company  of  Mormons 
arrived  at  the  site  of  Salt  Lake  City  on  July 
23,  1847  ;  Brigham  Young  arrived  "in  person 
on  the  following  day.  The  wisdom,  de- 
cision, and  energy  of  Young  have  been  justly 
liaised  ;  he  possessed  many  shining  qualities 
of  leadership.  His  people,  having  been  the 
first  to  make  a  permanent  settlement  in  the 
far  West,  enjoyed  advantages  in  many  ways. 
The  industry  of  the  Mormons  can  always  be 
counted  upon.  The  strict  disciiT^iue  and  su- 
pervision under  which  they  live  can  hardly 
fail  to  secure  that  result.  Bat  though  the 
conditions  were  more  favorable  than  have 
been  enjoyed  by  the  settlers  of  any  other 
Western  state,  the  progress  of  Utah  has  not 
kept  pace  with  just  expectations.  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, Colorado,  and  other  communities  had 
much  later  and  more  feeble  beginnings,  and 
yet  they  are  believed  to  have  outstripped 
Utah  in  the  race  of  prosperity.  No  pseans 
have  been  sung  in  honor  of  tlie  sacrifices  and 
privations  of  the  pioneer  inhabitants  of  other 
districts  ;  yet  their  successes  have  been  more 
marked.  It  is  believed  that  government  by  a 
theocracy  is  less  favorable  to  priogress  and 
prosperity  than  any  other  form  of  govern- 
ment. In  Utah  the  Mormons  felt  that  they 
were  out  of  reach  and  might  erect  a  theocracy 
to  their  liking  ;  but  the  result  of  the  conflict 
with  Mexico  soon  placed  them  once  more  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States. 
Owing  to  the  immense  distances  which  then 
lay  between  them  and  the  settled  portions  of 
the  country,  the  theocracy  had  almost  unlim- 
ited range,  and  their  arrogance  rose,  as  usual, 
with  the  occasion.  In  1858  it  was  found 
necessary  to  send  a  military  force,  under  Col- 
onel Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  to  overawe  them. 
Civil  war  having  intervened  shortly  afterward 
this  pressure  was  withdrawn  ;  but  so  decided 
was  the  disloyalty  of  the  Mormons,  that  in 
May,  1862,  it  was  decided  to  station  a  military 


MORMONISM 


(621) 


MORMONISM 


force  near  the  city  in  order  to  maintain  any 
semblance  of  authorit}".  Since  the  completion 
of  tlie  Pacific  Jiaiiroad,  in  1869,  the  relations 
between  Utah  and  the  rest  of  the  country 
have  been  gradually  becoming  closer.  The 
theocracy  has  moditied  its  tone,  and  in  almost 
every  one  of  the  numerous  collisions  it  has 
been  compelled  to  submit  to  constituted  au- 
thority. Tiie  accession  of  Gentiles  in  recent 
years  to  the  population  of  Utah  seems  to  have 
conlrii)tit(Hl  much  to  rescue  the  territory  from 
threatened  stagnation. 

On  Aug.  29,  1877,  occurred  the  death  of 
Brigham  Young.  The  expectations  that  were 
widely  entertaiued  to  the  effect  that  the  Mor- 
mon movement  would  then  go  to  pieces  were 
unauthorized  by  anything  in  Mormon  his- 
tory. Following  the  precedent  that  had  been 
established  on  the  death  of  Joseph  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  defeating  the  aspirations  of 
Mr.  Kigdon,  the  Twelve  Apostles  came  for- 
ward to  govern  the  church  during  the  inter- 
regnum, which  lasted  for  three  years  ;  in 
Oct.,  1880,  John  Taylor  was  chosen  to  the 
presidency.  George  Q.  Cannon  and  Joseph 
F.  Smith  were  selected  to  be  his  councillors. 
These  selections  indicated  that  the  power  of 
Joseph  Smith  was  still  supreme  in  the  com- 
munity. At  the  death  of  President  Tajior 
the  present  incumbent,  ]Mr.  Wilford  Woodrulf, 
was  chosen  to  the  presidency.  The  first  three 
occupants  of  the  presidential  dignity  were  all 
of  Methodist  antecedents  ;  Mr.  Woodruff  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  member  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  before  his  conversion  to  jMormon 
tenets.  At  the  semi-annual  meeting  of  their 
conference,  in  Oct.,  1890,  Mr.  Woodruff  pro- 
fessed to  have  received  a  revelation  command- 
ing the  faithful  to  abstain  from  polygamy, 
T^hich  is,  perhaps,  at  present  the  most  promi- 
nent manifestation  of  the  disposition  of  the 
theocracy  to  resist  all  kind  of  civil  control. 
If  the  Saints  have  yielded  at  that  point,  there 
is  reason  to  hope  that  their  inherently  disloyal 
spirit  has  at  last  been  crushed.  The"  lesson  of 
Mormon  history  is  that  no  theocracy  will  be 
suffered  by  our  countrymen. 

Mormon  Propagandism. — The  marvels  of 
Mormon  propagandism  have  never  been  sur- 
passed. The  false  literalism  of  the  church 
has  displayed  the  courage  of  its  convictions 
at  this  point  more  remarkal)ly  than  at  any 
other.  The  Saviour's  injunction  that  the 
disciples  should  go  forth  without  scrip  or 
purse  was  for  many  years  observed  to  the 
letter.  jVIindfulof  New  Testament  examples, 
the  missionaries  almost  always  travelled  in 
pairs,  and  either  borrowed  the' money  to  meet 
expenses,  or  worked  or  begged  tlieir  way. 
There  is  scarcely  a  corner  of  the  earth  where 
they  have  not  been  seen.  In  England,  Wales, 
and  Scotland,  in  British  India,  Ceylon,  British 
Guiana,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  tlie 
West  Indies,  Canada,  Australia,  Tasmania, 
New  Zealand,  jMalta.  Gibraltar,  in  France, 
Germany,  Holland,  Denmark,  Scandinavia, 
Iceland,"  Italy,  in  Switzerland,  Mexico,  Chili, 
China  and  Siam,  in  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
the  Society  Islands,  and  in  Jerusalem  the 
courageous  preachers  of  the  "ancient  gos- 
pel "  have  appeared  in  the  depths  of  evangeli- 
cal poverty  and  in  the  heights  of  religious' eu- 


thusiasm.  Likewise  they  are  familiar  with 
every  city  and  almost  every  hamlet  of  our 
own  country. 

.^4  ProUn'tant  Cancer. — The  results  of  Mor- 
mon missions  have  demonstrated  that  little 
can  be  accompHshed  by  them  except  in  Prot- 
estant countries.  Faithful  and  persistent  ex- 
ertions have  been  made  in  Ireland,  France, 
Austria,  and  Italy,  but  in  every  instance  they 
have  been  marked  by  ridiculous  failure.  Tho 
]\Iormon  missionary  makes  his  appeal  to  the 
letter  of  the  Scriptures.  In  Catholic  coun- 
tries the  people  are  not  acquainted  with  tho 
letter  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  means  of  ob- 
taining access  to  the  Word  of  God  arc  not 
abundant.  By  consequence  it  is  not  easy  to 
reach  Catholic  believers  ;  the  propagandist  is 
generally  referred  to  the  priest,  who  takes 
measures  to  guard  his  flock  against  the  ene- 
mies of  their  peace. 

The  above  circumstances  teach  an  impres- 
sive lesson.  Much  has  been  said  to  the  effect 
that  Mormon  converts  have  made  their  way 
to  Utah  largely  in  the  hope  of  improving 
their  temporal  condition.  If  that  were  a  cor- 
rect statement  the  accessions  from  Catholic 
countries  would  be  as  numerous  ap  from 
others.  In  point  of  fact,  the  missionaries  have 
never  been  able  to  make  an  impression  upon 
France  or  Austria.  The  Catholic  peasantry 
of  Ireland  could  not  be  seduced  even  amid 
the  horrors  of  a  famine  that  almost  crushed 
them  in  1848.  It  is  plain  that  Mormon  im- 
migration is  supported  by  intense  religious 
conviction  and  religious  energy.  This  is  dis- 
played as  much  by  the  struggles  and  sacrifices 
of  the  penniless  missionaries  as  by  the  fact 
that  nearly  all  the  adherents  have  come  from 
regions  where  Protestant  faith  is  in  the  ascend- 
ant. 

Still  it  may  be  conceded  that  many  who 
make  the  journey  to  America  have  some  ex- 
pectation of  relief  from  the  oppressions  of  an 
imhappy  situation.  That  fact  seems  to  be 
demonstrated  by  the  circumstance  that  nearly 
all  of  the  converts  belong  to  the  lower  orders 
of  society  ;  it  is,  comparatively  speaking,  a 
rare  occurrence  when  a  person  in  the  better 
walks  of  life  is  induced  to  attach  himself  to 
the  church. 

The  ollicial  publication  in  the  year  1852  of 
Joseph's  revelation  in  favor  of  polygamy  was 
a  severe  blow  to  Mormon  missions  in  Europe. 
They  have  not  j'ct  recovered  from  the  effects 
of  it.  Possibly  a  degree  of  improvement  may 
be  observed  when  the  recent  counter  revela- 
tion of  President  Woodruff  shall  be  pro- 
claimed. 

Measures  Against  Polygamy.  —  In  July, 
1862,  the  first  law  was  enacted  by  Congress 
against  this  practice.  Efforts  were  made  to 
bring  Brigham  Young  and  other  offenders  to 
justice  under  its  provisions,  but  they  con- 
trived to  escape.  In  June,  1874,  the  Poland 
Bill  became  a  law,  but  only  a  single  person, 
George  Reynolds,  appears  to  have  been  con- 
victed under  it.  The  legal  proceedings  in  his 
case  were  protracted  for  a  period  of  four  years, 
by  which  it  became  clear  that  anotlier  cnact- 
nlent  must  be  provided.  In  March,  1S,^2,  the 
Edmunds  Bill  was  passed,  and  since  tliat  date 
the  courts  have   displayed  considerable  ef- 


MORMONISM 


(622) 


MORNAT 


ficiency.  At  times  it  was  feared  that  tlie 
friction  between  the  theocracy  and  tlie  gov- 
ernment would  result  in  open  violence,  but 
through  the  conservative  action  of  the  various 
officials  that  catastrophe  has  been  happily 
averted.  The  Utah  problem,  which  has  so 
often  threatened  the  peace  and  honor  of  the 
country,  is  now  in  process  of  peaceful  solu- 
tion. The  theocracy  have  at  last  come  to 
perceive  that  it  is  indispensable  for  them  to 
bow  to  the  will  of  constituted  authority,  and 
it  may  be  hoped  that  in  process  of  time  it  will 
be  safe  to  admit  Utah  to  a  place  among  the 
sisterhood  of  states.  It  would  be  unfortunate 
for  all  concerned,  however,  if  that  action 
should  be  taken  before  the  Gentile  party  shall 
have  obtained  undisputed  control  of  the  poli- 
tics and  business  of  the  territory. 

Statistics.— Tha  census  of  1880  showed 
that  the  population  of  Utah  Territory  was 
143.963.  Of  these,  120,283  were  Mormons  ; 
6988  were  Apostate  Mormons  ;  820  Josephite 
Mormons;  doubtful,  1716;  Gentiles,  14,156. 
Since  that  date  the  Gentiles  have  made  so 
much  progress  as  to  have  gained  control  of 
the  government  of  Salt  Lake  City.  The  fig- 
ures of  the  census  of  1890  are  not  yet  accessi- 
ble, but'  the  Governor  of  Utah  is  authority 
for  the  opinion  that  the  proportion  between 
Mormon  and  Gentile  voters  in  the  Territory  is 
as  7  to  4. 

Literature. — No  adequate  bibliography 
of  Mormonism  has  yet  been  published.  The 
best  is  found  in  the  History  of  Utah,  b}^  Hu- 
bert Howe  Bancroft,  San  Francisco,  1890, 
pp.  xx-xlvii.  Next  to  this,  and  supplying 
some  striking  defects  in  it,  is  Bibliotheca  Scal- 
Imoa^jidtut :  Catalogue  of  a  Matchless  Collec- 
tion of  Books,  Pamphlets,  Autographs,  Pic- 
tures, etc.,  R-'lating  to  Mormonism  and  the 
Mormons.  The  ten  years'  gatherings  of 
Charles  L.  "Woodward,  who,  enjoying  supe- 
rior facilities  for  their  acquisition,  has  never 
let  slip  an  opportunity— whether  at  public  or 
private  sale— of  adding  to  their  number.  To 
be  sold  at  Vendue,  Monday,  Jan.  19,  1880,  by 
IMessrs.  Bangs  &  Co.,  Nos.  739-41  Broadway, 
New  York. 

The  following  selection  is  appended  :  Book 
of  Mormon,  (many  different  editions  ;  Orson 
Pratt's,  Salt  Lake  City,  1881,  is  the  best)  ; 
The  Holy  Scripture,  Translated  and  Corrected 
by  the  Spirit  of  Revelation,  Piano,  111. ,  1867  ; 
B)ok  of  D:)ctri)i6  and  Covenants  (Orson  Pratt's, 
Salt  Lake  City,  1880,  edition  the  best)  ;  Pearl 
of  Great  Price,  Salt  Lake,  1878. 

The  abore  are  known  as  the  sacred  books 
of  Mormonism. 

A  fe^v  works  by  Gentile  writers  :  E.  D. 
Howe,  Mormonism  Unveiled,  Painesville,  O., 
1834-41  (easily  maintains  pre-eminence)  ; 
Charles  ^lackay,  The  Mormons  or  Latter-Bay 
Slants.  London,  1851  ;  Daniel  P.  Kidder, 
Mormonism  and  the  Mormons,  New  York, 
1842  ;  B.  G.  Ferris,  Utah  and  the  Mormons, 
New  York,  1854  ;  Henry  Caswall,  The 
Prophet  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  London, 
1813  ;  John  A.  Clark,  Gleanings  by  the  Wai/, 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  1842  ;  J.  W. 
Gunnison,  The  Mormons,  or  Latter-Bay  Saints, 
Piiiladelphia,  1852  ;  Robert  Patterson,  Who 
Wrote  t/ie  Book  of  Mormon  ?     Philadelphia,  I 


1882  ;  R.  F.  Burton,  The  City  of  the  Saints, 
New  York,  1862  ;  Remy  and  Brenchley,  A 
Journey  to  Great  Salt  Lake  City,  London, 
1861,  2  vols.;  T.  B.  H.  Stenhouse,  liocky 
Mountain  Saints,  New  York,  1873  (Stenhouse 
was  an  apostate)  ;  J.  B.  Turner,  Mormonism 
in  all  Ages,  New  York,  1842.  [Recent  works 
are,  Thomas  Gregg,  TJie  Prophet  of  Pal- 
myra. Mormonism,  with  a  Complete  History 
of  the  Mormon  Era,  New  York,  1890  ;  M.  W. 
Montgomery,  The  Moi-mon  Belusion :  its 
History,  Boctrines,  and  Outlook  in  Utah, 
Boston  and  Chicago,  1890  ;  W.  H.  ^Thomas, 
Mormon  Saints,  London,  1890.] 

Important  books  by  Mormon  authors : 
E.  W.  Tullidge,  Life  of  Joseph  the  Prophet, 
Piano,  111.,  1880  ;  John  Taylor,  Three  JVights' 
Biscussion  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  Liverpool, 
1850  ;  Lucy  Smith,  Biographical  Sketches  of 
Joseph  Smith,  Liverpool,  1853  (this  work  is 
now  published  at  Piano,  111.) ;  E.  W.  Tul- 
lidge, Life  of  Brigham  Young,  New  York, 
1876  ;  Autobiography  of  Parley  P.  Pratt,  New 
York,  1874  ;  John  D.  Lee,  Mormonism  Un- 
veiled, St.  Louis,  1877  ;  Times  and  Seaso7is, 
newspaper,  Nauvoo,  111.,  1840-46  ;  Millennial 
Star,  newspaper,  Manchester,  1841,  Liver- 
pool, 1842-54,  Liverpool  and  London.  1855 
to  present  time  ;  Parley  P.  Pratt,  Voice  of 
Warning,  Ijondon,  1871  ;  Richards  and  Little, 
Compendium  of  Boctrines,  Salt  Lake,  1874  ; 
Orson  Spencer,  Most  Prominent  Boctrines, 
Salt  Lake,  1874  ;  Orson  Pratt's  works.  Salt 
Lake,  1884  ;  W.  H.  Whitsitt,  Life  of  Sidney 
Rigdon,  1891  (in  which  will  be  found  the 
proof  of  the  statements  made  above  about 
the  Book  of  Mormon,  etc.). 

William  H.  Whitsitt. 

Mornay,  Philippe  de,  Seigneur  du  Plessis- 
Marly,  b.  at  Buhy,  Normandy,  France, 
Nov.  5,  1549  ;  d.  at  La  Foret-sur-S^vre,  Nov. 
11,  1632.  He  descended  from  a  rich,  distin- 
guished, and  devout  noble  family.  As 
his  mother  leaned  toward  the  Reformation, 
she  gave  him  a  Protestant  tutor,  and  when 
the  father  died,  in  1559,  mother  and  son 
publicly  embraced  the  Reformed  faith.  Phil- 
ippe received  a  very  careful  education,  trav- 
elled and  studied  much,  and  his  very  first 
publications  brought  him  in  connection  with 
the  Prince  of  Orange  and  Admiral  Coligny. 
He  was  in  Paris  during  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  Aug.  24,  1572,  and  barely  es- 
caped with  his  life.  He  fled  to  England,  and 
led  for  several  years  a  wandering  life,  though 
always  engaged,  with  pen  and  with  sword,  in 
the  defence  of  French  Protestantism.  His 
friendship  with  Henry  IV.  brought  him  back 
to  France,  and  in  1589  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Saumur,  which  he  transformed  into 
a  very  strong  fortress  and  made  the  seat  of 
a  flourishing  Protestant  academy.  When 
Henry  IV.  turned  Roman  Catholic,  from  po- 
litical reasons,  the  friendship  between  him 
and  Mornay  grew  cold,  but  the  latter  con- 
tinued to  be  the  champion  of  the  French 
Protestants  in  the  council  chamber  and  on  the 
battlefield.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer, 
but  there  is  no  collected  edition  of  his  works. 
Translated  into  English  are,  A  Notable  Trea- 
tise on  the  Church,  London,  1579  ;  A  Worke 


MORONE 


(623) 


MOSES 


concerning  the  Trunesse  of  the  Chnstian  Re- 
ligion, 4th  ed.,  1617  ;  A  Christian  and  Oodly 
VieiD  of  Life  and  Death,  1593,  and  another 
translation,  1600  ;  Fowre  Books  of  the  Institu- 
tion, Use,  and  Doctrine  of  the  Holy  Sacrament 
of  the  Eucharist,  1600.  (See  Memoires  et 
Correspondance  de  Du  Plessis-Mornay,  Paris, 
1824.)  C.  P. 

Morone  (rao-ro-nee),  Giovanni,  b.  at  Milan, 
Jan.  2.5,  1509  ;  d.  in  Home,  Dec.  1.  1580  ; 
studied  at  Pavia  ;  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Modenain  1536  ;  made  a  cardinal  in  1542,  and 
frequently  employed  in  dipioniatical  missions 
by  the  popes.  In  1557  he  was  imprisoned  by 
the  Inquisition  and  accused  of  heresy,  and 
although  he  was  acquitted  in  1559  and  re- 
stored to  all  his  dignities,  he  held  views  con- 
cerning justification  by  faith,  the  worship  of 
the  saints,  etc.,  which  were  very  far  from 
being  orthodox.  (See  Frick  in  Schelhorn's 
Anicen.  Litt.,  xii.,  and  Miinch,  Vermisch. 
Histor.  Schrijften,  ii.) 

Morris,  John  GottUebjD.D.,  LL.D.  (Penn- 
sylvania College,  Gettysburg,  Pa..  1839, 
1875),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  York,  Pa.,  Nov.  14, 
1803 ;  graduated  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  1826  ;  bec;ame  pastor  of  the  First 
English  Lutheran  Church,  Baltimore,  1827, 
and  librarian  of  the  Peaboily  Institute  in 
Baltimore,  1860.  He  published  a  translation 
of  Bretschneidcr's  To  Rome  and  Back  Again, 
Philadelphia,  1831,  and  of  Kcistlin's  Luther's 
Life,  1882  ;  Fifty  Years  in  the  Lutheran  Min- 
istry, Baltimore,  1878,  etc. 

Morris,  Thomas  Asbury,  D.D.  (McKen 
dree  College,  1841),  Methodist  Episcopal 
bishop;  b.  near  Charlestowu,  Va.,  April  28, 
1794;  d.  at  Springfield,  O.,  Sept.  2,  1874. 
lie  was  elected  bisliop.  1836,  and  was  senior 
bishop  for  sixteen  years.  He  published  Mis- 
cdlany,  Xew  York,  1837  ;  Sketches  of  West- 
ern Methodism,  Cincinnati,  1852  ;  Church 
PoUty,  1859.  (See  life  by  J.  F.  Marlay,  Cin- 
cinnati, 1875.) 

Morrison,  Robert,  D.D.  (Glasgow,  1817), 
F. US.  (1825),  Chinese  missionary;  b.  at 
M.)rpeth,  15  m.  n.  of  Newcastle,  Jan.  5,  1782  ; 
d.  in  Canton,  Aug.  1,  1834.  After  an  appren- 
ticeship at  last- making  he  studied  at  Hoxton 
and  Gosport,  1803-6,  and  was  sent  by  the 
London  Missionary  Society  to  Canton,  1807. 
Here  he  prepared  a  Chinese  grammar  and 
Testament,  1814  ;  a  View  of  China,  1817  ;  a 
translation  of  the  whole  Bible,  1819,  and  of 
pvrts  of  the  Prayer-Book,  1821.  His  Chinese 
Dictionary  was  published,  1821,  by  the  East 
India  Company,  at  a  cost  of  £15,000.  In 
1820  he  founded  at  Malacca  an  Anglo-Chinese 
college  ;  tran.sferred  1845  to  Honir  Kong.  He 
was  in  England  1824-26,  and  in  1830  wel- 
comed the  first  American  missionaries  to 
China.  His  memoirs,  bv  his  widow,  appeared 
in  2  vols.,  London  ;  1839  ;  .^ee  Wells  Will- 
iam*, in  Lirrs  of  Traders  of  the  Church  Uni- 
versal, Pliiladelphia,  1879  (pp.  819-37). 

F.  M.  B. 

Mortmain  (from  the  French,  7wr>?7,  "  dead," 
and  main,  "  hand  "),  a  teclmical  term  in  law 
denoting  such  a  disposition  of  real  estate  by  a 
corporate  body  as  withdraws  it  entirely  from 


circulation.  At  one  time  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  owned  more  than  one  third  of  all  real 
estate  in  England,  and  the  dangers  to  the 
economical  state  of  the  country  created  there- 
by, caused  the  first  mortmain  statutes  to  be  in- 
troduced in  Magna  Charta. 

Morse,  Jedidiah,  D.D.  (University  of 
Edinburgh,  1795),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at 
Woodstock,  Conn.,  Aug.  23,  1761  ;  d.  at  New- 
Haven,  Conn.,  June  9,  1826.  He  graduated 
at  Yale,  1783  ;  was  pastor  in  Charlestowu, 
Mass.,  1787-1820.  His  epithet,  "  Father  of 
American  Geography,"  came  from  bis  being 
the  first  one  iu^America  to  issue  a  geography 
{Geography  Made  Easy,  New  Haven,  1784)  ; 
subsequently  American  Geography,  Eliza- 
bethtown,  1789  ;  The  American  Gazetteer, 
London,  1789  ;  Elejnents  of  Geography,  1797. 
He  labored  zealously  against  LJnitarianism, 
on  behalf  of  the  Ind"ians,  and  in  the  interests 
of  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  pub- 
lished Annals  of  the  American  Rendu tion, 
Hartford,  1824,  and  (with  Rev.  Elijah  Har- 
ris) ^1  Compendious  History  of  JS'eir  England, 
t;harlestown,  Mass.,  1804.  His  son  was  S.  F. 
B.  Morse  (1791-1872),  founder  of  the  Ameri- 
can system  of  magnetic  telegiaph. 

Morton,  John,  b.  at  B^re,  Dorsetshire, 
Eng.,  in  141(1  ;  d.  at  Knoll,  Kent,  in  1500  ; 
was  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1486, 
and  created  a  cardinal  in  1493.  (See  Will- 
iams, TAves  of  the  English  Cardinals,  London, 
1862,  2  vols.) 

Morton,  Thomas,  b.  at  Y'ork,  Eng.,  iMarch 
20,  1564  ;  d.  at  Easton  Mandit,  Northampton- 
shire, Sept.  22,  1659  ;  was  made  chaplain  to 
James  I.  in  1606,  bishop  of  Chester  in  1015, 
of  Lichfield  in  1618,  and  of  Durham  in  1632, 
but  was  deposed  by  the  dissolution  of  the 
episcopate  and  lived  thence  in  retirement. 
He  published  a  number  of  writings  in  English 
and  Latin  against  the  Church  of  Rome,  and 
his  life  has  been  written  b}-  John  Barwick, 
1660,  and  by  Richard  Boddily  and  John  Nay- 
lor,  1069. 

Mortuary,  a  technical  term  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical law  of  England  and  Scotland,  denoting 
the  gift  which  the  parishioner  offered  to  the 
priest  on  the  death  of  one  of  his  familj'.  It 
was  also  called  a  "  corpse- present, "becau.se  it 
was  generally  introduced  into  the  church  to- 
gether with  the  corpse.  In  Scotland  the 
priest  claimed  as  "  corpse-present"  a  cow  and 
the  clothes  of  tlie  death-bed,  and  the  first  who 
preachrd  against  that  claim,  Forre<,  vicar  of 
Dollar,  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  Edinburiih 
for  heresy,  1539.  In  England  Henry  VIII. 
enacted  that  mortuaries  shoidd  be  paid  not  in 
kintl  but  in  money  and  after  a  fixed  scale. 

Morus,  Thomas.    See  3Iore,  Siu  Thomas. 

Moses,  Mosaism.  The  name  of  the  great 
lawgiver  was  derived  by  the  Hebrews  from 
M.\sHA,  to  draw,  but  Josephus  traces  it  to  two 
Eirvptian  words,  mo.  water,  and  usk,  saved, 
both  referring  if  to  bis  rescue  from  the  waters 
of  the  Nile.  His  life  is  divided  into  three 
periods,  each  of  forty  years  (Acts  vii.  23.  30, 
36).    The  first  extends  from  his  infancy,  when, 


MOSES 


(624) 


MOUNT 


by  the  "  faith"  of  his  pious  parents  (Heb.  xi. 
23),  he  was  first  hid,  and  tlien  exposed  in  the 
Nile,  where  he  was  found  and  rescued  and 
adopted  by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  to  liis  flight 
to  Midian.  During  this  period  he  lived  at  the 
Egyptian  court,  and  was  trained  in  all  the 
wisdom  of  Egypt  and  became  mighty  in  his 
words  and  works  (Acts  vii.  22).  He  could 
have  had  no  better  opportunity  to  acquire  the 
learning  requisite  for  his  subsequent  career. 
The  second  period  was  from  his  flight  to  his 
return  to  Egypt  (Acts  vii.  30),  and  the  whole 
time  was  spent  in  Midian.  Here  he  married 
Zipporah,  daughter  of  the  wise  and  pious 
Jethro,  and  became  familiar  with  life  in  the 
desert.  Cut  off  from  books,  he  enjoyed  a 
time  of  meditation  and  self-discipline,  and  be- 
came still  further  equipped  for  liis  life  work. 
At  the  close  of  the  period  he  saw  the  brilliant 
theophany  of  the  Angel-Jehovah  in  the  burn- 
iog  bush,  and  received  the  commission  to  de- 
liver his  people  from  their  galling  bondage. 
The  third  section  of  his  career  extended  from 
tlie  Exodus  to  his  death  on  Mt.  Nebo,  and 
during  this  the  ripe  fruitage  of  his  long  course 
of  preparation  was  seen  in  the  way  in  which 
he  led  Israel  to  the  borders  of  the  promised 
land.  He  was  the  constant  medium  of  the 
divine  communications.  By  him  the  law, 
civil,  ceremonial,  and  moral,  was  set  forth. 
He  ordered  the  march  of  the  nation.  He  ad- 
justed all  difficult  questions  as  they  arose. 
Despite  the  sedition  of  some  and  the  fickle- 
ness of  the  many,  he  carried  the  people 
through  the  error  in  the  wilderness,  and  then, 
his  eye  not  dim  nor  his  natural  force  abated, 
he  closed  his  life  alone  with  God  (Deut. 
xxxiv.  5),  and  to  this  day  no  man  knoweth 
his  sepulchre.  Once  again,  after  the  lapse  of 
many  centuries,  he  appeared  on  the  earth,  and 
on  the  Mt.  of  Transfiguration  (Luke  ix.  31), 
was  admitted  to  commune  with  the  Sa^iour 
on  the  most  glorious  of  themes,  the  death  he 
should  accomplish  at  Jerusalem. 

Personally  Moses  was  a  man  of  courage, 
fidelity,  meekness,  and  disinterestedness. 
Once  he  gave  way  to  impatience  (Num.  xx. 
11,  12),  and  suffered  for  it  severely,  but  in 
general  he  was  a  pattern  of  faith,  humility, 
and  forbearance,  wise  in  counsel  and  prompt 
in  action,  full  of  zeal  for  God  and  love  for  his 
fellows.  The  books  which  bear  his  name  indi- 
cate his  literary  skill,  and  such  productions 
as  the  Song  at  the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  xv.),  the  Song 
on  the  border  of  Canaan  (Deut.  xxxii.),  the 
Prophetic  Blessing  upon  the  tribes  (Deut. 
xxxiii.),  and  the  90th  Psalm  bear  testimony 
to  the  greatuess  of  his  poetical  ability. 

The  institutions  he  established  breathe  a 
spirit  of  freedom,  purity,  justice,  and  hu- 
manity elsewhere  unknown.  They  moulded 
the  character  of  the  Hebrews,  and  trans- 
formed them  from  a  race  of  slaves  into  an  in- 
dependent nation,  which  endured  for  ages 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  final  and  com- 
plete disclosure  of  God's  will  to  man.  They 
were  temporary  in  their  nature,  pointing  for- 
ward to  the  precious  substance  of  which  they 
were  the  shadow,  but  during  the  long  period 
before  the  "  Prophet  like  unto  Moses"  was 
raised  up,  they  kept  alive  a  peculiar  people, 
and  were  a  constant  rebuke  to  the  debasing 


polytheism  and  idolatry  that  prevailed  every- 
where else.  No  more  illustrious  personage 
has  appeared  in  Jewish  or  any  other  annals, 
none  that  can  be  put  even  for  a  moment  in 
such  comparison  with  the  Son  of  God,  as 
we  read  in  the  fourth  gospel,  "  The  law  was 
given  through  Moses  ;  but  grace  and  truth 
came  by  Jesus  Christ"  (John  i.  17).  (See  G. 
Rawlinson,  Life  and  Times  of  Moses,  London 
and  New  York,  1887  ;  cf.  arts,  on  the  several 
books  of  the  Pentateuch.)  T.  W.  C. 

Moses  Chorenensis,  an  Armenian  writer 
of  note,  b.  about  the  beginning  of  the  5th 
century  in  Chorni,  in  the  province  Taron, 
Armenia  ;  a  pupil  of  the  translators  of  the 
Armenian  Bible,  Saliak  and  Mesrob,  who  was 
early  sent  for  education  to  Alexandria, 
whence  he  returned  via  Rome  and  Athens  to 
Armenia.  He  became  bishop  of  Bagrevand, 
fled  during  the  troubles  with  Persia  in  460-70, 
and  in  his  retirement  wrote  a  large  number  of 
works,  as  well  as  made  many  translations. 
His  principal  work  preserved  to  us  is  his 
History  of  Armenia  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
441  A.D.,  which  is  much  marred  by  evident 
falsifications  ;  edited  with  a  Latin  translation 
by  Whiston,  London,  1736  ;  French  trans, 
by  V.  Langlois,  Paris,  1867  (in  Historiens 
anciens  de  rArmenie,  ii.,  47-175).  F.  H.  F. 

Mosheim  (mos-hime),  Johann  Lorenz  von, 
D.D.  (Kiel  [•'.],  1723),  b.  at  Ltibeck,  Oct.  9, 
1693  ;  d.  at  Gottingen,  Sept.  9,  1755  ;  studied 
at  Kiel,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Helmstadt  In  1723,  and  at  Gottingen 
in  1747.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
theologians  the  Lutheran  Church  has  pro- 
duced. His  Institmtiones  Historim  Ecclesi- 
asticcB.  Helmstadt,  1737-41,  2  vols.,  2d  ed., 
1755,  1  vol.,  was  translated  into  English  by 
Maclaine,  London,  1764,  but  best  by  Mur- 
dock.  Institutes  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  New 
York,  1832,  3  vols.,  best  ed.  by  ^Y.  Stubbs, 
London,  1863  ;  his  De  rebus  Cliristianorum 
ante  ConMantinum  Magnnm,  Helmstadt, 
1753  ;  byMurdock,  Commentaries,  New  York. 
2  vols.,  1852,  n.e.,  1854.  He  also  wrote  a 
Sittenlehre  der  Heil.  Schrift,  Helmstadt,  1735- 
53,  5  vols.,  etc. 

Mosque  (Arabic,  inasjid),  the  Mohammedan 
place  of  worship.  It  has  a  dome,  a  court 
with  fountain,  and  a  minaret  or  tower,  from 
which  the  muezzin  sounds  the  call  to  prayer. 
The  only  decorations  are  passages  from  the 
Koran.  The  most  celebrated  mos(jues  are  at 
Medina,  enclosing  that  first  built  by  Mo- 
liammed  ;  at  Mecca,  enclosing  the  Kaabah  ; 
St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople  ;  that  of  Omar 
at  Jerusalem  ;  that  of  Shah  Jehan  at  Delhi  ; 
those  of  Mehemet  Ali  and  El  Azhar  at  Cairo, 
and  those  at  Hebron  and  Damascvis. 

F.  M.  B. 

Mount   Holyoke    Female    Seminary,   at 

South  Hadlcy,  Mass.,  was  founded  in  1837 
by  Mary  Lyon  (q.v.).  The  object  was  and 
is  to  give  young  women  a  solid  education,  at 
the  most  moderate  expense,  and  with  special 
reference  to  moral  and  religious  training. 
The  buildings,  by  successive  additions,  now 
accommodate  300  students,  who  do  the 
housew^ork,   each  giving  it  about    an   hour 


MOURNING 


(625) 


MtTHLENBERG 


daily.     Over  2000  liiive  been  graduated,  and 
mauy  seut  to  mission  fields.  F.  M.  B. 

Mourning.  The  Hebrews  at  the  death  of 
friends  and  relatives  made  striking  denion- 
."<( rations  of  grief,  such  as  weeping  aloud, 
rending  garments,  smiting  the  breast,  lying 
oil  the  ground,  going  barefoot,  plucking  out 
or  cutting  the  hair  and  the  beard.  Tlie  time 
of  mourning  was  commonly  seven  days,  but 
vras  lengthened  or  shortened  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. That  for  Moses  and  Aaron  was 
thirty  days,  and  for  Jacob  seventy.  Women 
were  often  liired  to  weep  and  wail  (Jer.  ix. 
17,  Matt.  ix.  28),  a  custom  which  continues 
to  our  own  time.  Some  of  these  forms  are 
the  appropriate  language  of  grief,  others 
savor  of  extravagance  ;  but  they  were  not 
enjoined,  but  merely  established  cxistoms. 
Christianity  admits  of  mourning,  but  forbids 
us  to  .sorrow  as  the  rest  wiio  have  no  hope 
(2  Thess.  iv.  i;3).  T.  W.  C. 

Movable  Festivals  of  the  Christian  Church 
are  those  which,  like  Easter,  do  not  fall  on 
the  same  day  of  the  year,  but  depend  upon 
other  circumstances,  while  those  which,  like 
Christmas,  always  fall  on  the  same  day  of 
the  year,  are  called  immovable  festivals. 

Mozarabic  Liturgy,  The,  was  the  national 
liturgy  of  the  Spanish  Chiu-(;h  till  the  12th 
CL'iitury,  when  it  was  replaced  by  the  Roman. 
Cardinal  Ximenes  had  it  re-stored  and  re- 
printed, and  it  is  now  employed  iu  Toledo. 
Its  date  and  origin  are  entirely  unknown. 
There  is  a  great  resemblance  between  it  and 
the  Gallican  Liturgy,  and  they  may  have  had 
a  comraan  origin,  or  one  be  the  parent  of  the 
other.  The  most  interesting  thing  about  it 
is  its  use  of  the  Scriptures.  Three  lessons 
are  regularly  read,  a  proplietical,  an  apostoli- 
cal, and  an  evangelical,  and  they  are  often  of 
con-iiderable  extent.  When  the  deacon  comes 
to  the  reading  of  the  gospel,  a  special  form  of 
thanksgiving  is  observed  for  the  word  to  be 
read,  and  when  the  lectionary  is  returned  to 
the  altar,  it  is  devoutly  kissed  by  the  bishop. 
In  the  selection  of  the  passages,  two  princi- 
ples have  been  followed,  to  have  passages  ap- 
propriate to  the  season  of  the  ecclesiastical 
year,  and  to  read  successively  the  principal 
and  distinctive  passage  of  the  books  selected. 
A  good  deal  of  freedom  has  been  exercised 
with  the  text  of  Scripture  in  preparing  the 
lessons,  for  additions  have  been  made,  the 
order  of  pas.sages  changed,  and  difficult  pas- 
sages omitted.  It  is  found  in  Migne,  P<tt. 
Lat.  LXXXVI.  F.  il.  F. 

Mozley,  James  Bowling,  D.D.  (Oxford, 
18—),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Gainsbor- 
ough, 17  m.  n.w.  of  Lincoln,  Sept.  15,  1813  ; 
d.  at  Shoreham,  Sussex,  56  m.  s.  by  w.  of 
London,  Jan.  4,  1878.  lie  graduated  at 
Oriel  C  .liege,  O.xford.  1834,  and  became  fel- 
low of  Magdalen,  1840  ;  vicar  of  Shoreham, 
1856  ;  Hampton  lecturer,  1865  ;  canon  of 
Worcester,  1869  ;  resius  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oxford,  1S71.  He  was  a  High  Church- 
man, and  one  of  the  leading  theologians  of 
his  dav.  He  wrote  on  PredfHtiinttiiiii,  Lon- 
don,   1855  ;    Jiiptismal    liege ner (it ion,    1856  ; 


The  Baptismal  Controveriiy,  1863  ;  Snbscrip' 
tioa  to  the  Articles,  1863  ;  Miracles,  1865. 
His  later  works  are  tfrdversity  Sermons,  1876  j 
Ruling  Ideas  in  Early  Ages,  1877  ;  Essays, 
1878,  2  vols.  ;  Practical  and  Parochial  Ser- 
mans,  1878  ;  Lectures,  etc.,  1883.     F.  M.  B. 

Mucker  is  a  name  of  spite,  generally  given 
in  Germany  to  representatives  of  an  imsound 
and  eccentric  piety. 

Muezzin  is  the  Arabic  name  of  that  official 
at  the  mosque  who,  at  certain  fixed  hours, 
day  and  night,  calls  the  Mohammedans  to 
prayer  by  his  chant  from  the  minaret. 

Mufti  (Arabic,  expounder  of  the  lair)  is  the 
name  of  a  Turkish  olHcial,  at  once  priest  and 
judge.  In  his  capacity  of  priest  he  adminis- 
ters the  property  of  the  mosque  and  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  proper  observance  of  iXs 
rites  ;  in  his  capacity  of  judge  he  decides  all 
cases  which  aie  submitted  to  him.  There  is 
a  mufti  iu  every  Turkish  town  where  there  is 
a  mos(iue,  and  the  grand  mufti  is  the  highest 
spiritual,  as  the  grand  vizer  is  the  highest 
secular  authority  under  the  sultan. 

Muggletonians,  followers  of  Lodowick 
Muggleton  (1010-98)  and  John  Reeve  (d. 
1658).  who  set  up  in  London  as  the  "  two 
witnesses"  of  Rev.  xi.  3-6,  the  Aaron  and 
Moses  of  a  new  dispensation.  Their  quaint 
and  surprising  tenets  were  set  forth  in  2'he 
Dicine  Looking-Olass,  London,  1656,  reprint- 
ed, 1846,  as  were  their  collected  works,  1832. 
They  were  answered  by  Penn,  The  JVew  Wit- 
nesses J^rored  Old  Heretics,  1672,  and  Muggle- 
ton was  convicted  of  blasphemj',  1676.  The 
last  known  member  of  the  sect,  one  J.  Gan- 
der, died  1868.  F.  M.  B. 

Muhlenberg,    Heinrich    Melchior,    D.D. 

(University  of  Pennsylvania,  1784).  patriarch 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America  ;  b.  at 
Einbeck,  Hanover,  Sept.  6,  1711  ;  d.  at  New- 
Providence,  now  Trappe,  Montgomery  Coun- 
ty, Pa.,  Oct.  7,  1787.  He  studied  at  Gottin- 
gen  and  Halle,  had  charge  of  one  of  Francke's 
orphanages,  1739-41,  and  crossed  the  sea  in 
1742  to  minister  to  three  German  congrega- 
tions. Others  followed,  and  the  work  under 
his  supervision  extended  south  through  the 
Carolinas,  and  north  as  far  as  Albany.  He 
lived  in  or  near  Philadelphia,  visiting  New 
York  and  New  Jersey  frequently,  and 
Georgia  in  1774-75.  In  1748  he  organized 
the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania,  which  "at  hia 
death  had  twenty-four  members.  He  favored 
the  cause  of  American  indepenilence,  for 
which  his  son  laid  aside  his  robes  to  fight  ; 
several  of  his  descendants  attained  eminence. 
See  his  memoir,  by  M.  L.  Stoever,  Philadel- 
phia, 1856  ;  his  Autobiography  in  German 
(up  to  1743),  found  in  the  archives  of  Halle, 
JIalle'sche  Xachrichten.  published  at  Allen- 
town.  Pa.,  1HS6,  and  his  Life  and  Titnex,  by 
Dr.  W.  J.  3[ann,  Philadelphia.  1SS7. 

F.  M.  15. 

Muhlenberg,    William     Augustus,     D.D. 

(Columbia,  1834),  LL.D.  (?)  (  ),  Epis- 

copalian ;  1).  in  Philadelpiiia.  Sept.  16,  1796  ; 
d.  in  New  York,  April  h,  1877  ;  great-grand- 


MULBERRY-TREE 


( 626 ) 


MUNSTER 


son  of  Dr.  11.  M.  Muhlenberg.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Penns^^lvauia,  1814  ; 
studied  divinity  under  Bisliop  White,  M'iiora 
lie  assisted  at  Christ  Church  during  his  diac- 
oaate,  1817-20  ;  was  rector  of  St.  James, 
Lancaster,  1820-26  ;  founded,  1828,  at  Flush- 
ing, L.  I.,  a  school  which  in  1838  was  merged 
in  St.  Paul's  College  ;  rector  of  the  Holy 
Communion,  New  York  (the  first  fie'e 
church),  1846-58  ;  founder  and  superintend- 
ent of  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  1858-77.  He 
organized,  in  1852,  the  first  Protestant  sister- 
hood in  America,  and  began,  in  1866,  the  in- 
dustrial settlement  of  St.  Johnland,  L.  I.,  in- 
corporated 1870.  He  was  a  compiler  of  and 
contributor  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal  hymns 
of  1826  ;  several  of  his  lyrics  are  much  valued, 
as  "  I  would  not  live  alway,"  which  he 
"  evangelized,"  1871.  He  wrote  or  compiled 
Church  Poetry,  New  York,  1823  ;  Christian 
Education,  1831  ;  The  People's  Psalter,  1847  ; 
Letters  on  Sisterhoods,  1853  ;  St.  Johnland, 
1867;  Christ  and  the  Bible,  18QQ  ;  The  Woman 
and  her  Accusers,  1870,  and  Evangelical 
Catholic  Papers,  1875-77,  2  vols.  His  life 
has  been  written  by  Anne  Ayres,  New  Tork, 
1880,  and  W.  W.  Newton,  Boston,  1890. 

F.  M.  B. 

Mulberry-tree.  This  word,  which  occurs 
in  2  Sam.  v.  23,  24,  is  a  mistranslation,  but 
the  particular  species  intended  is  not  known. 
Possibly  it  was  the  poplar  or  the  aspen. 

T.  VY.  C. 

Mule.  The  offspring  of  a  horse  and  an  ass, 
remarkably  hardy,  patient,  and  sure-footed, 
much  used  in  mountainous  regions.  The 
Jews  did  not  breed  them  (Lev.  xix.  19),  but 
obtained  them  from  abroad.  After  David's 
time  they  became  common  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29, 
1  Kings  X.  25).  "  Mules"  in  Gen.  xxxvi.  24 
(A.  V.)  should  heJiot  springs,  and  in  Esther 
viii.  10,  14  stoift  steeds,  as  in  Micah  i.  13. 

T.  W.  C. 

Mulford,  Elisha,  LL.D.  (Yale  College, 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  1872),  Episcopalian  ;  b. 
at  Montrose,  Susquehanna  County,  Pa.,  Nov. 
19,  1833  ;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  9, 
1885.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College, 
1855  ;  studied  theology  at  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York,  Audover,  Mass., 
Halle,  and  Heidelberg  ;  was  ordained  priest 
in  1862  ;  held  various  charges,  but  resided 
after  1881  at  Cambridge,  where  he  lectured 
in  the  Episcopal  Divinity  School.  He  pub- 
lished The  Nation,  New  York,  1870,  9th  ed., 
1884;  The  Republic  of  Ood,  1881,  7th  ed., 
1884. 

Mullens,  Joseph,  missionary  ;  b.  1820  ;  d. 
at  Mwapwa,  Africa,  July  10,  1879.  He  was 
a  missionary  in  India,  1843-66,  and  theuce- 
forv;ard  secretary  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  and  earnest  and  eloquent  in  stimu- 
lating mission  work.  He  visited  the  United 
States,  1870,  Madagascar,  1873-74,  and  was 
on  his  way  from  Zanzibar  to  Ujiji  when  he 
died  at  the  halfway  station.  He  wrote  Lon- 
don and  GaJctitta,  London,  1867,  and  Twelve 
Months  in  Madagascar,  1874.  F.  M.  B. 

Miiller,  George  (originally  Georg  Fried- 
rich),   Plymouth   Brother ;    b.   at  Kroppen- 


stadt,  near  Halberstadt,  Prussia,  Sept.  27, 
1805  ;    entered  the    University   of    Halle  in 

1825  ;  was  converted  and  began  to  preach  in 

1826  ;  went  to  London  to  prepare  himself  for 
missionary  work  in  1828  ;  joined  the  Ply- 
mouth Brethren  ;  became  minister  of  Teign- 
mouth  in  1830  ;  started  the  Scriptural  Knowl- 
edge Institution  in  1834,  and  the  Bristol  Or- 
phanage in  1838.  The  last  named  has  given 
him  great  fame.  It  does  not  in  the  usual 
fashion  advertise  its  needs,  which  are  great, 
for  it  contains  a  multitude  of  children.  (See 
his  Life  of  Trust,  Bristol,  1837,  continued, 
1841.  1844,  1856,  n.e.,  Philadelphia,  1884,  and 
E.  R.  Pitman,  George  Muller,  London,  1885.) 

Miiller,  Julius,  b.  at  Brieg,  Silesia,  April 
10,  1801  ;  d.  at  Halle,  Sept.  27,  1878  ;  was 
appointed  pastor  at  Schoilbrunn,  1825  ;  uni- 
versity preacher  at  Gottingen,  1831  ;  professor 
of  theology  at  Marburg,  1835,  and  at  Halle, 
1839.  His  principal  work  is  the  theological 
classic  llie  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin,  trans- 
lated into  English  from  the  fifth  German  edi- 
tion, Edinburgh,  1 877,  2  vols.  He  was  editor, 
together  with  Nitzsch,  of  Deut.  Zeitschrift  f. 
christl.  Wisscnschaft,  1850-61,  and  took  active 
part  in  the  "  Kirchentag"  affairs. 

Mummy.  A  dead  body  preserved  by  being 
embalmed.  In  Egypt  the  bodies  not  only  of 
human  beings,  but  of  various  animals  were 
embalmed,  and  the  dry  climate  has  kept  them 
intact  for  many  centuries.  It  is  estimated 
that  over  400,000,000  of  human  mummies 
were  made  in  Egypt  before  the  practice  was 
discontinued.  T.  W.  C. 

Munger,  Theodore  Thornton,  D.D.  (Il- 
linois College,  Jacksonville,  111.,  1883),  Con- 
gregationalist  ;  b.  at  Bainbridge,  Chenango 
County,  N.  Y.,  March  5,  1830  ;  graduated  at 
Yale  College,  1851,  and  at  Yale  Seminary, 
1855  ;  was  pastor  in  various  places,  from 
1877-88  at  North  Adams,  Mass. ;  since  at  New 
Haven.  He  wrote  the  very  popular  works. 
On  the  Threshold.  Boston,  1881  ;  The  Free- 
dom of  Faith,- 1883  ;  Lamps  and  Paths,  1885  ; 
The  Appeal  to  Life,  1887. 

Miinster,  the  capital  of  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Westphalia,  a  city  of  about  50,000  in- 
habitants, was  from  1533  to  1535  the  scene  of 
one  of  the  most  amazing  and  most  revolting 
riots  ever  heard  of.  It  was  at  that  time  a 
free  city  of  the  empire  ;  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
prosperous,  quiet,  and  respectable.  In  1532 
the  Reformation  was  preached  there  by  Roth- 
mann,  and  in  1533  the  bisuDp  retired  and  the 
Protestants  lOok  possession  of  all  the  churches 
with  the  exception  of  the  cathedral.  But 
Rothmann  leaned  toward  the  Anabaptists, 
and  they  began  to  swarm  into  the  city  from 
all  parts  of  Germany  and  from  the  Nether- 
lands. In  1534  they  seized  the  government 
and  established  John  of  Leyden  as  "  king  of 
all  the  world."  He  expelled  all  decent  peo- 
ple, confiscated  all  property,  introduced  a 
communism  of  the  most  beastly  kind,  and 
transformed  life  in  the  city  into  a  wild  ca- 
rousal of  lust,  brutality,  and  cruelty  before 
which  the  whole  civilized  world  stood  aghast. 
But  June  25,  1535,  an  imperial  army  put  an 
end  to  the  frightful  affair.     (See  L.  Keller, 


MUNZER 


(627) 


MUSIC 


Gexchichte  der  Wiedertaufer  zu  Maiister,  'Mun- 
ster,  1880.) 

MUnzer,  Thomas,  b.  at  Stolberg  in  the 
Harlz,  Prussia,  14b9  ;  beheaded  at  Muhl- 
liausfii,  Thuringia,  Prussia,  ^lay  80,  1535  ; 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  aud  began  his 
career  as  chaplain  aud  confessor  in  the  Nun- 
nery of  Beutitz,  1519.  But  he  was  a  violent 
character,  whose  loose  enlhusiasni  ran  into  ex- 
tremes and  stopped  short  of  no  extrava- 
gancies. As  pastor  of  Zwickau  he  joined  the 
Zwickuuer  Propliets  ;  wandering  about  in  Bo- 
lieniia  he  became  a  pupil  of  Ivarlstadt  ;  from 
Alstedt  he  was  expelled,  Itecaiise  his  denun- 
ciations of  Luther  degenerated  into  preaching 
of  open  revolt  against  social  order,  etc.  Fi- 
nally he  became  the  leader  of  the  peasant  in- 
surrection in  Thuringia  ;  was  utterly  defeated 
in  the  battle  of  Frankenhausen,'  May  15, 
1525  ;  tied  but  was  caught  and  brought  back 
to  Mlildhausen.  His  life  has  been  written  by 
Melanchlhon,  Hagenau,  1525  ;  Seidemann, 
Leipzig,  1842  ;  Leo,  Berlin,  1850. 

Muratori,  Ludovico  Antonio,  b.  at  Vig- 
nola.  province  of  Patenza.  Italv.  Oct.  21, 
1672  ;  d.  at  Modena,  Jan.  28,  1750  ;  studied 
theology,  pliilosophy,  and  canon  law  and  was 
made  librarian  at  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Mil- 
an, 1694,  and  at  the  ducal  archives  at  Modena, 
1700.  He  is  best  known  as  a  historian.  >>crip- 
torcs  Rer.  lUiL,  Milan,  1723-51,  28  vols,  fol., 
etc.,  but  also  as  a  theologian,  and  his  writ- 
ings, especially  his  De  Supemtitione  Vitanda, 
Venice,  1740,  were  looked  upon  by  the  Jesuits 
with  great  suspicion. 

Muratorian  Fragment,  or  Muratorian 
Canon,  is  the  name  of  a  list  of  the  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  communicated  by  Mura- 
tori in  his.  Antiq.  Ital.  Med.  cev.  iii.,  854,  and 
considered  of  great  importance,  as  it  prob- 
ably dates  back  to  the  time  of  Iremeus.  It 
is  translated  in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Chris- 
tian Literature  Company  ed.,  vol.  v.,  603, 
604. 

Murder.  Life  taken  with  evil  intent. 
Otherwise  it  was  manslaughter,  but  the  aveng- 
er of  blood  might  kill  the  unwitting  homi- 
cide if  he  overtook  him  outside  the  city  of 
refuge.  For  intentional  murder  there  was 
no  pardon,  nor  could  money  be  taken  in  sat- 
isfaction (Ex.  xxi.  14,  Num.  xxxv.  31).  The 
dignity  of  man  made  in  God's  image  recjuired 
the  death  penalty  (Gen.  ix.  6,  Deut.  xix.  13), 
from  which  neither  the  city  of  refuge  nor  the 
altar  of  God  could  shield  tlie  criminal  (1  Kings 
ii.  2&-34).  The  Scripture  teaches  (Matt.  v. 
21,  22,  1  John  iii.  15)  that  one  may  be  guilty 
in  the  sight  of  God  of  murder  without  any 
overt  act.  T.  W.  C. 

Murdock,  James,  D.D.  (Harvard.  1819), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Westbrook,  Conn., 
Feb.  16,  177(>  ;  d.  at  Columbus,  .Miss.,  Aug. 
10.  ia56.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  1797  ;  stud- 
ied theology  under  Dr.  Dwight,  and  was  pas- 
tor at  Princeton,  Mass.,  1802-15  ;  professor 
of  classics  in  the  L'niversity  of  Vermont,  1815- 
19,  and  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  church  history 
at  Andover,  1819-28  ;  then  retired  to  New 
Haven  and  gave  himself  to  study.  He  wrote 
Mature  of  t/ve  Atonement,  New  York,  1823, 


and  Sketr/ie.9  of  Modern  Philoxophy,  1842,  and 
translated  Miinscher's  i>f>y///(/^<'c  Jli.sfi/r//,  New 
Haven,  1830  ;  Mosheim's  Tnstitutrs,  New 
York,  1832,  3  vols.,  and  Commejitariex,  1851- 
52,  2  vols.,  and  the  Syriac  New  Testament^ 
1851.  F.  M.  B. 

Murner,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Freiburg,  1506), 
LL.D.  (Basel,  1519),  Franciscan  mimk  ;  b. 
in  Strassburg,  Dec.  24,  1475  ;  d.  at  Oberehn- 
heim,  Alsace,  20  m.  s.w.  of  Strassburg,  Aug. 
23,  1537.  He  was  ordained,  1494  He  was  a 
very  learned  man,  and  showed  his  indepen- 
dence and  enlightenment  in  siding  with 
Heuchlin  and  in  satirizing  the  times  ;  but 
when  the  Reformation  began  he  violently  op- 
posed Luther,  and  in  1526  headed  the  oppo- 
sition to  Zwingli  in  Switzerland.  His  works, 
which  include  poems,  are  catalogued  in  Karl 
Godeke's  Griindrisszur  Geschichte  der  deutuch- 
en  Dichtung  (i.  201-203).  (See  Waldemar  Ksi- 
werau,  T.  M.  und  die  Kirche  der  Mittelaltera, 
Halle,  1890.) 

Murphy,    James    Gracey,   LL.D.,    D.D. 

(Trinity  College,  Dublin,  1842,  1880),  Pres- 
byterian ;  b.  at  Ballyaltikilikan,  County 
Down,  Ireland,  Jan.  12,  1808  ;  graduated  at 
Trinit}'  College,  Dublin,  1833  ;  became  min- 
ister of  Ballyshannon  in  1836,  and  professor  of 
Hebrew,  Presbyterian  College,  Belfast,  in 
1847.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  Genesis, 
Edinburgh,  1864  ;  Exodus,  1866  ;  Leviticus, 
1872  ;  Psalms,  1875  ;  Daniel,  1884,  etc.,  which 
have  been  reprinted  in  America. 

Murray,  John,  "  father  of  Universalism  in 
America  ;"  b.  at  Alton,  Hampshire,  47  m. 
w.s.w.  of  London,  Dec.  10,  1741  ;  d.  in  Bos- 
ton, Sept.  3,  1815.  His  parents  were  P^nglish 
Methodists,  resident  in  Cork,  1751-60.  He 
left  Whitefield  for  Belly  ;  came  to  Anierica, 
1770  ;  preached  in  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
Newport,  Boston,  Portsmouth,  etc.  In  1785 
he  joined  a  convention  of  "  Independent 
Christian  Univensalists"  at  Oxford.  Mass. 
He  was  pastor  in  Boston,  1793-1800.  He 
was  an  earnest,  courageous,  aud  consistent 
man,  enduring  abuse  with  con.stancy  ;  his 
views  differed  from  those  afterward  generally 
held  in  his  denomination.  He  published  Let- 
ters and  Sketches  of  Sermons,  Boston,  1812,  3 
vols.,  and  an  Antobiogrnphy,  1813,  continued 
by  his  wife,  1816,  9th  ed.  with  notes,  1870. 
F.  >I.  B. 

Murray,  Nicholas,  D.D.  (Williams,  1843), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Ballj-na.sloe,  Galwav,  72 
m.  W-.  of  Dublin,  Dec.  25.  1802  ;  d.  at  Eliza- 
bethtown,  N.  J.,  Feb.  4.  1861.  He  came  to 
New  Y^'ork,  1818  ;  became  a  printer  and  a 
Protestant  ;  graduated  at  "Williams,  1806,  and 
at  Princeton  Seminary.  1829  ;  wa.s  pastor  at 
Wilkesbarre  and  Kingston,  Pa.,  1829-33.  and 
at  Elizabethtown,  1833-61  ;  moderator  of  the 
().  S.  Assembly,  1849.  As  "  Kirwan"  he 
wrote  in  the  New  York  Observer  a  series  of 
letters  to  Archbishop  Hughes,  1847-48,  col- 
ected  and  eidargcd,  New  York,  1855.  Among 
his  other  books  is  Jiomanisia  at  Home.  1852, 
in  letters  to  Chief  Justice  Tanev.  (See  his 
memoir  by  S.  I.  Prime.  18()2.)     "  F.  M.  B. 

Music,  Sacred.  From  Jnljal's  time  men 
had  musical  instruments,  and  used  them  with 


MUSIC 


(628) 


MUSICAL 


the  voice  on  social  and  domestic  occasions 
(Gen.  xxxi.  27).  The  religious  use  of  music 
is  first  noted  in  Ex.  xv.,  on  the  drowning  of 
Pharaoh  and  his  host,  when  Moses  and  the 
Israelites  "  sang  unto  the  Lord,"  and  Miriam 
"  and  all  the  women"  responded  ;  here  voices 
and  instruments  appear,  a  male  and  a  femi- 
nine choir,  recitative  and  chorus.  When  the 
temple  ritual  was  developed  4000  Levites 
"praised  the  Lord  with  the  instruments"  (1 
Chron.  xxiii.  5),  and  288,  in  24  courses  of  12 
each,  "  were  instructed  in  the  songs  of  the 
Lord  "  (1  Chron.  xxv.  7).  The  Psalms  were 
intended  to  be  sung  with  accompaniment,  as 
is  plain  from  the  headings  of  many  of  them. 
(See  Ps.  Ixviii.  24,  25  and  Ixxxvii.  7).  These 
songs  gained  repute  among  the  heathen  (Ps. 
exxxviii.  3),  and  their  rendering  was  restored 
after  the  captivity. 

The  birth  of  Christ  was  heralded  by  a  song 
of  angels.  On  the  night  before  his  death  he 
and  the  eleven  "  sang  an  hymn"  (Matt.  xxvi. 
30).  Paul  and  Silas,  in  the  prison  at  Phil- 
ippi,  "sang  praises"  (Acts  xvi.  25).  Paul 
tells  his  converts  to  use  "  psalms  and  hymns 
and  spiritual  songs"  (Eph.  v.  19,  Col.  iii.  16). 
The  first  Christians  "  were  continually  in  the 
temple,  praising  and  blessing  God  "  (Luke 
xxiv.  53)  ;  the  musical  part  of  their  worsliip 
almost  necessarily  took  its  shape  from  that  of 
the  Jews. 

Antiphonal  chanting  was  established  at 
Autioch  under  Ignatius  by  120.  In  the  West 
it  was  systematized  by  Ambrose  of  Milan,  374- 
97,  who  adapted  the  Greek  music  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  introduced  the  four  scales  or 
"authentic  modes."  Gregory  the  Great, 
590-604,  restored  and  developed  the  Am- 
brosian  music,  adding  the  four  "  plagal  " 
modes,  and  framing  an  antiphonary,  an  al- 
leged copy  of  which  exists  at  St.  Gall,  and 
was  published  in  fac-similc,  1867.  The  Gre- 
gorian chants  are  still  the  basis  of  cathedral 
music  in  the  Roman  and  Anglican  churches, 
and  have  widely  influenced  the  usage  of  other 
communions. 

From  Gregory's  time  church  music  de- 
clined, and  was  often  corrupted  (as  after  Am- 
brose) by  light  and  irreverent  decoration. 
Erom  the  7tli  to  the  16th  century  the  people 
were  practically  shut  out  from  participation 
in  this  part  of  worship.  In  the  lltli  century 
Guido  Aretino  introduced  a  system  of  nota- 
tion. Counterpoint  is  first  heard  of  in  the 
14th  century  ;  harmonized  masses  were  intro- 
duced at  Rome  about  1390.  The  exclusion 
of  music  from  the  church,  meditated  by  the 
Council  of  Trent,  1563,  was  averted  by  a 
simple  and  dignified  mass  of  Palestrina  (c. 
1524-94),  who  did  much  to  revive  and  im- 
prove the  ancient  music  and  to  check  the 
secular  tendencies  which  had  come  in  ;  some 
of  his  masses  and  motets  are  still  in  use. 

The  Reformation  greatly  stimulated  de- 
vout singing.  Luther  furnished  tunes  as  well 
as  hymns  ;  and  music,  more  or  less  founded 
on  the  Gregorian,  was  furnished  in  England 
for  the  Psalms  of  Sternhold  and  Hopkins, 
Rous,  Tate,  and  Brady,  and  Watts.  The 
German  chorals,  at  once  harmonious,  rever- 
ent, and  popular,  have  gone  far  beyond  their 
first  home,  and  done  much  to  increase  con- 


gregational singing.  America  followed 
mainly  in  the  steps  of  English  Dissent,  and 
tune  books  did  not  become  common  till  the 
present  century.  Thomas  Hastings  (1784- 
1872)  and  Lowell  Mason  (1792-1872)  did  much 
to  popularize  church  music.  The  introduc- 
tion of  single  books  for  tunes  and  hymns  be- 
came general  about  1856.  Singing  was  too 
long  and  too  largely  regarded  as  a  perform- 
ance to  be  conducted  by  professionals  ;  of  late 
it  is  generally  and  justly  considered  a  part  of 
divine  worship,  and  a  more  churchly  ten- 
dency is  visible  almo.st  everywhere. 

The  oratorio  is  sacred  opera,  minus  stage, 
costumes,  and  acting.  If  the  epic  and  lyric 
elements  exclude  the  dramatic  entirely  it  be- 
comes a  mere  cantata.  Oratorio  began  at 
Rome  w  ith  St.  Filippo  de  Neri  (1515-95),  and 
received  its  greatest  development  from  Bach 
(1685-1750)  and  Handel  (1685-1759),  with  ad- 
ditions by  Haydn  (1732-1809)  and  Mendels- 
sohn (1809-47).  Eminent  examples  are  Bach's 
Passion,  1729,  and  Gounod's  Bede^nption , 
1882.  Solemnity  is  the  essential  element  of 
oratorio  ;  its  subjects  are  necessarily  sacred, 
and  almost  always  biblical. 

The  orr/an,  the  great  instrument  of  church 
music,  is  in  its  humble  beginnings  of  very 
early  date  ;  that  invented  by  Jubal  (Gen.  iv. 
21)  was  probably  the  shepherd's  pipe.  The 
Greek  organ,  usually  of  ten  pipes,  was  mostly 
for  secular  entertainments,  and  never  used  in 
the  Eastern  Church  ;  in  the  West  some  ob- 
jected to  its  use,  and  others  approved.  By 
the  9tli  century  organs  of  a  clumsy  sort  be- 
gan to  be  common.  They  were  usually 
worked  by  a  bellows  and  water  ;  the  pedal 
(claviature)  was  unknown  till  1400,  and  was 
not  introduced  in  England  till  1800,  though 
the  swell  came  in  1712.  The  Anglican  and 
Lutheran  churches  retained  its  use,  and  Bach 
was  its  great  master  ;  the  Calvinistic  bodies 
generally  disowned  it,  and  even  within  the 
present  century  its  introduction  has  been  re- 
sisted. Its  construction  was  greatly  changed 
by  certain  improvements  about  1850,  and 
England  and  America  now  claim  to  make  the 
best  organs.  (See  The  Organ,  by  E.  J.  Hop- 
kins and  E.  F.  Rimbault.  Loudon,  1855,  3d 
ed.,  1887  ;  and  on  the  general  subject  the  his- 
tories of  music  by  C.  Burney,  1776-89.  4 
vols.  ;  Sir  J.  Hawkins,  1776,  5  vols.  ;  T. 
Busbv,  1819,  2  vols. ;  J.  P.  HuUah,  1862,  2d 
ed.,  1875  ;  F.  L.  Ritter,jl875,  2ded.,  1880,  rep.. 
New  York,  1886  ;  G.  Grove's  JMrtionary, 
1879-89,  4  vols.  w.  appendix.)        F.  M.  B. 

Musical  Instruments,  Biblical.  Many  of 
these  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  identify  them  with  those  now  in 
use.     They  were  of  three  kinds  : 

I.  Stringed  instruments,  which  bore  the 
general  name  of  necjinoth  (Hab.  iii.  19). 
Among  these  were  :  1.  Kinnor,  "the  harp;" 

2.  Nebel,  "  the  psaltery,"  of  the  harp  kind  ; 

3.  Asor,  "  ten  stringed  ;"  4.  Gittith,  either 
brought  from  Gath  or  used  at  the  vintage 
season  ;  5.  Minnim,  "  strings"  (Ps.  cl.  4)  ;  6. 
Sabbeca,  "  sackbut,"  a  kind  of  lyre  ;  7.  Pe- 
santerim  "psaltery,"  the  same  as  nehel ;  8. 
Machalath,  a  lute  or  a  guitar. 

II.  Wind  instruments.     9.  Keren,  "  liorn" 


MUSTARD 


( 62y 


MYSTERIES 


or  cornet  (Josh.  vi.  5);  10.  Shophar,  "trum- 
pet" fXum.  X.  10);  11.  Chatzozerah,  the 
straight  trumpet  (Num.  x.  1)  ;  12.  Jobel, 
horn  of  jubilee  or  signal  trumpet  (Josh.  vi. 
4);  13.  Chalil,  "pipe"  or  "  tlute"  (1  bam. 
X.  5);  14.  Mashrokitha,  "tlute"  (Dan.  iii. 
5),  tiie  Chalda'an  name  for  tliis  instrument  ; 
15.  Ugab,  "  organ"  (A.  V.  Gen.  iv.  21,  etc.). 
a  double  or  manifold  pipe,  possibly  the  bag- 
pipe ;  16.  Seplionj'a,  "dulcimer"  (Dau.  iii. 
lU),  aiiollicr  name  for  the  foregoing. 

III.  Penaissive  instruments.  17.  Toph, 
"  tabret"  (Gen.  xxxi.  27),  the  tambourine, 
and  every  kind  of  drum  ;  18.  Paamon, 
"  bells"  (Ex.  xxviii.  3;>)  on  the  hem  of  the 
higli-priest's  garment  ;  19.  Tzeltzelim,  "cym- 
bals" (2  Sam.  vi.  5) ;  20.  Shalishim,  "  instru- 
ments of  music"  (1  Sam.  xviii.  6),  probably 
triangles  ;  21.  Menaaneim,  "  cornets"  (2  Sam. 
vi.  o).  R.  V.  gives  "  castanets,"  a  species  of 
slstrum.  (Cf.  Sir  John  Stainer,  IVie  Musie 
of  the  Bible,  London  and  New  York,  1879, 
n.e.,  1890.)  T.  VV.  C. 

Mustard.  An  annual  shrub  {.sinnpis  nigra), 
■which  has  a  very  small  seed,  but  grows  in 
Palestine  as  tall  as  a  horse  and  his  rider. 
Birds  often  come  and  "  lodge  in  its  branches" 
<as  is  said.  Matt.  xiii.  32)  to  eat  the  seed,  but 
tliey  do  not  build  nests  there.         T.  W.  C. 

Mutianus,  Rufus  Conradus,  a  German  hu- 
manist ;  b.  at  Hamburg,  Oct.  15,  1471  ;  d.  at 
Gotha,  March  30,  1526  ;  studied  at  Erfurt 
and  Bologna  ;  obtained  a  small  bcnetice  at 
Gotha  in  1503  ($20  a  year)  ;  lived  there  for 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  learned  seclusion.  He 
published  only  a  few  epigrams,  but  his  letters 
to  other  humanists,  partially  published,  found 
in  the  city  library  of  Frankfort,  have  con- 
siderable historical  interest. 

Myconius,  Friedrich,  b.  at  Lichtenfels, 
Ui^piT  Franconia,  Dec.  26,  1490  ;  d.  at  Gotha, 
April  7,  1546  ;  entered  a  Franciscan  monas- 
tery in  1510  ;  fled  from  it  in  1524  ;  became 
iti  the  same  year  evangelical  pastor  of  Gotha  ; 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Luther  and  Me- 
liinchthon,  and  wrote  a  Tlistoria  Reformatioins, 
1517-42,  which  was  edited  by  E.  C.  Cyprian, 
Leipzig,  1718. 

Myconius,  Oswald,  b.  at  Lucerne,  Switzer- 
land, 1488  ;  d.  at  Basel,  Oct.  14,  1552  ;  was 
teacher  at  Zurich,  Lucerne,  Einsiedeln,  and, 
since  1532,  pastor  and  professor  at  Basel. 
He  took  a  very  active  part  in  the  Swiss  Ref- 
ormation, was  an  intimate  friend  of  Zwingli, 
and  wrote  a  biography  of  him,  ed.  Xeander, 
in  Vit(P  Ri'formatiirinn,  Berlin,  1841. 

My'-ra,  an  ancient  city  and  port  on  the  river 
Andriacus,  2\  miles  from  \U  mouth,  on  the 
southwestern  coast  of  Asia  j\[inor,  in  Lvcia, 
is  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  5  as  visited  by 
Paul  on  his  journey  to  Rome. 

Myrtle.  A  beautiful,  fragrant  evergreen 
whicli  abounds  in  Northern  Palestine.  Its 
berries  are  used  for  spices,  and  the  plant 
itself  is  an  image  of  prosperity  in  contrast 
with  the  u.scless  noxious  brier  (Isa.  Iv.  1.3). 
T.  W.  C. 

Myrrh  {hitter),  the  gum  of  a  thorny  tree  in 
Arabia.    It  was  an  ingredient  of  the  holy  oil 


(Ex.  XXX.  23)  and  of  the  embalming  substance 
(John  xix.  39),  and  was  used  in  perfumes 
(Es.  ii.  12).  The  magi  brought  it  as  one  of 
their  gifts  to  Christ  (]\Iatt.  ii.  11).  The  "  wine 
mingled  with  myrrh"  in  Mark  xv.  23  was 
doubtless  the  sour  wine  of  the  Roman  soldiery. 
T.  W.  C. 

Mys'-i-a,  a  province  in  the  northwest  comer 
of  Asia  ilinor,  which  was  traversed  by  the 
Apostle  Paul  on  his  first  journey  to  Europe 
(Acts  xvi.  7,  8).  ■  T.  W.  C. 

Mystagogue  {i  nit  in  (or  into  mynterieK)  and 
Mystagogy  (initiation  into  mysteries)  are 
two  terms  connnonly  used  by  the  Greek 
Fathers  and  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  ap- 
l)lied,  the  former  to  the  priest  who  prepared 
the  catechiuuens  for  baptism,  the;  latter,  more 
generally,  to  the  preparation  for  the  sacra- 
ments. 

Mysteries  in  pagan  religions — as,  fcr  in- 
stance, in  Greek  paganism,  where  they  foimd 
their  highest  and  most  revered  form  in  the 
Eleusinian  Mysteries— do  not  mean  some  di- 
rect, though  mysterious  communion  between 
God  and  man,  nor  even  .some  direct  but  mir- 
aculous revelation  bv  God  to  man-  which 
latter  in  Greek  paganism  found  its  t^-pical 
form  in  the  oracle — but  simply  a  secret  so- 
ciety -RiJiich  by  secret  ceremonies  imparted  a 
secret  wisdom  to  its  members.  Of  course, 
all  secret  societies  want  to  give  their  cere- 
monies and  their  wisdom  a  mysterious  char- 
acter, but  in  this  respect  the  Greeks  looked 
upon  the  Eleusinian  My.steries,  too.  as  a  super- 
stition. 

Mysteries,  Miracle-Plays,  and  Moralities 

denote  three  stages,  not  so  very  distinct  but 
still  discernible,  in  the  development  of  the 
modern  drama  from  the  divine  service  of  the 
Christian  Church.  For  centuries  the  antique 
theatres  stood  empty  and  crumbled  together, 
while  the  antique  dramas  lay  forgotten  on  the 
shelves  and  moulded  away.  Only  in  Italy,  and 
only  there  at  popular  festivals,  some  reminis- 
cences of  them  were  still  alive.  Then,  from 
the  simple  recitation  of  the  biblical  narrative, 
divided  up  into  strophes  and  anti  strophes, 
and  from  the  .simple  .symbolism  of  the  cross 
being  taken  down  from  the  altar  on  Good 
Friday  and  carried  in  a  procession  to  a  side 
chapel,  from  which  it  again  was  rai.sed  and 
brought  back  to  the  altar  on  Easter  Sunday, 
there  gradually  grew  up  a  dramatic  repie- 
sentation  of  the  death  and  resurrecti(,n  of 
Christ,  a  luystcry,  acted  iu  the  church,  by 
the  priest  and  for  religious  purposes.  In  the 
12th  century,  however,  the  mystery  now  rep- 
resenting ail  the  events  of  the  life  of  Christ 
and,  indeed,  the  whole  contents  of  the  Bible 
from  creation  to  dooms-day,  grew  too  large 
for  the  church,  and  was  moved  out  in  the 
public  square,  where  it  was  represented  on 
an  immense  stage  divided  into  three  stories  - 
heaven,  earth,  and  hell— in  the  presence  of 
huge  crowds  of  devout  spectators,  who  often 
by  tlieir  knoelings,  hymns,  etc.,  took  a  part  in 
the  performance.  But  whenever  large  crowds 
gather  together  under  the  opm  sky,  an  ele- 
ment of  fun  seems  to  be  almost  unavoidable, 
and  when  all  discipline  depends  upon  purely 


MYSTICISM 


(630) 


MYSTICISM 


spiritual  authority,  the  outbursts  of  passion, 
enthusiasm,  or  indignation  may  easily  become 
a  little  difficult  to  manage.  In  1210  Innocent 
III.  found  it  necessary  to  forbid  the  clergy 
altogether  to  taiie  part  in  the  representation 
of  mysteries.  But  long  before  the  whole 
business  had  begun  to  change  hands,  being 
transferred  from  the  clergy  to  the  burghers, 
to  the  guilds.  Each  guild  performed  its  own 
part  of  the  play— the  goldsmiths,  for  in- 
stance, the  visit  of  the  three  kings  from  the 
East,  because  they  alone  had  the  gold  and 
silver  and  precious  stones  necessary  to  the 
representation — or,  a  little  later,  its  own  play. 
But  thereby  was  ushered  in  a  change  in  the 
play  itself,  in  the  mystery.  The  guild  lilied 
to  represent  the  life  of  its  patron  saint  ;  this 
subject,  lying  a  degree  lower  in  the  spiritual 
sphere,  could  allow  more  space  to  extraneous 
elements,  both  of  fun  and  passion  ;  even  a 
little  boasting  or,  as  we  should  say  to-day,  a 
little  advertising,  might  come  in  quite  natu- 
rally ;  the  mystery  became  a  mere  miracle- 
play.  And  stjU  greater  changes  were  close 
at  hand.  He  who  holds  the  whole,  undi- 
vided, passionately  excited  attention  of  a 
large  audience — and  such  was  surely  the  case 
with  the  mystery  and  the  miracle-play — 
wields  one  of  the  most  powerful  instruments 
in  existence,  and  it  is  impossible  that  he 
should  abstain  from  using  that  instrument 
for  a  purpose  which  had  taken  undivided 
possession  of  his  own  passionately  excited 
energy.  The  influence  wliich  the  miracle- 
play  has  exercised  in  tlie  struggles  of  the  Ref- 
ormation was  very  great,  always  wholesome, 
in  cases  decisive,  but  before  it  could  exercise 
such  an  iufluence  it  had  to  undergo  a  radical 
change  ;  from  a  miracle-play  it  turned  into  a 
morality.  Many  circumstances  aided  the 
chauge.  As,  for  instance,  when  a  king  vis- 
ited a  city,  and  the  burghers  turned  out  to  do 
him  honor  and  entertain  him,  what  could  be 
more  appropriate  than  inviting  him  to  a  mir- 
acle play.  But,  of  course,  for  the  occasion 
the  play  must  contain  something  about  the 
king  and  the  burghers,  some  allegories  of 
peace  and  war,  of  ro^^al  grace  and  popular 
loyalty,  etc.;  even  a  few  hints  about  the 
tariff  question,  the  holds  along  the  river  and 
the  turnpike,  might  be  exnedient.  The  play 
must  also  contain  something  for  his  retinue, 
some  allegories  of  virtue  and  vice,  of  man's 
honor  and  woman's  innocence,  of  taking 
nothing  without  paying  for  it,  etc.  Once 
seen,  these  moralities  soon  became  the  fash- 
ion, and  it  is  quite  apparent  that  they  needed 
only  to  meet,  on  one  side,  with  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  antique  dramas  and,  on  the 
other,  with  the  troups  of  strolling  mounte- 
banks from  Italy,  and  the  modern  theatre 
was  ready  to  open  its  doors.  The  literature 
on  the  subject  is  very  copious,  but  very  scat- 
tered. There  is,  however,  an  excellent  sur- 
vey of  the  whole  process  in  Alt,  Theater  uml 
Kirche,  Berlin,  1846,  which  also  gives  good 
hints  on  all  special  points.      See  Ober-Am- 

MERGAU.  C.    P. 

Mysticism,  {a)  The  common  definitions 
of  mysticism  are  unsatisfactory.  It  is  hardly 
correct  to  connect  it  with  [j-vgtijc,  for  ordi- 


narily the  mystics  are  not  initiated  as  that 
term  was  understood  in  the  mysteries.  The 
mystics  claim  special  and  personal  revelations, 
and  rarely  organize  into  societies,  and  when 
they  do,  they  lose  the  characteristics  of  gen- 
uine mysticism.  A  happier  definition  would 
result  if  we  derive  the  word  from  ^ru,  "to 
shut  up."  Esoterically  the  word  meant  to 
shut  one's  self  off  from  the  world,  to  retire 
into  the  inner  chambers  of  one's  own  con- 
sciousness, to  sink  into  the  depths  of  one's 
own  being — the  "  ground"  of  the  soul,  as  the 
mystics  call  it — for  the  purpose  of  discovering 
the  deep  and  boundless  self  (deity),  which 
resides  there  in  holy  silence,  and  far  beyond 
the  ken  of  the  senses.  And  such  psychic 
movement  is  precisely  that  of  the  mystic. 
He  lives  in  an  inner  world,  in  direct  behold- 
ing of  the  divine,  and  to  attain  to  that  state 
he  shuts  himself  off  from  the  outer  world  and 
the  lower  self,  trying  to  "kill  out"  the  nat- 
ural man. 

{b)  The  most  direct  way  to  understand  what 
mysticism  really  is,  is  to  begin,  as  the  Ger- 
mans do,  by  making  a  distinction  between 
Mystik  and  Mysticismus,  a  legitimate  and  a 
spurious  mysticism.  The  latter  is  an  excess, 
and  ascribes  undue  powers  to  man  ;  it  over- 
looks life's  true  end,  and  terminates  in  weeds 
of  anti-religious  notions  and  egotistic  glori- 
fications, instead  of  raising  the  whole  of 
man's  humanity  to  a  higher  condition,  it  seeks 
to  attain  a  "spiritual  state"  by  annihilating 
almost  all  that  which  is  most  characteristic  of 
a  human  being.  Mysticism  in  this  latter 
aspect  has  been  only  too  commonly  described  ; 
hence  the  prevailing  opinions  regarding  it  are 
too  narrow  and  biased,  and  in  many  cases 
utterly  false.  In  the  present  article  we  shall 
overlook  this  side  of  mysticism  and  in  the 
main  define  the  other. 

In  order  to  xniderstand  psychologically  the 
principle  and  method  of  mysticism,  let  it  be 
understood  at  the  outset  that  it  does  not 
want  to  divorce  soul  and  spirit,  nor  to  discard 
reason,  but  rather  to  encourage  the  growth 
and  exercise  of  all  man's  spiritual  instincts. 
Religiously,  Gorre's  definition  is  a  h;i(.py 
one  :  "  Mysticism  is  nothing  less  than  the 
gospel  reflected  in  the  saints,  an  luidulation 
and  vibration,  lasting  for  ages,  and  moving 
in  increasing  circles,  of  the  movement  origi- 
nated by  Christ."  "  It  is  a  contemplation  as- 
sisted by  higher  light,  and  an  action  through 
higher  freedom."  Uniting  these  two  ideas — 
the  psychological  and  the  religious — into  one 
concept,  we  may  say  that  the  principle  of 
mysticism  is  love  and  its  method  is  heart; 
quite  in  the  words  of  Victor  Cousin  :  "  Lis- 
ten to  mysticism  ;  it  says  that  by  the  heart 
alone  is  man  in  relation  with  God.  All  that 
is  great,  beautiful,  infinite,  eternal,  love  alone 
reveals  to  us."  Thus  sang  Madame  Guyon, 
who  knew  so  well  the  inner  ways  : 

'Tie  not  the  skill  of  human  art 
Which  gives  me  power  my  God  to  know  ; 

The  sacred  lessons  of  the  heart 
Come  not  from  instruments  below. 

Love  is  my  teacher 


MYSTICISM 


(631) 


MYSTICISM 


O,  then  of  God  if  thou  wouklet  learn  ; 

His  wisdom,  goodness,  glory,  see. 
All  human  arts  and  Ivnowledge  spurn, 

Let  Love  alone  thy  teacher  be. 

(r)  The  mystic  way,  tlie  via  purgativa,  of 
realizing  the  method  of  love  and  heart,  is  as 
singular  as  it  is  instructive.  The  following 
description  is  drawn  mainly  from  the  Interior 
Caxtle  of  St.  Teresa  and  the  Dark  JS'ight  of 
the  Soul  of  St.  John  of  the  Cross,  the  two 
most  detailed  works  on  the  subject.  The 
devotee  begins  by  practising  "silence"— of 
thought  and  speech — the  sacrum  ,sile/itiuni, 
as  St.  Bonavcntura  calls  it.  He  centres  his 
thoughts  on  God  and  thinks  of  nothing  else. 
He  talks  with  no  one,  if  lie  can  avoid  it.  Tliis 
first  step  is  necessarily  an  active  one,  but 
after  awhile  "  silence"  becomes  a  habit  and 
all  "  activity  "  ceases,  for  cip((m('e  condition, 
little  by  little  becomes  the  normal  state  of  the 
devotee.  Parallel  with  these  efforts  go  prac- 
tices which  tend  to  "  kill  out"  earthly  desires, 
which  lead  to  abolition  of  consciousness,  and 
an  occasional  eKaraaig,  in  which  the  Supreme 
Perfection  is  seen  not  <l>g  ev  a??M),  but  within. 
AVlien  tliis  condition  becomes  a  second  nature, 
it  is  called  Illumination.  The  road  up  to  it, 
the  purgative,  is  now  finished,  and  from 
lienceforth  the  mystic  progresses  in  the  last, 
the  third  degree,  the  Unitive  Way,  which 
finally  transforms,  as  Gerson  asserts,  the  dev- 
otee, and  makes  him  like  unto  God.  Cath- 
erina  of  Sienna  and  Angela  de  Foligni  have 
given  us  some  startling  descriptions  of  the 
tortures  of  the  purgative  way.  St.  Bona- 
ventura's  Journey  of  the  Soul  to  God  is  the 
most  rational  of  the  books  in  this  line.  In 
Amiel's  Journal  Intiuie  may  be  found  a  mod- 
ern description  of^  the  loss  of  consciousness 
and  absorption  in  Atman,  the  Infinite.  There 
is  a  warning  to  the  seekers  of  this  road,  often 
repeated  in  the  UpanisJiads,  which  declares 
that  the  path  of  release  is  as  fine  as  the  edge 
of  a  razor,  and  that  on  one  side  lies  the  gulf  of 
madness,  ou  the  other  chasms  of  sensuality. 

{d)  Mysticism  is  both  a  philosophy  and  a 
religion.  As  the  first,  it  endeavors  to  grasp 
the  divine  essence  and  realize  it  in  thought 
and  mind.  It  starts  with  the  conception  of 
the  divine  image,  in  virtue  of  which  ail  essen- 
tial thoughts  of  divinity  are  embodied  in  man, 
and  a  divine  illumination  pervades  all  cre- 
ation. It  is  this  reassertion  of  the  divine  im- 
age that  in  degenerate  ages  has  been  of  such 
priceless  service  in  man's  history.  It  was 
the  Neo-Pythagoreau  my.sticism,  as  E.  v. 
Hartmann  "asserts,  which  called  out  the  Jo- 
hannean  type  of  Christianity,  and  it  was 
mediieval  mysticism  that  saved  the  spirit  of 
Christianity  from  perishing  in  Roman  Catho- 
lic idolatry  and  scholastic  formalism.  E.\- 
cept  for  the  mystical  philosopliy  of  the  her- 
etics of  the  lltii  century  and  later,  the  bless- 
ings of  tlie  Reformation  would  never  have 
destroyed  tlie  dark  .shadows  of  tlie  Middle; 
Ages.  As  ]\Iax  ^liiller  has  said,  the  mystics 
were  "hard  and  lionest  tiiinkers,"  never 
throwing  "  scholastic  dust  into  the  eyes  of  the 
people,"  and  really,  a.s  Hegel  has  "acknowl- 
edged, the  forerunners  of  modern  pliilosophy 
— by  which  lie.  of  course,  meant  philosophy 
up  to  his  own  time. 


Mysticism  as  a  religion  starts  likewise  with 
the  conception  of  the  divine  image,  but  cen- 
tres it  in  the  heart,  and  approaches  it  practi- 
cally. Instead  of  trying  to  understand  the 
divine  mystery  of  creation  and  regeneration, 
it  aims  at  immediate  communion  of  love  with 
God  by  means  of  contemplation,  prayer,  and 
detachment  from  the  world,  sometimes  ter- 
minating in  direct  hostility  to  nature.  The 
mystic  "  partaking  of  the  divine  nature"  is 
not  much  dilfereiit  from  an  enthusiastic  pan- 
theism, though  the  pantheism  of  mysticism 
is  usually  religions  and  ordinarily  pure  in  its 
morals.  Mystical  phil()soi)hy  is  speculative 
and  has  been  productive  o'f  great  results. 
My.stical  religion,  on  the  other  hand,  is  usually 
exclusive  and  narrowed  down  to  self,  sliun- 
ning  the  ethical  problems  of  humanity  and 
standing  aloof  from  society  and  the  church, 
yet  living  under  their  protection  and  support- 
ed by  them.  Mysticism  has,  therefore,  also, 
and,  in  this  respect,  very  aptly,  been  char- 
acterized as  a  creeping  plant,  which  grows 
up  exuberantly  on  any  support,  agreeing 
equally  well  with  the  extremest  opposites. 

(e)  The  classification  of  mystics  does  not 
offer  any  great  difficulties,  if  we  remember 
that  they  are  people  of  one  idea,  with  a  men- 
tal bias  from  their  surroundings,  and  as  this 
bias  is  either  naturalistic  or  spiritualistic,  these 
two  terms  will  serve  very  well  for  general 
purposes.  Grouping  together  those  mystics 
who  live  more  or  less,  though  unconsciously 
to  themselves,  on  a  cosmological  and  an  on- 
tological  basis,  we  get  in  the  naturalistic  divi- 
sion such  speculative  mystics  as  the  Hindu 
tiieosophists  and  the  Chinese  followers  of 
Laotsze,  and  such  religious  mystics  as  those 
of  Southern  Europe.  In  the  spiritualistic 
division,  we  get  speculative  mystics  like  Eck- 
art  and  the  religious  like  the  Brothers  of  the 
Common  Life,  the  order  of  Thomas  a  Ktnipis. 
Putting  those  of  a  psychological  turn  to- 
gether, we  get  in  the  naturalistic  division, 
such  mystics  of  the  senses  as  the  Yogi  ; 
among  the  spiritualistic,  mystics  of  the  heart, 
like  Suso,  and  mystics  of  the  intellect,  the 
Neoplatonists  and  Sufis  : 

A.  Cosmologiciil  and  ontological  basis  : 
(i)  Naturalistic  niysiicisni : 

(a)  Specrilativc  "inyt^iic!;  ;  such  as  the  Hindu  the- 

oii<)|)liit;ls  and  the  followers  of  Laots/.e. 
(J)  Religions   niyi-tics  ;  such  as  most  mystics  of 
Soiitlu-rn  Europe. 
(2)  Si)iritiuilii?iii-  mysticism: 
(«l  Speculative  mystics;  f  nch  as  Eckart. 
(i)  Religious  mystics  ;  such  as  Th.  4  Kempis. 

B.  Psychological  basis : 

(i)  Naturalistic  mysticism  : 

Myotics  of  the  Kcii-es:  the  Yogi. 
(2)  Spiritualistic  nivcticir^m  : 
(a)  Myi'tics  of  tin'  heart  :  Suso. 
(i)  Mvstirw  of   the  ititcUect:    Neoplatonists  and 
"Sufis. 

(/)  The  indifference  and  antagonism  of 
mysticism  to  nature  is  perhaps  best  illus- 
trated by  the  following  anecdote.  It  is  re- 
lated tliiit  Tauler  praised  a  brother  who. 
while  walking  in  the  cloister  garden,  closed 
his  eyes,  that  the  fiowcrs  should  not  disturb 
his  meditations.  Perhajis  tiiis  story  better 
than  anytliiiiiT  else  also  show.s  tlie  difference  be- 
tAveen  tlicosojiliy  iind  mysticism.  The  former 
is  objective,  the  latter  purely  subjective,  and. 


MYSTICISM 


(632) 


MYSTICISM 


though  continually  lapsinij  into  pantheism,  it 
nevertheless  refuses  to  see  God  in  nature, 
recognizing  only  the  "  ground  "  of  the  soul 
as  the  field  of  God's  revelation. 

((J)  Wherever  mysticism  appears  in  tlie  his- 
tory of  human  thought  it  is  always  the  same. 
There  is  one  thought  and  one  way.  and  noth- 
ing else  in  its  history,  be  that  Oriental  or 
Occidental.  It  is  religious  thinking  and  ro- 
li,j;ious  philosophy.  It  is  a  life  of  one  idea  : 
G'jd  and  nothing  but  God.  All  mystics  are 
"god  intoxicated,"  like  the  more  modern 
Spinoza.  This  is  the  case  with  the  Oriental 
Jellaladdin  er  Rumi,  the  Classical  Plotinus, 
and  the  Christian  Eckart,  each  the  best  ex- 
ponent of  his  time  and  country.  This  phi- 
losophy of  God  is  on  one  side  wonderfully 
simple  and  perfectly  true,  but  on  the  other 
side,  for  sinful  and  unfree  men,  as  history 
proves,  it  is  a  savor  of  death  as  much  as  a 
savor  of  life.  The  mystic  rejects  all  abstract 
and  merely  logical  thinking  :  he  meditates 
only.  His  premisses  are  given  with  a  devout 
heart  and  his  results  are  foregone  conclusions. 
He  begins  and  ends  in  God.  This  circular 
movement  of  thought  brings  him  no  other  re- 
sults than  a  realization  of  the  fact,  that  in 
God  we  live,  move,  and  have  our  being. 

{h)  As  all  mystical  religion  is  built  upon 
the  inward  experiences  of  the  heart,  we  may 
well  say  with  Madame  de  Stael  that  the  mys- 
tics are  "  men  who  live  in  the  sanctuary  of 
their  conscience  and  know  how  to  concen- 
trate in  it,  as  in  a  burning  glass,  all  the  rays 
of  the  universe,"  and  that  therefore  these  men 
are  "  the  priests  of  the  religion  of  the  soul," 
rather  than  of  "dogmatical  religion,  which 
is  commandment."  Wherever  mysticism  ap- 
pears, be  it  in  formalistic  China,  in  ritualistic 
Brahmanism,  in  nihilistic  Buddhism,  in  fatal- 
istic Mohammedanism,  or  in  any  Christian 
sect,  it  avoids  the  distinctive  dogmatic  and 
formative  traits  of  its  surroundings  and  rises 
above  them  to  a  sphere  of  universal  religious 
notions.  Sometimes  it  places  itself  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  formulas  and  observances  of  its 
day  and  those  of  the  nation  where  it  has 
arisen,  but  usually  the  mj^stic  lives  as  one  of 
"the  quiet  of  the  land,"  resting  in  God's 
manifestatio  ad  intra,  rather  than  ad  extra, 
such  as  he  understands  it,  and  as  it  is  beauti- 
fully expressed  by  J.  G.  Whittier  in  the 
"  Mystic's  Christmas"  : 

"...    beyond  the  things  of  sense, 
Beyond  occasions  and  events, 
I  linow,  through  God's  exceeding  grace, 
Release  from  form  and  time  and  place." 

{i)  Under  whatever  disguise  we  meet  the 
mystic,  be  he  a  Laotszean  conjurer,  a  Brah- 
manic  enchanter,  a  stolid  Buddhist,  an  en- 
thusiastic Sufi,  or  "a  friend  of  God,"  the 
summum  bonum  to  him  is  the  "  partaking  in 
the  divine  nature,"  not  in  God's  kingdom 
upon  earth,  but  partaking  in  God's  own  na- 
ture. Practically  this  means  a  realization  of 
the  divine  incarnation,  and  that  is  precisely 
the  aim  of  the  mystic.  He  is  or  is  to  become 
God  incarnate.  That  is  what  Suso  means 
■when  he  says  :  "  A  meek  man  must  be  de- 
farmed  from  the  creature,  conformed  to 
Qhv\^i,  2Lnd  transformed  into  the  deity. "  He 
does  not  mean  a  general  manifestation  of  God 


in  the  believer  and  true  follower,  he  means  a 
change  so  radical  and  literal,  that  we  may 
behold  God  in  the  transformed  mystic. 

{j)  With  the  mystics'  limited  'recognition 
of  God's  will  as  manifested  in  this  woild  and 
with  his  eyes  fixed  exclusively  on  God's  self- 
manifestalion,  we  can  readily  see  why  the 
mystic's  virtue  stands  in  no  relation  to  any 
otiitr  Law  than  that  of  his  own  heart.  Not 
that  he  is  lawless — no,  he  is  above  the  law,  and 
consequently  he  often  falls  binder  law  and 
its  merciless  sway.  Mysticism  aims  at  angelic 
rather  than  human  excellence,  hence  its  spas- 
modic and  unnatural  efforts  to  crush  human 
nature  within  us,  bring  about  such  terrible 
reactions  as  those  observed  in  the  lives  of  the 
mystics.* 

(k)  Genuine  mysticism  is  something  deeply 
founded  in  the  inmost  essence  of  man.  Its 
history  must,  therefore,  be  coeval  with  the 
origin  of  man,  and  we  may  expect  to  find  it 
among  the  lowest  races,  though  as  ytt  no 
such  connected  exposition  has  been  pub- 
lished. Mysticism  as  known  in  human  liter- 
ature begins  in  dreamy  Asia,  and  is,  as  its 
source,  indistinct,  vague,  and  strongly  natu- 
ralistic. Its  expressions  are  uncertain  as 
those  of  a  somnambiilist,  though  very  in- 
tense, and  they  ramify  far  and  wide  and  per- 
meate all  Eastern  life.  In  the  East  the  nega- 
tive side  of  mysticism  is  strongly  developed. 
Tlie  aspirant  fastens  his  view  upon  the  un- 
reality of  things  rather  than  practising  absorp- 
tion into  the  highest  goal.  Silent  contempla- 
tion and  total  deadening  of  all  consciousness 
of  Maya,  or  the  illusory  world,  are  the  most 
common  forms  in  India. 

The  more  modern  Sufis  are  lofty  and  literary 
in  their  life  and  practices.  Sufism  might  be 
called  the  poetry  of  Eastern  mysticism,  as 
Suso  is  called  the  Minnesinger  of  German 
mysticism.  Brahmanic  and  Buddhistic  mys- 
ticism is  not  connected  with  any  great  per- 
sonages of  history,  but  Sufism  is.  The  names 
of  Hafiz,  Saadi,  Attar,  Jelladladdin  er  Rumi, 
and  scores  of  others  are  immortal. 

Ancient  Judaism  offered  no  favorable  soil 
for  mysticism.  The  Cabala  (q.v.)  is  a  prod- 
uct of  'modern  degenerate  times,  when  Arabic 
philosophy-  infused  itself  into  Mosaic  belief. 

Egj'pt's  famous  river  and  glowing  deserts 
have  seen  more  self-tortures  and  heard  more 
of  the  occult  lore  than  perhaps  any  other  spot 
on  the  globe.  Its  alleys  of  sphinxes  and 
silent  caves  and  temples  were  made,  as  it 
were,  for  mystic  solitude  and  loneliness,  and 
keep  their  secrets  w^ell,  even  the  names  of  the 
leaders.  Its  later  ruins  and  waste  places 
seem  to  have  been  the  favored  spots  of  the 
early  Christian  mystics. 

If  Egypt  was  dreary  and  forbidding,  the 
clear  sky  of  Greece  seems  to  have  been  a 
symbol  of  the  divine  illumination  that  came 
to  the  Neoplatonists  and  their  masters.  The 
value  to  historical  development  of  this  form 
of  mysticism,  whether  it  practised  its  doc- 
trines in  Alexandria  or  veiled  them  in  elegant 
phrases  on  classical  soil,  is  inestimable.  It 
influenced  the  spread  of  Christianity  botli  by 
its  attacks  and  by  its  allegorical  reconcilia- 
tions ;  and  it  again  played  a  most  important 
factor  at  the  time  of  the  Revival  of  Learning. 


MYTH 


(633) 


NAG'S-HEAD 


The  speculative  contents  of  Neoplatonism 
■was  tirmly  lodged  in  Christian  thought  b}- 
the  writings  of  Dionysius,  the  so-called  Areop- 
agite.  From  him  hails  what  may  be  called 
the  esoteric  Christianity  of  the  West.  Scotus 
Erigeua  translated  him  along  with  the  com- 
•  mentaries  of  Maximus  the  Confessor,  the  last 
speculative  mystic  of  the  Greek  Church. 
Erigena's  system  rests  upon  these  two. 

Mediaeval  mysticism  is  represented  by  Ber- 
nard of  Clairvaux  (1091-1153)  and  the  famous 
Yictorincs.  It  runs  riot  in  Bonaventura  and 
mav  be  said  to  terminate  in  Gerson,  (1363- 
1429). 

With  the  development  of  national  autonomy 
in  the  ages  preceding  the  Reformation,  mys- 
ticism assumes  more  and  more  a  character  in 
conformity  to  national  characteristics.  From 
this  time  we  distinguish  between  Spanish, 
German,  and  French  mystics,  and  later  on  we 
^nd  Dutch  ones.  Of  these  the  German  have 
contributed  most  to  the  general  fimd  of  hu- 
man knowledge  and  progress.  We  tind  also 
in  England  forms  of  mysticism  in  Quakerism 
and  the  Cambridge  Platonists  (q.v.).  But  all 
these  require  extended  notic;es,  and  cannot  be 
treated  here,  where  our  endeavor  has  been 
to  give  only  an  outline  of  the  nature  and 
hisDry  ot  nlysticism. 

The  lives  of  most  of  the  i)rominent  mystics 
have  been  written,  and  can  be  found  in  many 
libraries  under  their  respective  names.  Com- 
prehensive works  are  those  of  Vaughan, 
Hours  irith  the  yfi/stirs ;  Preger,  Gesr/iicldc 
der  de'itschen  Mystiker  ;  Jundt,  Histoire  do 
panthei<in  populaire. 

C.  H.  A.  Bjerregaakd. 

Myth,    Mythology,    Mythical     Theory. 

My t lis  are  formed  only  at  an  early  stage  of 
civilizaticm,  when,  as  j^et,  no  distinction  is 
made  between  religion  and  poesy.  All 
mytlis,  therefore,  contain  a  purely  imagina- 
tive element,  which,  outside  its  poetical  im- 
pressiveness,  has  no  meaning  and  no  signifi- 
cance. But  beneath  this  web  of  fancy  there 
is  in  every  true  myth  an  observation  or  an 
experience  which  touches  man's  conscience 
and  forms  its  religious  element.  As  the  dis- 
tinction between  religion  and  poesy  developed 
in  the  Greek  civilization,  the  Greek  myths 
gradually  sank  down  and  became  the  mere 
playthings  of  the  imagination,  sometimes 
charming,  but  more  often  scandalous  ;  some- 
times ingenious,  but  more  often  trivial,  and 
as  such  tiiey  were  treated  until,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century,  by  the  publica- 
tion of  Creutzcr's  SymboUk,  a  science  of 
myths,  a  mythology,  was  started  intent  upon 
imravelling  the  true  religious  ccmtents  of 
every  mytli.  The  surprising  results  of  this 
new  science — especially  after  the  invention 
of  the  comparative  inethod,  its  most  powerful 
tool— made  it  quite  natural  that  the  theories 
it  developed  sliould  be  applied  also  to  the 
Christian  religion,  and  Strauss'  Lehen  Jetiu 
became  the  exponent  of  this  application. 
Bat  it  was  as  natural  tiiat  it  should  not  take  a 
long  time  to  discover  tiiat  the  gospels  wore 
not  written  in  a  myth-bearing  time,  and  the 
mvthical  theorv,  considered  as  an  explanation 
of  the  origin  of  Christianity,  rapidly  withered, 


to  be  followed  by  the  legendary  theory,  rep- 
resented by  Ilenan's  Vic  de  Jesus,  and  pre- 
supposing not  an  observation  or  an  experience 
behind  the  imaginative  work,  but  a  historical 
fact  of  some  sort  or  other.  C.  P. 


N. 

Na'-a-man.  A  distinguished  Syrian  gen- 
eral who  was  a  leper  (3  Kings  v.),  but  on 
applying  to  Elisha  was  healed  by  a  sev^enfold 
bath  in  the  Jordan.  Our  Lord  refers  to  it 
(Luke  iv.  27).  T.  W.  C. 

Na'-bal  {foot-},  a  wealthy  but  churlish  citi- 
zen of  JNIaon,  who  roused  David's  wrath  by 
offensively  refusing  him  supplies ;  but  it 
was  averted  by  his  wife  Abigail.  Soon  after 
Nabal  died,  apparently  by  a  divine  judgment 
(1  Sam.  XXV.).  T.  W.  C. 

Nabathaeans,  an  Arab  tribe,  are  mentioned 
in  Isa.  Ix.  7  imder  the  name  Nebaioth  (q.v.), 
in  connection  with  Kedar,  and  in  1  Mace. 
V.  24,  ix.  35,  according  to  which  Judas  Mac- 
cabteus  met  them  after  three  days'  journey 
beyond  the  Jordan  into  the  Arabian  desert. 
They  were  nomads,  but  had  also  some  trade 
and  built  cities.  Pompey  sent  an  army 
against  them,  and  under  Trajan  they  were 
incorporated  with  the  Roman  Empire. 

Na'-both  (fniits),  an  Israelite  of  Jezretl, 
who  declined  to  sell  his  ancestral  vineyard  to 
Ahab,  and  in  consequence  tlirough  the  arts 
of  Jezebel  was  stoned  to  death  on  a  charge 
of  blasphemy  (1  Kgs.  xxi.).  T.  W.  C. 

Na'-chon  (prepared),  the  threshing-floor 
near  whicli  Uzzah  was  slain.  Hence  it  was 
called  Perez-uzzah  (2  Sam.  vi.  6,  1  Chron. 
xiii.  9).  T.  W.  C. 

Na'-dab  {liberal).  1.  A  son  of  Aaron  slain 
with  Abihu  (Lev.  x.  2)  for  offering  strange 
fire  before  the  Lord.  2.  Son  of  Jeroboam  I., 
who,  after  a  wicked  reign  of  two  years,  was 
slain  and  succeeded  by  Baasha  (1  Kings  xv.). 
T.  W.  C. 

Nadal,  Bernard  Harrison,  D.D.  (Dickin- 
son College,  Pa.,  1857),  Methodist  ;  b.  in  Tal- 
bot County,  Md.,  March  27,  1812  ;  d.  at 
Madison,  N.  J.,  June  20,  1870  ;  was  licensed 
to  preach  by  the  old  Baltimore  Conference  in 
1835  ;  held  various  pastoral  charges  iu  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  and  Pennsylvania  ;  was  pro- 
fessor in  Indiana  Asbury  University,  1854-57, 
and  i)rofessor  of  church  history  in  Drew- 
Theological  Seminary  from  its  organization 
in  1867.  He  was  a  .strong  abolitionist  and  a 
Very  impressive  preaclier.  A  volume  of  Ser- 
mons with  a  memoir  of  Professor  Buttz  ap- 
peared in  New  York,  1873. 

Nag's-Head  Consecration,  The,  is  a  mere 

fable,  invent(  (1  f;n-  the  purpose  of  throwing 
doubt  on  the  apostolic  succession  in  the 
Church  of  England,  and  tirst  brought  out  by 
the  Jesuit  Sacro  Bosco,  about  half  a  century 
after  ils  alleged  occurrence.  AVhen  the  first 
Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed  in  the  first 
year  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign— so  the  story 


NAHASH 


(634) 


NATALIS 


reads— fourteen  bishops  vacated  their  sees  ; 
and  as  all  the  other  sees  were  vacant  with  the 
exception  of  that  of  Llandoflf,  the  consecra- 
tion of  Archbishop  Parker  and  the  otlier 
bishops-elect  met  with  great  difficulties,  be- 
cause the  bishop  of  Llandoflf  refused  to  serve. 
The  Protestant  divines,  however — so  the 
story  runs  on — procured  the  aid  of  Scory,  a 
deprived  bishop  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
and  met  at  Nag's-Head  tavern  in  Cheapside| 
where  they  knelt  down  before  Scory  and  after 
some  arbitrary  and  fantastic  ceremonies 
stood  up  bishops.  But  Archbishop  Parker 
was  consecrated  at  Lambeth,  Dec.  17,  1559, 
by  four  bishops  commissioned  under  the  great 
seal  of  England,  with  all  due  formalities  and 
ceremonies,  and  in  the  presence  of  four  no- 
taries public.  Nor  is  there  at  present  any 
dignitary  of  any  reputation  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  who  doubts  the  true  and 
rightful  apostolic  succession  in  the  Church 
of  England.  C.  P. 

Na-hash  (serpent),  an  Ammonite  king  who, 
having  offered  barbarous  terms  of  capitula- 
tion (1  Sam.  xi.)  to  Jabesh-Gilead,  was  de- 
feated by  Saul.  Afterward  he  (or  a  son  of 
the  same  name)  was  on  friendly  terms  with 
David  (2  Sam.  x.  2).  T.  W.  C. 

Na'-hor  (snorting),  the  name  of  Abraham's 
grandfather  (Gen.  xi.  23),  and  also  of  his 
brother,  who  married  Milcah,  and  transferred 
his  residence  to  Haran,  which  was  thence 
(Gen.  xxiv.  10)  called  "  the  city  of  Nahor." 
T.  W.  C. 

Na'-hum  (consolation),  the  seventh  of  the 
twels'e  minor  prophets.  He  was  a  native  of 
Elkosh,  probably  a  village  in  Galilee,  and 
was  apparently  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah. 

His  prophecy  is  a  poem  of  great  lire  and 
sublimity,  and  admirable  for  its  varied  and 
vivid  imagery.  In  the  lirst  chapter  the 
prophet  sets  forth  the  majesty  of  Jehovah, 
whose  way  is  in  the  whirlwind  and  the  storm, 
who  makes  a  full  end  of  his  foes,  while  he  is 
a  stronghold  to  them  that  trust  in  him.  In 
the  next  two  chapters  he  describes  with  won- 
drous energy  the  siege  and  the  capture  of 
Nineveh.  The  battle  array,  the  flashing 
spears  and  rushing  chariots,  the  fierce  attack, 
the  opened  gates,  the  heaps  of  slain,  the  flight 
of  the  living,  the  division  of  spoils,  the  utter 
ruin  of  the  city,  are  brought  before  the  read- 
er's eye  in  a  continuous  panoramic  vision. 
The  enormous  wealth,  the  infinite  strength  of 
Nineveh,  her  ample  fortifications,  and  her  nu- 
merous allies  were  of  no  avail  against  Jehovah 
of  hosts.  The  magnificent  city  once  mistress 
of  the  world  is  empty  and  void  and  waste.  The 
heart  melteth,  the  knees  smite  together,  and 
anguish  is  in  all  loins.  (See  the  general  com- 
mentaries, especially  Lange.)  T.  W.  C. 


Na'-in  (beauty),  a  town  in  Galilee  on  the 
northwest  slope  of  "  the  hill  Moreh,"  where 
Christ  met  the  funeral  procession  of  the 
widow's  only  son  and  raised  the  dead  to  life 
(Luke  vii.  11).  T.  W.  C. 

Naked,  in  the  literal  sense  (Gen.  ii.  25, 
Job  i.  21,  Ecc.  V.  15)  ;  in  a  comparative  sense, 
only  the  outer  garments  wanting  (1  Sam.  xix. 


24,    John    xxi.    7)  ;   fignratively ,    to    denote 
spiritual  destitution  (Rev.  iii.  17). 

T.  W.  C. 
Names  of  persons  and  places  in  the  Bible 
had  for  tlie  most  part  a  special  significance. 
Tliey  were  given  by  one  or  both  parents  either 
at  birth  or  at  circumcision  (Ruth  iv.  17,  Luke 
i.  59),  and  referred  to  some  circumstances  at 
the  birth  (Gen.  xxxv.  18),  or  to  some  event 
prior  to  it  (1  Sam.  i.  20),  or  to  some  appear- 
ance of  the  body  (Gen.  xxv.  25),  or  to  some 
hope  (Gen.  xxx.  24).  In  many  cases  they 
were  divinely  appointed  with  a  prophetic 
meaning  (Isa.  vii.  14,  viii.  3,  Hos.  i.  4,  Matt, 
i.  21,  Luke  i.  13),  or  later  in  life  were  changed 
for  a  like  cause,  as  were  Abraham,  Sarai, 
Jacob,  and  others.  Compound  names  were 
frequent,  and  often  a  part  of  the  divine 
names  Jah,  El,  Jeho  was  employed.  The 
New  Testament  names  are  chiefly  ancient 
and  family  names  perpetuated  (Luke  i.  61). 
Kings  often  changed  the  name  of  those  to 
whom  they  gave  ofiices  (Dan.  i.  6,  7)  ;  hence 
the  honor  implied  in  a  "  new  name"  (Rev.  ii. 
17,  iii.  12).  T.  W.  C. 

Nantes,  Edict  of.  See  France,  Reformed 
Church  of. 

Na-o'-mi  (my  delight),  contrasted  with 
Marah,  bitter  (Ruth  i.  20),  wife  of  Elimelech 
of  Bethlehem.  A  pattern  of  a  mother-in- 
law,  she  engages  admiration  by  her  good 
sense  and  unselfishness.  T.  W.  C. 

Naph'-taU.    See  Tribes. 

Napkin,  probably  a  linen  band  used  either 
as' a  turban  or  a  girdle  (Luke  xix.  20,  John 
xi.  44,  XX.  7)  ;  translated  "handkerchief"  in 
Acts  xix.  12.  T.  W.  C. 

Narbonne,  a  city  of  Southern  France,  8 
miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  witli  which  it 
is  connected  by  a  canal,  was  during  the  Ro- 
man period  and  also  during  the  Middle  Ages 
a  place  of  great  importance,  and  has  been  the 
seat  of  eight  councils — the  first  in  589,  the 
last  in  1607 — of  which  especially  those  of 
1227  and  1235  against  the  Albigenses  and 
Waldenses  are  of  great  interest. 

Nard.     See  Spikenard. 

Narthex,  properly  the  name  of  a  plant,  the 
giant  fennel,  but  used  in  Christian  church 
architecture  to  denote  the  narrow  space  just 
inside  or  just  outside  the  great  western  door, 
occupied  by  the  catechumens  and  the  peni- 
tents. 

Natalis,  Alexander,  b.  at  Rouen,  Jan.  19, 
1639  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Aug.  21,  1724  ;  entered 
the  Dominican  order  in  1655  and  became  its 
provincial  in  1706,  living  in  Paris.  He  was 
for  some  time  tutor  to  Colbert's  son,  and  un- 
der the  auspices  of  Colbert  he  published  his 
Sclecta  Hist.  Eccl.  Capita,  Paris,  1677-86,  24 
vols.  The  first  parts  of  the  book  were  re- 
ceived with  great  praise  in  Rome,  but  when, 
later  on,  the  strongly  pronounced  Gallican- 
ism  of  the  author  began  to  show  itself.  Inno- 
cent XI.  forbade  people  to  read  it,  and  finally 
put  it  on  the  Index  (1684),  from  which  it  was 
removed,  however,  by  Benedict  XIII.  He 
also  wrote  commentaries,  a  work  on  dogmatics 
(Paris,  1693,  often  reprinted),  etc.        C.  P. 


NATHAN 


(635) 


NEAIiE 


Na'-than,  an  eminent  prophet  of  Judaea, 
who  enjoyed  David's  contideiice  and  rebuked 
him  for  his  sin  toward  Uriaii  (2  Sam.  xii.). 
He  lived  through  a  hirge  part  of  Solomon's 
reign  (3  Chron.  ix.  39),  and  two  of  his  sous 
were  high  officers  (1  Kings  iv.  5)  at  Solo- 
mon's court.  T.  W.  C. 

Na-than'-a-el  {the  gift  of  God),  a  native  of 
Caua  of  Galilee  and  an  Israelite  without 
guile  (John  i.  45-51,  xxi.  2),  as  stated  by  our 
Lord.  As  the  name  occurs  only  in  John,  who 
does  not  mention  the  Bartliolomew  of  the 
other  gospels,  it  is  generally  thought  that 
both  names  refer  to  the  same  person. 

T.  W.  C. 

Natural  Ability.     See  Inability,  p.  399. 

Natural  Religion.     See  Religion. 

Natural  Theology  is  the  scientific  expo- 
sition of  the  existuiicu  and  character  of  God, 
and  of  his  relation  to  the  uni verse  and  espe- 
cially to  man,  so  far  as  they  can  be  ascertained 
from  the  light  of  nature.  The  English  deists 
maintained  that  this  could  be  done  so  fully 
that  there  was  no  need  of  a  levelation,  but 
some  philosophers  have  dcuied  its  possibility. 
Both  are  wrong.  The  Scriptures  assume  the 
divine  existence  as  already  known  by  God's 
works  (Rom.  i.  19,  30),  and  in  consequence 
there  is  an  action  of  man's  moral  nature, 
'•  tlieir  thoughts  one  with  another  accusing 
or  else  excusing  them"  (Rom.  ii.  15).  But 
while  this  is  certain,  it  is  insufficient.  l!sa- 
ture  gives  no  hint  of  a  remedial  dispensation, 
and  there  are  many  <iuestions  which  she  can- 
not answer.  Natural  theology,  therefore, 
while  valid  so  far  as  it  goes — i.e.,  in  settling 
God's  existence  and  man's  responsibility — 
does  not  touch  the  sense  of  sin,  and  therefore 
invites  its  followers  to  seek  a  revelation  that 
will  meet  this  urgent  need,  and  creates  an 
antecedent  probability  that  God  will  reveal 
himself  for  this  purpose.  T.  W.  C. 

Nature,  Laws  of.     See  Law. 

Naumburg,  The  Convention  of,  was  held 
at  Naumburg  on  the  Saale,  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  30  m.  s.w.  of  Leipzig,  Jan.  20-Feb. 
8,  1561,  comprising  twenty-one  sittings.  Most 
of  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  were 
present  in  person  ;  the  rest  had  sent  repre- 
sentatives. The  purpose  of  the  convention 
was  to  agree  upon  a  common  policy  with 
respect  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  -vvas 
going  to  be  reopened.  This  was  also  achieved. 
The  invitation  from  the  pope  to  take  part  in 
the  council  was  declined,  and  the  emperor 
was  told  that  what  the  princes  wanted  anil 
demanded  was  a  national  German  council. 
(See  R.  Calinich,  Der Nauiuburfjcr  FUrstmitdg, 
Golha,  1870.) 

Nave  is  an  architectural  term  denoting 
that  part  of  the  church  which  is  destined  for 
the  congregation  proper  in  contradistinction 
from  the  choir,  wliich  was  destined  for  the 
clergy,  and  the  room  near  the  western  en- 
trance door,  where  stood  tlie  catechumens 
and  the  penitents.  The  etymology  of  the 
word  is  doubtful,  some  deriving  it  from  llie 
Greek  vdo^,  "a  temple,"  other-j  from  the 
Latin  iMvis,  "  a  ship." 


Navigation  was  not  much  favored  among 
the  Jews.  They  were  an  agricultural  people, 
they  had  limited  intercourse  with  other  na- 
tions, and  their  long  coast  line  did  not  furnish 
one  good  harbor.  Yet  there  is  a  fine  descrip- 
tion of  a  storm  at  sea  in  Ps.  cvii.  (33-29),  and 
the  action  of  the  vessel  in  the  storm  in  which 
Paul  was  wrecked  is  told  by  Luke  as  cor- 
rectly as  it  coidd  be  by  the  most  practised 
seaman.  (See  James  Smith,  T/ie  Voyafje  and 
Shipicreck  of  St.  Paul,  London,  1848,  4th  ed., 
1880.)  T.  W.  C. 

Naz'-a-rene.  The  term  applied  to  Christ 
in  ^Matt.  ii.  23  as  a  fulfilment  of  prophecy, 
doubtless  because  Nazareth  being  then  under 
a  stigma,  the  term  expressed  tlie  sense  of 
many  predictions  of  Messiah's  humiliation. 
Christ's  followers  were  opprobriotisly  called 
"  Nazarenes"  (Acts  xxiv.  5)  by  their  foes. 
T.  W.  C. 

Nazarenes,  the  name  of  a  division  of  the 
Ebioniles  (<i.v.). 

Naz'-a-reth,  the  carlj-  home  of  our  Saviour, 
was  a  beautiful  city  on  the  north  side  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  14  miles  from  the  sea  of 
Galilee.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  for  some  unknown  reason 
was  in  disrepute  among  the  Jews.  Here 
Christ  spent  the  first  thirty  years  of  his  life. 
He  visited  it  during  his  piiblic  ministry,  but 
did  not  perform  many  miracles  because  of 
the  unbelief  of  the  people  (:Matt.  xiii.  58).  It 
is  now  a  secluded  village  of  some  5000  inhab- 
itants. It  contains  a  mosciue,  an  old  syna- 
gogue, a  large  Latin  church  and  monastery, 
a  Greek  church,  and  a  fine  Protestant  church, 
hospital,  and  orphanage.  The  traditional 
"  Mount  of  Precipitation"  is  two  miles  away, 
too  remote  to  have  answered  the  purpose  of 
the  enrasred  Nazarenes  (Luke  iv.  29). 

T.  W.  C. 

Nazarite  (better  Nazirite,  R.  V.,  separated, 
i.e.,  unto  God),  the  name  given  under  the 
ancient  law  to  a  man  pledged  to  abstain  from 
strong  drink  and  the  fruit  of  the  vine  in  any 
form,  to  let  his  hair  grow,  and  to  avoid  all 
contamination  with  dead  bodies.  The  vow 
was  either  limited  or  for  life,  and  when  ful- 
filled certain  sacrifices  and  offerings  were  to 
be  made  (Num.  vi.).  Samson  and  John  the 
Baptist  were  perpetual  Nazaritcs.  The  in- 
stitution was  a  symbolical  recognition  of  the 
obligation  to  keep  soul  and  body  holy  unto 
the  Lord.  T.  W.  C. 

Neal,  Daniel,  Puritan  historian  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  14,  1()78  ;  d.  at  Bath,  April  4.  1743. 
lie  studied  under  T.  Rowe,  1697-1700.  and 
at  Utrecht  and  Leyden.  1700-3  ;  assistant  in 
Aldersgate  street,  London,  1704-6,  and  pas- 
tor, 1706-43.  lie  wrote  a  History  of  New 
Enr/land,  London.  1730,  2  vols..  2d  ed.,  1747, 
and  a  Jlistorxi  of  the  Puritans,  1732-38,  4  vols. 
The  latter  hiis  been  .several  times  reprinted, 
as  in  New  York,  1844,  2  vols.;  it  was  an- 
swered by  Maddox  and  others.  Bickersteth 
credits  Neal  with  "an  upright  mind,"  but 
"  a  strong  bias  in  favor  of  his  subjects  ;"  tlie 
elder  Disraeli  says  "  lie  blanches  them  info  a 
sweet  and  nlmoiid  wliitciK  ss. "         F.  ^l.  B. 

Neale,  John  Mason,  D.D.  (Trinity  College, 


NEANDER 


(636) 


NEAPOLIS 


Hartford,  Conn.,  18 — ),  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  in  London,  Jan.  24,  1818  ;  d.  at  East  Grin- 
stead,  Sussex,  29  m.  s.  of  London,  Aug.  6, 
1866.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1840,  and  after  a  few  years'  incum- 
bency of  Crawley,  Sussex,  became  warden  of 
Sackville  College,  founded  1616  by  the  duke 
of  Dorset  for  twenty-four  aged  persons.  The 
post  was  after  his  death  held  by  a  layman, 
and  gained  note  only  through  him.  Here  he 
wrote  most  of  his  books,   and  founded,  in 

1856,  the  Sisterhood  of  St.  Margaret.  His 
extreme  High  Church  views,  expressed  with 
fearless  honesty,  exposed  him  to  much  ob- 
loquy, which  he  bore  with  cheerful  and  un- 
flinching patience  ;    he  was  burnt  in  effigy, 

1857,  and  for  fourteen  ,years  was  inhibited  by 
his  bishop.  However  unpopular  his  opinions, 
his  character  is  entitled  to  veneration  :  "his 
life  was  divided  between  excessive  literary 
toil  and  exhausting  labors  of  piety  and  benev- 
olence."  His  writings  are  numerous,  and  ex- 
tend in  range  from  popular  to  learned  ;  among 
his  prose  works  are  a  History  of  tlie  Holy 
Eastern  Church,  London,  1847-51,  4  vols.; 
Readings  for  the  Aged,  1850-56,  4  series  ; 
Medimval  Preacliers,  1857  ;  History  of  the  so- 
called  Jansenist  Chitrch  of  Holland,  1858  ; 
Commentary  on  the  Psalms,  from  Primitive 
and  Medireval  Writers,  1860-74,  4  vols,  (con- 
tinued by  Dr.  Littledale)  ;  Essays  on  Litur- 
giology,  1863  ;  Sermons  for  Children,  1867, 
and  a  long  and  wonderful  series  of  stories 
from  church  history,  embracing  every  land 
and  age,  and  intended  for  the  young  ;  some 
of  these  were  collected  in  six  volumes  after 
his  death.  But  his  chief  fame  is  as  a  hymnist 
(the  foremost  of  this  century)  and  hymnolo- 
gisl.  His  Hymns  for  the  Sick,  lw43,  and 
Hymns  for  Children,  1842-46,  3  series,  were 
overshadowed  by  his  translations.  The  Hym- 
nal Noted  and  Medimval  Hymns  and  Sequences 
appeared  1851  ;  The  Rhythm  of  Bernard  (con- 
taining "Jerusalem  the  Golden,"  etc.), 
1858  ;  Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Chnrch,  1863, 
and  Sequences,  Hymns,  etc.,  1866.  His  life 
has  yel  to  be  written.  F.  M.  B. 

Neander,  Joachim,  German  hymn- writer  ; 
b.  in  Bremen  about  1650  ;  d.  there,  1680.  He 
was  converted  by  Untereyk,  a  Labadist 
preacher,  about  1670  ;  studied  at  Heidelberg 
and  Frankfort  ;  became  preacher  and  master 
of  the  Latin  school  at  Diisseldorf  ;  was  sus- 
pended, 1676,  for  pietism,  but  reinstated,  1677, 
on  disowning  the  separatist  tendencies  of 
Labadism  ;  Reformed  pastor  of  St.  Martin's, 
Bremen,  1679.  His  seventy-one  hymns  ap- 
peared, 1679,  and  were  used  by  Spener  and 
others  of  that  school  ;  some  of  them  are  much 
valued,  even  in  English  translations.  (See 
Miss  Winkworth's  Lyra  Oermanica  and 
Christian  Singers  of  Germany ;  also  Iken's 
J.  Neander,  Bremen,  1880.)  F.  M.  B. 

Neander,  Johann  August  Wilhelm,  b.  at 

Gtittingeu,  Jan.  17,  1789  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  July 
14,  1850,  one  of  the  greatest  church  historians. 
He  was  of  Jewish  descent  ;  his  original  name 
was  David  Mendel.  Educated  in  the  Johan- 
neum  in  Hamburg,  he  was  drawn  toward 
Christianity  by  the  study  of  Plato,  and  more 
especially  by  reading  Schleiermacher's  Reden 


ilber  die  Religion.  Feb.  15,  1806,  he  was  bap- 
tized in  the  church  of  St.  Catharine,  in  Ham- 
burg, and  assumed  the  name  of  Ne-ander — 
"  new  man. "  He  studied  theology  at  Gottin- 
gen,  and  was  appointed  professor  extraor- 
dinary at  Heidelberg  in  1812,  and  in  1813 
ordinary  professor  in  Berlin,  where  for  thirty- 
seven  years  he  lectured  principally  on  church 
history,  but  also  on  systematic  theology, 
ethics,  and  New  Testament  exegesis.  Be- 
sides his  lectures,  which  were  remembered 
by  hundreds  of  pupils  not  only  as  one  of 
their  greatest  advantages,  but  as  a  blessing, 
he  developed  a  great  literary  activity  which, 
at  least  in  the  historical  tield,  denotes  a  new 
eleparture.  He  succeeded  in  breaking  through 
the  stilf  pragmatic  theory  employeel  both  by 
Bationalists  and  Supernaturalists.'  Both  con- 
ceived of  Christianity  as  a  system  of  doc- 
trines, and  its  Jiistory  as  a  representation  of 
the  use  and  misuse  which  had  been  made  of 
that  system.  Neander  conceived  of  Chiisti- 
anity  as  a  heaven-born  force,  and  ils  liistory 
as  the  interpretation  of  human  life  by  that 
force.  The  difference  is  radical,  and  manifests 
itself  not  only  in  his  chief  work.  General  His- 
tory of  the  Christian  Religion  and  Church, 
Berlin,  1823-45,  5  vols.,  3d  cd.,  1856,  4  vols.,, 
with  a  sixth  volume  edited  posthumously  by 
Schneider,  1852,  Eng.  trans,  by  Torrey.  'I2th 
ed..  New  York,  1882,  6  vols., 'but  also  in  his 
monographs,  Julian  the  Apostate,  Leipzig, 
1812,  Eng.  trans..  New  Yoik,  1850  ;  St. 
Bernard,  1813  ;  Enticickelung  d.  gnost.  Sys- 
teme,  1818;  *S'^.  Chrysostom,  lb2%  ;'  Memorials 
of  Christian  Life  in  the  Early  a/ul  Middle 
Ages,  1822,  Eng.  trans,  by  Ryland,  London, 
1852  ;  Liistory  of  the  Planting  and  Training 
of  the  Christian  Church  by  the  Apostles, 
Hamburg,  1832,  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans,  by 
Ryland,  Edinburgh,  1842,  2  vols.,  revised  by 
Dr.  Robinson,  New  York,  1865  ;  The  Life  if 
Jesus  Christ,  Hamburg,  1837,  Eng.  trans,  by 
^IcClintock  and  Blumenthal,  New  York, 
1848.  Of  his  other  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  Exposition  of  First  John, 
Philippians,  and  James,  by  Mrs.  Conant,. 
New  York,  1859,  and  History  of  Christian  Dog- 
mas, by  Ryland,  London,  1858,  2  vols.  Per- 
sonally he  was  original,  very  eccentric,  but 
very  lovable.  In  literary  respects  he  is  an 
example,  and  with  reference  to  the  very  queer 
notions  of  his  style  which  have  got  currency 
in  English  and  American  prints,  it  nuiy  be 
proper  to  remark  :  his  purpose  was  so  pure 
and  so  candid,  his  equipment  so  complete 
and  so  costl}',  and  his  working  of  the  one  in 
behalf  of  the  other  so  perfectly  natural  and 
so  absolutely  free  from  pretence,  that — not  to 
be  pleased  with  liis  style  means  either  to  lack 
sense  for  style  altogether  or,  otherwise,  to 
have  a  very  "bad  tast'e.  (See  Schaff's  sketch 
in  his  St.  Augustin,  3felanchthon  and  Neander, 
New  York,  1886,  and  his  life  by  A.  Wiegand, 
Erfurt,  1890.)  C.'P. 

Ne-ap'-o-lis  {new  city),  a  place  in  Northern 
Greece  where  Paul  tirst  landed  in  Europe 
(Acts  xvi.  11),  and  where  he  embarked  on 
Ins  last  voyage  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  6).  It 
is  now  a  Turko-Grecian  town  of  some  5000 
population,  and  called  Kavalla.      T.  W.  C. 


NBBAIOTH 


(637) 


NEPP 


Ne-bai'-oth  {heights),  the  first-born  sou  of 
Islimael,  whose  desceudants  occupied  the 
pasture-grouuds  of  Arabia  Deserla  (Isa.  Ix.  7), 
and  ultimately  possessed  themselves  of  Edom. 
They  are  thought  to  have  been  tlie  Naba- 
theans  of  profaue  history.  Petra  was  their 
chief  city.  T.  W.  C. 

Ne'-bat  (aspect),  the  father  of  King  Jero- 
boam 1.,  who  "  made  Israel  to  sin"  (1  Kings 
xi.  26,  xii.  2).  T.  W.  C. 

Ne'-bo  (prophet),  a  mountain  of  Moab, 
"over  against  Jericho,"  from  which  Moses 
liad  a  view  of  the  promised  land  and  where 
lie  died  (Deut.  xxxiv.).  It  was  a  summit  of 
the  range  Abarim,  and  has  been  identitied  by 
Professor  Paine  with  Jebel  Nebba,  a  moun- 
tain five  miles  southwest  of  lleshbon  and  about 
ei^'ht  miles  east  of  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  T.  AV.  C. 

Neb-u-chad-nez'-zar,  or  rather,  as  in  Jere- 
mi;ih  and  Ezekicl,  Nebuchadrezzar  (J\V/>y  his 
protector),  sou  and  successor  of  Nabopolasser, 
who  founded  the  Babylonish  monarchy,  was 
one  of  the  great  rulers  of  history.  Acting 
under  his  father,  he  defeated  Pharaoh-Necho 
at  Carchemish  (Jer.  xlvi.  2)  and  overran  Pal- 
estine, carrying  off  a  portion  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, including  Daniel  and  his  companions 
(Dan.  i.  1-4),  and  leaving  Jehoiakim  as  tribu- 
tary king.  After  Jehoiakim's  death  his  son, 
Jehoiacliin,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  when 
Nebuchadnezzar  again  besieged  and  captured 
Jerusalem,  carried  off  its  chief  treasures  and 
people,  and  put  the  king's  uncle,  JNIattaniah, 
in  his  place,  changing  his  name  to  Zedekiah. 
After  ten  years  the  new  king  rebelled,  when 
once  more  Xebuchadnezzar  invested  the  city, 
and  after  subjecting  it  to  the  horrors  of  fam- 
ine for  a  year  and  a.  half,  reduced  it,  punish- 
ing Zedekiah  severely,  carrying  off  all  the 
people  and  property  that  were  left,  and  giving 
all  the  houses  to  the  ttames  (2  Kings  xxv.). 

Nebuchadnezzar  raised  Babylon  to  its  high- 
est pitch  of  splendor.  He  conquered  PIkc- 
nicia  and  ravaged  Egypt.  He  fortified  his 
capital  with  triple  walls,  and  constructed 
great  reservoirs,  canals,  and  palaces.  The 
explorations  of  the  last  half  century  sustain 
the  truth  of  the  vast  structures  as^cribed  to 
this  great  monarch,  nine  tenths  of  the  bricks 
found  among  the  ruins  of  the  anc'ient  capital 
being  inscribed  with  his  name.  The  Book  of 
Daniel  gives  abundant  evidence  of  his  mag- 
nificence, his  pride,  his  violence  and  cruelty. 
His  pride  was  sorely  punished  by  the  strange 
form  of  madness  called  zoanthropy,  under 
which  a  man  thinks  himself  changed  to  some 
beast,  and  acts  accordingly  (Dan.  iv.).  For 
seven  years  the  haughty  monarch  thus  suf- 
fered, till  he  learned  wisdom  and  was  re- 
stored, according  to  the  predictions  of  Dan- 
iel. He  is  .supposed  to  have  died  about  B.C. 
561,  after  a  reign  of  forty-four  years. 

T.  W.  C. 

Neb'-u-shas'-ban  (Nebo  mvefi  m/-),  the  Kab- 
saris  or  chief  chamberlain  of  the  king  of 
Babvlon.  He  sent  officers  to  release  Jeremiah 
from  prison  (Jer.  xxxix.  13).  T.  W.  C. 

Neb'-u-zar-a'-dan  (Ne^p'>  sends  posterity), 
"  captain  of  the  guard  "  under  Nebuchadnez- 


zar, and  his  agent  in  the  sacking  of  Jerusalem 
(2  Kings  xxv.  8-21,  Jer.  xxxix.  8-10).  Sev- 
eral years  later  he  carried  off  745  additional 
captives  (Jer.  Hi.  30).  T.  W.  C. 

Necessity,  Moral,  the  term  which  sets  forth 
the  dcitcrmiiiing  intluenceon  volitions  and  ac- 
tions of  moral  causes. 

Ne'-cho,  a  king  of  Egypt,  founder  of  the 
twenty-sixth  dynast}-,  B.C.  612-596.  Enter- 
prising in  peace  and  in  war,  he  first  circum- 
navigated Africa,  and  invaded  Syria,  defeat- 
ing .iosiah,  who  opposed  him  at  Megiddo,  and 
capturing  Carchemish  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20-24). 
But  a  few  years  after  Nebuchadnt  zzar  re- 
captured Carchemish  and  compelled  the 
Egyptians  to  retire  to  their  own  country. 
T.  W.  C. 

Neckham  (Necham,  Neckam,  Nequam), 
Alexander,  b.  at  St.  Albans  (hence  called 
Alexander  of  Sancto  Albano),  1157  ;  d.  at 
Cirencester,  1217.  In  1180,  after  serving  as 
master  of  Dunstable  school,  he  became  pro- 
fessor at  the  University  of  Paris,  but  later  an 
Augustinian  monk  in  England  and  abbot  of 
Cirencester.  Admired  for  learning,  which 
included  all  then  known,  a  poet  of  eminence 
and  a  prose  author,  Ik;  has  been  brought  to 
modern  attention  by  Thomas  "Wright,  who 
edited  two  of  his  treatises,  De  nnturis  rerum 
and  De  IcnuHbiis  dimnicB  sapientiee,  both  in  1 
vol.,  London,  1863. 

Necromancy  (fiom  the  Greek  t'e/c/ao/yar-fm, 
"  dead  divination,"  the  art  of  finding  out  the 
future  by  means  of  the  dead)  has  been  prac- 
tised under  two  different  forms.  One  con- 
sisted in  drawing  omens  from  the  viscera  of 
dead  creatures,  "it  was  very  common  in  Ro- 
man paganism,  and  gave  rise  to  horrible 
crimes,  as  when  Maxentius  opened  the  wombs 
of  pregnant  women.  It  was  absolutely  for- 
bidden by  Constantine  the  Great.  Traces  of 
it  occur  now  and  then  among  savages.  The 
other  consisted  in  raising  the  souls  of  the  de- 
parted. A  striking  instance  is  the  story  in 
the  Old  Testament  about  the  witch  of  Endor. 
Some  of  the  Fathers— Justin  ]\Iartyr  (\st 
Apol.  xviii.) ;  the  Recognitions  of  (JU ment, 
II.,  xiii. ;  TetvinWxiin  (De  Anirna,  Ivii.),  which 
references  are  found  in  the  A}de-]S'ictne 
Fathers,  Christian  Literature  Company  ed., 
New  York,  vols,  i.,  169  ;  iii.,  234,  and  viii.  10, 
respectively — apeak  of  it,  and  traces  of  it  may 
be  found  in  modern  spiritualism. 

Nectarius,  name  of  two  Greek  patriarchs, 
(1)  of  Constantinople,  successor  of  Gregory 
of  Nazianzum,  and  predecessor  of  Chryscs- 
tom,  381-97.  He  was  a  zealous  defender  of 
the  Nicene  faith.  L'nder  him  the  practice  of 
oral  confession  in  the  Greek  Church  was 
abolished  on  account  of  the  seduction  of  a 
woman  in  a  church  by  a  deacon  ;  (2)  of  Jeru- 
salem, 1660-72.  He  took  part  in  commend- 
ing the  confession  of  3Iogilas  (see  Cyril 
LrcATj).  and  opposed  the  Roman  Church  in 
her  efforts  in  the  East.  F.  H.  F. 

Neflf,  Felix,  b.  at  Geneva,  Oct.  8.  1798  ;  d. 
there,  April  12,  1829  ;  was  educated  in  the 
country  ;  taught  by  the  ])astor  of  the  parish, 
and  apprenticed  to  a  market  gardener.     In 


NEGRO 


:638) 


NELSON 


his  seventeenth  year  he  entered  the  army  and 
became  a  sergeant  of  artillery,  but  was  deeply 
roused  by  the  revival  at  that  time  taking- 
pi  ace  at  Geneva,  and  began  at  once  to  preach 
to  the  garrison.  In  1819  he  left  the  army  to 
devote  himself  to  missionary  v^'ork,  and 
tliougli  he  had  studied  only  three  books — 
"  tlie  Bible,  my  own  heart,  and  nature,  but 
them  I  know  quite  well" — he  was  made  a 
catechist  by  the  church  of  Mens  in  1822,  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  ordained  in  Mr. 
Clayton's  chapel,  in  the  Poultry,  London. 
Ho  tl>en  settled  in  the  valleys  of  Queias  and 
Freissini^re  in  the  Hautes-Alpes,  where  the 
snow-storms  reign  supreme  for  seven  months, 
and  the  only  way  out  and  in  is  the  path  of 
the  wild  mountain  goat  across  the  glaciers. 
Here  some  remnants  of  the  Waldenses  had 
found  refuge  from  the  persecutions  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  but  they  had  utterly 
degenerated.  They  had  forgotten  not  only 
their  religion,  but  even  the  simplest  arts  of 
civilization.  He  came  among  them  as  among 
savages.  He  stayed  there  four  years.  Then 
his  health  was  utterly  broken,  and  he  had  to 
be  brought  down  to  Geneva  to  die.  But  the 
work  was  done.  He  left  a  respectable  and 
self-respecting  Christian  community,  pro- 
gressing and  prosperous.  (See  his  Lettres, 
edited  l^y  Bost,  Geneva,  1842,  2  vols.,  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1843  ;  and  his  life  by  the 
same  authoi",  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1853  ; 
also  Gilly,  Memoir  of  Felix  Neff,  London, 
1832.)  C.  P. 

Negro  Evangelization.  Much  was  done 
in  this  matter  prior  to  emancipation.  It  had 
to  he  done  by  oral  teaching,  but  Methodists, 
Baptists,  Presbyterians,  Episcopalians,  and 
Roman  Catholics  labored  so  diligently  that 
communicants  were  numbered  by  the  hun- 
dred thousand.  But  since  the  close  of  the 
war  the  work  has  gone  on  with  increasing 
rapidity.  All  branches  of  the  Christian 
Church  have  given  attention  to  the  subject, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  a  million  and  a  half 
of  the  colored  people  are  in  membership. 
The  progress  in  education  has  been  marvel- 
lous. The  Freedman's  Bureau  (1863-70)  did 
much,  and  the  American  Missionary  Asso- 
ciation still  more,  in  the  establishment  of 
schools.  The  large  gifts  of  Mr.  Peabody 
(over  $2,000,000)  and  Mr.  Slater  ($1,000,000) 
were  a  great  aid.  The  various  denominations 
exerted  themselves  in  the  same  direction,  and 
all  the  states  made  public  provision.  Besides 
the  common  schools  there  are  many  acad- 
emies, colleges,  and  theological  schools,  and 
such  admirable  helps  as  the  Hampton  Insti- 
tute, Virginia.  Still  much  remains  to  be 
done.  The  negro  population  increases  faster 
than  the  white,  and  the  proportion  of  illiter- 
acy increases  likewise.  But  the  South  itself 
is  growing  rapidly  in  wealth  and  in  care  for 
its  colored  citizens,  and  there  is  good  reason 
to  hope  that  in  time  adequate  provision  will 
be  made  for  the  religious  and  intellectual 
needs  of  all  the  black  race  in  this  country. 
T.  W.'C. 

Nehemiah  {consoled  by  Jehovah),  son  of 
Hachaliah.  Born  in  Babylon  during  the 
exile,  he  became  cupbearer  to  King  Artax- 


erxes  at  Susa,  from  whom  he  obtained  per- 
mission to  goto  .Jerusalem  and  aid  in  rebuild- 
ing its  walls  (Neh.  i.,  ii.)  about  444  B.C.  He 
made  the  journey  and  set  about  the  work 
with  the  hearty  co-operation  of  his  country- 
men, but  with  bitter  opposition  from  the 
Samaritans  under  Sanballat,  who  caused  the 
Jews  to  work  with  arms  in  their  hands  (iv. 
16).  Yet  in  one  year  the  task  was  completed. 
He  then,  with  the  aid  of  Ezra,  in  the  course 
of  his  twelve  years  of  government  (v.  14),  re- 
established the  old  sacred  visages  and  in.sti- 
tuted  many  civil  improvements,  and  then 
returned  to  Persia.  After  a  few  years  he 
Avas  recalled  to  correct  some  flagrant  abuses, 
breaches  of  the  Sabbath,  heathen  marriages, 
etc.  (xiii.).  These  he  reformed  with  a  strong 
hand,  and  probably  remained  in  power  until 
his  death.  In  piety,  patriotism,  self-sacrifice, 
integrity,  and  firmness  he  was  a  model  for 
rulers. 

The  Book  of  Nehemiah,  a  supplement  to 
the  Book  of  Ezra,  gives  the  history  of  this 
movement  in  detail.  Incidentally  it  gives 
much  information  concerning  the  customs  of 
the  time,  the  state  of  the  people,  the  topog- 
raphy of  ancient  Jerusalem,  and  the  gene- 
alogy of  prominent  Hebrews.  Nehemiah 
w^as  the  author  of  the  first  seven  chapters  and 
part  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth,  but  the 
change  from  the  first  person  to  the  third  in 
the  other  portions,  and  the  fact  that  some 
names  are  of  late  date  (xii.  10-22),  seem  to 
indicate  that  some  other  inspired  writer  com- 
pleted the  record.  (See  the  general  commen- 
taries.) T.  W.  C. 

Ne-hi'-loth  {perforated),  supposed  to  irfean 
wind  instruments,  such  as  flutes.  Found 
only  in  the  title  of  the  fifth  Psalm. 

T.  W.  C. 

Ne-hush'-tan  {brazen  thing),  a  contemptu- 
ous name  given  by  Hezekiah  to  the  brazen 
serpent  which  Moses  had  set  up  (Num.  xxi. 
8)  in  the  wilderness,  but  the  people  had  come 
to  worship  (2  Kings  xviii.  4).  The  visible 
emblem  hid  the  Saviour  whom  it  ought  to 
have  revealed,  and  was  deservedly  broken  in 
pieces  and  derided.  T.  W.  C. 

Nelll  (neel),  William,  D.D.  (Union  College, 
1812),  Presbyterian ;  b.  near  McKeesport, 
Alleghany  County,  Pa.,  in  1778  ;  d.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Aug.  8,  1860.  He  was  graduated 
at  Princeton,  1803,  and  licensed  to  preach, 
1805  ;  held  various  pastoral  charges  :  was 
president  of  Dickinson  College,  1824-29  ;  sec- 
retary to  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, 1829-31  ;  minister  at  Germantown,  Pa., 
1831-42,  after  which  he  resided  in  Philadel- 
phia. He  published  Lectures  on  Biblical  His- 
tory, Philadelphia,  1846  ;  Divine  Origin  of 
the  Christian  Religion,  1854  ;  Ministry  of 
Fifty  Tears,  1857,  etc. 

Nelson,  David,  M.D.,  Presbyterian  ;  b. 
near  Jonesborough,  Tenn.,  Sept.  24,  1793  ;  d. 
at  Oakland,  III,  Oct.  17,  1844.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Wasliiugton  College,  Virginia,  1810  ; 
became  a  physician,  and  served  in  the  w^ar  of 
3812.  Renouncing  sceptical  opinions,  he 
preached,  1825-28,  in  Tennessee,  and  was 
pastor  at   Danville,    Ky.,   1828-30  ;  founded 


NEMESIUS 


(639) 


NERGAL 


jMiirion  College,  Maryland,  and  was  its  presi- 
dent, 1880-36.  Driven  north  by  his  anti- 
slavery  principles,  he  opened  a  school  at 
Oakland,  near  Quincy,  111.,  1836.  He  wrote  a 
popidar  book,  Cdtixe  and  Cure  of  Infidelity, 
New  York,  1836,  and  a  widely  used  hynni, 
"My  days  are  gliding  swiftly  by,"  183."). 
The  former  has  been  translated  into  German, 
French,  and  Spanish.  F.  M.  B. 

Nemesius,  a  Christian  philosopher,  prob- 
ably from  the  second  half  of  the  4th  century 
anj  by  some  identified  with  Nemesius,  the 
prefect  of  Cappadocia  and  the  correspondent 
of  Gregorj^  Na/.ian/en,  wrote  a  book  Tlie 
Xdtiire  of  Man,  of  which  the  Greek  text  was 
first  edited  by  EUebodius,  Antwerp,  1565, 
afterward  by  Migne,  Pat.  Or.  XL.,  and 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  George 
AVither,  London,  1636,  2d  ed.,  under  title 
The  Chnractcr  of  Mnn,\m'i  ;  French  trans, 
by  J.  R.  Thibault,  Paris,  1844. 

Neology,  a  term  signifying  ' '  new  doc- 
tritiL',"  first  used  in  Germany  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century  to  denote  i\m  new  state- 
ment of  Christian  doctrine  and  the  new  ex- 
planation of  biblical  facts,  which  ultimately 
became  known  as  rationalism.        T.  W.  C. 

Neophyte  (from  the  Greek,  newly  planted) 
was  ilie  name  generally  given  in  the  ancient 
clmii'h  to  those  who  had  been  recently  bap- 
tized ;  it  is  still  used  in  the  same  sense  by 
Koman  Catholic  missionaries  about  their  con- 
verts. 

Neoplatonism,  the  final  form  assumed  by 
Greek  philosophj',  having  special  relations  to 
Christianity.  It  arose  from  a  distinctly  re- 
ligious interest,  from  a  sense  of  corruption 
aad  ignorance,  which  demanded  a  revelation 
and  a  redemption.  As  a  system,  its  distin- 
guishing peculiarity  is  the  attempt  to  gather 
into  one  systematic  whole  the  truth  taught 
by  all  the  Greek  philosophers,  Plato  being  re- 
garded as  the  chief  and  ultimate  authority. 
Its  focus  was  Alexandria. 

In  its  first  period  (about  200-70)  Neoplaton- 
ism is  represented  hy  its  founder,  Ammonius 
Saccas,  born  of  Christian  parents,  died  about 
250,  the  instructor  of  Origeuandof  the  second 
teacher  of  this  system,  Plotinus.  The  latter 
was  born  in  Lycopolis,  205  ;  died  in  Cam- 
pania, 270.  He  left  a  number  of  essays  (last 
critical  edition  by  Muller.  Berlin,  1878-80) 
■which  present  the  first  complete  form  of  the 
system.  He  teaches  that  the  soul  is  estranged 
from  God,  and  sets  before  himself  the  prob- 
lem of  leading  it  back  to  the  highest  good. 
Hence  his  system  is  divided  into  tliree  parts, 
treating  of  the  supersensuous  world,  the  phe- 
nomenal world,  and  the  liberation  of  the  soul 
from  the  dominion  of  the  phenomenal.  In 
treating  of  the  supersensuous  world,  Plotinus 
dwells  upon  the  original  and  infinite  being, 
which  he  describes  almost  in  the  language  of 
Hegel,  and  which  is  after  all  scarcely  more 
than  a  pantheistic  force.  It  is  one,  it  is 
good,  it  is  the  ab.sf)lute  cau.sality.  The  divine 
soul  forms  the  link  of  connection  between 
the  pure  divinity  and  the  material  world. 
In  the  phenomenal  world,  the  unity  of  the 
divinity  disappears  in  variety,   tlie  cause  of 


which  is  matter,  and  which  gives  foundation 
to  the  polytheistic  representations  of  the  pop- 
ular religions  of  heathenism.  Matter  is  the 
antithesis  of  the  good,  the  source  of  evil  and 
imperfection.  Still  tliis  imperfection  is  a 
necessity  of  existence,  for  all  tilings  i)roceed 
under  providence,  which  is,  however,  nothing 
but  the  law  of  nature.  Tiie  liberation  from 
this  phenomenal  world  is  ell'octed  by  virtue, 
which  embraces  purification  from  all  tiie  con- 
tagion of  matter,  and  which  is  itself  insepara- 
ble from  return  to  conmumion  with  the 
divine  tiirough  ecstatic  intuition  and  mystic 
union.  All  this  is  not  Christianity,  nor  is  it 
friendly  to  Christianity,  which  it  "regards  as 
unphilosophically  ignoring  the  eternal  law  of 
necessity. 

The  second  period  (270-4U0)  is  occupied  by 
the  work  of  popularizing  the  sy.stem  under 
Porphyrins  and  his  successors.  Porphyrins 
was  born  at  Tyre,  233  ;  came  to  Rome  in 
263,  and  spent  his  life  in  Sicily  and  Rome, 
engaged  in  teaching  and  writing,  dying  at  an 
advanced  age.  He  is  less  speculative  and 
original,  but  more  sober  and  critical  than 
Plotinus.  He  retainetl  the  polytheistic  re- 
ligions, but  rejected  their  immoral  elements. 
He  wrote  against  the  Christians,  though  not 
against  Christianity,  attacking  the  authority 
of  the  Scriptures,  but  honoring  Christ  as  a 
pious  and  eminent  man  of  antiquity.  He 
was  followed  by  Jamblicus  (d.  about  330), 
who  sought  still  more  to  justify  heathen 
superstition. 

The  third  period  (400-529)  is  the  period  of 
lively  opposition  to  Neoplatonism  (nuirder 
of  Hypatia)  and  of  the  less  strictly  religious 
activity  of  the  school.  It  confined  itself 
largely  to  giving  at  several  points,  particu- 
larly Athens,  a  liberal  education  to  the  youth, 
by  which  many  distingui-^hed  church  tt^ichers 
profited.  It  came  down  through  the  schola.s- 
tics  to  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  and 
was  esteemed  by  Reuchlin,  for  example. 
(See  the  principal  histories  of  philosophy, 
particularly  Zeller,  Philompliie  der  Griechen, 
also  in  an  Eng.  trans.  Also  Harnack,  Dog- 
inengeschichte.)  F.  II.  F. 

Nepomuk.     See  John  of  Nepomuk. 

Nepos,  an  Eg3"ptian  bishop  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  3d  centurv,  wrote  against  Origen 
and  the  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture, 
and  propagated  strongly  pronounced  chilias- 
tic  views  based  on  the  Apocalypse.  His 
works  have  not  come  down  to  us,  but  they 
occasioned  considerable  commotion  in  the 
Egyptian  Church. 

Nepotism  (from  the  Latin  nepos,  "  a 
nephew"),  the  misu.se  of  a  public  office  or 
trust  to  enrich  one's  own  family,  is  an  inven- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  more  espe- 
cially the  popes.  Nicholas  HI..  Sixtus  IV., 
Alexander  VI.,  etc.,  caused  great  scandal  by 
the  manner  in  which  they  used  the  pajial 
power  for  the  aggrandizement  of  their  own 
families.  Since  the  time  of  Innocent  XI.  the 
cardinals  must  take  an  oath  to  keep  their 
hands  clean  of  nepotism. 

Ner'-gal  (great  hero),  a  prominent  deity  of 
the    Assyrians,    worshipped   by    the   Cuthite 


NERGAIi 


(640) 


NESTORIUS 


heathen  transplanted  into  Palestine  {2  Kings 
xvii.  30).    He  corresponded  to  Mars. 

T.  W.  C. 

Ner'-gal  Shar-e'-ser  {fire-prince),  the  name 
of  two  nobles  who  accompanied  Nebuchad- 
nezzar against  Zedekiah  (.Jer.  xxxix.  3).  One 
was  called  Rab-mag  (chief  of  the  magicians), 
an  1  is  identified  with  Neriglissar  of  profane 
history.  T.  W.  C. 

Neri  (na'-ree),  Filippo  de,  b.  at  Florence, 
July  22,  lolo  ;  d.  in  Rome,  May  25,  1595  ; 
studied  theology  and  philosophy  in  Rome,  and 
founded  there,  in  1548,  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory,  whose  members  are  priests,  not 
monks,  neither  give  up  their  private  means, 
nor  take  vows,  but  may  retire  at  pleasure. 
Perfect  equality  prevails  among  them,  and 
they  devote  the  time  not  required  for  priestly 
duties  to  study.  The  order  was  confirmed  in 
1575  by  Gregory  XIII.,  and  its  founder  was 
canonized  in  1662  by  Gregory  XV.  Cardinal 
Newman  and  F.  W.  Faber  were  heads  of 
congregations  of  the  order  at  Birmingham 
and  London  (Brompton)  respectively.  (See 
Capeceiatro,  La  Vita  di  San  Filippo  Neri, 
Napoli,  1879,  2  vols.,  £ng.  trans,  by  T.  A. 
Pope,  London,  1882,  2  vols.  ;  F.  W.  Faber, 
The  Spirit  and  Genius  of  St.  Philip  Neri, 
London,  1850  ;  Maxims  and  Gouunels  of  St. 
Philip  Neri,  Dublin,  1890.) 

Nero,  Roman  emperor  54-68,  under  whom 
the  first  persecution  of  Christians  took  place. 
The  immediate  occasion  of  this  was  a  con- 
flagration which  raged  in  the  city  during  the 
night  of  July  18,  64,  and  which  continued 
six  days  and  six  nights,  and  afterward  broke 
out  again.  It  was  immediately  charged  that 
the  emperor  himself  caused  the  city  to  be 
fired,  and  though  it  has  recently  been  at- 
tempted to  remove  this  stain  from  his  mem- 
ory, it  is  probable  that  in  his  plans  to  beautify 
the  city  he  was  led  to  the  violent  determina- 
tion to  remove  a  portion  of  the  old  buildings 
by  fire,  which,  however,  went  far  beyond 
any  possible  intention  he  had  had.  Whether 
he  himself  sought  to  divert  the  suspicion  of 
tlie  people,  which  was  excited  against  him, 
from  himself  to  the  Christians  or  not,  it  is 
certain  that  they  were  popularly  connected 
with  the  disaster.  The  popular  confusion 
between  Jews  and  Christians,  and  the  proph- 
ecy of  the  Christians  that  the  world  would 
end  by  fire,  increased  suspicion  against  them. 
See  Persecutions.  F.  H.  F 

Nerses,  name  of  three  Armenian  clerical 
dignitaries.  1.  The  Great,  Armenian  bishop 
364,  made  patriarch,  or  Catholicos,  at  a  gen- 
eral synod  of  the  Armenian  Church  in  866, 
and  declared  independent  of  the  bishop  of 
Csesarea.  He  was  present  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople,  381,  and  died  of  poison  in 
Armenia,  384.  2.  Clajensis,  as  Catholicos 
Nerses  IV.,  b.  about  1100  ;  d.  Aug.  5  or  13, 
1173.  His  brother  Grigor  became  Catholicos 
at  the  age  of  twenty  in  1113,  and  Nerses, 
after  a  careful  education,  was  closelj'  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  conduct  of  tliis  office, 
to  which  he  succeeded,  1166.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  much  valued  poems,  among  which 
is  a  summary   of  the  gospels.     His    letters 


(published  at  Constantinople  in  folio,  1825  ; 
Venice,  1858  ;  in  an  incomplete  Latin  trans- 
lation, Venice,  1833,  1  vol.)  are  valuable  for 
the  history  of  his  times.  He  was  particu- 
larly prominent  in  the  efforts  of  his  day  to 
reunite  the  Armenian  and  Greek  churches. 
3.  Ijambrouensis,  b.  1153  in  Lambron  in 
Cilicia  ;  early  an  enthusiastic  student  ;  arcii- 
bisliop  of  Tarsus  and  vicinity,  1176  ;  began 
his  literary  career  at  the  age  of  twenty-four 
(1177).  He  was  also  closely  connected  with 
the  union  efforts  of  his  time,  which  were 
frustrated  by  the  death  of  the  Greek  emperor 
Manuel,  1180.  Nerses  himself  died  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty-nine,  July  14,  1192. 

Nerva,  Roman  emperor  96-98,  was  a  man 
of  mild  character  and  equable  temper,  and 
showed  great  clemency  toward  the  Chris- 
tians, releasing  those  who  had  been  impris- 
oned under  Domitian  and  recalling  the  exiles.. 
But  anything  decisive  in  their  favor  he  dared 
not  do,  and  under  Trajan,  his  adopted  son, 
the  persecutions  began  again. 

Nestor,  b.  in  1056  ;  d.  about  1120  ;  Mas  a 
monk  in  the  monastery  of  Perzerin,  Kiew, 
and  wrote  in  old  Russian,  besides  the  lives  of 
the  abbots  of  his  moua.stery,  a  chronicle  of 
Russia,  which  is  of  great  interest  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  Eastern  Church.  The  first  editiou 
of  it  appeared  in  St.  Petersburg!!,  1767  ;  the 
best  in  Vienna,  1860  ;  a  German  trans,  at 
Leipzig,  1774. 

Nestorius,  Nestorianism.  Nestorius  was 
born  in  the  Syrian  city  Germanicia,  educated 
in  Antioch  under  Theodore,  and  became  dis- 
tinguished there  for  asceticism,  for  zealous 
orthodoxy,  and  for  eloquence.  Elevated 
April  10,  428,  to  the  position  of  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  on  account  of  these  qualities, 
he  showed  himself  a  much  less  wise  opponent 
of  heresy  than  was  expected.  He  soon  be- 
came entangled  in  a  controversy  with  Cyril 
of  Alexandria  (see  Christology),  which 
ended  in  his  deposition  (see  Ephesus)  and  in 
his  retirement  to  his  former  monastery  in 
Antioch.  After  an  agreement  had  been 
reached  between  the  heads  of  the  Antiochian 
party  and  C^'ril,  the  emperor,  in  order  to 
maintain  it,  "thought  fit  to  banish  Nestorius 
to  Petra  in  Arabia  (435),  whence  he  came  to 
the  great  oasis  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  after 
much  ill  treatment,  died,  no  one  knows  when 
or  where.  Some  of  tlie  writings  of  Nestorius 
exist  in  Latin  translations  edited  by  Baluzius, 
Mausi,  and  Assemani. 

After  the  removal  of  Nestorius  from  the 
scene,  the  churches  gradually  settled  down 
to  the  ultimate  acceptance  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedou.  The  churches  of  Eastern  Syria 
formed  an  exception,  however,  and  generally 
accepted  Nestorius'  teachings.  They  soon 
developed  a  great  missionary  aclivit}',  and  ex- 
tended Christianity  to  India,  and  even  to 
China.  Their  first  elforts  were  directed  to 
work  in  Persia.  Ibas  of  Edessa  (q.v.)  wrote 
a  letter  to  Mares,  a  Persian  bishop,  in  which 
he  commended  the  writings  of  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  and  also  explaiued  the  course  of 
the  Cliristological  controversy,  incidentally 
favoring  Nestorius,  though  not  espousing  his 


NETHINIM 


(641) 


NEVINS 


doctrine  altogether.  Pupils  of  tlie  school  of 
Edessa  subsequently  tilled  important  places 
in  the  Persian  Church,  as  Acacius,  patf  iarch 
of  Seleucia,  whose  predecessor,  Dadjesu 
(430-65),  had  declared  the  bishop  of  Seleu(;ia 
independent.  Babieus  (498-503)  was  a  thor- 
oughly Nestorian  bishop,  and  from  this  time 
the  Persian  Church  is  to  be  called'  Nestorian. 
Babieus  did  not  hesitate  to  change  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  church,  permitting  the  patri- 
arch, bisliops,  priests,  and  monks  each  to  liave 
one  wife.  Schools  were  now  established,  the 
most  famous  of  which  was  at  Nisibis,  and 
missionaries  extended  Christianity  in  Nes- 
torian form  to  the  farthest  East.  The  pre- 
viously existing  churches  of  India  were  ex- 
tended. A  great  success  was  achieved  in 
China,  one  monument  of  which  is  a  double 
inscription  in  Syrian  and  Chinese  (781),  con- 
taining a  long  list  of  Nestorian  clergy.  (See 
Mosheim,  Authentic  Memoirs  of  the  (Jhristian 
Church  in  China,  ed.  Gibbings,  Dublin, 
1862  ;  Legge,  Nestorian  Monninents  in  China, 
London.  1888. 

The  history  of  the  Nestorians  is  checkered 
by  many  adverse  events.  In  general,  till  long 
after  tlie  Mohammedan  invasion  of  Persia, 
tliey  enjoyed  liberty  and  protection.  Mar 
Aba  I.,  patriarch  536-62,  translated  the  liturgy 
into  Syriac,  raised  the  condition  of  the  clergy, 
but  withdrew  from  patriarclis  and  bishops 
the  right  to  marry.  Under  the  caliphat  of 
Bagdad,  the  patriarchs  had  their  residence  in 
that  city.  The  victories  of  Timur  (1370- 
1400)  brought  persecution  \ipon  the  Nesto- 
rians, from  which  time  they  have  steadily  de- 
clined. Their  present  number,  contiued  to 
the  district  of  Urumiyah  and  the  adjacent 
mountains,  is  about  70,000  souls.  An  equal 
numberof  "  Thomas  Christians,"  oncesubject 
to  the  Nestorian  patriarcli,  still  exist  in  India. 
The  Preshylerian  Board  of  Missions  has  a 
flourishing  mission, among  the  Persian  Nes- 
torians, and  they  have  them.selves  begun  mis- 
.«ionary  work  in  adjacent  regions.  (See  Smith 
and  Dwight,  Rexearches  in  Armenia,  Boston, 
1833,  3  vols.;  Badger,  The  Nestorians  and 
their  Rituals,  London,  1852.)  F.  H.  F. 

Neth'-in-im  {given,  i.e,  dedicated),  a  term 
first  applied  to  the  Levites  as  given  to  the 
priests  (Num.  iii.  9)  to  serve  tliem  in  holy 
tilings,  but  afterward  to  i)ersons  who  did 
service  to  the  Levites  (Num.  xxxi.  47). 
Their  names  were  preserved,  and  they  reappear 
after  the  return  from  exile  (Ezra  vii.  24,  viii. 
20,  Neh.  xi.  21)  T.  W.  C. 

Netter,  Thomas,  or  Waldensis,  b.  at  Saf- 
fron, Walden,  Essex,  42  m.  u.  by  e.  of  Lon- 
don, about  1380  ;  d.  at  Rouen,  France,  Nov. 
3,  1430.  He  studied  at  Oxford  ;  became  a 
Carmelite,  and  provincial  of  the  order  for 
England.  1414  ;  confessor  to  Henry  V.,  1420  ; 
took  part  in  tlie  councils  of  I*isa.  1409,  and 
Constance.  1414-18  ;  went  on  a  mission  to 
Lithuania,  1419,  and  wrote  a  polemical  work 
against  the  Lollards,  Faxeirnli  Zizaniornm. 
J.  ]Vi/rlif  {cd.  W.  W.Shirley,  London,  1S5H), 
and  Doctrinnle  antiquitatum  Jiihi  ecclesid' 
ratholiro',  published,  1521.  and"  later.  The 
latter  is  also  a  controversial  but  fair  review 
of  Wvclif's  doctrines,  and  was  an  armory  for 


the  opponents  of  the  Reformation  in  France, 
Spain,  and  Italy,  and  employed  by  Bellar- 
niine.  (See  Lechler,  Wyclif  [Ger.  orig.,  vol. 
2].)  F.  M.  B. 

Nettleton,  Asahel,  D.D.  (Hampden-Sidney, 
1839  ;  Jetterson,  Pennsylvania,  1839),  Con- 
gregationalist  ;  b.  at  North  Killingworth, 
Conn.,  April  21,  1783;  d.  at  East  Windsor. 
Conn.,  May  16,  1844.  He  passed  from  the 
paternal  farm  to  Yale  College  ;  graduated, 
1809,  and  for  twenty  years  was  active  and 
eflicient  as  an  evangelist,  chiefly  in  Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut,  and  New  York.  In 
1827  he  liad  a  controversy  with  C.  G.  Finnej\ 
whose  livelier  practices  as  a  revivalist  he  dis- 
approved. He  was  in  Virginia,  1827-28,  and 
in  England,  1H31.  He  declined  the  chair  of 
pastoral  duty  at  East  Windsor  (now  Hartford 
Seminary)  in  1W33,  but  sometimes  lectured 
there,  ilis  Villaije  Hymns,  New  York,  1824. 
had  a  wider  sale  and  influence  than  any  pre- 
vious American  collection.  His  Remains  and 
Sermons  appeared,  1845,  and  his  Memoir,  by 
B.  Tyler,  Hartford,  Conn.,  l!344.  reprinted 
with  additions  by  A.  A.  Bonar,  Edinburgh, 
1854,  imder  the  title  Nettleton  and  his  Labors. 
F.  M.  B. 

Nevin,  John  Williamson,  D.D.  (Jefferson 
College,  Canonsburg,  Pa.,  1839),  LL.D. 
(Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y..  1873), 
Reformed  (German)  ;  1>.  in  Franklin  County, 
Pa.,  Feb.  20,  1803  ;  d.  at  Caernarvon  Place, 
near  Lancaster,  Pa.,  June  7,  1886.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Union  College  in  1821  and  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1826,  and  was. 
professor  in  the  Western  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Alleghany,  Pa.,  1829-40,  and  in  the 
seminary  of  the  Reformed  (German)  (.'hurch 
at  Mercersburg,  Pa.,  1840-51  ;  president  of 
]\Iarshall  College,  Mercersburg,  1841-53,  and 
of  Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  1866-76,  when  he  retired.  From  184» 
to  1853  he  edited  Jlie  Mercersburg  Rerietr,  and 
wrote  most  of  it  himself.  In  book  form  lie 
published  Biblical  Antiquities,  Philadelphia, 
1828,  2  vols.,  rev.  ed.,  1849,  rep.  in  Edin- 
burgh, 1853  ;  The  Anxious  Bench,  Chambers- 
burg,  Pa.,  1842;  The  Mystical  Presence, 
Philadelphia,  1846;  Heidelberg  Cat,rhism, 
Chambersburg,  1847  ;  Antichrist,  New  York, 
1848.  Although  closely  identltied  with  the 
history  of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  he 
was  of  Presbyterian  and  Scotch-Irish  ances- 
try. His  iflcas,  however,  received  greiit 
quickening  from  German  theology,  yet  he 
was  the  intellectual  slave  of  no  man,  but 
rather  very  independent  and  original.  For 
his  teaching,  see  the  art.  Mekcerskurg  The- 
ology. (See  his  biographv  bv  Theodore 
Appcl,  Philadelphia,  1889,  also'  sketch  by 
A.  R.  Kreinrr.  Reading,  Pa.,  1890.) 

Nevins,  William,  S.T.D.  (Princeton,  New 
J er.se V,  1834).  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Norwich, 
Conn"..  Oct.  13.  1797;  d.  at  Bahimore,  Md., 
Sept.  14.  1835.  He  graduated  at  Vale, 
1816;  studied  theology  at  Princeton,  1816- 
19,  and  was  pjistor  of  First  Presbvterian 
Church.  Baltimore,  frf)m  1820  to  his'death. 
His  Thoughts  on  Poj)ery,  originallv  written 
for  the  New  York  Observer,  appeared  in  New 
York,    1835.    2    vols.;    Practical    Thoughts. 


NEW 


(642) 


NEW 


1835  ;  Select  Remaim,  with  a  memoir  of  his 
life,  1836,  and  a  volume  of  sermons,  1837. 


Nevr  Birth.     See  Regeneration. 

New  Church,  The,  or  the  "  New  Jeru- 
salem Church,"  is  the  name  adopted  by  that 
body  of  Christian  people  who  accept  the  doc- 
trines contained  in  tiie  theological  writings 
of  Emanuel  Svvedenborg  as  a  revelation  from 
the  Lord.  They  regard  Swedenborg  as  the 
human  instrument  for  communicating  these 
doctrines  to  the  world.  This  revelation  they 
hold  to  be  not  a  new  Word,  but  an  opening 
and  at  the  same  time  a  fulfilment  of  the 
propliecies  and  promises  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures, especially  those  in  the  gospels  and  the 
Apocalypse  which  prefigure  the  second  com- 
ing of  the  Lord,  the  last  judgment,  and  the 
descent  of  the  New  Jerusalem. 

As  an  account  of  Swedenborg's  life  and 
writings  will  be  found  in  another  part  of  this 
work  (see  art.  Swedenborg),  it  will  not  be 
necessary  here  to  enumerate  all  his  scientific 
and  theological  works,  which  comprise  many 
volumes.  The  latter,  written  after  his  spir- 
itual illumination,  are  regarded  as  written 
under  divine  guidance,  and  therefore  as  au- 
thoritative in  matters  of  doctrine,  though  the 
evidence  of  this  authority  is  simply  the  rea- 
sonable spiritual  light  that  is  in  them. 

In  the  preface  to  the  True  Christian  Relig- 
ion, which  contains  the  whole  theology  of  the 
New  Church,  we  find  the  following  : 

"  The  faith  of  the  New  Heaven  and  the 
New  Church  is  this :  that  the  Lord  from 
eternity,  who  is  Jehovah,  came  into  the 
world  that  he  might  subjugate  the  hells  and 
glorify  his  humanity,  and  that  without  him 
no  mortal  could  have  been  saved  ;  and  that 
they  are  saved  who  believe  in  him."  It  is 
elsewhere  explained  that  a  faith  that  is  not  of 
the  heart  and  life  is  no  faith. 

Herein  is  contained  the  essential  doctrine 
of  the  New  Church — the  absolute  divinity  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  This  is  the  corner- 
stone of  the  new  temple.  The  Divine  Trinity 
is  not  denied,  but  it  is  affirmed  to  be  not  a 
trinity  of  persons,  but  a  trinity  in  the  one 
person  of  the  Lord.  The  Father  is  the  Di- 
vine Love  from  eternity  ;  the  Son  is  the 
Divine  Humanity  by  which  the  Infinite  Love 
was  manifested  to  men  feud  is  present  with 
them  ;  and  the  Holy  Spirit  is  the  Spirit  of 
l0  7e  and  truth  from  him,  which  is  life  to  the 
souls  of  men.  This  Trinity  in  the  Lord  finds 
its  counterpart  in  the  threefold  nature  of  man 
— namely,  the  soul,  the  body,  and  the  oper- 
ating energy  or  life. 

The  human  nature  as  taken  from  Mary, 
Swendenborg  teaches,  was  like  that  of  man, 
except  that  its  life  was  the  Infinite  Love  of 
God  for  saving  and  blessing  men,  which  life 
in  him  was  unlimited — for  to  him  "the 
Father  giveth  not  the  Spirit  by  measure" — 
while  the  soul  of  a  man  is  not  life  itself,  but 
a  receptacle  of  life,  limited  and  modified  by 
inheritance  from  his  human  father.  Thus  as 
to  his  human  nature  the  Lord  began  as  an 
infant,  and  increased  in  wisdom  and  stature, 
and  was  tempted  in  all  things  as  we  are  ;  and 
yet  from  the  divine  seal  in  him  he  learned  the 


divine  truth  of  life  from  the  "Word — becoming 
thereby  the  Word  made  flesh — and  from  it 
resis^^d  every  temptation  to  evil,  overcame 
the  hells  whence  came  the  influences  of  evil, 
and  made  his  humanity  the  very  love  of  God 
manifested — the  Redeemer,  the  Light,  and 
the  Life  of  the  world.  He  is  thus  to  the 
New  Church  the  one  object  of  worship.  It 
seeks  the  Father  in  him  alone  ;  for  ' '  he  that 
hath  seen  me  hath  seen  the  Father,"  and 
' '  no  man  cometh  unto  the  Father  but  by  me. ' ' 
The  sacred  Scriptures,  both  the  Old  and  tlie 
New,  are  regarded  as  fully  inspired,  and 
therefore  as  containing  divine  and  heavenly 
wisdom.  Their  holiness  resides  in  the  spir- 
itual sense  within  the  letter,  which  serves  as 
a  cloud  to  cover  tlie  inner  glory.  The  ideas 
and  the  language  of  the  letter  are  from  the 
minds  of  men,  but  so  provided  and  selected 
by  the  Divine  Spirit  as  to  represent  and  sig- 
nify the  things  of  spiritual  wisdom.  The 
five  books  of  Moses,  the  books  of  Joshua, 
Judges,  Samuel,  and  the  Kings,  the  Psalms, 
the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  four 
Gospels,  and  the  Revelation  of  John,  in  the 
New,  are  regarded  as  containing  this  spiritual 
sense,  and  constituting  the  fully  inspired 
divine  Word.  Other  books  of  the  Bible  are 
good  books  for  the  instruction  of  the  church, 
but  do  not  contain  a   continuous   spiritual 


The  life  which  leads  to  heaven  the  New 
Church  imderstands  to  be  a  life  of  obedience 
to  the  Lord's  commandments — in  his  name 
and  with  his  strength  resisting  evil  and  doing 
good,  and  thus  living  from  his  Spirit.  Heaven 
consists  in  a  good  life,  blessed  by  the  Lord's 
love.  Hell  consists  in  the  burnings  and 
clashings  of  evil  lusts  and  false  reasonings. 
These  spiritual  states  produce  corresponding 
objective  realities  in  the  homes  of  heaven, 
where  are  all  beautiful  forms  of  love  and  wis- 
dom, and  in  the  abodes  of  hell,  where  are  all 
outward  forms  of  evil.  According  to  the 
love  which  man  makes  his  own  by  life  in  the 
world  is  his  lot  hereafter. 

Man's  spirit  is  in  human  form,  and  indeed 
gives  form  to  the  body.  After  the  death  of 
tlie  corruptible  natural  body  the  incorrupti- 
ble spiritual  body  is  separated  from  it,  and 
continues  to  live  a  human  life,  having  affec- 
tion, thought,  memory,  and  every  faculty  of 
sense  and  action,  as  in  the  previous  life.  The 
spiritual  world  is  not  in  some  remote  part  of 
the  natural  world,  but  is  the  inner  world,  in 
which  man's  spirit  is  during  the  life  of  the 
body. 

The  last  judgment  is  not  to  be  executed  in 
the  natural  world,  but  in  the  spiritual  world, 
where  are  gathered  all  the  spirits  of  men.  It 
is  not  promised  at  the  end  of  the  uatviral 
world,  but  at  "the  consummation  of  the 
age" — that  is,  when  the  hearts  of  men  grow 
cold,  and  the  Lord  is  not  known  and  loved 
in  the  church.  Swedenborg  teaches  that  the 
judgment  did  actually  take  place  in  the  spir- 
itual world  in  tlie  year  1757,  at  which  time  a 
great  multitude  of  spirits  calling  themselves 
of  the  church,  yet  having  no  love  for  the 
Lord  and  his  commandments,  were  cast 
down.  This  was  effected  by  the  opening  of 
the  true  meaning  of  the  Scriptures  in  the 


(643) 


NEW 


light  and  power  of  the  Lord's  presence,  from 
which  all  who  loved  evil  fled  away.  When 
these  were  removed  the  eidightenment  pene- 
trated to  the  minds  of  men,  and  began  to  tlis- 
pel  the  spiritual  darkness  and  to  accomplish 
a  judgment  there  also.  The  details  of  this 
work  are  represented  b}'  the  visions  of  John 
as  described  in  the  Apocalypse,  the  fulld- 
ment  of  which  in  the  spiritual  world  is  de- 
scribed in  Swedenborg's  ApontU/pse  Revealed. 
The  illuminating  truth  by  which  the  judgment 
was  effected  and  a  new  state  of  enlighten- 
ment has  come  to  the  minds  of  men,  the  New 
Church  believes  to  be  the  same  as  that  taught 
in  the  revelations  given  through  Swedenborg  ; 
and  the  revealing  "of  it,  togetlier  with  the  in- 
creased power  of  the  Lord's  presence  by 
means  of  it,  is  understood  to  be  the  second 
coming  of  the  Lord. 

Communication  with  spirits  and  angels  in 
Swedenborg's  case  was  not  sought  by  him, 
but  was  given  by  the  Lord  for  a  special  use, 
and  it  is  not  to  be  desired  or  sought  by  others. 
On  the  contrary,  Swedenborg  teaches  that  to 
seek  it  is  "  attended  with  danger  to  a  man's 
soul,"  for  the  reason  that  evil  spirits  then  at- 
tach themselsres  to  him  and  mislead  him,  en- 
deavoring to  destroy  his  soul. 

The  organization  known  as  the  "  New 
Church"  exists  as  a  matter  of  j)ractical  neces- 
sity for  the  sake  of  mutual  help  in  learning 
and  living  according  to  these  doctrines,  and 
presenting  them  to  the  world.  Swedenborg 
himself  formed  no  organization,  gathered  no 
company  of  followers.  He  simply  wrote, 
and  caused  to  be  printed  and  published  at  his 
own  expense,  the  books  which  contain  these 
doctrines.  He  distributed  them  to  the  univer- 
sity libraries  and  to  prominent  men  among 
the  clergv.  They  fell  into  the  hands  of  some 
clergymen  in  Sweden  and  in  England,  and  a 
few  educated  laymen  before  his  death — which 
occurred  at  London  in  1772 — and  a  few  em- 
braced the  doctrines.  Among  these  were  the 
Kev.  Drs.  Beyer  and  Rosen,  of  Sweden,  and 
the  Kev.  Dr.  Thomas  Hartley,  of  England,  a 
clergyman  of  the  Established  Church.  The 
former  suffered  some  persecution,  as  did 
others  in  Sweden.  The  Church  of  Sweden 
was  too  rigidly  established  to  permit  much 
freedom,  and  the  new  doctrines  gained  but 
little  foothold  in  that  country.  No  church 
of  the  new  faith  was  established  there  before 
the  year  1870,  although  at  an  early  day  a 
society  embracing  a  large  number  of  educated 
men  was  formed  for  the  propagation  of  the 
doctrines,  but  it  was  not  permanent. 

In  England  more  freedom  prevailed.  After 
Swedenborg's  death  a  larger  number  grad- 
ually read  the  books,  some  of  which  began 
to  be  translated.  Among  the  most  noted  of 
these  wa-s  the  Rev.  John  Clowes,  of  St.  John's 
Church,  Manchester,  who  translated  nearly 
all  of  the  principal  works,  and  wrote  many 
sermons  and  treatises  in  defence  of  theni. 
He  remained  in  connection  witli  the  Church 
of  England.  The  Rev.  Robert  Hindmarsh 
and  his  father,  from  the  Metiiodists,  beaime 
ardent  believers  and  advocates.  At  tirst  only 
societies  for  reading  and  .study  of  the  writings 
were  held  ;  the  tirst  of  these  began  at  the 
house  of  Robert  Hindmarsh,  then  a  printer. 


Afterward,  in  1783,  a  call  was  made  for  a 
public  meeting.  This  was  held  on  Dec.  5, 
1783,  in  a  coffee  house  on  Ludgate  Hill,  Lon- 
don. Only  live  persons  were  present.  But 
tiie  numbers  gradually  increased  until  the 
"  Theosophic  Society' "  was  formed,  having 
for  its  object  the  propagation  of  the  new  doc- 
trines, but  more  particularly  for  reading. 
Only  three  or  four  of  Swedenborg's  works 
were  then  translated,  but  the  Latin  works 
were  read  and  commented  on.  Correspond- 
ence was  also  held  with  readers  in  foreign 
countries,  in  France,  Holland,  Germany, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  Russia,  Poland,  and 
America.  In  this  way  the  doctrines  were 
tirst  propagated.  It  was  not  until  the  year 
1788  that  ministers  were  ordained  or  societies 
were  formed  for  distinctive  worship.  On 
Sunday,  June  1  of  that  year,  a  meeting  was 
held  in  Great  East  Cheap,  Loudon,  when 
twelve  men  were  chosen  l)y  lot  to  represent 
the  New  Church.  Of  these  Robert  Hind- 
marsh became  the  ordaining  minister,  who 
then  laid  hands  on  James  Hindmarsli  and 
Samuel  Smith,  and  they  were  made  priests  or 
ministers.  Previous  to  this,  however,  in 
1787,  the  members  had  assembled  for  wor- 
ship and  received  the  sacraments.  In  1789  a 
General  C'onference  was  formed  composed  of 
societies  or  churches,  which  has  continued 
with  some  changes  to  the  present  day.  In 
Germany,  France,  and  Italy  no  movTment 
for  organization  took  place  al  that  day.  But 
much  has  been  done  in  those  countries  for 
many  years  by  the  press.  In  Germany,  an 
able  defender  of  the  new  faith  was  found  in 
the  learned  Dr.  J.  F.  E.  Tafel,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen  ;  in  France,  in  ]\r.  Le 
Bovs  des  Guays,  each  of  whom  translated  the 
writings  of  Swedenborg  into  the  language  of 
his  own  country.  Italy  has  found  recently  a 
similar  worker  "in  the  person  of  Signor  Loreto 
Scocia,  of  Florence. 

The  church  in  America  began  in  Baltimore 
in  one  organized  form,  although  the  doc- 
trines, it  is  believed,  were  first  introduced 
into  Philadelphia  by  James  Glen,  of  England, 
in  1784,  who  lectured  in  different  places  and 
sent  the  books  to  Philadelphia. 

In  1793  a  .society  was  formed  in  Baltimore 
under  the  leadership  of  the  Rev.  Janus  Wil- 
mer  and  Colonel  Robert  Carter,  of  Virginia, 
but  it  came  to  an  end.  In  1798  another  was 
formed,  and  Ralph  ]\Iather  and  John  Har- 
grove were  ordained  by  the  laying  on  of 
hands  of  ten  laymen.  From  this  ordination 
nearly  all  others  in  America  have  sprung. 
Societies  were  presently  formed  in  Philadel- 
phia, Cincinnati.  New  i'ork,  and  Boston,  and 
afterward  in  other  places,  the  number  of  so- 
cieties in  America  in  1890  being  92  and  the 
number  of  ministers  121,  and  the  niimber  of 
church-members  about  7000.  In  1817  the 
Greneral  Convention  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
in  the  United  States  of  America  was  organ- 
ized, which  is  now  the  general  lx)dy  of  the 
New  Church  in  tiie  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. It  is  composed  of  state  associations  and 
societies.  The  government  of  the  church  as 
regards  the  nunistry  is  in  general  episcopal 
— tiiat  is,  there  are  in  most  parts  of  tiie  church 
general  pastors,  i)astors,  and  authorized  can- 


NBWOOMB 


(644) 


NEW 


didutes.  The  principal  work  of  the  conven- 
tion is  carried  on  by  three  boards  :  the  Board 
of  Home  and  Foreign  Missions,  which  has  its 
headquarters  at  169  Tremont  street,  Boston  ; 
the  Boaril  of  Pubhcatiou,  at  20  Cooper  Union, 
New  York  ;  and  tlie  Tlieological  School,  at 
48  Quincy  street,  Cambridge,  Mass.  The 
orgaa  of  thj  convention  is  The  New  Church 
Messenger,  published  at  30  Cooper  Union, 
New  York.  There  are  several  other  publish- 
ing societies  engaged  in  publishing  editions 
of  Swedenborg's  works,  or  books  and  tracts 
explanatory  of  them.  J.  B.  Lippiucott  Com- 
paay,  of  Philadelphia,  act  as  agents  for  one 
of  these  societies,  and  the  "  Jungerich  Trus- 
tees" in  furnishing  copies  of  Swedenborg's 
Hedmn  aivi  Hell,  tiie  Apocdlypse  Revealed,  the 
I'l'iie  Ghrlfitidii  Religion,  and  a  life  of  Swe- 
deaborg  to  all  Protestant  ministers  in  America 
who  will  s'jud  the  postage  for  them. 

The  New  Church  in  Great  Britain  is  nearly 
equal  iu  numbers  to  the  church  in  America. 
It  has  74  societies  or  parishes,  with  more  than 
6000  adult  members,  and  50  ministers.  The 
societies  are  associated  in  a  General  Confer- 
ence which  meets  annually,  but  the  govern- 
ment is  almost  purely  congregational.  The 
organ  of  the  Conference  is  the  Ncio  Church 
Mdiiduiic,  published  by  James  Spiers  at  the 
Couference  Book-store,  36  Bloomsbury  street, 
Loudou.  The  Conference  also  makes  some 
provisiou  for  missionary  work  and  for  the 
education  of  ministers.  The  publication  of 
Swedenborg's  works  in  England  is  performed 
mostly  by  the  "  Swedenborg  Society"  of  Lon- 
don. 

There  are  also  small  societies  of  New 
Churchmen  in  Paris,  Zurich,  Vienna,  Berlin, 
Stockholm,  Gottenburg,  Copenhagen,  and 
four  in  Australia.  But  all  the  societies  be- 
yond the  influence  of  the  English  freedom  of 
thouglit  are  still  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 
Individual  believers  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
church,  not  connected  with  any  New  Church 
organization,  are  to  be  found  in  all  Christian 
countries. 

Swedenborg's  works  are  on  the  shelves  of 
all  the  larger  libraries  of  the  world.  All 
New  Church  publications  are  for  sale  at  the 
book  agencies  of  the  church  in  New  Y'ork, 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  Cincinnati,  Chicago, 
London,  Paris,  and  other  cities. 

John  Wokcester. 

Newcomb,  Harvey,  b.  at  Thetford,  Vt., 
Sept.  3,  1803  ;  d.  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Aug. 
30,  1863  ;  was  successively  school-teacher, 
editor,  and  Congregational  minister,  but  al- 
ways at  the  same  time  an  industrious  book- 
maker. He  is  said  to  have  published  178 
books.  Still  remembered  and  used  is  his 
Cyclopedia  of  Missions,  New  Y'ork,  1854.  of 
which  a  rev.  ed.  appeared  in  1860. 

Newcome,  William,  D.D.  (Oxford,  17—), 
Irish  bishop  ;  b.  at  Abingdon,  England,  6  m. 
u.w.  of  Oxford,  Aug.  10,  1729;  d.  in  Dub- 
lin, Jan.  11,  1800.  He  studied  at  Pembroke 
College,  Oxford  ;  became  fellow  and  tutor  of 
Hertford  College  ;  bishop  of  Dromore,  1766  ; 
of  Ossory,  1775  ;  of  Waterford,  1779  ;  arch- 
bishop of  Armagh,  1795.  Among  his  works 
are  a  Greek  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  Dublin, 


1778  ;  versions  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets, 
1785,  of  Ezekiel,  1788,  and  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 1796-1809  (on  this  the  Socinian  version 
of  1808  was 'based)  ;  and  A)i  Historical  View 
of  the  English  Biblical  Translations,  1792. 
F.  M.  B. 

New  Connection,  The  Methodist  Church. 
See  Methodism,  p.  567. 

Newell,  Samuel,  missionary  ;  b.  at  Dur- 
ham, Me.,  July  25.  1785  ;  d.  at  Bombay, 
India,  March  30,  1821.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1807,  and  while  at  Andover  signed, 
with  S.  J.  Mills  and  two  others,  the  paper 
which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  A.B.C.F.M. 
Ordained  Feb.  6,  1812,  he  sailed  Feb.  19 
with  Judson  for  Calcutta.  Ordered  away 
by  the  Bengal  Government,  he  went  to  the 
Isle  of  France,  thence  to  Ceylon,  and  in  1814 
joined  Hall  and  Nott  at  Bombay.  With 
G.  Hall  he  wrote  The  Conversion  of  the  World, 
Andover,  1818.  His  wife,  Harriet  (Atwood), 
b.  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  Oct.  10,  1793  ;  d.  on 
the  Isle  of  France,  Nov.  30,  1812  ;  married, 
Feb.,  1812,  and  shared  her  husband's  voy- 
ages and  trials  till  her  early  death.  Her  Life 
and  Writings,  New  Y''ork,  1831,  had  a  large 
circulation.  F.  M.  B. 

New  England  Theology  may  be  thus  de- 
fined :  The  Calvinism  of  Westminster  and 
Dort,  modified  by  correcter  ideas  of  the  char- 
acter of  God,  of  the  freedom,  ability,  and  re- 
sponsibility of  man,  of  the  nature  of  moral 
action,  and  the  constitutive  principle  of  vir- 
tue. This  article  sketches  its  history  geneti- 
cally, details  as  to  the  individual  men  being 
remitted  to  the  special  articles  upon  them. 

1.  The  period  of  Settlement,  1620-60.  The 
emigrants  to  New  England  were,  in  England, 
Calvinistic  Puritans.  In  Holland,  John  Rob- 
inson had  come  into  contact  with  the  leaders 
of  the  Arminian  party,  and  had  taken  the 
side  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  a  Defence  of  which 
he  published.  Two  years  after  the  Confes- 
sion of  Westminster  liad  been  prepared  in 
England,  it  was  adopted  in  New  England 
(1648)  as  the  general  theological  standard  of 
the  new  churches.  The  type  of  theology  thus 
fixed  remained  unchanged  during  tliis  period, 
the  two  theological  events  which  occurred  ex- 
ercising no  perceptible  inflxience  upon  it.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  Antinomian  contro- 
versy, which  was  stirred  up  by  the  teachings 
of  Mrs.  Ann  Hutchinson  in  Boston,  and 
which  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Synod 
of  1637  and  subsequent  civil  action.  Mrs. 
Hutchinson  taught  that  the  evidence  of  justi- 
fication was  the  immediate  revelation  of  the 
indwelling  spirit,  and  was  independent  of 
sanctitication  ;  and  this  was  no  sooner  fully 
understood  than  it  was  rejected.  The  second 
event  was  the  publication  in  1650  of  a  treatise 
upon  The  Meritoriovs  Price  of  our  Redemp- 
tion by  William  Pynchon,  the  leading  person- 
age at  Springfield,  and  a  layman.  Pynchon's 
principal  contention  was  against  the  idea  that 
Christ  suffered  the  pains  of  hell,  but  he  also 
rejected  the  imputation  of  our  sins  to  Christ, 
on  account  of  its  essential  injustice,  and  of 
Christ's  merits  to  us,  making  justification  to 
be  forgiveness,  and  presenting  for  a  positive 
theory  of    the  atonement  the  thought   that 


NEW 


(G4o) 


Christ's  obedience  more  highly  pleased  God 
tlum  our  sins  displeased  him,  thus  repeating 
substantially  the  theory  of  Anselm.  John 
Norton  replied  to  Pynchon,  by  order  of  the 
Gi^-neral  Court,  quite  in  the  line  of  the  stand- 
ard orthodoxy,  and  the  book  fell  into  ob- 
scurity without  leaving  a  trace  of  its  iniluence. 

But  meantime  this  Westminster  theology 
of  the  New  England  fathers  was  working  out 
its  niitural  results.  It  is  characteristic  of 
rigid  Calvinism  to  lay  so  much  stress  upon 
the  sovereignty  of  God  as  to  neglect  the  free- 
dom of  man,  and  although  tlie  Westminster 
standards  save  man's  freedom  theoretically, 
the  common  ])reaching  of  New  England 
dwelt  so  nuich  upon  man's  helplessness  that 
the  function  of  the  pulpit  to  rouse  the  people 
to  repentance  and  the  exercise  of  vigorous 
faith  was  suspended,  if  not  destroyed.  Even 
the  nature  of  saving  faith  was  not  clearly  per- 
ceived, but  man's  activity  was  so  lost  sight 
of  in  the  contemplation  of  God's  agency 
that  faith  was  represented  us  something  to 
be  waited  for  as  a  mysterious  divine  gift.  As 
was  natural,  a  paralysis  spread  over  the 
churches.  Conversions — for  the  false  theories 
of  man  coidd  not  put  an  absolute  bar  to 
the  grace  of  God — were  rare,  and  the  second 
generation  of  New  England  was  largely  un- 
converted, and  even  failed  to  bring  their  chil- 
dren to  baptism.  The  result  was  alarm,  and 
that  effort  to  remedy  the  evil  by  outward 
means,  which  was  the  tirst  event  with  which 
the  next  i>eriod  opens,  the  Half- Way  Cove- 
nant (q.v.).  But  the  effort  was  vain,  for  the 
doctrine  of  inability  had  already  poisoned 
the  vitals  of  the  churches. 

3.  The  period  of  Decline,  1660-1726.  The 
religious  paralysis  continued.  A  consequent 
degeneration  of  the  public  charac;ter  followed, 
indifference  to  religion  increased,  and  im- 
morality began  to  al)ound.  Things  grew  so 
bad  that  in  1679  a  "  Reforming  Synod"  was 
called  in  Boston.  The  account  given  by  the 
Synod  of  the  state  of  morals  is  so  dark'  that 
some  exaggeradon  must  be  suspected.  But 
tile  positive  sins  mentioned,  the  increase  of 
profanity,  intemperance,  and  licentiousness, 
show  that  there  was  rising  uliout  the  church 
a  coninuinity  which  deserved  the  name  of 
the  ■'  world,'"'  and  which  the  church  was  not 
subduing.  The  causes  of  this  decline  were 
not  all  theological,  for  the  roughness  of  fron- 
tier life,  the  perils  and  losses  of  the  Indian 
wars  which  mark  this  period,  the  deprivation 
of  ]>rivileges  of  education  which  had  contrib- 
uteil  to  make  the  fathers  while  still  in  Eng- 
land what  they  were,  and  even  the  effect  in 
the  new  country  of  such  untoward  events  in 
the  old  <as  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts,  are 
to  be  considered.  But  theological  error  was 
at  the  base  of  .some  of  the  manifest  evil,  and 
the  evil  theological  intluences  of  the  Latitu- 
dinarianism  of  England,  of  the  writings  of 
Tillotson,  Clarke,  Whitby,  Taylor,  and 
others,  which  were  freely  read  in  New  Eng- 
land, helped  the  general  downward  tendency. 
The  wliole  current  .set  toward  the  Pelagian- 
izing  Arminianism  of  the  day  ;  Arminian 
theories  were  more  or  less  accepted  ;  tlie  doc- 
trine of  the  new  birth  was  forgotten  or  de- 
nied ;  under  the  operation  of  the  Half- Way 


Covenant  and  Stoddard's  theory  that  the  com- 
munion should  be  opened  to  unbelievers  as  a 
converting  ordinance,  vital  piety  was  neglect- 
ed for  a  piety  of  outward  good  works  ;  and 
thus  not  only  the  theology,  but  the  living 
power  of  Calvinism  seemed  near  extinction. 
An  Increase  Mather  might  still  be  found  to 
preach  powerful  revival  sermons  and  to  pro- 
test against  destructive  innovations,  but  pro- 
test was  rare,  and  when  made  ineffectual. 
The  churches  were  but  a  step  from  Arminian- 
ism, from  which  the  path  to  Socinianism  and 
Deism  was  direct  and  short.  The  New  Eng- 
land experiment  of  founding  a  pure  churcli 
to  sustain  and  extend  vital  piety  and  pure 
doctrine  from  generation  to  generation  was 
near  utter  failure  Who  would  or  could 
save  it  ? 

3.  The  career  of  Edwards,  1726-58.  The 
answer  was  providential  in  the  gift  to  the 
churches  of  the  genius  and  devotion  of  Jona- 
tiian  Edwards.  An  intense;  Calvinist,  he  both 
saw  and  recoiled  from  the  Arminianism  about 
him,  and  gradually  for  his  own  people,  and 
then  for  the  community  at  large,  set  about 
the  work  of  overcoming  it.  He  ])roposed  to 
set  forth  again  the  old  theology,  but  he  saw 
the  necessity  of  so  presenting  it  as  to  win  the 
assent  of  his  readers  :  and  he  set  to  work 
with  the  distinct  purpose  of  proving  every 
proposition  he  advanced  with  so  cogent  logic 
as  to  compel  the  consistent  thinker  to  sub- 
mit. In  this  fundamental  determination  was 
contained  of  necessity  the  seed  of  improve- 
ments. 

He  began  his  work  b}'  the  preaching  of 
that  series  of  sermons  upon  justification  by 
faith  which  led  to  his  first  revival  in  1734. 
It  may  be  said  that  there  is  nothing  new  in 
these  sermons.  They  present  the  olil  doctrine 
in  the  old  formulas,  but  with  the  intensity  of 
a  man  who  had  an  independent  grasp  of  the 
truth  he  was  urging.  Even  the  old  do(;trine 
of  inability  to  repent,  which  had  so  paralyzed 
the  churches  earlier,  is  found  here  again. 
But  there  was  something  in  the  earnestness  of 
the  preacher,  something  in  his  exaltation  of 
the  work  of  Christ,  which  called  forth  actio?}, 
and  thus  introduced  a  new  element  into  New 
England  religious  life.  Men  wen;  born  again. 
It  became  natural  to  look  for  conversion  as 
the  result  of  preaching,  and  so  the  doctrine  of 
the  new  birth  was  reintroduced  into  New 
England  as  a  living  idea,  and  soon  became  a 
controlling  theological  principle.  The  next 
step  by  a  logical  necessity  was  the  re-erection 
of  the  fact  of  the  new  birth  as  the  indispensa- 
ble condition  of  church-membership,  the  orig- 
inal peculiarity  of  the  New  England  churches. 
Edwards  took  it,  and  it  led  to  his  dismissal 
from  his  parish. 

In  the  retirement  of  Stockbridge  the  work 
W'cnt  on.  Driven  now  by  a  mental  necessity, 
he  went  into  a  more  fundamental  refutation 
of  Arminianism.  He  attacked  it  in  his  most 
famous  treatise,  that  ujwn  the  Frctdom.  of  the 
Will.  He  believed  tlie  Arnunian  position  to 
be  thorougidy  o])p()sed  to  that  sound  jihiloso- 
phy  wliich  everybody  iucepted,  and  which 
was  before  tiie  world'  in  tin;  works  of  John 
Locke,  and  tliat  all  it  was  necessary  to  do  to 
refute  it  and  banish  it  from  the  earth  was  to 


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exhibit  elaborately  this  fact.  So  he  simply 
took  Locke's  theory,  as  presented  iu  his  essay 
upon  the  Human  Understanding,  and  with- 
out the  addition  of  a  single  important  ele- 
ment, or  even  of  a  single  important  argument, 
he  set  it  forth  in  contrast  with  Arniinianism, 
and  exposed  Arminianism  in  the  light  of  it, 
till  fur  himself  and  the  majority  of  his  age 
there  was  no  reply  to  be  made.  And,  indeed, 
grant  him  liis  postulate,  and  there  is  no  an- 
swer. This  postulate  is  that  the  law  of  causa- 
tion reigQS  in  tlie  intellectual  world  as  com- 
pletely as  it  does  in  the  natural.  There  can 
be  no  such  thing  as  an  uncaused  event. 
Hence  the  will  is  moved  by  causes,  and  tliese 
are  tlie  motives  which  operate  upon  it.  TJie 
will  always  is  as  the  greatest  apparent  good. 
Freedom  consists  in  the  power  to  do  what  the 
will  has  chosen.  There  is  no  liberty  of  the 
will  apart  from  this.  The  self-determination 
of  the  Arminians  is  an  impossible  hypothesis. 
A  self  determined  volition  is  an  uncaused 
event,  an  impossibility,  or  it  is  caused  by 
some  previous  action  of  the  will.  But  if  a 
previous  action  of  the  will  determining  it  is 
necessary  to  constitute  it  free,  then  an  action 
still  previous  is  necessary  to  make  tluit  act 
free,  or  else  it,  being  uufree,  cannot  give  rise 
to  a  free  act,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum.  This  is 
his  reduction  of  his  adversaries  to  absurdity, 
and  it  is  repeatedly  employed  in  his  work. 
The  Arminians  were  more  nearly  correct  on 
the  main  point  than  Edwards  himself.  Yet 
there  was  need  of  a  correction  of  their  views 
which  ignored  the  agency  of  God  in  conver- 
sion, as  the  old  Calvinism  had  that  of  man. 
Edwards  gave  man  a  real  activity,  and  laid 
great  emphasis  upon  the  fact  that  moral  ac- 
tion consisted  in  choosing.  He  also  intro- 
duced a  distinction  between  natural  and  moral 
inability,  which,  though  fallacious  as  he 
stated  it,  was  destined  to  do  effective  work 
among  his  successors.  Faulty  as  the  Free- 
dom (^  the  Will  is,  it  performed  a  real  service, 
since  it  postponed  the  advance  of  the  New 
England  Theology  upon  the  subject  of  the 
will,  till  a  better  psychology  than  Edwards 
had  (he  always  confounds  the  sensibility  with 
the  will)  made  sound  progress  a  possibility. 
The  work  made  the  greatest  sensation  in  the 
literary  world.  Men  who  had  never  expected 
John  Locke  to  help  the  cause  of  evangelical 
religion  now  looked  upon  his  theory  as  pre- 
sented by  Edwards  with  favor. 

But  Edwards'  work  did  not  stop  here.  In 
his  treatise  upon  Original  Sin  he  advanced  a 
step  in  the  direction  already  pursued,  by  lay- 
ing down  the  principle  that  all  sin  is  volun- 
tary. Even  while  retaining  the  doctrine  of 
original  sin,  and  thus  of  our  connection  with 
Adam,  he  thought  it  necessary  to  explain  it 
in  such  a  way  as  to  give  room  for  this  prin- 
ciple, which  he  did  by  substituting  mediate 
for  immediate  imputation,  teaching  that  we 
must  consent  to  Adam's  sin  by  voluntarily 
sinning  before  it  can  be  imputed  to  us.  The 
greatest  constructive  work  of  his  life  was, 
however,  done  in  the  little  tract  upon  the 
Nature  of  Virtue.  He  starts  with  the  idea  of 
harmony,  which  is  the  ideal  of  tlie  universe. 
Virtue  is  beauty,  and  beauty  is  harmony. 
Virtue,  then,  is  harmony,  or  the  choice  of 


harmony.  It  is  agreement  to  being,  or  con- 
sent to  being.  This  being  is  general  being, 
and  hence  virtue  is  love  to  being  in  general, 
or  disinterested  benevolence.  A  volition  is 
virtuous  when  it  is  an  exemplification  of  such 
benevolence  ;  an  act,  when  it  rests  upon  the 
motive  of  love.  This  tlieory  is  the  central 
root  of  most  that  is  peculiar  in  New  England 
theology,  and  may  be  said  to  be  that  tlieology 
in  germ  ;  and  yet  its  importance  was  not  ap- 
preciated by  its  propounder,  nor  application, 
of  it  made  by  him  to  the  system  of  doctrines. 

Thus  Edwards  revivified  the  doctrine  of 
the  new  birth,  introduced  the  work  upon  the 
theory  of  the  will,  which  was  to  occupy  the 
attention  of  his  successors  so  much,  made  one 
application  of  it  in  the  way  of  an  improve- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  imputation,  and  pro- 
pounded the  theory  of  virtue.  This  was  Inn 
contribution  to  the  system  of  New  England 
theology. 

4.  Edwards'  immediate  Successors,  1758- 
1800.  Hopkins  and  Bellamy  had  been  imme- 
diately associated  with  Edwards  during  the 
most  active  portion  of  his  life.  Bellamy  in- 
troduced his  theory  of  virtue  as  the  founda- 
tion of  his  own  True  Religion  Delineated,  a 
practical  work,  and  emphasized  the  doctrine 
of  ability  in  his  preaching.  Man's  entire  re- 
sponsibility for  his  unbeh'ef  was  a  favorite 
truth  with  him.  In  every  doctrine  of  the 
Christian  system  he  has  some  new  and  fresh 
thought  to  suggest,  and  sometimes  approaches 
quite  near  subsequent  forms  of  expression,  as 
in  the  treatment  of  the  atonement.  He  taught 
a  general  atonement  most  decidedly.  But,  on 
the  whole,  his  work  was  more  of  a  general 
character,  modifying  in  the  direction  of 
greater  simplicity  and  sensibleness,  than 
specific.  Hopkins  began  his  career  in  a 
storm  of  opposition  called  out  by  his  adhe- 
rence to  high  Calvinism.  His  first  published 
work  was  entitled  Sin  through  the  Divine 
Interposition  an  Advantage  to  tlcc  Universe. 
The  title  was  enough  for  most  readers.  He 
got  into  controversy  with  Dr.  Maliew  of  Bos- 
ton upon  total  depravity.  Opposition  did 
not  cease  till  his  old  age,  and  the  new  school 
of  divines  building  upon  the  Edwardean 
foundations  w^ere  indiscriminately  labelled 
Hopkinsians.  But  through  all  this,  through 
efforts  for  the  slave,  and  through  the  disturb- 
ance of  the  Eevolutionary  War,  he  was  grad- 
ually maturing  the  System  of  Theology 
which  he  gave  to  the  public  (1793)  under 
that  title.  It  is  high  Calvinism,  with  but 
little  modification  from  the  Edwardean  ideas. 
Hopkins  published  a  treatise  upon  Holiness 
which  presents  the  theory  of  Edwards  with 
but  one  modification,  making  all  sin  selfish- 
ness ;  but  he  did  not  thoroughly  apply  this 
theory  to  the  system.  He  improved  the  the- 
ory of  the  will  by  making  freedom  to  consist, 
not  in  power  to  do  what  one  wills,  but  "  in 
voluntary  exercises."  He  silently  rejected 
also  Edwards'  theory  of  the  connection  of 
motives  with  volitions.  But  he  set  up  no 
positive  theory  of  the  will,  or  of  the  connec- 
tion of  the  divine  and  human  activity.  The 
doctrine  of  decrees  begins  to  receive  illumi- 
nation, for  they  are  founded  not  upon  the 
arbitrary  will,  but  the  love  of  God.     This  is 


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a  touch  of  the  Edwardean  theory  of  virtue 
applied  to  the  character  of  God.  Tiie  con- 
sistency of  decrees  with  freedom  he  does  not 
attempt  to  prove,  but  liolds  fast  to  both  truths 
as  alike  proved,  thus  giving  to  his  followers 
one  of  their  most  distinct  peculiarities,  the 
disposition  to  sacrifice  no  truth  because  not 
altogether  explicable.  The  amount  of  atten- 
tion paid  to  the  new  birth  is  the  chief  sign  of 
a  tendency  to  improvement  at  this  point.  On 
the  ability  of  man  to  repent,  Hopkins  is 
strong  and  clear.  He  is  also  to  be  credited 
with  the  tirst  introduction  of  the  governmen- 
tal theory  of  the  atonement  into  New  Eng- 
land. 

But  while  Hopkins  was  thus  quietly  system- 
atizing his  ideas,  a  controversy  had  arisen 
in  New  Eugland  which  speedily  led  to  an 
important  moditication  of  tlujological  views. 
John  Murray  arrived  in  America  in  1770,  and 
began  to  preach  Universalism  upon  the  basis 
of  the  theory  of  Kelly,  which  he  called 
"union."  It  was  nothing  but  the  old  satis- 
faction theory  of  the  atonement,  with  the  doc- 
trine of  imputation  of  Christ's  merits,  and  the 
additional  proposition  that  Christ  died  for 
all.  Therefore  Ivelly  concluded  that  Christ's 
merits  were  imputed-  to  all,  and  hence  all 
were  already  saved.  The  conclusion  could 
not  be  accepted  by  the  New  England  divines. 
Their  vuews  ujjon  the  subject  had  been  settled 
by  long  consideration.  Edwards  had  devoted 
much  attention  to  the  subject  of  future  pun- 
ishment at  various  times.  The  great  dilli- 
culty  in  the  theory  of  eternal  punishment, 
the  permission  of  evil  in  the  government  of  a 
good  and  almighty  God,  Edwards,  Bellamy, 
and  Hopkins  had  all  wrestled  with.  But  the 
logic  of  the  Universalist  argument  was  giuxl, 
and  hence  the  trouble  must  lie  in  the  prem- 
ises. It  could  not  lie  in  the  proposition  that 
Clirist  died  for  all.  Bellamy  had  shown  this. 
The  Grotian  theorj'  of  the  atonement,  which 
teaches  that  God  acts  in  this  matter  not  as  the 
offended  party,  as  the  old  Calvinism  conceived, 
but  as  a  ruler,  and  that  the  sufferings  of  Christ 
are  a  governmental  example  and  not  the  pay- 
ment of  our  debt  to  God,  liad  already  gained 
some  acceptance  among  New  Englanders. 
Following  its  suggestion,  a  group  of  thinkers 
in  Connecticut,  with  West  of  Stockbridge, 
set  forth  almost  simultaneously  the  New 
England  theory  of  the  atonement  as  the  an- 
swer of  New  England  to  Universalism.  Jona- 
than Edwards  the  Younger  was  the  chief  of 
thesi',  and  his  sermons  at  New  Haven  in  17S.") 
are  to  be  regarded  as  its  first  adequate  and 
full  presentation. 

Grotius'  theory  was  legal  in  its  forms  and 
without  the  ideal  side.  That  ideal  was  given 
by  the  Edwardean  theory  of  virtue.  God's 
government  rests  upon  his  character,  and  tliat 
character  is  love.  Love  puts  men  uncier  a 
moral  government  and  controls  them  by  mo- 
tives. It  jjrescribes  just  penalties  for  disobe- 
dience ;  but  these  will  not  be  exacted  simply 
because  God  is  just.  There  is  no  virtue  in 
an  act  of  justice  apart  from  love.  Hence 
God  will  act  from  love — that  is,  from  a  re- 
gard for  the  general  good  of  his  luiiverse. 
His  character  must  be  sinelded,  his  law  main- 
tained, because  love  to  men  demands  all  this. 


But  if  this  can  be  done,  authority  maintained, 
sinners  forgiven,  and  yet  no  moral  influence 
exerted  thereby  upon  the  sinner  calculated 
to  result  in  his  hurt,  love  demands  that  it 
shall  be  done.  All  this  is  effected  by  setting 
fortli  CJH-ist  as  a  ])enal  example.  Thus  pub- 
lic justice  is  satished  by  the  atonement,  and 
it  is  rendered  consistejit  with  the  good  of 
being  to  forgive  man  ;  and  yet  the  debt  of 
man  is  not  paid  nor  his  merits  imputed, 
and  in  the  nature  of  things  cannot  be.  And 
thus  the  major  proposition  of  the  Universalist 
argument  is  taken  away. 

From  this  time  on  the  words  "  moral  gov- 
ernment" are  found  on  many  a  page  of  New 
England  Theology.  Writer  after  writer 
worked  upon  the  theory,  developing  this 
feature  and  that  with  some  greater  degree  of 
fulness;  and  yet  the  main  ideas  were  fully 
stated  at  the  beginning.  Stephen  West 
brought  out  the  relation  of  the  atonement  to 
the  character  of  God  ;  Griflftn  expatiated  upon 
the  provision  made  in  the  atonement  for  all 
men,  and  developed  more  fully  the  nature  of 
the  divine  government  ;  Burge  brought  out 
the  fact  that  the  atonement  is  necessary  that 
God  should  be  "  just  to  himself  "  by  prop- 
erly representing  his  character  ;  and  Taylor 
restated  the  nature  of  God's  moral  govern- 
ment with  unsurpassed  clearness  and  fulness. 

.").  The  Unitarian  Controversy,  1800-33. 
Thus  the  original  Armiuianism  had  been  the 
occasion  of  the  labors  of  the  elder  Edwards, 
and  the  Universalist  controversy  had  led  to 
the  formulation  of  the  New  England  theory 
of  the  atonement.  The  controvers}'  which 
now  followed  stimulated  reflection  upon  all 
the  topics  of  theology,  and  thus  indirectly 
contributed  more  than  anything  which  had 
gone  before  to  the  perfection  of  the  !New 
England  system.  Unitarianism  as  a  move- 
ment rooted  in  the  period  of  religious  decline 
and  in  the  old  .iVrminianism.  A  portion  of 
the  New  England  ministry  had  felt  no  sym- 
pathy with  the  revivals  under  Whitefield  and 
Edwards.  To  (Miauncy  they  were  the  out- 
break of  disorder  and  "enthusiasm."  A 
cold  orthodoxy  united  easily  with  Arminian- 
ism.  Socinian  writers  were  soon  read, 
End^-n's  attack  upon  tin;  divinity  of  Christ  was 
reprinted  in  Boston,  and  under  the  influence 
of  French  liberality  still  further  progress 
made,  till  at  last  a  movement  appeared  which 
was  fundamentally  a  denial  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  new  birth,  but  was  called  Unitarian- 
ism. Considerable  discussion  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  trinity  followed,  but  the  constructive 
work  of  the  period  was  not  done  at  this 
l)oint.  That  consisted  in  the  further  develop- 
ment, iHider  the  pressure  of  the  necessity  of 
better  theories  iipon  conversion  and  of  more 
effective  work  in  the  actual  saving  of  souls,  of 
those  doctrines  which  gather  about  the  doc- 
trine of  the  will  as  their  centre. 

The  controversy  began  with  the  election  of 
Henry  Ware,  a  Unitarian,  to  the  chair  of 
divinity  in  Harvard  College  (1805).  Theo- 
logically, the  orthodox  churches  were  i)re- 
pared,  by  the  renewed  attention  which  had 
just  been  paid  to  the  work  of  the  Redeemer, 
for  a  discussion  of  his  person  without  great 
danger  of    falling  into  error.      Practically, 


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they  had  also  had  a  preparation  in  the  great 
ret'ivals  in  Yale  College  and  throughout  the 
country.  Tluis  they  were,  in  fact,  only  stim- 
ulated and  helped  on  by  the  controversy  in  a 
coarse  of  development  already  begun. 

Stephen  West  had  written  upon  Moral 
Agency  (1772),  following  in  general  closely  in 
the  path  of  Edwards,  but  departing  from 
him  in  affirming  that  moral  agency  consists 
in  exercises,  which  are  the  action  of  the  deity, 
as  the  sole  efficient  cause.  Samuel  West  was 
stirred  up  by  this  reduction  of  man  to  a  mere 
machine  to  send  out  his  essays  (1795),  which 
were  remarkable  for  first  proposing  in  New 
England  the  division  of  the  mind  into  the 
three  faculties  of  "  the  perception,  the  pro- 
pension,  and  the  will,"  and  taught  that  the 
mind  by  divine  communication  is  a  first 
cause  in  the  same  sense  as  God  himself.  The 
work,  revolutionary  and  anticipatory  of  much 
of  the  best  of  the  following  development  as 
it  was,  met  with  no  fitting  reception,  but  was 
replied  to  by  the  younger  Edwards  in  a  Dis- 
sertation concerning  Liberty  and  Necessity 
(1797),  which,  though  following  his  father's 
work  in  general,  made  motives  the  occasion  of 
the  action  of  the  will  rather  than  its  cau.se, 
and  followed  Stephen  W^est  in  making  God 
the  canse  of  men's  volitions.  By  a  singular 
logical  consequence,  he  banished  true  efficient 
causation  not  only  from  the  finite  world  but 
from  the  universe,  saying  that  God  "is  no 
more  the  efficient  cause  of  his  own  volitions 
than  of  his  own  existence."  Thus  tlie  ten- 
dency of  New  England  Theology  was,  at  this 
point,  now  more  and  more  to  the  exaltation 
of  the  agency  of  God  at  the  expense  of  that 
of  man.  In  a  certain  sense,  Emmons  repre- 
sents the  summit  of  this  tendency,  for  his  ex- 
pressions upon  the  divine  efficiency  are  of  the 
extremest.  God  creates  our  volitions.  But 
in  him  the  line  of  thought  flowing  from  Bel- 
lamy through  Hopkins  reappears,  and  we  find 
the  "freedom  of  man  reasserted  with  the  most 
unflinching  disdain  of  apparent  inconsis- 
tency. Men  are  as  free  as  if  God  did  not  act 
in  their  volitions.  If  their  volitions  are  cre- 
ated, they  are  created  free.  We  see  here  the 
effect  of  the  thought  which  had  come  down 
from  Malebranche  through  Edwards,  that 
preservation  is  only  continued  creation.  At 
the  opposite  pole  from  Emmons  stood  Burton 
(1753-1836),  who  took  up  the  division  of  the 
mind  which  Samuel  West  had  made,  and  in 
his  essays  (1824)  argued  convincingly  for  the 
separation  of  the  sensibility,  wliich  he  styled 
the  "taste,"  from  the  will  as  a  di.stinct  "fac- 
ulty, but  connected  the  action  of  the  will  by 
an  Edwardean  necessity  with  the  motions  of 
the  taste.  Taylor  and  Finney  closed  the  de- 
velopment by  gathering  up  these  scattered 
and  divergent  attempts  into  a  consistent  the- 
ory which  embraced  the  truths  found  in 
them  all.  Taylor  accepted  Burton's  division 
of  the  mind,  and  found  by  it  a  neutral  point, 
the  sensibility,  in  the  niind  of  the  uncon- 
verted, to  which  the  preaching  of  the  gospel 
could  appeal.  Man  w^is  the  efficient  cause  of 
his  volitions.  In  every  act  of  the  will  the 
soul  has  power  to  the  contrary.  "  A  man 
not  only  can  if  he  will,  but  he  can  if  he 
won't."     But  there  is  a  government  of  God 


through  motives,  which  certainly,  though 
without  necessity,  by  the  power  of  influence, 
control  the  will.  He  also  sharpened  the  dis- 
tinction between  natural  and  moral  ability. 
Natural  ability  is  the  true  power  of  the  will ; 
moral  ability*  is  the  condition  of  the  will. 
Finney  advances  a  step  in  the  forms  of  state- 
ment of  the  same  views,  but  adds  nothing  to 
their  substance. 

Dr.  Taylor  went  into  full  discussion  of  the 
questions  as  to  sin,  man's  depravity,  regener- 
ation, and  the  permission  of  sin,  thus  taking 
up  the  wdiole  line  of  anthropological  investi- 
gation which  had  occupied  New"  England 
from  the  time  of  Edwards.  The  years  1829- 
33  were  occupied  with  a  controversy  with 
Dr.  Tyler  upon  these  points.  Tlie  general 
outcome  was  the  removal  of  those  features  of 
tlie  former  theology  to  which  Unitarians  had 
repeatedly  objected,  and  wdiich  the  New  Eng- 
land writers  themselves  believed  objection- 
able, and  the  general  adoption  of  the  prin- 
ciples which  have  since  been  known  as  New 
England  theology — that  all  sin  is  voluntary  ; 
that  through  our  connection  with  Adam  there 
is  in  man  a  sinful  propensit}"  which  renders 
it  previously  certain  that  every  man  will  .sin 
from  the  beginning  of  moral  action  ;  that 
though  man  has  complete  freedom  of  will,  as 
a  fact  he  never  turns  to  God  without  the  pre- 
vious regenerating  operation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  which  persuasively  turns  him  to  re- 
pentance and  holiness  ;  that  holiness  is  dis- 
interested love  ;  and  that  election  is  the 
choice,  for  reasons  lying  in  the  knowledge  of 
God  alone,  of  certain  persons,  without  regard 
to  their  own  merits,  as  the  recipients  of  such 
gracious  influence  as  shall  certainly  secure 
their  repentance.  Sin,  Dr.  Taylor  held,  could 
perhaps  not  be  wisely  prevented  in  the  sys- 
tem which  God  had  adopted,  of  the  govern- 
ment of  fi"ee  agents  by  moral  influences. 

In  all  this  controversy,  nuich  assistance 
was  given  by  various  single  writers.  Spring 
helped  in  the  doctrine  of  ability.  Emmons' 
preaching  presented  the  New  England  doc- 
trines with  great  pungency  and  startling, 
axiomatic  clearness.  Beecher  and  Griffin 
preached  revival  sermons  of  great  power,  in- 
corporating the  new  divinity.  Stuart  brought 
the  resources  of  German  learning  to  the  con- 
flict. 

6.  The  period  of  theological  Unification, 
1833-71.  The  new  divinity  of  Taylor  brought 
at  first  nothing  but  confusion  into  the  gen- 
eral fortunes  of  the  Congregational  churches. 
It  w^as  seized  upon  by  those  who  were  dissat- 
isfied with  the  plan  of  vrnion  between  Pres- 
byterians and  Congregationalists,  which  had 
been  in  operation  since  1801,  as  a  pretext  for 
dissolving  that  connection.  The  Presbyte- 
rian Church  was  rent  by  it  (1837-38).  The 
West  was  more  radical  than  the  East  in  the 
adoption  of  Taylorism,  and  was  for  a  long 
time  suspected  of  various  heresies  and  laxities 
even  by  the  friends  of  New  England  Theol- 
ogy. The  Convention  at  Albany  in  1852 
brought  about  a  better  state  of  feeling  by 
producing  a  better  understanding  of  each 
party  by  the  other.  Increased  means  of 
communication  during  the  years  till  the  Na- 
tional Council  of  1871  produced  greater  and 


NEW 


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NEWMAN 


greater  liarraony  of  view.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  civil  war  it  is  probable  that  there  was 
nearly  as  great  a  degree  of  unanimity  among 
Congregationalists  in  the  acceptance  of  New 
England  Theology  as  there  was  originally  in 
the  acceptance  of  the  older  Calvinism. 

Only  one  great  attempt  at  original  work  re- 
mains to  note,  that  at  Oberlin  under  the  lead 
of  President  Finney.  This  institution,  start- 
ing as  an  earnest  and  aggressive  evangelical 
ini->sionary  establishment,  labored  with  pecul- 
iar earnestness  to  elevate  the  standard  of 
Christian  living  bj^  insisting  upon  the  duty  of 
obtaining  entire  sanctitication.  A  somewhat 
jiew  view  of  moral  action  was  developed, 
which,  taking  the  idea  of  West  and  Emmons, 
that  all  moral  agency  consisted  in  exercise, 
insisted  that  every  volition  was  either  per- 
fectly holy  or  perfectly  sinful,  since  it 
<;ither  was  or  was  not  an  exercise  of  disinter- 
ested benevolence.  Since  it  is  possible,  there- 
fore, to  put  forth  a  holy  volition,  the  soul  in 
tiiat  act  and  at  that  moment  is  perfectly  holy, 
and  to  obtain  entire  sanctitication  needs  only 
to  continue  to  put  forth  uninterruptedly  such 
volitions.  This  it  can  and  ought  to  do.  This 
theory  can  as  j-et  be  scarc-el}'  said  to  have  been 
incorporated  into  New  England  Thecjlogy. 

New  England  has  produced  many  other 
powerful  theological  writers,  such  as  Horace 
Bashnell,  who,  however,  while  contributing 
to  introduce  into  New  England  Theology  bet- 
ter conceptions  of  the  atonement  as  a  source 
of  moral  induence  upon  the  sinner,  and  so  the 
great  motive  leading  him  to  repentance,  has 
had  little  other  influence  tipon  the  school  of 
thought  whose  history  we  have  now  sketched. 

(The  best  living  expounder  of  New  Eng- 
land Theology  is  Edwards  A.  Park  of  An- 
do  ver.  His  articles  in  Schaff -Herzog,  McClin- 
lock  and  Strong,  and  in  the  Bibliotheca  Siicra 
are  numerous,  and  of  the  highest  value.  See 
also  his  memoirs  of  Hopkins,  Bellamy,  and  a 
forthcoming  one  of  Edwards.  Professor 
G.  P.  Fisher  is  also  a  sympathetic  interpreter 
of  Tavlor.  A  history  of  the  school  is  a  de- 
sideratum.) F.  H.  F. 

New     Jerusalem      Church.      See     Ne>v 

CUUKCII. 

New  Light  Antiburghers.  See  Pkesby- 
TEKi.vx  Churches  (United  Presbyterian 
Church). 

New  School  Presbyterian  Church.     See 

PUESHYTKKIAX  CHURCHES. 

Newman,  John  Philip,  D.D.  (Rochester 
Semiuarv,  New  York.  1864),  LL.D.  (Wes- 
leyan  University,  Athens,  Tenn. ,  1882),  Meth- 
odist bishop  ;  b.  in  New  York,  Sept.  1,  1826  ; 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  in  1848  ;  was  pastor  of  tiie 
Metropnlitan  ^Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Washington,  1869-72,  1875-78  ;  chaplain  to 
the  United  States  Senate,  1869-7.')  ;  preached 
in  the  Madison  Avenue  Congregational 
Church,  New  York,  1882-84  ;  was  elected 
bisliop,  1888.  He  published  Fnna  Dun  to 
Beersheba.  New  York,  1864  ;  From  the  Persia u 
Gulf  to  th*:  Mnlitn-nnuaa.  1876;  Sermons, 
1876  ;  Christiinntu  Tri'impluint,  1884  ;  Suprem- 
acy u/Iaiic,  New  York,  1890,  etc.        C.  P. 


Newman,  John  Henry,  D.D.  (Rome, 
1846),  Roman  Catholic  ;  b.  in  Loudon.  Feb. 
21,  1801  ;  d.  at  Edgbarton,  Birmingham, 
Aug.  11,  1890.  He  was  educated  at  Ealing 
and  at  Trinity  College.  O.xford  ;  B.A.,  1820  ; 
fellow  of  Oriel,  1823  ;  ordidned,  1824  ;  vice- 
principal  of  St.  Albau's  Hall,  1825  ;  tutor, 
1826-4;i  ;  exanuner,  1827  ;  vicar  of  St.  Mary's, 
Oxford,  and  curate  of  Littlemore,  1828-43. 
During  a  tour  in  the  Mediterranean,  18o2-33, 
he  wrote  "Lead,  kindly  Light"  and  many 
other  lyrics  included  in  Lyra  Apostollca.  Lon- 
don, 1836.  Returning  just  before  Keble's 
Sermon  on  National  Apostasy  ojjened  the  Ox- 
ford movement,  he  begau  the  Tnicts  for  the 
Times,  writing  24  of  the  90.  His  Tract  No. 
90,  aiming  to  i)rove  the  Thirty -nine  Articles 
in  harmony  with  Roman  doctrine,  brought 
the  series  to  a  close  amid  a  storm  of  protest, 
March,  1841.  The  withdrawal  from  the  Eng- 
lish Church  of  mauy  who  held  these  views 
began  soon  after,  but  Newman  did  not  fol- 
low till  Oct.,  1845,  after  two  years  of  retire- 
ment at  Littlemore.  His  plan  for  an  English 
Oratorian  community,  approved  b}-  the  pope, 
1846,  was  carried  out  1849,  and  the  order  soon 
settled  at  Birmingham.  There  he  remained, 
except  for  four  years  at  Dublin.  1854-58,  as 
rector  of  the  new  Roman  Catholic  Univer- 
sity. Tlie  chief  incidents  of  his  later  life 
were  the  libel  suit  brought  against  him  by  the 
ex-monk,  Dr.  Achilli,  wherL-in,  contrary  to 
public  opinion,  he  was  mulcted  in  nearly 
£13,000,  a  sum  raised  by  subscription 
throughout  the  world  ;  the  attack  on  him  by 
Kingsley,  and  his  memorable  reply  in  his 
greatest  prose  book,  Ajjoloyia  irro  Vita  sua, 
1860  ;  and  his  elevation  to  the  cardinalate, 
1879. 

Newman  was  by  far  the  greatest  accession 
to  tiie  Church  of  Rome,  and  the  greatest  loss 
to  that  of  England,  during  the  present  cen- 
tury. The  purity  of  his  motives  was  rarely 
questioned  ;  the  dignity  and  attractiveness  of 
his  character  gained  general  respect  and 
much  atfection  ;  the  splendor  of  his  talents 
won  him  the  highest  rank  in  recent  religious 
literature.  He  is  venerated  by  critics  as  the 
master  of  a  perfect  prose  style  ;  his  versatility, 
though  little  cultivated,  has  been  shown  in 
poetry  and  fiction  ;  Loss  and  Gain;  or,  the 
Story  of  a  Convert,  London,  1848,  and  CallU- 
fa,  a  Skttrh  of  the  Third  Century,  1855  ;  his 
Verses,  1867,  included  'The  L}ream  of  Geron- 
tius,  his  only  poem  of  any  length.  These 
excursions,  too  often  disregarded  as  lighter 
works,  might  have  made  the  fame  of  a  lesser 
man.  As  a  preacher  he  was  among  the  great- 
est ;  his  Piirorhiiil  and  Plain  Sermons,  8  vols., 
have  been  widely  read  and  highly  valued  for 
eloquence  and  "moral  intensity."  Among 
his  other  books  are  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Cen- 
tury, 1833  ;  Lectures  on  Justif  cation,  1838  ; 
Biblical  and  Erchsiastical  Mi  racks,  1843  ;  De 
relapmoit  of  Christian  Doctrine,  1845  (written 
to  justify  the  Roman  position,  and  his  ad- 
hesion thereto)  ;  Difficulties  of  Aiif/licans, 
18.50,  2  vols.;  Kxsayin  Aid  of  a  Grmi'imar  of 
Asxdd,  1870.  His  works,  as  collected  1870- 
7I>,  tilled  thirty-four  volumes,  and  sul)se(iuent 
or  onutted  matter  would  make  six  more. 
The  regard  felt  for  him  among  Protestant 


NEW 


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NEW 


communions,  and  the  undiminished  interest 
which  followed  him  through  his  later  years 
of  comparative  silence  and  inaction,  show 
how  the  liberal  spirit  of  Christianity  has  in- 
creased within  our  time.  In  any  previous 
age  he  would  have  been  hated  as  a  seceder  ; 
for  many  years  he  has  been  mentioned  only 
with  respect  for  his  great  qualities,  and  regret 
at  the  diminution  of  his  usefulness  consequent 
on  his  loss  to  the  Protestant  Church.  Pend- 
ing the  appearance  of  a  complete  life,  see 
that  by  Jennings,  1883  ;  R.  H.  Hutton,  Bos- 
ton, 1890.  F.  M.  B. 

New  Testament.  A  name  applied  to  the 
Greek  Scriptures  and  taken  from  Heb.  ix. 
15,  where  it  refers  to  the  new  covenant  rati- 
fied by  the  blood  of  Christ  as  distinguished 
from  the  old  covenant  (Ex.  xxiv.  8)  ratified 
by  the  blood  of  animal  victims.  The  New 
Testament,  or,  as  it  would  be  better  named, 
the  New  Covenant,  contains  three  sections  : 
1.  The  historical,  which  consists  of  the  four 
gospels — Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John — 
and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  former  giv- 
ing the  fourfold  biography  of  our  Lord  and 
the  latter  the  founding  of  the  Christian 
Cimrch.  2.  The  didactic  writings,  which  in- 
clude the  thirteen  epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul, 
with  the  anonymous  epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
sometimes  ascribed  to  him,  the  epistle  of 
James,  the  two  epistles  of  Peter,  the  three  of 
John,  and  the  epistle  of  Jude,  all  of  Avhicli 
concur  to  unfold  the  doctrines  of  Christiauily 
and  their  application  to  individual  and  social 
life.  3.  The  prophetical  section  consists  of 
only  one  book,  the  Apocalypse  or  Revelation 
of  John  the  Divine,  which  consists  for  the 
most  part  of  a  series  of  visions,  highly  sym- 
bolical in  form,  that  reach  from  the  first'^age 
of  the  church  to  the  last.  The  learned  are 
not  agreed  as  to  the  interpretation  of  these 
symbols,  but  notwithstanding  its  mystery  the 
book  has  always  been  dear  to  the  heart  of 
believers.  T.  W.  C. 

Newton,  John,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  in 
London,  July  24,   1725  ;  d.  there,  Dec.   31. 

1807.  His  early  life  as  a  sailor  was  full  of 
sin  and  suffering,  and  he  was  a  slave-trader 
till  1755,  though  his  religious  convictions 
were  of  earlier  date.  After  some  years  as  a 
tide-surveyor  at  Liverpool,  he  with  difficulty 
obtained  ordination,  1764-65,  and  became 
curate  of  Olney,  55  m.  n.n.w.  of  London. 
Here  Cowper  came  in  1768,  and  from  their 
close  friendship  sprang  the  Olncy  Hymns, 
1779,  the  most  important  contribution  to 
sacred  song  in  the  last  century  after  those  of 
AVatts  and  Wesley.  Newton  was  rector  of 
St.  Mary  Woolnoth,  London,  from  1779,  and 
the  chief  ornament  of  the  Evangelical  party. 
He  was  a  moderate  Calvinist,  and  a  most  sin- 
cere and  lovable  man.  In  prose  he  published 
an  Authentic  Narrative,  London,  a  Review  of 
Ecclesiastical  History,  1770,  Cardiphonia, 
1781,  and  sundry  sermons  and  letters,  col- 
lected in  6  vols.,  1816.  with  a  life  bv  R.  Cecil, 

1808.  F.  M.  B. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  b.  at  Woolsthorpe,  103 
m.  w.  by  n.  of  London,  Dec.  25,  1642  ;  d.  in 
London,  March  20,  1727.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity   College,    Cambridge,   1660 ;    became 


fellow,  1667  ;  Lucasian  professor  of  mathe- 
matics, 1669.  His  vast  services  to  science 
need  not  be  mentioned  here.  He  was  inter- 
ested in  theological  studies,  and  left  in  manu- 
script Observations  on  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel 
and  the  Apocalypse,  London,  1733  ;  Two  No- 
table Corruptions  of  the  Scriptures,  1754  ;  a 
Church  History,  and  other  religious  writings. 
(See  Brewster's  memoir,  London.  1855,  2 
vols.)  F.  M.  B. 

Newton,  Richard,  D.D.  (Kenyon  College, 
Gambler,  O.,  1845),  Episcopalian  ;  b.  in 
Liverpool.  Eng.,  July  25,  1813  ;  d.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  May  25,  1887.  He  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia, 
1836,  and  at' the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary, New  York  City,  1839  ;  spent  his  entire 
ministerial  life  in  Philadelphia,  first  as  rector 
of  St.  Paul's,  1840.  then  of  the  Epiphany, 
1862,  and  then  of  the  Covenant,  1883.  He 
was  a  recognized  leader  of  the  Low  Church 
party.  His  numerous  publications  are  mostly 
sermons  to  children,  for  which  he  was  famous, 
(See  The  Heath  in.  the  Wilderness,  with  biog- 
raphy by  his  son,  W.  W.  Newton.  New 
York,  1888.) 

Newton,  Richard  Heber,  D.D.  (Union, 
1881),  Episcopalian,  son  of  the  above ;  b.  in 
Pliiladelphia,  Oct.  31,  1840  ;  has  been  since 
1869  rector  of  All  Souls'  Church,  New  York 
City.  He  is  noted  for  his  bold  advocacy  of 
so-called  "advanced"  views,  and  is  a  pro- 
nounced Broad  Churchman.  Of  his  publi- 
cations may  be  noted,  Bifjht  and  Wrong  Uses 
of  the  Bible,  New  York,  1883  ;  Book  of  the 
Beginnings,  1884  ;  Philistinism,  1885  ;  P7-ob- 
lems,  188'6  ;  Social  ^Studies,  1887. 

New  Zealand  consists  of  three  islands. 
North,  South,  and  Stewart,  1200  m.  s.e.  of 
Australia.  It  extends  from  34°  25'  to  47°  17' 
s.  lat.,  and  from  166°  26'  to  178°  36'  e.  long., 
with  an  area  of  100,000  sq.  m.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Abel  Tasman  in  1642.  Cook, 
who  was  the  first  European  to  land  there, 
took  possession  for  George  III.  in  1769.  The 
natives  are  Maoris,  of  Polynesian  race  ;  they 
"  had  no  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being,"  and  were 
fierce  cannibals.  Samuel  Marsden  (q.v.), 
chaplain  in  New  South  Wales,  established 
the  first  mission  in  1814,  at  the  Bay  of  Islands, 
among  the  Ngapuhi  tribe,  and  supervised  it 
till  his  death  in  1838.  The  natives  were  grad- 
ually converted,  showing  themselves  un- 
usually amenable  to  civilizing  influences  ; 
and  at  this  place  the  chiefs  submitted  to 
Great  Britain  in  1840.  Colonization  began 
about  tliat  time,  and  Wellington,  the  capital, 
was  founded  by  a  land  company,  1840.  The 
province  of  Canterbury  was  settled,  1850,  by 
Church  of  England  people,  and  Otago  by 
Presbyterians  ;  but  there  is  no  established 
church  in  the  islands.  The  foreign  popula- 
tion at  the  end  of  1883  was  515,000  ;  five 
years  earlier  these  had  been  rated,  in  round 
numbers,  as  174,000  Episcopalians,  95,000 
Presbyterians,  59.000  Romanists.  38,000 
Methodists,  and  other  bodies  in  much  smaller 
numbers.  The  natives  were  reported  in  1881 
as  44,097  ;  there  were  said  to  be  2,000,000  in 
1835.  The  progress  of  the  colony  has  been 
generally  peaceful,  and  little  interrupted  by 


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NICETAS 


local  insurrectious,  of  which  the  chief  oc- 
curred iu  1863-64.  Whatever  be  the  fate  of 
the  savages  wheu  brought  in  contact  witli  a 
superior  race  and  new  ways  of  life.  New 
Zealand  presents  an  eminent  instance  of  the 
missionary  preparing  tlie  way  for  the  colonist. 
F.  ]\I.  B. 

New  Year.     See  Tuumpets,  Feast  of. 

Nicsea,  Councils  of.  1.  Called  by  Con- 
stantiue  in  325  tc  settle  the  doctrinal  strife 
raging  in  Alexandria  upon  the  divinity  of 
Clirist.  For  the  previous  events,  see  arts. 
Akius  and  Ath.\n.vsius.  The  bishops  were 
provided  with  conveyance  at  the  public  cost, 
and  came  from  every  part  of  the  empire, 
tliougli  much  more  numerously  from  the 
East'than  the  West.  Tiieir  number  is  vari- 
ously given,  but  Athanasius  sets  it  at  318. 
Tlie  principal  personages  were  the  bishops  of 
the  great  churches  at  Jerusalem,  Antioch, 
and  Alexandria  ;  Athanasius  ;  Eusebius  of 
Ciesarea  and  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and 
Arius  himself.  Before  the  council,  various 
informal  matters  were  discussed.  The  coun- 
cil was  opened  at  the  desiirnated  time  by  the 
emperor  in  person,  who  entered  with  much 
splendor  and  state  ;  but  he  soon  left  the 
presidency  to  others,  though  continuing  to 
watch  tlie  progress  of  things  and  to  exert  a 
powerful  intluence.  Who  these  presidents 
were  is  unknown.  There  were  in  the  coun- 
cil three  parties— the  decided  Arians,  tlie  de- 
cided Athanasians,  both  of  Avhich  were  few 
in  numbers,  and  the  larger  body  of  those 
who  occupied  about  the  position  of  Eusebius 
of  C;esarea,  who  presented  an  old  symbol  of 
his  own  churcli,  wliich  was  couched  in  am- 
biguous phrases  upon  the  disputed  points. 
The  confession  of  Afius  was  first  presented 
and  immediately  rejected  with  loud  acclama- 
tions of  dissatisfaction.  Then  the  Eu.sebian 
creed  was  brouglit  forward,  but  found  too  in- 
definite. The  Alexandrian  party  were  deter- 
mined to  have  a  creed  which  should  positively 
exclude  Arianism,  and  so  revised  the  Eusebian 
creed,  and  selected  the  word  "  hom-o-ousios," 
of  llie  same  nature  with,  to  describe  the  re- 
lation of  the  Son  to  the  Fatlier.  Two  re- 
cusants were,  witli  Arius,  banished.  The 
council  also  passed  decrees  \ipon  the  Meletian 
schism  (q.v.)  and  the  Easter  (q.v.)  contro- 
versy. It  finally  attained  great  authority  in 
the  church,  not  only  because  it  had  the  sup- 
port of  the  state,  but  because  of  its  .size,  its 
dignity,  and  the  growing  conviction  that  it 
had  set  forth  tlie  truth.  (See  Boyle,  ,1  7/m- 
toncal  View  of  the  C'oujicil  of  J^lre,  irith  o 
Translation  of  Donnncnts,  New  York,  1856.) 

2.  Called  to  settle  the  iconoclastic,  contro- 
versy, in  tlie  general  computation  the  seventh 
oecumenical  council,  it  met  first  at  Constanti- 
nople in  786,  but  on  account  of  the  opposition 
of  the  bishops,  populace,  and  military  of  tliat 
city  was  immediately  postponed  a  J'ear.  and 
reassembled  at  Xicsea,  Sept.  24,  787,  and  fin- 
ished its  session  Oct.  23  of  the  same  year.  It 
pronounced  in  favor  of  tlie  use  of  pi(;tures 
and  images  in  tiie  churches,  on  account  of 
the  usage  of  tlie  churcli  and  the  support  given 
thereby  to  the  dextrine  of  the  incarnation  ! 
They  were  not  to  be  worshipped,  but  to  be 


treated  with  veneration  by  the  people.  There 
were  passed  also  a  number  of  disciplinary 
canons.  (See  Stanley,  History  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  London,  1861.)  F.  II.  F. 

Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan  Creed.  The 
creed  which  passes  under  this  name  is  said  to 
liave  been  prepared  at  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople iu  the  year  38l  by  revising  the 
creed  of  the  Council  of  Nica^a  (q.v.)  slightly, 
and  by  adding  definitions  as  to  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  c:hurcli,  etc.,  in  general  conformity 
Avith  the  Apostles'  Creed.  But  Hort  {'I'wo 
Dissertdttons.  II.  On  the  Constdutinoptdita n 
Creed  and  other  Eastern  Creeds  of  the  Emirth 
Century,  Cambridge,  1876)  has  shown  that 
tliere  is  no  external  evidence  between  the  years 
381  and  451  in  Orient  or  Occident  of  tlie  ex- 
istence of  this  creed,  and  that  the  original 
Nicene  Creed  was  then  the  one  in  common 
use  in  the  churches,  which  more  and  more 
took  the  place  of  the  old  baptismal  creeds. 
Internal  evidence  is  also  against  the  common 
view.  There  are  four  omissions  and  ten  ad- 
ditions in  the  Constantino])l(!  Creed,  besides 
diiTerences  in  the  arraiigciiH  nt  of  the  matter. 
The  Council  of  ('(>iistantinoi)le  simply  re- 
atlirmed  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  the  so-called 
Nica'no-Constanlhiopolitan  Creed  is  in  fact 
the  baptisniiil  creed  of  the  church  at  Jeru- 
salem, revised  and  enlarged  by  the  most  im- 
portant elements  of  the  creed  of  Nica^a.  Its 
date  can  be  fixed  at  from  362  to  373.  This 
was  a  period  of  creed  construction  in  the 
East.  But  how  did  it  come  to  be  called  an 
(ecumenical  creed  and  assigned  to  this  p;u'- 
ticular  council?  The  council  it.self  had  little 
claim  to  the  style  "  u'cumenical. "  Only  Ori- 
entals were  there,  and  they  by  no  full  repre- 
sentation. It  was  the  subsequent  importance 
of  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  which  lent 
to  the  council  the  character  of  (ecumenical. 
The  authority  of  the  creed  depends  upon  that 
of  tlie  council,  and  it  was  not  till  about  430 
that  the  latter  was  held  to  be  o'cumenical. 
Then  in  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  the 
council  and  its  supposed  creed  were  sanc- 
tioned ;  and  in  the  West  between  this  time 
and  the  end  of  the  same  century  the  creed 
received  the  same  credit  as  in  the  East.  Prop- 
erly, therefore,  like  the  "  Apostles'  Creed  " 
and  the  "  Athanasian"  it  is  pseudonymous. 
(For  an  excellent  resume  of  the  evidence  see 
llarnack  in  Herzog,  ItealencyclopcBdie,  vol. 
viii.,  p.  212.)  F.  H.  F. 

Nicephorus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  ; 
b.  758  ;  jtatriarch,  806  ;  a  warm  friend  of  the 
worship  of  images,  fell  into  trouble  with  Leo 
Armenius  (emperor  813).  wlio  forbade  the  use 
of  images  ;  was  deposed,  815,  and  died  in  a 
monastery,  828.  F.  II.  F. 

Nicephorus  Callisti,  or  son  of  Callistus,  a 
Greek  church  historian  of  little  merit  who 
fiourished  from  1320  to  1330.  He  gives  a 
view  of  the  whole  history  of  tlie  church  to 
the  year  610.  '  F.  H.  F. 

Nicetas  Akoininatos,  b.  from  1130  to  1140  ; 
d.  1206  ;  a  Byzantine  historian  of  importance, 
descriiiing  the  jx-riod  1118-1205.  He  also 
jiublished  a  Treasury  of  Orthodoj-y  iu  27 
books.  F.  II.  F. 


NICHOLAS 


(652) 


NICOIiAI 


Nicholas,  popes  of  tliat  name.  1.  Pope 
858-67.  He  became  pope  largely  through  the 
influence  of  the  Emperor  Lewis  II.,  who  was 
present  at  Rome.  He  first  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  enlargement  of  the  Roman  influ- 
ence in  Italy.  In  this  he  was  entirely  success- 
ful. In  Germany  the  same  was  true.  In 
France  he.  was  involved  in  a  long  contest 
with  Hincmar  of  Rheims  (q.v.),  the  reason  of 
which  lay  in  the  evident  design  of  Hincmar 
to  supplant  the  influence  of  the  holy  see  in 
France.  After  Hincmar  submitted  in  the 
matter  of  Rothad,  the  pope  kept  the  question 
of  the  legitimacy  of  Hiucmar's  accession  to 
his  bishopric  in  agitation  till  his  own  death 
put  an  end  to  the  discord.  Nicholas  also  pro- 
ceeded against  Lothaire  II.  in  his  plan  to 
divorce  liis  lawful  wife  in  order  to  make  his 
concubine  queen.  The  result  was  the  humili- 
ation of  the  king  and  the  deposition  of  the 
bishops  who  had  pronounced  the  divorce,  a 
stretch  of  power  nev^er  exerted  before  in 
France.  Nicholas  brought  the  young  Mora- 
vian Church,  just  coming  into  existence  un- 
der the  missionaries  Cyril  and  Methodius, 
under  the  control  of  the  Roman  see.  Similar 
efforts  with  the  Bulgarian  Church,  which 
approached  Rome  first,  led  to  complications 
with  Photius  (q.v.)  and  to  the  deposition  of 
Nicholas  by  a  Greek  synod  in  867.  Nicholas 
died  (Nov.  13,  867)  before  the  matter  was 
brought  to  a  close.  2.  Pope  Dec.  28,  1058, 
to  July  27,  1061.  Gerhard,  b.  in  Burgundy  ; 
made  bishop  of  Florence  b}'  Henry  III. ;  was 
associated  with  the  party  of  reform,  so  called, 
in  his  day.  Hildebrand  therefore  secured  his 
election  to  the  papal  oftice.  He  held  a  synod 
at  Rome  at  Easter,  1059.  in  which  he  received 
the  submission  of  his  rival,  the  an ti- pope 
Benedict  X.,  extorted  from  Berengarius  a  re- 
cantation of  his  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist, 
and  laid  down  certain  regulations  for  the  elec- 
tion of  tlie  pope  which  put  this  substantially 
in  the  hands  of  the  cardinals,  allowing  to  the 
emperor  the  right  of  confirmation.  He  first 
wore  the  double  crown.     He  died  at  Florence. 

3.  Pope  Nov.  25,  1277,  to  Aug.  22,  1280. 
Giovanni  Gaetani  Ursini,  cardinal,  1244  ;  he 
cherished  after  his  elevation  to  the  papacy 
great  plans  for  the  reorganization  of  the  en- 
tire empire,  but  died  without  having  accom- 
plished anything  of  importance.  4.  Pope 
Feb.  22,  1288,  to  April  4,  1292.  A  Francis- 
can, and  general  of  the  order  in  1274,  he  was 
the  first  of  that  order  to  ascend  the  papal 
throne.  His  first  and  only  important  act  was 
the  annulling  of  the  treaty  by  which  Charles 
of  Anjou  had  purchased  from  Alphonso  of 
Aragon  his  release  from  prison.  5.  Anti- 
pope  from  May  12,  1328,  when  he  was  ac- 
claimed by  a  popular  assembly  upon  the 
Place  of  St.  Peter,  to  1330.  5.  Tommaso 
Parentucelli,  b.  at  Sarzana  near  Spezzia,  in 
1398  ;  d.  March  24,  1455.  He  was  educated 
at  Bologna,  and  became  very  learned  and  a 
great  promoter  of  literature.  Archbishop  of 
Bologna  in  1444,  he  was  elected  pope  March 

4,  1447.  He  secured  the  AschaflFenburg  con- 
cordate,  which  robbed  Germanv  of  the  chief 
fruits  of  the  Council  of  Basel.  He  also 
secured  the  submission  of  Felix  V.  (q.v.),  and 
thus  put  an  end  to  the  schism.     In  1450  he 


held  a  successful  jubilee  at  Rome.  He  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  Vatican  Library.  But 
he  was  compelled  to  hear  the  news  of  the 
fall  of  Constantinople,  and  could  do  but  little 
to  unite  Italv  against  the  danger  which  thus 
threatened  it.  "       F.  H.  F. 

Nicholas  of  Olemanges.     See  Clemanges. 

Nicholas  of  Cusa.     See  Cusa. 

Nicholas  of  Lyra.     See  Lyra. 

Nicholas  of  Methone.  Of  his  personal 
life  uothmg  is  known,  but  at  a  synod  held  in 
Constantinople  in  1166  there  was  present  a 
Bishop  Nicholas  of  Methone,  now  Modon,  in 
Morea,  Greece,  and  probably  to  him  belongs  a 
series  of  very  characteristic  theological  works, 
of  which  have  been  printed  an  essay  against 
Proclus,  edited  by  J.  Th.  Voemel,  FVankfort, 
1825,  and  two  essays  against  trinitarian  here- 
sies, edited  by  Demetracopulos,  Leipzig,  1865. 

Nicholas  of  Munster.     See  Familists. 

Nicholas  of  Myra  or  St.  Nicholas.     Not 

a  date  nor  a  place  has  ever  been  asceitained 
as  actually  belonging  to  the  history  of  his 
life.  But  he  was  generally  reverenced  as  a 
saint  in  the  Eastern  Church  in  the  6lh  cen- 
tury, and  he  is  the  patron  saint  of  Russia. 
In  the  "Western  Church  his  worship  began  in 
the  10th  century,  but  spread  very  rapidly. 
In  England  alone  no  less  than  372  ehurches 
are  dedicated  to  him.  As  told  in  the  Grt-ek 
menologixmi  or  by  Metaphrastes,  his  life  is 
full  of  the  finest  poetical  fancy  and  the  most 
amazing  puerilities.  His  miracles  made  him 
the  patron  of  children,  of  sailors,  and  of 
thieves,  and  accidentally'  he  also  became  the 
patron  of  pawnbrokers.  In  art  he  is  generally 
represented  with  three  golden  balls  at  his 
feet,  in  his  lap,  or  on  the  book  he  holds  in 
his  hand,  referring  to  the  legend  of  his  res- 
cuing three  young  girls  from  a  shameful  life 
by  giving  each  of  them  a  golden  ball  for  a 
dowry.  Thus  he  is  represented  on  the  spire 
of  St.  Nicholas'  Church  in  Lombard  street, 
London,  which  street  received  its  name  from 
the  circumstance  that  it  was  the  residence  of 
the  Venetian  financiers.  So  it  came  to  pass 
that  monej'-lenders  adopted  the  three  golden 
balls  of  St.  Nicholas  as  tlieir  trade-mark. 

C.  P. 

Ni-co-de'-mus  {victor  of  the  people) ,  a  Phari- 
see, a  member  of  the  Jewish  Sanhedrin.  after- 
ward a  disciple.  First  he  was  a  timid  in- 
quirer, coming  to  Jesus  by  night  (John  iii.). 
Next  he  cautiously  defends  the  Saviour  before 
the  Sanhedrin  (vii.  45-52).  Finally  he  ap- 
pears as  a  professed  follower,  boldly  seeking 
after  the  crucifixion  to  have  the  body  prop- 
erly prepared  for  burial  (xix.  39).  He  is 
named  only  by  John,  who  knew  the  high- 
priest.  T.  W.  C. 

Nicolai  (ne-ko-la-e),  Philipp,  D.D.  (Mar- 
burg, 15—),  Lutheran  theologian  and  hymn- 
writer  ;  b.  at  Mengeringhausen,  Waldeek, 
Aug.  10,  1556  ;  d.  in  Hamburg,  Oct.  26,  1608. 
He  studied  at  Erfvirt  and  Wittenberg,  and 
was  pastor  at  Herdecke,  Westphalia,  1683  ; 
Cologne  ;    Nieder-Wildungen  ;  Unna,    West 


NICOIiAITANS 


653) 


NILUS 


phalia,  1596,  and  from  1601  at  IIanibur.i;, 
wliere  he  gained  high  rtpute  as  a  preacher. 
Besides  several  tierce  attacks  upon  Calvinism 
(Tubingen,  158&-90-98,  etc.),  he  wrote  Frcu- 
denspiegel  d.  ewigen  Lebeiis,  Frankfort,  1590  ; 
Comrnentarioi'urn  de  rec/no  Chrinti,  1597  ; 
Sacrosaiictum  omnipi'cpsentiiti  J.  Viir.  myi^teri- 
urn,  1602,  and  a  few  hynms  (1599),  two  of 
which  are  of  uncommon  beauty,  and  much  val- 
ued both  in  Germany  and  in  English  trans- 
lations ("  IIow  lovely  shines  the  morning 
star"  and  "  Wake,  awake  for  night  is  fly- 
ing''). (See  his  works,  Hamburg,  1611-17, 
4  vols.,  and  his  life  by  Curtze,  Ilalle,  1859.) 
F.  M.  B. 

Ni-co-la-i'-tans,  an  ancient  sect  expressly 
and  severely  condemned  (Rev.  ii.  6,  15). 
Some  suppose  tliat  they  were  followers  of 
Nicolas  the  deacon  (Acts  vi.  5),  but  there  is 
no  evidence  that  he  was  a  heretic.  Others 
view  the  name  as  symbolical,  and  identify  it 
with  Balaam  (deronn'r  of  the  people),  both  rep- 
resenting destructive  seducers  of  the  people. 
T.  W.  C. 

Nicolas.     See  Nicholas. 

Nicole  (ne-kol),  Pierre,  b.  at  Ciiartres,  54 
m.  s.w.  of  Paris,  Oct.  13.  1625  ;  d.  in  Paris, 
Nov.  16,  1695  ;  studied  theology,  but  was  not 
allowed  to  take  orders  on  account  of  his  con- 
nection with  the  Jansenists,  and  became  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  teachers  in  the  schools 
of  Port  lioyal,  and  in  literature  one  of  the 
leading  representatives  of  Jansenism.  Never- 
theless he  belongs  to  the  epigones  of  that 
family  ;  both  his  style  and  his  ideas  bear  the 
marks  of  the  late-born.  He  was  a  man  of  a 
singularly  timorous  temper,  yet  when  he  at- 
tacked the  Prot(-stants,  because  he  felt  the 
ground  solid  under  his  feet,  he  became  cour- 
ageous and  even  lierce.  He  translated  Pas- 
cal's Pronnciid  Lctteres  into  Latin  (1658)  and 
wrote  the  famous  Port  Koyal  Logic,  together 
with  Arnauld  (1659),  but  his  principal  work 
is  his  Esmi/s  de  Morale,  Paris,  1672  sqq. ,  14 
vols.  His  life,  very  interesting  both  in  his- 
torical and  psychological  respects,  was  written 
bv  Goujet,  and  is  found  in  the  last  volume  of 
his  essays. 

Ni-co'-po-lis  [citi/  of  nctori/),  the  city  where 
Paul  determined  to  winter  (Tit.  iii.  12). 
Many  cities  bore  this  name,  but  the  one  he 
meant  was  in  Epirus,  built  b\-  Augustus  in 
honor  of  his  victory  over  Antony  at  Actium. 
Its  extensive  ruins'  attest  its  former  magnifi- 
cence. T.  W.  C. 

Niedner,  Christian  Wilhelm,  D.D.  (Leip- 
zig, 1838),  German  Protestant  ;  b.  at  Ober- 
winkel.  Saxony,  Aug.  9,  1797  ;  d.  in  Berlin, 
Aug.  13,  1865.  Educated  at  Leipzig,  he  be- 
came professor  extraordinary  there,  1829  ; 
ordinary,  1838  ;  in  the  Wittenberg  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  1850  ;  professor  of  theology  in 
Berlin,  1859.  His  forte  was  historical  inves- 
tigation, and  in  it  he  was  pre-eminent  ;  but 
Ins  hhrhiifh  der  cln-i.ttUclien  Kirc/wngexchirhfe 
(Leipzig,  1846.  2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1866)  shows 
that  for  all  his  learning  he  could  not  write 
history.     He  founded,  in  1844,  the  Ztitschrift 

fur  liistiirisrhi    ThloUifjte. 

Night-Hawk,  an  unclean  bird  (Lev.  x\.  16, 


Deut.  xiv.  15).  Probably  not  the  bird  known 
to  us  by  this  name,  but  the  screech-owl  {xtrix 
Jidinmtd),  which  lodges  in  the  large  buildings 
of  Egypt  and  Syria.  T.  W.  C. 

Nile  {blue),  the  celebrated  river  of  Egypt, 
formed  by  the  junction  at  Khartoum  of  the 
Blue  River,  which  rises  in  Abyssinia,  with  the 
White  River,  which  Hows  from  lakes  south  of 
the  Equator.  Excessive  rains  in  the  south 
cause  an  annual  overflow  which  imparts  mois- 
ture and  fertility  to  all  Egypt,  the  water  being 
distributed  by  a  great  network  of  canals,  and 
raised  where  necessary  by  the  Khadotf  or  ol  her 
means.  In  the  Bible  the  river  is  called  Siiihor 
(black)  (Josh.  xiii.  3,  .ler.  ii.  18),  also  '.'  the 
river"  (Gen.  xli.  1,  Ex.  i.  22),  "  the  flood  of 
Egypt"  (Amos  viii.  8,  ix.  5,  where  R.  V.  puts 
"  river").  In  the  plural  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  44,  Isa. 
vii.  18)  the  term  refers  to  the  branches  and 
canals  of  the  stream.  Sometimes  it  is  called 
"  the  sea"  (Isa.  xix.  5,  Nah.  iii.  8),  as  do  the 
plain  people  of  Egypt  to  this  day.  The  Nile 
is  rendered  famous  by  the  years  of  plenty  antl 
famine  in  Joseph's  time,  by  the  story  of  the 
infant  Moses,  by  two  of  the  ten  plagues  of 
Egypt,  and  by  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  (xi. 
11-15,  xix.  5-9).  Its  papyrus  reeds  have  all 
disappeared,  but  the  water  is  still  soft  and 
sweet,  as  when  the  Egyptians  worshipped  the 
river  as  a  god.  T.  W.  C. 

Niles,  Nathaniel,  A.M.  (Harvard.  1772, 
Dartmouth,  1791),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at 
South  Kingston,  R.  I.,  April  3.  1741  ;  d.  at 
West  Fairlee,  Vt.,  Oct.  31,  1828.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  176G  ;  .studied 
theology  under  Dr.  Bellamy,  but  never  took 
pastoral  charge,  though  he  preached  in  his  own 
house  both  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  and  at  AYest 
Fairlee.  He  was  deeply  engaged  in  practical 
pursuits,  wire-making  (inventing  a  machine 
for  tiie  purpose),  wool  carding,  etc.  ;  was 
congressman.  1791-95  ;  member  of  the  Ver- 
mont Legislature  for  several  years  ;  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  etc.,  but  nevertheless 
found  time  to  contribute  largely  to  the  TIko- 
logical  Magazine,  and  published  Four  Dis- 
courses on  Secret  Prayer,  1773  ;  Tico  Discoitrnes 
on  Confession  of  Sin  and  Forgireitess,  1773  ;  a 
number  of  sermons,  etc.  His  brother,  Samuel 
Niles,  b.  at  Braintree,  Mass.,  Dec.  14,  1744  ; 
d.  at  Abington,  Mass.,  Jan.  16,  1814  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton,  1769  ;  studied  theology 
under  Dr.  Bellamy,  and  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Congregational  church  of  Abington, 
1771,  where  he  remained  to  his  death.  He 
published  some  .sermons.  The  two  preceding 
were  grandsons  of  Samuel  Niles,  A.M.  (Har- 
vard, 1759),  b.  on  Block  Island.  R.  I.,  -Alay  1. 
1674;  d.  at  Braintree,  Mass.,  :\Iay  1.  1762. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1699,  and  preached 
from  1702  till  1710  at  King.ston.  R.  I.,  and 
from  1711  till  his  death  at  Braintree.  He 
l)ublished  Trixtitiir  Ecrlesiarniii  ;  or,  a  Brief 
and  Sorrowful  Account  of  (he  Present  Churches 
ia  New  England,  1745  ;  Vindication  if  Dirt  rs 
Important  Doctrines,  1752  ;  The  True  Scrip- 
ture Doctrine  of  Original  Sin,  1757,  etc. 

Nilus,  name  of  several  persons.  1.  Tlic  so- 
called  elder  Nilus  livi-d  from  the  close  of  the 
4th  century  till  about  the  middle  of  the  5th. 


NIMBUS 


(654: 


NITSCHMANN 


About  420  lie  became  a  monk  on  Mt.  Sinai. 
He  was  a  fruitful  writer.  2.  Nilus  Rossa- 
nensis,  called  the  younger,  a  Greek  monk  liv- 
ing in  Italy  in  the  10th  century.  3.  Nilus  the 
Archimandrite  lived  about  the  middle  of 
tiie  11th  century,  wrote  upon  the  system  of 
patriarchates,  in  which  he  opposed  the  pre- 
tensions of  Rome.  4.  Nilus  Cabasilas,  arch- 
bishop of  Thessalonica  about  1840. 

F.  H.  F. 

Nimbus  or  Glory  is  a  ring  or  a  plate 
placed  behind  the  head  of  a  person  as  a  sym- 
bol of  power  or  dignity  or  sanctity.  The 
plate  is  generally  a  circular  disk,  but  some- 
times, with  secular  persons,  square,  and  with 
God  the  Father  triangular.  Whether  a  ring 
or  a  disk  was  used,  the  color  was  generally 
golden,  though  sometimes  blue,  red,  yellow, 
etc.  The  symbol  is  of  old  pagan  origin,  and 
found  among  the  Hindoos,  Egyptians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  By  Christian  art  it  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  generally  adopted  until 
the  5th  or  6th  century,  but  after  that  time  it 
became  very  common. 

Nimrod  {firm,  strong),  a  son  of  Cush  and 
grandson  of  Ham,  proverbial  from  the  earli- 
est times  as  a  mighty  hunter  and  warrior 
(Gen.  X.  8-10  ;  1  Chron.  i.  10).  He  extended 
his  conquests  from  Ethiopia  into  the  land  of 
Shinar,  where  he  founded  or  fortified  Babel, 
Erech,  Accad,  and  Calneh.  The  territory 
and  kingdom  of  Babylon  was  long  known, 
after  the  name  of  its  cliief  hero,  as  "  the  laud 
of  Nimrod  "  (Micah  v.  6).  A  vast  ruinous 
mound  on  the  site  of  ancient  Babylon,  cover- 
ing as  many  suppose  the  tower  of  Babel,  bears 
the  name  of'  Birs  Nimrud.  T.  W.  C. 

Nineveh  {the  dwelling  of  Nin),  the  me- 
tropolis of  ancient  Assyria,  was  situated  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  river  Tigris  opposite  the 
modern  Mosul.  Its  origin  is  traced  back  al- 
most to  the  flood  (Gen.  x.  11).  For  nearly 
fifteen  centuries  afterward  it  is  not  mentioned 
In  Scripture,  though  Assyria  is  named  pro- 
phetically in  Num.  xxiv.  22-24,  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  8. 
In  the  books  of  Micah  and  Jonah  it  is  described 
as  an  immense  city  three  days'  journey  in  cir- 
cuit, containing  children  enough  to  indicate 
a  population  of  half  a  million  or  more.  It 
contained  "much  cattle"  and  many  parks 
and  gardens.  It  had  numerous  strongholds 
with  gates  and  bars,  and  had  multiplied  its 
merchants  above  the'  stars  ;  its  crowned 
princes  were  as  locusts,  and  its  captains  as 
grasshoppers.  With  tliis  agrees  the  account 
of  Diodorus  Siculus,  who  says  that  it  was  54 
miles  in  circumference,  with  walls  100  feet 
high,  and  so  broad  that  three  chariots  could 
drive  upon  them  abreast. 

Nineveh  was  long  the  mistress  of  the  East, 
but  for  her  wickedness  Jonah  was  sent,  800 
B.C.,  to  denounce  judgment.  The  repentance 
of  the  people  delayed  the  stroke,  but  about 
753  the  city  was  taken  by  the  Medes  under 
Arbaces,  and  nearly  150  years  later,  accord- 
ing to  the  prophecies  of  Nahum  and  Zepha- 
niah,  it  was  a  second  time  taken  by  Cyaxares, 
and  soon  afterward  was  destroyed.  So  com- 
plete was  the  destruction  that  for  ages  its  site 
was  lost.  But  since  1843  Layard  and  others 
have  explored  its  ruins  and-  found  wonderful 


confirmations  of  the  ancient  statements  of  its 
size  and  splendor,  and  of  the  events  recorded 
in  Kings  and  Chronicles.  Sculptured  figures 
in  bas-relief,  inscriptions  in  arrow-headed 
characters,  mural  tablets,  and  a  great  variety 
of  household  articles  enable  us  to  reproduce 
the  men  and  scenes  of  the  remote  past. 

T.  W.  C. 
Ninian,  or  Ninyas,  was,  according  to  Beds 
{Hist.  Ecd.)  and  to  the  Act.  Sanct.  (Sept.  5), 
the  apostle  of  the  Picts,  but  neither  the  date 
of  his  labor  nor  the  measure  of  the  result  can 
be  exactly  ascertained. 

Nirvana.  See  India,  Religions  op 
(p.  403,  2d  col.). 

Nisam.     See  Month. 

Nis'-roch,  an  Assyrian  deity  in  whose  tem- 
ple and  in  the  very  act  of  worship  Sennacherib 
was  slain  by  his  own  sons  (2  Kings  xix.  37). 
The  etymology  is  doubtful.  Some  suppose 
the  deity  to  be  represented  by  the  figure  of  a 
human  form  with  the  head  and  wings  of  an 
eagle,  found  in  the  Assyrian  tablets. 

T.  W.  C. 

Nitschmann,  David,  Moravian  bishop  ;  b. 
at  Zauchtenthal,  in  Moravia,  Dec.  27,  1696  ; 
d.  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Oct.  8,  1772.  Emi- 
grating to  Herrnhut,  Saxony,  in  May,  1724,  to 
enjoy  liberty  of  conscience  (see  Mokavian 
Church),  he  was  chosen  an  elder  of  the  con- 
gregation in  1737,  and  thenceforth  became 
active  as  an  evangelist  in  Bohemia.  Germany, 
England,  and  Denmark.  In  1732  he  set  out 
for  St.  Thomas  in  company  with  Leonhard 
Dober,  to  commence  the  first  foreign  mission 
of  the  Moravian  Church.  Having  returned 
to  Europe,  the  choice  fell  upon  him  to  be 
consecrated  the  first  bishop  of  the  Renewed 
Moravian  Church  (q.v.).  This  transaction 
was  performed  in  Berlin,  March  13,  1735,  by 
Bishop  Daniel  Ernst  Jablonski  (q.v.),  with 
the  concurrence  of  Bishop  Sitcovius,  the 
other  surviving  bishop  of  the  Ancient  Mora- 
vian Church.  Thenceforth  his  life  was 
mainly  spent  in  episcopal  visitations,  his  offi- 
cial journeys  taking  him  to  various  paits  of 
Germany,  Livonia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, England  and  Wales,  tlie  West  Indies, 
Georgia,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  North 
Carolina,  and  necessitating  not  less  than  fifty 
sea  voyages.  In  1735  he  took  the  lead  of  a 
colony  going  out  to  Savannah,  Ga.,  where  a 
company  of  Moravians  had  settled  in  the 
preceding  year.  John  and  Charles  Wesley 
were  his  fellow-passengers',  and  were  deeply 
impressed  by  the  calm  bearing  of  the  Mora- 
vians during  a  terrific  storm.  On  Feb.  28, 
1736,  he  ordained  Anthony  Seifferth,  at  Savan- 
nah, probably  the  first  ordination  on  record 
in  the  United  States.  A  second  visit  of  his  to 
this  country  was  in  1740,  when  he  came  to 
negotiate  for  the  purchase  of  the  site  of  the 
present  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  then  forest,  which 
was  effected  on  April  2,  1741.  His  final  voy- 
age to  America  was  in  the  spring  of  1755, 
from  which  time  his  activities  among  the 
white  settlers  and  the  Indians  were  very  suc- 
cessful in  New  York,  North  Carolina,  and 
Pennsylvania.  (See  D.  Nitschmann  in  einem 
kurzen  Umriss  dargestdlt,  Rothenburg,  1842  ; 


NITZSCH 


(G55) 


NOAH 


The  Moravian,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1861  ;  Trans- 
actions of  the  Moravian  Historical  Society, 
series  2,  part  4,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1«82.)— 
Nitachmann,  John,  Moravian  bishop  ;  b.  at 
Schoenau,  in  jSIoravia,  1703  ;  d.  at  Zeist.  iti 
Holland.  May  6,  1772.  Emigrated  to  llerrn- 
hut,  1723.  Having  served  as  director  of  the 
theological  seminary  of  the  Moravian  Church 
in  Wetteravia,  he  was  chosen  and  consecrated 
a  bishop  in  1741.  From  174!>-r)l  he  presided 
over  the  affairs  of  the  IMoravian  Church  in 
America,  and  showed  decided  administrative 
capacity.  On  his  return  to  Europe  he  was 
engaged  chietl}-  in  England,  Germany,  and 
Holland.  (See  the  general  works  of  reference 
on  the  Renewed  Moravian  Church,  especially 
De  Schweinitz,  Fathers  of  the  Ainericaii  Mora- 
tian  Church,  Bethlehem.  Pa.,  1881.) 

J.  Taylor  Hamilton. 

Nitzsch,  Karl  I^nmanuel,  D.D.  (Berlin, 
1S17),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Borna,  Saxony,  Sept. 
21,  1787  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Aug.  21,  1868.  He 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  there  in  1817,  at  Bonn  in 
1822,  and  in  Berlin,  1847.  His  principal  works, 
which  are  in  defence  of  what  the  Germans  call 
Vermittelunfjs-Theolof/ie.  the  connecting  link 
between  rationalism  and  supernaturalism,  are 
System  of  Christian  Doctrine,  Bonn,  1829,  6tii 
ed.,  1851,  Eng.  trans.,  by  ^lontgomery  and 
Hennen,  Etlin burgh,  1849  ;  Praktische  Theo- 
i>gie,  1847-67,  2  vols.;  Eine  protestantlische 
Beantwortung  der  SymboUk  Mohlers,  and  a 
great  number  of  minor  essays.  (See  his  life 
by  Beyschlag,  Berlin,  1872.) 

No,  or  No-Amon  {x)lace  of  Amonf),  the 
capital  of  Upper  Egypt,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Diospolis,  but  better  known  as  Thebes.  In 
Ezek.  XXX.  14,  15,  16  it  is  called  simply  No, 
but  in  Nail.  iii.  8  it  is  No-amon,  and  in  Jer. 
xlvi.  25,  Amon  of  No  (R.  V.).  It  lay  on 
both  sides  of  the  Nile,  500  miles  from  its 
mouth.  Its  extent  has  been  variously  given 
by  historians,  but  the  vast  ruins  on  the  Theban 
plain  show  it  to  have  been  a  city  of  great 
size  and  splendor.  The  broken  temples,  huge 
statues  and  avenues  of  sphinxes  in  Luxor  and 
Karnac  awaken  admiration  to  this  day.  On 
one  of  the  walls  of  Karnac  are  represented 
the  exploits  of  Shishak  against  Jerusalem  in 
the  tifth  year  of  Rehoboam.  Thebes  was 
captured  and  sacked  by  Sargon  probably  in 
the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (Nah.  iii.  8,  10)  ; 'was 
overthrown  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and  by  As- 
surbanipal  (Jer.  xlvi.  25,  26)  ;  was  burned  bv 
Cambvses  B.C.  525  ;  and  finally  destroyed  by 
Ptolemy  X.  n.c.  81.  T.  W.  C. 

Noachian  Precepts.     See  Noah. 

No'-ah  {rest),  an  eminent  patriarch,  the 
ninth  in  descent  from  Adam,  who  was  pre- 
.served  by  God  with  his  family  l)y  means  of 
the  ark,  and  thus  became  the  second  father  of 
the  human  race.  He  is  described  as  a  right- 
eous man,  perfect  in  Ins  generations,  and  one 
that  walked  with  God  (Gen.  vi.  9);  as  "  a 
preacher  of  righteousness"  (2  Peter  ii.  5),  ami 
as  among  those  that  were  eminent  for  their 
faith  (Heb.  xi.  7).  His  lot  was  cast  in  times  of 
unusual  violence  and  wickedness,  which  liis 
precept  and  example  failed  to  correct,   and 


God  determined  to  purify  the  world  by  de- 
stroying man  and  beast.  This  was  done  by 
a  deluge  wdiich  submerged  the  whole  human 
family  (Gen.  ix.  11)  save  eight  persons.  This 
design  was  revealed  to  Noah  a  century  before 
its  execution,  and  he  was  directed  to'prL-pare 
an  ark,  which  he  did.  At  the  appointed  time 
he  and  his  went  into  the  ark,  taking  also  of 
the  clean  and  unclean  animals  with  them. 
The  waters  prevailed  upon  the  earth  150  days 
(Gen.  vii.  24),  at  the  end  of  which  time  a  wind 
dried  them  up  and  the  ark  rested  upon  the 
mountains  of  Ararat. 

Noah's  first  care  on  coming  out  of  the  ark 
was  to  worship  the  Lord  with  sacrifices  of  all 
the  fitting  animals,  whereupon  he  reci-ived 
the  promise  that  there  should  be  no  more 
such  a  widespread  destruction  of  the  human 
family,  and  as  a  pledge  or  sacrament  of  this 
covenant  God  ajjpointed  the  rainbow.  At  the 
same  time  what  are  known  as  the  Noachian 
precepts  were  given  to  him,  forbidding  the 
use  for  food  of  strangled  animals  or  such  as 
died  with  the  blood  in  them,  and  requiring 
that  murder  should  be  punished  with  the 
death  of  the  murderer.  His  sub.sequent  hi.s- 
tory  is  a  sad  display  of  moral  weakness.  He 
fell  into  intoxication  and  exposed  his  person, 
which  Ham  seeing  infoiraed  his  brothers,  who 
reverently  covered  their  father's  nakedness. 
Noah  when  he  awoke  and  learned  what  had 
been  done  pronounced  a  curse  upon  Ham 
and  a  blessing  upon  Shem  and  Japheth,  both 
of  which  were  prophetic. 

Traditions  of  the  deluge  and  the  ark  have 
been  found  all  over  the  world,  and  among 
•some  nations,  such  as  the  Hindoos,  Persians, 
Chinese,  Polynesians,  and  Mexicans,  from 
none  of  which  could  the  Bible  history  have 
Ijeen  derived,  while  all  these  may  have  orig- 
inated from  the  sober  and  rational  account  in 
Genesis.  The  Lord  Jesus  has  set  his  seal  to 
the  truth  of  the  narrative  by  his  use  of  the 
event  to  illustrate  the  suddenness  of  his  sec- 
ond coming  and  warn  men  against  the  danger 
of  being  absorbed  in  the  cares  of  this  life 
(Luke  xvii.  26,  27).  The  Apo.stle  Peter  in 
both  epistles  (1  iii.  20,  2  iii.  5,  6)  refers  to  the 
flood  as  an  actual  occurrence. 

The  ark  was  450  feet  long,  75  in  breadth, 
and  45  in  height  ;  built  of  gopher  wood  and 
made  waterproof  with  bitumen,  and  designed 
not  to  sail,  but  to  fioat  on  the  surface  of  the 
waters.  It  api)ears  to  have  been  a  large  ob- 
long house  witli  a  roof  either  flat  or  slightly 
inciined,  and  having  three  .stories  and  a  door 
in  the  .side.  There  were  windows  "  above," 
probably  a  translucent  window-course  in  the 
roof.  A  multitude  of  questions  have  been 
raised  as  to  its  form,  its  arrangement,  the 
number  of  animals  saved  in  it,  the  po.ssibility 
of  carrying  them,  and  their  food  during  the 
year,  etc.,  but  there  is  no  need  to  discuss 
these.  The  whole  narrative  proceeds  upon  a 
superhuman  basis.  Noah  was  miraculously 
warned  of  the  impending  judgment,  miracu- 
lously guided  in  liis  pre]iarations  for  it,  and 
miraculously  uplieM  while  floating  upon  the 
wide  stretch  of  waters.  In.stead  of  indulging 
vain  speculation  upon  what  cannot  be  de 
tennined,  it  is  better  to  imitate  the  faith  and 
obedience  which  stood  so  severe  a  test  and 


NOAILLBS 


(656) 


NON-JURORS 


have  come  down  to  us  with  the  divine  ap- 
proval and  eulogy.  T.  W.  0. 

Noailles  (no-al),  Iiouis  Antoine  de,  Roman 
Catholic,  cardinal  ;  b.  May  27,  1651  ;  d.  in 
Paris,  May  4,  1729.  He  studied  theology  and 
tooii  his  degree  in  the  Sorbonne  ;  was  made 
bisliop  of  Cahors,  1679  ;  of  Chalours,  1680  ; 
and  archbishop  of  Paris,  1695,  and  was  cre- 
ate 1  a  cardinal  in  1700.  He  was  a  pious, 
kind-liearted  man,  with  extensive  theological 
knowledge  and  clear  judgment,  but  he  was 
timid,  even  weak  ;  he  always  chose  the  right 
side,  but  generally  yielded  to  the  wrong.  He 
was  strongly  opposed  to  the  Jesuits.  When 
he  entered  his  office  as  archbishop,  he  told 
tliem  that  lie  should  like  to  be  their  friend, 
but  would  never  become  their  valet,  and  he 
formally  condemned  and  forbade  the  appli- 
cation of  the  casuistic  method  in  the  teaching 
of  morals.  On  the  other  hand,  he  felt  deep 
sympathy  for  the  Jansenists,  read  their  books 
and  commended  them.  He  called  Port  Royal 
the  "refuge  of  innocence."  Nevertheless, 
by  finally  accepting  the  bulls  Vineam  Domini 
and  Unigenitus  he  became  instrumental  in 
the  destruction  of  that  very  refuge,  and  it 
was  of  no  use  that,  while  looking  at  the  ruins, 
he  burst  into  lears  and  confessed  that  "the 
stones  had  fallen  upon  himself."  TJiere  ex- 
ist some  pastoral  letters  and  instructions  by 
him,  and  a  little  book  of  edification,  Heures. 

C.  P. 

No-Amon.     See  No. 

Nob  (keiglit),  a  city  of  priests,  in  Benjamin, 
near  Jerusalem,  in  which  the  tabernacle  and 
the  ark  appear  to  have  been  in  the  time  of 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxi.  1-4).  In  revenge  for  Ahim- 
elech's  kindness  to  David,  Saul  put  all  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sw^ord  and  destroyed  the 
place  (1  Sam.  xxii.  19).  It  was  reinhabited 
after  the  captivity.  Its  exact  site  cannot  now 
be  determined.    "  T.  W.  C. 

Nobla  Leiczon.     See  Waldensians. 

Nod  (flight),  the  region  east  of  Eden  to 
■which  Cain  was  exiled  (Gen.  iv.  16). 

T.  W.  C. 
Noel,   Hon.   Baptist    Wriothesley,   b.    at 

Leightmont,  Scotland,  July  10,  1799  ;  d.  at 
Stanmore,  Middlesex,  England,  Jan.  20, 
1873.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1826  ;  became  a  chaplain  to  the  queen 
and  incumbent  of  St.  John's,  Bedford  Row, 
London,  but  left  the  church,  1848,  for  the 
Baptists,  and  succeeded  J.  H.  Evans  in  John 
Street  Chapel,  1849.  He  was  noted  for  elo- 
quence and  philanthropic  labors.  Among 
his  works  are  an  Essay  on  Christian  Baptism, 
London,  1849  ;  Letters  on  the  Church  of  Rome, 
1852,  and  two  hymn-books,  1832-69,  contain- 
ing many  lyrics  of  his  own,  unacknowledged 
and  of  minor  importance.  His  brother,  Hon. 
Gerard  Thomas  Noel,  b.  Dec.  2,  1782  ;  d.  at 
Romsey,  Hampshire.  73  m.  w^  by  s.  of  Lon- 
don, Feb.  24.  1851  ;  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh and  Cambridge,  and  held  charges  at 
Radwell,  Herts,  Rainham.  Kent,  and  Rich- 
mond, Surrey  ;  canon  of  Winchester,  1834  ; 
vicar  of  Romsey,  1840.  He  published  ser- 
mons and  poems,  including  two  hymns  that 
have  been  much  used.  F.  M.  B. 


No§l  (French,  from  the  Latin,  natalis^ 
"  birthday,"),  formerly  often  used  for  Christ- 
mas. 

Noetus,  Monarchian  leader  in  Rome  ;  b.  in 
Smyrna  ;   d.  in  Rome  about   205.     See  Mo- 

NARCHIANISM,  p.  603. 

Nominalism  and  Realism  are  two  terms 
belonging  to  scholastic  philosophy  which 
have  played  a  very  prominent  part  in  med- 
iaeval theology.  The  nominalist  held  that 
general  ideas,  such  as  horse,  good,  etc.,  are 
simply  mental  conceptions  and  have  no  actual 
existence  separate  from  the  individual,  while 
the  realist  considered  them  as  involving  the 
highest  form  of  existence,  and  protested  that 
the  individual  drew  his  whole  actuality  from 
his  participation  in  them.  Generally,  nomi- 
nalism means  intellectual  progress  with  a  risk 
of  atheism,  while  realism  always  means  mys- 
ticism, ranging  from  the  lieroic  deed  to  the 
coarse  delusion.  In  mediaeval  civilization 
the  philosopher  is  generally  nominalist,  the 
theologian  always  realist.  But  within  the 
pale  of  theology  the  Franciscan  school  is  gen- 
erally leaning  toward  nominalism,  while  the 
Dominican  school  is  always  decidedly  realistic. 

C.  P. 

Nomination,  in  the  Church  of  England, 
means  the  presentation  of  a  clergyman  to  any 
ecclesiastical  preferment.  There  are,  how- 
ever, cases  in  wdiich  a  distinction  must  be 
made  between  nomination  and  presentation  ; 
when,  namely,  the  lord  of  a  manor  has  the 
right  of  nominating  a  person  to  some  benefice 
under  his  patronage,  he  must  refer  him  to 
the  ordinary  for  presentation.     See  Ikvesti- 

TURE. 

Nomocanon,  in  the  Greek  Church,  means 
a  complete  collection  of  ecclesiastical  laws, 
comprising  not  only  those  which  have  ema- 
nated from  the  church  itself,  Kavoveg,  but  also 
those  which  have  been  promulgated  by  the 
state,  v6/xoi.  The  first  collection  of  this  kind 
was  made  in  the  6th  century  ;  the  most  im- 
portant is  that  from  the  14th  century,  called 
Syntagma. 

Non-conformist.  This  word  is  used  in  a 
wider  sense,  synonymous  with  dissenter,  in- 
cluding all  English  citizens  who  do  not  con- 
form to  the  ritual  and  practices  of  the  Church 
of  England.  But  it  has  also  a  stricter  sense, 
denoting  those  ministers — about  2000 — who 
were  ejected  from  their  livings  on  their  re- 
fusal to  submit  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
passed  by  Charles  II.,  1662.  Among  the 
sufferers  were  Baxter,  Howe,  Flavel,  etc. 
Under  James  II.  the  hnvs  against  Non-con- 
formists were  relaxed  and  still  more  so  under 
William  III.  In  the  18th  century  they  be- 
came gradually  inoperative,  and  in  the  19th 
they  disappeared. 

Non-jurors  is  the  name  of  a  party  of  400 
clergymen  and  9  bishops  of  the  Church  of 
England  who,  on  tlie  accession  of  William 
and  Mary,  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegi- 
ance on  the  ground  that  they  were  bound  by 
their  oath  to  James  II.  They  were  deprived 
of  their  offices  and  formed  new  organizations' 
which  introduced  considerable  changes  in 
the    ritual    and    practices,   but   which    dis- 


NON-RESIDENT 


(657) 


NOVATIAN 


appeared  altogether  in  the  begiimiug  of  the 
present  century. 

Non-resident  clergyman,  one  who  does 
not  Hve  at  his  ministerial  eliarge. 

Noph,  the  ancient  city  of  Memphis  in 
Egypt  (Hosea  ix.  6),  about  10  miles  south  of 
Cairo,  on  tlie  west  side  of  the  Nile,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  kings  till  the  times  of  the  Ptol- 
emies. Here  Joseph  was  a  prisoner  and  a 
ruler,  and  here  Moses  stood  before  Phaiaoh. 
It  was  a  great  and  splendid  city,  but  the 
prophets  predicted  its  overthrow  in  warning 
Israel  not  to  seek  its  aid  and  protection  (Isa. 
xix.  13  ;  Jer.  ii.  16,  xliv.  1,  xlvi.  U.  19  ;  Ezek. 
XXX.  13,  16).  The  city  became  tributary  to 
foreign  conquerors,  the  rise  of  Alexandria 
hastened  its  decline,  the  caliphs  used  its  ma- 
lerials  to  build  Cairo,  and  at  last  its  site  was 
tost.  Recent  explorations  have  brought  it  to 
light.  T.  W.  C. 

Nordheimer  (nort-luni-cr),  Isaac,  Ph.D. 
(Munich,  1834),  Jewish  scholar  ;  b.  at  Memels- 
dorf,  near  Erlangen,  Germany.  1809  ;  d.  in 
New  York,  Nov.  3,  1842.  He  studied  at 
Wartzburg  and  Munich  ;  emigrated  in  1835 
to  America  ;  was  appointed  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  in  the  Universitj'  of  New 
York  in  1836,  and  teacher  of  Hebrew  in 
Union  Theological  Seminary  in  that  city  in 
1838,  and  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  New 
York,  1838-41,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1842  ;  a  Chres- 
toinnthy,  1838,  etc.  He  did  not  become  a 
Christian. 

Norman  Architectvire,  characterized  by 
the  round  arch,  great  massiveuess,  and  great 
simplicity,  originated  among  the  Northmen 
after  their  settlement  in  Normandy,  and  was 
by  William  the  Conqueror  introduced  into 
England.  There  is,  however,  some  differ- 
ence between  the  French  and  the  English 
type  of  Norman  style,  the  former  being  some- 
what lighter  and  more  elegant  than  the  latter. 

C.  P. 

North,  Brovynlow,  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land ;  b.  at  Chelsea,  Jan.  6,  1810  ;  d.  at  Tul- 
lichewan,  near  Edinburgh,  Nov.  9,  1875. 
His  grandfather  and  namesake  was  bishop  of 
Winchester  and  brother  of  Lord  North.  He 
led  a  worldly  and  pleasure-seeking  life  till 
suddenly  converted  in  Nov. ,  1854  ;  began  to 
speak  at  religious  meetings  in  Jul}',  1856  ; 
was  recognized  as  an  evangelist,  1859  ;  took 
part  in  the  revivals  of  1859-^60,  and  preached 
efficiently  throughout  Great  Britain.  His 
life  was  written  b}'  K.  Moodv-Stuart,  Lon- 
don, 1878.  "      F.  M.  B. 

Norton,  Andrews,  D.D.  (Harvard  [?], 
1831[?J),  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  Hingham,  Ma.ss.. 
Dec.  31.  1786  ;  d.  at  Newport,  K.I.,  Sept.  18, 
1853.  He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1804,  and 
was  tutor  there,  1811-13  ;  librarian,  1813-21  ; 
lecturer  on  biblical  criticism  and  interpreta- 
tion, 1813-19,  and  first  Dexter  professor  of 
sacred  literature,  1819-30.  He  was  an  emi- 
nent scholar,  a  radical  critic,  and  a  leader  of 
the  conservative  .school  in  his  conmumion. 
Among  his  works  are  lieanonx  for  not  believing 
the  Doctrines  of  Trinitarianfi,  Cambridge, 
Ma.ss.,  1833  ;  Kci'h  nets  (f  the  Genuinenena  of 


the  Gospels,  Boston,  1837-44,  3  vols.;  Internal 
Evidences,  1855,  and  a  Translation  of  the 
Gospels,  1855,  2  vols.  The  first  of  ihcse,  as 
abridged,  1867,  has  a  memoir.  He  did  much 
editing,  and  wrote  a  few  good  hynms. 

F.  M.  B. 

Nose-jewel.  A  gold  ring  hung  in  the  car- 
tilage of  the  left  nostril  was  a  favorite  orna- 
ment of  Eastern  women.  See  Isa.  iii.  21, 
also  in  R.  V.  Ezek.  xvi.  12.  T.  W.  C. 

Notker  is  the  name  of  several  distinguished 
monks  of  St.  Gall.  1.  Notker  Balbulus,  b. 
about  840,  near  Thur,  Switzerland  ;  d.  at  St. 
Gall,  April  6,  912  ;  was  the  author  of  a  Mar- 
ti/rolof/itim  and  a  lunuber  of  poems  called 
Sequences.  His  life  was  written  by  Ekkehart 
V.  in  the  13th  century,  and  he  was  canonized 
in  1513.  2.  Notker  Medicus  or  Piperis 
Granum,  d.  Nov.  12,  975  ;  was  famous  as  a 
piiysician,  and  on  that  account  called  to  the 
court  of  Otlo  I.  3.  Notker  Labeo,  d.  of  the 
plague,  June  29,  1022,  was  the  most  cele- 
brated teaciier  of  St.  Gall,  and  wrote  a  series 
of  translations  and  expositions  of  theological 
and  philosophical  works,  Libri  Expositionum. 

Notre  Dame  ("  Our  Lady"),  Congregation 
of,  a  female  order  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  instituted  in  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century  in  France  in  honor  of  the  Vir- 
gin, "  Our  Lady,"  and  confirmed  by  Paul  V. 
in  1615.  It  spread  rapidly  in  France  and 
Belgium,  and  has  convents  both  in  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  Its  members  are  prin- 
cipally engaged  in  teaching. 

Nott,  Eliphalet,  D.D.  (Princeton,  1805), 
LL.D.  (Brown,  1828),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Ashford.  Conn.,  June  25,  1773  ;  d.  at  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  Jan.  29,  1866.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  University,  1795,  and  was  missionary 
at  Cherry  Valley,  N.  Y.;  pastor  at  Albany, 
1798-1804  ;  thenceforth  president  of  Union 
College,  wiiich  he  raised  from  a  low  estate  to 
eminent  usefulness.  He  was  moderator  of 
the  General  Assembly,  1811,  and  adhered  to 
the  Old  School.  He  wrote  Counsels  to  Yoting 
}fen.  New  York,  1810,  and  Lectures  on 
Temperance,  1847.  [His  sermon  on  the  death 
of  Hamilton  is  celebrated.]  His  memoir,  by 
Rev.  C.  Van  Santvoord.  was  revised  bv  Tav- 
ler  Lewis,  New  York,  1876.  F.  M.  B.' 

Novalis  is  the  pseudonym  of  Priedrich 
von  Hardenberg,  b.  at  Wiedesledt,  near 
Eisleben,  ]\Iay  2,  1772  ;  d.  at  \Veis.senfels. 
March  19,  1801.  He  studied  natural  science 
and  held  some  po.sition  in  the  .salines  of  Thu- 
ringia,  but  retired  on  account  of  ill  health,  de 
voted  himself  to  literature,  and  became  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Romantic  school.  His 
l)rincipal  work  is  Spiritual  Songs,  translated 
into  f2nglish  by  George  Macdonald.  London, 
1876.  Carlvle  wrote  an  essay  on  liim.  (See 
I. is  compl.'tc  works.  Ik-rlin.  1802.  2  vols., 
sui.].!.  ]s-:4.) 

Novatian,  Novatianism.  Of  Novatian 
himself  little  is  certainly  known.  It  Is  not 
prol)ab]e  that  he  originated  in  Phrygia,  as 
sonu"  have  said.  In  a  severe  sickness  he  re- 
ceived baptism  by  sprinkling  without   epis- 


NOVATIAN 


(658; 


NUMBERS 


copal  benediction.  Such  a  baptism  was  not 
uni^^er.sally  acknowledged  as  valid,  but  he 
was  nevertheless  ordained  presbyter  by  a 
Eomau  bishop,  and  became  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  tlie  church  there.  He  was  somewhat 
noted  for  his  literary  attainments,  and  became 
something  of  a  vrriter.  His  private  life  was 
without  stain.  The  crisis  of  his  career  came 
in  the  year  251,  at  the  election  of  a  successor 
to  the'  bishop  Fabian,  who  had  died  about 
fifteen  months  previously.  In  the  mean  time, 
Novatian  had  been  one  of  the  most  prominent 
personages  in  the  church,  had  had  charge  of 
its  public  correspondence,  and  was  naturally 
regarded  as  the  most  natural  successor  of  the 
dead  bishop.  But  Cornelius,  a  presbyter  not 
at  all  distinguished  and  not  entirely  spotless 
as  to  his  conduct  in  time  of  pei-secution,  was 
chosen.  Novatian  and  his  friends  chose  now 
to  take  up  the  position  of  opponents,  to  sepa- 
rate from  the  church,  and  to  adopt  as  their 
distinguishing  difference,  the  older  and  sterner 
method  of  dealing  with  those  who  had  lapsed 
(q.v.)  in  time  of  persecution.  Thus  the  the- 
oretical difference  grew  out  of  a  personal  one. 

Unlovely  as  is  the  aspect  thrown  upon  the 
whole  theme  by  this  conception,  it  appears  to 
be  the  truth  for  the  following  reasons.  Dur- 
ing the  time  of  vacancy  in  the  bishopric  after 
the  death  of  Fabian,  Novatian,  as  already 
said,  seems  to  have  conducted  the  correspond- 
ence of  The  church.  We  find  three  letters 
among  the  Epistles  of  Cyprian  from  the 
clergy  at  Rome,  of  which  one  is  certainly  by 
Novatian,  and  probably  all.  In  them  it  is 
expressly  indicated  that  the  lapsed  might  be 
received  again  to  the  fellowship  of  the  church 
when  dying.  This  was  new  ground  for 
Cyprian,  and  it  thus  appears  that  he  was  led 
to*  his  milder  position  in  the  controversy  at 
Carthage  by  influences  coming  from  Rome, 
with  which  Novatian  must  then  have  been  at 
least  not  in  disagreement  (see  Cyprian). 
Other  indications  of  mildness  appear  in  these 
letters.  Hence  it  appears  that  till  the  election 
of  Cornelius,  Novatian  had  no  objection  to 
make  to  the  innovation  upon  the  old  custom 
of  the  church. 

Cornelius  upon  his  election  had  written  to 
Cyprian,  and  received  his  recognition  as 
bishop.  About  this  time  Novatus,  who  be- 
longed to  the  lax  and  schismatic  party  of 
Felicissimus  at  Carthage  (see  Cyprian),  came 
to  Rome  and  joined  himself  to  Novatian  in 
spite  of  his  sterner  principles.  This  naturally 
cemented  the  bonds  which  united  Cornelius 
and  Cyprian.  But  Novatian,  though  he  lost 
the  "confessors,"  Maximus  and  his  friends, 
■who  united  with  the  party  of  Cornelius,  be- 
gan to  ordain  bishops  side  by  side  with  those 
adhering  to  Cornelius,  and  even  sent  Novatus 
iimself  to  Carthage,  who  installed  a  bishop, 
a  certain  Maximus,  there.  This  process  went 
on,  and  still  there  was  no  absolute  difference 
between  the  Novatians  and  the  Catholics,  for 
many  Catholic  bishops  would  not  follow  the 
laxer  practice  of  Cornelius  and  Cyprian.  In 
two  generations  after  Decius  the  church  of 
the  Novatians  had  become  a  compact  body. 
Many  of  the  old  Montani-sts  joined  it.  In  the 
4th  and  5th  centuries  there  were  Novation 
churches  in  ail  provinces  of  the  empire,  from 


Spain  and  Gall  to  Asia  Minor  and  even 
Scythia.  A  Novatian  liishop  was  present  at 
the  Council  of  Nice,  and  the  Novatians  re- 
mained true  to  the  Nicene  faith  without 
wavering.  But  after  the  triumph  of  Nicene 
orthodoxy,  the  Catholics  forgot  the  service 
which  the  Novatians  had  often  rendered  them, 
and  persecuted  them  as  heretics. 

The  real  ground  of  the  change  in  practice 
in  the  church  was,  as  said  in  the  article  upon 
the  lapsed,  the  change  of  conception  which 
arose  of  the  nature  of  the  church,  whereby  it 
became  the  sole  means  of  salvation,  instead 
of  the  communion  of  the  saints.  This  primal 
difference  lay  beneath  the  whole  controversy 
with  Novatian,  that  he  persisted  in  regarding 
the  church  as  composed  of  those  who  were 
already  saved,  and  consequently  could  not 
admit  again  those  who  had  shown  the  false- 
ness of  their  professions,  while  the  church 
in  general  maintained  more  and  more  that 
membership  in  itself  was  necessary  to  salva- 
tion, and  hence  would  not  deny  its  offices  to 
tho.se  who  dying  sought  them,  and  professed 
repentance.  But  Novatian,  with  the  elder 
church,  did  not  teach  that  because  the  church 
could  not  receive  the  fallen,  God  could  not  ; 
he  and  they  all  rather  magnified  the  grace  of 
God,  and  directed  the  sinner  to  entire  reliance 
upon  it.  (See  Harnack,  DogmengescMchte, 
i.,  p.  331  sqq..  and  article  in  Herzog,  Bea/i  n- 
cyclopcedie,  "  Novatian.")  F.  H.  F. 

Novice,  the  epithet  given  to  a  man  or 
woman  during  the  year  of  probation  in  a  con- 
vent, subject  to  its  discii^Iine,  but  not  yet 
bound  by  its  vows. 

Nowell,  Alexander,  D.D.  (Oxford,  15—), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Read  Hall,  Whal- 
ley,  Lancashire,  about  1508  ;  d.  in  London, 
Feb.  13,  1603.  He  graduated  at  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford,  1536  ;  became  fellow,  mas- 
ter of  Westminster  school,  1543,  and  preben- 
dary of  Westminster,  1551.  He  fled  to 
Frankfort  on  Mary's  accession,  and  in  1560 
was  made  archdeacon  of  Middlesex,  canon  of 
Canterbury,  and  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  with 
other  preferments  following.  He  was  a 
learned,  eloquent,  and  active  man,  author  of 
two  or  more  catechisms,  1563-71,  and  perhaps 
of  that  of  the  church,  but  this  honor  is 
claimed  for  several  others.  His  life  was  written 
by  R.  Churton,  Oxford,  1809.         F.  ]\I.  B. 

Noyes,  George  Rapall,  D.D.  (Harvard  Uni- 
versity, 1839),  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  iSTewburyport, 
Mass.,  March  6, 1798  ;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
June  3, 1868.  He  studied  theology  at  Harvard  ; 
was  pastor  of  Brookfield  and  Petersham.  Mass., 
1827-40,  and  became  in  1840  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  at  Harvard.  He  translated 
with  notes  Job  (Cambridge,  1827,  2d  ed.,  Bos- 
ton, 1838),  Psalms  (Boston,  1831,  2d  ed.,  1846), 
the  Prophets  (1833-37,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1843), 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles  (1846), 
the  New  Testament  (1868),  partly  carried 
through  the  press  by  Dr.  Ezra  Abbot.  These 
translations  are  characterized  by  accuracy, 
taste,  and  reverence. 

Numbers  to  a  certain  extent  had  a  special 
significance  among  the  Hebrews.  Three  was 
a  symbol  of  the  Trinity.     It  appears  in  the 


NUMBERS 


(659) 


OBEDIENCE 


trisagion  of  Isaiah  (vi.  3)  and  iu  the  priest- 
ly blessing  (Num.  vi.  23-26).  Four  sym- 
bolizes the  world.  See  the  four  winds  (Ezek. 
xxxvii.  9)  and  the  four  living  creatures 
witli  four  faces,  four  wings,  and  four  sides 
(Ezek.  i.  0-10  and  Rev.  iv.  6).  Seven,  the 
union  of  three  and  four,  implies  perfection. 
It  occurs  very  frequently  in  both  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New,  in  connection  with 
things  holy  and  unholy.  Ten,  the  number  of 
the  lingers,  appears  in  the  plagues  of  Egypt 
and  in  tlie  decalogue.  Ticelre,  the  multiple 
of  three  and  four,  appears  in  the  nimiber  of 
the  tribes  and  of  the  apostles,  the  stones  of 
the  high-priest  ;  breastplate,  the  gates  of  the 
New  Jerusalem.  Forty,  four  multiplied  by 
ten,  appears  in  the  rain  of  the  deluge,  Israel's 
years  in  the  wilderness,  the  fastings  of  Moses, 
of  Elijah,  and  of  Christ.  Seventy  appears  in 
the  number  of  the  elders  of  Israel  (Num.  xi. 
16)  and  of  our  Lord's  disciples  (Luke  x.  1). 
T.  W.  C. 

Numbers,  Book  of,  the  fourth  book  of 
Moses,  is  so  called  because  of  the  two  censuses 
which  it  records.  L  Chaps,  i.-x.  tell  of  the 
preparations  for  the  departure  from  Sinai, 
with  the  account  of  the  Nazirite's  vow  (ch.  vi.) 
and  the  free-will  olleriugs  of  the  tribes  (ch. 
vli.).  2.  Chaps,  xi.-xiv.  relate  the  journey  to 
the  border  of  Canaan,  with  the  mission  of  the 
spies  and  their  reception  on  their  return. 
8.  Chaps,  xv.-xix.  give  several  legal  enact- 
ments, and  tell  of  the  rebellion  of  Korah. 
4.  Chaps,  xx.-xxxvi.  include  the  events  of  the 
last  year  before  reaching  the  Jordan.  Among 
these  are  Moses'  smiting  the  rock  and  the 
death  of  iliriam  and  Aaron  (xx.),  the  mur- 
murs of  Israel,  the  serpents  and  the  brazen 
serpent  (xxi.),  the  story  of  Balaam  (xxii.- 
xxiv.),  Reuben  and  G-m\  east  of  the  Jordan 
(xxxii.),  and  the  list  of  stations  in  the  wilder- 
ness. T.  W.  C. 

Nun  (Coptic,  nonnos,  "holy"),  a  female 
religious  ascetic,  in  organizations  similar  to 
those  for  men,  having  tlieir  own  independent 
life  and  government.     See  Monastery. 

Nuncio.    See  Legate. 

Nuremberg,  The  Religious  Peace  of  (July 
{3,  l."J32),  between  the  emperor  and  tlie  Prot- 
estant princes  of  Germany,  by  wiiich  the  lat- 
ter secured  exemption  for  a  time  from  the 
former's  efforts  at  suppressing  the  Reforma- 
tion. 


O. 


Oak.  Six  different  Hebrew  words  are 
translated  oak  in  the  A.  V.,  none  of  them  de- 
noting the  Quercus  rubor  of  our  own  forests. 
In  several  places  (Gen.  xii.  6,  xiii.  is,  xiv. 
13,  xviii.  1  ;  Deut.  xi.  30 ;  Judges  iv.  11,  ix.  6, 
37;  1  Sam.  x.  3),  "  plain"  of  the  A.  V.  is 
properly  made  "oak"  (marg.  terebinth)  by 
the  R.  V.  In  such  places  as  Amos  ii.  9,  Isa. 
vi.  13  any  strong  flourishing  tree  may  be  de- 
noted, 'the  tree  near  Hebron  called  "  Abra- 
ham's oak"  is  a  true  acorn-bearing  oak.  The 
shade  of  oaks  or  other  large  trees  was  wel- 
comtu  for  transacting  business,  holding  courts, 


offering  sacritices  (Josh.  xxiv.  26  ;  Judges  vi. 
11,  19,  ix.  6).  T.  \V.  C. 

Oates,  Titus,  b.  in  London  about  1619  ;  d. 
there,  July  23,  1705  ;  was  the  son  of  a  Baptist 
minister  and  himself  a  member  of  the  Baptist 
clergy,  but  afterward  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England  and  was  appointed  a  chap- 
lain in  the  navy,  until  he  finally  embraced 
Romanism  and  became  an  inmate  of  the^ 
Jesuit  house  at  Valhidolid,  from  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  expelled.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land, in  1678,  he  claimed  to  have  evidence  of 
a  huge  popi.sh  plot  for  the  landing  of  an  army 
in  England  and  the  massacre  of  all  Protes- 
tants. Though  it  cannot  now  be  doulited 
that  the  whole  story  was  a  mere  fiction,  at 
the  moment  it  was  generally  believed  and 
caused  a  tremendous  commotion.  A  bill  was 
passed  toward  the  end  of  1678  winch  exchided 
all  Roman  Catholics  from  both  IIousls  of 
Parliament,  and  Oates  received  a  pension  of 
£900.  But  (hen  came  the  reaction.  The 
duke  of  York  brought  a  private  suit  against 
him  for  defamation  and  won  it.  He  was 
arrested  in  1683,  and  after  the  accession  of 
James  II.  he  was  accu.sed  of  perjury  and  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  life,  besides  being 
put  in  the  pillory  and  whipped  from  Oldgate 
to  Newgate  and  thence  to  Tyburn.  He  re- 
mained in  prison  for  three  and  a  half  years, 
but  after  the  accession  of  William  aud"^]Mary 
he  succeeded  in  having  the  verdict  cancelled 
as  illegal  by  Parliament,  and  after  that  time 
he  lived  in  obscurity. 

Oath,  a  solenm  affirmation  with  ah  appeal 
to  God  in  attestation  of  its  truth.  It  has  been 
in  ii.se  from  the  earliest  times  (Gen.  xxi.  23), 
and  even  God  bound  himself  in  this  way 
(Gen.  xxvi.  3  ;  Heb.  13).  Judicial  oaths  were 
employed  among  the  Hebrews  (Ex.  xxii.  11), 
aiui  our  Lord  obeyed  when  adjured  by  Cai- 
aphas  (Matt.  xxvi.  63).  An  oath  is  an  act  of 
worship,  and  should  be  administered  and  taken 
with  reverence.  Tlie  accompanying  cere- 
mony is  indifferent,  but  an  oath  on  the  evan- 
gels means  one  that  invokes  the  revealed  God 
of  the  Bible.  Perjury  is  a  grievous  sin.  and 
so  is  profane  and  careless  swearing,  and  any 
needless  or  frivolous  appeal  to  God.  An  oath 
taken  bj'  an  atheist  is  only  a  profane  niockerv. 
T.  W.  C. ' 

O-ba-di'-ah  {servant  of  Jehovah).  1.  A 
godly  ofricer  in  the  court  of  Ahaz,  who  pre- 
served 150  prophets  from  Jezebel  (1  Kings 
xviii.  4).  2.  The  fourth  of  the  minor  proph- 
ets, of  whom  personally  nothing  is  known. 
He  flourished  after  588  B.C.,  as  he  speaks  of 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (v.  11).  His  prophecy 
arraigns  Edom  for  its  arrogsmce  and  presump- 
tion (vv.  1-9),  specifies  its  violence  toward 
Jacob  and  its  gloating  over  his  calamity  (vv. 
10-16),  and  then  promises  great  prosperity  to 
Judah  and  corresponding  evil  to  Edom  \v\. 
17-21).  The  first  nine  verses  bear  a  marked 
resemblance  to  Jer.  xlix.  7-16.  (See  the  gen- 
eral commentaries,  e^ecially  Lange.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Obedience,  the  performance  of  the  com- 
mands >.f  a  superior.  This  is  due  to  God  be- 
cause he  is  our  creator,  our  preserver,  our 


OBER-AMMERGAU 


(660) 


OOCAM 


ruler,  our  benefactor,  and  our  father  in 
Christ.  It  should  be  sincere,  cordial,  con- 
Btant,  and  without  exception.  Such  obedi- 
ence pleases  God,  silences  gainsayers,  adorns 
the  gospel,  is  the  fruit  of  grace  and  the  fore- 
runner of  glory. 

The  obedience  of  Christ  has  been  divided 
into  active  and  passive,  though  some  deny 
the  distinction.  Our  Lord,  being  found  in 
fashion  as  a  man,  humbled  himself,  becoming 
obedient  even  unto  death,  yea  the  death  of 
the  cross  (Phil.  ii.  8).  His  obedience  was 
■complete,  uniform,  and  spotless,  and  not 
being  required  on  his  own  account,  enured  to 
the  benefit  of  others.  "  For  as  through  the 
one  man's  disobedience  the  many  were  made 
sinners,  even  so  through  the  obedience  of  the 
one  shall  the  many  be  made  righteous  '  (Rom. 
V.  19,  R.  v.).  T.  W.  C. 

Ober-Ammergau,  a  village  of  Upper  Ba- 
varia, in  the  valley  of  the  Ammer,  46  m.  s.w. 
of  Munich,  is  noted  for  its  passion  play,  which 
is  performed  there  every  tenth  year,  in  the 
true  mystery  style,  by  the  villagers  themselves, 
and  with  the  concourse  of  a  great  number  of 
visitors.  The  play  was  first  rude  in  text  and 
setting,  but  is  now  very  elaborate.  The  at- 
tention of  the  outside  world  was  first  drawn 
to  it  in  1850.  The  occasion  of  the  play  was  a 
vow  taken  by  the  villagers  in  1634  to  perform 
the  passion  of  our  Lord  every  tenth  year 
if  God  would  stop  the  plague  prevailing 
among  them.  Since  1674  the  play  has  been 
given  on  the  decennial  years,  beginning  with 
1680.  pne  feature  of  great  interest  is  the 
series  of  tableaux  which  represents  the  Old 
Testament  types  of  the  various  events  of  the 
passion  and  illustrates  the  song  of  the  chorus. 
These  are  wholly  free  from  the  charge  of 
blasphemy  which,  in  the  estimation  of  many, 
lies  against  the  play  itself  in  its  present  form. 
(See  Rev.  M.  McCall,  Tlie  Ober-Ammergau 
Passion  Play,  London,  1880,  n.e.,  1890  ;  the 
text  of  the  play  translated  is  given  in  the 
books  on  the  Passion  Play  at  Ober-Ammergau, 
by  the  author  of  Charles  Loicder,  1890,  and 
by  W.  T.  Stead,  1890.) 

Oberlin,  Jean  Frederic,  b.  at  Strassburg, 
Aug.  31,  1740  ;  d.  at  Fonday,  in  the  Stein- 
thal,  on  the  border  between  Alsace  and  Lor- 
raine, June  1,  1826.  He  studied  theology  in 
the  university  of  his  native  place  and  gave 
private  instruction  for  several  years,  but  was 
in  1767  appointed  pastor  in  the  Steinthal — a 
poor,  bleak,  barren  valley  in  the  Vosges, 
utterly  neglected  and  almost  forgotten  by  the 
rest  of  the  world,  and  inhabited  by  a  lazy, 
vicious,  miserable  gang,  half  dullards  and 
half  brigands.  He  stayed  there  his  whole 
life,  and  when  he  died  he  left  the  valley  a 
model  of  thrift  and  prosperity,  and  the  five 
small  villages  it  contains  so  many  examples 
of  the  happiness  and  dignity  of  Christian  life. 
His  biography  has  been  written  several  times 
both  in  French  and  in  German.  (See  Sarah 
Atkins,  Memoirs  of  Oberlin,  London,  1849  ; 
Josephine  Butler,  Life  of  Jean  Frederic  Ober- 
lin, London,  1882.) 

Oberlin  Theology,  so  called,  the  distinc- 
tive teaching  of  the  Rev.  Charles  G.  Finney, 
president  of  Oberlin  University  (q.v.). 


Oblates  was  the  name  given  during  the 
Middle  Ages  to  secular  persons  who,  ofl'ering 
their  property  for  some  ecclesiastical  pur- 
po.se,  entered  a  monastery  as  a  kind  of  lay 
brothers.  Later  on  the  name  was  given  to 
some  associations  of  a  religious  though  not 
strictly  monastical  character.  1.  Oblates  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  and  St.  Ambrose,  a  con- 
gregation of  secular  priests  which  was  founded 
by  St.  Carlo  Borromeo  at  Milan  in  1578. 
2.  Oblates  of  St.  Frances  at  Rome,  a  com- 
munity of  women  established  in  Rome  in 
1433.  3.  Oblates  of  Italy,  a  society  of  secu- 
lar priests  founded  at  Turin  in  1816.  4.  Ob- 
lates of  Mary  Immaculate,  an  association  of 
priests  which  was  founded  by  Charles  de 
Moj^enod  at  Marseilles  in  1815.  Branches  of 
the  first  and  the  fourth  kind  of  association 
are  found  in  England. 

Observants.  See  Fkanciscans,  p.  303, 
and  Peter  op  Alcantara. 

Occam,  William,  b.  in  the  village  of  Oc- 
cam, in  Surrey,  England,  about  1280  ;  d.  in 
Munich,  about  [April  10]  1349.  The  particu- 
lars of  his  early  life  have  been  lost.  He  is 
said  to  have  studied  at  Oxford,  to  have  been 
archdeacon  at  Stowe  in  1300,  and  then  to 
have  entered  the  Franciscan  order.  He  went 
early  to  Paris  ;  was  a  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus  ; 
himself  taught  philosophy  and  theology,  and 
won  an  honorable  position  as  a  defender  of 
the  nominalist  theory.  He  returned  for  a 
time  to  England,  where  he  was  the  provincial 
of  his  order  in  1322.  But  this  position,  with 
his  philosophy,  involved  him  in  conte.st  with 
the  pope,  John  XXII.,  wdio  summoned  him 
to  Avignon,  whence  he  escaped  by  flight. 
He  found  refuge  with  the  emperor,  Lewis  of 
Bavaria,  in  whose  service  he  remained.  In 
1328  the  pope  deposed  both  Occam  and  the 
general  of  the  order,  Cesena,  and  put  them 
under  the  ban,  whereupon  they  appealed  to 
the  Catholic  Church  and  a  general  council. 
The  last  years  of  Occam's  life  were  spent  in 
Munich,  in  the  literary  service  of  the  emper- 
or. He  is  said  at  the  la.st  to  have  sought  to 
make  his  peace  with  the  pope,  but  of  this, 
and  of  the  particulars  of  his  death,  nothing  is 
certainly  known.  Ilis  writings  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  classes — philosophical,  theo- 
logical, and  publicistic.  He  is  emphatically 
a  critic,  and  pursues  the  critical  method  in  all 
these  writings.  He  disputes  the  theory  of 
universals  before,  in,  or  after,  the  thing 
itself.  The  abstract  idea  holds  the  same  re- 
lation to  the  mental  perception  of  an  object 
as  that  mental  perception  to  the  sensuous  im- 
pression. Theological  truth  rests  purely 
upon  authority,  not  upon  reason  in  any  sense. 
Revelation  has  given  it  to  us,  and  hence  di- 
vine things  must  be  of  an  altogether  different 
nature  from  the  things  of  the  phenomenal 
world.  Hence,  to  dispel  the  claims  of  reason 
to  support  faitli,  Occam  subjects  the  doc- 
trines of  theology  to  his  dialectical  examina- 
tion, in  which  they  are  all  exhibited  as  full 
of  contradictions.  In  his  other  writings,  Oc- 
cam opposes  the  secular  supremacy  and  the 
dogmatic  infallibility  of  the  pope  in  the  most 
decided  manner.  Even  general  councils  may 
err.     The  primacy  of  tlie  pope  is  not  of  di- 


OCOOM 


(  fi61 ) 


OFFERING 


vine  institution,  and  tlie  churcli  has  the  right 
to  choose  for  itself  one  or  several  heads  as  it 
will.  The  law  of  the  gospel  is  a  law  of  lib- 
erty. (See  Lindsay's  article.  British  Quar- 
terly l{£vieiP,  July,  "iHTS.)  F.  H.  F. 

Occom,  Samson,  Presbyterian  and  Indian  ; 
b.  at  Mohegan,  near  Norwich,  Conn.,  about 
1723;  d.  at  New  Stockbridge.  N.  Y.,  July 
14,  1793.  He  was  converted.  1740  ;  educated 
at  Wheelock's  school  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  and 
labored  among  his  race,  chietly  on  Long 
Island.  His  sermons  caused  a  sensation  in 
England,  1766-67.  He  jjublished  a  hymn- 
book  in  1774,  and  two  hymns  are  ascribed  to 
him.  (See  Masmchusetts  Ilixtorzcal  Society's 
Collection,  1st  ser.,  x..,  106.)  F.  M.  B. 

Ochino(o-kee'-no),  Bernardino,  b.  at  Siena, 
31  m.  s.e.  of  Florence,  Italy,  14»7  ;  d.  at 
Schlackau,  Moravia,  1565  ;  entered  the  Fran- 
ciscan order  in  its  strictest  form,  and  after- 
ward the  still  severer  order  of  the  Capuchins  ; 
acquired  a  great  fame  as  a  preacher  ;  was 
chosen  confessor  by  Paul  III.,  and  elected 
general  of  his  orderin  1538,  but  his  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Spanish  mystic,  Juan  Valdez, 
who  came  fro.ii  Germany  in  the  retinue  of 
Charles  V..  and  still  more  his  friendship  with 
Peter  Martyr,  brought  him  in  contact  with  the 
Reformation,  and  in  1542  both  his  preachin.uc 
in  Venice  and  the  publication  of  his  Dialogi 
I 'II.  made  him  suspected.  He  was  summoned 
to  Rjnie,  but  fled  to  Geneva.  There  and  in 
Augsburg  and  in  London  he  preached  to  the 
Itaiian  fugitives,  and  it  was  pure  Calvinism 
he  preached.  Twenty-five  of  those  sermons 
were  translated  into  English  and  appeared  at 
Ipswich,  1548,  and  a  dialogue  by  him  ap- 
peared in  English  in  London,  1549.  After 
the  accession  of  Mary  he  returned  to  Switzer- 
land, but  from  his  writings  it  gradually  be- 
came apparent  that  he  had  adopted  Socinian 
views,  that  he  leaned  toward  anti-trinitarian- 
ism,  and,  in  fact,  that  a  brooding  confusion 
had  taken  hold  of  his  mind.  He  was  succes- 
sively expelle:!  from  Zurich,  Nuremberg, 
Cracow,  etc.  His  life  by  Benrath,  Leipzig, 
1875,  has  been  translated  into  English,  New 
York.  1877. 

Octave  is  a  liturgical  term  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  referring  to  the  celebration 
of  the  great  Christian  festivals — Christmas, 
Easter.  Pentecost,  and  Epiphany,  for  eight 
successive  days. 

Odo,  St.,  b.  in  Maine,  France,  879  ;  d.  at 
Tours.  943  ;  was  the  second  abbot  of  Clugny, 
and  introduced  there  and  in  all  its  branch 
convents  a  set  of  rules  which,  by  their  auster- 
itv,  contributed  much  to  the"  fame  of  the 
Clunianenses.  These  rules,  some  other  writ- 
ings by  him,  and  his  life  by  Jean  le  Moine, 
are  found  in  Bibl.  Linn,  and  in  Migne,  Pat. 
Lat.  CXXXIII. 

CEcolampadius,  Johannes,  b.  at  Weins- 
berg.  Wiirtcmberi:.  in  14H2  ;  d.  at  Basel, 
Nov.  24,  1531.  His  true  name  was  Heu3.sgen, 
which  he  probably  considered  a  local  form 
for  Haussciiein,  since  the  Gnecized  name  he 
a-;sunii'd  means  "the  light  of  the  house." 
He  studied  canon  law  at  Bologna  and  humani- 
ora  at  Heidelberg,  Tiibiugen,  and  Stuttgart. 


In  1516  he  was  appointed  preacher  at  Basel, 
in  1518  he  removed  to  Augsburg,  and  in  1520 
he  entered  the  Brigettine  monastery  at  Alten- 
miinster.  But  in  1522  he  had  to  flee  from  the 
monastery  because  the  monks  discovered  that 
he  read  Luther's  writings.  He  went  to 
Basel  ;  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
there  and  preacher  at  the  cathedral  ;  joined 
openly  the  Reformation,  and  contributed 
much  to  its  introduction  botli  there  and  at 
Ulm.  In  the  controversy  concerning  the 
Lord's  Supper  he  sided  with  Zwingli,  but  his 
opposition  to  Luther  was  very  mild.  Of  his 
writings,  which  all  have  an  irenic  character, 
there  is  no  collected  edition.  His  life  was 
written  by  Ileizog,  Basel,  1843,  2  vols.,  and 
Hageubach,  Elberteld,  1859. 

CZiCumenical  (from  the  Greek,  o'lKdv/iivri, 
"the  empire")  is  applied  to  those  councils 
which  represented  the  whole  lioman  Empire 
in  contradistin(;tion  to  those  which  only  rep- 
resented a  province  or  a  diocese.     See  CouK- 

CILS. 

CEcumenius,  bi.shop  of  Tricca,  Thessaly, 
lived  in  the  10th  century,  and  wiote  commen- 
taries on  various  parts  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  are  still  extant  and  have  been  several 
times  printed,  last.  Paris,  1631,  2  vols.  They 
consist  almost  entirelj'  of  extracts  from  the 
Fathers,  and  may  be  considered  as  the  first 
specimen  of  the  so-called  catena  (q.v.). 

Oehler,  Gustav  Friedrich,   D.D.   (Bonn, 

1845),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Ebiugen,  Wiirtemberg, 
June  10,  1812  :  d.  at  Tubingen,  'Feb.  19, 
1872  ;  was  teacher  in  the  Basel  Mission  Insti- 
tution, 1834-37  ;  repetent  in  the  Tubingen 
seminary,  1837-40  ;  professor  in  the  theologi- 
cal seminary  of  Schcinthal,  1840-45  ;  ordinary 
profes.sor  of  Old  Testament  theology  first  in 
Breslau,  184.5-52.  then  at  Tubingen.  His 
hiffhl}'  esteemed,  indeed  classical.  Theology 
of  the  Old  Testament,  Tubingen,  1873-74.  2 
vols.,  was  translated  into  English,  Edin- 
burgh, 1874-75.  and  a  new  edition  of  it  ap- 
peared in  New  York.  1883.  Among  his  other 
works  are  Prohgoiuena  zitr  Theolocjie  des  Alt. 
Test.,  Stuttgart,  1845;  Lehrbvch  der  Syin- 
holik,  Tubingen,  1876,  2d  ed.  revised.  1800, 
etc.     (Sec  his  life  by  Knapp,  1876.) 

Oetinger  (oet-ting-er).  Friedrich  Chris- 
toph,  1).  at  Goppintren,  Wiirtemlxiii-,  3Iav  6, 
1702  ;  d.  at  Murrhard,  Feb.  10,  1782  ;  studied 
theology  at  Tubingen  ;  held  various  pastoral 
charges,  and  died  a  p  nit  it  of  Murrhard.  His 
theo.sopliical  speculations,  based  on  Bengel 
and  Boehme.  on  tiie  Cal)ala  and  Swedenborg, 
exercised  considerable  influence  in  the  jiietis- 
tic  circles  in  Wiirtemberg.  His  collected 
works  were  edited  bv  Ehmann.  Stuttgart, 
1858-63,  11  vols.;  hU  Autobiography  bv  Ham- 
berger,  1845.  (See  his  life  by  Ehnianii,  1859, 
and  Auberlen,  Tiibingen,  1847.) 

Offering,  anything  presented  to  God  to 
propitiate  him.  to  entreat  favor  or  to  express 
gratitude.  OlFerings  were  either  bloody  or 
unbloody.  For  the  former  only  tame  animals 
were  used  (oxen,  goats,  sheep),  with  tiie  sin- 
gle exception  of  the  dove  (Lev.  v.  11).  For 
the  latter,  flour,  wine.  etc.     Human  sacrifices 


OFFERTORY 


(662) 


OLIVE 


were  strictly  forbidden  (Lev.  xviii.  21).  Tiie 
offerer,  after  bringing  the  victim  to  the  altar, 
laid  his  hand  on  its  head  (Lev.  i.  4),  and  then 
slew  it,  or  the  priest  (2  Chron.  xxix.  24)  did 
it  for  him.  The  blood  was  received  by  the 
priest,  who  either  sprinkled  or  poured  it. 
The  victim  was  then  flayed  and  cut  in  pieces 
(Lev.  i.),  some  or  all  of  which,  according  to 
the  kind  of  offering,  were  burnt  upon  the 
altar.  In  some  cases  the  victim  was  lifted 
up  or  waved  in  token  of  its  presentation  to 
Jehovah. 

The  first  instance  of  offering  is  that  of  Cain 
and  Abel  (Gen.  iv.  3-8),  the  second  that  of 
Noah  (viii.  26).  There  were  three  chief 
classes  of  offerings.  1.  The  burnt-offering,  a 
male  without  blemish  brought  to  the  altar 
court,  the  hand  of  the  offerer  being  on  its 
head,  which  after  being  flayed  and  washed 
was  burned  entire  on  the  altar,  being  an 
atonement  for  sin  and  a  symbol  of  self-sur- 
render (Lev.  i.  4,  Heb.  x.  1-3,  11).  It  was 
presented  every  day  (Ex.  xxix.  38),  on  the 
Sabbath  (Num.  xxviii.  9,  10),  on  the  three 
great  feasts  (ibid),  and  on  the  day  of  atone- 
ment (Lev.  xvi.  3).  2.  The  meat-offering  (cor- 
rectly in  R.  V.  meal-oSenng),  flour  or  meal, 
prepared  with  oil  and  frankincense  (Lev.  ii., 
vi.).  free  from  leaven  or  honey,  yet  with  salt, 
and  baked  or  cooked  in  various  ways.  New 
corn  was  offered  either  crude  or  roasted. 
The  priest  received  the  offerings,  and  laying 
a  part  on  the  altar,  reserved  the  rest  for  his 
own  use.  Nothing  was  wholly  burned  but 
the  incense.  A  meal-offering  was  presented 
every  day  with  the  burnt-offering  (Ex.  xxix. 
40).  The  first-fruits  offered  at  Pentecost  and 
at  the  Passover  (Lev.  xxiii.  10-20)  were  called 
wave-offerings ;  those  offered  in  harvest  time 
(Num.  XV.  20),  heave-offerings.  The  meal- 
offering  mainly  expressed  the  consecration  of 
the  offerer  and  all  he  had  to  Jehovah.  3.  The 
peace-off'ering  was  either  animal  or  vegetable. 
In  the  former  case  a  part  was  burned,  the 
breast  and  right  shoulder  reserved  for  the 
priests,  and  the  remainder  eaten  by  the  offerer 
and  his  friends.  This  was  a  eucharistic  ser- 
vice, either  prescribed  or  voluntary,  and  sig- 
nified the  holy  and  joyful  communion  of  the 
offerer  with  the  Lord  and  with  his  fellows. 

Besides  these  were  the  sin  and  trespass  offer- 
ings prescribed  on  particular  occasions.  The 
former  had  for  its  chief  idea  atonement,  the 
expiation  of  sin  by  a  substituted  life  ;  the  lat- 
ter expressed  satisfaction— ih?A  is,  the  wiping 
out  of  sin  by  the  payment  of  a  recompense,  as 
in  the  case  of  tithes  wrongfully  withheld  or 
the  defrauding  of  a  fellow'lsraelite.  The  sin- 
offering  was  prominent  in  the  solemn  service 
of  the  great  day  of  atonement  (Lev.  xvi.). 
(See  Cave  on  TJie  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Sac- 
rifice, Edinburgh,  2d  ed.,  1890.)     T.  W.  C. 

Oflfertory  is  a  liturgical  term  which,  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  denotes  the  first 
part  of  the  eucharistic  service,  Deus  vohiscum, 
the  oblation  of  the  bread  and  wine,  etc.,  and, 
in  the  Church  of  England,  the  sentences  said 
by  the  priest  while  tlie  offerings  of  the  people 
are  being  collected  during  communion. 

Office,  Congregation  of  the  Holy,  is  the 


official  name  of  that  department  of  the  papal 
government  Which,  established  by  Paul  III. 
in  1542,  and  consisting  of  twelve  cardinals 
and  a  number  of  counsellors,  has  charge  of 
the  Roman  Inquisition. 

Officers,  Ecclesiastical,  denotes  the  three 
orders  of  ministers  in  the  Church  of  England 
— bishops,  priests,  and  deacons. 

Offices  of  Christ.  See  Jesus  Christ, 
Three  Offices  of. 

Og  {long-necked  f),  a  king  of  Bashan  of 
gigantic  stature  (Deut.  iii.  11),  who  was  de- 
feated at  Edrei  and  with  his  sons  was  slain 
(Num.  xxi.  35).  His  size  and  his  many  forti- 
fied cities  made  him  a  formidable  foe,  and 
the  memory  of  his  fate  long  remained  (Ps. 
cxxxv.  11,  cxxxvi.  20)  with  his  conquerors. 
T.  W.  C. 

Oil,  a  symbol  of  gladness  (Ps.  xlv.  7,  Isa. 
Ixi.  3),  was  employed  in  the  East  not  only  to 
consecrate  priests  and  kings  (Lev.  viii.  12,  1 
Sam.  X.  1),  but  to  anoint  the  head,  the  beard, 
and  the  whole  person  (Ruth  iii.  3,  Ps.  xcii. 
10),  and  in  preparing  food  (1  Kings  v.  11, 
Ezek.  xvi.  13),  and  for  medicinal  purposes 
(Isa.  i.  6,  Mark  vi.  13).  It  was  almost  the 
only  artificial  light  (Ex.  xxv.  6,  Matt.  xxv.  3). 
T.  W.  C. 

Oil-Press,  The,  the  mill  in  which  the  olives 
were  subjected  to  the  pressure  necessary  to 
extract  the  oil  (Job  xxix.  6),  sometimes  by 
being  crushed  between  two  large  stones,  at 
others  by  being  trodden  with  the  feet  (Micah 
vi.  15).  Gethsemane  (oil-press)  doubtless  took 
its  name  from  some  press  in  its  vicinity. 

T.  W.  C. 

Oil-Tree  (tree  of  oil),  Isa.  xli.  19.  The  orig- 
inal  word  is  rendered  '  olive-tree"  in  1  Kings 
vi.  23,  31-33,  but  in  Neh.  viii.  15  "pine;" 
and  as  in  the  latter  case  the  olive  is  distinctly 
mentioned,  the  oil-tree  must  have  been  differ- 
ent. Tristram  thinks  that  it  was  the  oleaster. 
It  was  the  material  of  which  the  cherubim, 
the  doors,  and  the  posts  of  Solomon  s  temple 
were  made.  T.  W.  C. 

Ointments  made  of  various  ingredients 
boiled  together  (Job.  xli.  31)  were  used  for 
medical  purposes  (Isa.  i.  6)  and  at  funerals 
(Matt.  xxvi.  12),  and  also  as  a  luxury  (Song 
i.  3,  Ps.  civ.  15).  The  ointments  of  the  rich 
were  made  of  costly  materials,  and  their  fra- 
grance was  highly  extolled  (Isa.  xxxix.  2, 
Amos  vi.  6).  T.  W.  C. 

Olive,  The,  is  the  most  common  as  it  is  the 
most  useful  of  the  fruit-trees  of  Palestine. 
Its  white  flowers  are  beautiful  (Hosea  xiv.  6), 
though  easily  scattered  by  the  breeze  (Job  xv. 
33).  The  fruit  is  gathered  by  shaking  the 
boughs  and  beating  them  with  poles  (Isa. 
xvii.  6,  xxiv.  13).  The  olive  delights  in  a 
stony  soil,  and  will  thrive  even  on  rocky  hills 
where  there  is  little  earth  (Deut.  xxxii.  13). 
It  grows  slowly,  lives  to  an  immense  age,  and 
bears  fruit  even  when  the  trunk  is  but  a  hol- 
low shell  (,Ps.  xcii.  14,  Iii.  8).  The  olive 
branch  is  universally  regarded  as  an  emblem 
of  peace  (Gen.  viii.  11).  An  old  trunk  sur- 
rounded by  shoots  from  the  same  root  is  an 


O'KELLT 


( 663 ) 


OLIN 


expressive  image  of  the  family  of  the  right- 
eous (Ps.  cxxviii.  3).  An  oliveyarcl  (Ex. 
xxiii.  11)  is  simply  a  grove  of  olive-trees,  as 
common  in  Palestine  as  a  vineyard. 

T.  W.  C. 

O'Kelly,  James,  Methodist  ;  b.  in  Southern 
Virginia,  1735  ;  d.  iu  Southern  Virginia,  Oct. 
16.  1825.  Of  his  earlier  life  nothing  is  known, 
but  from  1783  to  1792  he  preached  in  the 
southern  district  of  Virginia  and  with  great 
effect.  To  him  the  Methodist  Church  owes 
"  that  essential  and  valuable  constituent  of 
its  polity" — the  General  Conference  ;  but  to 
him  it  also  owes  its  tirst  schism.  After  much 
contending  O'Kelly  succeeded  in  having  the 
first  General  Conference  convened,  Nov.  1, 
1792.  He  then  introduced  a  resolution  by 
which  the  bishop's  power  of  appointment 
should  be  so  far  modified  as  to  allow  a  preach- 
er who  felt  dissatisfied  with  the  place  as- 
signed to  him  to  appeal  to  the  conference. 
The  resolution  was  rejected,  and  O'Kelly  then 
withdrew  and  formed  the  Republican  Metho- 
dist Church,  which  subsetjucntly  was  called 
simply  the  Christian  Church,  and  which  in 
1829  numbered  several  tliousaud  members  in 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral pamphlets  concerning  the  schism.  (See 
Stevens,  Hititory  of  the  'Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  vol.  iii.;  Bennett,  Memorials  of  Meth- 
odism ill  Virginia,  Richmond,  1871.)    C.  P. 

Olaf,  St.,  the  patron  saint  of  Norway,  be- 
longed to  an  old  family  of  royalty,  but  grew 
up  in  exile  ;  a  Christian  and  a  viking.  In 
1015  he  returned  home  and  made  himself 
king  of  Norway,  where  he  introduced  Chris- 
tianity by  fire  and  sword,  crushing  out  every 
trace  "of  the  old  paganism.  As  a  consequence 
he  hud  many  enemies  in  his  own  realm,  and 
in  1028  the  Danish  king,  Canute  the  Great, 
drove  him  out  of  the  land.  Two  years  later, 
however,  he  returned,  but  was  defeated  and 
killed  in  the  battle  of  Stiklestad,  July  29, 
1030.  Immediately  after  his  death  a  strong 
reaction  took  place  in  the  feelings  of  his 
countrymen  toward  him,  especially  as  many 
miracles  were  reported  to  have  taken  place  at 
his  grave,  and  in  1031  a  popular  assembly  de- 
clared him  a  saint,  and  his  remains  were  de- 
posited in  the  cathedral  of  Trondhjem  (Dron- 
theim).  By  the  Church  of  Rome  this  saint- 
ship  was  never  formally  recognized,  but  St. 
Olaf 's  shrine  became  nevertheless  the  centre 
of  Scanilinavian  pilgrimage.  The  sober  his- 
tory of  this  great  man  may  be  read  in  Snorre's 
Heiinskrinfila  and  Olaf's  Saga.  (See  also 
L.  Daae,  Nordens  Ilelgener,  Cliristiania,  1881, 
and  Thomas  Carlyle,  Early  Kings  of  Norway, 
etc.)  C.  P. 

Oldcastle.     See  Cobham. 

Old  Catholics.  The  proclamation  of  the 
dogma  of  i)apal  infallibility  by  the  Council  of 
the  Vatican,  July  18,  1870,  was  immediately 
met  witli  a  formal  protest  from  forty-two 
professors  of  the  Univcrsitj'  of  Munich,  with 
DoUinger  and  Friedrich  at  their  head,  and 
similar"  prot;.'sts  came  also  from  other  German 
universities  —  Bonn,  Giessen,  Breslau,  and 
Freiburg.  It  was,  however,  hardly  the  inten- 
tion of  those  protesting  to  prepare  for  a  sepa- 


ration from  the  Church  of  Rome  and  to  create 
a  schism,  and  the  whole  movement  would 
probably  soon  have  come  to  an  end  if  it  had 
not  reached  the  laity.  But  in  Munich,  (,'o- 
logne,  Nuremberg,  and  other  cities  large  num- 
bers of  laymen  actually  refused  to  follow  the 
Church  of  Rome  in  her  new  departure,  and 
formed  new  congregations  in  order  to  [con- 
tinue tlie  old,  truly  Catholic  Church  from 
before  July  18,  1870.  A  great  dilllcvilty  pre- 
sented itself  :  the  party  numbered  not  one 
bishop  among  its  members,  and  ordination, 
confirmation,  etc.,  can  only  be  performed  by 
a  bishop.  But  a  way  was  found  out  of  it. 
The  Church  of  Utrecht,  containing  the  rem- 
nants of  Janseni-sts  or  Old  Catholics  in  Hol- 
land, and  numbering  one  archbishopric, 
Utrecht,  two  bishoprics,  Deventer  and  llaar- 
lem,  25  congregations,  and  about  6000  mem- 
bers, has  preserved  the  apostolical  succession 
unbroken,  and  although  the  church  is  not 
recognized  by  the  pope,  the  validity  of  the 
succession  cannot  be  denied.  From  thence  it 
was  transferred  to  the  Old  Catholics  in  Ger- 
many, Bishop  Heykamp,  of  Deventer,  con- 
secrating Professor  Reinkens  in  1873.  By 
the  conference  held  at  Constance  in  the  same 
year  the  organization  was  completed,  and  in 
1889  the  party  numbered  in  Prussia,  Baden, 
Bavaria  and  Ilesse,  109  congregations  and 
36,000  members.  The  tenth  congress  was 
held  at  Cologne,  Sept.  12-14,  1890.  ^  It  had 
an  international  character.  (See  Hie  yew 
LVfor/ioiilon,  London,  1875;  Biihler,  i»c;'^«- 
hitlioUnxiuHs,  Leyden,  1880,  and  Bishop 
Reinkens,  Der  Altcatholicismus,  Heidelberg, 
1882.) 

Old  Testament.  For  the  origin  of  the 
name,  see  New  Testament.  For  contents, 
see  Bible. 

Olevianus,  Kaspar,  D.  at  Treves,  Aug.  10, 
1536  ;  d.  at  llerborn,  Nassau,  March  15, 
1587  ;  studied  canon  law  in  Paris,  Orleans, 
and  Bourges,  and  theology  at  Geneva  ;  be- 
came teacher  iu  his  native  city  in  1559,  but 
was  expelled  by  the  archbishop  in  1560  be- 
cause he  taught  the  ideas  of  Calvin  ;  settled 
at  Heidelberg  first  as  teacher,  afterward  as 
court  preacher  ;  wrote  the  Heidelberg  Con- 
fession together  with  Ursinus  and  several 
pamphlets  in  its  defence  ;  removed  in  1576  to 
Berleburg,  and  in  1584  to  Herborn,  every- 
where engaged  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Reformation.  (See  his  life  by  Sudholl, 
Elberfeld,  1857.)  C.  P. 

Olga,  St.,  was  born  a  peasant  girl,  but  be- 
came the  wife  of  the  grandduke  Igor  of 
Kiew  ;  governed  the  realm  with  great  success 
during  the  minority  of  her  son  ;  went  in  953 
to  Constantinople  and  embraced  Christianity, 
and  is  reverenced  as  a  saint  of  the  Russian 
Church,  though  she  did  not  succeed  in  doing 
anvthing  directly  for  the  propagation  of 
Cliristianitv  in  Russia.  (See  her  life  by 
Castremonte,  Paris,  1879.)  C.  P. 

Olin,  Stephen,  I). I).  (Middlebury  College, 
1S32  ;  University  of  Alabama.  1834),  LL.D. 
(Yale,  1845),  Me"th(jdist  ;  b.  at  Leicester,  Vt., 
Marcli  2,  1797  ;  d.  at  Middletown,  Conn., 
Aug.  16, 1851.     He  waj  graduated  at  Middle- 


OLIVE 


(664) 


ONLY 


bury  in  1820  ;  entered  the  ministry  in  1824  ; 
was  president  of  Randolph  Macon  College, 
Virginia,  1834-37  ;  travelled,  1837-41,  and 
■was  elected  president  of  Wesleyan  University 
at  Middletown  in  1842.  He  published  famous 
Tranels  in  Egyjit,  Arabia  Petrcva,  and  the  Holy 
Land,  New  York,  1843,  2  vols. ;  Greece  and  the 
Golden  Horn,  1854  ;  Works.  1852,  2  vols.;  Idfe 
and  Letters  (edited  by  his  wife),  1853,  2  vols. 

Olive.   See  p.  662. 

Olivers,  Thomas,  Wesleyan  ;  b.  at  Trego- 
nan,  Wales,  in  1725  ;  d.  in  London,  in  the 
month  of  March,  1799.  He  was  converted 
by  Whilefield's  preaching  ;  preached  himself 
in  various  places  in  England  and  Ireland, 
conducted  for  a  long  time  the  Arminian 
Monthly,  and  was  one  of  Wesley's  ablest  de- 
fenders. He  is  the  author  of  the  hymn  "  The 
God  of  Abrah'm  praise." 

Olives  and  Olivet,  Mount  of.  A  noted 
ridge  two  miles  long  east  of  Jerusalem,  first 
mentioned  in  connection  with  David's  flight 
from  Absalom.  Upon  it  Solomon  built  high 
places  for  the  gods  of  his  heathen  wives,  but 
these  were  destroyed  by  Josiah  (1  Kings  xi. 
7,  2  Kings  xxiii.  13).  This  is  "  the  mount" 
from  which  the  returned  Jews  brought  the 
branches  to  make  booths  in  w^hich  to  celebrate 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Neh.  viii.  15).  Over 
it  our  Saviour  often  passed  on  his  way  to  and 
from  the  holy  city.  From  it  he  descended 
on  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  and 
from  it  he  ascended  to  his  Father's  right 
hand.  Zechariah  (xiv.  4)  predicted  that  one 
day  it  would  be  cleft  in  twain,  leaving  a 
great  valley  between  the  dissevered  parts 

T.  W.  C. 

Olivetan  (o-lev-ton),  Pierre  Robert,  French 
Protestant ;  b.  at  Noyon,  Northern  France, 
toward  the  end  of  the  15th  century  ;  d.  at 
Ferrara,  1538  ;  was  a  relative  and  friend  of 
Calvin,  and  translated  the  Bible  into  French, 
Neufchatel,  1535,  2  vols,  fol.,  on  the  basis  of 
the  translation  of  Lefevre  d'Etaples.  Cor- 
rected by  CaWin,  Olivetan's  translation  be- 
came the  foundation  of  the  Geneva  Bible. 


Olshausen  (ols-how-zen),  Hermann,  Lu- 
theran ;  b.  at  Oldeslohe,  Holstein,  Aug.  21, 
1796  ;  d.  at  Erlangen,  Sept.  4.  1839.  He 
studied  theology  at  Kiel  and  in  Berlin,  and 
was  appointed  professor  at  Konigsberg  in 
1821  and  at  Erlangen  in  1834.  His  commen- 
taries on  the  New  Testament  were  translated 
into  English  in  Clark's  Foreign  Theological 
Library,  Edinburgh,  1847-49,  4  vols.,  and  a 
revision  by  A.  C.  Kendrick  appeared  in  New 
York,  1856-58,  6  vols. 

Ornish,  the  followers  of  Jakob  Amman  and 
the  strict  party  among  the  Mennonites.  (see 
Menno).     They  discard  buttons  and  shaving. 

Omnipotence  of  God  is  his  almighty  pow- 
er. The  most  conspicuous  instance  of  its  ex- 
ercise was  the  creation  of  the  world  out  of 
nothing.  It  is  a  great  stimulus  to  prayer  and 
trust  that  God  is  "able  to  do  exceedingly 
abundantly  above  all  that  we  ask  or  think" 
(Eph.  iii.  20).  •  T.  W.  C. 


Omnipresence  of  God  is  his  presence  every- 
where. It  belongs  to  his  perfection  as  infinite 
(Ps.  cxxxix.  7-10).  T.  W.  C. 

Omniscience  of  God  is  that  perfection  by 
which  he  knows  all  things,  past,  present,  and 
to  come.  This  knowledge  is  not  as  with  us 
the  result  of  time  and  elfoit,  but  immediate 
and  intuitive.  It  is  perfect,  universal,  and 
infallible  (Heb.  iv.  13).  T.  W.  C. 

Om'-ri  {servant  of  Jehovah).  Founder  of  the 
second  dynasty  of  Israel.  When  Zimri  slew 
Elah.  the  army  elected  in  his  place  Omri,  who 
attacked  Zimri  and  caused  his  death,  and 
then  for  two  years  reigned  over  half  the  peo- 
ple and  afterward  for  twelve  years  over  the 
whole.  He  made  Samaria  the  capital.  He 
exceeded  his  predecessors  in  wickedness  (1 
Kings  xvi.,  Micah  vi.  16).  T.  W.  C. 

On  {sun),  an  ancient  city  of  Lower  Egypt, 
known  to  the  Greeks  as  Heliopolis,  on  the 
Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  6  miles  from 
Cairo.  Jeremiah  (xliii.  13)  calls  it  Beth 
Shemesh  (house  of  the  sun),  Ezekiel  (xxx.  17), 
Aven  (=  On),  the  Arabs.  'Ain-Shems  (foun- 
tain of  the  Sim).  It  was  the  ancient  seat  of 
the  Egyptian  worship  of  the  sun.  See  Heli- 
opolis. T.  W.  C. 

Onderdonk,  Henry  Ustic,  D.D.  (Colum- 
bia, 1827)  ;  b.  in  New  Y^ork,  March  16,  1789  ; 
d.  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  6,  1858.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia,  1805  ;  studied  medicine  in 
London  and  Edinburgh  ;  became  minister  at 
Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  1816-20  ;  rector  of  St. 
Ann's,  Brooklyn,  1820-27  ;  assistant  bishop 
of  Pennsylvania,  1827 ;  succeeded  Bishop 
White,  1836 ;  suspended,  1844 ;  restored, 
1856.  He  wrote  several  controversial  and  de- 
votional works,  and  ten  hymns  for  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  collection  of  1827.  Of  his 
hymns,  "  The  Spirit  in  our  hearts"  has  been 
widely  used.  F.  M.  B. 

O-nes'-i-mus  {profitable),  a  slave  of  Phile- 
mon of  Colossaj,  who  ran  away  from  his  mas- 
ter and  fled  to  Rome,  where  he  w^as  converted 
through  the  preaching  of  Paul,  and  was  the 
occasion  of  his  writing  the  Epistle  to  Phile- 
mon (q.v.).  He  ministered  tenderly  to  Paul 
in  his  imprisonment,  and  was  received  by  his 
former  master  "  as  a  brother  beloved  "  (Col. 
iv.  9).  T.  W.  C. 

Onion,  a  well-known  garden  vegetable 
which  grew  in  great  perfection  in  Egypt,  and 
for  the  lack  of  which  the  Israelites  murmured 
in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xi.  5).       T.  W.  C. 

Onkelos,  the  author  of  the  best  of  the  Tar- 
gums  or  Chaldee  paraphrases  of  the  Old 
Testament.  It  is  confined  to  the  books  of 
Moses,  and  is  so  brief  and  simple  that  its 
genuineness  is  unquestioned.  Occasionally 
the  style  approaches  in  purity  the  Aramaic  of 
Daniel  and  Ezra.  This  work  is  quoted  in 
the  Mishna,  but  was  not  known  to  Origen, 
Eusebius,  or  Jerome.  T.  W.  C. 

Only  Begotten,  a  Scriptural  title  of  Christ 
(.John  i.  14,  iii.  16,  1  John  iv.  9),  suggesting 
a  mysterious  relation  between  him  and  the 
Father,  which  no  human  words  can  fully  ex- 
press and  no  human  mind  fully  comprehend. 
T.  W.  C. 


OORT 


(665) 


OPUS 


Oort,  Henricus,  Dutch  Orientalist  ;  b.  at 
Eemnes,  Utrecht,  Dec.  27,  1836  ;  studied  the- 
ology at  Leyden  ;  held  various  pastoral 
charges,  and  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Jewi'sh  antiquities  at  Leyden  in  1875.  Some 
of  liis  works  have  been  transhited  into  Eng- 
lish, The  Itelifiion  of  the  Baalim  among  the 
Ifn-aelifi's,  by  Bishop  Colenso,  London,  1865  ; 
(with  Hooykaas)  The  Bible  for  Toung  People, 
by  F.  H.  Wicksteed,  London,  1873-79,  6 
vols.,  rep.  in  Boston  under  tlie  title,  The 
Bible  for  Learners,  1878-79,  3  vols.  He  rep- 
resents the  extreme  Leyden  school  of  destruc- 
tive Bible  critics. 

Oosterzee,  Jan  Jacob  van,  Reformed  ;  b. 
at  Rotterdam.  Holland,  April  17,  1817  ;  d.  at 
Wiesbaden,  Germany,  July  29,  1882  ;  studied 
theology  in  the  University  of  Utreclit,  1835- 
40,  and  became,  after  holding  various  pastoral 
•charges,  professor  there  in  1862.  He  was  the 
recognized  leader  of  the  evangelical  school  in 
Dutch  theology,  and  several  of  his  works 
have  been  translated  into  English,  The  Image 
of  Christ  as  Presented  in  Scripture  (forming 
tlie  third  volume  of  his  Ohristologie),  London, 
1874  ;  commentaries  on  Luke,  tlie  Pastoral 
Epistles,  and  James  in  the  Lange  series,  Lou- 
don and  New  York  ;  Theology  of  the  New 
Testament,  London,  1870,  4th  ed.,  1882; 
Chiistiaii  Dogmatics,  London  and  New  York, 
1874,  2d  ed.,  1878  ;  Moses,  Edinburgh,  1876, 
and  Practical  Theology,  1878.  His  Auto- 
biography was  published  in  1883.  A  bio- 
graphical sketch  by  Evans  is  found  in  the 
Catholic  Presbytenan,  October,  1882. 

O'-phel  {the  knoll),  a  quarter  of  the  temple 
adjacent  to  the  temple  and  occupied  by  the 
Nethinim  (Neh.  iii.  26,  27,  xi.  21).  It  was 
enclosed  by  a  wall,  but  is  now  outside  the 
city.  It  belongs  to  the  lower  ridge  into 
wliich  Mt.  Moriah  sinks  south  of  the  area  of 
the  mosque.  Some  think  it  to  be  intended 
by  the  Hebrew  Ophel  translated  "  strong- 
liold  "  in  Micah  iv.  8,  where  the  R.  V.  gives 
-hill."  T.  W.  C. 

O'-phir  {fruitful),  the  celebrated  gold 
region  to  which  "Solomon  sent  ships  from  a 
port  on  the  Red  Sea.  The  abundance  and 
purity  of  its  gold  were  proverbial  (Job  xx. 
24,  Ps.  xlv.  9,  Isa.  xiii.  12).  Its  precise  situ- 
ation has  never  been  determined.  Josephus 
put  it  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  ;  others  at 
Snfala,  on  the  ]\Iozambique  coast  of  Africa. 
The  common  view  has  been  that  it  was  in 
Arabia,  which,  though  it  does  not  produce 
gold  now,  certainly  did  yield  it  in  ancient 
times  (2  Chron.  ix.  14,  Ezek.  xxvii.  32). 
Rilter,  Ewald,  and  others  put  it  in  Southern 
India,  which  produces  the  other  articles 
brought  in  Solomon's  ships  (peacocks,  apes, 
spices,  and  ivory,  1  Kings  xi.  22),  and  whicli 
wcndd  account  for  the  voyage  being  made 
once  in  three  years.  T.  W.  C. 

Ophites,  The  (from  tlie  Greek,  o<?<f,  "  a 
serpent"),  was  the  name  of  a  Gnostic  sect 
which  originated  in  E^ypt,  thence  spread 
into  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  continued 
alive  into  the  6th  century,  as  there  exist  laws 
against  them  enacted  i»y  Justinian  in  530. 
Some  of  their  most  characteristic  ideas  they 


had  evidently  borrowed  from  the  Egyptian 
serpent-worship,  to  which  they  gave  a  very 
curious  application.  Like  most  Gnostics  they 
considered  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old  Testament 
to  be  the  Demiurgus,  and  taught  that  eman- 
cipation from  his  power  was  the  highest 
moral  i)roblem  of  human  life.  The  serpent 
who  tempted  Eve  to  disobedience  was  con- 
sequently to  them  not  a  seducer  to  evil,  but 
the  bearer  of  knowledge  and  truth— the  very 
principle  of  morality.     See  Gnosticism. 

Optatus,  bishop  of  Mileve  in  Numidia, 
wrote  a  work  against  the  Donatists  which  has 
come  down  to  us.  It  is  in  six  (seven)  books, 
composed  in  the  year  368  or  thereabouts. 
The  seventh  book  may  be  spurious,  or  else  is 
of  later  origin  than  the  others.  It  takes  up 
all  the  controverted  points  between  Catholics 
and  Donatists,  and  in  a  friendly  tone  seeks  to 
refute  the  Donatists  and  gain  them  over,  _  It 
is  the  most  valuable  source  of  information 
upon  the  history  of  Donatism,  and  is  found 
in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  XI.  F.  H.  F. 

Optimism  and  Pessimism.  Optimism 
{optiinus,  best)  is  the  name  given  to  the  doc- 
trine that  the  existing  order  of  things,  what- 
ever its  seeming  imperfections,  is  as  a  whole 
the  best  which  could  have  been  created. 
I)iscu.ssions  upon  this  theme  are  as  old  as 
philosophy  its(;lf,  but  its  full  development  as 
a  system  was  first  set  forth  by  Shaftesbury 
(1699)  and  Archbishop  King  (1702),  and  espe- 
cially by  the  celebrated  Leibnitz  in  his  trea- 
tise enti'tled  Theodicee  (1710),  in  which  he  con- 
tends  that  the  existence  of  evil,  both  moral 
and  physical,  is  a  necessary  consecjuence  of  the 
finiteness  of  created  beings,  and  that  in  the 
existing  con.stitution  of  things  the  prejionder- 
ance  of  good  is  greater  than  in  any  other  con- 
ceivable creation.  Very  plausible  arguments 
are  presented  in  favor  of  this  thesis,  but  most 
careful  thinkers  are  of  opinion  that  the  mat- 
ter is  too  difficult  for  our  faculties. 

Pessimism  {pessimus,  worst)  holds  that  ex- 
istence is  essentially  evil,  and  that  the  uni- 
verse is  a  vanitv.  Its  modern  founder  was 
Schopenhauer  (1788-1860),  who  held  that  the 
world  is  the  worst  possible.  Its  ablest  pres- 
ent representative.  Von  Ilartmann,  will  not 
say  this,  but  affirms  that  it  is  worse  than 
would  have  been  no  world  at  all.  Other 
writers,  such  as  Bahnsen.  insist  that  life  is 
not  only  essentially  wretched  and  irrational, 
but  will  be  eternally  so.  There  can  be  no 
hesitation  in  rejecting  such  views  as  wholly 
unchristian  and  unreasonable.         T.  "W.  C. 

Opus  Operantis  ("  the  work  of  the  work- 
er") and  Opus  Operatum  ("the  work 
wrought"),  two  terms  of  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologv,  the  first  comprising  those  rites  whose 
effect  as  means  of  grace  depends  nearly  if 
not  wholly  on  the  disposition  of  the  acting 
per.son,  such  as  prayer,  sprinkling  with  holy 
water,  etc.,  while  the  latter  is  applied  only  to 
the  sacraments,  wlio.se  ministration  is  itself  a 
means  of  grace,  nearly  if  not  wholly  inde- 
pendent of  the  (lispo.'iit'ion  of  the  recipient. 

Opus    Supererogationis,  or  Opera  Super- 


ORACLE 


(666) 


ORDINATION 


erogatoria  ("  work  beyond  that  which  is  de- 
manded"), a  term  of  Roman  Catholic  theol- 
ogy, denoting  acts  of  goodness  and  piety 
above  the  duty  of  man  to  God.  Christ  and 
the  saints  have  performed  such  acts,  and  they 
form,  according  to  a  constitution  by  Clemens 
VI.,  of  1343,  a  treasure  at  the  disposal  of  the 
church  which  enables  the  pope  to  give  and 
sell  indulgences.  The  constitution  was  after- 
ward confirmed  by  several  other  popes,  Leo 
X.,  Pius  VI.,  and  gave  rise  to  a  most  scandal- 
ous practice. 

Oracle  (Latin,  oraculum)  denotes  in  Greek 
and  Roman  paganism  the  place  where  the 
gods  were  consulted  (Delphi,  Dodona),  or  the 
answers  which  they  were  supposed  to  give  at 
such  places  when  duly  interrogated.  Those 
answers  were  generally  conjectural,  and  con- 
sisted in  something  which  took  place  at  the 
moment — rustling  of  leaves,  cries  of  birds, 
etc. — but  sometimes  they  had  the  form  of 
words  uttered  by  the  priests,  and  were  then 
complete  enigmas. 

Oral  Law  is  the  name  given  to  a  traditional 
teaching  given  besides  the  written  law  and 
transmitted  through  the  elders  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Great  Synagogue.  About  the 
time  of  the  2d  century  it  was  committed  to 
writing,  and  is  now  found  in  the  voluminous 
pages  of  the  Talmud.  T.  W.  C. 

Oratorio,  a  musical  composition  consisting 
of  solos  and  choirs,  accompanied  by  organ 
and  orchestra,  and  corresponding  within  the 
pale  of  sacred  music  to  the  opera  of  the  the- 
atre, originated  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
turv,  and  was  introduced  by  Filippo  de  Neri 
(1515-95),  the  founder  of  the  order  of  the 
Oratorians,  whence  its  name.  The  first  ora- 
torios were  performed  on  a  stage  and  in  cos- 
tumes, and  were  of  an  altogether  lighter  de- 
scription. In  the  hands  of  Bach  (1685-1750) 
and  Handel  (1685-1759)  they  reached  their 
highest  solemnity  and  sublimity  ;  under 
Haydn  (1732-1809)  and  Mendelssohn  (1809- 
47)  they  became  more  complete,  especially 
with  respect  to  instrumentation,  and  more 
varied. 

Oratory,  a  small  chapel  or  place  of  prayer, 
not  having  the  rights  of  services  of  a  parish 
church.  Also  the  name  of  a  religious  society 
in  the  Roman  Church,  founded  by  St.  Philip 
Neri,  composed  of  priests  wiio  live  together 
without  being  bound  by  monastic  vows. 

F.  H.  F. 

Ordeal  (from  the  Anglo- Saxon,  ordcel, 
"  great  judgment")  originated  from  the  cus- 
tom prevalent  among  all  Germanic  nations  of 
deciding  certain  cases  by  wager  of  battle,  and 
was  in  the  5th  century  adopted  by  the  church 
and  administered  by  "her  as  a  means  of  direct 
appeal  to  the  judgment  of  God.  In  cases  of 
adultery  the  accused  could  prove  his  inno- 
cence by  carrying  a  red-hot  iron  unhurt  ;  in 
cases  of  theft,  by  putting  his  hand  down  in  a 
vessel  filled  with  boiling  water,  etc.  Already 
in  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century,  however, 
Agobard  of  Lyons  wrote  against  this  bar- 
barism, and  the  opposition  spread  from  cen- 
tury to  century.  After  the  13th  century  it 
was  only  used  in  cases  of  witchcraft.     The 


witch  was  thrown  with  hands  and  feet  bound 
into  a  stream  ;  if  she  floated,  she  was  guilty 
and  was  burnt ;  but  if  she  sank  to  the  bottom 
and  was  drowned,  she  was  declared  innocent. 
The  Council  of  Trent  condemned  the  custom, 
but  in  Protestant  countries  it  still  lingered 
down  to  the  17th  century. 

Ordericus  Vitalis,  b.  at  Attengesham,  near 
Shrewsbury,  England,  Feb.  16,  1075  ;  d.  at 
St.  Evroul,  Normandy,  about  1143  ;  de- 
scended from  a  Norman  family  ;  was  edu- 
cated in  Normandy  ;  took  orders  there,  and 
spent  his  whole  life  there  with  the  exception 
of  occasional  journeys  to  England.  Of  his 
Historm  Ecdesiastim  in  three  parts,  the  last 
part  is  of  superior  interest  for  the  history  both 
of  Normandy  and  England.  The  work  was 
first  edited  by  Duchesne  in  his  IJist.  Norm. 
Hcript  ,  Paris,  1619,  best  by  A.  le  Prevost, 
1838-55,  5  vols.  There  is  an  Eng.  trans,  by 
T.  Forester  in  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library, 
London,  1853-56,  4  vols. 

Orders,  Holy,  is  a  term  referring  to  th& 
sacred  character  of  the  ministry  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  Some  Protestant  churches — the 
Presbyterian,  Congregationalist,  Baptist,  etc. 
— recognize  only  one  order  :  that  of  the  pres- 
byter or  priest  ;  others — the  Anglican,  Luth- 
eran, Methodist,  etc. — three  :  those  of  the 
bishop,  the  priest,  and  the  deacon  ;  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  seven,  adding  to  those  of  the 
bishop,  the  priest,  and  the  deacon,  those  of 
the  doorkeeper,  exorcist,  reader,  and  acolyte, 
but  making  a  distinction  between  the  three 
former  as  "  major  orders"  and  the  four  latter 
as  "  minor  orders." 

Orders,  Religious,  are  associations  or  com- 
munities bound  together  for  some  religious 
purpose  by  a  common  vow,  under  a  common 
leader,  and  in  a  common  state  of  life.  The 
character  of  such  an  association  may  vary 
very  considerably,  being  with  one  purely  as- 
cetic, with  another  essentially  military,  which 
diifercnces  are  described  under  the  name  of 
each  particular  order. 

Ordinal  is  the  name  of  the  book  containing 
the  rules  or  rites  by  which,  in  the  Church  of 
England  and  other  Protestant  Episcopal 
churches,  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  are 
ordained.  The  ordinal  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land was  prepared  in  1550  by  a  commission 
appointed  by  Edward  VI.,  and  afterward 
slightly  modified  under  Elizabeth  and  by  the 
Convention  of  1661. 

Ordinary  (Latin,  ordinarius)  is  the  title 
given  both  by  common  and  canon  law  to  him 
who,  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  exercises  imme- 
diate jurisdiction — that  is,  performs  his  func- 
tions in  his  own  right  and  not  as  the  delegate 
of  anybody  else.  Properly  speaking  the 
title  can  only  be  given  to  the  diocesan  bishop, 
but  common  parlance  gives  it  sometimes  a 
wider  application. 

Ordination  is  the  act  by  which,  in  the 
Christian  Church,  holy  orders  are  conferred 
and  men  set  apart  for  the  oftice  of  the  minis- 
try. There  are  differences,  however,  not  only 
in  the  rites  by  which  the  act  is  performed, 
but  also  in  the  very  character  ascribed  to  it. 


ORDO 


(667) 


ORIOEN 


Certain  bodies  of  Cliristians— the  Disciples  of 
Clirist,  the  Quakers,  the  Plymoutli  Bretlireu 
— recognize  no  human  rite  of  ordination,  on 
the  ground  tiiat  all  Christians  are  alike  and 
that  only  the  inward  call  to  preach  makes  the 
minister.  The  Konian  Catholic  Cliurch  has 
gone  to  the  opposite  extreme,  considering  or- 
dination a  sacrament  like  baptism,  and  ascrib- 
ing to  it  an  indelible  character,  which  is  con- 
ferred by  the  very  performance  of  the  rite, 
independent  of  the  personal  character  or  life 
of  the  ordinant  and  candidate.  The  Church 
of  England  and  other  Protestant  Episcopal 
churches  do  not  deline  ordination  as  a  sacra- 
ment by  which  grace  is  directly  conferred. 
On  the  contrary,  by  insisting  \ipon  certain 
conditions  of  age,  character,  life,  moral  and 
intellectual  standing,  etc.,  they  designate  the 
act  as  a  human  institution.  But  by  confining 
the  power  of  ordination  to  the  bishop  as  the 
successor  of  the  apostles,  and  adhering  tirmly 
to  certain  traditional  features  of  the  rite,  they 
connect  it  directly  with  the  divine  source  of 
the  church,  while  some  Non(;onformist  bodies, 
contending  for  the  power  of  ordination  as  be- 
longing to  the  people  and  protesting  that  the 
popular  election  constitutes  the  minister,  ap- 
parently approach  the  views  of  the  Quakers 
and  otliers  on  the  subject.  C.  P. 

Ordo  Romanus  means  the  whole  set  of 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  service  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  As  the  forms  of 
that  service  have  changed  considerably  from 
time  to  time,  there  is,  of  course,  more  than 
one  ordo  Romanus.  The  oldest  is  supposed 
to  date  from  the  time  of  Gelasius  I.,  toward 
the  close  of  the  5th  century  ;  the  latest  from 
the  14th  century. 

Organ,  The,  was  a  Byzantine  invention  first 
introduced  into  Western  Europe  in  the  8th 
century.  But  while  in  the  East  the  instru- 
ment was  used  only  at  social  entertainments, 
iu  the  West  it  was  generally  found  very  suit- 
able for  churcii  use  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  papal  chapels,  every  cathedral  had  its 
organ  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries.  At  the 
Reformation  the  Lutheran  Church  retained  it, 
while  the  Reformed  Cliurch  abolished  it, 
though  it  has  later  on,  now  and  then,  re- 
adopted  it. 

Orelli  (Hans),  Conrad  von,  Ph.D.  (Leip- 
zii:,  ISTl),  l-f.D.  ((ireifswald,  18S.")),  Swiss 
Protestant  ;  b.  at  Zurich,  Jan.  2.j,  184a.  lie 
studied  at  Zurich,  Laiisanne,  Erlangen, 
Tul)ingen,  and  Leipzig,  and  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Basel  in  1873.  He  published 
Die  hehrniiichen  Syiioinjina  dir  Zdt  uiid  Ewiij- 
keit,  Leipzig,  1871;  Durrh^  IL  lliqr.  Land, 
Basel,  1878,  3d  ed.,  1884  ;  The  Old  TrMamcnt 
Proplienj  of  the  Cointurnmatioti  of  Ood'n  Kimj- 
dom,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  188i)  ;  commen- 
taries on  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  (1887).  Ezekid 
and  the  Twelve  Minor  Prophets  {\Hm),  in  Strack 
and  ZiJckler's  Commetitar,  Nordlingen,  and 
some  minor  writings. 

Origen  was  born  of  Cliristian  parents  in 
Alexandria  in  the  year  18")  or  18(3  ;  d.  and 
was  buried  at  Tyre,  253.  He  was  bap- 
tized as  an  infant.  His  father,  Leonidas. 
possessed  some  property,  and  had  his  son  well 


educated.  But  in  the  year  202  Leonidas  was 
imprisoned  for  his  faith,  his  property  confis- 
cated, and  himself  soon  executed.  Origen 
w^as  received  into  the  liouse  of  a  wealthy 
Christian  lady,  but  soon  began  to  support 
himself  by  teaching,  and  was  shortly  put  in 
charge  of  the  catechetical  school  in  Alexan- 
dria, where  he  lived  in  great  poverty,  but  pur- 
sued his  studies  incessantly,  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  Greek  philosophy  in  the  school 
of  Annnonius  Saccas  (see  Neo-Pi.atonism). 
At  this  time,  under  the  influence  of  the  pas- 
sage Matt.  xix.  12,  he  made  himself  an 
eunuch.  Persecution  compelled  him  (prob- 
ably 215-1 G)  to  leave  Alexandria,  and  he 
spent  a  sliort  time  in  Palestine.  Upon  the 
command  of  his  bishop,  he  returned  and  took 
up  his  work  in  the  catechetical  school,  but 
his  position  -was  rendered  unpk-asant  by  the 
jealousy  of  the  bishop,  and  this  rather  in- 
creased with  time.  He  now  busied  himself 
with  literary  labors.  His  IIe.mpla  and  his 
commentaries  were  begun  at  this  time. 
About  230  ecclesiastical  matters  called  him  to 
Greece.  On  the  way  he  was  ordained  as  pres- 
byter in  Palestine.  This  stej)  displeaseii  the 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  he  procured  the 
deposition  of  Origen  at  a  synod  which  he 
called.  In  consequence  Origen  retired  from 
Alexandria  and  settled  in  Cicsarea  iu  Pales- 
tine. His  literary  labors  were  continued,  but 
the  confusion  of  the  times  caused  him  to  leave 
Caisarea  and  live  in  various  places,  one  of 
which  was  Athens.  He  journe.yed  to  Arabia 
to  win  over  Beryllus  from  his  heresies,  iu 
which  he  succeeded.  In  the  period  of  peace 
and  security  which  preceded  the  Decian  per- 
secution, he  composed  his  reply  to  Celsus, 
which  is  one  of  the  ripest  of  his  productions. 
In  the  following  persecution  Origen  was  im- 
prisoned and  tortured  (250),  but  he  survived 
and  died  a  natural  death.  ~- 

The  writings  of  Origen  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  :  (1)  Exegetical,  in  which 
his  textual  labors,  as  exemplified  by  the 
Ilc.vapla,  his  homilies,  and  his  numerous  com- 
mentaries, are  to  be  mentioned.  His  method 
of  interpretation  was  the  alkgorical,  for  he 
distinguished  three  senses  in  Scripture,  the 
literal^  the  psychical,  and  the  pneumatic,  the 
latter  the  source  of  his  mystic  and  a]l(  gcriziiig 
speculations.  Then  come  (2)  his  pliilosophic 
and  dogmatic  writings,  of  wliich  the  i)riuci- 
pal  is  the  De  Pnncijiiis  (Eng.  trans,  in  the 
Ante-Nicene  Lilirary  of  the  C'hrislian  Liter- 
ature Publishing  Company),  which  is  devoted 
to  the  systematic  development  of  the  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  Christianity,  such  as  God, 
tiie  world,  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  the 
Scriptures.  Finally  (3)  the  apologetic  works, 
of  which  the  eight  books  against  Celsvis  (see 
Ante-Niccne  Library)  arc  the  chief.  Here  the 
objections  raised  by  the  Jews  and  the  Greek 
philosophy  of  the  "clay  are  presented  by  ex- 
tracts from  Celsus,  and  then  refuted  by 
Oriixen.  Works  in  ^Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  XI.- 
XVII. 

The  speculative  spirit  of  Origen  led  to 
manv  suggestions  upon  the  deeper  problems 
of  ('liristianity,  in  which  he  jo.stled  rudely 
against  favorite  conceptions,  and  while  mak- 
ing fruitful  contributions  to  the  progress  of 


ORIGINAL 


(668) 


OSIANDER 


^S 


Christian  doctrine,  gained  a  doubtful  reputa" 
tion  for  heterodoxy.  Speculation  upon  the 
nature  of  God  and  the  necessity  under  which 
lie  lies  to  reveal  himself,  caused  Origen  to 
emphasize  the  idea  of  the  eternity  of  tlie 
Logos,  which  he  taught  was  "  eternally  gen- 
erated." This  idea,  which  gave  eternity, 
deity,  and  at  the  same  time  dependence  to  the 
Logos,  was  never  let  fall  in  the  following  cen- 
turies, since  it  was  a  real  element  in  the  ad- 
vancing understanding  of  the  nature  of  the 
person  of  Christ.  But  with  this  he  connected 
speculations  as  to  a  pre-existent  world  of 
spirits  and  a  preraundane  fall,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  explaining  the  origin  of  eril  in  the 
world,  which  were  less  acceptable,  especially 
in  their  connection  with  the  incarnation.  He 
opposed  also  the  idea  of  a  speedy  end  of  tlie 
world,  and  of  a  literal  resurrection  of  the 
body.  He  taught  the  final  restoration  of  all 
intelligencies  to  holiness  and  happiness. 

It  was  inevitable  that  such  a  teacher  should 
have  followers,  and  also  opponents.  Hence 
the  following  centuries  witnessed  a  great  deal 
of  controversy  over  his  person  and  his  doc- 
trines. During  the  great  movements  of  the 
4th  century  he  was  calmly  and  rightly  judged. 
Athauasius,  Basil,  the  Gregories,  and  other 
great  minds  racognized  his  merits  without 
subscribing  to  his  more  startling  peculiarities. 
Orthodox  Latin  writers  sought  by  translations 
and  essays  to  make  his  treasures  known  to 
the  West.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury and  beginning  of  the  5th,  a  controversy 
arose  in  which  Rufinus,  Origen's  disciple, 
and  Jerome  were  concerned.  The  monasteries 
were  often  involved,  the  most  zealous  monks 
being  generally  against  Origen.  In  the  time 
of  Justinian  there  were  great  contentions. 
Various  parties  of  Origenists  andanti-Origeu- 
ists  were  enumerated,  till  in  553  the  fifth 
tecumenical  council  at  Constantinople  anathe- 
matized his  teaching.  For  one  of  the  best 
studies  on  Origen,  see  Tiiomasius,  Origenes, 
Nuremberg,  1837.  Also  see  Redepenning, 
Origears,  Bonn,  1841-46,  3  vols.     F.  II.  F. 

Original  Antiburghers,  Bxurghers,  and 
Seceders.     See  Secedeks. 

Original  Sin.     See  SiN. 

Orme,  William,  Congregat'onalist  ;  b.  at 
Falkirk,  Scotland,  during  1787  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, during  1830.  He  was  minister  at  Perth, 
1807,  and  later  at  Camberwell,  Surrey,  ancl 
foreign  secretary  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society.  He  wrote  A  Sketch  of  the  Traim- 
lation  and  CircuUition  of  tlie  Scriptures,  Perth, 
1815  ;  Uves  of  Owen,  London,  1820  ;  KiiTen, 
1823  ;  Urquhart,  1827,  and  Baxter,  1830  ; 
and  Bibliotheca  Biblka,  Edinburgh,  1824. 
F.  M.  B. 

Ormuzd  and  Ahiiman,  the  popular  English 
form  of  the  names  of  the  divine  representatives 
of  good  and  evil  respectively  in  Parsee  theolo- 
gy.    See  Persia. 

Orosius,  Spaniard,  flourished  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury, friend  and  correspondent  of  Augustine, 
wrote  some  theological  treatises,  but  specially 
Seven  Books  of  History  against  the  Pagans,  in 
which  he  refutes  their  charge  that  Christi- 
anity was  the  cause  of  calamities  by  showing 


that  the  world  has  ever  been  a  vale  of  tears. 
Best  ed.  by  Zangemeister,  in  the  Corpus- 
Script.  Eccles.  Lat.,  Vienna,  1882.  F.  H.  F. 

Orthodoxy  and  Heterodoxy,  The  former 
term  denotes  soundness  in  the  faith  {lit.,  cor- 
rect opinion),  the  latter  the  opposite.  Of 
course  the  application  uf  the  terms  depends 
upon  the  viewpoint  of  the  observer.  Yet  it 
is  generally  allowed  that  those  doctrines 
wliicli  have  been  held  by  the  great  body  of 
the  church  in  all  ages  should  be  regarded  and 
treated  as  orthodox,  while  the  temporary  and 
occasional  divergencies  from  the  recognized 
system  are  styled  heterodox.  Thus  the  au- 
thority, inspiration,  and  canon  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  trinity,  tlie  fall  of  man  and  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  race,  the  incarnation,  atone- 
ment, and  intercession,  of  the  Lord  Jesus, 
salvation  through  the  cross,  the  work  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  regeneration  and  sanctificalion, 
tlie  obligation  to  good  works,  the  validity 
and  importance  of  the  sacraments,  the  second 
advent  of  Christ,  the  general  resurrection  and 
judgment,  and  tlie  endlessness  of  future  ret- 
ributions, make  up  a  chain  of  related  truths 
wliich  have  been  so  generally  and  persist- 
ently held  by  the  historic  church  as*  justly  to 
claim  the  title  of  orthodox.  T.  W.  C. 

Orton,  Job,  Independent  ;  b.  at  Shrews- 
bury, England,  Sept.  4,  1717;  d.  at  Kiddtr- 
minster,  July  19,  1783  ;  was  educated  in  Dr. 
Doddridge's  academy  at  Northampton  ;  be- 
came pastor  in  1741  of  the  Presbyterian  and 
Independent  congregations  in  his  native 
town,  and  retired  to  Kidderminster  in  1766. 
He  t\'as  a  prolific  writer,  and  published,  be- 
sides a  number  of  sermons  and  other  devo- 
tional works,  a  life  of  Dr.  Doddridge,  whose 
works  he  edited,  and  A  Short  and  Plain 
Exposition  of  the  Old  I'estanient,  edited  by 
Robert  Gentleman,  Woroester.  1788-91,  6 
vols.,  2ded.,  1822. 

Osculatory  (Latin,  osculatorium) ,  a  repre- 
sentation of  Christ  and  the  Virgin,  carved  or 
painted,  of  wood  or  metal,  which,  during  the 
celebration  of  mass,  was  kissed  by  the  priest 
and  then  passed  around  among  the  congre- 
gation for  the  same  purpose.  The  custom 
prevalent  in  the  ancient  church  was,  no 
doubt,  a  reminiscence  of  the  kiss  of  peace  in 
the  primitive  church. 

Osiander  (o-ze-an-der),  Andreas,  b.  at  Gun- 
zenhausen,  on  the  Altmiihle,  in  Bavaria,  but 
at  that  time  imder  tiie  authority  of  the  mar- 
grave of  Brandenburg,  Dec.  19,  1498  ;  d.  at 
Koaigsberg,  Oct.  17,  1552  ;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1520  ;  embraced  the  Reformation,  and 
was  very  active  in  its  establishment  at  Nurem- 
berg, but  left  the  city  Avhen  the  Augsburg  in- 
terim was  accepted  in  1548,  and  was  appointed 
pastor  and  professor  of  theology  at  Kcinigs- 
berg.  In  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith 
he  was  decidedly  opposed  to  Calvinism  and 
Romanism,  and  fundamentally  agreed  with 
Luther  ;  but  he  gave  it  a  mystical  turn,  and 
thereby  caused  a  controversy  which  threat- 
ened to  assume  great  dimensions  when  he 
suddenly  died.  His  followers  were  expelled 
from  Prussia  in  1566,  and  their  leader,  the 
court  preacher  Funck,  was  beheaded.  (See  his 
life  by  W.  Mciller.  Elberfeld  1870.) 


OSPRAY 


(669) 


OWEN 


Ospray  (powerful),  an  unclean  bird  of  the 
eagle  kind,  unlit  for  food  (Lev.  xi.  13).  If 
not  a  generic  term,  it  is  perhaps  the  short- 
toed  eagle,  the  most  abundant  of  the  Palestine 
species.  T.  W.  C. 

Ossifrage  (the  breaker),  an  unc-lcau  bird  of 
the  eagle  kind  (Deut.  xiv.  12).  tSoine  consider 
it  the  bearded  vulture  ;  others  a  mountain 
bird  like  the  lammergeyer  of  the  Alps,  which 
breaks  the  bones  of  animals  by  dropping  them 
froni  a  great  height  upon  a  stone. 

T.  W.  C. 

Osterwald  (os-ter-valt),  Jean  Frederic,  b. 
at  Neuchatel,  Switzerland,  Nov.  25,  16G;}  ;  d. 
there,  April  14,  1747  ;  studied  llieology  at 
Zurich,  Saumur,  Orleans,  and  Paris,  and  was 
appointed  deacon  of  his  native  city  in  1086, 
and  pastor  in  1699.  lie  is  known  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Swiss  Church  as  a  representative 
of  a  broader  and  more  liberal  tendenc}',  and 
several  of  his  writings  have  been  translated 
into  English  :  A  Trentine  concerning  the 
Ciiiises  of  the  Present  Corruption  of  Christians 
in  Watson's  Tracts,  1700  ;  The  Grounds  and 
Principles  of  the  G hristian  Rdir/ion,  by  George 
Stanhope,  London,  1704  ;  2' he  Arguments  of 
the  Books' and  Chapters  of  the  Old  audNdc 
Testaments,  by  John  Chamberlayne,  1722  ; 
Lectures  on  the  E.rercise  of  the  Sacred  Minis- 
try, by  Thomas  Stevens,  1781. 

Ostiary  (usher),  who  kept  strangers  out  of 
the  congregation,  and  showed  the  initiated  to 
their  place,  and  in  the  3d  century  attained 
the  rank  of  the  lowest  order  of  the  clergy. 
The  order  originated  in  the  West.  F.  H.  F. 

Ostrich,  the  largest  and  strongest  of  birds, 
abounding  in  the  torrid  regions  of  Arabia  and 
Africa.  It  can  run  faster  than  the  swiftest 
horse.  It  loves  solitary  places,  and  is  the  bird 
intended  by  the  "  owl  "  in  Job  xxx.  29,  Isa. 
xiii.  21,  etc.  It  is  timid,  and  often  when 
frightened  abandons  its  eggs  or  ^'oung,  and 
hence  is  said  to  be  "  hardened  against"  them 
(Job  xxxix.  16)  or  cruel  (Sam.  iv.  3). 

T.  W.  C. 

Oswald,  St.,  king  of  Northumbria  ;  b. 
about  605  ;  was  educated  in  the  monastery  of 
lona  ;  tried  to  introduce  Christianity  in  Brit- 
ain, and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  the  ^laser- 
feld  against  the  pagan  Penda,  Aug.  5,  642. 
He  was  canonized,  and  his  name  became  the 
centre  of  a  great  mass  of  legendary  matter. 
(See  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints.) 

Otho  of  Freising,  b.  after  1111  ;  d.  at 
Freising,  Sept.  21,  1158  ;  grandson  of  Henry 
IV.,  half-brother  of  Conrad  III.,  uncle  of 
Friedrich  I.,  Cistercian  monk  and  bishop  of 
Freising,  Bavaria,  from  1137  to  his  death.  At 
the  instance  of  his  nephew  he  wrote  his  Gesta 
Fredei'ici,  which  is  a  work  of  great  historical 
interest.  It  was  edited  by  Wilman  in  Monu- 
inenta  GermanuuB,  and  also  published  sepa- 
rately, Hannover,  1867,  2  vols. 

Otterbein    (o'l-ter-bine).    Philip    William, 

founder  of  the  Church  of  the  United  Hrctiiren 
in  Christ  at  Frederick  Citv,  Md.,  in  1S(X)  ;  b. 
at  DilUnburi,  German v,  .tune  4,  1726  ;  d.  at 
Haltimore,  Md.,  Nov."  17,  1813.  He  was 
originally  in  the  German  Reformed  Church. 


(See  his  life  by  Drury,  Dayton,  O.,  1884,  and 
United  Buethuen.) 

Otto,  Johann  Karl  Theodor  von,  Ph.D. 
(Jena,  1841),  Lie.  Theol.  and  D.D.  (Konigs- 
l)erg,  1844  and  1848),  b.  at  Jena,  Oct.  4,  1816  ; 
studied  theology  there,  1838-41,  and  became 
professor  extraordinary  there  in  1844,  and  ordi- 
nary professor  in  the  evangelical  theological 
facility  in  Vienna,  1851  ;  d.  in  Vienna  in  the 
year  1887.  Among  his  works  are  De  epistola 
ad  niognetum  St.  Justini,  1845,  2d  ed.,  1852  ; 
Corpus  Apolof/etarttm  Christ.  Secund.  Secvl., 
Jena,  1842-72,  9  vols. 

Oven.  Sometimes  in  the  East  merely  sand 
heated  by  a  fire,  or  a  hole  in  the  earth  lined 
Avith  stones,  or  a  vessel  of  clay  or  of  metal 
upon  which,  after  it   has   been  heated,  thin  ^ 

patches  of  dough  are  placed  either  inside  or 
outside.  T.  W.  C. 

Owen,  John,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1653),  Puritan  ; 
b.  at  Stadham,  Oxfordshire,  England,  1616  ; 
d.  at  EaUng,  near  London,  Aug.  24,  1683. 
He  entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  1628, 
and  studving  with  extraordinary  diligence, 
became  B.A.,  1632,  and  M.A.,  1636.  Driven 
thence  by  Laud's  new  statutes,  he  was  for  a 
time  chaplain  to  Sir  R.  Dormer  at  Ascot,  and 
then  lived  in  London,  where  his  principles 
were  fixed  by  a  sermon  at  Aldernuinbury. 
His  first  publication.  Display  of  Amdnian- 
ism,  London,  1642,  gained  him  under  Pres- 
byterian patronage  the  living  of  Fordham  in 
Essex,  1642-46,  where  he  married,  and  wrote 
Duty  of  Pastors  and  People.  Transferred  to 
Coggeshall,  near  Fordham,  he  became  dis- 
tinctly an  Independent,  published  Eshrol(\M1) 
and  several  controversial  tracts,  preached  be- 
fore Parliament  the  day  after  the  king  s  exe- 
cution, made  acquaintance  with  Cromwell, 
and  accompanied  him  as  chaplain  to  Ireland, 
1650,  and  to  Scotland,  1651.  In  March,  1651, 
he  was  made  dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
and  in  Sept.,  1652,  vice-chancellor.  Active 
in  these  posts,  lie  also  sat  for  a  short  time  in 
Parliament,  1654  ;  was  one  of  the  Triers,  and 
took  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  move- 
ments of  the  day,  as  in  the  conference  which 
drew  up  the  Savoy  Declaration,  1658.  A mong 
his  writings  during  these  years  vchxq  Dirina, 
Justitia,  Perseverance  of  Saints,  and  Vindicioe 
Etangelica>.  The  Presbyterians  deprived  him 
of  his  deanery  in  March,  1660,  and  he  retired 
to  Stadham,"  to  write  Theologouviena  Pan- 
todapa,  and  to  answer  Fiat  Lux  in  Animad- 
versions, 1662. 

At  the  Restoration  he  was  treated  with  re- 
spect, and  offered  preferment  if  he  Avould 
conform.  He  declined  an  invitation  to  Bos- 
ton, 1663,  as  later  the  presidency  of  Harvard 
(1671),  and  similar  posts  in  Holhind.  In  1666 
he  gathered  a  Nonconformist  congregation  in 
London.  In  1667  appeared  his  Catechism,  and 
the  first  part  of  his  work  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Jlebretcs,  finished  1684.  In  1669  he  wrote  a 
remonstrance  against  the  intolerance  of  Ids 
friends  in  New  England.  In  1672  he  drew 
up  an  address  of  thanks  for  the  Declaration 
of  Indulgence,  and  took  i)art  in  the  weekly 
lectures  at  Plummer's  Hall.  In  1674.  as  a 
leader  of  dissent,  he  had  interviews  with 
Charles  II.  and  the  duke  of  York,  and  re- 


OWEN 


(670) 


OZANAM 


ceived  £1000  from  the  king  for  the  relief  of 
distressed  ministers.  In  1677  he  took  a  sec- 
ond wife  and  retired  to  her  estate  at  Ealing. 
His  later  years  were  much  troubled  by  disease. 

His  frequent  controversies  with  Baxter, 
Goodwin,  Parker.  Sherlock,  Stillingfleet,  the 
Socinians,  and  the  Romanists  can  only  be 
glanced  at  here.  Yet  he  had  the  respect  of 
all  parties,  and,  however  positive  his  doc- 
trine, was  no  friend  of  extremes  in  practice. 
Among  his  eighty  works  not  above  men- 
tioned are  On  the  Holy  Spirit,  1674  ;  Justi- 
fication by  Faith,  1677  ;  CJiHstologia,  1679, 
and  Inquiry  into  Evangelical  Churches,  1681. 
His  devotional  writings,  as  On  Spiritual- 
Mindedness,  1681,  and  Glory  of  Christ,  1684- 
91,  still  have  many  admirers.  His  works 
were  edited  by  T.  Russell  in  20  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1826;  by  VV^  H.  Goold  in  24  vols.. 
1850-55  ;  and  again  by  C.  W.  Quick  in  17 
vols.,  Philadelphia,  1865-69.  The  best  life  of 
Owen  is  by  W.  Orme,  1820.  F.  M.  B. 

Owen,  Robert,  socialist  ;  b.  at  Newtown, 
North  Wales,  169  m.  w.n.w.  of  London, 
March  14,  1771  ;  d.  there,  Nov.  19,  1858. 
His  life  was  devoted  to  benevolent  schemes 
in  the  direction  of  communistic  societies  at 
home  and  abroad,  labor  leagues,  etc.;  for 
these  he  worked  with  unquestioned  zeal,  abil- 
ity, and  devotion,  but  with  no  adequate  visi- 
ble results.  He  disbelieved  in  revelation,  but 
accepted  spiritualism  in  his  later  years  through 
the  inHueuce  of  his  son.  (See  his  autobiog- 
raphy down  to  1820,  London,  vol.  i.,  1857; 
vol.  i..  A,  1858  [which  is  an  appendix  to  vol. 
i.,  containing  a  series  of  reports,  addresses, 
memorials,  and  other  documents  referred  to 
in  vol.  i. ;  no  more  has  been  published],  and 
W.  L.  Sargant,  Robert  Owen  and  his  Social 
Philosophy,  London,  1860  ;  F.  A.  Packard, 
Life  of  Robert  Owen,  Philadelphia,  1866,  2d 
ed.,  1866,  and  A.  J.  Booth,  Robert  Owen,  the 
Founder  of  Socialism  in  England,  London, 
1869.)  F.  M.  B. 

Owen,  Robert  Dale,  LL.D.  (University  of 
Indiana,  1872),  socialist  and  spiritualist,  sou 
of  preceding  ;  b.  in  Glasgow,  Nov.  9,  1800  ; 
d.  at  Lake  George,  N.  Y.,  June  17.  1877. 
He  came  to  America  with  his  father.  Robert 
Owen,  in  1823,  and  helped  liim  to  found  the 
colony  at  New  Harmony,  Ind.  In  1827  he 
was  naturalized.  He  edited  The  Free  In- 
quirer, 1828-32,  for  the  extension  of  the  pater- 
nal views.  He  rendered  many  public  ser- 
vices in  the  legislature,  1835-38  ;  in  Congress. 
1843-47  ;  as  charge  at  Naples,  1853-58,  and 
during  the  civil  war.  He  advocated  spiritual- 
ism in  Footfalls  on  the  Boundary  of  Another 
World,  Philadelphia,  1860,  and  the  Debatable 
Land,  New  York,  1872.  (See  his  autobiog- 
raphy. Threading  my  Way,  New  York,  1874.) 
F.  M.  B. 

Owl,  a  night  bird  of  prey,  unfit  for  food 
(Deut.  xiv.  16,  17,  Isa.  xxxiv.  11,  Ps.  cii.  6j. 
In  eight  other  cases  where  the  word  occurs  in 
the  A..  V.  it  should  be  replaced  by  ''  ostrich," 
as  it  is  in  the  R.  V.  Five  species  of  owl  are 
found  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  T.  W.  C. 

Ox,  the  male  of  the  beeve  kind  when  grown, 
though  often  used  in  the  general  sense  of 
'kine."     It  was  much  used  for  ploughing 


(Deut.  xxii.  10),  for  drawing  (Num.  vii.  3), 
for  threshing  (Deut.  xxv.  4),  for  bearing  bur- 
dens (1  Chron.  xii.  40),  for  sacrifice  (Gen.  xv. 
9),  for  milk  and  butter  (Isa.  vii.  22),  and  for 
food  (1  Kings  xix.  21).  Sometimes  they  were 
stall-fed  (Hab.  iii.  17),  but  usually  were  pas- 
tured, and  then  roaming  at  large  were  often 
dangerous  (Ps.  xxii.  12).  The  wild  ox  or  bull 
of  Deut.  xiv.  5  and  Isa.  H.  20  (A.  V.)  was 
probably  the  oryx,  a  powerful  creature  of  the 
antelope  kind.  T.  W.  C. 

Oxenden,  Right  Rev.  Ashton,  D.D.  (by 
decree  of  Convocation,  1869),  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  at  Broome,  near  Canterbury,  Eng- 
land, Sept.  25,  1808  ;  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford ;  ordained  deacon  in  1833  and  priest  in 
1834  ;  lord  bishop  of  Montreal  and  metropoli- 
tan of  Canada,  1869-78  ;  rural  dean  of  Can- 
terbury, 1879-84,  and  since  1879  vicar  of 
Hackington,  near  Canterbury.  Among  his 
numerous  devotional  works,  most  of  which 
have  acquired  a  wide  circulation,  may  be  men- 
tioned Cottage  Sermons,  London,  1853  ;  The 
Pathway  of  Safety,  1856  :  The  Christian  Life, 
1862.  n.e.,  1870  ;  Our  Church  and  its  Services, 
1868  ;  Portraits  from  the  Bible,  1872,  2  vols. ; 
The  Earnest  Churchman,  1878  ;  Short  Com- 
ments on  the  Gospels  for  Family  Worship,  1885. 

Oxenham,  Henry  Nutcombe,  Roman  Cath- 
olic ;  1).  at  Harrow,  England,  Nov.  15,  1829  ; 
was  educated  at  Oxford  and  held  curacies 
from  1854  to  1857,  but  joined  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  the  latter  year.  Besides 
numerous  review  articles  he  has  published 
Church  Parties,  London,  1857  ;  Catholic  Doc- 
trine of  the  Atonement,  1865,  8d  ed.,  1881  ; 
Catholic  Eschatology  and  Universalism,  1876, 
2d  ed.,  1878  ;  Short  Studies  in  Ecclesiastical 
History  and  Biography,  1884  ;  S?iort  Studies, 
Ethical  and  Religious,  1885. 

Oxford  Tracts.     See  Tractarianism. 

Oxiee,  John,  b.  at  Gisborough,  England, 
Sept.  25.  1779  ;  d.  at  Molesworth,  Jan.  30, 
1854  ;  was  rector  of  Scrawton,  Yorkshire, 
1816-26,  and  afterward  of  Molesworth,  Hants, 
from  1836  till  his  death.  He  was  known  as  a 
linguist,  having  mastered,  it  was  said,  no  less 
than  120  languages  and  dialects,  and  wrote 
several  learned  works,  of  which  The  Chris- 
tian Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation, 
London,  1815-50,  is  the  most  important. 

Ozanam  (o-za-non),  Antoine  Frederic,  b. 

at  Milan,  April  23,  1813  ;  d.  at  Marseilles, 
Sept.  8,  1853  ;  descended  from  an  Arab  fam- 
ily which  for  more  than  a  century  had  been 
settled  in  Provence  ;  studied  in  Xyons  and 
Paris,  and  was  in  1841  appointed  professor  of 
foreign  literature  in  tlie  Sorbonne.  He  was 
a  man  of  strong  and  genuine  piety,  and  early 
devoted  himself  to  the  defence  of  religion. 
In  1833  he  founded  the  Soeiete  de  Saint  Viu- 
cent-de-Paul,  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  the 
sick  and  the  poor.  But  lie  never  took  orders. 
His  powers  were  essentially  literary.  His 
principal  work,  Histoire  de  la  Civilisati'mau 
oieme  Siecle,  1845,  was  translated  into  English 
by  Ashley  C.  Glvn,  London,  1868.  2  vols. 
His  collected  works  appeared  in  Paris,  1862- 
75,  11  vols.  His  life  was  written  by  Kath- 
leen O'Meara,  Edinburgh,  1876. 


PACCA 


(071) 


PAGE 


Pacca,  Bartolomeo,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Bene- 
vento,  45  m,  n.e.  of  Naples,  Dec.  15, 1750;  d. 
in  Rome,  April  lt>,  1844.  He  studied  in 
Naples  and  Rome,  entered  the  service  of  the 
pope,  filled  with  great  success  a  nunciature 
in  {xermany  178(M)4  and  another  in  Lisbon 
1795-1802,  was  created  a  cardinal  in  18U1,  and 
became  papal  minister  of  state  in  1808.  He 
was  the  leader  of  the  Zelonti  and  uncom- 
promising in  his  dealings  with  the  ISecular 
powers.  His  llisfoviralMeinoira  were  trans- 
lated into  En'jclisii  liySir  George  Head,  Lon- 
don, 1850.  2  vols. 

Pace,  Richard,  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at 
Winchester,  Hampshire,  England,  about 
1482;  d.  at  Stepney,  near  London,  l.Jo2.  He 
-was  educated  by  Langton,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  served  Cardinal  Bainbridge; 
became  prebendary  of  Southwell  1510,  arch- 
deacon of  Dorset  1514,  dean  of  St.  Paul's 
1510,  and  dean  of  Exeter  1522.  Long  em- 
ployed on  foreign  embassies,  he  incurred 
the  wrath  of  Wolsoy.  was  for  two  years 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  and  resigned  his 
preferments.  He  was  a  man  of  learning, 
and  a  friend  of  More  and  Erasmus.  His 
chief  work  is  De  fructu  qui  ex  doctrina  per- 
cipitur,  Basel,  1517.  F.  M.  B. 

Pachomius,  the  founder  of  monasticism 
(q.v.),  b.  in  the  Thebais,  Egypt,  about  292, 
d.  on  Tabennae,  on  the  Nile,  348.  Accord- 
ing to  the  tradition  he  was  a  soldier  in  the 
army,  was  converted  there,  and  upon  ob- 
taining his  discharge  first  became  a  hermit, 
and  then  began  the  reformation  of  the  as- 
cetic system  of  his  day  by  the  foundation  of 
a  community  of  monks,  each  living  in  a  cell 
by  himself  or  witli  but  two  companions, 
but  meeting  the  other  monks  at  meals  and 
worship,  and  subject  to  the  control  of  an 
abbot.  But  it  appears  probable  that  he  had 
himself  been  a  monk  of  Serapis,  and  that  he 
simply  introduced  into  the  Christian  church 
his  form  of  heathen  religion.  His  rule  soon 
found  acceptance,  and  his  influence  deter- 
mined the  development  of  this  system.  A 
so-called  Iteriuhi  S.  Pachomii,  containing 
104  articles,  is  found  in  Holstenius:  Codex 
Jiegulanim,  i.  26-.W.  F.  IL  F. 

Pachymeres,  Georgios,  b.  at  Nicca  about 
1242;  d.  in  Constantinople  after  l."310;  held 
several  high  semi-ecclesiastical  offices  under 
the  reigns  of  Michael  Paleologus  and  An- 
dronicus,  and  wmte  the  history  of  his  time 
in  13  books  which  form  a  very  valuable 
source  of  information.  He  was  strongly 
opposed  to  the  union  between  the  (ireck 
and  the  Roman  churches,  advocated  by 
Miclmcl,  and  wrote  several  treatises  on  the 
subject. 

Pacianus,  bishop  of  Barcelona  in  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  fourth  century,  left  several 
works:  Contra  XorntianoK,  I)e.  Bii]>tiKnio 
etc.  which  are  found  in  Mignc:  Patrol.  Lat. 
XIIL 

Pacification,  ESdicts  of,  is  the  name  gen- 
really  apiili^d  to  those  aits  of  toleration 
which  the  Frencli  kings  felt  compelled  to 


grant   in   order   to  prevent  the  Huguenots 
from  rebelling.    (See  Fkance,  Ref.  Chukch 

IX.) 

Packard,  Frederick  Adolphus,  b.  at 
Marlborough,  Mass..  Sent.  25,  1704,  d.  in 
Philadelphia.  Nov.  11,  18()7,  graduated  at 
Harvard,  studied  law  at  Northampton  and 
practiced  at  Springfield,  1817-21),  but  re- 
moved in  the  latter  year  to  Pliiladelphia 
and  devoted  himself  for  nearlv  fortv  vtars 
to  the  service  of  theAmerican  Siuidav-Srbool 
Union,  editing  more  than  2(mk»  i)ul)lication.s. 
j  He  wrote  himself  or  compiled  al)out  40, 
I  among  which  were  The  Uttiun  Bthlr  Diriwn- 
aru,  1837,  and  The  T>(irl„'r  Tnwiht,  1830,  re- 
printed in  London  under  the  title:  The  Sun- 
day-School Teacher's  Handbook. 

Pa'-dan  A'-ram,  {plain  of  Aram  or  Syria), 
the  country  whence  the  wife  of  Isaac  (Gen. 
xxiv.  10)  and  the  wives  of  Jacob  (xxxi.  17, 
18)  were  obtained.  It  is  usually  identified 
with  Mesopotamia,  the  region  between 
the  2  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  de- 
notes specially  the  plain  in  distinction  from 
the  mountains  on  the  North  (Num.  xxiii.  7). 
T.  W.  C. 

Padua,  a  city  of  northern  Italy,  20  m. 
w.  of  Venice,  with  about  70,000  inhabitants. 
Its  university  was  founded  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury and  had,  for  centuries,  the  largest  and 
best  schools  of  law  and  medicine  in  Europe, 
numbering  12,000  students.  Its  theological 
faculty  was  established  in  the  14th  century 
and  has  a  place  in  the  history  of  theology 
and  jihilosophy,  not  because  it  produced 
any  original  ideas,  but  because  it  formed 
the  last  refuge  of  mediaeval  scholasticism  or 
more  especially  that  form  of  it,  known  as 
Averroisjn.  Long  time  after  the  ideas  and 
method  of  the  Arab  philosopher  had  been 
condemned  and  forgotten  by  the  rest  of  the 
world,  they  still  lingered  on  at  Padua  until 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  (See  E. 
Renan.  Averro'es  et  V averrdisme,  Paris,  1867, 
3d  ed.,  1869.) 

Paedobaptism,  {hapfi.wi  of  children),  the 
name  given  to  the  custom  of  tlu)se  Chris- 
tians who  administer  the  ordinance  to 
infants.     (See  Baptism,  p.  72.)    T.  W.  C. 

Paganism,  a  name  derived  from  the  Latin 
pdfjanus,  a  designation  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country  ()>afju>i),  in  distinction  from 
those  of  the  towns.  As  the  latter  were  the 
earliest  to  embrace  Christianity,  so  the 
former  retaining  the  old  idolatry,  gave  their 
name  to  the  superstition.  The  first  occur- 
rence of  tlie  word  in  this  sense  is  in  an  edict 
of  Valentinian.  a.d.  3()S.  Long  after  this 
time,  paganism  continued  to  bt-  a  ]>owcr  in 
the  state,  especially  in  the  West.  Ilonorius 
forl)ade  pagan  worsliip  in  ;Wii,  and  after- 
wards ordered  the  destruction  of  id(ds  and 
altars,  but  Tlieodoric  the  (Jreat  on  a  visit  to 
Rome  in  .500.  found  it  needful  to  threaten 
death  to  all  who  sacrificed  to  idols.  Yet  in 
the  centuries  that  followed  traces  of  the 
old  misl)elief  were  to  be  found.     T.  W.  C. 

Page,  Harlan,  b.  at  Coventrv.  Conn..  .Tulv 
28,  1701,  d.  in  New  York,  Sept.  23,  1S:M, 
was  for  a  number  of  years,  the  agent  of  the 
American    Tract   Society   and   very   ardent 


PAGI 


(672) 


PALAMAS 


and  very  successful  in  all  kinds  of  Christian 
work.  (See  his  Memoir  by  W.  A.  Hallock, 
published  by  the  Am.  Tract  Soc,  Xevv  York, 
1835.) 

Pagi,  Antoine,  b.  at  Rogues,  southeastern 
France,  1624;  d.  at  Aix,  1699;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  oi'der  of  the  Cordeliers,  and 
published  Critica  historlco-chronologica  in 
Annates  Baronii,  Paris,  16SU-1705,  4  vols. 
foL,  containing  many  important  corrections 
both  of  dates  and  facts. 

Pagoda,  The,  a  pyramid  whose  base  is 
two-thirds  of  its  height,  is  the  typical  form 
of  sacred  architecture  among  the  Hindus. 
In  a  loose  way  the  word  is  also  applied  to 
the  Chinese  temples  and  towers.  13ut  the 
true  pagoda  is  not  found  outside  of  the 
East  Indies. 

Paine,  Robert,  D.D.  (Wesleyan,  1842), 
Methodist  Bishop;  b.  in  Person  Co.,  N.  C, 
Nov.  12,  1799;  d.  at  Aberdeen,  Miss.,  Oct. 
19,  1882.  He  was  removed  in  1814  to  Gilci 
Co.,  Tenu.,  and  began  to  preach  1817. 
1830-46  he  was  president  of  La  Grange 
College,  Ala.  A  member  of  the  General 
Conference  from  1824,  he  bore  ft  leading 
part  in  the  division  of  the  M.  E,  Church, 
and  the  organization  of  the  Southern 
branch,  1844-5.  and  was  elected  bishop  in 
1846.  His  chief  work  is  The  Life  and  Times 
of  Bishop  McKendree,  Nashville,  1859,  2 
vols.  F.  M.  B. 

Paine,  Thomas,  deist;  b.  at  Thetford, 
Norfolk,  80  m.  n.e.  of  London,  Jan.  29, 
1737;  d.  in  New  York,  June  8,  1809.  The 
son  of  a  Quaker  stay-maker,  he  left  school 
at  thirteen,  worked  at  his  father's  trade, 
and  was  for  ten  years  an  exciseman.  De- 
siring a  more  promising  field  for  his  radical 
activities,  he  came  to  America  in  1774  with 
letters  from  Franklin,  and  edited  for  a 
while  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine.  His 
Common  Sense,  published  Jan.  1,  1776,  had 
great  effect  in  stirring  up  resistance  to  op- 
pression. The  Crisis,  which  followed  in  De- 
cember was  written  by  the  camp-lire,  and 
began,  "  These  are  the  times  that  try  men's 
souls."  Thus  brought  into  prominence,  he 
became  secretary  to  the  congressional  com- 
mittee on  Foreign  affairs,  1777-79,  and  then 
to  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly.  His  emi- 
nent put)lic  services  were  acknowledged  by 
grants  from  Congress  and  New  York  state. 
Returning  to  Europe  in  1787,  he  wrote  The 
Rights  of  Man,  1791-2.  which  caused  his 
outlawry  in  England,  and  his  election  to 
the  Convention  in  France.  Here  his  honor- 
able moderation  won  the  enmity  of  Robes- 
pierre, who  marked  him  for  a  victim.  He 
handed  the  first  part  of  his  Age  of  Reason 
to  Joel  Barlow  while  on  his  way  to  prison 
(1794),  and  wrote  the  second  part  in  the 
Luxembourg.  This  work,  with  its  coarse 
attacks  on  what  most  Anglo-Saxons  held 
sacred,  greatly  injured  his  fame:  in  later 
years  the  earnest  friend  of  liberty  has  been 
almost  forgotten  in  the  loud  assailant  of 
revealed  religion.  Ignorant  and  preju- 
diced, his  arguments  aroused  the  contempt 
of  cultivated  skeptics,  but  still  have  power 
with  the  illiterate.  Paine  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1802,  was  warmly  received 


by  Jefferson,  but  in  a  different  spirit  by 
the  Federalists,  and  spent  his  remaining 
years  chiefly  on  his  farm  at  New  Kuchelle. 
whence  his  supposed  remains  were  taken  to 
England,  by  Cobbett  in  1819.  His  character 
and  manners,  especially  in  old  age,  were 
unattractive,  though  some  of  the  stories 
about  him  were  probably  untrue.  His  life 
has  been  written  by  G.  Chalmers  ("F. 
Oldys")  Loudon,  1791;  W.  Cobbett,  1796; 
J.  Cheetham,  New  York,  1809;  T.  C.  Rick- 
man,  London,  1814;  W.  T.  Sherwin,  1819; 
J.  S.  Harford,  Bristol,  1820;  G.  Vale,  New 
York,  1841 ;  and  C.  Blanchard,  1860.  Several 
of  these  lives,  like  the  reprint  of  his  works 
in  1856,  1800,  etc.,  are  mainly  in  the  infidel 
interest.  F.  M.  B. 

Pajon,  Claude,  b.  at  Romorantin,  25  m. 
s.e.  of  Blois,  France,  1626;  d.  at  Carre, 
near  Orleans,  Sept.  27,  1685;  studied  theol- 
ogy at  Saumur,  and  was  for  several  years 
professor  there,  and  afterwards  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  congregation  in  Orleans.  He  held 
peculiar  views  of  conversion  and  grace, 
denying  the  existence  of  any  purely  sub- 
jective element  in  conversion  and  any  di- 
rect interference  of  providence  in  grace. 
He  never  gave  a  literary  exposition  of  his 
ideas,  but  confined  himself  to  pro])agating 
them  in  the  pulpit.  They  found  mnny  ad- 
herents, however,  and  caused  consideraltle 
commotion  until  they  were  condemned  by  a 
provincial  synod. 

Palace  in  the  Old  Testament  denotes 
sometimes  all  the  buildings,  courts  and  gar- 
dens enclosed  by  the  outer  wall  of  a  royal 
residence  (  Dan.  i.  4,  1  Ki.  vii.  1-12),  at 
others  the  fortress  or  citadel  (1  Ki.  xvi.  18). 
In  the  New  Testament  the  word  is  applied 
to  the  residence  of  any  man  of  wealth  or 
prominence  (Matt.  xxvi.  3,  Luke  xi.  21). 
For  its  meaning  in  Phil.  i.  13.  see  Pkaeto- 
KIITM.  T.    W.   C. 

Palafox  de  Mendoza,  Juan  de,  b.  1600;  d. 
1659;  was  appointed  bishop  of  Puebla, 
Mexico,  in  1639,  and  of  Osma,  Spain,  1658. 
He  wished  to  introduce  another  policy  in 
the  treatment  of  the  natives  of  Spanish 
America,  but  was  vehemently  opposed  by 
the  Jesuits  and  i-ecalled.  His  works,  of 
which  a  collected  edition  appeared  in  Mad- 
rid, 1762,  15  vols.,  contain  besides  several 
expositions  relating  to  the  above  questions, 
a  history  of  the  conquest  of  China  by  the 
Tartars,  and  some  mystical  treatises.  His 
life  was  written  by  Gonzales  de  Resende, 
Madrid,  1666,  and  translated  into  French, 
Paris,  1090. 

Palamas,  Gregorios,  was  educated  at  the 
Byzantine  court,  and  became  the  favorite  of 
John  Cantacuzenos,  but  retired  as  monk  to 
Mount  Athos.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and 
death  are  not  known,  but  in  1349  tlie  em- 
peror made  him  archbishop  of  Tliessalonia. 
The  city,  however,  closed  its  gates  against 
him  and  he  afterwards  lived  in  seclusion  in 
the  island  of  Lemnos.  He  was  the  leader  of 
the  Hesychasts,  which  see,  p.  367.  Of  his 
many  works  some  have  been  printed: 
Prosopopeia  in  Bihl.  Pair.  Lugd.  26;  two 
treatises  against  the  Church  of  Rome,  Lon- 
don, 1624,  etc. 


PALEA 


((■.78) 


PALESTINE 


Palea,  a  word  of  uncertain  etymology,  is 
the  name  of  a  number  of  decretals  and  ordi- 
nances which  have  been  added  to  Gratian's 
Decrttum  and  incorporated  with  the  Cor- 
pus juris,  but  which  have  never  attained 
full  canonical  authority. 

Paleario,  Aonio,  b.  at  Veroli,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Rome,  l.JOO;  burnt  at  the  stake  in 
Kome,  July  3,  1570;  was  one  of  the  most 
prominent  humanists  of  his  time,  and  a  cel- 
ebrated preacher  at  Siena,  where  in  1542  he 
published  his  Delia  pienezzu,  sujficienza  e 
satis/actloae  della  jxissione  lU  Christo.  He 
was  immediately  summoned  before  the  In- 
quisition, but  defended  himself  so  ably  that 
he  was  acquitted.  Feeling  unsafe,  however, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome,  lie  moved 
first  to  Lucia  and  then  to  Milan.  But  there 
his  fate  overtook  him.  He  was  accused  a 
second  time  for  heresy,  sent  to  Rome,  and 
convicted.  His  Actio  in  Pontifices  Roinanoa 
was  preached  in  Leipzig,  1(500;  his  collected 
works  at  Lyons,  1552,  Bremen,  1619,  Am- 
sterdam, 1690,  and  Jena,  1728.  (See  his  Life 
and  Times  by  Mrs.  Young,  Loudon,  1860,  2 
vols. ) 

Palestine.  If  laid  down  on  the  map  of 
America  Palestine  would  extend  in  lat. 
from  the  n.  boundary  of  Florida  to 
Augusta.  Ga.,  that  is  from  81°  to  33°  80'. 
This  is  reckoning  from  a  point  some  dis- 
tance s.  of  the  Dead  Sea  as  far  n.  as 
Damascus.  Its  longitude,  reckoning  from 
Gaza  to  a  point  a  little  e.  of  the  Hauran 
Mountains,  covers  but  2"  30'.  The  lat. 
of  Jerusalem  is  a  little  less  than  that  of 
Savannah,  Ga.  The  territory  of  Palestine 
comprises  not  far  from  13,0i)0  sq.  m.  This 
small  country  has  affected  the  destinies  of 
the  world  as  no  other  country  has,  and  to- 
day 400,000,000  of  our  race  look  to  it  as  the 
fatherland  of  their  religion.  Its  peculiar 
history  is  closely  connected  with  its  physi- 
cal structure,  and  for  the  Biblical  student 
the  origin  of  its  strange  mountains  and  val- 
leys must  always  have  a  special  interest. 

Its  formation,  which  is  chiefly  limestone, 
sandstone  and  basalt,  belongs  to  a  very  late 
perio<l.  the  cretaceous  and  tertiary  ap- 
proaching and  possibly  reaching  historical 
times.  The  Sinai  rocks  are  older,  and  are 
not  included  in  this  statement  respecting 
Palestine.  In  the  cretaceous  period  all  of 
Western  Asia,  Southern  and  Western  Europe 
and  N'orthei-n  Africa  was  a  vast  ocean,  and  it 
was  then  that  the  limestone  beds  of  Pales- 
tine were  formod.  Later,  in  the  middle 
tertiary  i)eriod.  these  great  beds  were  bent 
into  ridges  running  in  a  north  and  south 
direction,  leaving  the  great  depression 
known  as  Ccele-Syria,  the  Jordan  valley  and 
the  Gulf  of  Akaba  between  them.  The  re- 
sult of  this  great  change  of  level  was,  in 
general,  the  present  outline  of  the  country 
although  other  important  changes  were  to 
take  i>lace  before  Palestine  should  reach 
this  condition.  In  the  latest  tertiary  age, 
contemporaneously  with  the  latter  part  of 
the  glacial  period,  there  was  a  lowering  of 
the  northern  continents  in  which  Palestine 
shared.  All  the  coast  was  sunk  or  sub- 
merged, and  the  Dead  .Sea  was,  at  least,  200 
m.  in  length.     This  is  proved  by  the  many 


lines  of  sea  deposit  in  the  Jordan  valley 
which  various  observers  have  brought  to 
light.  It  is  probable  that  the  climate  was 
then  cool  and  agreeable,  and  that  north- 
ern forms  of  animals  and  plants  were  found 
in  Palestine,  and  possibly  glaciers  rested  on 
Lebanon  and  Hermon.  Later,  at  the  close 
of  the  pleistocene  period  that  foUovving  the 
tertiary, — this  order  was  reversed.  There 
was  a  subsidence  of  the  water  so  that  Cy- 
prus was  a  part  of  the  main  land.  What 
had  been  the  Bay  of  Lower  Egypt,  now  the 
Delta,  became  a  desert,  and  among  other 
changes  the  Dead  Sea  was  shrunk  to  its 
present  dimensions.  During  this  age,  called 
the  second  continental,  the  mammoth  rhi- 
noceros and  bison  made  their  home  cm  the 
plains  along  the  Mediterranean,  and  man 
found  his  way  into  the  Lebanon,  and,  per- 
haps, into  other  parts  of  the  country.  The 
land  connection  between  Asia  and  Africa 
was  much  closer  than  at  present.  African 
plants  and  animals  passed  freely  into  Syria. 
On  the  other  hand,  this  fact  caused  a  per- 
manent and  final  separation  between  the 
marine  animals  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
those  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean.  This 
difference  on  two  sides  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez  has  been  noticed  many  times  by  ob- 
servers, and  in  no  other  way  can  it  be  rea- 
sonably explained. 

The  conditions  now  described  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  period  of  submergence  corre- 
sponding to  the  historical  deluge,  when  for 
a  short  time  only,  the  whole  of  Palestine 
was  under  water.  When  it  re-appeared  the 
general  outline  was  the  same  as  before,  but 
the  coast  was  reduced  to  its  present  narrow 
limits.  Simultaneously  with  .some  of  the.se 
changes  volcanic  outbursts  were  going  on 
east  of  the  Jordan  Valley.  As  the  lava 
rests  upon  the  other  formations  of  the 
country  its  flow  must  have  occuned  in  the 
later  tertiary  age.  Some  of  the  many  now 
extinct  volcanoes  in  that  region,— the  writer 
of  this  article  has  counted  there  upwards  of 
twenty, — may  have  been  in  active  ojjera- 
tion  after  man  had  entered  the  country. 
The  numerous  hot  springs  in  the  Jordan 
Valley  show  that  internal  fires  still  exist. 

Antediluvians  found  Palestine  a  well- 
watered  country,  its  hills  and  plains  covered 
with  forests  which  abounded  with  wild 
animals,  w'hile  the  rich  Jordan  Valley 
yielded  tropical  fruits.  Owing  to  the  sub- 
mergence referred  to  much  of  the  ])lain 
country  occupied  by  them  would  now  be 
under  the  sea  and  hence  evidences  of  them 
w^ould  there  be  o  literated;  but  in  its  mul- 
titude of  mountainous  caves  researches 
may  yet  discover  important  traces  of  their 
existence.  Being  thus  admirably  fitted  for 
occupancy  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should 
not  have  been,  in  that  age,  a  well-jieopled 
land. — .\fter  th  deluge  men  made  their  way 
hither  from  the  east  and  they  may  have 
been  attracted  by  traditions  of  its  former 
fertility  and  beauty. 

From  these  changes,  thus  rapidly  enumer- 
ated, there  resulted  a  country  whose  sur- 
face is  luiique;  snowy  mountains,  tropical 
valleys,  rich  sea  coast  and  plains,  and  bar- 
ren desert.  Such  a  variety  of  surface  and 
climate  within  such  narrow  limits  does  not 


PALESTINE 


(674) 


PALESTINE 


exist  elsewhere  on  the  globe.  If  not 
actually  designed  for  the  manifold  phases 
of  human  life  found  there  in  historical 
times  it  certainly  was  wonderfully  adapted 
to  them  and  hence  was  fitted  beyond  any 
other  country  to  be  the  scene  where  God's 
plans  respecting  our  i-ace  should  be  success- 
fully carried  out. — This  fact  could  be  fully 
illustrated  by  a  study  of  the  different  races 
which  have  occupied  this  limited  territory 
since  the  beginning  of  history. 

The  climate  of  Palestine  is  interesting  and 
an  acquaintance  with  it  illustrates  a  multi- 
tude of  scripture  passages  where  it  is  men- 
tioned. Allowing  for  certain  changes  due 
to  the  destruction  of  forests  and  to  cen- 
turies of  neglect,  the  climate  corresponds  in 
general  to  what  it  was  in  bible  times. 
Kain,  great  heat,  occasional  snow,  the  east 
wind,  the  smiting  of  the  sun,  and  other 
hints  common  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments are  familiar  facts  in  that  country 
now. 

Along  the  Mediterranean  coast  the 
average  temperature  is  75°;  the  winter 
season  is  here  always  delightful.  In  the 
Jordan  Valley  the  extremes  of  temperature 
are  77°  and  130°,  the  winter  being  hot,  and 
during  some  portions  of  the  summer  the 
heat  is  so  intense  that  not  even  a  native  can 
move  about  without  great  risk. — The 
mountains  of  Moab  and  Gilead  and  the 
table  land  of  Bashan  form  the  coldest  sec- 
tion.— At  Jerusalem,  which  will  illustrate 
nearly  all  the  mountain  range  of  Western 
Palestine,  the  average  temperature  is  62°. 
The  coldest  weather  is  always  in  February 
when  the  mean  temperature  is  47°.  August 
is  the  hottest  month,  the  mean  temperature 
being  76°,  but  in  May,  June,  July,  August, 
and  even  September  the  thermometer  fre- 
quently indicates  a  temperature  of  98°  to 
103°.  Ice  seldom  forms,  but  very  slight 
frosts  are  experienced  almost  every  winter. 

The  ''latter  rains,"  which  are  expected 
about  the  first  of  April,  are  very  gentle 
showers ;  after  that  the  dry  season  sets  in 
and  continues  until  November,  although 
light  showers  have  been  known  to  fall  in 
May  and  October.  During  a  period  of 
twenty-two  years  from  1860  to  1882  when 
these  observations  were  recorded,  the  num- 
ber of  days  on  which  rain  fell  varied  from 
thirty-seven  to  seventy-one.  The  most  rain 
falls  in  December,  January,  and  February. 
Rains  are  seldom  of  long  duration  and  are 
always  followed  by  a  period  of  delightful 
weather,  when  the  air  is  clear  and  mild. 
Tiie  smallest  amount  of  rain  which  fell  in 
a,ny  one  season  was  twelve  inches,  the 
largest  forty-two  inches,  the  average  being 
twenty-two  inches.  In  fourteen  years  of 
this  period  snow  fell;  but  whenever  it  falls, 
whether  light  or  deep,  it  soon  disappears. 

In  the  dry  season,  for  considerable 
periods,  no  dew  falls  and  everything  be- 
comes parched  and  the  air  is  filled  with 
dust;  dew,  when  it  falls  copiously,  is  a  great 
blessing  to  the  country.  In  the  years  men- 
tioned the  average  yearly  number  of  cloud- 
less days  was  one  hundred  and  forty,  and 
during  this  entire  period  twelve  earth- 
quakes were  recorded. 

The  wind  so  frequently  mentioned  in  the 


Bible,  is  illustrated  by  modern  experience; 
— the  north  winds  are  cold,  the  south 
warm,  the  west  moist,  and  the  east  are  dry. 
The  most  trying  wind  is  the  sirocco,  often 
so  slight  as  to  be  imperceptible,  but  the  air 
is  then  extremely  dry,  is  destitute  of  ozone, 
the  temperature  is  high,  and  the  ett'ect  on 
the  system  is  terribly  depressing.  Vegeta- 
tion withers,  books  and  papers  dry  and 
become  brittle,  furniture  shrinks  and 
cracks,  birds,  animals,  and  men  suffer 
sometimes  intensely.  Occasionally  the  air 
is  filled  with  dust  or  fine  sand,  and  is  like  a 
blast  from  a  heated  oven.  On  the  contrary 
a  sirocco  in  winter  when  the  wind  comes 
from  a  few  degrees  north  of  east,  may  be  so 
cold  as  to  kill  those  who  are  exposed  to  it 
if  not  protected  by  suitable  clothing. 

To  these  brief  but  reliable  data  should 
be  added  the  fact  that  the  price  of  wheat, — 
an  article  constituting  two-thirds  of  the 
living  of  the  people  of  that  land, — depends 
upon  the  amount  of  rainfall.  A  small 
amount,  say  less  than  IS  inches  where  25 
inches  are  considered  necessary  to  secure  a 
good  croj),  means  hardship  and  frequently 
suffering,  not  merely  for  the  poor,  but  for 
the  inhabitants  in  general. 

During  the  rainy  season,  water  is  every- 
where abundant,  but  it  becomes  very  scarce 
in  summer.  From  the  earliest  times  the 
inhabitants  have  jjrovided  themselves  with 
cisterns  and  reservoirs  which  should  con- 
tain an  ample  supply  of  water  during  the 
long,  dry  season.  Many  of  these  are  still  in 
use,  and  the  remains  of  hundreds  of  them 
are  found  in  every  part  of  the  land.  Of  the 
reservoirs  the  Pools  of  Solomon  in  a  valley 
a  short  distance  south  of  Bethlehem,  are 
the  most  famous.  They  are  3  in  number, 
1.50  feet  apart,  and  at  different  levels  so 
that  the  second  is  20  feet  below  the  first, 
and  the  third  20  feet  below  the  second. 
The  first  is  380  feet  long,  230  feet  wide,  and 
25  feet  deep:  the  second  is  420  feet  long, 
200  feet  wide,  and  38  feet  deep:  the  third  is 
580  feet  long,  180  feet  wide,  and  48  feet 
deep.  The  Upper  and  Lower  Pools  of 
Gihon  at  Jerusalem,  the  Great  Pool  of 
Hebron,  the  vast  reservoirs  at  Bostra,  e. 
of  the  Jordan,  and  those  in  a  score  of  other 
places  may  be  referred  to  as  illustrations. 
The  mountainous  regions  have  no  living 
streams,  but  there  are  many  springs  and 
within  a  radius  of  20  m.  of  Jerusalem  it 
is  estimated  that  as  many  as  40  exist,  but 
these  are  small  and  furnish  only  a  limited 
supply.  In  former  prosjierous  times  aque- 
ducts were  quite  common  in  many  parts  of 
the  country,  those  leading  from  the  Pools 
of  Solomon,  those  in  the  Jordan  Valley  and 
along  the  Jabbok,  the  complete  system 
about  Jericho,  and  some  notable  ones  30  to 
40  m.  in  length  e.  of  the  Jordan,  being 
among  the  most  extensive. — The  country 
has  2  sweet  water  lakes,  Merom  and  Ti- 
berias, through  both  of  which  the  Jordan 
passes. — In  this  connection  the  wells  of  the 
country  should  be  mentioned;  Job's  well 
at  Jerusalem,  Jacob's,  at  Shechem,  and 
those  at  Beersheba  being  well  known ;  there 
are  many  on  the  Plain  of  Sharon,  some  of 
them  being  of  great  depth.  South  of  Jaffa 
the  Rubin;  n.  of  Jaffa,  the  Aujeh,  at  Cses- 


PALESTINE 


(675) 


PALESTINE 


area,  the  Zerka,  and  n.  of  Carmel,  the 
Kishon  and  the  Behis,  are  the  principal 
living  streams  along  the  coast.  East  of  the 
Jordan  the  Arnon  flows  into  the  Dead  Sea, 
the  Zerka  or  Jabl^ok  flows  into  the  Jordan 
about  midway  between  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  near  the  latter  is  the 
largest  tributary  of  the  Jordan,  the  Mena- 
direh,  the  Hieromax  of  the  Greeks.  The 
Jordan  lies  so  low  that  it  can  be  used  only 
for  its  own  valley,  but  every  acre  of  its  1(X)0 
square  miles  could  be  irrigated  from  this 
source. 

Palestine  has  always  enjoyed  a  wonderful 
reputation  for  its  productions,  and  the  va- 
riety of  its  grains,  seeds,  fruits,  vegetables, 
plants,  tlowers  and  trees,  is  still  great,  not- 
withstanding the  neglected  condition  of  the 
country.  Wheat,  barley,  tares,  oriental 
maize,  pulse,  sesame,  peas,  lentils,  the 
native  and  the  Egyptian  bean,  onions,  leeks, 
garlic,  two  kinds  of  cucumbers,  radishes, 
cabbage,  caiilitiower,  beets,  turnips,  car- 
rots, tomatoes,  vegetable  marrow,  egg- 
plant, artichokes,  caper-pods,  gourds,  and 
several  kinds  of  melons,  anise,  fennel, 
mustard,  cummin,  coriander,  licorice, 
mint,  saffron,  rose  leaves,  henna,  and  man- 
drakes; lettuce  and  other  salads;  figs, 
olives,  grapes,  mulberries,  oranges,  lemons, 
citrons,  pomegrantes,  almonds,  apiicots, 
quinces,  dates,  fig-cactus,  walnuts,  pistach- 
ios, and  sycamore  fruit;  silk,  cotton,  flax, 
sugar  cane,  alkali  plant,  sumach,  madder 
root,  colocynth  and  tobacco.  Among  trees 
besides  those  mentioned  we  find  the  cedar, 
cypress,  several  species  of  oak,  terebinth, 
balsam,  castor  oil  tree,  carob,  plane  tree, 
poplar,  pine,  juniper,  tamarisk,  willow, 
oleander,  hawthorn,  acacia  or  shittim  tree, 
the  "dom"  tree,  stacte,  the  "osher"  or 
Sodom  apple  tree,  also  thyme  and  papyrus. 
Nearly  3000  flowering  plants  have  been 
noted  and  classified,  and  the  number  is 
being  increased  every  year  by  the  contribu- 
tions of  careful  observers.  In  the  spring 
the  land  is  literally  carpeted  with  flowers, 
and  among  these  the  scarlet  anemone, 
ranunculus,  and  poppy  succeed  each  other 
and  grow  in  such  profusion  that  for  weeks 
the  plains  and  hillsides  are  colored  with 
them. 

The  foregoing  list,  though  incomplete, 
will  show  that  the  soil  of  Palestine  pos- 
sesses remarkable  vitality.  Wheat,  barley 
and  durra  yield  abundantly  and  from  their 
export  the  country  derives  a  large  revenue. 
Quantities  of  dye-stuffs,  dried  fruits,  raisins, 
nuts  and  oranges  are  shipped  to  European 
ports.  Olives  afford  a  staple  article  of  food 
for  the  natives,  and  the  production  of  oil  is 
always  a  profital)le  industry.  Cotton  has 
been  cultivated  since  an  early  period  in 
Hebrew  history,  and  that  land  could  boast 
of  sugar  plantations  centuries  before  Amer- 
ica was  discovered.  Apples,  pears,  cher- 
ries, and  some  other  small  fruits,  as  the 
various  kinds  of  berries  which  are  so  abun- 
dant in  America,  do  not  flourish  in  Pales- 
tine. Thyme,  with  its  fragrant  blossoms, 
covers  the  hills,  and  these  slirubs  are  alive 
with  multituilcs  of  bees.  The  willow,  tam- 
arisk. ]ioplar.  and  oleander  are  found  by 
the  water  courses;    oaks,   terebinths,   and 


pines  are  in  the  mountains,  sycamores  oa 
the  plains,  acacia  and  balsam  in  the  Jordan 
Valley,  and  the  juniper,  which  delights  the 
eye  by  its  myriads  of  delicate  and  fragrant 
flowers  is  found  in  the  desert  and  in  many 
parts  of  the  hill  country  e.  of  the  Jordan. 

Among  the  resources  of  Palestine  its 
mineral  deposits  deserve  special  notice,  for 
they  are  destined  some  day  to  contribute 
largely  to  its  prosperity.  The  writer  has 
made  personal  examinations  in  the  parts 
about  the  Dead  Sea,  and  finds  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  vast  quantities  of  petro- 
leum. The  bitumen  or  asphalt  of  that 
region  could  also  be  made  a  profitable 
article  of  export.  In  Christ's  time  it  was 
obtained  here  in  large  amounts  and  sent  to 
Egypt,  where  it  was  used  in  embalming 
bodies.  It  appears  to  collect  under  the 
water  and  afterwards  is  broken  off  and 
floats  on  the  surface,  or  is  cast  upon  the 
shore.  At  the  head-waters  of  the  Jordan, 
l.oO  m.  distant,  there  are  other  bitumen  pits 
which  within  recent  years  have  been  suc- 
cessfully worked.  At  present  this  article 
is  a  government  monopoly,  and  if  natives 
are  found  gathering  it  they  are  severely 
punished.  The  same  is  true  of  salt,  hence 
very  little  is  gathered.  Untold  amounts 
exist  in  solution  in  the  Dead  Sea.  and 
Jebel  Usdum  at  its  s.w.  corner  is  really  a 
mountain  of  rock  salt.  (500  ft.  high,  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  thick,  and  6  m.  long.  In 
some  parts  great  masses  of  the  deposit  are 
exposed  which  are  clear  as  crystal  and 
glisten  in  the  sunlight.  Bituminous  lime- 
stone is  abundant  in  the  mountains  w.  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  When  broken  or  scratched 
it  emits  a  strong  odor  but  does  not  contain 
asphalt  enough  to  burn.  Fossils  are  found 
in  it.  This  stone  takes  a  beautiful  polish 
and  in  many  of  the  older  houses  of  the 
country  it  was  extensively  used  for  orna- 
mental work  in  walls  and  floors.  East  of 
the  Dead  Sea  and  elsewhere,  especially  in 
the  Lebanon  Mountains,  are  immense  beds 
of  iron  ore,  and  some  specimens  which  the 
writer  has  had  examined,  yield  but  11  per 
cent,  of  impurities.  Lead  and  copper  are 
also  found,  and  coal  exists  in  the  moun- 
tains. The  surface  coal,  lignite,  is  not 
considered  a  fair  representative  of  the 
quality  which  experts  claim  exists  in  a1)uu- 
dance  at  a  sufficient  depth  below  the 
surface.  In  addition  to  the  above  there  are 
extensive  suljihur  deposits  along  the  lower 
Jordan  and  about  the  Dead  Sea.  and  still 
other  minerals  may  be  brought  to  light  in 
these  old  but  as  yet  little  known  hills. 
Money  is  needed  to  develop  these  resources 
and  foreign  capital  stands  ready  to  enter 
the  country  for  that  purpose,  but  the  gov- 
ernment has  thus  far  put  an  effectual  bar- 
rier in  the  way  of  all  projects  looking  in 
that  direction. 

The  ordinary  observer  finds  it  difficult  to 
reconcile  the  ancient  accounts  of  the  fertil- 
ity of  Palestine  with  its  present  barren  con- 
dition, but  those  who  are  familiar  with  the 
character  of  the  soil  are  convinced  that  the 
biblical  statements  are  correct.  Even  in 
sections  that  would  now  be  declared  to  be 
desert  we  find  evidences,  such  as  terraces, 
wine  vats,  and  other  facts,  of  former  exten- 


FAIiESTINE 


(676) 


PAIiESTINE 


"sive  vine  culture.  The  limestone  of  the 
mountains  is  not  a  solid  mass  like  the  granite 
of  New  England  hills,  but  it  exists  in  layers 
broken  into  regular  blocks,  appearing  where 
exposed  like  artificial  walls.  The  seams 
are  not  close  but  hold  moisture  and  earth, 
where  roots  grow  readily,  and  it  is  certain 
that  the  hills  of  Palestine  could  be  clothed 
with  forests.  Elsewhere  the  rock  is  not  so 
firm,  and  when  worked  over  with  the  pick 
and  formed  into  terraces,  wheat,  barley, 
vines,  fig  and  olive  trees  flourish  in  it. 

The  natives  never  use  fertilizers  on  the 
soil;  whatever  is  produced  grows  without 
artificial  help  of  that  kind.  Manure  when 
not  left  in  the  streets  is  piled  up  about  the 
villages,  the  pile  sometimes  being  higher 
than  any  house-top.  During  the  dry  season 
it  may  be  set  on  tire  and  burn  for  weeks 
without  the  bulk  being  very  much  dimin- 
ished. The  great  caves  of  the  country  have 
for  fifteen  centuries  been  the  stables  for 
herds  of  cattle  and  millions  of  sheep,  goats, 
and  donkeys,  and  they  contain  an  almost 
inexhaustible  supply  of  fertilizing  material 
which  will  one  day  be  of  service.— In  Pales- 
tine water  is  the  life  of  the  land.  Where  it 
is  applied  vegetation  starts  up  and  grows 
with  surprising  vigor.  In  the  Jordan  Val- 
ley the  writer  has  been  through  vast  fields 
of  mustard  that  was  as  high  as  his  shoul- 
ders when  he  was  on  horseback.  Thistles 
grow  equally  rank  and  high,  but  they  can- 
not be  penetrated  and  one  must  make  a 
long  detour  to  get  around  a  field  of  them. 
These  facts  illustrate  the  unusual  fertility 
of  the  soil  where  water  is  applied  to  it. 

In  view  of  its  natural  fertility  and  resources 
the  exports  from  Palestine  are  few,  and  the 
income  thus  derived  is  small  compared  with 
what  it  might  be.  In  1882  there  was 
shipped  from  Java  alone  $450,000  worth  of 
soap,  and  in  1883,  $560,000  worth.  Wheat 
and  barley  for  the  same  year,  1883,  $300,000; 
sesame  seed  $275,000;  oranges  $200,000; 
olive  oil  $270,000;  and  other  articles  swell- 
ing the  amount  from  that  port  to  about 
$2,000,000.  This  is  not  far  from  the  annual 
amount.  The  chief  point  for  the  export  of 
wheat  is  Acre,  because  it  is  more  accessible 
for  the  long  camel  trains  which  bring  the 
wheat  from  the  real  granary  of  the  land, 
the  Jordan  Valley  and  plains  of  Bashan, — 
Any  figures  of  exports  to  be  properly  esti- 
mated, must  be  compared  with  the  neg- 
lected condition  of  the  country  and  the 
great  poverty  of  the  inhabitants. 

Among  special  subjects  connected  with 
Palestine  that  have  received  careful  atten- 
tion during  the  past  two  decades,  are  natu- 
ral history  and  botany.  To  the  latter  brief 
i-eference  was  made  under  the  head  of 
"  productions."  Both  departments  furnish 
numerous  biblical  illustrations.  Some  of 
the  birds  and  animals  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  have  not  yet  been  identified  and  a  few 
are  extinct,  as  the  ostrich,  wild  ass,  the 
lion,  and  this  is  practically  true  of  the  bear 
and  the  leopard.  Upwards  of  350  kinds  of 
birds  have  been  noted  as  belonging  to  Pal- 
estine and  not  far  from  one  hundred  ani- 
mals, including  domestic  and  those  that  are 
extinct.  Insects  and  reptiles  are  abundant, 
flies  torment  men  and  beasts,  locusts,  ser- 


pents and  scorpions,  are  the  dread  of  the 
natives  now  as  in  olden  times.  Birds  of 
prey  are  numerous  and  hover  about  vil- 
lages and  Aiab  encampments  in  search  of 
food.  The  following  sunnnary  will  show 
the  variety  of  such  birds,  the  figures  denot- 
ing the  number  of  different  species: — buz- 
zards 4,  eagles  8,  harriers  4,  hawks  and 
hobbeys  5,  kites  and  kestrels  6,  ravens,  rooks, 
and  crows  5,  vultures  4,  falcons  4,  other 
kinds  4,  total  44.  Palestine  has  but  few 
song  birds  and  those  of  beautiful  plumage 
are  not  abundant.  The  roller,  bee-eater, 
and  egret,  the  herons,  the  roseate  pelican, 
and  flamingo,  the  purple  ibis,  and  the  king- 
fishers, the  cream  colored  courser  and  fran- 
colin,  the  oriole  and  the  exquisite  sun  bird, 
are  some  of  the  most  striking  as  regards 
brilliant  plumage.  The  present  writer  col- 
lected upwards  of  2000  bird  skins  and  has 
added  several  new  species  to  the  number 
previously  known.  He  has  also  most  of  the 
larger  animals  found  there.  Among  wild 
animals  the  gazelle  is  everywhere  on  the 
hillsides  and  plains,  and  foxes  of  several 
kind  dart  across  one's  path  not  only  in  re- 
mote places  but  frequently  very  near  the 
towns.  We  find  the  cheetah  or  hunting 
leopard,  the  otter,  hare,  coney,  the  badger 
in  great  numbers,  and  also  the  honey 
badger,  the  porcupine  and  hedgehog,  the 
wolf,  now  quite  scarce,  the  hyena,  lynx, 
jackal,  the  wild  boar,  still  very  abundant, 
wild  cats,  ichneumons,  weasles,  martens, 
jerboas,  squirrels,  and  the  ibex  or  wild  goat 
leaping  upon  the  rocks  of  En  Gedi  as  when 
King  David  was  a  youth. 

The  population  of  the  country  numbers 
about  600,000  and  that  of  Syria  of  which 
Palestine  is  a  part,  about  2,000,000.  Kepre- 
sentatives  of  every  country  of  Europe  and 
of  Western  Asia  are  found  there,  but  in 
practice  it  has  been  most  convenient  to 
divide  the  inhabitants  according  to  religion, 
as  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and  Christians. 
The  latter  embrace  Greeks,  Latins  or  Roman 
Catholics,  Armenians,  Syrians,  Copts, 
Abyssinians,  and  Protestants.  The  Jews 
are  divided  into  two  great  bodies,  the  Ger- 
man or  Ashkenazim,  and  the  Spanish  or 
Sephardim,  and  the  IMohammedans  into 
Sunnites,  comprising  the  vast  majority, 
Shiites,  and  Druses.  The  population 
belongs  chiefly  to  the  Arab  race,  only  a 
handful  of  Turks  being  found  in  the 
country.  The  Jews  number  not  far  from 
45,000,  and  there  is  a  large  percentage  of 
native  Syrians.  A  strong  admixture  of 
Crusaders'  blood  is  evident  in  the  people  of 
certain  villages,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Jordan  Valley  have  features  wholly  unlike 
the  settled  population  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  desert  Arabs  on  the  other,  and  it  has 
been  thought  that  they  might  be  types  of 
the  ancient  inhabitants. 

No  proper  idea  of  education  exists  among 
the  native  races,  still  each  religious  sect 
has  its  schools.  In  Moslem  schools  children 
(boys  only)  are  taught  to  read  and  write 
and  a  few  of  the  simplest  rudiments  of 
arithmetic.  No  law  compels  children  to  go 
to  school  and  the  result  is  that  very  few  of 
the  adult  Mohammedans  can  read  or  write. 
In  the  Jewish  schools  the  Talmud  is  chiefly 


PALESTINE 


(077) 


PALESTINE 


tauglit,  for  the  Jews  in  Palestine  are  very- 
orthodox  and  look  with  disfavor  upon  every 
form  of  modern  training  that  would  fit 
young  men  for  useful  positions.  The  Latin 
schools  appear  to  be  of  a  little  higher  grade 
than  the  Greek  schools ;  but  the  improve- 
ment in  public  sentiment  so  far  as  this  has 
taken  place  is  due  to  the  efforts  of  Protes- 
tants. Their  training  is  more  fundamental 
and  thorough,  and  their  medical  schools, 
most  notable  among  which  is  that  of  the 
Americans  at  Beirut,  have  already  accom- 
plished a  revolution  in  ideas  respecting 
medicine,  and  in  the  treatment  and  care  of 
the  sick.  Except  in  a  few  cases  Protestant 
schools  are  connected  with  the  different 
missionary  societies  operating  in  the  coun- 
try, the  Americans  having  a  large  number 
in  Tyre,  Sidon,  Beirut  and  the  adjacent 
regions,  including  Mimut  Lebanon,  while 
the  English  take  the  lead  in  Palestine 
proper.  Mention  should  likewise  be  made 
of  the  Germans,  who  are  doing  here  an  ex- 
cellent work. — The  language  of  the  country 
is  Arabic,  the  Bedouins  claiming  that  their 
dialect  is  older  and  purer  than  that  in  use 
among  the  settled  population.  Many  other 
languages  are  constantly  heard,  particularly 
in  a  place  like  Jerusalem,  where  the  writer 
made  an  estimate  of  those  he  knew  to  be 
spoken  there  and  the  number  amounted  to 
forty-three. 

Palestine  is  a  province  of  the  Turkish 
Empire,  and  the  country  exhibits  all  the 
<lefects  which,  in  civilized  lands,  are 
grouped  under  the  head  of  "Turkish 
kule.''  The  government  is  poor  as  well  as 
the  people,  and  is  despotic  and  cruel  in  the 
administration  of  public  affairs.  Soil, 
property,  and  people  belong  to  the  sultan, 
and  individual  rights  are  little  known  or 
regarded.  Heavy  taxation  is  not  the  only 
form  of  oppression;  the  military  conscrip- 
tion which  takes  place  every  year  immedi- 
ately after  harvest,  is  always  severe,  and  in 
time  of  war  causes  untold  distress.  Chris- 
tians are  exempt  from  this  duty  but  must 
pay  an  annual  tax,  which  can  hardly  be 
called  an  exemption  tax,  for  the  government 
would  not  accept  them  as  soldiers  even  in 
the  direst  extremity,  nor  will  it  exempt 
them  from  the  tax. 

Among  the  people  of  the  country  there  is 
a  vast  amount  of  suffering,  due  partly  to 
the  oppressive  government,  partly  to  their 
own  conseqiient  poverty,  and  partly  to  their 
ignorance  of  sanitary  laws.  When  disease 
appears,  whether  in  the  form  of  fever,  mea- 
sles, small  pox,  or  cholera,  it  sweeps  off  mul- 
titudes, a  majority  of  the  victims  dying 
simply  from  want  of  proper  care. — Nine- 
tenths  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  work- 
ing classes  and  most  of  these  are  engaged  in 
tilling  the  soil.  The  home  of  the  laboring 
man  is  a  small  structure  of  stones  and  earth, 
containing  but  one  room,  with  no  window 
except  a  hole  by  which  the  smoke  escapes, 
with  roof  and  floor  of  earth,  and  absolutely 
without  comforts.  This  is  a  fair  descrip- 
tion of  two-thirds  of  the  houses  in  Palestine, 
and  the  people  cannot  aff(nd  better  ones. 
Moreover  their  food  and  clothing  are 
meagre  and  insufficient,  and  were  it  not  for 
the    mildness    of  the  climate  they  would 


suffer  for  fuel  as  well  as  in  many  other 
ways.  The  common  laborer  receives  from 
ten  to  twenty-five  cents  a  day  and  has  work 
only  a  part  of  the  year,  hence  there  is  a 
great  amount  of  forced  idleness,  which  in 
Palestine,  as  elsewhere,  bears  its  legitimate 
fruit.  Children  are  brought  up  in  ignor- 
ance, women  and  children  labor  in  the 
fields  with  the  men,  the  peasant  farmers 
are  generally  in  debt,  the  money  lender, 
whose  lowest  rates  are  from  twelve  to 
twenty-five  per  cent.,  is  as  great  a  terror 
to  the  people  as  the  tax  gatherer,  and  the 
prospect  of  better  conditions  for  the  mass 
of  the  inhabitants  is.  under  the  present 
order  of  things,  very  discouraging.  For 
the  Jews  attempts  have  been  made  to 
establish  colonies,  but  these  are  weak  and 
their  success  doubtful.  Money  from  other 
countries  has  been  sent  to  Palestine  to 
found  hospitals  and  alms-houses,  which  are 
tilled  to  overflowing,  and  still  other  means 
have  been  devised  to  relieve  distress.  This 
land,  which  is  dear  to  so  many  Christian 
hearts,  needs  a  radical  and  thorough  renova- 
tion in  government,  religion,  education, 
life,  and  manners. 

The  past  fifty  years  have  witnessed  a 
wonderful  change  in  the  way  in  which  the 
Holy  Land  is  regarded  by  the  Christian 
world.  Previous  to  that  time  it  was  merely 
an  object  of  religious  enthusiasm,  and  to 
study  it  in  a  scientific  spirit  for  conhrma- 
tions  of  the  biblical  records  was  seldom 
attempted.  The  topographical  survey  of 
the  country,  the  identification  of  biblical 
sites,  the  excavation  of  buried  cities,  the 
discovery  of  archaeological  remains,  such  as 
coins,  inscriptions,  and  various  other 
monuments,  tlie  investigation  of  the  differ- 
ent races  of  Palestine  and  their  manners 
and  customs,  the  researches  into  the 
climate,  geology,  flora,  fauna,  and  other 
departments,  with  all  of  which  we  are  now 
familiar,  are  for  the  most  part  matters  that 
have  been  undertaken  during  the  present 
generation.  While  the  names  of  Seetzen. 
Burckhardt,  and  a  few  others  should  not  be 
forgotten,  it  may  be  affirmed  that  this  new 
spirit  was  created  by  Dr.  Edward  Robinson 
anil  Eli  Smith  bv  their  famous  journey  in 
18;3S.  In  1848  Lieut.  Lynch  and  Dr.  H.  J. 
Anderson  made  the  first  successful  attempt 
to  explore  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  in 
boats.  In  1859  Dr.  Wm.  M.  Thomson 
issued  The  Land  and  the  Book,  which  by 
its  unique  and  reliable  character  took  at 
once  the  place  of  a  classic  in  its  department, 
a  rank  which  it  still  justly  holds.  These 
Americans  inaugurated  a  new  era  of  knowl- 
edge respecting  the  Holy  Land.  But  in  this 
important  work  other  natiims  have  since 
borne  an  honc'trable  part,  as  the  English. 
Dutch.  German,  French,  Italian,  and  Swe- 
dish. In  18()4  Due  De  Luynes,  accompanietl 
by  Lartet  and  Vignes.  examined  the  Dead 
Sea  and  rei)orted  on  the  geology  of  that 
interesting  region.  In  18C.j-0t)  Charles  W. 
Wilson  and  S.  Anderson  exphned  the  Sea 
of  Galilee.  Between  1807-70  Charles  War- 
ren carried  on  excavations  at  Jerusalem  .and 
rendered  invaluable  service  in  illustrating 
the  topography  of  the  ancient  city.  In  1871 
the    svstematic    triangulation    of  Western 


PALESTINE 


(678) 


PALEY 


Palestine  was  bej?un  under  R.  W.  Stewart, 
and  completed  under  Conder  and  Kitchener 
in  1878.  In  1872  and  1875  the  American 
society  under  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Roswell 
D.  Hitchcock,  sent  out  two  parties  to  the 
country  east  of  the  Jordan,  which  collected 
a  vast  fund  of  information  respecting  that, 
till  then,  little  known  region  and  opened 
the  way  for  further  explorations  there. — Of 
special  discoveries  that  of  the  Moabite 
stone  by  Pastor  Klein  in  1868,  the  Gezer 
boundary  inscription  by  Bergheim  and 
Ganneau  in  1870,  the  Siloam  tunnel  inscrip- 
tion by  a  boy  from  the  Jewish  mission 
school  in  Jerusalem  in  1880,  and  that  of  a 
long  section  of  the  "second  wall"  of  an- 
cient Jerusalem  by  the  present  wi'iter  in 
1885,  are  among  the  most  important.  A  full 
account  of  recent  explorations  should  em- 
brace some  notice  of  the  Hittite  remains  in 
northern  Syria,  since  it  is  supposed  that 
they  will  throw  much  light  on  the  country 
in  the  time  of  Abraham.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  biblical  science  is  yet  to  reap  an 
abundant  harvest  from  further  researches, 
and  particularly  from  excavations  in  the 
Holy  Land. 

The  following  works  have  been  selected 
from  the  Literature  of  Palestine ,  which  ex- 
tends to  several  thousand  volumes.  Books 
relating  solely  to  Jerusalem  will  be  found 
under  that  head — The  Handbooks  of  Murray 
and  Baedeker  are  indispensable,  the  latter 
being  preferable  for  exact  details.  Ed- 
ward Robinson,  Biblical  Researches,  New 
York,  1841,  and  Later  Researches,  New 
York,  1856.  Wm.  M.  Thomson,  The  Land  and 
the  Book,  has  already  been  mentioned.  It 
has  been  rewritten  and  issued  in  3  vols, 
with  separate  titles.  Southern  Palestine  and 
Jerusalem,  New  York,  1880,  Central  Pales- 
tine and  Phoenicia,  New  York,  1882,  Leba- 
non, Damascus  and  Beyond  Jordan,  New 
York,  1886.  Henry  J.  Van  Lennep,  Bible 
Lands,  New  York,  1875,  is  good  for  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  East  as  illus- 
trating the  Bible.  A.  P.  Stanley,  Sinai  and 
Palestine,  London  and  New  York,  1853,  and 
several  editions  since,  is  always  fresh  and 
suggestive.  H.  B.  Tristram,  Land  of  Israel, 
London,  1866,  new  ed.,  London,  1876,  also 
his  Natural  History  of  the  Bible,  London. 
1869,  are  both  valuable.  E.  H.  Palmer, 
The  Desert  of  The  Exodus,  London  and 
New  York,  1871,  1872,  is  excellent  for  Sinai, 
Edom,  Moab,  and  the  South  Country.  Se- 
lah  Merrill,  East  of  the  Jordan,  New  York 
and  London,  1881,  new  ed..  New  York, 
1883.  C.  R.  Conder,  Tent  Work  in  Palestine, 
London  and  New  York,  1878;  also  his  Syrian 
Stone  Lore,  London,  1886,  is  a  good  book  if 
used  with  caution.  Philip  Schaff,  Throxigh 
Bible  Lands,  New  York,  1878,  and  J.  Mac- 
gregor.  The  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,  London, 
1866,  are  serviceable,  popular  works.  The 
most  interesting  and  reliable  popular  work 
is  Picturesque  Palestine,  New  York,  1881. 
Its  multitude  of  illustrations  are  correct 
and  beautiful,  and  its  text  was  prepared  by 
competent  scholars  in  England  and  Amer- 
ica. The  German  Palestine  Society  has 
published  a  journal  since  1878.  The  Ameri- 
can Society  published  several  reports,  1871- 
1877.     The  English  Palestine  Exploration 


Fund  have  published  a  Quarterly  Statement 
since  1869.  In  these  different  publications 
is  collected  a  rich  mass  of  materials  on  al- 
most every  phase  of  Palestinian  study. 
Under  the  direction  of  the  English  Fuiid 
several  valuable  works  have  appeared,  as 
The  Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  London  and 
New  York,  1871,  and  Our  Work  in  Palestine, 
London  and  New  York,  1873.  Their  large 
Maps  and  Memoirs  are  bulky  and  expensive, 
and  are  designed  for  special  students  only. 
In  the  series  of  small  volumes  called  Rec- 
ords of  the  Past  will  be  found  much  inter- 
esting matter  pertaining  to  Palestine  in 
documents  translated  from  ancient  Assyr- 
ian and  Egyptian  sources.  The  Geography 
of  Palestine,  from  Karl  Ritter's  Erdkunde, 
translated  by  W.  L.  Gage,  New  York,  1870, 
4  vols.,  is  a  storehouse  of  valuable  in- 
formation, on  the  country  in  general.  On 
special  subjects  may  be  mentioned  H.  C. 
Trumbull,  Kadesh  Barnea,  New  York,  1884; 
Selah  Merrill,  Galilee  in  the  Time  of  Christ, 
Boston,  1881,  London,  1884,  new  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1886;  J.  G.  Wetzstein,  The  Hauran  and 
Trachonitis  (in  German),  1860.  On  the 
geology  of  the  country  one  should  consult 
Edw.  Hull,  Geo^of/?/  and  Geoc/raphy  of  Ara- 
bia Petrea  and  Palestine,  London,  1886, 
also  his  Mount  Seir,  Sinai,  and  Western 
Palestine,  London,  1885;  O.  Fraas,  Aus 
dem  Orient,  Stuttgart,  1878;  Carl  Diener, 
Libanon  .  .'  .  Mittel  Syrien.  .  .  .  Jordan 
Quelle,  Vienna,  1886;  Lartet,  Geology  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  Paris,  1869,  1874.  Important 
works  in  French  are  those  of  Munk,  Neu- 
bauer,  Arnaud,  De  Saulcey,  Lortet,  and 
Guerin,  and  in  German  those  of  Burck- 
hardt,  Seetzen,  Furrer,  Rosen,  and  Tobler. 
J.  W.  Dawson,  Modern  Science  in  Bible 
Lands,  London,  1888,  is  a  work  of  great 
value  from  the  standpoint  of  a  reverent 
Christian  scholar.  Cunningham  Geikie's 
The  Holy  Land  and  the  Bible,  London  and 
New  York,  1888,  is  largely  a  compilation 
and  is  full  of  errors.  The  topographical 
part  of  E.  Stapfer's  Palestine  in  the  Time  of 
Christ,  3d  ed..  New  York,  1885,  deserves 
the  same  criticism  as  Geikie's  work.  The 
best  Atlases  of  Palestine  are  Menke's,  and 
the  sheets  in  Wm.  Smith's  large  Ancient 
Atlas.  Van  De  Velde's  and  Kiepert's  are 
still  good  wall  maps,  but  they  have  been 
superseded  for  Western  Palestine  by  those 
of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund. 

Selah  Merrill. 

Palestrina,  Giovanni  Pierluigi,  b.  at  Pal- 
estrina  in  the  Roman  Campagna,  1524,  d.  in 
Rome,  Feb.  2,  1,592,  was  in  1551  made 
master  of  the  chapel  to  Pope  Julius  III. 
and  produced  by  his  compositions,  masses,. 
hymns,  litanies,  offertories,  etc.  a  com- 
plete revolution  in  the  history  of  sacred 
music  which,  having  been  recognized  by  the 
Council  of  Trent,  became  the  foundation  of 
modern  church-music.  His  life  was  writ- 
ten by  Baini,  Rome,  1828. 

Paley,  William,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1795), 
Church  of  England;  b.  at  Peterborough, 
81  m.  n.  of  London,  July,  1743;  d.  at  Bishop 
Wearmouth,  13  m.  n.  e.  of  Durham,  May 
25,  1805.  He  graduated  at  Christ  College, 
Cambridge,   1763,   became  a  fellow  1766,  a 


PALIMPSEST 


(079) 


PALMER 


tutor,  l76S;  rector  of  Musgrove,  West- 
moreland. 1775;  vicar  of  Dalston,  Cumber- 
land, 1776,  and  of  Appleby,  1777;  prebendary 
of  Carlisle,  1780,  archdeacon,  1782,  and 
chancellor,  1785;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's, 
1793,  subdean  of  Lincoln,  and  rector  of 
Bishop-Wearmouth,  1795.  His  Principles 
of  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy,  1785, 
Vieio  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,  1794, 
and  Natural  theology,  1802,  have  been  fre- 
quently reprinted,  and  were  lonf?  used  as 
text  books  in  Enj^lish  and  American  col- 
leges. Scarcely  less  celebrated  is  his  Ilorui 
Paulince,  1790.  His  Sermons  appeared  1808. 
His  principal  books  were  translated  into 
German. 

Paley's  character  was  amiable  and  hon- 
est, but  lacking  in  elevation  and  spiritual- 
ity; his  views  being  purely  utilitarian.  His 
mind  was  admirably  clear,  but  neither  i^ro- 
found  nor  original.  He  was  rather  a  man 
of  his  age  than  a  teacher  for  all  time.  His 
life  was  written  by  W.  Meadley,  1809,  and 
by  several  editors  of  his  works — A.  Chal- 
mers, 1819,  K.  Lyman,  1823,  E.  Paley,  1825, 
D.  S.  Wayland,  1837,  and  others.  F.  M.  B. 

Palimpsest  {rubbed  a  second  time)  the  name 
given  to  any  writing  material  from  which 
the  first  writing  was  wholly  or  in  part  re- 
moved for  the  purpose  of  writing  upon  it 
again.  This  was  often  done  in  mcdiajval 
times  when  writing  materials  were  scarce. 
Sometimes  the  erasure  of  the  first  writing 
was  so  imperfect  that  the  main  body  of  it 
could  be  recovered,  and  to  this  fact  we  owe 
the  preservation  of  many  early  texts,  sa- 
cred and  classical.  The  important  Codex 
JJeyiits  at  Paris  is  a  palimpsest.  T.  W.  C. 

Palissy  (pa-le-se),  Bernard,  Huguenot 
potter,  b.  at  Chapelle-Biron,  73  m.  s.e.  of 
Bordeaux,  France,  about  1.506;  d.  in  the 
Bastille,  Paris,  1590,  where  he  had  been  con- 
fined for  his  religious  opinions  since  1588. 
He  lived  most  of  his  life  at  Saintes,  42  m. 
s.e.  of  La  Ptochelle  and  there  a  statue  was 
erected  to  him  in  1868.  He  was  a  man  of 
sti-ong  faith  and  immortalized  himself  by 
inventing  after  years  of  failure  a  process 
for  making  white  enamel.  (See  his  life  by 
H .  Morley,  New  York,  1852,  2  vols. ) 

Pall  (Latin  pallium,  "a  cover,")  is  the 
name  of  that  piece  of  cloth,  generally  black 
velvet,  which,  during  the  funeral  proces- 
sion, is  spread  over  the  coffin  and  held  in 
position  by  the  most  intimate  and  most  dis- 
tinguished among  the  friends  of  the  de- 
ceased. In  a  strictly  liturgical  sense,  it 
is  also  applied  to  the  white  linen  cloth 
which  is  spread  over  the  altar-table  during 
the  celeljration  of  mass. 

Palladius,  b.  about  308  in  Galatia,  jour- 
neyed through  the  anchoretic  establish- 
ments of  Egyjit,  spent  some  time  with  the 
monks  upon  the  Mt.  of  Olives  in  Palestine, 
was  bishop  of  Helcnopolis  in  Bithynia, 
sought  to  assist  Chrysostom  at  Rome,  was 
exiled  to  Egypt,  and  after  being  api)ointed 
bishop  of  Aspoiia  in  Galatia.  d.  about  4.")1. 
His  only  genuine  work  is  the  llisinrin 
Lausinca.  a  collection  of  lives  of  Egyptian 
monks,  composed  about  420,  whidi    Wein- 


garten  says  is  as  credible  as  Gulliver's 
travels.  Found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Gr.,  vol. 
xxxiv.  F.  H.  F. 

Palladius  is  mentioned  as  Scotorum  Epis- 
copus  i)rim,us  in  the  chronicle  of  Prosper 
Aquitanus  for  A.D.  431.  All  agree  that  by 
Scotorum  is  meant  Ireland,  but  the  Irish 
lives  of  St.  Patrick  mention  the  visit  of 
Palladius  to  Ireland  as  a  shortlived  and 
wholly  unsuccessful  attempt. 

Pallavicino,  Sforza,  b.  in  Rome,  1607,  d. 
there  1()67,  studied  law  and  jdiilosophy,  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus  in  l(i37,  was 
appointed  professor  of  pliiloso))by  at  the 
Jesuit  College  in  Rome  1639  and  professor 
of  theology  in  1643,  and  created  a  cardinal 
in  1()59.  As  it  was  found  necessary  to  do 
something  in  order  to  counteract  the  influ- 
ence of  Paolo  Sarpi's  history  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  which  was  distinctly  written  in 
favor  of  the  reformed  faith,  Pallavicino 
was  charged  with  the  execution  of  a  sim- 
ilar work  from  the  Roman  standpoint.  In 
1556-57  appeared  his  Istoria  del  Concilia  di 
Trcnfo,  2  vols.  fol.  (best  edition  Faenza, 
1792-97,  6  vols.)  and  was  received  with 
great  applause  by  Roman  Catholic  critics. 
It  has  been  translated  into  Latin  and  Ger- 
man. 

Pallium,  or  Pall,  a  white  woolen  scarf, 
upon  which  six  black  crosses  have  been 
embroidered,  which  when  worn  hangs  down 
in  front  and  behind,  so  as  to  present  the 
form  of  a  letter  Y.  It  is  worn  by  the  pope 
and  sent  by  him  to  patriarchs,  metropoli- 
tans, archbishops,  and  sometimes  bishops, 
being  the  particular  designation  of  the 
archbishop,  the  possession  of  which  is 
necessary  to  the  validity  of  many  of  his 
archiei^iscopal  acts.  The  archbishop,  upon 
receiving  it,  must  take  the  oath  of  special 
allegiance  to  the  pope.  It  arose  in  the 
East,  where  it  is  the  common  possession  of 
all  bishops.  It  was  first  given  in  the  West 
by  Gregory  I.  It  is  prepared  from  the  wool 
of  lambs  specially  blessed  and  reared  for 
the  purpose.  Its  use  is  restricted  by  vari- 
ous provisions.  F.  H.  F. 

Palmer  (Latin  pcdmifer,  "  a  palm-bearer.") 
denoted  originally  a  pilgrim  who,  after 
visiting  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  returned  home 
with  palm  branches  in  his  hands,  the 
tokens  of  his  exploit,  which  were  offered 
to  the  priest  and  placed  on  the  altar.  But 
afterwards  it  was  also  applied  to  those  per- 
petual pilgrims  or  itinerant  monks  who 
never  thought  of  visiting  the  Holy  Land 
but  simply  roved  about,  without  any  fixed 
abode,  from  shrine  to  shrine,  in  the  cos- 
tume of  the  true  pilgrims:  the  broad  hat 
with  tlic  sciillop  shells,  the  long  staff,  and 
the  cincture  from  which  a  shell  or  a  scrip 
was  suspended. 

Palmer,  Benjamin  Morgan,  D.D .  (Ogle- 
thori)e  rniversity,  Milledgeville,  Ga.,  1852), 
LL.D.  (Westminster  College,  Fulton.  Mo., 
1870).  Presbyterian  (Southern  Church);  b. 
in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Jan.  25,  1S18,  was 
graduated  at  the  UJiiversity  of  r;et)rgia, 
is;!'^  and  at  the  Theological  Seminary, 
Columbus,  S.    C,   1841;   held  Presbyterian 


PALMER 


(680) 


PANAGIA 


pastorates  at  Savannah,  Columbia,  and, 
since  1856,  at  New  Orleans;  is  director  in 
the  Southwestern  Presbyterian  Univer- 
sity, Clarksville,  Tenn.  since  1873,  and  in 
Tulane  University,  New  Orleans,  since  1882, 
and  has  published  The  Life  and  Letters  of 
Benj.  James  Henley  Thornioell,  Richmond, 
1875;  Sermons,  New  Orleans,  1875-76,  2  vols. 
The  Family  in  its  Civil  and  Churchly  Aspects, 
New  York,  1876,  etc.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  is  still  one  of  the  editors  of 
The  Southern  Presbyterian  Review,  Colum- 
bia, S.  C. 

Palmer,  Edward  Henry,  Orientalist;  b.  at 
Cambridge,  Eug.,  Aug.  7, 1840;  killed  in  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  Aug.  11,  1882.  He  early 
showed  a  talent  for  languages,  and  after 
some  years  as  a  clerk  in  London,  returned 
in  1859  to  Cambridge,  devoted  himself  to 
oriental  studies,  and  became  fellow  of  St. 
John's  College,  1867.  He  was  with  the 
Sinai  Survey  expedition  in  1868-9,  and  in 
the  following  year  explored  the  desert  of 
Et  Tih  and  Moab.  Returning  to  England, 
be  published  The  Desert  of  the  Exodus,  Lon- 
don, 1871,  2  vols.,  and  was  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Cambridge,  1871-81.  In  June 
1882,  he  undertook  a  hazardous  mission 
among  the  Arabs,  in  defence  of  the  Suez 
canal,  and  was  murdered  in  the  desert.  His 
Life  was  written  by  his  friend  Walter  Besant, 
London,  1883.  F.  M.  B. 

Palmer,  Herbert,  one  of  the  Westminster 
divines;  b.  at  AVingham,  Kent,  Eng.,  March, 
29,  1601 ;  d.  at  Cambridge  [or  Westminster] 
Aug.  13,  1647.  He  entered  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, 1616;  became  fellow  of  Queen's,  1623; 
lecturer  at  Canterbury,  1620;  vicar  of  Ash- 
well,  Herts,  1632;  master  of  Queen's  Col- 
lege, 1644;  minister  at  Duke's  place, 
London,  and  at  Westminster.  He  was  a 
moderate  Presbyterian,  with  leanings  to- 
ward Episcopacy.  He  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  and 
wrote  a  catechism  which  became  the  basis 
of  theirs.  His  Memorials  of  Godliness,  1644, 
{13th  ed.  1708),  include  the  Christian  Para- 
doxes, long  ascribed  to  Bacon,  but  restored 
to  their  author  by  A.  B.  Grosart,  1865. 
See  also  Clarke's  Lives,  London,  1677,  and 
Reid's  Memoirs,  Paisley,  1811.       F.  M.  B. 

Palmer,  Ray,  D.D.  (Union,  1852),  Congre- 
gationalist;  b.  at  Little  Compton,  R.  I., 
Nov.  12,  1808;  d.  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  March 
29,  1887.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  1830, 
taught  in  New  York  and  New  Haven,  and 
was  pastor  at  Bath,  Me.,  18.35-50;  Albany, 
1850-66;  secretary  of  the  Congregational 
Union,  1866-78.  Besides  Closet  Hours,  Bos- 
ton, 1839;  New  York,  1851;  Hints  on  the 
Formation  of  Beligious  Opinions,  1860,  and 
other  books  in  prose,  he  published  Hymns, 
1865-68,  Complete  Poetical  Works,  1876,  and 
Voices  of  Hope  and  Gladness,  1880,  including 
many  lyrics  that  have  won  wide  acceptance 
and  several  that  are  in  universal  use.  "  My 
faith  looks  up  to  Thee"  (1830)  has  been 
translated  into  at  least  twenty  languages. 
Considering  alike  the  number,  the  quality, 
and  the  popularity  of  his  sacred  songs.  Dr. 
Palmer  must  be  placed  at  the  head  of 
American  hymnists.  F.  M.  B. 


Palm  Sunday,  the  first  day  of  Holy  Week, 
celebrated  in  the  Roman  Chui'ch  by  the  con- 
secration and  distribution  of  palm  branches, 
and  by  palm  processions.  It  commemorates 
the  entry  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem.  It  was 
celebrated  in  the  East  as  early  as  the  4th 
century.  F.  H.  F. 

Palm  Tree  {erect).  A  tall  and  stately  tree 
which  grows  in  hot  climates.  Once  com- 
mon in  Palestine  (Deut.  xxxiv.  3 ;  Lev. 
xxiii.  40)  though  now  rare,  its  graceful 
form  was  repi'oduced  in  carvings  on  costly 
houses  and  the  temple  (1  Ki.  vi.  32;  2  Chron. 
iii.  5;  Ezek.  xli.  18-20).  Its  foliage  is  in 
one  mass  at  the  top,  but  rugged  knots  on 
the  trunk  render  it  easy  to  climb  ( Cant.  vii. 
7,  8).  Its  leaf -stalks  at  the  summit  are 
meant  by  the  "branches"  in  Neh.  viii.  15. 
Its  size  and  beauty  and  usefulness  made  it 
a  fitting  emblem  of  the  righteous  (Ps.  xcii. 
12).  Its  branches  (or  leaves)  were  spread 
before  Christ  on  his  entry  in  Jerusalem 
(Jno.  xii.  13),  and  they  are  used  by  John  as 
symbols  of  triumph  in  Rev.  vii.  9.  Judea  is 
typified  in  coins  of  Vespasian  by  a  disconso- 
late woman  sitting  under  a  palm  tree  with 
the  inscription  Judaea  Capta.  Natives  of 
the  East  say  that  there  are  360  uses  to  which 
the  trunk,  the  leaves,  the  fibres  and  the 
fruit  of  the  palm  are  applied  with  profit. 
T.  W.  C. 

Pamphilus,  a  presbyter  at  Ceesarea  in 
Palestine,  pupil  of  Pierius,  a  follower  of 
Origen,  who  did  much  service  to  the  cause 
of  learning  by  the  aid  he  extended  to  poor 
students,  by  the  pains  he  took  to  multiply 
copies  of  the  Scriptures,  and  valuable  treat- 
ises, specially  those  of  Origen,  aud  by  the 
founding  and  development  of  a  library  at 
Cfesarea.  He  was  a  friend  of  Eusebius, 
who  is  called  "  Pamphili,"  or  "  the  friend  of 
Pamphilus."  With  Eusebius  he  prepared 
an  apology  for  Origen  in  five  books,  of 
which  the  first  only  has  come  down  to  us  in 
an  imperfect  condition.  F.  H.  F. 

Pam-phyl'-i-a  {region  of  every  tribe),  a  prov- 
ince in  the  south  of  Asia  Minor,  a  crescent- 
shaped  plain  sweeping  around  the  sea-coast 
(Acts  xxvii.  5)  and  extending  n.  to  the 
Taurus  mountains.  Perga  was  its  capital, 
and  Attalia  its  chief  seaport  (Acts  xiv.  25). 
Strangers  from  Pamphylia  were  at  Jerusa- 
lem on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  Paul 
visited  it  twice  on  his  first  missionary  tour. 
(Acts  ii.  10,  xiii.  13,  xiv.  24,  xv.  30). 

T.  W.  C. 

Panagia  (Greek  Tvavayia:  "all  holy"),  is 
used  in  the  Eastern  Church  as  a  surname 
to  the  Holy  Virgin  and  also,  under  certain 
circumstances,  as  a  designation  of  the 
consecrated  bread.  It  became  customary, 
namely,  to  place  a  piece  of  the  consecrated 
bread  and  a  cup  of  wine  before  the  image 
of  the  Virgin,  and  at  the  beginning  of  a 
journey  or  other  important  undertaking 
incense  was  burned,  prayers  offered,  and 
the  panagia  or  consecrated  bread  was  dis- 
tributed. 

Pan-Anglican  Synod,  a  gathering  of  all 
bishops  in  communion  with  the  See  of  Can- 
terbury.    It  was  to  some  extent  anticipated 


PANCRAS 


PANTALEON 


in  1851  by  Archbishop  Sumner,  who  invited 
the  American  bishops  to  join  in  celebrating 
the  loOth  anniversary  of  the  S.  P.  G.  In 
Feb.  1867  the  American  and  Colonial 
bishops  "  in  visible  communion  with  the 
United  Church  of  Enfjland  and  Ireland " 
were  summoned  by  Archbishop  Longley  to 
meet  at  Lambeth,  Sept.  24.  The  session 
lasted  four  days,  and  was  attended  by  76 
prelates,  the  topics  for  discussion  beinjj 
pre-arranged.  These  were  the  reunion  of 
Christendom;  the  formation  of  new  sees; 
letters  for  inter-communion;  colonial 
churches,  their  metropolitans,  discipline 
and  courts  ;  appeals,  conditions  of  union 
between  home  and  colonial  churches;  new 
missionary  bishopries  and  their  jurisdic- 
tion. The  deposition  of  Bishop  Colenso  of 
Natal  by  Bishop  Gray  of  Capetown  was 
ratified — though  this  was  a  mere  expression 
of  sentiment,  not  affecting  Dr.  Colenso's 
legal  position,  he  being  a  state  officer,  and 
the  conference  having  no  power  to  appoint 
or  remove.  An  encyclical  letter  was  issued 
in  English,  Latin  and  Greek. 

The  second  conference  met  at  Lambeth, 
July  2-27,  1878,  Ai'chbishop  Tait  presiding. 
One  hundred  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the 
globe,  were  in  attendance.  The  chief  top- 
ics discussed  were,  mode  of  maintaining 
union  ;  boards  of  arbitration;  relations  of 
missionaries  from  different  churches  (as 
English  and  American)  in  the  same  field; 
chaplaincies  on  the  continent;  Old  Catho- 
lics; West  Indian  dioceses;  marriage  laws; 
boards  of  reference;  ritual  and  confession. 
A  report  and  letter  were  sent  forth.  The 
doings  of  this  synod  were  narrated  by 
Bishop  Perry  of  Iowa,  New  York,  1870. 

The  third  conference  met  at  Lambeth  in 
July,  1888,  Ai'chbishop  Benson  presiding. 
Fourteen  committees  wei-e  appointed  to 
consider  these  subjects:  definite  teaching  of 
the  faith;  relations  of  the  Anglican  com- 
munion to  the  Eastern  Churches,  to  the 
Scandinavian  and  other  Reformed  Churches, 
and  to  the  Old  Catholics  and  other  reform- 
ing bodies;  reunion;  polygamy  of  heathen 
converts:  divoi-ce;  authoritative  standards 
of  doctrine  and  worship;  observance  of 
Sunday;  mutual  relations  of  dioceses  and 
branches  of  the  Anglican  Communion; 
intemperance;  purity;  care  of  emigrants; 
socialism.  An  account  of  the  three  confer- 
ences and  their  acts  has  been  published  by 
Dr.  Davidson,  dean  of  Windsor,  London, 
1880.  F.  M.  B. 

Pancras,  St.,  is  said  to  have  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom under  Diocletian  when  only  14 
years  old,  and  came  to  be  considered  as  the 
avenger  of  false  oaths,  punishing  immedi- 
ately and  visibly  anyone  who  swore  falsely 
in  liis  name.  Formerly  French  kings  con- 
firmed their  treaties  with  an  qath  in  his 
name.     (See  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  I.) 


Panegyricon,  in  the  Greek  Church,  is  a 
collections  of  sermons  or  panegyrics  on  the 
saints  by  the  most  esteemed  orators  of  the 
church,  arranged  according  to  months  and 
destined  to  be  used  at  the  celebrations  on 
saints'  days.     Nearly  every  province  has  a 


panegyricon  of  Its  own.     They  exist  only  in 
manuscript  and  have  no  authority. 

Pange  Lingua  {tell,  tongue)  fonns  the  be- 
ginning of  two  of  the  most  celebrated  hymns 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  older: 
PcDKje  lingua  gloriosi  j)roeliui)i  certuminis 
was  written  l)y  Fortunatas,  5:30-600,  on  the 
occasion  of  some  relics  being  received  pre- 
viously to  the  consecration  of  a  church,  and 
is  used  now  at  Passion-tide.  The  younger: 
Pange  lingua  glorioni  corporis  mysterium 
was  written  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  1225-74, 
for  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi,  and  is 
often  used  at  solemn  masses. 

Panis  literae  (bread-brief s) ,  were  letters 
by  which,  in  the  middle  ages,  a  secular 
lord  could  compel  a  monastery  or  asylum 
or  hospital  to  receive  or  svipport  a  certain 
Ijerson,  The  custom  grew  out  of  the  duty 
originally  imposed  upon  monasteries  and 
other  ecclesiastical  institutions  of  receiving 
and  entertaining  princes  and  other  great 
lords  when  they  were  travelling. 

Pannormia  or  Pannomia  is  the  title  of  a 
collection  of  canons  made  by  Ivo  of  Char- 
tres  about  1100  and  freely  used  by  Gratian. 
It  has  been  printed  at  Basel,  1490,  and  Lou- 
vain,  1557. 

Panormitanus,  the  surname  of  Nicholas 
de  Tudeschis,  archbishop  of  Palermo  and 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  canonists  of  his 
time,  b.  at  Catanea,  Sicily,  1:386;  d.  at 
Palermo,  1445.  He  entered  the  Benedictine 
order  in  1400,  taught  law  at  Siena,  Parma, 
and  Bologna,  was  made  auditor  of  the  Rota 
and  referendarius  apostoUcus  in  1425.  repre- 
sented King  Alphonso  of  Sicily  at  the  CJoun- 
cil  of  Basel,  and  was  created  a  cardinal  by 
Felix  V.  in  1440.  His  Questiones,  Concilia 
etc.  (best  edition  Venice,  1617,  9  vols.,  fol.) 
were  quoted  as  authority  even  by  the  Re- 
formers. 

Pan-Presbyterian  Council.  See  Alliance 
OF  THK  Refoumf:d  Chukches. 

Pantaenus  was  teacher  in  the  catedietical 
school  of  Alexandria  and  succeeded  by  his 
pupil  Clement.  The  exact  dates  of  his 
life  are  not  known  but  his  term  of  office 
ran  at  all  events  from  180  to  20:3.  Of  his 
numerous  writings  only  a  few  fragments 
have  come  down  to  us,  found  in  Routh: 
Sacr.  Relig.  I,  but  he  gave  the  Alexandrian 
school  its  distinctive  character  of  freedom 
and  electicism,  pedagogic  method  and  eso- 
teric mysticism.  According  to  Eu.sebiu8  he 
made  a  missionary  voyage  to  India  and  dis- 
covered there  the  original  Hebrew  text  to 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew. 

Pantaleon,  St.,  b.  at  Nicomedia,  Bithynia, 
body  phvsician  to  the  Emperor  Galerius, 
beheaded  in  :^.05  when  discovered  to  be  a 
Christian,  is  the  patron  saint  of  physicians 
and  generally  represented  as  young  and 
handsome,  bound  to  an  olive  tree,  with  the 
hands  nailed  to  it  above  the  head  and  a 
sword  at  his  feet. 


PANTHEISM 


(682) 


PAPACY 


Pantheism  {all  is  God),  the  modern  name 
of  a  very  old  error.  It  was  first  used  by  the 
English  freethinker  Toland  1705.  It  de- 
notes that  system  of  speculation  which 
identifies  the  universe  with  God,  all  finite 
things  being  merely  aspects  or  parts  of  one 
eternal  and  self-existent  being.  It  has 
been  and  is  variously  expressed  by  its  ad- 
herents, but  true  pantheism  always  regards 
the  derivation  of  phenomena  from  the 
unity  of  substance  as  an  eternal  process 
which  could  not  have  been  other  than  it 
was,  and  therefore  implies  fatalism  to  the 
exclusion  of  freedom.  The  notion  is  as  old 
and  as  wide-spread  as  the  human  race.  It 
found  congenial  soil  in  India,  where  it  con- 
trolled all  philosophy  and  all  religious 
thought.  In  Greece  all  the  pre-Socratic 
schools,  except  that  of  Democritus,  were 
more  or  less  pantheistic,  but  the  doctrine 
was  fully  developed  only  in  the  eleatic 
philosophy.  By  its  assertion  of  a  creation 
out  of  nothing  Christianity  directly  opposed 
any  mixing  of  God  and  the  world.  Yet 
the  Gnostic  systems  and  the  Neo-Platonic 
philosophy  of  Alexandria  had  a  pantheistic 
tinge  which  passed  from  them  into  the  so- 
called  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  and  John 
Scott  Erigenia,  and  the  mystics  of  the  mid- 
dle ages. 

Its  modern  revival  is  due  to  the  brilliant 
Giordano  Bruno,  who  was  burned  at  Rome  in 
1600.  He  was  the  precursor  of  Spinoza 
(1632-77),  the  most  celebrated  of  all  pan- 
theists, who  drew  from  many  sources  and 
compacted  a  system  which  has  exerted  a 
wide  influence.  He  sought  to  prove  that 
"  all  finite  things  are  modes  of  the  one 
Divine  substance."  He  was  anything  but 
atheistic,  and  yet  atheism  could  be  logi- 
cally deduced  from  his  system.  He  had  no 
direct  followers,  yet  the  greatest  philoso- 
phers of  modern  times,  Fichte,  Schelling 
and  Hegel,  show  his  influence  in  their 
idealistic  pantheism.  M.  Renan  oscillates 
between  theism  and  pantheism.  In  Eng- 
land the  doctrine  has  been  "  sung  by 
Shelley,  preached  by  Emerson  and  loosely 
recommended  by  various  writers,  but  it  has 
not  yet  been  presented  in  the  form  of  a 
carefully  reasoned  theory"  (Flint).  His- 
tory shows  that  there  has  always  been  a 
certain  fascination  about  the  system  which 
has  won  its  advocates  in  every  age  and 
land,  yet  it  is  always  in  unstable  equilibrium 
between  theism  and  atheism,  and  is  logically 
necessitated  to  elevate  itself  to  the  one  or 
to  descend  to  the  other. 

Lit.  Saisset,  Modem  Pantheism,  Edin- 
burgh, 1S6;5;  Flint,  Anti-Theistic  Theories, 
Edinburgh,  1879.  (See  Hunt,  Essay  on 
Pantheism,  London,  1866.)  T.  W.  C. 

Pantheon,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
a  temple  dedicated  to  "all  the  gods."  The 
Pantheon  of  Rome,  celebrated  for  its  mag- 
nificent dome,  was  built  in  27  B.C.  by 
Agrippa,  the  son-in-law  of  Augustus.  It 
was  one  of  the  richest  buildings  in  Rome 
but  most  of  its  treasures  were  carried  away 
by  Alaric  in  410.  In  608  Boniface  IV. 
turned  it  into  a  Christian  church,  dedi- 
cated to  the  Virgin  and  all  the  Saints, 
whence  its  present  name  Suncta  Maria  ad 


Martyres,  popularly  Sancta  Maria  Rotunda. 
In  1632  Clement  IX.  plundered  it  of  all  its 
minor  ornaments,  using  the  bronze  for 
canons  and  the  silver  and  gold  for  the  high- 
altar  of  St.  Peter's. 

Panthera  is  the  name  given  by  Celsus  and 
the  Talmud  to  the  Roman  soldier  who,  ac- 
cording to  a  Jewish  slander  which  had  its 
run  during  the  first  and  second  centuries, 
seduced  the  bride  of  Joseph  the  carpenter. 


Papa,  the  Latin  form  of  the  title  father^ 
once  given  indiscriminately  to  all  bishops, 
and  now  in  the  Greek  church  the  common 
appellation  of  the  clergy.  But  in  the  Latin 
Church  since  the  time  of  Gregory  of  Tours 
it  has  been  confined  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome, 
to  whom  the  Roman  Catholics  look  up  as 
the  common  father  of  all  Christians. 

T.  W.  C. 

Papacy,  Papal  System.  According  to  the 
dogmatic  system  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
Christ,  in  instituting  the  church,  gave  to 
the  Apostle  Peter  precedence  over  the  other 
apostles,  and  made  him  the  supreme  head 
of  the  church  on  earth,  and  the  vicar  of 
Christ.  This  position  he  has  handed  down 
to  his  successors,  the  bishops  of  Rome,  of 
which  city  he  was  himself  the  first  bishojJ. 

But,  historically  viewed,  it  is  evident 
that  the  primacy  of  the  Roman  bishop  is  a 
matter  of  growth  under  a  combination  of 
favoring  circumstances.  The  dogmatic 
idea  was  a  prerequisite,  and  this  was  fur- 
nished by  Leo  I.  Before  him  the  Council 
of  Sardica  (344)  had  given  the  pope,  Julius 
I.,  on  account  of  his  personal  orthodoxy,  a 
certain  right  of  receiving  appeals  for  help 
from  bishops  persecuted  by  the  Arians,  and 
of  appointing  new  trials.  Innocent  I. 
(402-417)  stretched  his  power  over  Tliessa- 
lonica.  In  the  troubles  of  his  times  Leo  I. 
(440-461)  emerged  into  prominence  as  the 
one  strong  personality  of  the  city  of  Rome. 
Valentinian  III.  acted  Leo's  pleasure  when 
he  decreed  (44.5)  every  defence  against  the 
primacy  of  the  Roman  bishop  in  the  West 
an  offence  against  the  state.  The  ortho- 
doxy of  the  popes  helped  their  cause  in  the 
controversies  of  this  period.  Gregory  I. 
(590-604)  took  upon  himself  undisputed 
many  offices  of  government  in  anarchic 
times.  With  the  foundation  of  the  holy 
Roman  empire,  the  church  came  into  union 
with  the  state,  in  which  it  was  the  constant 
tendency  of  the  popes  to  seek  power  over 
the  state  for  their  own  secular  aggrandize- 
ment. Nicholas  I.  (858-867)  brought  a  king 
under  his  power,  and  deposed  bishops  by 
his  own  direct  act.  Gregory  VII.  (1073- 
1085)  forced  a  king  to  sue  for  his  favor 
in  unheard  of  humiliation  at  Canossa. 
Innocent  III.  (1198-1216)  hung  interdicts 
over  nations,  and  received  the  supreme 
feudal  power  over  England.  Boniface  VIII. 
(1293-1303)  advanced  the  doctrine  of  the 
two  swords,  temporal  and  spiritual,  both 
committed  to  the  church,  and  declared  the 
belief  of  this  necessary  to  salvation.  But 
with  the  height  of  pretension  came  decay 
upon  the  papal  power.  As  circumstances 
had  favored  its  growth,  so,  as  civil  powers 


PAPEBROEOK 


(fi88) 


PARABLES 


became  more  established,  resistance  to 
these  claims  made  itself  felt.  But  the 
suiireme  headship  of  the  world  is  still 
claimed  as  of  divine  ri<jht  belon<iin<^  to  the 
"  vicar  of  Christ,"  the  bishop  of  Kome. 

For  a  masterly  sketch  of  the  jriowth   of 
the  system  see  Milman's  Latin  Christianity, 
London,  1854-56,  6  vols.  (2d  rev.  ed.  1858.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Papebroeck  (pa-peh-brook)  Daniel,  b.  at 
Antwerp,  March  17,  iri'28;  d.  at  Louvain, 
June  28,  1714;  became  a  Jesuit  in  1045,  was 
in  10(50  sent  byBolland  to  Italy  to  search  its 
archives  for  materials  to  the  Acta  Sancto- 
rwn.  wrote  after  his  return  in  l(')t)2  the  biog- 
raphy of  St.  Patrick,  the  month  of  Marcli 
tosi'ether  with  Hanschen,  that  of  April  and 
the  three  first  volumes  of  May  alone,  the 
rest  of  May  and  part  of  June  together  with 
Baert  and  Jenning-.  He  was  vehemently 
attacked  by  the  Carmelites,  whose  preten- 
sions in  dating  back  to  the  times  of  Elijah 
he  rejected.  The  Inquisition  of  Toledo 
condemned  fourteen  volumes  of  his  work 
as  heretical.  Even  the  Roman  curia  felt 
alarmed  at  his  chronology  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  month  of  May.  Nevertheless', 
in  1698  the  pope  ordered  all  parties  to  keep 
still  and  the  work  went  oil  as  before. 


Paphnutius,  bishop  of  a  city  of  the  upper 
Thebaid,  in  Egypt,  who  at  the  Council  of 
Nice  (305)  opposed  and  prevented  the  adop- 
tion of  a  regulation  forbidding  intercourse 
with  their  wives  to  the  clergy.  He  was  him- 
self unmarried,  and  had  lost  an  eye  in  the 
persecutions.  F.  H.  F. 

Pa-'phos  [hoilinrj),  a  town  at  the  west  end 
of  Cyprus,  whose  Roman  governor  was  con- 
verted during  the  visit  of  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas (Acts  xiii.  6-i;]).  The  old  town,  2  m. 
from  the  shore,  was  the  site  of  a  famous 
temple  of  Venus.  The  new  town,  10  m. 
n.w.,  is  now  called  Baffa.  Its  harbor  is 
nearly  filled  up.  T.  W.  C. 

Papias,  a  disciple  of  the  Apostle  (?)  John, 
friend  of  Polycarp,  and  martyred  in  the 
same  year  with  him,  155,  at  Pergamon.  He 
was  the  author  of  an  Erplanatinn  of  the 
Lord's  Discourfies  in  5  books,  which  was 
still  extant  in  the  l?>th  century,  but  is  now 
lost.  A  few  fragments  from  him  are  still  pre- 
served, principally  in  Eusebius.  Of  his 
Explanar.ion  he  says  (Euselnus,  III.  30): 
*'I  shall  not  regret  subjoining  to  my  inter- 
pretations |of  the  words  of  the  Lord]  what- 
soever I  have  at  any  time  accurately  ascer- 
tained and  treasured  up  in  my  memory,  as 
I  have  received  it  from  the  elders  and  have 
recorded  it  to  give  additional  confirmation 
to  the  truth  by  my  testimony.  For  I  did 
not,  like  most  men,  delight  in  those  who 
speak  much,  hut  in  those  who  teach  the 
truth;  nor  in  those  who  record  the  com- 
mands of  others,  but  in  those  who  record 
the  commands  given  by  the  Lord  to  our 
faith,  and  proceeding  from  tlie  truth  itself. 
If  then  any  one  who  attended  upon  the 
elders  came.  I  made  it  a  point  to  inquire 
what  were  the  words  of  the  ehlers;  what 
Andrew,  or  what  Peter  said,  or  Philip,  or 
Thomas,  or  James,  or  John,  or  Matthew,  or 


any  other  of  the  disciples  of  our  Lord;  and 
what  things  Aristion  and  the  elder  John, 
disciples  of  the  Lord,  say.  For  1  was  of 
opinion  that  I  could  not  derive  so  much 
benefit  from  books  as  from  the  living  and 
abiding  voice."  As  to  the  inferences  to  be 
drawn  from  this  and  other  fragments,  there 
is  the  sharpest  discussion  at  every  point, 
the  importance  of  which  lies  in  their  bear- 
ing upon  the  question  of  the  genuineness 
of  the  gospels,  particularly  the  fourth.  A 
conservative  and  safe  view  is  that  of  SchafE 
in  his  Church  History.  He  says  (vol.  ii.  p. 
696):  ''He  is  also  an  important  witness  to 
the  state  of  the  canon  before  the  middle  of 
the  2d  century.  He  knew  the  first  two 
gospels,  and  in  all  probability  also  the  gos- 
])el  of  John,  for  he  quoted,  as  i:usebius 
expressly  says,  from  the  first  Epistle  of 
John,  which  is  so  much  like  the  fourth  gos- 
pel in  thought  and  style  that  they  stand  or 
fall  as  the  works  of  one  and  the  same 
author.  He  is  one  of  the  oldest  witnesses 
to  the  inspiration  and  credibility  of  the 
Apocalypse  of  John,  and  commented  upon 
a  part  of  it.  He  made  use  of  the  first 
Epistle  of  Peter,  but  is  silent,  as  far  as  we 
know,  concerning  Paul  and  Luke."  Papias 
also  held  strong  chiliastic  views,  for  which 
he  is  called  by  Eusebius  a  rather  weak  man. 
(See  for  the  fragments,  Gebhardt  and  Har- 
nack,  Patres  Apost.,  English  Trans,  in  the 
Ante-Nicene  Library,  Christ.  Lit.  Co.,  New 
York.  Also  Donaldson,  Apost.  Fathers, 
London,  1874;  Lightfoot,  Contemp.  Bev., 
1875,  p.  377.  Westcott,  Canon  of  N.  T.,  Lon- 
don, 1855,  5th  ed.,  1881.  F.  H.  F. 

Papin  (pfi-pan)  Isaac,  b.  at  Blois,  France, 
March  24,  1657;  d.  in  Paris,  June  19,  1709: 
a  nephew  of  Claude  Pajon,  studied  theology 
at  Saumur,  but  fell  out  with  the  faculty, 
more  especially  with  Jurieu,  because  he 
refused  to  sign  a  condemnation  of  Pajon- 
ism.  He  had  already  at  that  time  a  decided 
leaning  toward  Romanism  and  went  to  Eng- 
land where,  in  the  time  of  James  II.,  a  little 
popery  did  a  man  no  harm,  and  where  he 
was  ordained  by  the  bishop  of  Ely.  Twice 
he  obtained  office  in  the  Reformed  church, 
at  Hamburg  and  at  Dantzig.  but  both  times 
he  was  speedily  discharged  on  acconnt  of 
the  intrigues  of  Jurieu.  In  1690  he  re- 
turned to  Paris  and  publicly  embraced 
Romanism.  His  theological  works  were 
edited  by  a  relative  of  his,  Pajon  of  the 
Oratory,  Paris,  1723,  3  vols. 

Papyrus,  a  reed  once  common  in  Egypt, 
which  furnished  the  earliest  material  used 
for  writing  upon.  From  it  comes  our  word 
paper.  T.  W.  C. 

Parables  {cm7)pari.<ion,  Mark  iv.  .30),  a  term 
used  in  a  wide  sense  to  denote  any  form  of 
teaching  by  analogy  or  figure,  whether  ex- 
panded into  a  narrative  (Ezek.  xvii.  1-9)  or 
a  simple  metaphor  (Matt.  xxiv.  32) ;  proverbs 
or  maxims  (1  Sam.  x.  12,  xxiv.  13;  2  Cbron. 
vii.  20;  Luke  iv.  23);  obscure  prophetic 
utterances  (Num.  xxiii.  18;  Ezek.  xx.  49); 
typical  signs  (Heb.  ix.  9);  and  symbolical 
figures  (Heb.  xi.  19.  R.  V.).  In  a  n;niower 
sense  the  term  denoted  a  short  nan-itive  of 
every  day  experience  intended  to  bring  the 


PARABLES 


(C84) 


PARAGUAY 


hearer  to  the  immediate  perception  of  the 
truth  set  forth.  It  differs  from  the  fable 
( Jud.  ix.  8-15)  in  that  it  never  uses  the  im- 
possible, such  as  the  talking  and  reasoning 
of  plants  and  animals,  but  always  states 
what  did  or  might  happen,  and  instead  of 
teaching  mere  worldly  wisdom  expresses 
important  spiritual  truth.  It  differs  from 
the  alle<jory  (Ps.  Ixxx.  8-1.5;  Johnxv.  1-8)  in 
that  its  idea  is  not  represented  but  sug- 
gested. The  allegory  is  self-interpreting, 
the  imaginary  persons  being  named  and 
performing  acts  whicli  declare  the  meaning; 
while  the  parable  must  be  interpreted  by  a 
careful  consideration  of  the  personality 
and  circumstances  of  speaker  and  hearers. 
The  allegory  itself  says  what  it  means;  the 
parable  receives  its  whole  meaning  from 
the  situation  that  called  it  forth.  To  one 
who  knows  not  Christ,  the  parable  of  The 
Sower  tells  nothing  but  a  common  every- 
day occurrence ;  but  to  him  who  knows  the 
speaker  and  the  occasion  it  reveals  truth  of 
great  moment. 

From  Matt.  xiii.  11-17  we  learn  that 
Christ's  teaching  was  framed  after  this 
method  in  order  that  while  it  reached  the 
susceptible  and  fair-minded,  it  would  con- 
vey nothing  to  the  prejudiced  and  im- 
penitent, who  "seeing  did  not  see,  and 
hearing  did  not  hear."  The  fault  lay  not 
in  the  form  of  the  utterance  but  in  the  dis- 
position and  character  of  those  to  whom  it 
came. 

Parabolical  and  enigmatical  language  was 
much  used  by  eastern  sages  (Pss.  xlix.  4, 
Ixxviii.  2),  and  nothing  was  deemed  more 
intolerable  than  to  hear  a  fool  utter  para- 
bles (Prov.  xxvi.  7).  A  parable  was  em- 
ployed by  Nathan  in  rebuking  David  (2 
Sam.  xii.  1-4),  by  another  prophet  in  re- 
buking Ahab  (1  Ki.  xx.  89,  40),  by  the  woman 
of  Tekoali  in  interceding  for  Absalom  (2 
Sam.  xiv.  4-11),  by  Isaiah  in  reproving 
Israel  (v.  1-7),  and  by  all  the  later  Hebrew 
writers  and  teachers.  But  this  form  of 
instruction  reached  its  perfection  when 
employed  by  our  Lord.  His  parables  are 
all  found  in  the  Synoptical  gospels. 
Matthew  and  Luke  give  the  most  of  them, 
it  being  Mark's  custom  to  dwell  more  on 
Christ's  works  than  his  words.  John  has 
no  parables  proijei-,  confining  himself 
rather  to  the  more  elaborate  discourses  of 
our  Lord.  The  number  of  the  parables  dif- 
fers according  to  the  range  given  to  the 
application  of  the  term.  Trench  reckons 
30,  Godet  80,  Goebel  27,  Bruce  88. 

The  attempt  has  often  been  made  to 
classify  them,  but  has  always  failed,  for 
the  obvious  reason  that  these  utterances 
w^ere  not  made  as  parts  of  a  system,  but 
simply  to  explain  and  enforce  such  partic- 
ular truths  as  at  every  given  time  needed 
to  be  pressed  on  men's  attention.  A  chron- 
ological division,  however,  is  possible,  viz. 
1.  Those  spoken  in  Capernaum  (Matt. 
xiii.  and  Mark  iv.),  2.  The  later  parables 
given  by  Luke  (chaps,  x.-xviii.),  and  3. 
The  parables  of  the  Last  Time  (Matt,  xviii. 
-XXV. ;  Luke  xix. ). 

Thus  arranged  we  reckon  28,  viz. : 

1.  The  Sower  (Matt,  xiii,),  2,  The  Tares 
(Matt,  xiii.).     .3.  The  Mustard  Seed  (Matt. 


xiii.).  4.  The  Leaven  (Matt.  xiii.).  .5.  The 
Hidden  Treasure  (Matt.  xiii.).  6.  The 
Pearl  of  Great  Price  (Matt.  xiii. ).  7.  The  Net 
Cast  into  the  Sea  (Matt.  xiii.).  8.  The  Seed 
Growing  Secretly  (Markiv. ).  9.  The  Twa 
Debtors  (Lukevii.).  10.  The  Good  Samar- 
itan (Luke  X.).  11.  The  Rich  Fool  (Luke 
xii.).  12.  The  Barren  Fig  Tree  (Luke  xiii.). 
18.  The  Great  Supper  (Luke  xiv.).  14.  The 
Lost  Sheep  (Luke  xv. ).  15.  The  Lost  Coin 
(Luke  XV.).  16.  The  Lost  Son  (Luke  xv.). 
17.  The  Unjust  Steward  (Luke  xvi.).  18. 
Rich  Man  and  Lazarus  (Luke  xvi.).  19. 
The  Unjust  Judge  (Luke  xviii.).  20.  The 
Pharisee    and   the  Publican   (Luke   xviii.). 

21.  The  Unmerciful  Servant  (Matt,  xviii.). 

22.  The  Laborers  in  the  Vineyard  (Matt. 
XX.).  23.  The  Wicked  Husbandmen  (Matt. 
xxi.).  24.  The  Two  Sons  (Matt.  xxi.).  25. 
The  Marriage  Feast  (Matt.  xxii.).  2(1  The 
Ten  Virgins  (Matt.  xxv.).  27.  The  Talents 
in  Trust  (Matt.  xxv.).  28.  The  Pounds  in 
Trust  (Luke  xix.).  See  the  treatises  by 
Trench,  London,  1841,  14th  ed.  1882,  Guth- 
rie, 1866,  Arnotj  1870,  Bruce,  1882,  W.  M,. 
Taylor,  New  York,  1887.  T.  W.  C. 

Parabolani  (from  the  Greek  7Tapajia7J.kv: 
"to  expose  one's  self"),  voluntary  nurses 
of  the  sick,  originated  in  the  Eastern  Church 
as  one  of  the  minor  orders  of  the  clergy  and 
became  very  conspicuous  in  Alexandria 
and  the  large  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  but  seem 
never  to  have  penetrated  into  the  West. 
They  were  rough  and  uproarious  fellows, 
and  the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  after  using 
them  for  many  years  as  a  body-guard,  had 
finally  to  place  them  under  the  command 
of  the  prefect. 

Paraclete.     See  Holy  Spirit,  Trinity. 

Paracletice  or  Paracleticon  (from  the 
Greek  TrapfKAeuKr/:  comforting),  is  among 
Greek  christians  the  name  of  a  much 
used  book  of  anthems  and  hymns,  not 
appropriated  to  any  certain  day,  but  gen- 
erally intended  to  comfort  the  repentant 
sinner. 

Paradise,  a  word  of  Persian  origin  an- 
swering to  the  Heb.  gan  and  denoting  a 
beautiful  park,  garden  or  orchard  (Neh.  ii. 
8;  Eccl.  ii.  5;  Song  iv.  18).  In  the  Septua- 
gint  the  term  is  applied  to  the  garden  of 
Eden  (Gen.  ii.  15),  commonly  known  as  the 
earthly  paradise.  Figuratively  it  denoted 
the  abode  of  the  blessed  beyond  the  grave, 
in  which  sense  Christ  promised  it  to  the 
penitent  robber  (Luke  xxiii.  43),  and  Paul 
in  vision  was  caught  up  to  it  (2  Cor.  xii.  4)^ 
and  in  it  grows  the  tree  of  life  for  them 
that  overcome  (Rev.  ii.  7).  T.  W.  C. 

Paraguay,  a  South-American  republic, 
comprising  an  area  of  about  348,000  sq.  m, 
with  about  346,000  inhabitants,  situated 
between  22°  and  27°  south  lat.  in  the  Par- 
ana-Paraguay basin,  and  bounded  bj'  Bo- 
livia, Brazil,  and  the  Argentine  republic — 
has  from  its  experience  with  the  Jesuits 
made  a  most  curious  contribution  to  church- 
history.  In  1528  Sebastian  Cabot  took 
possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of 
Spain,  and  its  capital,  Asuncion,  founded 
in   1537,   soon    became    the    centre    of    all 


PA-RAN 


(08.^ 


PARISH 


Spanish  enterprises  in  South-America  east 
of  the  Andes.  The  inhabitants,  the  Guar- 
iiii_still  so  called  and  still  to  be  identified 
with  their  Indian  ancestors  in  spite  of  the 
Spanish  blood,  they  have  adopted — were 
peaceable  and  lisht-hearted  people,  fond  of 
flowers  and  feasts,  but  suomissive  and, 
under  great  calamities,  patient  and  tena- 
cious beyond  any  measure  hitherto  known. 
They  were  first  visited  by  Christian  mis- 
sionaries, Franciscans  and  Jesuits,  between 
1542  and  irm,  but  without  any  palpable 
result.  In  1605,  however,  the  Jesuits  alone 
took  up  the  work  once  more  and  this  time 
with  unbounded  success.  They  not  only 
christianized  the  whole  people  in  a  very 
sliort  time,  but  they  actually  took  posses- 
sion of  the  country.  Not  content  with 
beiui?  the  spiritual  leaders  of  the  nation, 
they  assumed,  in  the  m>st  practical  and 
palpable  sense  of  the  words,  the  task  of 
performiuyj  every  function  of  a  government, 
and  in  order  to  protect  their  "  children  " 
from  foreign  temptations  and  corruption 
they  locked  them  up  behind  a  kind  of  Chi- 
nese walls,  forbidding  the  trader,  the  scien- 
tific traveller,  even  the  casual  visitor  to 
enter  the  country.  During  the  first  iialf  of 
the  18th  century  all  Europe  rang  with  fairy- 
tales about  the  blessings  which  the  Jesuits 
had  poured  out  upon  the  (luarini,  and  they 
were  credited,  for  one  thing  was  at  all 
events  sure  enough,  the  colfers  of  the 
"fathers"  were  bursting  with  gold.  But 
in  1707  the  Jesuits  were  suddenly  expelled 
from  Spain  and  the  Spanish  colonies,  and 
when  thus  the  curtain  was  raised,  a  most 
piteous  sight  was  discovered  behind  it. 
There  were  palaces,  churches,  chapels,  and 
schools  enough  in  Paraguay,  but  there  was 
not  a  trane  of  true  Christianity.  The  whole 
country  looked  like  a  huge  sheep-farm,  in 
the  highest  stage  of  cultivation  and  with 
a  very  smart  machine  for  clipping  the  wool, 
but  the  most  elementary  devices  of  true 
civilizations  were  lacking.  The  people  had 
simply  been  diugged  with  something 
which  made  them  idiots,  and  so  miserable 
were  they,  spiritually,  morally,  intellect- 
ually, tliat,  although  they  in  1811  swept 
away  by  the  Spanish-American  whirlwind, 
declared  themselves  independent  of  Spain, 
in  1>;14  they  became  the  willing  plaything 
of  Dr.  Francia — a  Jesuit  without  the  mask. 
(See  .Masterman.  Seoeii  Year!<  in  Parcviuny, 
London.  18(59;  Washburn,  History  of  Para- 
>juay,  Xew  York,  1871 ;  Gothein,  Der 
ckristlich-sociale  Stnat  der  Jesuiten  in 
Paraj'tay,  Leipzig,  1883.  C.  P. 

Pa'-ran  a  large  desert  region  in  the 
Sinaitic  Peninsula  in  which  the  Israelites 
dwelt  for  :5S  years.  It  is  a  high  limestone 
plateau  covered  with  coarse  gravel,  black 
flint  and  drifting  sand,  yet  having  occa- 
sional ])asture  lands.  It  is  first  mentioned 
as  the  western  limit  of  Chedorlaomer's  in- 
vasion ((ien.  xiv.  C>),  then  as  the  home  of 
Hagar  and  Ishmael  (xxi.  21).  Israel  en- 
tered it  soon  after  leaving  Sinai  (Xum.  x. 
12.  .3;^).  and  from  it  the  spies  were  sent  to 
Canaan  (\um.  xiii.  3.  2t)).  Israel's  stations 
in  it  are  mentioned  (xxxiii.  lS-.]t)).  In  this 
wilderness  David   found  a  refuge   (1  Sam. 


xxv.  1),  and  Hadad  went  through  it  (I  Ki. 
xi.  18)  when  escaping  to  Egypt.  T.  W.  C. 

Pareus.  David,  Reformed;  b.  at  Franken- 
stein, Silesia,  Dec.  30,  1,548,  d.  at  Heidel- 
berg, June  15,  1622.  He  studied  theology  at 
Heidelberg  and  became  professor  there  in 
1584.  He  was  a  quiet,  somewhat  timid 
man,  but  sorely  tried  by  the  polemical  tem- 
per of  his  age.  In  1587  he  gave  out  an  edi- 
tion of  Luther's  ti'anslation  of  the  Bible  with 
some  notes  of  his  own  the  so-called  Neit- 
stadter  liibel,  and  those  notes  brought  him 
in  a  savage  controversy  with  Agricola  and 
the  Lutherans.  A  pamphlet  he  wrote  in 
1617  on  occasion  of  the  centenary  jubilee  of 
the  Reformation  brought  the  Jesuits  down 
upon  him.  His  commentary  on  the  epis- 
tle to  the  Romans,  16(H»,  was  burneil  in 
England  by  order  of  James  I.  on  account 
of  some  remarks  on  the  monarchical  prin- 
ciple, etc.  His  life  is  found  in  his  son's 
edition  of  his  works,  Frankfort,  1647,  3 
vols,  fol.,  unfinished. 

Pardee,  Richard  Gay,  Presbyterian  lay- 
man; b.  at  Sharon,  Conn.,  Oct.  12,  1811;  d. 
in  New  York  city,  Feb.  11,  1869.  He  was 
l>rominent  as  a  Sunday-school  worker.  He 
wrote  The  Sunday-School  Index,  Philadel- 
phia, 1868. 

Paris,  Francois  de,  b.  in  Paris.  June  3, 
1600;  d.  there  May  1,  1727;  studied  theology, 
and  was  ordained  a  deacon,  but  joined  the 
Jansenists,  retired  into  seclusion,  and  died 
in  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Paris  from  the 
severity  of  his  ascetic  practices.  Miracles 
were  said  to  have  taken  place  at  his  grave, 
and  as  these  miracles  became  a  point  of  bit- 
ter controversy  between  the  Jansenists  and 
the  hierarchy,  the  affair  caused  great  com- 
motion in  Paris,  and  the  cemetery  of  St.  Me- 
dard  became  tlie  scene  of  di.sgustingoccur- 
I'cnccs  until  (dosed  by  the  police.  (See  P.  F. 
Mathieu:  Ilistnin'  des  Mimrlcs  ct  dc  Courtil- 
sionaircs  dr  St.-Medard,  Paris,  1864.     C.  P. 

Paris,  Matthew  of.  See  Matthew  of 
Pakis. 

Pari.sh  (Latin,  parochin,  Greek,  -rrapaiKic: 
"a  sojourner"),  in  countries  where  the 
church  is  a  state-establishment,  corre- 
spt)nds  to  congregation  in  coiuitries  in  which 
the  church  is  free,  the  difference  between 
them  being,  that  in  the  parish  of  the  state- 
establishment  the  congregation  comprises 
all  persons  living  within  a  certain  territorial 
circumscription,  for  instance,  a  town.ship 
while  in  the  congregation  of  the  free  church, 
the  parish  is  made  up  irrespective  of  any 
territorial  circumscription  of  such  persons 
only  as  have  become  voluntary  members  of 
the  church.  It  is  a  historical  fact  that  the 
Christian  church  began  as  free  congrega- 
tions, and  it  now  seems  probable  that  it  will 
return  to  that  form  again. 

Parish  Clerk,  a  term  belonging  to  the 
Church  of  England,  and  denoting  the  lowest 
otticer  of  the  church,  who.se  duties  simi)ly 
consist  in  l»eing  present  at  baptisms,  mar- 
riaires  and  funerals,  in  leading  the  resjionses 
during  service,  etc.  He  was  formerly  a 
( lergyman  of  minor  orders,  but  is  now  sim- 
])iy  a  clerk,  licensed  and  sworn  in  by  the 
ordinary,  after  being  appointed  by  tlie  min- 


PARITT 


PARKER 


ister  or  the  churchwarden  or  the  parishion- 
ers. 

Parity  is  a  term  of  German  ecclesiastical 
policy,  denoting  perfect  equality  between 
Protestants  and  Koman  Catholics  in  their 
relations  to  the  state.  It  was  first  used  in 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  1648,  where  it 
means  perfect  equality  between  Protestant 
and  Roman  Catholic  states  in  their  relations 
to  the  empire,  the  ecclesiastical  policy  of 
each  state  being  regulated  by  the  principle 
cujus  recjio  ejusrelUjio.  The  introduction  of 
the  principle  of  parity  also  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical policy  of  the  state  towai-ds  the  sub- 
jects is  due  to  Prussia,  and  dates  from  the 
religion  edict  of  July  9,  1788. 

Park,  Edwards  Amasa,  D.D.  (Harvard 
University,  1844)  b.  at  Providence,  K.  I., 
Dec.  29,  1808;  graduated  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity, Providence,  1826,  and  in  1831  at  Ando- 
ver  Theological  Seminary,  where  he  was 
professor  from  1836  till  1881.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  and  its 
editor  from  1851  till  1884,  edited  together 
with  Austin  Phelps  and  Lowell  Mason  The 
Sabbath  JIi/nin-Book,  New  York,  1858;  con- 
tributed very  largely  to  the  religious  press, 
and  i^ublished,  besides  a  great  number  of 
valuable  memoirs,  Discourses  on  some  Theo- 
lofjical  Doctrines  as  related  to  the  Religious 
Character,  Andover,  1885. 

Parker,   Joseph,  D.D.    (  )   Congre- 

gationalist;  b.  at  Hexham,  Northumberland, 
England,  Apr.  19,  1830;  was  graduated  at 
University  College,  entered  the  Congrega- 
tional ministry,  and  held  successively  pas- 
torates at  Banbury,  Manchester,  and,  since 
1869,  of  the  City  Temple,  London.  He  pub- 
lished EcceDeus,  London,  1808,  5th  ed.,  1875; 
The  Priesthood  of  Christ,  1876;  The  Inner  Life 
of  Christ,  1881-82,  3  vols;  Apostolic  Life, 
1882-84,  3  vols;  The  People's  Bible,  1885, 
sqq.  Vn.  1891 ;  Tyne  Clyde,  my  Life  and 
Ministry,  1883,  2d  ed.,  1885;  Weaver  Stephen, 
1885,  etc.,  most  of  which  have  been  re- 
printed in  America. 

Parker,  Matthew,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1538). 
71st  archbishop  of  Canterbury;  b.  at  Nor- 
wich, Aug.  6,  1504;  d.  at  Lambeth,  May  17, 
1575.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Mary's  and 
Corpus  Christi,  Cambridge,  and  became  a 
fellow  of  the  latter,  1527.  Imbibing  reform- 
ation views  and  gaining  note  as  a  preacher, 
he  was  made  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne  Bol- 
eyn  in  1535,  and  soon  after  dean  of  the 
college  at  Stoke  in  Suffolk.  Before  this  was 
abolished  he  was  elected  master  of  Corpus 
Christi,  1544,  and  vice-chancellor  of  the 
University,  1.545.  Edward  made  him  dean 
of  Lincoln,  1552;  under  Mary  he  resigned 
his  preferments  and  lived  in  close  retire- 
ment. His  moderation  rather  than  his  am- 
bition led  to  his  selection  by  Elizabeth  for 
the  primacy.  He  was  consecrated  in  Lam- 
beth Chapel,  Dec.  17,  1559,  by  Bishops  Bar- 
low, Scory,  Coverdale  and  Hodgkin.  The 
"  Nag's  Head  "  (q.v. )  fable,  intended  to  dis- 
credit this  proceeding,  was  a  Romanist  in- 
vention of  the  next  century.  Entrusted  with 
the  difficult  task  of  bringing  the  Reformed 
Church  into  order,  it  was  perhaps  impossi- 
ble that  he  should  satisfy  either  the  Queen 


or  the  Puritans,  or  avoid  obloquy  from  the 
latter.  But  his  private  character  was  high; 
he  loved  learning,  and  rendered  great  ser- 
vices to  literature,  to  education,  and  es- 
pecially to  antiquarian  studies.  His  own 
writings  were  inconsiderable,  but  he  edited 
sundry  old  chronicles  and  homilies,  pro- 
moted Biblical  translation,  and  gathered  a 
splendid  library  for  his  college.  The  Par- 
ker Society  was  named  from  him.  His 
Life  has  been  written  by  Strype,  Oxford, 
1711,  and  others.  F.  M.  B, 

Parker,  Theodore,  b.  at  Lexington, 
Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1810;  d.  in  Florence,  Italy, 
May  10,  1860.  He  was  the  sou  of  John 
Parker  and  Hannah  Stearns;  descended 
from  Puritan  stock;  the  youngest  of  eleven 
children.  His  parents  were  both  Unita- 
rians. He  was  early  inured  to  work  on  his 
father's  farm ;  studied  in  the  district  school. 
At  16  was  sent  for  a  single  quarter  to 
the  academy  at  Lexington;  early  showed  a 
remarkable  thirst  for  knowledge,  and  de- 
rived from  his  mother  a  wonderfully  reten- 
tive memory.  He  devoured  every  book  that 
came  into  his  way;  showed  also  a  great  in- 
terest in  natural  history  and  out-of- 
door  life;  began  to  teach  at  17,  and 
taught  successive  winters  in  the  district 
schools  of  Quincy,  North  Lexington,  Con- 
cord, and  Waltham.  At  20  passed  the 
entrance  examinations  of  Harvard  College, 
and  kept  up  with  his  class  while  teaching 
and  working  on  the  farm.  Being  a  ni>n- 
resident  he  did  not  receive  a  degree,  but  in 
1840  was  enrolled  among  the  graduates  of 
the  college  and  received  the  degree  of  A.M. 
He  entered  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School 
in  1834;  was  looked  upon  as  "  a  prodigious 
athlete"  in  his  studies.  He  studied 
from  fourteen  to  seventeen  hours  a  day, 
and  has  recorded  the  names  of  65  vol- 
umes in  German,  English,  Danish,  Latin, 
and  Greek,  read  in  two  months.  His  gift 
for  acquiring  languages  was  unusual,  and 
later  he  studied  Portuguese,  Spanish,  Dutch, 
Icelandic,  Modern  Greek,  Chaldaic,  Ara- 
bic, Persian,  Coptic,  Ethiopic,  and  Russian. 
He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  second  Uni- 
tarian church  at  West  Roxbury,  June  21, 
1837,  and  shortly  after  settlement  was  mar- 
ried to  Lydia D.  Cabot  of  Newton.  Paiker 
soon  abandoned  the  sensational  school  in 
philosophy  for  the  intuitional  or  transcen- 
dental school.  He  felt  too  the  influence  of 
German  thought  in  theological  criticism. 
His  divergence  from  current  Unitarian 
views  was  made  ajiparent  in  his  South  Bos- 
ton sermon  preached  May  17,  1841,  on  The 
Transient  and  Permanent  in  Christianity. 
In  this  sermon  Parker  distinguished  be- 
tween the  form  and  substance  of  Christian- 
ity. The  form  he  regarded  as  transitory, 
the  substance  as  abiding.  Christianity  he 
regarded  "  as  absolute,  pure  morality,  and 
absolute  pure  religion."  He  arraigned 
many  of  the  doctrines  regarded  as  essential 
to  Christianity  and  personal  salvation, 
prominent  among  them  the  infallibility  of 
the  Bible.  Parker's  South  Boston  sermon, 
like  Channing's  Baltimore  sermon  in  1819, 
awakened  a  storm  of  controversy.  It  alien- 
ated many  of  his  Unitarian  associates,  only 


PARKHURST 


(687) 


PASCAL 


a  few  of  whom  were  willinfj  to  exchange 
with  him  thereafter.  His  theological  views 
were  set  forth  more  fully  in  live  lectures  de- 
livered in  Boston,  in  the  fall  of  1841  and 
published  there  the  following  year  under 
the  title  Bisrouraes  of  Matters  pertaininy  to 
Religion.  In  1843-44,  he  travelled  in 
Europe.  On  his  return  he  held  morning 
services  in  Boston,  and  in  1846  resigned  his 
West  Koxbury  charge  and  formed  tlie 
"Twenty-Eighth  Congregational  fSociety  " 
in  Boston.  Services  were  fust  held  at  tlie 
Melodeon  and  afterwards  at  Music  Hall. 
His  preaching  and  writings  commanded 
wide  attention,  lie  became  not  only  noted 
for  his  heresies  but  for  his  boldness  as  a 
reformer.  He  was  a  prominent  leader  in 
the  anti-slavery  cause  and  ])reached  and 
worked  in  behalf  of  temperance,  i)rison  re- 
form, and  the  rights  of  women,  lie  was  in 
great  demand  as  a  lyceum  lecturer,  and 
his  numerous  public  addresses  and  writings 
on  political,  social,  and  moral  questions 
show  his  versatility  and  unflagging  indus- 
try. His  health  broke  down  under  the 
strain  of  work,  and  in  February,  ISol),  after 
an  attack  of  bleeding  at  the  lungs,  he  took 
a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies  and  thence  to 
Europe,  visiting  Switzerland  and  Kome. 
His  search  for  health  was  fruitless,  and  he 
died  at  Florence,  Italy,  May  10,  18(!0,  and 
was  buried  in  the  Protestant  cemetery.  As 
a  scholar,  Parker  was  marked  rather  for 
prodigious  powers  of  acquisition  than  for 
critical  skill  in  dealing  with  his  material. 
Though  possessed  of  a  vigorous,  command- 
ing intellect,  he  was  not  a  philosopher  in 
the  technical  sense,  and  was  deficient  in 
aesthetic  sentiment,  which  accounts  for 
the  lapses  of  taste  in  some  of  his  dis- 
courses. In  theology  he  may  be  descril)ed 
as  a  Christian  theist.  Though  not  a  Pan- 
theist he  held  strongly  to  the  immanence 
of  God  in  man  and  nature,  was  a  firm  be- 
liever in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  of 
the  moral  law  written  in  the  consciousness 
of  man.  He  rejected  the  evangelical  doc- 
trines of  the  fall,  the  atonement,  the  incar- 
nation, the  Trinity,  and  everlasting  punish- 
ment. He  lield  Jesus  in  tender  reverence 
as  a  spiritual  leader,  and  his  most  beautiful 
poem  is  an  inscription  to  him.  He  rejected 
the  miracles  as  proofs  of  Christianity,  and 
appealed  to  its  moral  and  spiritual  verifica- 
tion in  human  history.  Though  Parker's 
opinions  were  too  radical  for  the  Unitarians 
of  his  day,  they  are  now  widely  and  perhaps 
commonly  held  by  Unitarians.  The  Amei-- 
ican  Unitarian  Association  honored  his 
memory  by  publishing  a  volume  of  his 
sermons  entitled  Vle>vs  of  Eplhiinn,  edited 


)y  Jam 
ilete  cc 


piete  collection  of  his  published  pamphlets, 
addresses,  and  discourses  is  contained  in 
the  Boston  Public  Library,  to  which  he  be- 
queathed his  i)rivate  library,  of  i;l,0(K)  vol- 
umes. His  Life  n)i<I  Corypftpnndence  have 
been  written  by  Kev.  .lolni  Weiss,  New 
York,  18t;4:  liis  Life  by  Kev.  O.  B.  Froth- 
ingham,  Xew  York,  1874.  The  most  repre- 
sentative edition  of  liis  works  is  the 
Collected  Works,  edited  by  Frances  Power 
Cobbe,  London,  1876,  14  vols. 

S.  J.  Barrows. 


Parkhurst,  Charles  Henry,  D.D.  (Am- 
herst College,  Mass.,  1880),  Presbyterian; 
1).  at  Framingham,  Mass.,  April  17,  1842, 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  18()(>;  studied 
theology  at  Halle  and  Leipzig;  and  has, 
since  1880,  been  pastor  of  the  Madison- 
Square  church.  New  York.  He  published 
several  collections  of  sermons,  New  York, 
1883,  1885,  etc..  Question  of  the  Hour,  1887, 
etc. 

Parkhurst,  John,  b.  at  Catesby,  North- 
amptonshire, England,  1728,  d.  at  Ei^som, 
Surrey,  March  21,  17l'7,  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge, 1748,  took  orders  in  the  Church  of 
England,  but  lived  afterwards  on  his  estate 
at  Epsom  and  published  a  IJebrew-EnfjHsh 
Lexicon  with  a  Ilebrew  and  Chaldee  gram- 
mar, London,  1702,  which  ran  through 
8  eds.,  and  a  Greek-English  Lexicon  to  the 
New  Testament  with  a  Greek  gi-ammar, 
1709,  last  ed.  iy.51. 

Parnell,  T.^omas,  b.  at  Dublin,  1079,  d.  at 
Chester.  1718,  was  educated  in  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  took  orders  in  1700,  obtained 
some  preferment  in  Ireland,  but  lived  for 
the  most  time  in  London.  He  j)ublished  a 
volume  of  poems  in  1722  and  another  ap- 
peared in  1758;  the  latter  is  of  a  graver, 
almost  devotional  character,  but  its  authen- 
ticity is  doubted. 

Parseeism.    See  Persia. 

Parsons,  Levi,  Congregationalist ;  b.  at 
Goshen.  Mass..  July  18,  1792.  d.  at  Alexan- 
dria, Egypt,  Feb.  22.  1S22.  He  graduated 
from  Middlebury  College,  1814;  went  in  1819 
as  missionary  to  the  East  under  the  commis- 
soin  fiom  the  American  Board,  and  arrived 
in  Jerusalem,  Feb.  12,  1820,  the  first  Protes- 
tant missionary  who  began  work  there. 
But  he  left  the  succeeding  May  on  account 
of  ill  health.  His  life  was  written  by  D.  V. 
Morton,  Boston,  1824. 

Parsons,  Robert.    See  Persons,  Robert. 

Par'-thi-a,  originally  a  province  of  Media, 
it  was  conquered  by  Cyrus  and  united  to 
the  Persian  Empire,  B.C.  550.  Seleucia  and 
Ctesiphon  were  chief  cities,  and  Ecbatana 
a  royal  summer  residence.  Under  Arsaces 
B.C.  2.50,  it  became  independent  and  so 
continued  nearly  500  years,  not  yielding 
even  to  the  Romans,  but  a.d.  220  it  was 
reunited  to  the  Persians.  In  apostolic 
times  it  extended  from  India  to  the  Tigris. 
Jews  from  Parthia  were  at  Jerusalem  at 
Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9).  They  spoke  the 
Persian  language.  T.  W.  C. 

Particular  and  General  Baptists.  The  for- 
mer are  Calvinistic,  the  latter  Arminian  in 
Theology. 

Passagians  (Latin  passagii  or  passngius). 
is  the  name  of  a  sect  of  obscure  origin,  but 
which  existed  in  Italy  already  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  12th  century,  and  was  condemned 
by  the  Council  of  Verona  in  1184.  They 
denied  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  held 
that  the  Mosaic  law  was  still  in  force,  for 
which  reason  the  emperor,  Frederick  II. 
called  them  "  the  Circumcised." 

Pascal,  Blaise,  b.  at  Clermont,  the  capital 


PASOHALIS 


(088) 


PASCHAL 


of  Auvergne,  France,  June  19,  1623,  d.  in 
Paris,  Aug.  19,  1062.  He  was  a  precocious 
child  and  received  a  careful  education. 
His  genius  for  mathematics  and  mechanics 
developed  very  early.  Before  he  was  12 
years  old  he  discovered  several  of  Euclid's 
propositions;  in  1040  he  invented  the  count- 
ing machine ;  in  1047  he  made  a  number  of 
original  and  most  important  observations 
on  atmospheric  pressure,  and  discovered 
the  principle  of  barometric  measurement, 
etc.  In  religious  respect  he  was  at  that 
time  rather  a  skeptic  than  anything  else. 
But  in  1051  his  sister  Jacqueline  entered 
Port  Royal  as  a  nun,  and  that  circumstance 
together  with  many  others,  prepared  the 
way  for  his  conversion.  In  1654  he  himself 
took  up  his  abode  in  Port  Royal,  not  as  a 
monk,  but  without  taking  any  vows,  yet 
practicing  the  strictest  discipline.  The 
first  of  his  Provincial  Letters  appeared  June 
23,  1050.  There  are  17  in  all.  About  one- 
half  of  the  series  is  devoted  to  the  defence 
of  Jansenism,  demonstrating  the  perfect 
harmony  between  the  tenets  of  Arnaud  and 
the  church  universal;  the  other  half  forms 
an  attack  upon  the  Jesuits,  uncovering 
with  lofty  superiority  the  frivolity  of  their 
moral  maxims  and  practices.  His  Pensees 
sur  la  ReUi/lon,  which  both  Protestants  and 
Roman  Catholics  acknowledge  as  one  of  the 
most  precious  books  in  all  Christian  litera- 
ture, was  not  published  until  1009  or  1070, 
and  their  text  had  been  tampered  with. 
Later  editors  have  taken  great  pains  to 
restore  it,  and  succeeded  at  least  jjartially. 
The  editions  of  his  works  are  very  numer- 
ous; one  of  the  best  is  that  by  J.  de  Soyres, 
Cambridge,  ISSO,  with  English  notes.  There 
are  also  several  English  translations  of  his 
Thoughts  and  Provincial  Letters,  New  York, 
1859,  2  vols,  (later  ed.)  new  trans.  Letters, 
London,  1888;  of  the  Thoughts,  by  C.  Kegan 
Paul,  1884.  The  Life  of  Jacqueline  Pascal 
was  written  by  Sophy  W.  Weizel,  New 
York,  1880.  C.  P. 

Paschalis,  the  name  of  2  anti-popes,  the 
first  in  087,  who  bought  his  election  of  the 
Exarch  of  Ravenna,  but  was  compelled  to 
yield  to  Sergius  I.,  and  the  second  during 
the  period  1104-1108.  The  name  also  of 
2  popes.  1.  Pope  817-824,was  abbot  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Stephen  at  Rome  when 
elected  (Jan.  25),  He  was  consecrated 
without  waiting  for  the  imperial  sanction, 
but  in  a  document  of  doubtful  authenticity, 
the  emperor  is  said  to  have  confirmed  him 
and  to  have  given  the  papal  see  large 
additional  territories,  Corsica.  Sardinia  and 
Sicily,  etc.  He  crowned  Lothaire  in  St. 
Peter's,  April  5,  823.  His  i-eign  at  Rome 
was  cruel,  and  he  died  amid  universal  exe- 
cration. 2.  Proper  name  Raineri,  of  Tuscan 
origin,  entered  a  monastery  early,  was 
trained  at  Clugny,  made  cardinal  by  Greg- 
ory VII.  about  1070,  elected  pope  Aug.  13, 
1099,  d.  Jan.  21,  1118.  At  the  beginning  of 
his  pontificate  came  the  conquest  of  Jeru- 
salem by  the  crusaders  (1099).  Three  suc- 
cessive anti-popes  were  obliged  to  yield  to 
him.  In  France  and  England  he  met  with 
some  success  in  carrying  out  the  plans  of 
the  papacy,  compelling  Philip  I.  to  give  up 


his  adulterous  marriage  with  the  Countess 
of  Anjou,  and  bringing  Henry  I.  of  England 
to  give  up  the  right  of  investiture,  though 
he  was  obliged  to  purchase  this  concession 
by  granting  that  the  bishops  should  take 
the  oath  of  feudal  obedience  to  the  king. 
This  victory  was  therefore  somewhat 
empty.  It  is  to  his  contact  with  Henry  V. 
of  Germany  that  Paschalis  is  indebted  for 
his  fame.  He  had  pursued  the  policy  of 
Gregory  VII.  with  Henry  IV.,  excommuni- 
cating him  in  1102,  and  assisting  his  son 
against  him.  But  Paschalis  found  the  un- 
faithful son  an  unfaithful  child  of  the 
church.  Henry  V.  renewed  the  investiture 
controversy,  and  in  1110  made  an  expedi- 
tion to  Rome  for  the  double  purpose  of 
getting  crowned  and  settling  this  old  con- 
troversy. Paschalis  formed  the  remarkable 
design  of  bartering  away,  in  return  for  the 
surrender  by  the  king  of  the  right  of  inves- 
titure, the  entire  secular  possessions  of  the 
church  in  Germany,  its  rights  of  coinage,  of 
levying  customs  and  of  civil  jurisdiction. 
Whether  this  was  a  genuine  movement 
upon  the  part  of  the  pope  to  deliver  the 
church,  in  the  spirit  of  a  Cluniac  monk, 
from  the  corruption  which  worldly  posses- 
sions had  introduced,  or  was  done  in  the 
certainty  that  the  clergy  Avould  repudiate 
the  action,  or  was  a  mere  diplomatic  trick, 
will  never  be  known.  Enough  that  it  was 
so  repudiated,  and  that  Paschalis's  subse- 
quent surrender  to  the  emperor  of  the  con- 
tested right  of  investiture  raised  an  equal 
tumult.  The  pope  was  even  led  to  confirm 
an  excommunication  of  Henry.  But  he 
was  delivered  from  the  possible  revenge  of 
Henry  by  death.  F.  H.  F. 

Paschasius  Radbertus.    See  RadberTus. 

Paschal  Controversies.  In  the  11th  cen- 
tury a  three-fold  manner  of  observing 
Easter  had  already  arisen.  The  Ebionites 
celebrated  the  Jewish  Passover  upon  the 
14th  of  Nisan,  with  the  regular  legal  cere- 
monies. The  great  body  of  the  Catholic 
Church  observed  the  Friday  which  came 
next  after  the  14th  of  Nisan,  as  the  day  of 
the  death  of  Jesus,  with  fasting  and  mourn- 
ing, and  the  following  Sunday,  as  the  day 
of  the  resurrection,  with  the  communion 
and  as  a  day  of  feasting  In  Asia  Minor 
still  another  practice  had  arisen,  which  was 
said  to  have  been  established  under  the  co- 
operation of  the  Apostle  John  himself,  and 
which  celebrated  the  14th  of  Nisan  as  the 
day  of  the  Lord's  death,  but  gave  to  the 
celebration  a  mixed  character  of  sorrow  and 
joy.  Thus  the  fasting  of  the  previous  week 
was  continued  up  to  the  moment  of  Christ's 
death,  at  3  o'clock,  and  then  the  character 
of  the  observance  changed,  and  closed  with 
the  communion  as  a  joyful  celebration. 
This  custom  differed  from  the  common 
Catholic  one  in  two  points,  in  observing 
the  day  of  the  month  rather  than  the  day  of 
the  iveek,  and  in  celebrating  the  day  of  the 
death  of  Christ  rather  than  that  of  his  resur- 
rection as  the  day  of  rejoicing. 

In  an  age  when  matters  of  faith  and  of 
ritual  were  not  sharply  distinguished,  such 
a  difference  as  this  would  be  likely  to  be 
conceived  as  a  departure  from  the  faith, 


PASQUALIS 


(089) 


PASSOVER 


and  hence  as  a  heresy.  When  Polycarp 
was  in  Rome  (about  155),  the  Roman  bishop 
noted  the  ditierence  of  custom  between 
them,  but  maintained  ecclesiastical  com- 
munion with  him.  But  the  bishop,  Victor, 
about  190,  thought  tit  to  attempt  to  brins 
the  churches  of  Asia  Minor  into  line  with 
other  churches,  and  when  they  refused  to 
modify  their  practice,  he  excommunicated 
them.  Irenffius  protested,  and  finally  the 
discord  introduced  by  these  measures  was 
limited  to  Rome  and  Ephesus.  Between 
these  two  dates  there  liad  been  some  dis- 
cord in  Asia  Minor  itself  (170).  One  party 
of  the  Quartodecimani,  as  all  who  observed 
the  14th  of  Nisan  were  called,  held  with 
some  Judaizing  Christians,  that  Christ  suf- 
fered upon  the  ir)th  of  Nisan,  and  ate  the 
true  Passover  upon  the  14th,  and  so  them- 
selves established  a  corresponding  service 
upon  the  14th.  All  these  circumstances  led 
the  Council  of  Nice  (32"))  to  regulate  the 
practice,  and  to  direct  the  churches  to  con- 
form to  the  Roman  and  general  Catholic 
custom.  But  many  oriental  churches  con- 
tinued to  follow  the  Quartodeciman  custom 
and  suffered  condemnation  therefor  at 
Antioch  (:W1),  Laodicea  (:^()4),  and  at  Con- 
stantinople (381).  Our  information  upon 
the  later  history  of  this  party  is  scanty. 
The  Montanists  are  mentioned  as  being 
Quartodecimans,  and  also  the  Novatians, 
but  this  cannot  have  been  true  of  either 
sect  as  a  whole.  So  again  the  Audians  (see 
AuDius). 

This  topic  has  been  one  of  the  bones  of 
contention  between  the  school  of  Baur  and 
their  opponents.  The  literature  is  consid- 
erable. (See  Steitz  in  Studien  u.  Kritikcn., 
1856,  p.  721;  1857,  p.  772;  also  1859.  Baur 
replied  in  Theol.  Jahrhiicher,  1857,  p.  242; 
Zeitsch.  f.  lolssensch.  Theol. ,  1858,  p.  298. 
See  Schiirer,  De  controverfsiis  Paschalihus, 
1869;  Zeitsch.  f.  hlstor.  Theol. ,  1870,  p.  182.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Pasqualis,  Martinez,  b.  in  Provence,  1715, 
d.  in  St.  Domingo,  1779,  a  Jewish  swindler 
of  the  kind  quite  common  in  France  just 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  was 
for  several  yeai-s  busy  with  inoculating  the 
secret  wisdom  and  mystic  rites  of  the  Cab- 
ala upon  the  Masonic  lodges  of  France, 
took  up  his  abode  in  Paris  from  1768  to  1778 
and  formed  a  jjarty  or  sect,  the  Martinist.s, 
which  operated  with  "thenrgic"  effects, 
but  left  the  city  rather  suddenly.  Charac- 
teristic of  him  and  his  followers  are  such 
writings  as  U esprit  des  clioses,  Paris,  1800,2 
vols.;  Uhomme  de  desir,  Metz,  1802,  etc. 


Passaglia,  (pass-al'-ya).  Carlo,  b.  at  Picve 
de  San  Paolo,  near  Lucca,  Italy,  1814,  entered 
the  Society  <jf  Jesus  in  1827,  and  was  ap- 
pointed jn-ofessor  in  the  Collegium  Roman- 
um  in  1844.  He  published  in  18.5:5  three 
volumes  on  the  immaculate  conception  and 
was  also  otherwise  engaged  in  preparing  for 
the  promulgation  of  that  dogma.  But  in  1859 
he  published  Pro  causa  italica  ad  episcopos 
catholica.'<  in  which  he  veln^mently  attacked 
the  secular  power  of  the  i)ope  as  dangerous 
to  the  church.  The  book  was  immediately 
put  on  til"'  Index  and  the  author   exjjelled 


from  the  society.  He  tied  to  Turin  and 
was  in  1861  appointed  professor  of  morals 
there.  He  wrote  with  effect  against  E. 
Renan's  Vie  de  Jesus,  1864,  2  vols!  His  La 
causii  del  cardinale  Gerolanio  d' Andrea  is  also 
of  interest. 

Passau,  The  Treaty  of,  was  concluded  in 
1552  at  Passauav  in  Baria,  between  Maurice 
of  Saxony  and  Charles  V.,  and  forms  the 
basis  of  religious  liberty  in  Germany.  The 
Inteiim  was  cancelled  and  full  right  to 
exercise  their  religion  was  granted  to  the 
Protestants  of  Germany,  ])rovisionally,  until 
a  diet  could  effect  an  amicable  settlement  be- 
tween them  and  the  Church  of  Rome,  or,  if 
no  such  agreement  could  be  arrived  at,  for- 
ever. A  certain  number  of  Protestants  were 
also  admitted  to  the  Imperial  Chamber  of 
Spires,  the  highest  court  of  the  realm. 

Passionists,  The,  or  the  "  Congregation  of 
the  Uiscalced  Clerks  of  the  Most  Holy 
(Jross  and  Passion  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
("hrist,"  is  the  name  of  an  order  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  fovmded  in  1720  by 
Paolo  della  Croce,  b.  at  Ovada,  Piedmont, 
Jan.  3,  1694;  d.  in  Rome,  Oct.  18,  1775, 
canonized  May  1.  1867,  and  was  confirmed 
by  Benedict  XIV.  in  1741.  and  again  by 
Clement  XIV.  in  1769.  The  first  monas- 
tery was  founded  on  Monte  Argentaro, 
near  Alexandria,  Piedmont,  in  1737.  In 
1842  the  order  was  introduced  into  England 
where  it  has  five  houses,  in  1852  into  the 
United  States,  where  it  has  six  houses. 
The  object  of  the  order  is  to  keep  alive  in 
the  liearts  of  the  faithful  the  memory  of 
our  Lord's  Passion.  The  members  are 
barefooted  and  dressed  in  black  with  the 
name  of  Christ  painted  on  the  left  side. 
(See  Pius  a  Spiritu  Sancto:  Life  of  .Si.  Paid 
of  the  Cross,  Dublin,  1868). 

Passion  Plays.     See  Mysteries;    Obek 

AMMKK<;Air. 

Passion  Week.    See  Holy  Week. 

Passover,  the  chief  of  the  3  great 
yearly  feasts  of  the  Jews,  as  it  commemo- 
rated" the  founding  of  ^he  nation  and  typi- 
fied the  Lamb  of  God  slain  from  the 
foundation  of  the  world.  It  was  instituted 
just  as  the  Israelites  were  leaving  Egypt, 
and  took  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the 
destroying  angel  jia.'^sed  over  the  Jewish 
families  when  smiting  the  first  born  of 
Egypt.  At  even  (marg.,  between  the  two 
evenings)  on  the  14th  day  of  Nisan  the  sac- 
rifice was  made  (Ex.  xii.  6)  and  the  next  day 
commenced  the  7  days  feast  of  unleavened 
bread.  Strictly  the  term  Passover  belonged 
only  to  the  paschal  meal,  but  it  was  ai)i)lied 
also  to  the  whole  period  from  the  14th  day 
to  the  21st. 

On  the  10th  day  of  the  month  the  lamb 
was  selected,  a  male  of  the  first  year  and 
without  blemish,  for  each  household,  or  if 
it  was  too  small,  for  two  or  more.  On  the 
14tli  all  leaven  was  removed  from  the 
dwelling,  and  at  even  the  lamb  was  killed 
and  the  blood  sprinkled  on  the  doorposts 
and  lintel.  The  flesh  was  roasted  entire 
without  the  breaking  of  a  bone,  and  all 
eaten   the  same  night,    any  residue   being 


PASTOR 


(690) 


PATIENCE 


burned  before  morning.  The  family  as- 
sumed the  equipments  and  posture  of  travel- 
lers in  haste,  and  in  the  case  of  the  first 
celebration  Israel  set  forth  in  the  night 
to  leave  Egypt. 

The  chief  recorded  observances  of  the 
feast  were  that  in  Egypt  (Ex.  xii.  28), 
the  first  in  Canaan  (Josh.  v.  10),  iSolomon's 
(2  Chron.  viii.  l;3),  Hezekiah's  (2  Chron. 
XXX.),  Josiah's  (2  Ki.  xxiii.  21),  and  one 
after  the  captivity  (Ezra  vi.  19-22).  Accord- 
ing to  Jewish  writers  wine  was  also  used  at 
the  feast.  The  New  Testament  mentions 
several  passovers  attended  by  Jesus  (Luke 
ii.  42,  John  ii.  13).  On  the  evening  before 
bis  crucifixion  he  partook  for  the  last  time, 
and  instituted  his  own  memorial  supper. 
This  was  on  the  14th  of  Nisan,  and  on  the 
next  day  Christ  was  arrested,  tried,  con- 
demned and  crucified — the  whole  series  of 
events  occurring  between  Thursday  evening 
and  Friday  evening. 

The  Jews  still  observe  the  Passover  but 
only  as  a  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  though 
a  few  Samaritans  at  Nablus  slay  and  eat  a 
lamb  on  Mt.  Gerizim. 

The  deliverance  from  bondage  and  death 
thus  commemorated  was  a  type  of  the 
greater  deliverance  from  eternal  death  and 
the  bondage  of  sin  made  by  the  Lamb  of 
God  (John  i.  29)  who  is  called  Christ  our 
Passover  (1  Cor.  v.  7).  Faitli  in  Him  puts 
us  under  the  shelter  of  his  blood  and 
admits  us  to  liberty;  and  we  are  to  show 
it  by  cleansing  our  hearts  and  lives  from 
the  old  leaven  of  malice  and  wickedness. 
(1  Cor.  v.  8.)  T.  W.  C. 

Pastor  (Latin,  "  shepherd  "),  a  term  ap- 
plied in  all  protestant  countries  to  the 
clergyman  in  charge  of  a  congregation. 

Pastoral  Staff.    See  Crosier,  p.  206. 

Pastoral  Letters  are  letters  addressed  by 
a  pastor  to  his  flock,  or  by  a  bishop  to  the 
clergy  or  laity  under  his  jurisdiction,  or  by 
any  ecclesiastical  body,  e.  g.,  a  Keformed 
or  Presbyterian  Synod  to  the  churches 
under  their  care.  By  some  of  the  latter 
such  a  missive  is  issued  every  year,  but  by 
others  only  when  an  extraordinary  occasion 
calls  for  it.  T.  W.  C. 

Pastoral  Theology.    See  Theology. 

Pastorells,  or  Pastoureaux,  or  Pastorjils 
■were  the  names  assumed  by  some  wild  and 
Tinorganized  hordes  which  formed  in  north- 
•ern  France  in  12-51,  mostly  composed  of 
shepherds,  peasants,  and  other  jioor  and 
low  people,  with  an  admixture  of  runaway- 
monks  and  renegade  priests  and  adventur- 
•ers  of  every  description.  They  swarmed 
together  under  the  leadership  of  an  un- 
Iciiown  person  who  called  himself  "  Master 
■of  Hungary,"  and  ostentatiously  for  the 
purpose  of  delivering  Louis  IX.  who  had 
been  taken  prisoner  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt. 
But  when  they  began  to  be  nirmbered  by 
the  thousands,  men,  women,  and  children, 
they  proved  exceedingly  dangerous,  espe- 
ciafly  on  account  of  their  atrocious  hatred 
to  the  clergy,  the  monks,  and  the  Jews. 
Queen  Blanche,  who  at  first  really  supposed 
that  those  ardent  peasants  might  be  used 


for  the  deliverance  of  her  son  (Louis  IX. ), 
was  finally  compelled  to  put  an  end  to  their 
excesses  by  dispersing  the  hordes  and  pun- 
ishing their  leaders.  In  1320,  under  Philip 
v.,  the  same  phenomenon  appeared  in  south- 
ern France,  and  the  cause  was  again  the 
report  of  a  new  crusade.  When  the  swarm, 
numbering  about  40,000,  approached  Avig- 
non, John  XXII.  excommunicated  them, 
and  then,  by  the  aid  of  the  Seneschal  of 
Carcassonne,  he  had  them  shut  up  in  a 
swamp  where  most  of  them  died  from 
hunger  and  disease,  and  the  rest  was 
slaughtered  by  the  soldiery. 

Pat'a-ra,  a  seaport  town  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  Lycia,  9  m.  east  of  the  mouth  of 
Zanthus,  and  opposite  Rhodes.  It  was 
celebrated  for  an  oracle  of  Apollo,  and  its 
harbor  was  much  frequented.  Here  Paul 
on  his  last  visit  to  Jerusalem  re-embarked 
(Acts  xxi.  1,  2)  for  Phoenicia.  It  is  now  in 
ruins  but  retains  its  ancient  name. 

T.  W.  C. 

Patarenes,  or  Patarini  was  the  name  of  the 
followers  of  tlie  deacon  Arialdus  of  Milan 
who,  in  the  middle  of  the  11th  century  at- 
tacked the  marriage  of  the  clergy  as  a  great 
scandal,  and  especially  after  the  arrival 
there  of  Peter  Dominus  as  papal  legate 
caused  a  tremendous  commotion.  The 
name  is  derived  from  Pataria,  "  a  rag-pick- 
er," a  quarter  of  Milan  inhabited  by  the 
rag-pickers  who  there,  like  in  other  Italian 
cities,  formed  a  guild  of  their  own.  In  the 
loth  centui-y  the  Cathari,  who  likewise 
were  strongly  opposed  to  the  marriage  of 
the  clergy,  adopted  the  name,  erroneously 
deriving  it  from  the  Latin paii,  "to  suf- 
fer." 

Paten  (Latin  patina:  "  a  dish"),  an  eccle- 
siastical vessel,  the  plate  or  salver,  on  which 
the  bread  of  the  Eucharist  is  presented. 
It  varies  very  much  both  with  respect  to 
form  and  to  the  material  from  which  it  is 
made.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
however,  it  is  a  rule  that,  in  both  respects, 
it  shall  correspond  to  the  chalice. 

Pater  noster:  "our  father,"  are  the 
two  first  words  of  the  Latin  translation  of 
our  Lord's  prayer. 

Path'-ros,  the  upper  or  southern  division 
of  Egypt,  originally  ruled  by  its  own  kings. 
Probably  the  Thebnid  of  the  Greeks  and 
the  Said  of  the  Arabs.  Mentioned  in  Is. 
xi.  11,  xix.  11-13;  Jer.  xliv.  1,  1-5;  Ezek. 
xxix.  14,  XXX.  14.  Its  early  inhabitants 
were  known  as  the  Pathrusim  (Gen.  x.  14,  i 
Chron.  i.  12).  the  descendants  of  Ham 
through  Mizraim.  T.  W.  C. 

Patience,  as  a  perfection  of  God,  denotes 
his  forbearance  from  wrath  and  continuance 
of  mercy  under  the  great  and  manifold 
provocations  of  men  (Ex.  xxxiv.  6,  Rom. 
ii.  4,  2  Pet.  iii.  9).  In  man  it  is  a  grace 
enabling  him  to  show  forbearance  towards 
his  fellow-men  (Matt,  xviii.  26.  29,  1  Thess. 
V.  14,  2  Tim.  ii.  24);  to  bear  with  meekness 
the  trials  God  sends  (1  Thess.  i.  3,  2  Thess. 
i.  4,  Rom.  xii.  12 ;  and  to  persevere  in  faith 
and  duty  (Luke  viii.  15,  Rom.  v.  3,  Heb. 
vi.  12,  Jas.  i.  3,  12,  2  Pet.  i.  6,   Rev.    xiii. 


PATMOS 


PATRICIUS 


10).  The  motives  to  its  exercise  are  the 
example  of  God  (liom.  xv.  ")),  his  com- 
mand (Luke  xxi.  lit),  our  own  interest 
(Heb.  X.  86),  its  blessed  results  (Rom.  ii. 
7,  Jas.  V.  7,  8),  and  the  eminent  Scripture 
examples  of  it  (2  Coi",  vi.  4,  Heb.  xii.  1,  2, 
vi.  12,  Jas.  V.  11,  Kev.  xiii.  10).      T.  W.  C. 

Pat -mos,  a  rocky  and  barren  island  in  the 
^gean  sea,  used  by  the  Konians  as  a  place 
of  banishment  for  criminals.  To  it  the 
apostle  John  was  banisheil  by  Domitian, 
A.D.  95  (Rev.  i.  0).  It  lies  20  m.  south 
of  Samos  and  24  from  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  It  is  about  2.")  m.  in  circumference, 
and  its  rock-bound  coast  is  deeply  indented 
with  bays.  On  the  eastern  side  are  the  port 
and  town  La  Scala,  and  crowning  the  high 
hill  behind  the  town  is  the  old  jnonastery 
of  St.  John,  and  midway  on  its  side  the 
grotto  in  which  John  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived his  visions.  In  the  middle  ages  the 
island  was  called  Patmosa,  but  now  bears 
the  name  of  Patmo.  T.  W.  C. 

Patouillet  (pa-too-ya).  Louis,  b.  at  Dijon, 
France,  March  ;U,  IfiOO;  d.  at  Avignon  in 
1779;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  and 
taught  for  some  time  philosophy  in  its 
school  at  Laon,  settled  afterwards  in  Paris, 
and  edited,  1784-48,  the  Supplement  mix 
Nouvelles  eccleslastiqnes  which  the  Jesuits 
published  in  opposition  to  the  Gazette 
Janseniste,  but  was  in  1750  driven  out  of  the 
city  by  order  of  parliament  as  one  of  the 
most  virulent  satellites  of  Archbishop  Beau- 
mont in  his  fight  with  parliament,  the 
Jansenists,  and  the  philosopher  (Rousseau). 
He  published  Le  proyfes  du  Jansenism, 
Quiloa  1753,  and  under  the  title:  Bictionatre 
des  Livres  Jansenistes,  Antwerp,  1752,  4  vols., 
an  enlarged  ed.  of  Colonia's  Bihliotheque 
Janseniste,  which  was  put  on  the  Index  on 
account  of  its  outrageous  exaggerations. 

Patriarch  (paternal  ruler),  a  name  applied 
in  the  New  Testament  to  Abraham  (Heb. 
vii.  4),  Jacob's  sons  (Acts.  vii.  8)  and  David 
(Acts  ii.  29).  In  common  usage  it  denotes 
the  men  whom  Scripture  mentions  as  living 
before  Moses.  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  the  Jews  termed  the  two  heads  of 
the  Sanhedrin  patriarchs.  In  the  Eastern 
church  the  word  was  and  still  is  used  to 
designate  dignitaries  superior  to  arch- 
bishops. T.  W.  C. 

Patriarch,  a  title  ap])lied  in  the  Christian 
Church  to  abisho])  holding  tlic  same  general 
supremacy  over  metropolitans  as  these  had 
over  ordinary  bishops.  The  patriarchate  is 
the  highest  point  at  which  the  develop- 
ment of  tlie  hierarchy  in  the  east  arrived. 
In  the  end  the  bishops  of  Alexandria, 
Antiixh,  Constantiuoi)le,  and  Jerusalem 
bore  this  titli\  This  hierarchical  system 
becomes  parallel  to,  though  it  was  not  en- 
tirely caused  by,  the  political  divisions  of 
the  empire.  There  were  great  political  dio- 
cese**, which  were  subdivided  into  provinces, 
in  each  of  which  were  numerous  cities.  The 
bishoprics  were  in  the  cities,  and  the  natu- 
ral tendency  was  to  give  to  certain  bishops 
rights  over  circles  of  churches  cfirresponding 
to  the  provinces,  out   of  which  still  larger 


bodies  of  churches  would  be  formed.  We 
can  see  this  process  in  actual  progress  iu 
the  documents  of  the  third  and  fourth' 
centuries.  The  history  of  the  Meletian 
schism  (q.v.)  makes  it  evident  that  Meletius 
was  metropolitan  of  Lycopolis,  and  that  his 
chief  offence  was  in  failing  to  recognize  the 
authority  which  the  metropolitan  of  Alex- 
andria claimed  over  him.  These  claims, 
were  already  at  least  the  following:— (1) 
The  right  to  issue  binding  regulations  as  to 
disci])line;  (2)  The  right  to  hold  common 
synods  with  the  other  metropolitans;  (3) 
With  the  assent  of  the  bishops  to  adjudicate 
upon  the  cases  of  bishops;  (4)  To  exercise 
oversight  over  vacant  bishoprics.  Later 
these  patriarchs  ordained  all  the  bishops  of 
their  patriarchate.  Other  patriarchs  had 
different  rights,  and  the  bounds  of  the  patri- 
archates were  long  in  getting  settled,  fiuctu- 
a ting  somewhat  meantime.  Chalcedon  (451 ) 
gave  Constantinople  a  position  practically 
amounting  to  supremacy  over  the  other 
Eastern  patriarchates.  F.  II.  F. 

Patricius,  Patrick,  the  apostle  and  patron 
saint  of  Ireland,  the  dates  of  whose  birth 
and  death  are  altogether  uncertain,  but  who 
seems  to  have  come  to  Ireland  between  4:30 
and  440.  There  remain  of  his  writings  a 
Confession  and  an  Epistle  which  are  so 
similar  to  each  other  that  they  can  with 
reason  be  ascribed  to  one  authoi-,  and 
against  whose  genuineness  no  sufficient 
ground  can  be  advanced.  The  Confession  is 
an  autobiography,  by  which  we  are  in- 
formed that  he  was  born  in  Bannaven  Tab- 
erniae,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  district 
rather  than  a  town,  south  of  the  Clyde. 
From  this  place  he  was  carried  off  upon 
some  raid  by  the  Scots  and  Picts,  and  sold 
upon  the  coast  of  Ireland  to  the  Irish  Picts 
as  a  slave,  in  which  condition  he  remained 
for  ()  years,  tending  cattle  and  exposed  to 
great  hardships.  He  was  led  to  think  upon 
his  sins,  and  to  turn  to  God  in  repentance 
and  prayer,  reciting  often  100  prayers  a  day, 
and  as  many  at  night.  He  finally  escaped 
by  the  help  of  some  of  the  same  class  of 
robbers  by  which  he  had  been  carried  off, 
and  returned  home.  But  here  the  thought 
of  a  mission  to  the  Irish  pressed  upon  him 
more  and  nnne,  till  he  believed  himself 
divinely  called  to  it,  and  he  prepared 
himself  for  it  by  a  period  of  study.  Some 
of  the  biograi)hies  now  make  him  go  to 
Rome  to  receive  Episcopal  ordination,  but 
there  is  not  the  slightest  probability  that 
he  did  this.  He  was  ordained  at  home,  and 
later  was  consecrated  bishop,  apparently  at 
the  age  of  45.  Of  the  general  course  of' his 
labors  little  is  known.  Legendaiy  accounts 
are  abundant,  at  the  basis  of  which  some 
truth  may  lie,  but  it  is  now  impossible  to 
sepnrate  the  truth  from  the  fiction. 

The  text  of  the  Confession  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Book  of  Armagh,  ed.  of  Sir  W. 
Betham,  Irish  Antiquarian  Researches, 
Dublin,  182(>-27,  also  in  Miss  Cusack's  Life 
of  St.  Patrick.  London,  1871;  best  in  Whit- 
ley Stoke's,  The  Tripartite  Life  of  St.  Pat- 
ri<k,  icith  other  dornments  relafin;/  to  that 
saint,  1887.  i:ng.  Trans,  of  all  his  writings 
by  C.  H.  H.  Wright,  l.><89.      (See  al.so  J.  H. 


PATRICK 


(692) 


PATRISTIOS 


'Todd,  St.  Patrick,  Apostle  of  Ireland,  Dub- 
lin, 1864;  W.  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland,  Edin- 
burgh, 1877,  3  vols.;  Loof,  Antiquae  Brit. 
Scot.eccl.  Leipzig,  1882.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Patrick,  Simon,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1666), 
Bisliop  of  Ely;  b.  at  Gainsborougli,  Lin- 
colnshire, 149  m.  n.  by  w.  of  London,  Sept. 
8,  1626;  d.  at  Ely,  17  m.  n.  of  Cambridge, 
May  31,  1707.  He  entered  Queen's  College, 
Cambridge,  1644,  and  was  elected  fellow, 
1648,  but  afterwards  went  to  OxSord  for  his 
degrees.  Ordained  1651  by  Hall,  the  ejected 
bishop  of  Norwich,  he  became  vicar  of 
Battersea,  Surrey,  1658;  rector  of  St.  Paul's 
Covent  Garden,  London,  1662;  prebendary  of 
Westminster  1672;  dean  of  Peterborough 
1678;  Bishop  of  Chichester,  1689;  trans- 
ferred to  Ely  1681.  He  wrote  51  books, 
among  them  The  Parable  of  the  Pilgrims, 
1665,  anticipating  Bunyan,  and  A  Friendly 
Debate  between  a  Conformist  and  a  Noncon- 
formist, 1668-70,  the"  acerbity  of  which  he 
afterward  regretted.  Indeed,  he  was  ac- 
cused of  undue  kindness  to  dissenters.  His 
chief  works  are  paraphrases  of  Job,  the 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Song  of 
Solomon,  1678-81,  and  commentaries  on  the 
Old  Testament  books  from  Genesis  to 
Esther.  1604-1705.  Connected  with  those  of 
Lowth,  Whitby,  etc.,  these  have  gone 
through  many  editions.  Patrick's  Complete 
Works  appeared  in  9  vols.,  Oxford,  1858:  his 
Autobiography  was  first  printed  at  Oxford, 
1889.  The  metrical  version  of  the  Psalm, 
1679-94  sometimes  ascribed  to  him,  is  by  his 
brother  John  Patrick,  D.D.,  who  died  1695. 
F.  M.  B. 

Patripassians,  a  term  derived  from  the 
Latin  pater,  "father,"  and  passio,  "suf- 
fering," occurring  for  the  first  time  in  a 
treatise  by  Tertullian  against  Praxeas 
about  200,  and  applied  to  those  among  the 
Monarchians  who  said  that  the  expressions 
the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit 
signified  only  subjective  modilications  of 
conception  and  implied  only  verbal  distinc- 
tions, and  who  consequently  were  logically 
compelled  to  admit  that,  at  the  crucifixion 
of  Christ,  it  was  as  much  the  Father  as 
the  Son,  who  suffered. 

Patristics,  when  sharply  distinguished 
from  patrology,  is  to  be  defined  as  the  doc- 
trinal history  of  the  ancient  church,  while 
patrology  is  the  history  of  the  literature  of 
the  ancient  church.  The  two  terms  are, 
however,  often  used  as  synonyms.  Since 
patristics  is,  then,  the  history  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  fathers,  the  determination  of 
the  word  "father"  assumes  importance. 
In  the  Roman  Church  it  has  gradually  be- 
come more  and  more  defined  in  meaning, 
having  first  denoted  all  who  had  exercised 
a  determinative  influence  upon  the  doc- 
trine or  life  of  the  church,  whether  in 
the  creation  or  the  attestation  of  doc- 
trinal views.  The  greater  emphasis  laid 
by  the  Roman  Church  in  the  process  of 
time  upon  tradition  as  a  source  of  doctrine 
led  to  the  restriction  of  the  term  to  those 
who  represent  the  genuine  ecclesiastical  tra- 
dition.   Hence  the  distinction  of  "  father" 


from  "ecclesiastical  writer  (scriptor),"  as 
a  more  general  term,  and  the  selection  of 
certain  fathers  who  were  styled  "  doctors," 
as  in  the  Western  Church,  Augustine,  Am- 
brose, Jerome,  and  Gregory.  The  four 
requisites  of  a  "  father"  become  therefore, 
(1)  competent  antiquity,  (2)  orthodox  doc- 
trine, (3)  sanctity  of  life,  and  (4)  the  appro- 
bation of  the  church.  All  this  division  is, 
of  course,  unknown  to  Protestant  scholar- 
ship, which  recognizes  those  writers  of  the 
ancient  church  as  fathers  who  were  the 
creatoi'S,  representatives,  and  witnesses  to 
the  development  of  the  ancient  church. 
The  list,  though  greatly  extended  by  the 
Romanists,  is  commonly  said  by  Protes- 
tants to  close  in  the  East  with  John  of  Dam- 
ascus, d.  after  754,  and  in  the  West  with 
Gregory  the  Great,  d.  604. 

Evidently,  if  the  above  definition  of 
patrology  be  accepted,  it  becomes  a  dei^art- 
ment  of  history,  and  is  to  be  studied  by  the 
canons  which  determine  all  historical  in- 
vestigation. There  must  be,  first,  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  sources,  in  which  the 
critical  examination  of  the  documents  as  a 
whole,  to  ascertain  their  genuineness  and 
authenticity,  and  of  their  text,  to  restore  it 
to  as  correct  a  form  as  possible,  must  pre- 
cede everj'  successful  study  of  their  con- 
tents. In  this  department  great  progress 
has  been  made  of  late,  and  the  new  critical 
editions  of  many  of  the  fathers  leave  little 
to  be  desired.  Still  the  work  is  but  begun. 
The  study  of  the  individual  fathers,  that 
the  light  to  be  gained  from  their  personal 
histories  may  not  be  lost,  belongs  here  also. 
It  is  common  to  divide  the  patristic  period 
into  two  main  divisions,  with  three  sub- 
divisions each:  1.  The  Ante-Mcene  Period, 
(a)  Apostolic  Fathers,  {b)  Apologists,  {r) 
other  Ante-Nicene  Fathers;  2.  Post-Nicene 
Period,  {a)  Period  of  the  Arian  Contro- 
versy, lb)  Period  of  the  Christological  con- 
troversies to  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  (c) 
the  Post-Chalcedon  Period. 

The  history  of  patristics  as  a  science  be- 
gins properly  with  the  I'ef  ormation.  Yet  pre- 
paratory work  in  this  department  had  been 
done  from  the  beginning.  Eusebius  fur- 
nishes information  about  the  great  char- 
acters of  the  early  church,  as  well  as  makes 
many  extracts  from  their  works.  Jerome 
should  also  be  mentioned  here,  on  the 
strength  of  his  Be  Viris  Illustribits,  sen  de 
Scriptoribvs  Ecclesiasticis.  The  Middle 
Ages  had  extensive  collections  of  sentences 
from  the  fathers,  and  in  Photius's  BUdio- 
theca,  in  Honorius  of  Autun's  (d.  1120)  De 
Luminaribus  Ecclesiae,  and  in  Tritenheim's 
(d.  1516)  work  upon  the  same  topic,  more 
worthy  specimens  of  the  science.  Yet  it 
was  with  Humanism,  which  began  the  col- 
lection and  issue  of  editions  of  the  fathers, 
that  the  materials  for  patristics  were  first 
adequately  gathered.  Erasmus  alone  is- 
sued editions  of  nine  principal  church 
fathers.  The  Reformers  themselves  studied 
industriou.sly  in  patristics,  Luther  and  Cal- 
vin being  specially  familiar  with  Augustine, 
Melancthon  writing  a  treatise  upon  eccle- 
siastical writers.  Oecolampadius,  Flacius, 
Chemnitz,  Scultetus,  and  Gerhard  are  also 
to  be  mentioned.     The  Roman  Church  was 


PATRONAGE 


PAUL 


stirred  up  to  similar  endeavors.  Amonfj 
the  Reformed  theoloi^ians  are  to  be  men- 
tioned, Archbisliop  Usher,  Bishop  Pearson- 
Cave,  N.  Lardner,  Clericus,  Daille.  In  the 
present  century  the  Catholic  Church  lias 
led  with  larj^e  collections,  like  that  of 
Mijjne,  uncritical  but  comprehensive.  The 
modern  church  historians  have  all  done 
more  or  less  for  the  science,  and  the  more 
recent  works  upon  the  history  of  doctrine, 
like  Thomasius,  Ilarnack,  etc.,  have  pre- 
sented the  results  of  enormous  labor  in 
original  research.  Tlie  efforts  of  Harnack 
and  other  scliolars  associated  with  him  to 
provide  a  series  of  critical  texts  from  the 
beginning  cannot  be  too  higlily  spoken  of. 
But  the  greatest  work  on  Tat  ris't  ics  is  Smith 
and  Wace,  Dictionary  of  dn-Mlan  Blo<j- 
rap/n/.  London,  1880-80,  4  vols. 

Good  Eng.  Trans,  of  the  Fathers  will  be 
found  in  the  series,  Ante-Nk-ene^  Nicene, 
and  Poxt-Xicene  Fathers,  published  by  the 
Christian  Literature  Co.,  ed.  by  Bp.  Coxe, 
Drs.  8chaff  and  Wace,  New  York,  188-5,  S77. 
F.  H.  F. 

Patronage.  As  early  as  the  5th  century 
there  may  be  found  in  the  East  as  well  as 
the  West  the  general  conception  that  it  is 
proper  that  a  person  who  provides  the 
funds  for  the  establisliment  of  an  institu- 
tion of  piety  should  have  the  right  to  a 
voice  in  its  management.  The  modern 
right  of  patronage  upon  Germanic  soil, 
has.  however,  its  foundation  in  an  old  Ger- 
manic idea  whereby  the  lord  of  the  soil, 
or  the  free  community  of  peasants,  in  vir- 
tue of  their  right  of  property,  had  the 
government  over  the  temple  of  their  god, 
and  subsequently  over  the  Christian  Church. 
From  this  has  developed  the  modern  Cath- 
olic law  of  patronage,  whereby  a  person, 
clerical  or  lay,  who  has  acquired  the  right 
by  the  foundation  of  a  religious  institution 
and  had  the  same  confirmed  by  the  poi)e, 
may  present,  upon  occurrence  of  a  vacancy, 
a  qualified  person,  or  several  such,  to  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  for  appointment. 
from  which  numl)er  of  candidates  the 
choice  must  be  made.  The  exercise  of  the 
right  is  guarded  by  many  provisions.  The 
patron  has  several  honors  in  connection 
with  his  patronage,  as  that  of  heading 
religious  processions,  of  having  special 
place  in  church,  of  burial,  and  in  case  of 
indigence,  of  support  from  the  funds  of  the 
church.  He  must  also  sometimes  repair 
nny  damage  to  the  income  or  property  of 
the  church.  For  various  I'easons  the  right 
may  relapse.  The  same  general  system  has 
been  continued  in  many  German  states 
since  the  Reformation,  aiid  also  in  England 
and  Scotland.  In  the  latter  country  its 
exercise  has  led  to  many  contests  and  seces- 
sions. In  the  United  .States,  since  there  is 
complete  separation  between  church  and 
state,  all  church  patronage  in  tlve  proper 
sense  is.  of  cour.se,  impossible.  A  church 
or  an  institution  might  agree  to  receive  a 
certain  sum  of  money  and  permit  certain 
parties  or  their  heirs  to  nominate  the  in- 
cumbent of  the  office  thus  estal)lished,  but 
it  is  doubtful  if  the  courts  would  regard 
this  as  a  binding  arrangement  in  case  of 
subsequent  disagreement.  F.  H.  F. 


Patteson,  John  Coleridge,  D.D.  (Oxford, 
1801?),  missionary  bishop;  b.  in  London, 
April  2,  1827;  killed  at  Santa  Cruz  in  the 
South  Pacific,  Sept.  20,  1871.  After  study- 
ing at  Eton  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
he  became  a  fellow  of  Merton,  1852,  curate 
of  Alhngton,  Devon,  185;^,  and  in  1855 
joined  Bishop  Selwyn  in  New  Zealand  and 
took  charge  of  his  work  among  the  islands. 
In  1861  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mela- 
nesia. In  this  obscure  held  his  linguistic 
talents  added  several  languages,  previously 
spoken  only,  to  the  world's  store  of  philo- 
logic  knowledge,  while  his  rare  qualities 
and  conspicuous  devotion  did  much  to 
evangelize  the  natives.  The  chief  hin- 
drance to  his  work  and  the  cause  of  his 
death,  was  the  frequent  visits  of  kidnap- 
pers; the  remoter  islands  became  suspi- 
cious of  every  white  man,  and  perhaps 
mistook  the  bishop's  ship,  "The  Southein 
Cross,"  for  a  piratical  vessel.  His  apos- 
tolic character  and  untimely  taking-off 
called  forth  great  sympathy  in  Englaml  and 
America.  His  Life  has  been  written  by 
Miss  Yonge,  London,  187:^,  by  F.  Awdry, 
1875,  and  for  the  S.  P.  C.  K..  1872. 

F.  M.  B. 

Pattison,  Miss  Dorothy  Wyndlow.     See 

DOKA,    SiSTEU,  p.  2o4. 

Patton,  Francis  Landey,  D.D.  (Hanover 
College,  Ind.  1872),  LL.D.  (Wooster  Uni- 
versity, O.,  1878),  Presbyterian;  b.  at  War- 
wick, Bermuda,  West  Indies,  Jan.  22,  IS-i'-i; 
graduated  at  IMinceton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, N.  J.,  1805;  held  various  i)astoral 
charges  till  1871,  when  he  was  appointed 
l)rofessor  in  the  Presbyterian  Theological 
Seminary,  Chicago;  became  professor  in 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1881; 
president  of  the  college  of  New  Jei'sey, 
Princeton,  1889,  has  contributed  largely  to 
the  religious  press  and  published  /x.sju'ra- 
tion  of  the  Scriptxres,  Philadelphia,  1869; 
ISunnnanj  of  Christian  Doctrine,  etc. 

Paul.  I.  Life.  He  was  a  native  of  Tar- 
sus and  inherited  the  privileges  of  a  Roman 
citizen  (Acts  xxii.  28-29).  His  original 
Hebrew  name  Saul  {((sked  for)  was  ex- 
changed for  the  Latin  Paul  in  view  of  his 
relations  to  Gentile  peoples  (Acts  xiii.  it). 
He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  a  Hebrew 
of  the  Hebrews  (Phil.  iii.  5),  well  edu- 
cated at  his  home,  then  famous  for  its 
culture,  and  afterwards  trained  by  the 
distinguished  teacher  (Gamaliel  at  .Jeru- 
salem. According  to  Jewish  custom  he 
was  taught  a  mechanical  trade  (Acts  xviii. 
8).  He  belonged  to  the  strict  sect  of 
the  Pharisees.  It  does  not  appear  that 
he  was  in  Jerusalem  during  Christ's 
per.sonal  ministry.  He  was  there,  however, 
at  the  time  when  Stephen  was  stoned  and 
was  a  promoter  of  the  bloody  deed  (Acts  vii. 
.58,  xxii.  20).  He  became  a  fierce  defender  of 
Judaism  and  a  Ititter  opponent  of  Christian- 
ity, and  even  obtained  authority  to  carry 
persecution  into  foreign  states.  On  his  way 
to  Damascus  for  this  i)urpose  he  was  con- 
verted by  a  miraculous  api)earance  of  the 
Saviour,  and  immediatelv  became  a  zealous 
advocate  of  his  new  faith,  showing  in  his 
whole  career  a  singleness  of  devotion  and 


PAUL 


(694) 


PAUL 


an  energy  of  devotion  that  have  no  parallel 
in  history. 

After  a  period  of  retirement  and  solitude 
in  Arabia  (Gal.  i.  17)  he  commenced  active 
service.  The  book  of  Acts  tells  of  .3  mis- 
sionary tours,  the  1st  from  Antioch  to 
Cyprus,  Lystra,  Dube,  etc.,  for  about  2 
yeai's,  when  he  returned  to  Antioch;  the  2d 
through  Cilicia  and  the  regions  he  had 
visited  before,  then  passing  into  Europe,  to 
Philippi,  Athens  and  Corinth,  where  he  re- 
mained 18  months,  and  after  a  visit  to 
Jerusalem,  returned  to  Antioch;  the  Sd 
through  Galatia  and  Phrygia  to  Ephesus, 
where  he  stayed  2  years;  then  through  Mace- 
donia to  Corinth,  whence  he  sailed  for  Jeru- 
salem. Here  his  missionary  activity  was 
arrested.  After  2  years  imprisonment  in 
Jerusalem  and  Cesarea,  he  set  out  on  the 
voyage  to  Rome  and  suffered  the  shipwreck 
graphically  recorded  at  the  close  of  the 
book  of  Acts.  After  2  years  of  confinement 
he  was  released,  as  is  now  generally  sup- 
posed, and  labored  in  Spain  and  Asia  Minor, 
but  was  again  sent  a  prisoner  to  Rome 
where  he  suffered  martyrdom  a.d.  67  or  68. 
The  hypothesis  of  a  2d  imprisonment  at 
Rome  has  some  support  in  an  ancient  tradi- 
tion, and  explains  some  liistorical  refer- 
ences in  the  pastoral  epistles  which  do  not 
suit  the  circumstances  before  his  1st  im- 
prisonment. 

II.  Characteb.  If  we  review  the  many 
regions  he  traversed,  the  churches  he 
founded,  the  toils,  perils  and  trials  he  en- 
countered, the  discourses  he  delivered,  the 
letters  he  wrote,  and  the  good  he  accom- 
plished, we  must  confess  him  to  have  been 
not  only  the  foremost  person  in  the  history 
of  Christianity,  but  the  greatest  mere  man 
that  ever  lived.  "  Without  money,  without 
family,  without  friends,  lonely  by  land  and 
lonely  by  sea,  he  faced  a  hostile  world  and 
converted  it  to  Christ,  and  by  his  example 
and  his  writings  he  still  rules  the  theology 
and  feeds  the  devotion  of  believers  in  all 
parts  of  Christendom."  His  intellect  was 
acute  and  capacious,  his  heart  was  large 
and  generous,  his  spirit  was  genial  and 
tender.  He  united  invincible  firmness  with 
courteous  forbearance,  and  fidelity  to  the 
truth  with  the  utmost  charity.  His  writ- 
ings and  the  records  of  his  career  mutually 
illustrate  each  other.  He  was  the  same 
man  in  word  and  in  act,  a  living  representa- 
tive of  the  Master  whom  he  loved  and 
adored.  Though  not  perfect,  he  came 
nearer  that  standard  than  any  other  of  the 
sons  of  men.  Yet  his  varied  gifts  and 
attainments  never  unduly  exalted  him. 
With  all  his  enterprise  and  all  the  glowing 
attachment  of  his  friends  on  both  conti- 
nents he  was  meek  and  lowly,  and  he  was 
the  most  self-sacrificing  of  men.  Himself 
was  nothing,  the  cause  everything.  His 
own  hands  earned  his  support  while  yet  the 
interests  of  the  Roman  world  lay  on  his 
heart.  The  scars  of  the  lictor's  rod  were  to 
him  badges  of  honor,  and  life  itself  was  of 
no  account  if  he  could  only  finish  his 
course  with  joy.  The  love  of  the  Master 
filled  his  soul,  and  for  him  he  was  willing 
to  count  all  things  else  as  but  lost.  When 
some,    thinking    to    add    affliction   to    his 


bonds  proclaimed  Christ  out  of  a  factious 
spirit,  he  overlooked  the  motive  and  re- 
joiced exceedingly  in  the  fact  that  Christ 
was  proclaimed. 

III.  His  Wkitings.  The  epistles  of  Paul 
are  13  in  number  (Hebrews  not  being  in- 
cluded). They  are  a  most  remarkable  body 
of  correspondence;  '"tracts  for  the  times 
and  yet  tracts  for  all  times."  Almost  all 
seem  to  have  sprung  out  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  period,  and  yet  contain 
teachings  for  every  generation  and  every 
land.  The  facts  of  redemption  having  been 
completed  in  the  life  and  death  of  Jesus, 
and  the  descent  of  the  Spirit  at  Pentecost,  it 
was  for  Paul,  under  divine  guidance,  to  un- 
fold the  peculiar  force  and  bearing  of  these 
facts  in  the  structure  of  revealed  truth. 
Hence  in  Romans  and  Galatians  there  is  a 
profound  discussion  of  anthropology  and 
soteriology  with  an  indignant  protest 
against  practices  which  threatened  to  sub- 
vert the  very  foundation  of  the  Gospel;  in 
Corinthians  the  solution  of  numerous  prac- 
tical questions  of  great  moment;  in  Colos- 
sians  and  Philippians  a  Christology  as  lofty 
and  far-reaching  as  John's,  in  Ephesians 
the  nature  and  office  of  the  church,  in 
Philemon  the  outpouring  of  Christian  love 
and  tenderness,  in  Thessalonians  the  unfail- 
ing support  under  persecuting  trials,  and  in 
the  pastoral  epistles  the  qualifications  of 
church  officers.  How  complete  this  con- 
spectus of  Christian  doctrine  and  of  the 
si)iritual  life! 

All  that  remains  is  to  give  a  list  of  these 
wonderful  writings  in  chronological  order, 
with  the  dates  and  places  of  their  composi- 
tion— so  far  as  these  can  be  ascertained  or 
conjectured,  1  and  2  Thessalonians  written 
A.D.  52,  .5.3  from  Corinth;  Galatians,  A.r». 
56,  57  from  Ephesus;  1  Corinthians,  A.D.  57 
from  Ephesus;  2  Corinthians,  A.D.  57  from 
Macedonia;  Romans,  a.d.  58  from  Corinth; 
Colossians,  a.d.  61-63  from  Rome;  Ephe- 
sians, A.  D.  61-63  from  Rome;  Philippians, 
a.d.  61-63  from  Rome;  Philemon,  a.d.  61- 
63  from  Rome;  1  Timothy  and  Titus,  a.d. 
65  from  Macedonia;  2  Timothy  a.d,  67  from 
Rome,  For  the  life  of  Paul  see  the  lives  by 
Coneybeare  and  Howson,  London,  1850-52, 
(many  later  eds,),  Lewin,  1851,  rev.  ed. 
1874;  Farrar,  1879;  Taylor,  1882;  Stalker, 
1884. 

The  commentaries  are  numerous.  Of 
acknowledged  standard  value  are  those  of 
Hodge  on  Romans  and  Corinthians  and 
Ephesians;  Godet  on  Romans  and  Corinthi- 
ans; Lightfoot  on  Galatians,  Philippians, 
Colossians  and  Philemon,  and  EUicott  on 
the  Greek  text  of  all  epistles  except  Romans 
and  Second  Corinthians,  T.  W,  C. 

Paul  of  Samosata.    See  Monabchianism. 

Paul  of  Thebes,    See  Monasticism, 

Paul,  Vincent  de.    See  Vincent  de  Paul. 

Paul  the  Deacon,  a  son  of  Warnefrid;  b. 
in  F(n-um  Julii  (now  Friuli),  near  Venice, 
about  720,  lived  for  some  time  at  the  court 
of  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards,  after- 
wards at  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  but 
retired  finally  to  the  monastery  of  Monte 
Casino,  50  m.  n.w.  of  Naples,  where  he   d. 


PAUL 


(695) 


PAULICIANS 


April  13,  800.  He  wrote  Be  Gcstis  Lnn- 
yobardoruni,  much  appreciated  and  often 
edited  (Ger.  Trans,  by  Karl  Von  bpruner, 
Ilamburfj,  18;J8).  Hlstoria  Romana,  of  no 
value,  a  Vita  S.  Greyorii,  much,  interpolated, 
etc.  See  Opera  omnia  in  Mif^ne,  Pat.  Laf. 
XCV.  cols.  41:3-1710;  and  life  by  Dahn, 
Leipzig,  1876. 

Paul,  the  name  of  several  popes.  1.  Pope 
from  May  29,  7-J7,  to  June  2S,  707.  lie  main- 
tained a  close  alliance  with  Pepin,  king  of 
Fi'ance.  He  was  canonized.  2.  Pietro 
Barbo,  b.  at  Venice,  Feb.  28,  1418,  pope 
Aug.  ;n,  14C4,  to  July  28,  1471.  Before  his 
elevation  to  the  papacy  he  seems  to  have 
made  no  special  mark  in  tlie  affairs  of  the 
church.  As  pope,  his  administration  is 
noted  for  the  peaceful  condition  in  which 
he  maintained  Italy.  He  gave  up  the  plans 
of  his  predecessor  for  a  crusade,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  administrati<m  of  his 
office.  lie  increased  the  magnificence  of 
the  court  of  Rome.  The  only  stain  upon 
his  character  arises  from  the  persecutiim 
which  certain  literary  men  at  his  court 
suffered.  But  their  accounts,  from  which 
we  derive  our  information,  seem  to  have 
been  exaggerated.  3.  Alessandro  Farnese,  b. 
at  Carino,  Feb.  28,  1468,  made  cardinal  in 
Sept.,  14U3,  elected  pope  Oct.  13,  1534,  d.  Nov. 
10.  1.540.  Paul  succeeded  to  the  papal  chair 
at  a  time  when  the  exigencies  of  the  papacy 
demanded  the  highest  qualities.  Person- 
ally of  the  secular,  luxurious  temper  of  a 
Leo  X.,  he  was  little  inclined  to  those 
measures  of  refoi-m  then  necessary.  His 
first  promotion  of  cardinals  was  of  youths 
out  of  his  own  family,  and  promised  little 
good  to  the  church;  but  in  general  he  was 
wise  enough  to  surround  himself  with  able 
men,  though  of  so  different  tendencies  as 
the  evangelical  Contarini  and  the  fanatical 
churchman  Carafta,  afterwards  Paul  IV. 
His  most  influential  act  was  the  establish- 
ment of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  (1-540) 
which  really  begins  the  so-called  Counter- 
Reformation.  He  also  strengthened  the 
inquisition  (1.542),  and  soon  put  an  end 
to  reformatory  movements  in  Italy.  The 
efforts  which  Charles  V.  had  long  been 
making  to  secure  the  general  council  which 
the  Protestants  demanded,  were  finally 
successful,  and  Paul  was  obliged,  much 
against  his  will,  to  call  the  Council  of 
Trent  in  1545;  but  he  soon  succeeded  in 
putting  an  end  to  its  sittings.  His  brief 
condemning  slavery  (1.537)  should  be  men- 
tioned. As  a  politician  he  had  no  very 
positive  policy,  except  to  avoid  trouble 
from  either  Charles  or  Francis.  lie  was  a 
scholar,  a  patron  of  learning  and  art,  and 
greatly  improved  the  city  of  Rome.  4.  Gio- 
vanni Pietro  Caraffa,  b.  at  Naples,  June  28, 
1470,  made  cardinal  in  15.30,  elected  pope 
May  23,  1.5.55,  d.  Aug.  18,  15.50.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  career  lie  was  engaged  ui)on  sev- 
eral important  missions  for  the  papal  court. 
But  in  1524  he  resigned  all  his  honors,  gave 
his  property  to  the  poor,  and  entered  a 
monastery  of  the  Theatins,  an  order 
founded  bv  himself.  His  reputation  for 
sanctity  led  Paul  III.  to  create  him  cardi- 
nal,    lie   became  the  head  ^of  the  strictly 


consistent  papal  party,  and  was  pitched 
upon  by  the  conclave  as  the  best  candidate 
for  the  papacy,  though  he  was  personally 
unpopulai-,.  and  Charles  V.  had  forbidden 
his  election.  He  engaged  in  the  affairs  of 
the  papacy  with  zeal  and  indomitable 
determination  to  carry  out  his  ideas. 
Flinging  diplomatic  caution  to  the  winds, 
he  was  soon  involved  in  troubles  with  Spain 
which  came  near  costing  him  his  temporal 
power.  He  would  not  acknowledge  Ferdi- 
nand as  emperor  because  Charles  had  abdi- 
cated without  his  leave.  His  great  efforts 
were,  however,  against  heresy.  He  pub- 
lished the  first  full  hides  Lib.  Profiih.,  and 
died  commending  his  i)olicy  and  the  Inqui- 
sition to  his  advisers.  5.  Camillo  Borghese, 
b.  in  Rome,  Sept.  17,  1552,  cardinal  in 
]59(),  elected  pope  May  IG,  1005,  d.  Jan.  28, 
l<t21.  He  was  elected  for  the  supposed 
mildness  of  his  character,  but  in  office  he 
showed  himself  domineering,  fanatical,  and 
stubborn.  The  principal  event  of  his  reign 
was  his  quarrel  with  Venice.  The  city 
claimed  the  right  to  try  ecclesiastical 
offenders  before  lay  tribunals,  and  wished 
to  extend  certain  laws  against  the  accu- 
mulation of  ecclesiastical  property.  Paul 
protested,  and  when  the  republic  persisted, 
he  suspended  over  it  the  interdict  (April, 
1606).  The  Venetians  resisted,  Spain  re- 
fused to  help  him,  and  finally  France 
had  to  interfere,  when  Venice  was  released 
without  substantial  concession,  and  the 
interdict  fell  into  great  disrepute  as  a 
spiritual  weapon.  Paul  was  more  mod- 
erate afterwards.  He  was  specially  distin- 
guished for  his  interest  in  foreign  mis- 
sions, and  for  his  services  in  beautifying 
Rome.  F.  H.  F. 

Paula,  St.,  a  2ioble  Roman  matron,  de- 
scended from  the  Scipios  and  (xracchi,  settled 
part  of  her  wealth  on  her  children  and  then 
followed  her  teacher,  Jerome,  to  Bethle- 
hem, where  she  led  a  life  of  austere  piety 
and  founded  a  monastery,  a  hospital,  and 
3  nunneries.  She  died  in  404  and  is 
commemorated  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  on  Jan.  20. 

Paulicians,  a  dualistio  sect  of  the  Orient, 
not  Manichaian,  founded  by  a  certain  Con- 
stantine,  who  originated  in  a  dualistic  com- 
munity near  Samosata  and  had  been  led  by 
reading  the  scrii)tures  to  his  peculiar  views, 
in  060  at  Cibossa  in  Armenia.  After  27 
years  of  labor,  he  was  executed  by  com- 
mand of  the  emperin-,  but  was  succeeded 
by  others,  who  in  the  7th  and  8th 
centuries  brought  the  body  to  a  high 
degree  of  prosi)erity  in  Asia  Minor.  A 
great  reformer  and  leader  was  Sergius,  who 
presided  over  the  sect  from  .^01  to  835.  He 
was  tiie  successor  of  Baanes,  after  whom 
the  sect  was  sometimeR  calle<l  the  Baanides. 
During  this  i>eriod  the  enqienu-,  Leo  the 
Armenian,  persecuted  the  sect  severely.  In 
still  later  persecutions  umler  Theodora, 
Carbeas,  an  imi)erial  general,  disgusted 
with  the  cruelty  exercised,  put  himself  at 
tlie  ]ii;id  of  the  Paulicians  and  established  a 
kinirdom  upon  the  borders  of  the  empire, 
which  sustained  itself  for  some  time.  In 
808  the  Emperor  Basil  sent  Peter  Siculas  ou 


PAULINUS 


(696) 


PAYNE-SMITH 


an  embassy  to  them,  which  proved  fruitless 
of  political  results,  but  gave  rise  to  a  his- 
tory of  the  sect  by  him.  The  Paulicians 
were  conquered  a  little  later,  and  in  970 
partly  transported  to  Thrace.  Here  they 
remained  for  some  time,  but  about  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century  had  generally 
become  Catholics.  There  are  said  still  to 
be  descendants  of  theirs  in  Philippopolis. 
Their  doctrines  are  little  known.  They 
were  dualists,  ascribing  the  origin  of  the 
world  to  the  evil  spirit.  They  originally 
accepted  the  four  gospels,  the  Acts,  14 
epistles  of  Paul,  and  those  of  John,  James, 
and  Jude.  Peter  they  rejected  entirely. 
Later  they  accepted  only  the  gospels  and  15 
epistles  of  Paul,  having  one  peculiar  to 
themselves.  They  opposed  many  of  the 
ceremonies  and  doctrines  of  the  Catholics, 
had  a  simple  church  organization,  and  an 
ascetic  system  of  ethics.  (See  the  Church 
Histories,  particularly  Gieseler;  A.  Lom- 
bard, Paulicians,  Geneva,  1879. )     F.  H.  F. 

Paulinus  of  Aquileia,  b.  about  720,  in 
Forum  Julii  (now  Friuli)  near  Venice,  d.  at 
Aquileia,  22  m.  n.n.w.  of  Trieste,  Jan. 
11,  802,  engaged  in  instruction  as  late 
as  776,  raised  to  the  patriarchate  of 
Aquileia  in  787  by  Charlemagne,  and 
here  engaged  in  converting  the  inhal)- 
itants  of  Carinthia.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Alcuin  (q.v.)  and  one  of  Charlemagne's 
principal  counselors  in  ecclesiastical 
matters.  He  took  part  in  the  controversy 
with  the  Adoptionists.  He  left  a  number  of 
works.  (See  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.,  vol.  XCIX.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Paulinus  of  Nola,  b.  in  Bordeaux  in  353, 
belonged  to  one  of  the  wealthiest  families 
of  the  country.  He  received  an  elegant 
education,  and  was  prepared  for  some 
secular  career,  upon  which  he  early  entered, 
being  made  consul  by  the  influence  of  his 
family,  and  going  as  consular  to  Campania, 
in  379.  Here  he  became  an  admirer  of  St. 
Felix  of  Nola,  and  thus  had  his  mind 
turned  towards  monasticism,  which  bent 
was  promoted  by  Martin  of  Tours  whom  he 
met  in  his  native  country,  and  by  Ambrose. 
He  was  now  married  to  a  wealthy  lady, 
Therasia,  who  accompanied  him  to  Spain 
(390-394),  where,  about  the  end  of  his 
sojourn,  he  was  compelled  by  the  people  of 
Barcelona  to  become  presbyter.  He  now 
gave  up  his  property  to  the  help  of  the 
poor,  returned  to  Nola,  where  he  built  a 
hospital,  aqueduct  churches,  etc.,  and 
where  his  hospitality  to  the  poor  attracted 
them  to  him  from  all  the  region  about.  He 
submitted  himself  and  his  wife  to  the 
discipline  of  the  monastic  life,  and  became 
while  still  living  all  but  a  saint.  He  was  in 
correspondence  with  Augustine  and  Jerome. 
About  the  end  of  the  4th  century  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Nola.  He  lived  to  see  the 
early  stages  of  the  Pelagian  controversy, 
but  would  not  proceed  against  Pelagius, 
who  was  his  personal  friend.  He  died 
June  22,  431.  His  works  are  in  Migne,  Pat. 
Lat,  vol.  LXf.  (See  T.  von  N.  und  seine 
Treit,  by  Buse,  Regensburg,  1856.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Paulinus  of  York  came   to  England  as  a 


companion  of  St.  Augustine,  was  made 
bishop  of  York  in  628,  but  in  633  driven  out 
of  the  city  by  the  pagans,  and  died  as 
bishop  of  Rochester  in  643.  He  laid  the 
foundation  to  the  cathedral  of  York. 


Paulists,  or  "the  Congregation  of  the 
Missionary  Priests  of  St.  Paul  the  Apos- 
tle," an  order  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  which  was  founded  in  1858  by  Isaac 
Thomas  Hecker  in  New  York  for  mission- 
ary purposes.  The  order  issues  The  Catho- 
lic World. 

Paulus,  Heinrich  Eberhard  Gottlob,  b.  at 
Leonberg,  Wurtemberg,  Sept.  1,  1761;  d.  at 
Heidelberg,  Aug.  10,  1851;  was  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Jena  in 
1789,  professor  of  N.  T.  exegesis  at  Wiirz- 
burg  in  1803,  and  professor  of  church-his- 
tory at  Heidelberg  in  1811.  He  was  for  a 
time  the  leader  of  the  rationalists,  so  far  as 
he  was  the  driest  and  the  coarsest  of  them 
all,  but  of  his  many  works  none  have 
now  any  interest  except  as  historical  docu- 
ments. There  is  an  elaborate  biography  of 
him  by  Reichlin-Meldegg,  Stuttgart,  1853, 
2  vols. 

Pauperes  de  Lugduno.    See  Waldenses. 

Pavilion,  Nicolas,  b.  in  Paris,  Nov.  17, 
1597;  d.  at  Alet,  6  m.  s.  of  Limoux,  Dec. 
8,  1677;  grew  up  as  a  pupil  of  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,  gained  considerable  fame 
as  a  preacher,  and  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Alet  in  the  Pyrenees  in  1639.  He  was  an 
excellent  bishop,  and  introduced  many  re- 
forms in  his  diocese,  but  as  a  stanch  ad- 
hei-ent  of  Jansenism,  and  one  of  the  four 
bishops  who  refused  unqualified  assent  to 
the  papal  condemnation  of  the  five  articles, 
he  was  continually  harassed  by  the  Jesuits 
and  the  government. 

Paxton,  John  R.,  D.D.  (Union  College, 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1882),  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Ganonsburg,  Pa.,  Sept.  18,  1843;  gradu- 
ated at  Washington  and  Jefferson  College, 
Washington,  Pa.,  1866,  and  at  Western 
Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny,  Pa., 
1869;  had  pastoral  charges  at  Churchville, 
Harrislmrg,  Washington,  and,  since  1882, 
of  West  Church,  New  York. 

Pax  vobiscum,  Latin:  "peace  be  with 
you,"  the  common  salutation  among  the 
ancient  Christians  of  the  Latin  Church,  and 
also  addressed  to  the  congregation  by  the 
bishop  or  pastor  at  his  entrance  into  the 
church. 

Payne-Smith,  Very  Rev.  Robert,  Dean 
of  Canterbury,  Church  of  England;  b.  in 
Gloucestershire,  Eng.,  in  Nov.  1818;  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  became  Regius 
Professor  of  divinity  and  rector  of  Ewelme 
in  1865,  and  dean  of  Canterbury  in  1871. 
He  published  a  translation  of  St.  CyriVs 
Commentary  on  St.  Luhe^s  Gospel.  Oxford, 
1859,  2  vols.,  and  a  translation  of  the  Eccle- 
siastical History  of  John,  Bishop  of  Ephesus; 
1860;  Thesaurns  Syriacus,  1868,  sqq.;  com- 
mentaries on  Jeremiah,  Isaiah,  and  Genesis, 
and    was  one    of    the   Old  Testament    re- 


PAYSON 


(697) 


PEASANTS 


Payson,  Edward,  D.D.  (Bowdoiii,  1821), 
Congregationalist;  b.  at  Kindge,  N.  H., 
July  25,  17So;  d.  at  Portland,  Me.,  Oct.  22, 
1827.  He  graduated  at  Harvard,  18Uo,  stud- 
ied divinity  under  his  father,  Di-.  Seth 
I'ayson,  and  taught  at  home;  and  from 
Dec.  1807  was  pastor  at  Portland,  first  as 
colleague,  and  from  1811  insole  charge.  He 
■was  unambitious,  wrote  nothing  but  ser- 
mons, and  repeatedly  declined  calls  to  Bos- 
ton and  New  York;  but  his  geniality, 
purity,  and  devotion  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion on  those  who  knew  him,  and  his  Memoir 
by  Asa  Cumniings,  Boston,  1828,  gave  him  a 
more  than  national  reputation.  His  life  has 
been  written  also  by  E.  Bickersteth,  London, 
18;37,  and  others.  His  Sermons,  1828-31,  re- 
printed with  his  Select  Thowjlds  in  3  vols., 
Portland,  184(5,  and  again  i85it,  have  been 
"  more  read  at  home  and  abroad  than  the 
writings  of  any  other  New  England  divine 
except  Dr.  Dwight."  F.  M.  B. 

Pazmani,  Peter,  b.  at  Grosswardein,  Hun- 
gary, Oct.  4,  1")70;  d.  at  Presburg,  March  I'J, 
1(537;  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Kolozsviir,  though  his  parents  were  Calvin- 
ists,  and  entered  the  order  in  ir)87;  finished 
his  studies  in  Rome,  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Graz  in  1597  and  was  ap- 
pointed archbishop  of  Presburg  in  1610  and 
created  a  cardinal  in  1620.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  tracts  against  the  Protestants 
and  his  sermons  are  still  read  in  Hungary. 
But  it  was  principally  by  other  means:  by 
driving  the  Protestant  pastors  from  their 
parishes  and  confiscating  their  property, 
and  by  installing  the  Jesuits  in  their  places, 
that  he  succeeded  in  crushing  out  Protes- 
tantism in  Hungary.  (See  his  life  by  Kau- 
koffer,  Vienna,  1856.) 

Peabody,  Andrew  Preston,  D.D.  (Harvard 
College,  1852),  LL.D.  (University  of  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  1863),  Unitarian;  b.  at  Beverly, 
Mass.,  March  19,  1811,  graduated  at  Harvard 
College,  182(5,  and  at  the  theological  semi- 
nary connected  with  it  in  1832,  and  was 
professor  qi  Christian  moi-als  there  and 
preacher  to  Harvard  University,  1860-81. 
He  edited  The  North  American  Review,  1852- 
61,  and  published  Lectures  on  Christian 
Doctrines,  Boston,  1844.  .3d  ed.,  1857;  Chris- 
tian  Consolations,  1846,  6th  ed.,  1872;  Chris- 
tianity and  Science,  New  York,  1874;  sei*- 
mons,  translations  from  Cicero,  Harvard 
lieminiscences,  Boston,  1888,  etc. 

Peabody,  George,  J.C.D.  (Oxford,  1867), 
LL.D.  (Harvard  18 — ),  philanthropist;  b.  at 
S.  Danvers  (now  Peabody),  Mass.,  Feb.  18, 
1705;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  4,  1860.  He  became 
a  clerk  at  11,  and  in  1814  a  partner  with  Eli- 
sha  Riggs  of  New  Yoi-k,  removing  in  1815  to 
Baltimore.  In  18;]7  he  founded  a  banking 
house  in  London.  His  great  wealth  was 
munificently  and  widely  distributed,  in 
large  measure  during  his  life.  %;2.5(M».(M)() 
(since  greatly  increasc<l)  went  to  erect 
dwellings  for  London  workmen;  $2,000,000 
for  education  in  the  Southern  states; 
$L4(10.(i(M)  to  found  the  Peabody  Institute 
in  Baltimore:  .i;2.')0.0(H)  for  lii)raries  at  Dan- 
vers and  Peal)ody.  Mass.;  $1.")0.0(H)  each  to 
museums    at  Harvard  and  Yale;   $140,00<_) 


to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Salem ;  and 
$100,000  to  build  a  church  at  Georgetown, 
Mass.,  as  a  memorial  to  his  mother;  besides 
many  smaller  sums  given  elsewhere.  "  He 
taught  the  world  how  a  man  may  be  the 
master  of  his  fortune,' not  its  slave."  His 
life  was  written  by  Phebe  A.  Ilanaford, 
Boston,  1882.  F.  M.  B. 

Peabody,  William  Bourn  Oliver,  D.D, 
(Harvard,  1842),  Unitarian;  b.  at  Exeter, 
N.  H.,  July  9,  1709;  d.  at  Springfield,  Mass., 
May  28,  1847.  He  graduated  at  Harvard, 
1817,  and  from  1820  was  pastor  at  Spring- 
field. He  was  an  accomplished  scholar  and 
an  admirable  character  of  the  Channing 
type.  His  Catechism  in  Verse,  with  a  few 
hymns,  appeared  at  Springfield,  1823;  his 
Sertiions,  with  a  memoir  by  his  brother, 
1849,  and  his  Literary  Eemains,Boston,  1850. 
F.  M.  B. 

Peace-Offering.    See  Offerings. 

Pearl,  a  precious  substance  produced  by 
a  shell-fish  of  the  oyster  class.  It  was 
greatly  esteemed  in  the  East  as  a  personal 
ornament  (1  Tim.  ii.  9,  Rev.  xvii.  4,  xviii. 
12,  16)  and  is  often  used  in  Scripture  to 
represent  things  of  great  price  (Matt.  vii.  6, 
xiii.  45,  46,  Rev.  xxi.  21).  In  Job  xxviii.  18, 
where  the  A.  V.  has  "pearls"  the  R.  V. 
gives  cri/stal.  T.  W.  C. 

Pearson,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1660), 
F.R.S.  (1667),  Bishop  of  Chester;  b.  at 
Great  Snoring,  Norfolk,  Feb.  28,  1612;  d.  at 
Chester,  July  16,  1686.  He  passed  from 
Eton  to  Cambridge,  1631,  and  became  fellow 
of  King's  College,  1634;  rector  of  Torring- 
ton,  Suffolk,  l(i-il ;  minister  of  St.  Clement's, 
Eastcheap,  London,  1650.  At  the  Restora- 
tion preferments  came  in  thick  and  fast, 
for  he  was  considered,  says  Burnet,  "  in  all 
respects  the  greatest  divine  of  the  age:"  he 
was  made  prebendary  of  Ely,  archdeacon  of 
Suri-ey,  and  master  of  Jesus  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 16(50;  professor  of  divinity,  1(561; 
master  of  Trinity,  16(32;  Bishop  of  Chester, 
1(572.  He  was  more  a  man  of  books  than  of 
affairs;  by  far  his  greatest  work.  An  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Creed,  London,  1()59.  has  been  held 
in  honor  from  that  day  to  this.  It  is  positive 
in  doctrine,  but  moderate  in  its  ecclesias- 
tical claims.  His  Minor  Theolo(/ical  Worhs 
were  reprinted  in  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1844,  with 
memoir  by  E.  Churton.  F.  M.  B. 

Peasants'  War,  The,  is  the  name  gener- 
ally given  to  a  wide-si)read  rising  of  the 
German  peasantry  which  took  place  in  the 
beginning  of  1.525  and  which  by  the  licen- 
tiousness and  ferocity  of  the  one  i)arty  and 
tlie  cruelty  and  revengef ulness  of  the  other 
forms  one  of  the  bloodiest  pages  in  the  his- 
tory of  (Germany.  The  principal  cause  of 
the  rising  was  tlie  abject  condition  in  which 
the  peasantry  was  held  by  the  tyranny  of 
the  nobility  and  the  clergy,  and  similar  out- 
breaks of  dcsi>air  had  of  late  been  of 
frequent  occurrence.  But  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that,  in  this  particular  instance, 
the  general  sjjirit  of  injury  and  feeling  of 
freedom  diffused  by  the  lieformation  exer- 
cised a  great  iuHuence.  Nor  can  it  be 
denied  that  many  of  the  worst  excesses 
committed  by  the  peasants  were  instigated 


PECZ 


(698) 


PELAGroS 


by  the  Anabaptists  and  other  relif^ious 
fanatics.  The  movement  began  on  Jan.  1, 
1525,  when  the  peasants  of  Kempten,  Bava- 
ria, suddenly  fell  upon  the  convent,  took  it, 
plundered  it,  and  compelled  the  abbot  to 
renounce  all  his  rights.  Thence  it  rapidly 
spread  over  the  vv'hole  of  Southern  and 
far  into  Northern  Germany.  The  demands 
of  the  peasants  w^ere  moderate  and  just: 
free  election  of  their  parish  clergy;  appro- 
priation of  the  tithes,  after  providing  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  parish  clergy,  to 
the  support  of  the  poor,  and  purposes  of 
general  utility,  abolition  of  serfdom  and 
the  exclusive  hunting  and  fishing  rights  of 
the  nobles,  restoration  of  those  forests, 
fields,  and  meadovps  which  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  lords  had  wilfully  taken  pos- 
session of ;  release  from  arbiti-ary  augmen- 
tations and  multiplications  of  services, 
duties,  and  rents;  equal  administration  of 
justice  and  abolition  of  some  of  the  most 
odious  exactions  of  the  clergy,  etc.  But 
the  means  employed  to  enforce  these  de- 
mands were  most  terrible:  plunder,  arson, 
and  murder.  The  peasants,  however,  were 
without  leaders,  without  any  organization, 
and  without  arms.  As  soon  as  the  govern- 
ment became  fully  aware  of  the  dangerous 
condition  of  the  country,  especially  on 
account  of  the  doubtful  attitude  of  the 
cities,  it  took  only  a  couple  of  months  and 
the  whole  commotion  was  suppressed. 
About  200,000  peasants  were  killed,  by  the 
sword  or  by  the  rope  or  by  starvation,  and 
whole  counties  lay  completely  devastated 
and  desolate.  As  certainly,  however,  as 
the  Reformation  had  served,  directly  and 
indirectly,  to  stir  up  the  Peasants'  War,  as 
certainly  it  had  to  pay  dear  for  it.  For  the 
Peasants'  War  changed  the  Reformation 
from  a  grand  and  sublime  popular  move- 
ment to  a  mere  affair  of  the  princes.  (See 
Zimmermann,  GescMchte  des  grosseii  Baii- 
ernkriegs,  Stuttgart,  1841-43,  3  vols. ) 

C.  P. 
Peck,  Jesse  Truesdell,  M.  E.  Bishop,  b. 
at  Middlefield,  Otsego  Co.,  N.  Y.,  April  4, 
1811;  d.  at  Syracuse.  IST.  Y.,  May  17,  1883. 
He  was  educated  in  Cazenovia  seminary  and 
licensed  to  preach  in  1829.  After  holding 
various  positions  successively  as  principal 
of  educational  institutions,  editor  of  the 
Methodist  Tract  Society  in  New  York,  pas- 
tor in  St.  Francisco,  Sacramento,  Peekskill, 
Albany,  Syracuse,  he  was  in  1875  elected 
bishop  and  went  in  1881  as  delegate  to  the 
Methodist  Ecumenical  Conference  in  Lon- 
don, He  published  The  Central  Idea  of 
Christianity,  New  York,  1855;  The  True 
Woman,  1857;  What  must  I  do  to  be  sataedf 
1858;  and  The  Great  Republic,  1868. 

Peck,  John  Mason,  D.D.,  (Harvard,  1852), 
Baptist;  b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Oct.  31, 
1789;  d.  at  Rock  Spring,  111.,  March  15,  18.58. 
He  became  a  Baptist  preacher,  1812,  and 
from  1817  labored  in  the  West  as  a  pioneer. 
He  founded,  or  aided  in  founding.  Rock 
Spring  Seminary,  1827,  afterwards  Shurtleff 
College;  The  Pioneer  newspaper,  1829;  the 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  1832,  which 
he  advocated  in  1826;  and  the  Baptist  His- 


torical Society,  18.53.  He  wrote  The  Emi- 
grant's Guide,  Boston,  1831,  and  several 
Lives,  etc.  His  Memoir  by  R.  Babcock 
appeared,  Philadelphia,  1864.         F.  M.  B. 

Pedersen,  Christiern,  b.  at  Svendborg, 
Funen,  Denmark,  jn  1480;  d.  at  Helsinge, 
Zealand,  Jan.  16,  15.54,  studied  theology  in 
Paris,  became  canon  at  the  cathedral  of 
Lund,  translated  the  New  Testament  into 
Danish,  1529,  and  was  very  active  for  the 
introduction  of  the  Reformation. 

Pedobaptism.  See  P.edobaptism. 

Pelagius,  Pelagianism.  The  great  work  of 
the  Eastern  Church  theologians  in  the  de- 
velopment of  Christian  doctrine  was  done  in 
the  departments  of  Theology  and  Christol- 
ogy.  In  the  department  of  Anthropology, 
their  situation  in  the  midst  of  tendencies  to 
heathen  materialism  and  to  Gnosticism, 
led  them  to  lay  emphasis  upon  human 
responsibility  and  freedom,  though  they 
did  not  deny  the  necessity  of  grace.  In 
fact  the  great  doctrine  upon  which  they 
expended  so  much  thought,  the  incarna- 
tion, was  itself  security  against  their  for- 
getting the  lielplessness  of  man  without 
God  to  achieve  his  salvation  of  himself. 

But  the  systematic  development  of 
Anthropology  was  performed  in  the  West- 
ern Church,  which  was  also  directed  by  the 
circumstances  in  which  it  found  itself,  by 
the  practical  tendency  of  the  Western  mind, 
and  by  the  practical  problems  of  the  church 
in  its  conquest  of  the  world,  to  the  consid- 
eration of  the  question  and  to  the  solution 
arrived  at. 

Pelagius,  whose  personality  and  labors 
gave  rise  to  the  controversy,  was  a  British 
monk,  who  came  to  Rome  at  a  date  not  ex- 
actly ascertainable,  and  whose  previous  his- 
tory is  entirely  unknown  to  us.  He  was 
acquainted  with  the  Greek  language  and 
theology,  which  he  found  represented  in 
Rome  by  Rufinus.  His  theories  were  sub- 
stantially at  this  time  what  they  subse- 
quently were  (see  art.  ArousTiNE).  His 
labors  at  Rome  were  both  literacy  and  prac- 
tical. He  wrote  here  before  410,  his  com- 
mentaries upon  the  epistles  of  Paul,  which 
have  been  long  ascribed  to  Jerome  and  are 
found  in  his  works.  He  was  much  moved 
by  the  moral  laxness  which  he  found  about 
him,  and  which  he  sought  to  bring  to  an 
end  by  exhortations  to  earnest  endeavor. 
But  he  was  met  by  excuses  derived  from 
the  weakness  of  man,  and  from  the  dif- 
ficulty of  the  task.  This  was  the  perverted 
result  of  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  and 
inability,  found  in  Ambrose  and  other  pre- 
vious Latin  Fathers  in  an  undeveloped  con- 
dition. Polagius  met  the  reply  by  asser- 
tions of  human  ability,  which  were  correct, 
had  they  not  gone  into  an  extreme  which 
was  no  longer  correct,  and  involved  admis- 
sions which  ought  not  to  liave  been  made. 
God  demands,  he  said,  nothing  impossible 
of  man.  He  must  struggle,  and  he  is  able 
to  conquer.  It  is  undeniable  that  Pelagius 
had  real  dangei;s  in  mind,  and  sought  to 
promote  real  and  lofty  morality.  Still  he 
seems  to  have  conceived  of  morality  as 
something  apart  in  itself,  to  have  ignored, 
perhaps  to  have  been  unconscious  of  the 


PELAGIUS 


PENANCE 


fact  that  all  true  morality  has  its  roots  in 
religion,  and  that  in  spite  of  the  repulsive- 
ness  uf  that  mockery  of  religious  feeling 
which  he  saw  about  him,  the  consciousness 
of  one's  own  weakness  is  the  first  step  to 
participation  in  the  divine  strength. 

Pelagius  was  soon  joined  by  Coelestius, 
who  was  more  open  in  his  statements  and 
did  more  to  bring  Pelagianism  into  notice 
than  its  first  propounder.  The  two  went  in 
411  to  Africa,  whence  Pelagius  soon  de- 
parted for  Palestine.  Coelestius  was  st)on 
accused  of  heretical  views,  and  was  tried 
befoi-e  the  Bishop  Aurelius  for  the  denial  of 
original  sin  and  of  the  necessity  of  grace, 
and  excommunicated,  after  which  he  went 
to  Epliesus  (412). 

Meantime  Jerome  in  Palestine  had 
become  disturbed  about  Pelagius,  and  in 
conjunction  with  Orosius,  a  Spanish  pres- 
byter, had  complained  of  him.  In  415  a 
council  was  called  at  Jerusalem  to  hear  the 
case.  Orosius,  who  had  to  act  as  prosecu- 
tor, was  hardly  equal  to  the  occasion,  and 
Pelagius  was  able  to  make  such  explana- 
tions of  his  former  statements,  and  to 
insist  upon  such  denials  that  the  assembly 
was  satislied,  and  he  was  acquitted;  but  as 
Augustine  shows,  tiie  explanations  were 
disingenuous,  and  the  denials  untrue,  so 
that  the  Pelagius  who  was  acquitted  was 
not  the  real  Pelagius.  Orosius  asked  that 
the  affair  be  transferred  to  Rome,  since 
Pelagius  was  a  member  of  the  Latin 
Church.  He  then  returned  to  Africa  and 
reported  the  matter  to  the  African  bishoiis. 
These  proceeded  to  write  to  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  Innocent  I.,  against  Pelagius,  to 
which  Pelagius  responded  by  a  letter  to  the 
same  bishop,  which  contained  a  detailed 
statement  of  his  theological  views.  But 
Innocent  was  now  dead,  and  Zosimus  had 
succeeded  him.  He  showed  for  some  time 
a  disposition  to  favor  Pelagius;  but  the 
African  bishops  referi'ed  to  the  former  de- 
cisions of  Innocent,  and  in  a  synod  in  418 
reaffirmed  their  own  former  position, 
Paulinus  of  Milan  took  a  similar  position 
to  theirs.  The  same  year  the  African 
bishops  held  a  general  African  council  and 
condemned  Pelagianism,  and  gained  over 
Honorius  to  their  side,  who  issued  an  im- 
perial rescript  which  directed  that  Pela- 
gians when  found  should  be  banished. 
Zosimus  now  changed  his  ground.  But  the 
resulting  persecution  only  brought  to  the 
front  an  abler  representative  of  the  matter 
than  had  l)efore  appeared,  Julian,  bishop 
of  Eclanum  in  .\pulia.  Pelagius  disappears 
from  our  sight  about  421;  Coelestius  reap- 
pears once  more  in  Rome  in  424;  but  the 
synod  at  Ephesus  joined  Pelagianism  with 
Xestorianism  in  final  condemnation  (4;^>1). 
Thus  essentially  defeated  by  the  arguments 
of  AuLTUstine,  and  externally  defeated  by 
church  decisions,  Pelagianism  disappeared 
as  an  organized  i)arty  in  the  church. 

(See  Thomasius.  DoiiincniieKchichte,  Har- 
nack,  Dogmenijeschic/ite,  Mozley,  Aufiiistin- 
inn  Doctrine  of  Predestination,  London, 
18o5.)  F.  H.  F. 

Pelagius,  the  name  of  two  ]iopos.  1.  B.  in 
Fvonu'.  pope  .m.'i-jVJO ;  d.  Mar.  :].  .'><>().  In  543 
he  was  apocrisiarius  of  the  poi)e  at  Constan- 


tinople, but  soon  returned  to  Rome  where 
he  won  the  hearts  of  the  people  by  his  char- 
ities. From  544  to  54G  he  was  in  charge  of 
the  affairs  of  the  church  at  Rome  during 
the  pope's  absence,  and  saved  the  people 
much  severity  at  the  hands  of  the  Gothic 
king,  Totila.  Later  he  was  with  the  pope 
in  Constantinople,  and  here  followed  Vig- 
ilius  in  his  vacillation  upon  the  Three  Chap- 
ters (q.v.).  Returning  home,  Vigilius  died 
upon  the  journey,  and  at  the  nomination  of 
Justinian  Pelagius  succeeded  him.  The 
clergy  and  people  were  not  favorable,  but 
after  a  time,  when  he  had  purged  himself 
by  an  oath  from  the  charge  of  having  put 
Vigilius  out  of  his  way,  his  former  good 
deeds  were  remembered,  and  he  was  re- 
ceived as  pope.  The  Tuscan  bishops 
renounced  communion  with  him,  where- 
upon he  accused  them  of  schism,  since  they 
separated  themselves  from  the  incumbent 
of  an  apostolic  see.  This  is  by  no  means 
the  full  claim  of  the  later  papacy.  2.  Pope 
Nov.  22.  57S  to  Jan.  15  (about),  590.  He 
tried  to  comjjose  the  strife  caused  by  the 
Three  Chapters,  but  without  great  success. 
He  cited  in  excuse  for  the  change  of  mind 
through  which  Vigilius  passed,  that  of 
Peter  as  to  the  circumcision  of  heathen 
upon  professing  Christianity.        F.  H.  F. 

Pelagius,  Alvarus,  a  native  of  Spain,  a 
member  of  the  Franciscan  order,  and  a 
pupil  of  Duns  Scotus,  became  grand  peni- 
tentiary to  Pope  John  XXII.,  1816-34,  and 
afterwards  bishop  of  Silves,  Portugal,  and 
wrote  De  j>lanctu  eccU'site  (printed  at  LHm. 
1474,  Lyons,  1570,  Venice,  15(50),  in  which  he 
gives  an  exposition  of  ultramontanism  in 
its  most  extreme  form  and  ascribes  to  the 
pope  a  power  completelj'  absurd. 

Pellikan,  Konrad,  b.  at  RufEach,  Alsace, 
Jan.  8,  1478;  d.  at  Zurich,  April  6,  1556, 
entered  the  order  of  the  Cordeliers  in  1493, 
studied  Hebrew  with  great  zeal,  visited 
Rome  in  1517,  and  was  made  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Basel  in  1522  and  1526  at  Zurich, 
where  he  embraced  the  Reformation  and 
married.  He  wrote  the  first  text-book  for 
students  of  Hebrew  ever  written  by  a 
Christian  (Basel,  1503,  reprinted  by  Nestle, 
Tiibingen,  1877)  and  among  the  reformers  he 
was  the  first  who  published  a  nearly  com- 
]ilete  commentary  on  all  the  books  of  the 
Bible.  Zurich,  1.532-39,  7  vols.,  (he  omits 
Jonah,  Zechariah  and  Revelation). 

Peloubet,  Francis  Nathan,  D.D.  (Univer- 
sity of  East  Tennessee,  Knoxville,  Tenn., 
1884),  Congregationalist;  b.  in  New  York, 
Dec.  2,  is.ll.  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
Williamstown,  Mass.,  18.53,  and  at  the  theo- 
logical seminary,  Bangor,  Me.,  1857;  held 
different  Congregationalist  pastorates  and 
published,  jointly  with  Mrs.  Mary  A.  Pelou- 
l)et.  Select  Notes  on  the  International  .S'»oi- 
ilai/  iSchonl  Lessons,  Boston,  1875,  sqq.;  In- 
ternational Question  Hook.  1874,  sr/q.;  Simdaij 
School  Quarterly,  1881,  sq.:  Smith-Pelouhet 
Rihle  Dictionary,  Philadelphia,  1884;  Select 
Snnns  for  the  Sunday  School,  New  York, 
1884;  etc. 

Penance  (poenitentia),  the  sacrament 
which  according  to  the  Roman  Church  "re- 


PENIEL 


(700) 


PENNAFORTE 


moves  all  sins  committed  after  baptism  by 
will  or  act."  The  term  penance  is  also 
often  used  of  the  satisfactions  which  are 
prescribed  by  the  priest  upon  the  confes- 
sion of  a  sin,  which  are  truly  and  properly 
punishments  for  it,  and  as  such  satisfy  the 
justice  of  God.  The  whole  sacrament  in- 
cludes as  integral  parts,  penitence,  of  which 
there  may  be  several  qualities,  confession, 
satisfaction,  and  absolution.  The  practice 
of  oral  confession  grew  up  gradually  in  the 
church,  and  was  made  obligatory  only  as 
late  as  the  year  1215.  (See  Auricular  Con- 
fession.) F.  H.  F. 

Pe-ni'-el,  or  Pe-nu'-el  {tkefa/^e  of  God),  the 
place  between  the  Jabbok  and  Succoth, 
where  Jacob  wrestled  with  the  angel  (Gen. 
xxxii.  24-31,  Hos.  xii.  4)  "face  to  face." 
Gideon  500  years  later  (Jud.  viii.  17)  found 
a  tower  there  which  he  destroyed.  About 
250  years  later  Jeroboam  (1  Ki.  xii.  25)  went 
from  Sheckem  and  rebuilt  Peuuel. 

T.  W.  C. 

Penitentials.  The  Roman  theory  of  pen- 
ance requires  that  satisfaction  be  made  for 
sins  committed,  before  absolution  can  be 
imparted.  The  assignment  of  suitable  sat- 
isfactions for  different  sins,  therefore, 
forms  an  important  part  of  the  duty  of  the 
priest.  In  the  middle  ages  there  were 
various  books  in  circulation  designed  to 
assist  in  this  duty,  which  were  called  Llhrt 
PenltentialeK,  or  penitentials.  Rules  upon 
this  subject  were  given  as  early  as  the 
Council  of  Ancyra  (314)  and  are  contained 
in  letters  of  Basil  of  Caesarea.  In  the  West- 
ern Church  Cyprian  mentions  a  book  which 
was  essentially  a  penitential.  Theodore  of 
Canterbury  compiled  a  penitential,  not  now 
existing.  The  earliest  in  the  Prankish 
kingdom  was  one  of  Columban's.  Peniten- 
tials multiplied  rapidly,  and  about  829 
Ebbo  of  Rheims  had  a  special  one  prepared. 
Its  5th  book  was  called  the  Roman  Peniten- 
tial. It  was,  however,  of  Frankish  origin. 
Other  so-called  Roman  Penitentials  were 
also  current  in  France,  but  none  were 
authentic.  There  never  was  an  authorized 
Roman  Penitential.  See  Maassen,  Ge- 
sc.hichte  der  Qiiellen  und  der  Literatur  des 
kanonischen  Rechtes  im  Abendlande,  Vienna, 
1870.  F.  H.  F. 

Penitential  Psalms  is  the  common  name 

of  the  7  psalms:  6,  32,  38,  51  (the  Miserere), 
102,  130,  and  143,  which  already  at  the  time 
of  Origen  were  put  together  and  set  apart 
as  typical  expressions  of  the  sorrow  of  sin. 
Innocent  III.  ordered  them  to  be  always 
recited  in  Lent  and  several  popes  have 
attached  indulgences  to  their  recital. 


Penn,  William,  Quaker;  b.  in  London, 
Oct.  14,1644:  d.  at  Ruscombe  near  Twyford, 
Berkshire,  July  30,  1718.  His  father,  an 
admiral,  was  endowed  with  Irish  estates  by 
Cromwell  and  knighted  by  Charles  II;  his 
mother  was  Margaret  Jasper  of  Rotterdam. 
After  spending  2  years  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  and  2  in  France,  he  was  in  1664 
entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  where  the 
plague  revived  his  early  religious  impres- 
sions.    Sent  to  Ireland  1666,  he  came  again 


(as  formerly  at  Oxford)  under  the  influence 
of  Thomas  Lee,  a  Quaker,  and  after  a  short 
imprisonment  the  next  year  began  preacli- 
ing,and  refused  to  uncover  before  his  father 
or  the  king.  His  first  book,  Truth  Exalted, 
London,  1668,  declared  his  new  faith  to  be 
"  the  alone  good  way  of  life  and  salvation." 
It  was  followed  in  swift  succession  by 
others,  among  which  No  Cross,  No  Crown, 
1670,  is  the  most  important.  In  this  year 
his  father  died,  after  commending  William 
to  the  king  and  the  duke  of  York.  The 
possession  of  a  fortune  did  not  check  his 
zeal;  twice  tried  and  imprisoned  (1670-71) 
for  preaching,  lie  told  his  persecutors  "  I 
know  the  way  to  Newgate,"  and  wrote  The 
Great  Case  of  Liberty  of  Conscience  there. 
In  1672  he  married  Guliehua  Springett,  who 
died  1694,  leaving  2  sons  and  a  daughter. 
Having  become  one  of  the  proprietors  of 
West  Jersey,  he  drew  up  its  constitution, 
which  attracted  many  Quaker  settlers.  In 
1681  Charles  II.  in  payment  of  an  old  claim ,^ 
granted  him  the  province  of  Pennsylvania, 
(including  Delaware),  and  insisted,  much 
against  Penn's  will,  on  that  name  instead 
of  "Sylvania."  Landing  at  Newcastle^ 
Oct.  27,  1682,  he  founded  Philadelphia,  and 
secured  just  laws  to  his  vast  domain.  Its 
extent  never  enriched,  and  at  times  impover- 
ished him.  His  generosity  to  settlers,  liis 
equity  and  mildness  with  the  Indians,  his 
fidelity  to  the  principles  of  toleration, 
afford  the  .secure  basis  of  his  fame.  The 
slanders  of  Macaulay  have  been  abundantly 
refuted.  Though  high  in  the  favor  of 
James  II.  and  exposed  to  misconception 
thereby,  he  was  no  friend  of  tyranny,  and 
did  what  he  could  to  mitigate  oppression, 
abhorring  the  two  principles  of  "  obedience 
without  conviction,  and  destroying  them 
that  differ  for  God's  sake." 

At  the  Revolution  he  met  difficulties  with 
courage.  Repeatedly  accused  of  treason, 
he  was  deposed  from  his  govenorship 
(1692-94),  and  for,  a  time  suspected  by  his 
co-religionists;  but  his  character  triumphed. 
In  1696  he  married  Hannah  Callowhill,  who 
bore  him  3  sons.  In  1699-1701  he  was  again 
in  America,  and  made  a  new  treaty  with 
the  Indians.  His  later  years  were  passed 
at  Kensington,  Knightsbridge  (1703).  Brent- 
ford (1706),  and  Ruscombe  (1710).  He  had 
much  trouble  from  his  province,  with  mis- 
management, pecuniary  losses,  and  his  son's 
misconduct.  From  1712  his  mind  was  im- 
paired by  apoplexy,  but  the  serenity  of  his 
faith  remained.  His  memory  is  justly  cher- 
ished not  only  by  his  own  sect,  but  by  all 
Protestant  Christendom,  as  "the  most 
human,  the  most  moderate  and  the  most 
pacific  of  all  rulers,"  "the  first  inhuman 
history  establishing  the  Law  of  Love  as  a 
rule  of  conduct  in  the  intercourse  of  na- 
tions." 

Some  of  his  writings  have  been  often 
reprinted;  among  the  best  is  Fruits  of  Soli- 
tude. 1693.  His  Select^Vorks  appeared  1771, 
1782  and  1825.  His  life  has  been  written  l>y 
Clarkson,  London,  1813,  22  vols.,  rev.  ed. 
Phila.,  1850;  J.  Post,  London,  18.50;  Dixon, 
1851 ;  Janney,  Philadelphia,  1852 :  J.  Stough- 
ton,  London,  1882,  and  others.      F.  M.  B. 

Pennaforte,  Raymond  de,  b.  at  Barcelona, 


PENNY 


(TOl) 


PENTATEUCH 


Spain,  at  the  close  of  the  12th  century;  d. 
there  Jan.  6,  1275;  studied  canon  hiw  at  Bo- 
loi^na,  entered  the  Dominican  order  and 
wrote  "a  Siunma  casuuni  poeidtentlccv,  became 
confessor  to  Gregory  IX.  and  made  a  collec- 
tion of  his  decretals,  was  elected  general  of 
his  order  in  1238,  but  resigned  that  office 
and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  con- 
version of  the  Moors  and  Jews. 

Penny,  the  word  used  (Matt.  xx.  2,  Mark 
xii.  15,  Rev.  vi.  (3)  to  render  the  Koman 
denarius  which  was  equal  to  1(3  cents  of  our 
money.  The  "penny"  shown  to  Christ 
bore  the  likeness  and  the  name  of  Tiberius, 
who  had  then  been  on  the  throne  for  many 
years.  T.  W.  C. 

Penny  Weddings  was  the  name  of  a  pecul- 
iar form  of  wedding  festivals  common  in 
Scotland  until  the  middle  of  the  17th  cent- 
ury, each  guest  invited  making  a  contri- 
bution in  money  to  pay  for  the  general 
expenses  of  the  feast  and  provide  for  a 
little  surplus  to  assist  the  newly-married 
couple  in  furnishing  their  house.  They 
wei'e  frequently  denounced  by  presbyteries 
and  assemblies  for  their  profaneness,  and 
thus  fell  into  disuse. 

Penry,  John,  b.  in  Wales,  1559;  hanged  in 
London,  May  29,  1593;  was  educated  in  the 
Koman  Catholic  faith,  and  took  orders  in 
the  Church  of  England,  1.586,  but  his  hete- 
rodox, puritanic-separatistic  ideas  soon 
brought  him  into  troubles  with  the  bishops, 
and  in  March,  1-589,  shortly  after  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Martin  Marprelate  tracts,  he 
fled  to  Scotland.  In  1592  he  returned  to 
London;  was  arrested  at  Katcliff,  March  22, 
1.593,  and  convicted  of  seditious  and  re- 
bellious conduct  on  completely  futile  and 
flimsy  evidence.  (See  Dexter,  Comjreyation- 
alifon  as  sren  in  its  Literature,  New  York, 
1880,  pp.  246-252.) 

Pentateuch  ( /ire  rolls  or  volumes),  the  name 
given  by  Tertullian  and  Origen  to  the  first 
Ave  books  of  the  Bible,  Genesis,  Exo- 
dus, Leviticus,  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy 
(which  see).  These  names  are  all  derived 
from  the  Greek,  the  Jews  being  accustomed 
to  name  each  book  from  its  flrst  word. 
The  Pentateuch  is  called  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  Law  (Neh.  viii.  2),  the  Book  of 
the  Law  (viii.  3),  the  Book  of  the  Law  of 
Moses  (viii.  1).  tlie  Book  of  the  Law  of  Je- 
hovali  (ix.  3),  the  Book  of  Moses  (xiii.  1). 

The  Pentateuch  jjurports  on  its  face  to 
have  been  written  by  Moses  (Ex.  xxiv.  4): 
"  And  Moses  wrote  all  the  words  of  the 
Lord;"  (I)eut.  xxxi.  9),  "And  Moses  wrote 
this  law,'"  verse  24,  "  Moses  made  an  end  of 
writing  the  words  of  this  law  in  a  book." 
The  Mosaic  authorship  was  universally 
accepted  until  modern  times.  It  was  as- 
sailed in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century 
by  Hobbes  (1561),  Peyrerius  (16.55),  K.  Simon 
(1678)  and  Clericus,  but  the  effective  attack 
was  begun  by  Astruc  in  1753,  who  brought 
out  clearly  the  peculiar  use  of  the  divine 
names  in  Genesis,  in  some  portions  Jehovah 
(Lord)  predominating,  while  in  others  Elo- 
hi)ii,  (God)  was  most  fre<iuent,  whence  he 
inferred  that  tlie  book  consisted  of  different 
documents.      Eichhorn   (1780)    carried   the 


matter  farther,  and  added  differences  of 
style  as  another  indication  of  the  different 
materials  entering  into  the  composition  of 
the  Pentateuch.  In  1800  Dr.  Geddes  started 
what  has  been  called  the  fragmentary 
theory  which  resolves  the  Pentateuch  into  a 
number  of  detached  pieces,  without  either 
logical  or  chronological  correction.  This 
was  warmly  advocated  by  J.  S.  Vater 
(1802-5)  and  by  D.  T.  Ilartmann  (1831).  It 
was  succeeded  by  the  supplementary  hy- 
pothesis, according  to  which  the  original 
document,  being  Elohistic,  was  supple- 
mented by  the  insertion  of  Jehovistic  sec- 
tions. This  was  advocated  by  Ewald.  Stiih- 
elin,  Bleek,  Tuch  and  Lengerke,  but  was 
afterwards  abandoned.  New  views  were 
subsequently  adopted  by  Hiipfekl  (1853), 
Popper  (1862),  K.  11.  Graf  (1866.  who  stated 
only  what  he  had  learned  from  Keuss  many 
years  before),  Colenso  (18(i2),  Kuenen,  Nol- 
deke,  Dillman  and  Wellhausen.  These  have 
differences  among  themselves,  but  agree  in 
making  the  Pentateuch,  or  rather  theHexa- 
teuch  (for  they  include  Joshua  as  the  com- 
pletion of  what  went  before)  a  composition 
of  much  later  date  than  Moses,  Wellhausen 
viewing  the  return  from  exile  as  the  pei'iod 
when  the  whole  was  tinally  revised  and  as- 
sumed its  present  form.  They  insist  that 
the  different  writers  engaged  in  the  Penta- 
teuch can  be  determined  by  the  use  of  ap- 
propriate tests.  One  of  these  is  language, 
i.  e.  the  vocabulary  employed.  Another  is 
style,  including  the  mode  of  conception  as 
well  as  the  form  of  the  exi^ression.  A  third 
is  material,  since  matter  is  found  in  one 
which  is  not  given  in  the  others.  A  fourth 
is  theology,  one  writer  being  more  strictly 
monotheistic,  spiritual  and  elevated  than 
another.  Now  applying  these  tests  it  is 
found  that  there  are  portions  of  the  Penta- 
teuch that  were  written  by  one  who  pre- 
ferred to  use  the  name  Jehovah  whence  he 
is  known  as  J ;  others  came  from  one  who  pre- 
ferred to  use  Elohim  whence  he  is  known  as 
E.  Both  of  these  agree  in  some  respects, 
and  being  akin  in  spirit  to  the  great  proph- 
ets are  called  prophetical,  and  theii"  work 
when  quoted  as  a  whole  is  referred  to  as 
J.  E.  Another  portion  because  it  includes 
all  ceremonial  and  sacrificial  usage  is  termed 
the  priestly  narrative,  and  it  is  denoted  by 
the  letter  P.  This  includes  the  middle 
books  of  the  Pentateuch.  Another  portion 
is  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  which,  it  is 
claimed,  is  the  book  found  in  the  temple  in 
the  days  of  Josiah  (2  Ki.  xxii.  8),  having 
been  hidden  for  the  purpose.  This  is 
known  by  the  letter  D.,  while  Dt  is  used  to 
denote  another  writer  who  in  the  spirit  of 
the  former  composed  certain  additions  to 
Deuteronomy  and  several  of  the  historical 
books.  All  these  were  followed  by  the 
final  redactor  who  brought  the  whole  into 
its  present  form,  and  who  is  denoted  by  the 
letter  K.  The  date  of  these  various  writers 
is  dilTerently  stated,  one  being  supposed  to 
have  written  about  800  b.c.  another  in 
Manasseh's.  or  Josiah's  reign.  Another 
work  was  not  completed  until  after  the 
captivity.  The  statutory  portion  of  the 
Pentateuch,  however,  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  manufactured  by  its  author,  but 


PENTATEUCH 


702) 


PERAMBULATION 


as  a  codification  of  existent  usages,  in  many 
features  handed  down  from  a  remote  an- 
tiquity, though  in  others  modified  or 
developed  by  the  lapse  of  years.  The  full 
force  of  the  reasoning  employed  by  those 
who  maintain  the  late  and  composite  origin 
of  the  Pentateuch  cannot  be  well  under- 
stood without  a  careful  consideration  of  de- 
tails which  there  is  not  room  to  reproduce 
here.  There  must  be  great  plausibility  in 
it,  or  it  would  not  be  so  generally  accepted 
in  Germany  as  it  is,  or  find  so  many  advo- 
cates among  the  scholars  of  Great  Britain. 

Still  the  advocates  of  the  traditional  view 
of  the  matter  contend  that  the  case  against 
the  Mosaic  authorship  is  by  no  means  made 
out.  They  urge  that  if  the  existence  of 
different  documents  were  established,  the 
compilation  of  tliem  into  a  single  narrative 
might  have  been  the  work  of  Moses  and 
other  writers  under  his  direction,  but  they 
affirm  that  many  of  the  arguments  based  on 
supposed  differences  of  language,  style, 
material  and  theology  are  not  sustained  by 
the  facts  in  the  case.  They  claim  that  the 
language  of  the  Pentateuch,  being  through- 
out Hebrew  of  the  purest  kind,  is  incon- 
sistent with  a  very  late  origin;  and  so  are 
the  local  allusions  to  Egypt  and  to  a  life  in 
the  wilderness,  as  well  as  the  doctrinal  con- 
tents which  are  in  all  respects  of  the  most 
elementary  nature.  The  laws  contained  in 
the  Five  Books  are  so  intimately  interwoven 
with  the  history  as  to  be  inseparable: 
whoever  wrote  the  one  must  of  necessity 
have  written  the  other.  The  alleged  incon- 
sistencies and  statements  implying  a  later 
date  than  that  of  Moses  admit  of  a  reason- 
able solution,  and  some  which  do  not,  can 
be  readily  accounted  for  as  editorial  notes 
added  at  some  subsequent  period.  A  large 
number  of  cases  is  cited  in  which  passao;es 
in  the  post-Mosaic  writings  imply  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Mosaic  books,  and  often  in  the 
form  in  which  we  have  them,  so  that  the 
proposed  reconstruction  would  take  in  a 
large  part  of  the  sacred  volume.  Some  of 
the  claims  of  modern  ci'iticism  are  de- 
nounced as  wild  and  extravagant,  such  as 
that  "the  book  of  the  law"  found  in  the 
temple  in  the  days  of  Josiah  was  a  recently 
manufactured  production  that  had  been 
secreted  in  order  to  be  found,  and  that 
Ezekiel's  splendid  idealization  of  the  church 
of  the  future  in  the  closing  chapters  of  his 
book  was  not  a  symbolic  prophecy  but  a 
prose  sketch  of  the  new  ritual  then  to  be 
introduced.  Besides,  the  testimony  of  our 
Lord  and  of  the  inspired  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  is  unequivocally  given  to  the 
Mosaic  origin  of  Pentateuch.  The  passages 
on  this  point  are  so  many  and  clear  and 
strong  that  it  is  impossible  to  explain  them 
on  the  theory  of  accommodation. 

The  literature  of  the  subject  is  very  ex- 
tensive, l)ut  reference  may  be  made  on  one 
side  to  Wellhausen,  Eng.  trans.  History  of 
Zsrae/,  Edinburgh,  188.5;  Kuenen,  Eng.  trans. 
The  Reliqion  of  Israel,  London,  1874,  3  vols. ; 
W.  R.  Smith,"  The  Old  Test,  in  the  Jewish 
Church,  1881. 

On  the  other,  to  "W.  H.  Green,  New  York, 
1882,  Moses  and  the  Prophets;  E.  C.  Bissell, 
The   Pentateuch:  its   Origin  and    Structure, 


1885;  T.  W.  Chambers  (editor),  Pentateuchal 
Criticism,  1889.  T.  W.  C. 

Pentecost  (fiftieth),  the  Greek  name  of 
the  2d  of  the  3  great  yearly  festivals  of 
Israel,  called  "the  feast  of  weeks"  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  22),  and  "  the  feast  of  harvest  "  (Ex. 
xxiii.  16).  It  was  celebrated  on  the  50th 
day  after  the  16th  of  Nisan,  the  2d  day 
of  the  Passover  (Lev.  xxiii.  15,  16).  It  was 
instituted  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  (Num. 
xxviii.  25)  for  the  grain  harvest  which  was 
gathered  during  the  7  weeks  between 
the  Passover  and  the  Pentecost.  The  prin- 
cipal service  consisted  in  the  offering  of  2 
loaves  made  of  the  finest  wheat  fiour  (Lev. 
xxiii.  17). 

The  later  Jews,  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  regarded  this  festival  as  com- 
memorative of  the  giving  of  the  law  from 
Mount  Sinai.  They  inferred  from  Ex.  xix. 
1,  10,  11,  16,  that  the  giving  of  the  law  took 
place  on  the  .50th  day  after  the  deliverance 
from  Egypt.  In  the  coui-se  of  time,  the 
Jews  living  in  other  climes  with  another 
harvest  season  came  to  consider  this  the 
principal  significance  of  the  festival. 

In  many  portions  of  Christendom  Pente- 
cost (under  the  name  of  Whitsunday)  is 
celebrated  7  weeks  after  Easter,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  (Acts  ii.  1-14),  as  the  birthday  of  the 
Christian  Church.  Tlie  conversion  of  the 
3.000  on  that  memorable  occasion  was  the 
"  first-fruits  "  of  a  mighty  spiritual  harvest 
(John  iv.  35,  .36),  not  confined  to  one  nation 
or  period,  but  extending  over  all  the  earth 
and  to  the  end  of  the  Gospel  dispensation. 
T.  W.  C. 

Pentecost,  George  Frederick,  D.D.  (La- 
fayette College,  Easton,  Pa.,  1884),  Congre- 
gationalist;  b.  at  Albion,  Ills.,  Sept.  23, 
1842,  was  successively  a  printer's  appren- 
tice, secretary  to  the  governor  of  Kansas, 
a  law  student,  captain  of  the  8th  Kentucky 
Union  Cavalry,  1862-64,  and  held  various 
Baptist  pastorates  from  1864  till  1881,  in 
wliich  year  he  became  pastor  of  Tompkins 
Avenue  Congregational  Church,  Brooklyn. 
N.  Y.  In  1890  he  went  to  India"  as 
an  evangelist.  He  published  Anr/el  in 
Marble,  Boston,  1876,  3d  ed.,  1884;  'in  the 
Volume  of  the  Book,  New  York,  1879,  3ded., 
1880;  Out  of  Egypt,  London,  1884,  New 
York,  1885,  etc, 

Pe'-or  (cleft),  a  mountain-peak  in  Moab, 
the  last  of  the  3  stations  (Num.  xxiii.  28) 
from  which  Balaam  beheld  and  blessed 
Israel.  Prof.  Paine  identifies  it  with  one 
of  the  summits  of  Jebel  Siaghah.  In  Num. 
xxv.  18,  xxxi.  16,  Josh.  xxii.  17,  Peor  is  a 
contraction  for  Baal-peor  (Num.  xxv.  3). 
T.  W.  C. 

Perambulation  of  Parishes,  or,  as  the  term 
is  also.  Beating  the  Parish  Bounds,  is  a 
peculiar  method,  once  used  in  England  and 
partially  also  in  Scotland,  of  ascertaining  and 
sustaining  the  boundaries  of  a  parish.  Be- 
fore the  Reformation  the  lord  of  the  manor 
with  a  large  banner,  priests  in  surplices  and 
with  crosses,  and  other  persons  with  hand 
bells,  banners,  and  staves,  followed  by  most 
of  the  parishioners,  walked  in  a  procession 


PARATAE 


(T03) 


PERICOPES 


round  the  parish,  stoppiiicf  at  crosses,  forni- 
in<j  crosses  on  the  ground,  saying  or  singing 
gospels  to  the  cross  and  allowing  drinking 
and  good  cheer.  This  took  place  on  Ascen- 
sion 'lay.  After  the  Reformation  such 
ceremonies  or  practises  as  were  deemed 
objectionable,  were  abolished  and  only  the 
useful  part  of  the  custom  was  retained,  but 
perambulations  for  ascertaining  the  boun- 
daries of  parishes  were  long  i>i'rf()nned  every 
year  in  or  about  Ascension  week  by  the  min- 
ister, chuiTh  wardens  and  parishioners,  and 
up  to  this  day  questions  of  disputed  boun- 
dary between  parishes  are  still  settled  by 
the  evidence  afforded  by  these  perambula- 
tions, as  in  such  questions  immemorial  cus- 
tom is  conclusive.  Many  curious  customs 
are  connected  with  the  affair;  there  are  even 
legacies  founded  to  provide  beer  and  cakes 
for  the  perambulators.  C.  P. 

Peratae  is  the  name  of  an  obscure  Gnostic 
sect,  first  mentioned  by  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria and  generally  classed  together  with 
the  Ophites,  which  see.  The  name  is  of 
uncertain  derivation. 

Percy,  Thomas,  b.  at  Bridgeuorth,  Shrop- 
shire. Eng.,  April  lo,  1728;  d.  at  Dromore, 
C\)unty  Down,  Ireland,  Sept.  .}(),  1811, 
was  made  chaplain  to  the  king  in  ITOU, 
dean  of  Carlisle  in  1778.  and  bishop  of 
Dromore  in  1782,  and  published  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Song  of  Solomon  in  1704,  a  Key 
to  the  New  Testament  in  1765,  and  in  the 
same  year  his  best  known  work:  Reliques 
of  Ancient  Englisli  Poetry. 

Perea,  or  PercBa  (from  ~ipav:  beyond),  was 
the  territory  beyond  the  Jordan  in  which 
the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  were  settled. 
(See  Bethauaraii.  ) 

Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  Antonio,  b.  at 
Macao,  Estremadura,  Portugal,  Feb.  14, 
1725;  d.  in  Lisbon,  Aug.  14,  1797;  was  edu- 
cated by  the  .Jesuits,  entered  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Oratory,  and  acquired  a  name  as 
a  teacher  of  grammar  and  rhetoric.  He 
was  a  firm  adherent  of  Pombal  in  his  eccle- 
siastical reforms  and  wrote  a  great  number 
of  tracts  and  essays  against  the  Jesuits 
which  were  translated  into  French,  Italian, 
and  German.  He  also  made  a  translation  of 
the  whole  Bible  which  is  still  in  use. 

Perfectionism.  The  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed symbols  deny  the  possibility  of  per- 
fection in  this  life.  The  Roman  Catholics 
hold  that  the  renewed  can  fully  keep  the 
divine  law  and  even,  by  observing  the  evan- 
gelical counsels,  do  more  than  is  com- 
manded, and  thus  lay  up  a  fund  of  superer- 
ogatory merit.  The  Arminian  doctrine  is 
variously  stated.  As  commonly  held  it 
allows  ignorance  and  err<n-  and  infirmities, 
but  excludes  all  inward  disposition  to  sin 
and  all  outward  commission  of  it.  since 
perfect  love  for  God  governs  tlie  entire  life, 
and  thus  fulfils  the  "law  of  Christ"  under 
which  alone  the  ChristiaTi's  probation  is  now 
held.  The  Friends  teach  that  the  justified 
may  be  free  from  actual  sin  and  in  that  re- 
spect perfect,  yet  this  perfection  admits  of 
growth  and  may  be  lost  without  diligent 
•watch  and   care.     Pres.    Mnhaii    and    Prof. 


Finney,  holding  that  the  demands  of  God's 
law  are  adjusted  to  the  present  ability  of  the 
subject,  taught  that  believers  may  be  as 
perfectly  conformed  to  God's  will  in  their 
measure  as  the  inhabitants  of  heaven  are  in 
theirs.  The  objections  to  all  theories  of 
perfectionism,  however  carefully  guarded, 
are  that  they  tend  to  low  views  of  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  divine  law;  to 
inadequate  conceptions  of  the  evil  of  sin; 
to  an  inferior  standard  of  moral  excellence; 
and  to  spiritual  jiride  and  fanaticism. 

Lit.  ilodge,  Theol.  IIL  ;  Wesley  and 
Fletcher  on  Christian  Perfection  :  Finney, 
Theology.  T.  W.  C. 

Per'ga,  a  city  of  Pamphylia.  on  the 
river  Cestrus,  7  miles  from  its  mouth. 
The  river,  now  obstructed  by  a  bar.  was  for- 
merly navigal)le  as  far  as  Peiga,  where  Paul 
and  Barnabas  landed  on  their  fii  st  mission- 
ary tour  (Acts  xiii.  18)  with  Mark  who 
there  forsook  them  and  returned  to  Jerusa- 
lem. Paul  revisited  the  place  (Acts  xiv. 
25).  Perga  had  fine  public  buildings, 
among  them  a  far-famed  temple  of  Diana. 
Extensive  ruins  remain  at  the  place,  now 
called  by  the  Turks  Eski-Kalessi. 

T.  W.  C. 

Per'-ga-mum  (Pergamos  in  A.  Y.),  a 
city  of  Mysia  noted  for  its  wealth,  its 
literature  and  its  idolatry.  Its  improved 
method  of  preparing  skins  for  writing 
was  called  charta  pergamena,  whence  our 
word  "  i)archment."  One  of  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  was  at  Pergamum  '*  where 
Satan's  sect  is*'  (Rev.  i.  11,  ii.  12-17).  The 
place,  now  called  Jjergania,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  20,UU0,  a  tenth  of  whom  are  Chris- 
tians. T.  W.  C. 

Pericopes,  extracts  from  the  Scriptures 
prescribed  for  i)ulilic  reading  in  the  churches. 
The  custom  of  such  public  readings  begins 
in  the  ancient  worship  of  the  synagogue.  As 
the  Christian  Church  was  a  child  of  the 
synagogue,  it  was  natural  that  its  worship 
should  be  modelled  upon  that  of  its  parent 
institution.  At  first  the  Ctld  Testament 
was  read  alone  in  the  Christian  worship, 
but  by  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  we  hear 
of  "  the  memorials  of  the  Apostles,  which 
are  called  gospels,  and  of  the  writings  of 
the  Projihets."  Tertullian  speaks  of  the 
reading  of  the  law  in  connection  with  the 
gospels  and  the  epistles.  When  the  canon 
of  Scripture  was  generally  settled  and  a 
regular  liturgy  liad  been  formed,  and  when 
organization  and  uniformity  became  char- 
acteristic of  the  churches,  it  was  natural 
that  systems  of  selections  for  public  read- 
ing should  be  made,  and  these  we  find  in 
fact  at  early  dates. 

The  lectiimary  of  the  C4reek  Church  bears 
marks  of  great  antiquity.  Two  systems 
run  through  it  side  by  side.  First,  it  is  in 
general  arranged  to  provide  for  the  contin- 
iious  reading  of  the  whole  New  Testament 
book  after  book.  But  second,  this  contin- 
uous reading  is  interrupted  by  various  .spe- 
cial occasions,  such  as  feast  days  and  saints" 
days,  upon  which  selections  are  appointed 
which  have  some  special  appropriateness. 
Then,  the  selections  for  continuous  reading 
bear  some  relation   to  the  time  of  year,  as 


PERKINS 


(704) 


PERRY 


for  example,  the  Gospel  of  John  and  the 
Acts  are  the  selections  for  the  period  includ- 
ing Easter  and  Pentecost.  In  the  remain- 
der of  the  year  it  is  evident  that  the  series 
of  Sundays,  that  of  the  Sabbaths  or  Satur- 
days, and  that  of  the  other  five  days  of  the 
week  have  each  a  special  system  of  continu- 
ous lessons.  The  Armenian  Church  has 
much  longer  selections  from  the  Scriptures 
than  the  Greek,  and  includes  larger  selec- 
tions from  the  Old  Testament.  The  Nesto- 
rian  Church  vpas  the  first  to  prepare  a  lec- 
tionary  in  w^hich  pericopes  should  be  marked 
out  for  all  the  church  year,  and  in  which  the 
Old  Testament  should  be  assigned  a  place 
side  by  side  with  the  New,  double  lessons 
from  it  being  assigned  to  the  entire  year. 
In  North  Africa,  in  TertuUian's  time,  there 
was  a  selection  of  passages  which  gave  a 
substantially  continuous  series  of  readings. 
In  the  West  there  were  at  first  many  dis- 
tinct systems,  as  the  Capuan,  the  Gallic, 
the  Milanese,  the  Mozarabic.  These  grad- 
ually were  replaced  by  the  Roman,  which  is 
the  result  of  a  long  development.  It  bears 
marks  of  the  confusion  introduced  by  a 
multitude  of  leading  ideas  prevailing  at 
different  times.  The  Reformation,  which 
introduced  the  regular  study  of  the  Bible 
and  employed  it  as  the  base  of  continuous 
expository  preaching,  brought  in  again  the 
ancient  practice  of  continuous  selections. 
This  reached  its  greatest  compass  in  the 
English  Church  which  provided  the  system 
retained  in  it  to  this  day,  of  a  complete 
continuous  reading  of  the  Old  Testament 
during  the  year,  with  slight  exceptions,  of 
a  triple  reading  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
a  twelve-fold  reading  of  the  Psalter.  This 
continuous  reading  is,  however,  interrupted 
by  special  feast  days,  and  by  the  Sundays. 
In  the  non-liturgical  churches  of  America  all 
idea  of  continuous  public  reading  of  the 
Scripture  has  unfortunately  passed  from  tlie 
minds  of  pastors  and  people,  till  in  general 
only  short  lessons,  which  are  intended  to 
have  some  bearing  upon  the  special  teachr 
ing  of  the  day,  are  read.  F.  H.  F. 

Perkins,  Justin,  D.D,,  missionary;  b.  at 
West  Springfield,  Mass.,  Marcli  12,  180.5;  d. 
at  Chicopee,  Mass.,  Dec.  31,  1869.  He  grad- 
uated at  Amherst,  1829,  spent  two  years  at 
Andover,  and  in  1883  entered  the  Congrega- 
tional ministry  and  was  sent  by  the  A.  B.  C. 
F.  M.  to  the  Nestorians  in  Persia,  reaching 
Oroomiah,  the  scene  of  his  labors,  Nov., 
1834.  Here  he  translated  the  Bible  and 
other  books.  In  1842  he  travelled  through 
tlie  United  States  with  Mar  Yohanan,  a 
native  bishop.  In  Aug.,  1869,  he  came  home 
to  die.  He  published  Eh/kt  Yearfi  in  Per- 
sia, Andover,  1843,  and  Missionary  Life  in 
Persia,  Boston,  1861.  F.  M.  B. 

Perkins,  William,  b.  at  Marston  Jahet, 
Warwickshire,  Eng.,  in  15.58;  d.  at  Cam- 
bridge, in  1602;  studied  at  Cambridge,  took 
holy  orders,  and  was  elected  rector  of  St. 
Andrew's  there  in  1.585.  He  was  an  ex- 
treme Calvinist  in  doctrine  and  his  Armilla 
Aurea,  Cambridge,  1590,  forms  the  intro- 
duction to  the  whole  Arminian  Contro- 
versy. His  collected  works  appeared  at 
Cambridge,  1603,  3  vols,  f  ol.  C.  P. 


Perowne,  Right  Rev.  John  James  Stewart, 
D.D.  (Cambridge,  1873),  Church  of  England,, 
b.  at  Burdwan,  Bengal,  India,  March  13, 
1823,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  Eng., 
held  various  university  appointments,  Hul- 
sean  professor  of  divinity  1875-78;  became 
dean  of  Peterborough  in  1878;  bishop  of 
Worcester  1890,  He  is  editor  of  The  Cam- 
bridge Bible  for  Schools,  1817,  sqq.,  and  pulj- 
lished  The  Book  of  Psalms,  a  New  Trans- 
lation with  Notes,  London,  1864-68,  2  vols., 
6th  ed.,  1886;  Immortality  (Hulsean  Lectures), 
1809;  Sermons,  1873,  etc. 

Perpetua,  a  Roman  matron,  liberally 
educated,  who  was  martyred  at  Carthage 
in  the  reign  of  Septimus  Severus  (19.3-211), 
with  great  cruelty,  in  connection  with 
several  others.  She  is  famoi;s  for  tlie  firm- 
ness with  which  she  resisted  the  entreaties 
of  her  father,  and  her  natural  desire  to  live 
for  the  sake  of  her  infant  son.        F.  H.  F. 

Per-ro'-ne,  Giovanni,b.  at  Chieri, Piedmont, 
in  1794;  d.  in  Rome  Aug.  29,  1876;  studied 
theology  in  Turin,  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1815,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Orvieto  in  1816  and  in  Col- 
legium Romanum  in  1823,  and  was  during 
his  lifetime,  as  he  still  is,  the  leading  rep- 
resentative of  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Roman 
Church.  His  Prolectiones  Theologica,  Rome, 
1835,  9  vols.,  was  often  reprinted  and  trans- 
lated both  into  German  and  French,  there 
is  also  an  abridged  edition  of  it,  Rome, 
1845,  4  vols.,  which  has  been  translated  too 
into  other  languages.  Among  his  other 
writings  are  De  Lmnaculato  Concepta,  1847; 
II  Protestantismo,  1843,  3  vols.,  translated 
into  French,  Paris,  1854.  I)e  infalllbiUtate 
B.  P.,  1874,  etc.  His  life  was  written  by 
Feret:  Le  Cardinal  du  Perron,  Paris,  1876. 

Perronet,  Edward,  Independent;  b.  at 
Shoreham,  56  m.  s.  by  w.  of  London,  1721; 
d.  at  Canterbury,  1792.  The  son  of  an  evan- 
gelical clergyman  of  note,  he  became  one 
of  Wesley's  preachers,  then  joined  Lady 
Huntington,  and  finally  withdrew  from  the 
Established  Church.  He  is  remembered  for 
the  hymn,  "  All  hail  the  power  of  Jesus' 
name"  (1780).  His  Occasional  Verses,  1785^ 
contain  nothing  else  of  equal  value. 

F.  M.  B. 

Perry,  Right  Rev.  William  Stevens,  S.T. 
D.  (Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1869), 
LL.D.  (William  and  Mary  College,  Wil- 
liamsburg, Pa.,  1876),  D.C.L.  (University 
of  Bishops'  College,  Lennoxville,  Can., 
1885),  Episcopalian,  bishop  of  Iowa;  b.  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  Jan.  22,  1832,  graduated 
at  Harvard  College,  1854,  studied  theology 
in  the  Alexandria  Theological  Seminary, 
Va.,  and  privately,  held  various  pastoral 
charges  and  was  in  1876  consecrated  bishop 
of  Iowa.  He  published  Life  Lessons  from 
the  Book  of  Proverbs,  New  York,  1872,  4th 
ed.,  1885;  A  Sunday-School  Experiment, 
1874,  3d  ed,,  1877;  The  History  of  the  Ameri- 
can Episcopal  Church,  Boston,  1885,  2  vols.; 
besides  numerous  minor  publications,  a 
complete  bibliography  of  which  is  found 
in  the  Encyclopoedla  of  Living  Divines,  New 
York,  1877,  n.  e.,  1891. 


PERSECUTION 


(705) 


PERSECUTION 


Persecution  as  a  phenomenon  in  tlie  his- 
tory of  Christianity  may  be  defined  as  tlie 
employment  of  force  to  control  religious 
opinion.  It  is  thus  an  evil  result  of  the 
union  of  the  church  with  the  state  which 
began  with  the  edict  of  Milan  issued  in  ;318 
Iry  the  first  "  Christian ''  emperor,  Con- 
stantine,  and  which  has  survived  in  various 
forms  to  the  present  day.  Its  application 
to  modes  of  moral  control  of  religious  opin- 
ion is  an  improper  one,  though  methods 
may  be  employed  in  resisting  opinions 
without  resort  to  force,  which  do  not  differ 
in  their  spirit  from  persecution.  The  rem- 
edy for  persecution  is  the  entire  separation 
of  churcli  and  state  everywhere,  and  then 
the  cultivation  of  the  truly  religious  spirit 
in  the  church.  This  is  not  a  persecuting 
spirit.  Confidence  in  the  control  of  (lod 
in  the  world  will  remove  all  apparent 
necessity  for  the  interference  of  man. 

The  history  of  Christian  persecutions  in 
the  Roman  Empire  forms  a  distinct  topic  in 
church  history.  The  political  constitution 
of  the  empire  was  such  that  at  any  moment, 
to  gain  any  point  wliich  the  government 
deemed  important  enough,  all  the  forc^e  of 
the  state,  legislative,  judicial,  and  execu- 
tive, could  be  gathered  in  one  hand  and 
used  to  one  end.  The  religious  constitu- 
tion made  persecution,  when  Christianity 
should  once  appear  above  the  surface  of 
society,  a  moral  necessity.  There  was  a 
complete  union  between  church  and  state, 
and  it  was  the  general  pt>int  of  view  octru- 
pied  by  the  whole  ancient  system,  that  an 
offence  against  religion  was  an  offence 
against  the  state,  and  must  accordingly  l)e 
punished  by  the  state.  The  courts  took 
cognizance,  therefore,  of  matters  of  opinion 
as  a  part  of  their  regular  business.  True, 
there  was  toleration  in  the  Roman  Empire, 
but  it  was  a  limited  toleration.  When  a 
nation  was  conrpiered,  its  people  might  go 
on  worshipping  their  own  deities,  and  citi- 
zens of  the  subjected  nations  might  exercise 
their  worship  in  Rome.  But  it  was  lawful 
for  a  Roman  neither  in  the  conquered  na- 
tion, nor  at  Rome  to  join  in  such  worship, 
except  Tipon  special  decree  of  the  Senate. 
These  tolerated  religions  were  called  re- 
lii/iones  liritne.  Xow  Christianity  was  a 
religion  without  a  ])eople.  It  could  not, 
therefore,  receive  toleraticm  under  the 
Roman  system.  It  was  lawful  for  no  one 
anywhere  to  worship  according  to  the 
Christian  forms.  Hence  to  be  a  Christian 
was  a  crime  against  the  religious  system  of 
the  empire,  ami  for  that  reason  alone, 
a  crime  against  the  empire  in  its  polit- 
ical aspect.  It  might  be  allowed  to  go  on 
for  a  time  withr)nt  the  adoption  of  severe 
measures  against  it.  But  if  it  became  a 
special  object  of  susi)icion  to  the  govern- 
ment, every  power  of  the  empire  could  be 
marshalled  against  it  immediately.  Xor 
were  suspicious  elements  wanting.  The 
secluded  meetings  were  easily  mistaken 
for  the  .seciet  assemblies  forl)idden  by  the 
law  as  dangerous  to  the  state.  The  absence 
of  images  pointed  to  the  absence  of  any 
belief  in  (iod,  to  atheism.  .\nd  the  refusal 
of  the  Christians  subseciuently  to  go 
through    with    certain   forms    of    worship 


when  they  were  openly  demanded  as  mere 
forms  was  interpreted  as  obstinacy,  which 
pointed  to  such  a  degree  of  fanaticism  as 
must  be  capable  of  any  violence. 

But  the  first  persecution  had  a  simpler 
origin.  Nero  had  become  an  object  of  sus- 
picion as  having  set  hre  to  the  city  of  Rome 
in  the  year  '(>4,  when  a  conflagration  had 
destroyed  a  large  part  of  it.  To  divert  this 
suspicion  he  accused  the  Christians.  The 
charge  may  have  had  more  credi])ility  be- 
cause the  Christians  generally  taught  the 
near  end  of  the  world  by  fire.  Certain  con- 
fessed, and  upon  their  testimony  a  "great 
multitude"  were  convicted  of  "hate  of 
the  human  race"  and  were  executed  with 
hideous  tortures.  The  church  at  Rome  was 
for  the  moment  almost  annihilated. 

After  some  slighter  persecutions  under 
Domitian  (81-90)  came  as  the  next  impor- 
tant persecution  that  under  Trajan  (98-117). 
It  began  with  a  revival  of  the  laws  against 
secret  societies,  under  which  many  Chris- 
tians were  coidemned.  Our  information 
as  to  it  is  derived  principally  from  the  let- 
ters of  Pliny  the  Younger  to  Trajan. 
(Trans,  in  Bohn's series.)  He  inquired  what 
should  be  done  with  the  increasing  num- 
bers of  followers  of  the  new  religion.  Tra- 
jan replied  that  mild  measures  should  be 
employed.  Christians  were  not  to  be 
searched  for,  but  if  accused  and  convicted 
they  were  to  be  punished.  There  must  be 
always,  however,  a  responsible  prosecutor. 
But  under  this  comparatively  mild  reply 
very  many  Christians  were  executed,  and 
some  were  tortured.  Ignatius,  bishop  of 
Antioch,  presented  himself  before  the 
emperor  when  he  was  in  Antioch,  was  con- 
demned as  a  Christian  and  sent  to  Rome 
where  he  was  thrown  immediately  to  the 
lions  (110). 

The  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  (1.37-101  > 
was  marked  by  the  death  of  Polycarj)  at 
.Smyrna.  The  proconsul  made  efforts  to 
induce  him  to  deny  Christ,  but  when  he 
refused  and  then  acknowledged  himself  a 
Christian,  he  w^as  condemned  to  be  burnt 
for  this  reason  alone. 

Under  Marcus  Aurelius  (101-180)  there 
were  again  severe  persecutions.  They  can- 
not be  traced  to  the  emperor  himself,  but 
he  did  not  interfere  to  protect  Christians. 
The  calamities  under  which  the  state  suf- 
fered. Hoods,  earthquakes,  pestilences, 
etc.,  stirred  up  the  peoi)le  and  the  govern- 
ment to  placate  the  neglected  gods  by  per- 
secuting their  chief  neglecters.  Search  was 
now  made  for  Christians  by  express  com- 
mand. The  chief  .scenes  of  persecution 
were  Lyons  and  Vienne  in  Gaul,  where 
almost  the  whole  church  were  at  one  time 
imi)risoned  together.  Pothinus,  the  aged 
bisho]),  and  iVlandina,  a  female  slave,  were 
martvi'cd  at  this  time.  Justiji  Martyr  also 
fell  in  Rome  (100). 

Under  Septimius  Severus  (193-211)  there 
were  considerable  persecutions  in  Egypt 
and  North  Africa.  Perpetua  and  Felicitas 
were  martyred  at  C'arthage. 

In  all  these  'persecutions  there  is  some- 
thing of  the  unpremediatcd  and  spasmodic. 
But  now,  after  a  period  of  comparative 
peace   for  nearly  CiO  years,   in  which   the 


{ 


PERSECUTION 


(706) 


PERSEVERANCE 


church  had  greatly  increased  in  number, 
the  iioveriiment  became  alarmed,  and  made 
under  Decius  in  250  a  deliberate  attempt  to 
extirpate  Christianity.  An  edict  was  pub- 
lished enjoining  under  the  heaviest  penal- 
ties the  return  of  the  people  to  the  old 
religion.  Confiscation,  exile,  toi'ture,  prom- 
ises and  threats  were  employed  to  induce 
Christians  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods.  Many 
had  found  a  place  in  the  external  church 
who  were  not  really  of  it,  and  these  fell 
away  in  great  numbers.  (See  article 
Lapsed).  A  gi-eat  desire  was  developed 
among  Christians  for  the  "  crown  of  mar- 
tyrdom," and  bishops  who  fled  from  per- 
secution were  looked  upon  with  some  sus- 
picion. Cyprian  who  at  first  fled  after- 
wards vindicated  himself  by  suffering 
bravely  in  258.  The  authorities  were  es- 
pecially severe  with  bishops  and  other 
leaders  of  the  churches. 

Now  followed  after  the  edict  of  Gal- 
lieuces,  which  made  Christianity  a  religio 
licita,  another  ])eriod  of  peace  (260-oOo) 
which  was  succeeded  by  the  final  struggle 
under  Diocletian.  It  had  been  the  purpose 
of  this  emperor  to  re-establish  the  old 
Eoman  Empire,  and  he  had  remodeled  the 
form  of  government  at  many  points  in 
order  to  accomplish  this  object.  He  must 
have  finally  perceived  that  the  old  empire 
needed  the  old  religion  as  its  basis,  and, 
though  he  long  spared  the  Christians,  he 
was  at  last  induced  by  Galerius  to  begin 
persecution.  Though  Diocletian  showed 
little  personal  interest  in  the  persecution, 
it  was  really  a  serious  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  government  to  annihilate  Christian- 
ity. In  303  there  were  issued  three  severe 
edicts.  They  commanded  the  churches  to 
be  razed,  those  who  held  public  office  to 
be  expelled.  Christian  slaves  to  be  de- 
prived of  all  hope  of  ever  gaining  their 
liberty,  bishops  to  be  imprisoned,  every- 
body to  sacrifice,  and  all  who  refused  to  be 
tortured.  Since  the  Bible  was  the  charter 
of  Christian  liberties,  all  copies  of  it  were 
commanded  to  be  surrendered.  The  per- 
secution began  with  the  destruction  of  the 
church  in  iSTicomedia,  Feb.  23,  303.  The 
persecution  spread  over  all  the  empire  ex- 
cept Spain,  Gaul  and  Britain,  where  Chris- 
tians were  protected  by  Constantius  Chlo- 
rus,  the  father  of  Constantine.  In  the  East 
it  was  extremely  severe,  and  vvhen  other 
methods  had  failed,  in  308  an  edict  was 
issued  which  commanded  that  all  the  peo- 
ple should  sacrifice,  and  even  that  all  pro- 
visions in  the  markets  should  be  sprinkled 
with  sacrificial  wine.  This  was  an  attempt 
to  starve  Christianity  out.  For  eight  years 
the  persecution  raged.  There  were  many 
apostates,  but  the  failure  of  the  attempt  to 
desti-oy  Christianity  was  at  last  so  clear 
that  Galerius  himself  was  the  one  who,  by 
an  edict  from  Nicomedia,  put  an  end  to 
the  struggle  in  311;  and  in  313  came  the 
edict  of  Milan,  which  placed  Christianity 
upon  a  level  with  heathenism,  and  com- 
manded that  the  property  which  had  been 
taken  from  the  church  should  be  restored 
at  the  expense  of  the  public  treasury. 
And  now,  as  Diocletian  had  attempted  to 
found   his  empire  upon  paganism  by  the 


destruction  of  Christianity,  Constantine 
founded  his  upon  that  threatened  but  now 
triumphant  religion. 

The  great  firmness  of  the  Christians 
amid  so  great  tortures  as  they  suffered  is 
a  phenomenon  demanding  attention.  The 
fact  that  there  was  apostasy  among  them 
does  not  destroy  this  demand,  for  it  is  no 
wonder  that  under  such  a  pressure  the 
courage  of  men  should  give  way.  It  is 
still  a  wonder  that  the  courage  of  any 
should  hold  out  to  the  end.  The  explana- 
tion given  by  the  Christians  themselves 
was  that  the  charges  made  against  them  of 
immoral  conduct,  etc.,  were  untrue,  and  so 
^could  not  be  acknowledged  without  false- 
hood; and  that  they  were  supported  in 
their  allegiance  to  the  truth  by  the  super- 
natural aid  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
Now  this  explanation  must  be  acknowl- 
edged, or  it  must  be  maintained  that  the 
Christians  were  supported  by  a  great  and 
unfounded  enthusiasm.  The  explanation 
of  their  steadfastness  by  such  an  enthusi- 
asm will  not  hold,  for  the  character  of 
many  of  them  is  against  it.  Such  grave  men 
as  Cjpi'ian,  an  ecclesiastical  prince,  or 
Polycarp,  or  .Justin,  were  not  carried  away 
by  enthusiasm.  Then,  again,  they  are  of 
too  diverse  age  and  condition  for  this  ex- 
planation. Their  sufferings  stretch  over 
too  great  a  period  in  the  early  chvirch,  and 
inasmuch  as  they  have  not  ceased  yet,  mar- 
tyrs like  Hannington  dying  still  in  Africa, 
they  extend  over  far  too  long  a  period  on 
the  whole  to  admit  of  any  false,  and  so 
temporary,  enthusiasm.  Hence  the  expla- 
nation of  the  Christians  themselves  must 
be  accepted  as  the  true  one,  and  that  the 
more  confidently  since  there  are  many  in 
our  own  day  who  out  of  sympathy  with 
the  past  are  capable  of  interpreting  the 
sufferings  past,  as  they  are  also  capable 
of  sharing  them.  This  explanation  is 
strengthened  by  the  impossibility  of  con- 
ceiving what  unworthy  motive  could  have 
prompted  the  Christians  to  endure  such 
hardships.  There  was  no  fame  to  be 
gained  except  in  a  very  limited  circle,  no 
wealth,  no  advantage  of  any  kind,  nothing 
but  death  and  heaven!  And  lience  we 
must  conclude  that  the  sufferings  of  the 
Christians  exhibit  one  case  of  the  operation 
of  the  supernatural  in  the  world.  The  ex- 
istence of  the  other  instances  of  the  same  su- 
pernatural power  confirm  and  explain  this 
particular  case.  And  thus,  while  the  perse- 
cutions should  never  be  made  the  sole  ar- 
gument for  the  divine  origin  of  Christianity, 
they  are  still  a  strong  argument  for  it. 
(See  Uhlhorn,  Conflict  of  Christianity  loith 
Heathenism,  Eng.  Trans.,  New  York,  1879; 
A.  J.  Mason,  The  Persecution  of  Diocletian, 
London,  1876.)  F.  H.  F. 

Per-sep'-o-lis,  a  celebrated  city,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Persian  monarchs  till  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  Its  extensive 
ruins  still  exist  and  are  called  Chel-Minar, 
or  "  Forty  pillars."  It  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  Bible,  but  occurs  in  the  Apocrypha  (2 
Mace.  ix.  2).  T.  W.  C. 

Perseverance  of  the  Saints  is  their  con- 
tinuance  in  grace  until  they  reach  glory. 


PERSIA 


(707) 


PERSIA 


It  is  the  fifth  of  the  Five  Points  of  Calvin- 
ism, was  first  clearly  stated  by  Au<,aistine, 
and  is  held  by  all  the  Keformed  Churches 
as  a  lofrical  consequent  of  the  doctrine  of 
election.  It  is  opposed  by  Arniinians  as 
inconsistent  with  the  liberty  of  the  will, 
with  the  warninffs  addressed  to  believers, 
and  with  the  facts  of  daily  experience  as 
superseding  the  use  of  means  and  as  un- 
friendly to  morality.  Calvinists  uphold  it 
on  the  ground  of  election,  of  the  believer's 
union  to  Christ,  of  the  efficacy  of  the  Sav- 
iour's atonement  and  intercession,  of  the 
indwelling  of  the  Spirit,  and  of  numerous 
Scriptures  (e.g.  1  Pet.  i.  5),  at  the  same  time 
insisting  that  it  means  not  that  he  who 
once  believes  is  sure  of  salvation,  live  as  he 
may,  but  that  God  secures  the  salvation  of 
the  believer  by  keeping  him,  through  faith, 
in  the  way  of  holy  obedience  to  the  end. 
In  tliis  sense  the  doctrine  might  rather  be 
called  the  Preservation  than  the  Persever- 
ance of  the  Saints.  T.  W.  C. 

Persia,  Evangelical  Syrian  Church.  See 
Pkesuytehian  Chl'Rchks,  Persia. 

Persia,  Religions  of.  Comparative  Phi- 
lology has  made  it  possible  to  distinguish 
in  tile  prehistoric  religious  development  of 
Persia  an  older  Indo-germanic  and  a  later 
Indo-Persian  or  Aryan  period.  To  the 
earlier  Indo-germanic  belong  the  worship  of 
the  god  of  heaven.  Dyaus,  homage  paid  to 
ancestors,  the  struggle  between  the  gods  of 
light  and  hostile  powers.  On  the  other 
hand  many  features  common  to  Indians  and 
Persians  do  not  occur  among  the  other 
Indo-germans  or  only  in  half-obliterated 
traces.  The  recognition  of  the  sacredness 
of  fire  and  the  use  of  the  sacrificial  bever- 
age. Soma  (in  Avestan.  Ilaoma),  seem 
specifically  Aryan  or  Indo-persian.  The 
Vedic  Mitra  and  Yama  for  exami)le  corre- 
spond with  the  Persian  Mithra  and  Yima. 
Both  regarded  the  cow  with  special  hom- 
age. The  history  of  the  Indian  and  that 
o?  the  Persian  religions  begins  in  the  Veda 
and  in  the  Avesta,  with  tlTe  establishment 
of  a  priesthood.  A  striking  resemblance  is 
the  comprehension  of  the  world,  the  gods, 
nature,  worship  in  one  conception  as  the 
sacred  "  order."  The  Vedic  rita  designa- 
ting this  order  is  the  Avestan  asha.  In  the 
historic  period  Indians  and  Persians  con- 
tinued in  different  directions  the  Aryan 
beginnings.  Before  the  time  of  the  Medes 
and  Cyrus  Iranian  history  is  obscure.  Tlie 
oldest  Iranian  empire  was  the  Median,  that 
immediately  preceded  the  Persian  of  Cyrus. 
Cyrus  founded  the  Persian  empire  which 
was  ruled  by  the  Achaenu-nidae  somewhat 
more  than  two  hundred  years,  until  Alex- 
ander the  Great  put  an  end  to  their  sway. 
The  Macedonian  and  Syrian  (Seleucid)  do- 
minions did  not  last  even  a  century,  for 
the  Parthian  kings  declared  their  independ- 
ence about  250  B.C.  This  Parthian  kingdom 
lasted  under  the  Arsacidae  until  227  a.d. 
It  was  supplanted  by  the  dynasty  of  the 
Sassanidac.  This  was  in  its  turn  overthrown 
by  the  Arabs  in  651  and  Persia  has  since  been 
Mohammedan. 

It  is  only  in  the  case  of  the  period  of  the 
Sassanidac   that  the  literature  is  at  all  rich. 


The  period  of  the  Arsacidae  is  extremely 
obscure,  only  Koman  'and  Byzantine  au- 
thors and  coins  affording  some  hints  regard- 
ing it. 

The  first  native  source  of  information  to 
become  well-known  was  the  inscriptions  of 
the  Acliaciiicuidae.  Cuneiform  research 
began  with  the  decipherment  of  this  sim- 
plest, because  alphabetical  species  of  cune- 
iform upon  the  Persian  monuments.  Of 
Cyrus  only  one  quite  short  inscription  has 
yet  been  found,  that  at  Murghab,  probably 
upon  his  grave.  The  most  detailed  inscrip- 
ticms  are  those  of  Darius  on  the  rock  of 
Behistun  and  at  Persepolis.  According  to 
these  inscriptions  the  kings  of  Persia  were 
zealous  servants  of  Auramazda,  who  had 
created  everything  and  to  whom  they  owed 
their  thrones.  Aside  from  Auramazda  the 
inscriptions  mention  clan-gods,  and  Artax- 
erxes  Mnemcm  puts  Anahita  and  Mithra 
beside  Auramazda. 

The  dialect  of  these  inscriptions  is  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  Avefeta.  In  view  and 
usage  the  most  important  difference  is  that 
these  Persian  kings  were  buried,  a  practice 
which  the  Avesta  vigorously  condemns. 
That  the  inscriptions  leave  much  unmen- 
tioned  follows  from  their  character  as  in- 
scriptions. 

The  religious  books  of  Persia  had  at- 
tracted attention  somewhat  earlier  than 
these  inscriptions,  but  it  was  long  before 
they  could  be  interpreted.  The  most  im- 
portant work  on  the  history  of  the  religitm 
of  Persia  written  before  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  was  Hyde's  Hisioi-ia  rclirjionis 
veterum  Perftariwi,  who  described  the  relig- 
ion as  monotheistic  and  derived  it  from  the 
Jewish.  This  information  was  largely  based 
on  the  accounts  of  Greek  and  Latin  writers. 
The  ancient  Persian  writings  were  quite 
unintelligible  to  him.  He  translated  only 
tlie  recent  book  the  SaxhJer  from  the  Mod- 
ern Persian.  A  new  era  began  with  AiKjue- 
til-Duperron.  He  went  to  India  in  1755 
with  the  special  purpose  of  obtaining  man- 
uscripts, and  the  knowledge  requisite  to 
translate  them,  and  returned  in  17()1  with 
many  manuscripts  and  wliat  he  believed 
was  the  knowledge  requisite  for  a  transla- 
tion. In  1771  he  published  his  Zeml-Avesta, 
Ouvrar/e  de  Zoroasire.  contcnant  Uh  Idees 
TheologUjueH,  Physiques  et  Horalcs  de  ce 
Ler/islatenr.  Anquetil-Dui)erron  rendered  a 
great  service  in  bringing  his  collection  of 
manuscripts  to  Paris.  His  travels  and  de- 
scriptions of  ceremonies  were  of  value  but 
his  work  can  no  longer  claim  to  be  a  trans- 
lation in  any  strict  sense.  He  communi- 
cated in  ]\Iodern  Persian  with  his  Parsl 
teachers  who  paraphrased  to  liim  loosely  the 
Pahlavi  translation  of  the  Avestan,  which 
he  jotted  down.  The  Avestan  the  Parsis 
themselves  had  ceased  to  understand.  The 
apparent  absurdity  of  the  contents  of  An- 
qnetil's  supposed  translation  led,  among 
others.  Sir  William  Jones  to  maintniii  that 
the  book  was  a  forgery.  The  Danisli  jihi- 
lologist  Rask,  in  1826,  first  directed  attention 
to  the  value  of  Sanskrit  and  comiKirative 
philology,  as  furnishing  aids  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Zend.  The  comparison  of 
S'eryosangh's     Sanskrit    translation     of    the 


PERSIA 


(708) 


PERSIA 


Pahlavi  translation  leading  him  to  doubt 
'the  value  of  Anqaetil's  versions,  Burnouf 
began  to  try  to  reconstruct  the  Avestan 
grammar  in  the  light  of  a  comparison  of 
each  word  and  form  vrith  the  Sanskrit  and 
Vedic  so  far  as  known  to  him.  Burnouf  s 
Commentaire  sur  le  Ya<;na  though  treating 
only  a  small  part  of  the  text  thus  became  the 
basis  of  all  subsequent  study  of  the  Avesta. 

The  name  Zendavesta  was  introduced  by 
Anquetil-Duperron  as  the  name  of  the  col- 
lection of  Persian  sacred  books  discovered 
by  him.  He  explained  it  as  meaning  "liv- 
ing word."  We  must  call  the  book  Avtsta, 
wlrch  probably  means  "text,"  "law." 
Zend  is  the  commentary,  the  Pahlavi  trans- 
lation, as  Pazend  designates  the  later 
glosses  Avritten  in  Modern  Persian.  One 
must  therefore  speak  of  Avesta  and  Zend, 
text  and  version.  The  word  Zend  is,  how- 
ever at  the  same  time  in  use  for  the  lan- 
guage in  which  the  Avesta  is  written. 
This  has  no  justification,  as  the  Zend  lan- 
guage if  anything  would  rightly  mean  not 
the  language  of  the  Avesta,  but  the  Pah- 
lavi, the  language  of  the  translation.  The 
names  Ancient  Bactrian  and  Median  have 
been  suggested  but  each  has  met  with  op- 
position as  begging  the  question  of  geo- 
graphical origin.  Hence  the  quite  general 
use  of  the  conservative  term  Avestan  to 
designate  the  language.  The  Avestan  is 
related  to  tlie  ancient  .Sanskrit  of  the  Vedic 
hymns,  but  still  an  independent  branch  of 
the  Aryan  linguistic  family,  dialectically 
different  from  ithe  Ancient  Persian  of  the 
inscriptions  of  the  Achaemenidae  and  far 
removed  from  the  Pahlavi  of  the  Sassanian 
time,  which  was  theoretically  written  in 
Semitic  and  pronounced  in  Iranian  of  a 
much  later  type  than  that  of  the  in- 
scriptions. Within  the  Avesta  itself  there 
are  also  differences.  A  part  of  it,  the  so- 
called  Gathas,  are  written  in  a  much  older 
dialect  than  the  mass  of  the  Avesta. 

The  original  Avesta,  lost  or  destroyed  at 
the  conquest  by  Alexander,  is  said  to  have 
extended  to  200,000  lines.  The  gi'ound  of 
the  preservation  of  the  texts  we  have  is 
that  they  are  mostly  liturgical  or  were  used 
liturgically.  The  texts  have  been  edited  in 
the  original  by  Westergaard,  Spiegel  (with 
the  Pahlavi  translations  and  later  Ne-ryo- 
sangh's  Sanskrit  version),  Geldner  and 
Brockhaus,  the  last  of  whom  published 
them  in  the  form  known  as  the  Vendidad 
Sadah  or  Pure  Vendidad,  that  is  that  in 
which  it  is  unaccompanied  by  the  Pahlavi 
translation  and  arranged  for  liturgic  use. 
Geldner' s  resting  on  a  marvellously  com- 
plete and  painstaking  collection  of  MSS.  is 
the  latest  and  best,  indeed,  one  of  the 
monumental  works  of  the  century. 

Translations  have  been  published  of  the 
whole  Avesta  in  French  by  De  Harlez  and 
in  German  by  Spiegel,  while  Darmesteter 
has  translated  the  Vendidad  and  Mills  the 
Ya.sna  into  English.  (S.  B.  E.  Vols.  IV., 
XXIII.,  XXXI.)  Chapters  have  been 
translated  by  a  number  of  scholars.  Roth, 
Geldner,  Bartholomae,  Windischmann, 
Htibschmann,  Geiger,  into  German,  Haug 
(Essays,  Triibner)  and  Jackson  (Yasna, 
XXXI.,  Stuttgart,  1888)  into  English. 


The  first  book  of  this  collection  is  called 
the  Vendidad;  the  law  against  the  Daeva 
or  Evil  Spirits  It  is  mostly  a  code  with 
prescriptions  on  the  subject  of  purification, 
its  20  Fargards,  however,  do  not  form  a 
unity.  Not  only  do  several  whole  chapters 
bear  an  absolutely  different  character  from 
the  mass  of  the  book,  but  also  within  the 
individual  Fargards  there  are  many  unmis- 
takable glosses  and  interpolations.  The 
first  2  chapters,  for  example,  give  frag- 
ments of  cosmogonic  and  epic  narratives. 
The  form  of  the  whole  is  that  of  a  dialogue 
between  Zarathushtra,  who  puts  questions, 
and  the  divinity,  Ahura  Mazda,  who  answers 
them.  The  Vispered,  so  named  from  its 
initial  words  (vi^pe  ratavo,  all  Lords)  consist 
of  27  short  sections,  that  contain  prayers 
and  formulas  that  were  uttered  in  the  course 
of  the  worship  yet  had  no  independent  value, 
but  were  mostly  added  at  the  beginning  or 
the  end  of  other  texts. 

The  Yasna  consists  of  72  Ha  or  chapters. 
There  is  in  these  a  great  difference  of  char- 
acter. The  parts  must  first  be  distin- 
guished which  by  virtue  of  their  antique 
dialect  maintain  a  place  of  their  own. 
These  are  the  5  collections  of  songs  known 
under  the  name  of  Gathas,  and  the  small 
prose  collection  known  as  the  Yasna  hap- 
tan  haiti,  the  Yasna  of  the  7  Has.  These 
pieces  form  Has  28-52.  The  Gathas  present 
great  difficulties,  and  may  be  said  to  be  still 
in  the  j^rocess  of  decipherment.  The  remain- 
ing parts  of  the  Yasna  consist  of  invoca- 
tions and  foi-mulse  to  be  used  in  worship 
with  numerous  repetitions,  confessions  of 
faith,  expansions  and  explanations  of  the 
most  important  prayers,  extollings  of  the 
Gathas,  etc. 

These  3  books,  the  Vendidad,  Vispered 
and  Yasna,  when  mingled  in  a  definite  order 
formed  under  the  name  Vendidad  Sddah, 
the  text  of  the  great  sacrificial  liturgy. 

As  distinguished  from  these  books  which 
constitute  the  greater  Avesta,  we  have  the 
Khordah  Avesta,  or  Little  Avesta.  The 
most  important  part  of  this  consists  of  the 
songs  of  praise  addressed  to  individual 
divinities,  of  which  about  20  are  preserved 
under  the  name  Yasht.  Aside  from  these 
songs  the  Little  Avesta  contains  the 
Gab,  prayers  uttered  at  the  5  divisions  of 
the  day,  Sirozahs,  invocations  addressed  to 
the  spirits  of  the  30  days  of  the  month,  .5 
supplications  (Nyayish),  which  were  ad- 
dressed at  certain  times  to  the  Sun, 
Mithra,  the  Moon,  the  Waters  and  Fire,  3 
formulae  of  blessings,  Afrinagdn  which 
consecrated  the  meals  that  were  prepared 
for  the  spirits  at  certain  seasons.  Aside 
from  these  there  are  several  other 
prayers  and  confessions  (Patet).  The  ques- 
tions of  the  time  and  place  at  which  the 
Avesta  originated  are  very  differently 
answered.  It  is  only  possible  to  determine 
relatively  the  age  of  the  several  parts  and 
that  by  inference  from  the  character  of  the 
language  and  the  subject  matter.  All  de- 
pends upon  the  view  taken  of  the  Gathas. 
The  Gathas  are  bound  to  one  another  and 
sundered  from  other  portions  of  the  Avesta, 
as  has  been  said,  by  a  marked  difference  of 
dialect.     Some  of  these   differences  might 


PERSIA 


(10'.)) 


PERSIA 


be  taken  as  possibly  indicating  merely  con- 
temporaneous local  divergences,  but  others 
again,  as  tested  by  the  criterion  of  the 
Vedic  with  which '  they  are  much  more 
nearly  akin  than  the  corresponding  forms 
of  the  so-called  Younger  Avesta,  are  clearly  • 
far  more  ancient.  The  Gathas  have  the 
arrangement  of  a  book.  They  have  a  title 
prefixed  probably  by  the  author  of  this 
arrangement,  "fhe'^uiding  thought,  the 
guiding  speech  and  rlie  guiding  action  of 
the  righteous  Zarathushtra."  After  the 
introductory  prayers  of  Y.  US  and  the  dia- 
logues and'  allegory  of  Y.  21t  intended  to 
represent  the  function  of  Zarathushtra  as  a 
redresser  of  the  wrongs  of  the  whole  ani- 
mate creation,  in  Y.  30  Zarathushtra  him- 
self preaches  his  doctrine.  Then  come 
sayings,  urvatas  of  Ahuramazda  to  Zara- 
thushtra and  sayings  of  Zarathushtra  and  his 
disciples.  The  Yasna  haptan  haiti  shows 
itself  to  be  somewhat  later  by  the  manifest 
development  of  doctrine  and  more  formally 
didactic  philological  character.  The  Gathas 
in  at  least  their  oldest  portion  are  certainly 
the  revered  mauthra  spenta,  -'the  holy 
word." 

We  infer  from  them  that  Zarathushtrian- 
ism  arose  among  the  simple  herdsmen  of  the 
Pamir  plateau  at  a  time  when  descending 
from  the  mountains  they  we^e  enticed  to 
agriculture  by  the  increasing  adaptedness  of 
tiie  soil  or 'compelled  to  it  by  increasing 
numbers  and  induced  to  possess  themselves 
of  settled  abodes  and  devote  themselves  to 
a  regular  life. 

The  reasoning  upon  which  the  assign- 
ment of  this  region  as  the  place  where  the 
Gathas  were  first  sung  is  based,  is  irrefra- 
gable and  only  the  violation  of  elementary 
principles  of  historic  research  has  induced 
the  widely  divergent  views  which  have 
been  expressed  regarding  it.  Thei'e  is 
nothing  more  clear  tlian  that  in  the  absence 
of  special  proof  to  the  contraiy  closely  re- 
sembling dialects  prove  a  close  geographi- 
cal vicinity.  The  language  of  the  Gathas 
stands  very  near  to  the  Vedic  and  not  only 
the  language,  but  the  primitive  types  of 
metre  employed.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that 
the  language  of  the  Gathas  was  the  lan- 
guage of  a  people  residing  in  or  near  the 
regions  from  which  the  Vedic  Hindus  went 
southward  into  the  valley  of  the  Indus  and 
the  Iranians  westward.  Interrogating  the 
Crilthas  more  particularly,  all  the  facts 
about  the  vicinity  of  their  origin,  which  it 
is  possil)le  to  glean  fi-om  them  harmonize 
with  the  linguistic  inference  and  noiie 
«)ppose  it.  In  this  inference  as  to  the  place 
in  which  Zarathushtrianism  arose,  we  have 
something  so  inherently  reasonable  that  it 
should  be  retained  as  a  fundamental  fact  in 
the  absence  of  very  definite  proof. 

Such  proof  we  do  not  find  in  the  legends 
and  so-called  history  that  place  the  birth  of 
Zarathushtra  and  the'origin  of  Zarathu.shtri- 
anism  in  Hagha  and  .\tropatejie.  The  most 
that  they  necessarily  demonstrate  is  that 
the  religion  readied  in  that  region  its  final 
and  complete  sacerdotal  development.  In 
the  face  of  the  patent  fact  of  the  linguistic 
character  of  the  G.-ithas  legeiuls  and  testi- 
monies however  numerous,   which  contra- 


dict the  inference  from  it,  instead  of 
throwing  light,  ask  to  be  themselves 
explained  and  in  this  case  the  explanation 
is  of  the  simplest.  This  religion  that 
reached  its  completed  Brahmanical  stage  in 
West  Iran  could  not  in  the  view  of  its  West 
Iranian  supporters  have  originated  except 
in  West  Iran  itself.  It  originated  in  the 
chief  seats  of  its  culture;  Zarathushtra  was 
its  first  prophet.  He  was  therefore  born 
there.  Tliis  is  cogent  ancient  and  orien- 
tal reasoning. 

Supposing  the  religion  to  have  originated 
in  Bactria,  and  reached  its  final  develop- 
ment among  the  priestly  tribe  of  the  Magi 
in  Media,the  distance  alone,  between  the  two 
regions  imi)lies  a  considerable  age  for  the 
first  beginnings.  The  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  doctrine  in  the  Avesta  is  still 
more  conclusive.  From  the  testimonies  of 
the  Greek  historians,  we  know  the  legal  and 
ceremonial  system  of  the  Vendidad  to  have 
been  in  full  vigor  among  the  Magi  in  tlie 
time  of  the  Achaemenidae.  A  moment's 
reflection  on  the  length  of  time  requisite 
before  primitive  Christianity  found  ex- 
pression in  a  systematic  body  of  divinity, 
makes  the  date  given  l)y  Koth  for  the  first 
beginnings  of  Zarafbushtriaiiism,  viz.  about 
1000  B.C.  by  no  means  im].rol.ably  high. 

Tlie  complicated  i)rcs(ripti<iiis  of  the  Ven- 
didad and  the  cxtravagajit  utterances  of  the 
Yashts  regariling  Zaratiuishtra  are  no  more 
primeval  Zarathushtrianism  than  an  elabo- 
rate modern  ritual  the  devotional  usage  of 
the  earliest  church.  Primitive  Zarathush- 
trianism was  a  creed  of  few  articles. 

Varuna,  the  highest  of  the  Adityas,  the 
sons  of  Aditi  the  infinite,  as  the  chief  god 
of  light,  and  especially  as  that  of  the  illumi- 
nated night  'heaven  was  common  to  both 
branches  of  the  Aryan  race  before  their 
separation.  With  Varuna  were  associated 
a  number  of  the  highest  spiritual  concep- 
tions. The  most  striking  point  of  differ- 
ence between  the  later  developments  of  the 
Indian  and  Iranian  branches  is  that  the 
Hindus  in  the  luxuriant  growth  of  symbol- 
ism lost  in  ever  greater  degree  these  spirit- 
ual conceptions,  while  the  Iranians  had  a 
much  longer  and  firmer  grasp  of  them. 
The  development  of  the  spiritual  side  of 
Varuna,  of  which  the  IJigveda  contains 
reminiscences  so  distinct  into  the  sublime 
conception  of  Ahuramazda,  the  Spiritual 
Wise  One  oi-  the  Wise  Spirit  and  the  im- 
pression of  his  conception  in  ccmrse  of  time 
upon  the  whole  Iranian  people,  is  the  essen- 
tial fact  in  the  biography  of  Zoroaster.  As 
he  spiritualized  the  conception  of  Varuna 
into  that  of  Ahura  Mazda,  so  he  spiritual- 
ized the  other  Adityas  into  the  Amsha- 
spands,  the  Immortal  Holy  Ones,  the  ex- 
pression of  his  tpialities  and  his  ministering 
spirits.  Aramati,  who  remains  in  the  Rig- 
veda  as  the  spirit  of  pure  obedience  an<] 
the  earth  becomes  the  arcliangel  Armaiti. 
symbolical  of  tlie  same  o]>edience  and  of 
the  earth  in  her  beneficent  asjiects.  Out  of 
tlie  dominance  of  the  supreme  god  of  light 
grew  »i])  a  recognition  i»f  an  opposing  god 
of  darkness,  and  as  light  is  the  symbol  of 
tiutl).  so  this  god  of  darkness  found  a  nat- 
ural  designation   in   Druj  or  deceit.      The 


(710) 


PERSIA 


servants  of  the  Druj  became  the  dethroned 
devas  of  the  popular  religion,  who  thus 
were  degraded  to  the  rank  of  demons. 
Good  thoughts,  and  good  words,  and  good 
actions  are  prescribed  as  the  object  of 
moral  striving.  Immortality  and  heaven 
are  the  reward  of  holiness.  The  best  of 
actions  is  the  tillage  of  the  soil.  The  ele- 
ments, earth,  air,  fire  and  water,  but  espe- 
cially fire,  are  revered  as  the  expression  of 
Mazda.  The  community,  small  and  weak, 
lived  in  the  midst  of  foes,  and  strict  cohe- 
rence was  necessary  to  its  life.  Hence  the 
probable,  if  not  express  demand  that  mar- 
riages should  be  contracted  only  within  the 
clan,  a  demand  afterwards  caricatured  in 
the  "next  of  kin"  marriage.  This  simple, 
beautiful  faith  Zarathushti*a  inculcated  by 
precept,  and  defended  by  force  of  arms.  It 
is  not  so  likely,  however,  that  he  was  at- 
tacked on  religious  grounds  alone,  as  that 
the  nomadic  polytheists  of  his  vicinity  com- 
mitted depredations  for  the  mere  purpose 
of  robbei-y.  There  is  no  prescription  as  to 
the  disposal  of  the  corpse,  and  there  are  in 
general  no  elaborate  oi-dinances  as  to  purity. 
There  is  no  requirement  as  to  next  of  kin 
marriage.  The  subsequent  practices  of  the 
priests  in  tliese  regards  came  from  their 
disposition  to  carry  to  extreme  conse- 
(luences  tlie  principles  that  were  to  be 
found  in  germ,  in-  the  teachings  they  had 
received  from  their  predecessors. 

It  may  never  be  possible  to  distinguish 
much  more  exactly  than  at  present  the 
many  successive  stages  in  the  development 
of  doctrine  and  ceremonial. 

The  following  words  treat  of  their  final 
form. 

Ahuramazdao,  as  the  name  appears  in 
the  Avesta,  Auramazda  in  the  Inscriptions, 
means  the  wise  Lord  or  Spirit.  He  is  glori- 
fied as  the  creator  and  god  of  light,  purity 
and  truth,  as  the  giver  of  all  good  gifts.  The 
most  beautiful  names  are  sought  for  him, 
and  the  latest  view  of  him  is  the  loftiest. 

Upon  Ahuramazda  follow  six  spirits  with 
whom  he  forms  the  seven  holy  immortals, 
Amesha  spenta.  Five  of  these  are  origi- 
nally abstractions.  The  first  three,  Vohu 
mano,  the  good  mind,  Asha  vahishta,  the  best 
holiness,  and  Kshathra  vairya,  the  wished- 
for  kingdom,  are  scarcely  more  than  quali- 
ties of  Ahuramazda,  the  two  last  Haurvatat 
and  Ameretat,  plenty  and  immortality  are 
eternal  forces  bestowed  by  him.  Only 
Armaiti,  an  ancient  Aryan  divinity,  has  a 
more  definite  personality,  and  designates 
both  wisdom,  which  protects  and  cares  for 
the  earth  and  the  earth  itself.  Vohu  mano 
becomes  later  the  genius  that  protects  men 
and  receives  them  into  his  heavenly  abode. 
Still  later,  as  Bahman,  he  becomes'the  pro- 
tector of  the  animal  kingdom.  As  the 
genius  of  purity,  Asha  vahishta  is  also  the 
genius  of  fii-e,  the  enemy  of  sickness  and 
death,  the  opposer  of  all  evil  spirits,  and 
therefore  always  appears  in  union  with 
Atar  fire.  Kshathra  vairya  became  the 
genius  of  wealth,  the  loi-d  of  the  precious 
metals,  Haurvatat  and  Ameretat  at  the 
same  time  gods  of  health  and  long  life,  and 
of  waters  and  plants,  and  in  general  of 
fruitfulness. 


Under  the  general  name  of  Yazata,  worthy 
of  homage,  a  number  of  spii'its  were  wor- 
shipped,  some  borrowed  from  the  Aryan 
mythology,  others  peculiar  to  the  Zara- 
thushtrian  system,  Mithra,  the  god  of  light, 
Nairyo  Canha,  the  fire  god,  Apam  napat, 
the  god  of  the  fire  dwelling  in  the  waters, 
Haoma,  tlie  god  of  the  elixir  of  immortal- 
ity, Tishtrya,  the  genius  of  the  dog  star. 
The  goddess  of  the  heavenly  waters  and  of 
fruitfulness,  Anahita,  is  of  Chaldfean  origin. 
The  peculiarly  Zarathushtrian  Yazatas  are 
all,  as  the  majority  of  the  Amesha  Spenta, 
personified  ideas,  Rashnu  razishta,  the 
justest  justice,  Daena,  the  true  faith  or 
law.  The  old  prayers  were  also  raised  to 
the  rank  of  such  personifications,  and  the 
principal  among  them,  the  Ahnna  vairya 
prayer,  made  a  kind  of  Logos  or  divine 
creative  word.  The  greatest  of  the  Yazatas 
is  Sraosha,  obedience.  From  the  Yazatas 
are  distinguished  the  Fravashi,  the  divine 
or  heavenly  types  of  all  living  beings, 
including  the  Yazatas  and  the  Amesha 
spentas.  They  are  at  the  same  time  the 
souls  of  the  dead  and  the  tutelary  spirits  of 
the  living  that  are  created  before  their 
birth,  and  continue  to  live  after  their  death. 
They  are  sometimes  identified  with  the  stars. 

The  Persian  religion  is  dualistic,  not  in 
the  sense  that  it  accepted  two  hostile  gods, 
for  it  pays  no  homage  to  evil  beings,  and 
teaches  the  worship  only  of  Ahuramazda 
and  the  spirits  subject  to  him,  but  in  the 
sense  that  it  recognizes  two  opposing 
realms,  that  of  light,  truth  and  purity,  and 
that  of  darkness,  falsehood  and  impurity. 
This  distinction  extends  to  the  whole  or- 
ganic and  inorganic,  material  and  spiritual 
creati(m.  Above,  in  the  highest  spheres,  is 
the  place  of  the  unlimited  sway  of  the  all- 
wise  Lord;  below,  in  the  deepest  abyss,  the 
realm  of  his  mighty  opponent,  while  be- 
tween both  lies  the  world,  the  scene  of  the 
conflict. 

At  the  head  of  the  evil  or  dark  spirits, 
stands  Angra  mainyu,  the  attacking  or  de- 
feating spirit,  the  creator  of  all  that  is  nat- 
urally or  morally  unclean,  and  as  such  the 
counterpart  of  Ahura  mazda.  Under  him 
stand  the  Daevas,  the  Devas  of  the  Aryan  and 
pre- Aryan  period  that  have  been  degraded 
from  good  into  evil  spirits.  To  his  realm 
belong  the  Drujas,  liars  or  deceivers,  a  kind 
of  female  spirits  or  monsters,  and  the  Pairi- 
kas,  likewise  female  beings,  that  mislead 
the  pious  through  their  beauty.  These 
evil  beings  were  in  later  times  all  definitely 
arranged,  and  each  good  spirit  had  his  op- 
ponent. Angra  mainyu  becomes  in  Modern 
Persian  Ahriman. 

This  dualism  pervades  the  cosmogony, 
worship  and  whole  moral  thinking  of  the 
Mazdayasnians.  The  object  of  worship  is 
to  protect  the  pious  against  the  influence  of 
Angra  mainyu  and  his  evil  spirits.  It  is  in 
the  highest  degree  simple  without  plastic 
or  pictorial  representations  and  temples. 
Pui-e  fire  is  the  principal  element.  This  in 
connection  with  the  sacred  conjurations 
and  sacrificial  songs,  has  the  power  of 
breaking  the  might  of  the  evil  spirits.  The 
whole  life  of  tlie  believer  is  a  continuous 
conflict  against  evil.     Agriculture   and  the 


PERSONS 


(711) 


PETER 


care  of  pure  animals  and  plants  are  also 
powerful  means  of  offence  against  the 
power  of  the  realm  of  impurity,  but  also 
love  of  truth,  watchfulness  and  industry. 
Fire,  earth  and  water  are  above  all  pure. 
Corpses,  therefore,  may  neither  be  burned 
nor  burietl,  nor  thrown  into  rivers.  They 
are  exposed  to  birds  of  prey  upon  hij;ii 
structures  (dakhmas).  After  death,  souls 
must  pass  the  bridge  Cinvat.  This  is  too 
narrow  for  the  wicked.  They  fall  from  it 
into  the  lower  world  to  be  ti>rmented  by 
evil  spirits.  The  good  pass,  and  are  wel- 
comed by  Sraoslia  or  Vohu  mano  in  the 
abode  of  song,  the  dwelling  of  Ahura- 
mazda  and  the  holy.  The  joy  of  heaven  or 
the  pain  of  hell  is  not,  however,  eternal. 
Three  tliousantl  years  after  Zarathushtra, 
the  Victorious  Savior  is  to  be  born  in  a 
supernatural  manner.  The  struggle  then 
culminates.  The  evil  are  destroyed  by  tiro, 
and  the  undisturbed  sovereignty  of  Ahura- 
mazda  begins  never  to  end. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Fravashis,  and  the 
whole  doctrine  of  spirits,  with  its  rigorous 
dualism,  the  cosmogony,  the  special  rever- 
ence for  fire,  and  some  sacrificial  usages, 
are  believed  by  Tiele  to  suggest  Akkadian 
influences.  Pie  regards  it  as  probable  that 
the  Zarathushtriau  religion,  and  particu- 
larly in  its  later  development,  was  'formed 
under  the  influence  of  the  native  religion 
of  the  Medes.  and  that  the  Median  and  Per- 
sian Aryans  may  have  taken  some  elements 
from  the  Chaldaic  religions.  Mazdaism  fell 
after  the  Ureek  conquest,  but  was  restored 
by  the  Sassanidac  in  the  3d  century,  a.d.. 
again  to  be  overthrown  by  Islam.  About 
SiXX)  of  its  adherents  are  still  to  be  found  in 
Persia,  chiefly  in  Yezd  and  twenty-four  sur- 
rounding villages,  with  a  few  at  Ispahan, 
Shiraz  and  Baku,  but  most  of  them  weie 
banished.  About  IKIO  years  ago,  a  number 
of  them  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  Surat  in 
India,  where  they  have  attained  great  pros- 
perity as  merchants  and  shipbuilders.  In 
Bomf)ay  they  form  a  population  of  about 
50,(KX),  or  about  S  per  cent,  of  the  whole  pop- 
ulation, and  are  highly  respected  for  their 
virtues,  energy,  culture  and  wealth. 

Literature.— Aside  from  the  transla- 
tions cited,  viz..  The  Sacred  Books  of  the 
Ea.sf,  vols,  iv.,  xxiii.,  xxxi.,  see  Max  Miiller, 
Chips  from  a  Gernuin  workshop  (London  and 
N.  Y.,  1867-72,  4  vols):  Whitney.  Oriental 
and  Liwjuistic  Studies  (N.  Y.,  1878-5,  .S  vols. ) ; 
West's  ed.  of  Hang,  fjssaj/s  on  the  Parsis, 
Lon<lon.  1S84;  for  brief  accounts,  see  James 
Freeman  Clarke,  The  Ten  Great  Keliriions. 
Boston,  1870-8:3,  2  vols.;  Tiele,  Onflines  of 
the  History  of  Reli'/ion  (trans,  from  the 
Dutch),  London,  1878,  :3d  ed.,  1884;  De  la 
Saussaye,  Lehrburh  der  Relif/ionsf/eschichte 
(vol.  ii.  l-m),  Freiburg,  i-13r.,  ISSO;  for 
works  by  Parsees,  see  Dosahhoy  Framjee, 
r/K  Parseex,  London,  1858;  Dadabhai 
Naoroji,  The  Pardee  RflUjion,  Liverpool, 
1861.  and  by  the  same,  the  Manners  and 
Customs  of  the  Parsees,  Bombay,  ls»i4. 

W.  \\.  Maktix, 

Persons  or  Parsons,  Robert,  b.  at  Xether 
Stowey,  Somersetshire.  England,  .June  24, 
1.546;  d.  in  Home.  April  15,  1610;  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  but  embraced  Komanism, 


left  England,  and  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  Home,  1575.  In  1580  he  returned 
to  England  together  with  Campion,  but 
after  the  arrest  of  the  latter  in  158o  he  went 
back  to  Kome,  from  which  he  continued  to 
manage  the  Jesuit  mission  to  England, 
founding  schools  for  the  training  of  English 
priests  at  various  places  in  Spain,  Italy  and 
France.  His  A  Christian  Directorie  (ji'iidin;/ 
them  to  their  Salvation,  London,  i58:]-!»i, 
2  parts,  was  reprinted  after  being  freely  re- 
vised by  Dean  Stanhope,  1700.  For  his  A 
Conference  about  the  next  Succession  to  the 
Crowne  of  Ingland,  1594,  the  London  printer 
was  hanged.  (See  E.  Gee,  The  J esuiV s  Me- 
morial for  the  intended  lieformation  of  Eng- 
land, Londt)n,  161H).) 

Peshitto.  See  Bible,  p.  104. 

Pessimism.    See  Optimism. 

Petavius,  Dionysius  (J)enys  Petau),  with 
the  surname  Aquila  Jesnitarum,  b.  at 
Orleans,  France,  Aug.  21,  1.58;];  d.  in  Paris, 
Dec.  11,  1652;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
in  1605  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  in  the  university  of  Paris  in  1621. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Synesius,  Nicepho- 
rus,  Epiphanius,  etc.,  and  wrote  much  on 
chronology,  inventing  a  new  system  which 
he  applied  in  his  Tiatiduarinm  Teiiiporum, 
Paris,  16:33-34,  a  world's  chronicle  in  rallies, 
very  famous  in  its  days  and  continued  down 
to  our  time;  last  edition,  Venice,  1849. 
His  principal  work,  however,  is  his  De 
Tlieologiris  Do;/matibus,  Paris,  1644-50,  5  vols, 
fol.,  unfinished.  It  is  the  first  history  of 
doctrine  ever  attempted,  and  became  very 
celebrateci,  as  generally  speaking,  Petavius 
stands  as  the  leading  theologian  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  in  the  post-tridentine  age. 
(See  his  life  by  F.  Stranonik,  Graz,  1876.) 

Peter  (stone  or  rock;  Syriac  Cephas),  one  of 
the  12  apostles,  and  with  James  and  .John 
one  of  the  three  most  intimately  associated 
with  our  Lord.  He  was  a  son  of  Jonas  or 
John,  a  brother  of  Andrew,  and  probaldy  a 
native  of  Bethsaida  (John  i.  44).  He  was  a 
fisherman  and  resided  at  Capernaum.  His 
original  name  was  Simon  or  Simeon  (Matt, 
xvi.  17).  and  the  name  Cephas  was  prophet- 
ically given  to  him  when  he  was  called  to  go 
with  Christ  (John  i.  42).  and  was  solemnly 
confirmed  when  he  in  the  name  of  all  the 
apostles  confessed  the  Messiahship  and  di- 
vinity of  our  Lord  (Matt.  xvi.  18).  The  name 
expressed  his  prominence  in  the  primitive 
age  as  shown  in  his  opening  the  door  of 
the  gos]Hd  among  the  Jews  on  the  day  oi 
Pentecost  {Acts  ii.),  and  among  the  (ientiles 
also  in  the  conversion  of  Cornelius  (Acts  x.). 
The  powers  conferred  on  him  were  subse- 
quently bestowed  upon  the  disciples  gener- 
ally (Matt,  xviii.  18).  He  had  an  ardent 
nature,  an  impulsive  temperament,  was 
frank  and  energetic,  but  ai)t  to  overrate  his 
strength  and  liable  to  inconsistency.  He 
was  the  first  to  confess  his  Lord,  and  the 
first  to  deny  him,  a  denial  made  with  oaths, 
hut  bitterly  repented.  Afterwards  he  was 
anew  commissioned  by  Thrist  on  his  utter- 
ance of  a  threefold  assurance  of  his  love, 
corresponding  to  his  threefold  denial  (John 


PETER 


(712) 


PETER 


xxi.  15-19).  A  marked  change  was  wrought 
in  him  by  our  Lord's  resurrection,  and 
thencefoi'ward  he  was  bold  and  steadfast 
save  in  one  instance  (Gal.  ii.  11),  when  at 
Antioch  he  drew  back  from  fellowship  with 
Gentile  Christians,  and  was  rebuked  by 
Paul;  a  rebuke  which  did  not  permanently 
disturb  the  affection  which  Peter  cherished 
for  his  "beloved  brother  Paul"  (2  Pet.  iii. 
15). 

The  labors  of  Peter  are  recorded  in  the 
Acts  (chaps,  i.-xii.  xv. ).  He  was  very 
prominent  in  the  early  work  of  the  church, 
but  after  the  miraculous  release  from  the 
prison  of  Herod  about  a.d.  44  we  lose  sight 
of  him  till  A.D.  50  when  he  appears  at  the 
Council  at  Jerusalem,  where  though  he  did 
not  preside  he  contributed  to  the  settlement 
of  the  important  question  of  the  relation  of 
the  Gentile  Christians  to  the  Mosaic  law. 
Two  years  later  occurred  the  censure  at 
Antioch.  In  the  year  57  Paul  mentions 
him  (1  Cor.  ix.  5)  as  engaged,  in  company 
with  his  wife,  in  missionary  journeys  and 
labors,  perhaps  among  the  dispersed  Jews 
in  Asia  Minor,  to  whom  his  epistles  were 
addressed.  To  him  was  committed  the 
apostleship  of  the  circumcision  as  to  Paul 
was  that  of  the  Gentiles  (Gal,  ii.  8),  and  he 
seems  to  have  labored  among  these  at 
Corinth  (1  Cor.  i.  12,  iii.  22)  and  Babylon 
(1  Pet.  V.  13);  but  his  movements  are  in- 
volved in  great  obscurity.  Papal  writers 
affirm  that  he  was  bishop  of  Rome  and  re- 
sided there  25  years.  But  Paul  does  not 
mention  Peter  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
written  a.d.  57,  though  he  sends  salutations 
to  the  leading  Christians  there,  men  and 
women;  nor  does  it  appear  from  the  in- 
spired narrative  in  the  Acts  or  from  Paul's 
numerous  epistles  from  Rome  (in  which  he 
sends  the  greetings  of  manj'  Roman  believ- 
ers) that  Peter  was  there  in  61  when  Paul 
an-rived,  or  during  the  years  61-63,  of  his 
imprisonment  (Acts  xxviii.  14-31),  or  indeed 
that  Peter  had  previously  been  there  at  all. 
It  is  however,  the  unanimous  testimony  of 
Christian  antiquity  that  Peter  suffered 
martyrdom  in  Rome  at  or  about  the  same 
time  as  Paul,  though  the  exact  date  is  not 
given.  It  may  have  occurred  in  64  during 
the  Neronian  persecution,  after  the  great 
fue,  but  rather  in  67  or  68.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  crucified,  thus  following  his 
Lord  literally  in  the  mode  of  his  death 
(John  xxi.  18,  19),  which  is  more  likely  than 
the  assertion  of  Origen  that  at  his  own  re- 
quest, under  a  feeling  of  imworthiness,  he 
was  crucified  with  his  head  downward. 
There  is  no  evidence  in  the  Bible  that  Peter 
had  any  supremacy  over  the  other  apostles, 
much  less  that  it  was  ti'ansmissible  to  any 
successor. 

The  Epistles  of  Peter  belong  to  the  later 
years  of  his  life  and  are  addressed  to 
churches  in  Asia  Minor,  composed  primar- 
ily of  converted  Jews  and  proselytes,  but 
including  many  converts  from  Paganism 
(1  Pet.  iv.  3).  They  contain  precious  conso- 
lations and  exhortations,  and  confirm  the 
harmony  of  his  doctrine  with  that  of  the 
apostles  to  the  Gentiles. 

The  First  Epistle  is  dated  from  Babylon 
(v.  13),  but  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion 


as  to  what  place  is  meant.  The  better 
opinion  is  that  it  was  the  famous  city  on 
the  Euphrates  which  after  its  overthrow 
was  still  inhabited  by  a  Jewish  colony  and 
remained  for  centuries  a  chief  seat  of  rab- 
binical learning.  Others  refer  it  to  a  petty 
town  in  Egypt  called  Babylon,  now  known 
as  Old  Cairo.  A  third  class  understand  it 
mystically  of  heathen  Rome,  in  which  sense 
it  is  generally  admitted  that  the  word  is 
used  in  the  apocalypse  of  John.  The 
"fiery  trial"  (iv.  13)  and  other  references 
to  suffering  for  conscience'  sake  lead  one  to 
think  that  the  epistle  was  written  in  view 
of  the  fierce  persecution  begun  under  the 
reign  of  Nero.  The  apostle  extorts  to 
faith,  constancy,  and  patience  in  view  of 
the  truth  of  the  Gospel  and  the  certainty  of 
salvation  through  the  precious  blood  of 
Christ. 

The  Second  Epistle  was  addressed  to  the 
same  persons  as  the  first,  but  has  not  by 
any  means  so  much  external  evidence  in 
favor  of  its  genuineness.  Yet  there  is  no 
good  reason  to  deny  its  canonical  authority 
or  that  Peter  was  its  author.  The  writer 
expressly  designates  himself  (i.  16-18)  as  an 
eye-witness  of  the  transfiguration  of  Christ 
on  the  mount,  and  the  whole  tone  of  his 
utterances  is  in  consonance  with  that  claim. 
Writing  shortly  before  the  putting  off  of  his 
earthly  tabernacle  (i.  13-15),.  he  urges  his 
brethren  to  steadfastness  and  warns  them 
against  the  antinomian  errors  which  began 
to  disturb  the  purity  and  harmony  of  the 
church.  In  many  passages  this  epistle  re- 
sembles that  of  Jude,  and  it  is  still  an  open 
question  which  apostle  wrote  in  view  of  the 
other. 

Literature. — On  First  Epistle  Arch- 
bishop Leighton,  profound  and  tender.  On 
"both  Lillie,  New  York,  1869.         T.  W.  C. 

Peter,  Festivals  of,  four  in  number.  1. 
The  feast  of  Peter  and  Paul  on  June  29th. 
This  commemorates  the  interment  of  the 
bones  of  Peter  and  Paul  in  258,  and  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Catalogus  Liberianus,  which 
dates  from  354.  The  festival  is  also  men- 
tioned by  Augustine  and  Leo  I.  After  the 
6th  century  it  is  contained  in  all  catalogues 
of  feasts  in  the  West.  In  the  East  it  is  first 
mentioned  after  5U0.  2.  Feast  of  the  as- 
sumption of  the  bishopric  of  Antioch,  Feb. 
22.  This  is  also  mentioned  in  the  Catalogus 
Liberianus,  but  the  place, of  the  bishopric  is 
undesignated.  3.  The  feast  of  the  assump- 
tion of  the  bishopric  of  Rome,  Jan.  18.  This 
is  first  recognized  as  a  distinct  feast  since 
the  8th  century.  4.  The  feast  of  St.  Peter  in 
chains.  This  feast  can  be  traced  no  further 
back  than  the  9th  century.  There  is  also  a 
"feast  of  the  finger  of  the  Apostle  Peter'" 
celebrated  in  the  Ai-menian  Church  on  the 
24th  of  May.  F.  H.  F. 

Peter  of  Ailly.    See  Ailly. 

Peter  of  Alcantara,  b.  in  1499,  d.  Oct.  18, 
1562,  entered  the  Franciscan  order  in  1515, 
introduced  as  superior-general  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Estramadura  many  reforms  in  the 
order  in  1538  in  accordance  with  the 
stricter  rules  of  the  Observants  (q.v. )  and 
even  formed  a  new  congregation  of  a  still 


PETER 


(713) 


PETER 


more  austere  character.  He  was  canonized 
by  Clement  IX.,  1669.  (See  Acta  Sanctorum, 
Oct.  IS.) 

Peter  of  Alexandria,  bishop  of  that  city* 
300-311,  during  the  schism  of  Mile  tins  and 
the  persecution  of  Diocletian.  His  writ- 
ings are  found  in  Gallaudis,  Blbl.  IV.,  and 
Kouth,  lieliijuia  IV. 

Peter  of  Blois  {Petnia  BlesensU),  d.  about 
1200,  was  chancellor  to  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  wrote  on  theology,  canon  law, 
etc.,  and  left  1S3  letters  to  Henry  II.,  various 
popes,  etc.  which  are  of  great  historical 
interest.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is 
that  by  Goussainville,  Paris,  1607. 

Peter  of  Bruys  was  a  priest,  from  Prov- 
ence, and  a  pupil  of  Abelard's.  With  the 
purpose  of  restoring  the  church  to  its 
earliest  purity,  but  without  a  proper  under- 
standing of  that  early  state,  he  preached  to 
the  people  and  gathered  a  sect  about  him- 
self. He  accepted  the  gospels,  but  did  not 
ascribe  the  same  authority  to  the  epistles. 
He  insisted  also  upon  the  necessity  of  a 
literal  interpretation  of  the  scriptures. 
Thus  emphasizing  the  necessity  of  faith  for 
baptism,  he  rejected  infant  baptism.  He 
rejected  transubstantiation,  and  also  de- 
clared that  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  not  to  be  repeated.  Church 
buildings  he  despised,  looking  only  at  the 
congregation  of  the  faithful.  Church 
music  seemed  to  him  mockery.  All  ser- 
vices in  behalf  of  the  dead  he  taught  were 
of  no  value.  His  followers  and  Peter  him- 
self allowed  themselves  many  excesses. 
Finally  he  was  seized  about  1126  and 
condemned  to  the  stake.  The  Petrobrus- 
sians  united  with  the  Henricians  (q.v.) 
and  maintained  an  existeuce  a  little  longer. 
F.  H.  F. 

Peter  of  Oelle  (Petrus  Cellensis),  abbot  of 
Moutier-la-Celle  and  then  of  St.  Remi, 
finally  bishop  of  Chartres  llSl,  d.  in  1 183,  left 
some  mystical  works,  edited  by  Janvier, 
Paris,  1671,  and  a  number  of  letters  to 
Alexander  III.  and  others,  which  are  of 
great  historical  interest  and  have  been 
edited  by  Sirmond,  Paris,  1613. 

Peter  of  Damiani.     See  Damiani. 

Peter  Lombard.    See  Lombard. 

Peter  Mart3rr  Vermigli  (ver-mill-yee),  b. 
in  Florence,  Sept.  8,  1.500,  d.  at  Ziirich, 
Nov.  12,  l.')(i2,  entered  in  lol6  the  order  of 
the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine,  but 
became  as  prior  of  St.  Petri  ad  arain,  near 
Naples,  acquainted  with  Juan  Valdez  and 
Ociiino.  and  embraced  the  Reformation. 
At  Lucca,  whither  he  had  been  removed, 
the  inciuisition  traced  a  distinctly  protes- 
tant  movement  back  to  his  influence  and 
was  about  to  incarcerate  him.  Hut  he 
escaped  to  Ziirich  in  l.')42.  Shortly  after  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment at  Strassburg  and  in  1.047  he  was  in- 
vited to  England  by  Cranmer  and  began  to 
lecture  at  Oxford.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary,  Uhy'S,  he  left  England  and  after  a 
stay  of  two  years  at  Strassburg  he  finally 
settled  at  Ziirich,  still  maintaining  inti- 
mate   relations  with    the  Reformation    in 


England,  France,  Poland,  and  Germany. 
His  Loci  conunnnes  and  other  books  were 
edited  by  R.  Masson,  London,  1.575.  His 
life  was  written  by  Schlosser,  Heidelberg, 
1807,  and  Schmidt,  Elberfeld,  1858. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  the  legendary  preacher 
of  the  first  Crusade,  1095,  b.  at  Amiens;  d. 
in  the  monastery  of  Neu-Moutier,  near 
Liege,  July  7,  1H5.  He  is  said  to  have 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine,  to  have 
seen  the  desolation  of  the  Holy  Places 
and  the  sufferings  of  the  pilgrims  in  their 
attempts  to  visit  them,  and  to  have  received 
a  divine  call  to  summon  the  West  to  the 
rescue.  After  preaching  the  crusade  with 
marvellous  success  in  France,  he  collected 
an  army  of  40,000  men  and  set  out  for  the 
Holy  Land,  but  they  were  all  destroyed 
either  in  Bulgaria,  or,  having  been  forsaken 
by  Peter,  at  Nicea  by  the  Turks.  The 
account  of  the  expedition  only  is  historical. 
F.  H.  F. 

Peter  the  Venerable,  son  of  a  nobleman 
of  Auvergne,  b.  about  1094.  was  famous 
as  abbot  of  Clugny,  where  he  died  Dec. 
25,  1156.  He  was  trained  in  this  Cister- 
cian monastery,  and  became  abbot  at  the 
age  of  28.  The  monastery  had  fallen  into 
great  disorder,  but  he  corrected  it,  and  by 
visitations  among  the  dependent  monaste- 
ries brought  tho  whole  order  into  a  much 
better  condition.  He  undertook  also  jour- 
neys to  Spain  and  England.  Though  there 
was  for  some  time  a  misunderstanding 
between  Clugny  and  Clairvaux  in  regard  to 
the  observance  of  monastic  discipline, 
Peter  and  Bernard  remained  firm  personal 
friends.  In  the  years  1146  to  1148  he  pre- 
pared new  statutes  for  the  order.  His  last 
days  were  embittered  by  the  disasters  of 
the  church.  He  wrote  a  number  of  polemic 
tracts  against  the  enemies  of  the  church, 
against  the  Jews,  and  the  Saracens  in  Mig^ 
ne,  Pat.  Lat.  CLXXXIX.  F.  H.  F. 

Peter  Pence,  the  yearly  gifts  formerly 
sent  from  several  of  the  nations  of  northern 
Europe.  They  seem  to  have  been  first  ])aid 
in  England  where  (somewhat  vincertain) 
accounts  of  payments  in  the  year  725  are 
found.  They  were  designed  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  school  for  Saxon  youth  in 
Rome,  and  for  the  Roman  church  in  gen- 
eral. Later  accounts*  of  gifts  to  Rome  are 
better  attested.  After  855  mention  is  fre- 
quently made  of  them  in  the  laws.  After 
the  middle  of  the  10th  century  the  gift  was 
a  penny,  which  was  to  be  paid  by  every 
house  before  St.  Peter's  day.  Hence  the 
name.  The  Peter-pence  were  thus  from 
the  beginning  a  free  gift  of  the  nation;  but 
Gregory  VI I.  employed  them  as  evidence 
that  England  belonged  to  the  papal  see  as  a 
fief.  At  the  middle  of  the  12th  century 
the  Peter-pence  amounted  to  290  silver 
marks  yearly.  They  continued  to  be  paid 
till  refused  by  act  of  parliament  under 
Henry  VIII,  Other  nations  also  paid  them, 
Denmark  since  the  middle  of  the  11th 
century,  Poland  about  the  sanu'  .time, 
Sweden  after  1152,  Norway,  and  Iceland. 
Gregory   VII.  tried    to    exact    them    from 


PETERS 


(714) 


PHARAOH 


France  and  Spain,  but  without  success. 
The  modern  Peter-pence  date  from  1860, 
and  are  a  free-will  offering  of  individuals 
for  the  expenses  of  the  Koman  court. 

F.  H.  F. 

Peters,  Hugh,  b.  at  Fowey,  Cornwall, 
England,  in  1599;  hanged  in  London,  Oct. 
16,  1660;  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  took 
holy  orders,  and  preached  with  success  in 
London,  but,  being  a  Puritan,  he  was 
silenced  and  even  imprisoned  for  non-con- 
formity. After  his  release  he  removed  to 
Eotterdam,  where  he  preached  to  an  inde- 
pendent congregation,  and  thence  he  emi- 
grated to  America  where  he  was  pastor  at 
Salem.  In  1641  he  returned  to  England  on 
some  public  business  and  took  a  lively  part 
in  politics  until  after  the  restoration,  when 
he  was  arrested  for  high-treason  and  con- 
victed. During  his  last  imprisonment  he 
wrote  a  number  of  letters  to  his  daughter 
which  were  printed  in  1717;  A  Dying  Fathers 
last  Legacy  to  an  only  Child.  He  also  pub- 
lished some  political  tracts. 

Petersen,  Johann  Wilhelm,  b.  at  Osna- 
briick  (Hanover).  June.  1,  1649;  d.  at 
Thymer,  Anhalt,  Jan.  23,  1727;  studied 
theology  and  Avas  appointed  superintendent 
(bishop)  of  Liibeck  in  1677  and  of  Liineburg 
in  1688,  but  was  discharged  in  1692.  He 
was  a  confirmed  chiliast  and  claimed  to 
receive  divine  revelations  about  the  future 
through  Juliane  van  Asseburg.  He  wrote 
Warheit  des  herrlichen  Belches  Jesu  Chrlsti, 
Magdeburg,  1692-93,  2  vols. ;  GeJieimniss  der 
Widerhrinqunq  aller  Dinqe,  Frankfort,  1700- 
10,  3  vols,  fob,  etc.  (See  Conradi,  Ge- 
schichte  des  Chiliasmus,  Frankfort,  1781,  2d 
ed.,  Ziirich,  1794,  4  vols.) 

Petri  is  the  name  of  two  brethren  who, 
after  studying  theology  at  Wittenberg, 
were  very  active  for  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation  in  Sweden  and  together  trans- 
lated the  Bible  into  Swedish.  The  elder, 
Olaus  Petri,  b.  at  Oerebro  in  1497,  d.  in 
Stockholm,  1552,  was  made  rector  of  the 
seminary  of  Strengnas  in  1523  and  preacher 
in  Stockholm  in  1.539,  and  published  a 
Manuale  Sveticwn,  Ordo  Missoe  Sceticce,  etc. 
The  younger,  Laurentius  Petri,  b.  at  Oere- 
bro in  1499,  d.  at  Upsala  1573,  was  made 
professor  in  Upsala  in  1523  and  the  first 
Lutheran  archbishop  of  that  see  in  1531, 
and  wrote  a  Disciplina  Svetica  or  Svenska 
kyrkeordning,  still  valid,  etc. 

Petrobrusians.    See  Peter  of  Brugs. 

Peucer,  Kaspar,  b.  at  Bautzen,  Saxony, 
Jan.  6,  1.525;  d.  at  Dessair,  Anhalt,  Sept.  25, 
1602,  a  son-in-law  of  Melanchthon,  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  medicine  in  the 
university  of  Wittenberg  and  body-physi- 
cian to  the  elector  of  Saxony,  but,  as  head 
of  the  Crypto-Calvinists  and  very  active  in 
the  service  of  the  party,  he  was  suddenly 
arrested  in  1574  and  detained  in  prison  till 
1586.  After  his  release  he  became  body- 
physician  to  the  prince  of  Anhalt.  He 
edited  Melanchthon' s  works,  collected  his 
letters,  and  wrote  a  number  of  mathemat- 
ical, medical,  and  theological  treatises. 
(See  Henke,  Kaspar  Peucer  und  Nicholas 
Krell,  Marburg,  1865.)  C.  P. 


Pew,  (from  the  French  puy.  the  Latin 
podium,  a  balcony  in  the  theatre),  any 
raised  place  provided  with  seats  and  en- 
closed with  rails.  The  Roman  Catholic 
chui'ches  have  generally  no  pews,  the  Prot- 
estant always.  The  introduction  of  seats, 
movable,  three-legged  stools,  dates  back 
long  time  before  the  Reformation.  There 
are  found  pews  in  the  English  churches, 
the  style  of  which  shows  them  to  belong  to 
the  15th  century.  Originally  there  seems 
to  have  been  only  one  pew  in  each  church, 
for  its  patron  and  his  family,  and  for  a  long 
time  a  pew  was  a  token  of  distinction.  In 
the  free  churches  of  our  time  the  renting 
out  of  pews  forms  the  principal  source  of 
revenue  for  the  support  of  the  minister. 

Pezel  (Pezolt,  Pezold),  Christof,  b.  at 
Plauen.  Saxony,  March  5,  15.39;  d.  in  Bre- 
men, Feb.  25,  1604;  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  in  Wittenberg  in  1567,  but 
discharged  in  1574  as  a  Philippist  or 
Crypto-Calvinist,  and  in  1576  banished  from 
the  country.  In  1580  he  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Bremen  and  in  1584  superinten- 
dent. He  is  the  author  of  Bremer  Cate- 
chismiis,  Bremen  Consensus,  etc.,  which 
show  that  he  gradually  came  nearer  and 
nearer  to  pure  Calvinism. 

Pfleiderer,  Otto,  D.D.  (Jena,  1870),  Ger- 
man Protestant;  b.  at  Stetten,  near  Cann- 
stadt,  Wurtemberg,  Sept.  1,  1839;  studied 
under  Baur  at  Tiibingen,  1857-61.  and  be- 
came professor  at  Jena  in  1870  and  in 
Berlin  1875.  He  wrote  Die  Beligion,  ihr 
Wesen  und  Geschichte,  Leipzig,  1869,  2  vols., 
2d  ed.,  1878;  BeligionsphilosopMe  auf  ge- 
schichtlicher  Grundlage,  Berlin,  1878,  2d  ed., 
1882-84,  2  vols. ;  Eng.  Trans.  The  philosophy 
of  religion  on  the  basis  of  its  history,  London, 
1886-8,  4  vols.;  Grundriss  der  christlichen 
Glaubens  und  Sittenlehre,  1880,  4th  ed.,  1888? 
Lectures  on  the  Influence  of  the  Ajiostle  Paul 
on  the  Development  of  Christianity,  Hibbert 
Lectures,  London,  1885;  Das  Urchristenthum 
seine  Schriften  und  Lehren,  Berlin,  1887. 


Pha'-ra-oh,  the  general  title  of  Egyp- 
tian kings.  Modern  scholars  define  its 
meaning  as  the  great  house,  equivalent  to 
the  Turkish  "  sublime  porte."  The  name 
is  given  to  all  the  Egyptian  kings  mentioned 
in  scripture  except  four.  Ten  Pharaohs 
are  mentioned.  1.  The  Pharaoh  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xii.  15),  identified  with  Salatis,  one  of 
the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  kings,  B.C.  2080. 
2.  The  Pharaoh  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.),  the 
last  of  the  15th  dvnasty,  Apophis.  who 
reigned  B.C.  1876-18.50.  3.  The  Pharaoh  of 
the  Oppression  (Ex.  i.  8),  now  identified 
with  Rameses  II.,  B.C.  1388-1322,  a  famous 
conqueror  and  builder  whose  statues  and 
temples  are  found  all  over  the  Nile 
valley.  4.  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  son 
and  successor  of  the  foregoing,  an  inglori- 
ous monarch.  5.  The  Pharaoh  whose 
daughter  married  a  descendant  of  Judah 
(1  Chron,  iv.  18).  6.  The  Pharaoh  who 
married  his  sister-in-law  to  Hadad  the 
Edomite  (1  Ki.  xi.  19).  7.  The  Pharaoh 
whose  daughter  Solomon  took  to  wife  B.C. 


PHARPAR 


(715) 


PHIIiIP 


lull  (1  Ki.  iii.  1).  8.  The  Pharaoh  in 
whom  Hezekiah  trusted  (2.  Ki.  xviii.  2), 
probably  identical  with  Sethos  or  Zet.  ',). 
Pharaoh-necho,  u.c.  ()10-5i)4,  who  defeated 
Josiah  at  Megiddo  (2  Ki.  xxiii.  29,  30). 
10.  Pharaoh-hophra,  about  5UO-570,  whose 
help  was  sought  by  Zedekiah  iu  his  revolt 
from  Nebuchadnezzar.  T.  W.  C. 

Phar'-par,  (sioift),  a  river  of  Damascus  (2 
Ki.  V.  12),  the  modern  Away,  which  rises 
liigh  up  on  the  Eastern  side  of  Hernion  and 
flows  across  the  plain  of  Damascus  from 
which  it  is  8  miles  distant.  It  is  smaller 
than  the  Abana  {Barada),  but  its  waters 
supply  canals  that  irrigate  fields  and  gar- 
dens almost  up  to  the  walls  of  the  city.  It 
is  from  80  to  40  miles  long,  and  finally  is 
lost  in  a  lake  or  marsh  about  10  miles  south 
of  Damascus.  T.  W.  C. 

Pharisees  (separated),  a  numerous  party 
among  the  Jews  in  New  Testament  times. 
Their  origin  is  obscure,  but  they  were 
probably  a  continuation  of  the  Assideans 
("  the  Pious  ")  a  party  who  in  the  time  of 
the  Maccabees  were  zealous  for  the  law  in 
opposition  to  the  Hellenizing  faction  (1 
Mac.  iii.  42,  vii.  lo).  On  the  accession  of 
Herod  0.000  of  them  refused  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  but  were  put  down  with  a  strong 
hand.  They  differed  from  the  >Sadducees  in 
holding  an  ethical  immortality,  the  exist- 
ence of  Providence  and  the  coecpial  author- 
ity nf  tradition  with  the  wi'itten  law.  The 
lasr  point  they  carried  so  far  as  to  place  the 
explanations  of  the  law  above  the  law  it- 
self. They  tithed  garden  herbs,  yet  dis- 
regarded justice  and  mercy  (Matt,  xxiii. 
23);  made  long  prayers,  yet  devoured 
widows'  houses  (Mark  xii.  40);  carefully 
avoided  what  the  law  declared  unclean,  yet 
were  unmindful  of  jiurity  of  heart  (Matt. 
XV.  11);  and  at  times  made  void  the  word 
of  God  by  their  tradition  (Matt.  xv.  7).  At 
the  same  time  these  emjity  formalists  taxed 
the  conscience  of  the  people  with  puerile 
questions,  such  as  whether  it  was  lawful  to 
eat  an  e^g  laid  on  the  Sabbath.  Although 
our  Lord  recognized  the  authority  of  their 
Scriptural  teachings  (Matt.  xxii.  2,  3),  he 
rebuked  their  conceit  and  hypocrisy  and  so 
incurred  their  hatred  (Luke  xvii,  14).  Yet 
among  them  were  some  men  of  probity  and 
worth,  such  as  Nicodemus,  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  and  Gamaliel.  Saul  of  Tarsus 
was  a  Pharisee  (Acts  xxvi.  .5).  Our  Lord 
certainly  made  some  converts  from  among 
them,  but  so  far  as  the  New  Testament 
informs  us  lie  made  none  from  the  semi- 
intidel  Sadducecs.  T.  W.  C. 

Phelp.s,  Austin,  D.D.  (Amherst  College, 
Mass..  18.">(1)  Congregationalist;  b.  at  West 
Brookheld,  Mass.,  Jan.  7,  1820;  d.  at  Bar 
Harbor,  Me.,  Oct.  13,  1800.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Phila- 
delphia. 1837.  was  pastor  of  Pine  Street 
Church,  Boston.  1842-48.  and  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric  in  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  1848-70.  He  pul)lished  Tlir  Still 
Hour,  Boston,  18.")0;  Ili/mns  and  Cfioir.t, 
Andover,  18«J0;  The  Theory  of  Prenchina, 
Boston,  1881;  Men  and  Books,  1882;  English 
Style,  188;],  etc. 


Philadelphia  {brotherly  love),  a  city  of 
Lydia,  named  from  its  founder,  Attalus 
Pliiladclphus,  king  of  Pergamos,  who  died 
B.C.  138.  The  Church  here,  one  of  the  7 
mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse  (Rev.  i.  11) 
was  highly  commended  (iii.  7-13),  and  the 
city  has  survived  all  the  vicissitudes  of 
earthquakes  and  wars  to  this  day.  It  now 
has  A  population  of  10,000,  mostly  Turks, 
and  is  called  Alah  Shehr,  "  beautiful  city." 
Its  bishops  were  at  the  Councils  of  J^icea 
and  Constantinople,  and  when  Tamerlane 
ravaged  the  seats  of  other  Christian 
Churches,  Philadelphia  escaped,  and  af- 
forded an  asylum  for  the  refugees  from  Sar- 
dis.  '       T.  W.  C. 

Philadelphian  Society,  founded  1070  in 
London  by  John  Pordage  and  Mrs.  Jane 
Leade  (q.v.).  The  former  had  for  some 
years  led  a  group  of  mystics,  followers  of 
Jacob  Boehme.  Mrs.  Leade  now  supplied 
"Laws  of  Paradise,"  which  were  pure  and 
lofty,  but  touched  with  fanaticism.  Con- 
nections were  formed  in  Holland  and  Ger- 
many, and  an  effort  made  to  unite  the 
Pietists  at  Halle  and  elsewhere  into  one 
Church  of  Brotherly  Love;  but,  though 
Spener  was  friendly,  the  attempt  at  a  per- 
manent junction  failed.  A  confession  was 
framed  in  1703,  but  the  end  was  near  at 
hand.  The  meetings  in  England  were  pro- 
hibited, the  Holland  branch  withdrew,  and 
the  sect  died  a  natural  death  with  its 
prophetess.  There  seems  to  have  been 
nothing  specially  original  or  objectionable 
about  it,  except  its  wild  expectations  of 
earthly  success,  and  its  claim  to  revelations 
from  heaven.  F.  M.  B. 

Philaster,  bishop  of  Brescia,  b.  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  4th  century;  d.  July  18, 
387  ('?).  He  took  a  large  part  in  the  Arian 
controversy,  journeying  hither  and  thither 
through  almost  every  part  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  to  convert  Arians  and  other  here- 
tics to  the  othodox  faith.  His  bishopric 
was  given  him  after  he  had  reached  mature 
years.  He  remained  afterwards  mostly  in 
his  diocese,  appearing  at  Aquilea  in  381  at 
the  council  which  condemned  Palladius  and 
Secundus.  His  book  On  Ilerenies,  written 
about  380,  first  printed  at  Basel  in  1.530 
(bested.  Ochler,  Corpus  Haeresinloi/nni,  vol. 
i.),  is  not  a  very  valuable  addition  to  our 
materials  for  the  study  of  the  early  theo- 
k)gical  movements.  F.  H.  F. 

Phi-Ie'-mon  (affectionate),  a  wealthy  res- 
ident of  Colosse  who  was  converted  through 
Paul,  anil  appears  from  the  letter  the 
apostle  wrote  to  him  to  have  been  a  man 
of  large  heart  and  warm  sympathies. 

The  ei)istle  of  Paul  to  Philemon  was 
written  at  the  same  time  as  the  epistles  to 
the  Ephesians  and  the  Colossians,  about 
A.I).  02.  It  related  the  conversion  of 
Onesimus.  a  runaway  slave  who  had  tied  to 
Rome,  and  entreated  the  kind  reception  of 
him  as  a  brother  in  Christ.  The  epistle, 
which  is  undoubtedly  genuine,  is  a  model 
of  Christian  courtesy,  delicacy,  tenderness 
and  manliness.  T.  W.  C. 

Philip  (lorer  of  horses).  1.  The  apostle,  a 
native  of  Bethsaida.     He  is  always  men- 


PHILIP 


(716) 


PHILIPPIANS 


tioned  as  the  5th  among  the  12.  Tradition 
says  that  he  preached  in  Phrygia  and  died 
in  Hierapolis. 

2.  The  evangelist,  one  of  the  seven  first 
deacons  appointed  in  the  primitive  church 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi.  1-6).  When  the 
Christians  were  driven  from  Jerusalem 
after  Stephen's  death,  Philip  went  to  Sa- 
maria and  preached  with  great  success 
(Acts  viii.  1-13).  Thence  he  was  divinely 
sent  southward,  and  on  the  road  was 
prompted  by  the  Spirit  to  join  an  Ethiopian 
proselyte  of  high  rank  returning  from  one 
of  the  Jewish  festivals,  whom  he  converted 
and  baptized.  From  Azotus  he  preached 
through  the  intervening  towns  to  Cseserea, 
where  18  or  19  years  later  Paul  and  his 
companions  were  his  guests  for  a  time 
(Acts  xxi.  8-10).  He  had  4  daughters,  who 
were  endued  with  the  gift  of  prophesy. 

T  .  W.  C. 

Philip  the  Arabian,  Roman  emperor  244- 
249,  b.  at  Bostra,  Arabia.  Eusebius  tells 
us  (Hist.  Eccl.  vi.  34)  that  he  was  a  Chris- 
tian, and  probably  on  his  warrant  Chrysos- 
tom,  Jerome  and  Orosius  repeat  the  story. 
But  there  is  something  in  Euseliius's  report 
which  makes  it  suspicious;  it  has  been 
rejected  by  many  modern  scholars,  and 
there  is  nothing  in  his  reign  to  decide  the 
question. 

Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France  1285-1314, 
was  a  very  much  mixed-up  character  who 
employed  more  than  doubtful  means  to 
reach  his  ends,  but  in  his  contest  with 
Boniface  VIII.,  which  forms  the  turning 
point  in  the  history  of  the  papacy,  he  liad 
in  his  favor  the  tradition  of  the  French 
policy,  inherited  from  Louis  IX.,  the  sym- 
pathy or  at  all  events  the  assent  of  the 
whole  French  people,  even  of  the  clergy, 
and  not  only  the  practical  fitness  and  com- 
mon-sense utility  of  his  plans  but  also 
their  necessity  and  even  their  justice.  His 
victory  was  decisive.  The  details  of  the 
contest  have  lieen  told  under  Boniface  VIII. 
(p.  113).  With  his  death  the  towering  idea 
of  a  universal  monarchy  in  the  hands  of  tlie 
pope  fell  to  pieces  forever,  and  when  Clem- 
ent V.  took  up  his  residence  at  Avignon, 
thus  inaugurating  the  Babylonian  Captivity 
of  the  papacy,  the  popes  became  the  mere 
tools  of  the  French  kings.  (See  Boutaric, 
La  France  sous  Philippe  le  Bel,  Paris,  1861.) 


Philip  the  Magnanimous,  landgrave  of 
Hesse,  b.  at  Marburg,  Nov.  23,  1504;  d. 
there  March  31,  1.567;  lost  his  father  when 
he  was  5  years  old,  but  was  declared  of  age 
and  began  to  reign  when  he  was  14,  and 
proved  the  uprightness  and  resoluteness  of 
his  mind  when  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  in 
1521,  he  visited  Luther  in  his  lodgings, 
and  insisted  in  the  face  of  the  assembled 
powers,  that  the  safe-conduct  given  him 
should  be  kept  sacred.  From  that  time  and 
till  1540  he  was  the  real  leader  of  the  Prot- 
estant party  in  Germany  in  all  its  political 
entanglements  and  exercised  also  consider- 
able influence  on  its  internal  organization 
by  staving  off,  as  long  as  possible,  this 
formal  breach  between  the  Lutherans  and 


the  Reformed,  and  by  working  indefatig- 
ably  on  their  reconciliation  after  the 
breach  had  taken  place.  But  in  1540  he 
married  Margarethe  von  der  Saal,  a  girl 
of  16  years  and  maid-of-honor  to  the 
Duchess  of  Rocklitz,  and  though  he  ob- 
tained consent  of  his  legitimate  wife  who 
continued  to  live  with  him,  and  also  the 
consent  of  the  theologians,  even  of  Luther 
and  Melanchthon,  it  was  a  clear  case  of 
bigamy  and  his  usefulness  as  a  leader 
among  men  was  gone.  He  continued  to 
take  part  in  the  transaction  of  the  public 
business  of  the  people,  but  his  authority 
was  lost.  After  the  Smalcaldian  war  the 
emperor  kept  him  in  prison  5  years,  1.547- 
52.  (See  Rommel:  Philipp  der  Grossmiitldfjer 
Giessien,  1830,  3  vols.;  Lenz:  Briejwechsel 
Landfjraf  Philippi  mitBucer,  Leipzig,  1880.) 

Philip  the  Tetrarch  was  a  son  of  Herod 
the  Great  by  his  wife  Cleopatra,  and  ruled 
over  Batanaj,  Trachonitis,  and  Auranitis 
(Luke  iii.  1),  from  b.c,  4  to  a.d.  34.  The 
city  Caesarea  Philippi  took  its  name  from 
him. 

Philippi,  the  chief  city  of  Eastern  Mace- 
donia, made  famous  by  the  battle  in  which 
Brutus  and  Cassius  were  defeated,  after- 
wards made  "  a  colony,"  a  miniature  Rome, 
by  Augustus.  Here  the  Gospel  first  entered 
Europe.  Lydia  was  converted,  Paul  and 
Silas  miraculously  delivered  fnmi  prison 
and  the  gaoler  converted  (Acts  xvi.).  Af- 
terwards Paul  revisited  the  city  (Acts  xx. 
6).  The  Christians  there  on  4  occasions 
sent  contributions  to  his  support.  Ignatius 
stopped  there  on  his  way  from  Antioch  to 
martyrdom  at  Rome.  At  present  its  ruins 
show  traces  of  the  citadel,  the  walls  and 
parts  of  the  forum.  T.  W.  C. 

Philippi,  Friedrich  Adolf,  Lutheran;  b. 
in  Berlin,  Oct.  15,  1809;  d.  at  Rostock,  Aug. 
29,  1882.  He  was  of  Jewish  descent,  but 
early  conertved,  and  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Dorpat  in  1841  and  at  Rostock 
in  1852.  He  published  a  Co?Hme?iia?'?/ on  Wie 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  Frankfort,  1848-50, 
translated  into  English,  Edinburgh.  1878; 
and  Kirchlicke  Glaubenslehre,  Giiterslohe, 
1854-82,  6  vols.  His  life  was  written  by 
L.  Schultze,  Nordlingen,  1883. 

Philippians,  Spistle  to,  written  by  Paul 
while  a  prisoner  at  Rome  A.r>.  62  or  63,  is 
remarkable  for  the  warm  affection  the 
apostle  shows  to  the  Philippian  believers, 
and  for  its  weighty  declaration  concerning 
the  person  of  Christ  and  his  states  of  hu- 
miliation and  exaltation  (ii.  .5-11).  In  it  he 
also  reveals  his  own  steadfast  faith  and 
generous  spirit  (i.  12-30);  does  honor  to  his 
assistants  and  co-laborers  (ii.  19-.30);  gives 
effective  warning  against  Judaizers  and 
other  false  brethren  (iii.);  and  finally  makes 
a  touching  acknowledgment  of  their  "  fel- 
lowship with  his  affliction"  (iv).  The  de- 
tails of  his  own  personal  histox'y  and  of  his 
feelings  make  the  epistle  intensely  interest- 
ing and  suggestive.  About  its  genuineness 
there  is  no  room  for  a  reasonable  doubt.  Cf. 
the  modein  commentaries  on  this  epistle  by 
Eadie,  London,  1859,  2d  ed.,  1884;  Vaughn^ 


PHTT.TPPISTS 


(717) 


PHIIilSTIA 


1864,  4tli  ed.,  1882;    Lightfoot,  1873,  7th  ed., 
188;J.  T.  W.  C. 

Philippists  was  in  the  middle  of  the  lt)th 
century  the  name  t)f  the  adherents  of 
Philipp  Melanchthon  in  contradistinction 
to  tlie  strict  Lutherans.  Durinu,'  the  hist 
years  of  Luther's  life  it  was  very  well 
understood  that  there  existed  a  distinctly 
delined  difference  between  him  and  Me- 
lanchthon concerning'  the  doctrines  of  justi- 
fication, the  Lord's  supper,  tlie  freedom  of 
the  will,  etc.,  and  immediately  after  his 
death  this  difference  became  apparent  by 
the  formation  of  two  antagonistic  parties, 
The  Lutherans:  Amsdorf,  Flacius,  Wi};and. 
Mdrlin.  etc.,  claimed  to  be  the  sole  repre- 
sentatives of  the  pure  faith;  the  university 
of  Jena  was  their  camp.  The  Philippists: 
Camerarius,  Major,  Menius,  Cruciger,  etc., 
pretended  to  represent  religious  progress 
and  were  encamped  at  Wittenberg.  In  the 
synergistic  and  adiaphoristic  controversies 
the  contest  between  the  two  parties  became 
very  bitter,  almost  vicious.  Various  practical 
difference:  rivalry  between  the  two  univer- 
sities, jealousy  between  the  two  ideal  lines 
of  Saxony,  etc.,  added  fuel  to  the  fire  and 
gave  rise  to  rather  odious  proceedings  from 
both  sides.  But  by  degrees  as  those  prac- 
tical interests  had  spent  their  force,  the 
theoretical  dift'erence  gradually  dropped 
out  of  attention  and  at  the  close  of  the 
century  it  existed  only  as  a  different  shad- 
ing of  the  same  doctrinal  system. 

Phil-is'-tia  {land  of  sojourners),  in  Ps.  Ix.  8, 
Ixxxvii.  4,  cviii.  9  (the  only  place  where  it 
occui-s  in  the  A.  V.)  represents  the  same 
Hebrew  word  elsewhere  translated  "  Pales- 
tine," .save  in  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  7,  where  it  is  ren- 
dered "Philistines." 

Philistia,  or  the  land  of  tlie  Philistines, 
embraced  the  sea-coast  plain  from  .Joppa  to 
the  valley  of  Gerar,  aud  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  foot  of  the  .Judean  hills. 
Its  length  was  about  40  m.  aud  its  breadth 
10  niT  at  the  nortli,  and  about  20  at  the 
south,  where  it  seems  to  have  extended 
inland  to  Beershel)a  (Gen.  xxi.  38.  84, 
xxvi.  1,  Ex.  xxiii.  ;^1,  Josh.  xiii.  2,  3).  AVar- 
ren  limited  it  to  the  plain  between  Ekron 
and  Gaza,  32  m.  long  and  i)  to  10  wide. 

Along  the  shore  are  white  sand-tlunes. 
Eastofthe.se  is  a  broad  undulating  plain 
with  deep  rich  soil,  from  50  to  300  ft.  above 
the  sea.  Beyond  this  low  spurs  jut  out, 
and  higher  ridges  run  nearly  north  and 
south,  falling  off  on  the  east  side  into  a 
valley  beyond  which  rises  the  hill  country 
of  Judah.  The  torrents  that  pour  through 
its  deep  ravines  form  marshes  and  pools  on 
reac^iing  the  plain,  and  sinking  away  often 
reach  the  sea  underground.  The  whole  plain 
was  called  in  Ilebi-ew  Tke  Shephela/i  (low 
country),  vai-iou.sly  rendered  in  the  A.  V., 
but  always   properly  given  in  the   R.   V. 


op 
id ' 


as  "the  lowland"  (Josh.  xi.  9,  Jud. 
Jer.  xvii.  2t),  et  (il.). 

The  Philistines  are  generally  thought  to 
have  been  descendants  from  Ham's  son 
Mizraim.  Thoy  are  said  (Amos  ix.  7)  to 
have  come  from  Caphtor,  which  is  under- 
stood as  Crete,  though  some  make  it  Cy- 
prus or  Cappadocia.    From  Gen.  x.  14  and 


Dent.  ii.  23  it  is  fairly  inferred  that  the 
Caphtorim  passed  through  the  country  of 
the  Casluhim  (Lower  Egypt)  on  their  way 
from  Crete  to  Canaan. 

In  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxi.  .32, 
xxvi.  1)  the  Philistines  appear  as  a  pastoral 
people,  but  at  the  Exodus  were  mighty  and 
warlike  (Ex.  xiii.  17).  Thenceforward 
they  were  in  contact  with  Israel  during  the 
whole  time  of  the  Old  Testament,  being 
mentioned  310  times  from  Genesis  to  Zeeh- 
ariali.  Their  country  was  assigned  to  Ju- 
dah and  Dan  (Josh.  xv.  4">-47),  but  not  con- 
quered in  Joshua's  time.  After  his  death 
three  of  the  chief  cities  (Jud.  i.  18)  were 
taken  but  not  permanently,  and  during  the 
Judges  the  Philistines  were  in  the  ascend- 
ancy, Sliamgar  and  Samscm  effecting  only 
temporary  deliverances  (Jud.  iii.,  x.,  xiii.- 
xvi.).  Under  Eli  Israel  suffered  a  sore  de- 
feat, but  under  Samuel  had  success  (1  S;im. 
iv.-vi.,  vii. ).  Saul  continued  the  contest  and 
drove  them  out  of  the  central  territory 
(xiv. ),  and  David,  after  killing  Goliath  pur- 
sued the  foe  to  the  gates  of  Gath  (xvii.), 
yet  afterwards  twice  took  refuge  from  Saul 
in  their  country  (xxi.  10,  xxvii.  2).  Saul 
and  his  sons  were  slain  by  them  at  Gilboa 
(xxxi.).  They  made  war  upon  David  as 
king,  but  were  subdued  (2  Sam.  v.,  viii.). 
During  Solomon's  reign  they  were  subjects 
(I  Ki.  iv.  21),  but  after  the  division  of 
Israel  warred  at  various  times  with  both 
kingdoms  (1  Ki.  xvi.  15,  2  Chron.  xxi.  16, 
17).  Jehoshaphat,  Uzziah  and  Hezekiah 
defeated  them  (2  Chron.  xvii.  10,  xxvi.  6, 
2  Ki.  xviii.  8). 

Philistia,  being  on  the  route  between 
Assyria  and  Egypt,  was  often  overrun  in 
their  wars  and  subdued  by  each  in  turn. 
Sargon  took  Ashdod  b.c.  700  after  a  3 
years  siege  (Is.  xx. ),  and  Psammetichus  I. 
took  it  about  b.c.  635,  after  a  siege  of  29 
years.  Most  of  the  towns  were  subdued  by 
Sennacherib  (Is.  xxxvi.),  and  afterwards  by 
Nebuchadnezzar.  The  kingdom  dwindled 
away  before  the  captivity  of  Judah,  and 
only  a  few  of  the  towns  retain  importance. 
The  Jews  -who  came  back  from  exile  in 
some  cases  married  "wives  of  Ashdod" 
(Nell.  xiii.  23).  Alexander  tlie  Great  de- 
stroyed Gaza,  which  withstood  him  5 
months.  Later  the  country  shared  in  the 
reverses  and  desolations  of  the  Syrian, 
Maccabajan  and  Roman  wars.  The  denun- 
ciations of  Amos  (i.  6-8),  Isaiah  (xiv.  29-31), 
Zephaniah  (ii.  5),  Jeremiah  (xxv.  15-20), 
Ezekiel  (xxv.  15-17)  Obadiah  (19),  and 
Zechariah  (ix.  5,  6),  appear  to  have  been 
abundantly  fulfilled. 

The  Philistines  excelled  in  war,  and 
maintained  powerful  forces  of  chariots  aud 
cavalry  as  well  as  foot-soldiers  (1  Sam.  xiii. 
5).  They  were  skilled  in  agriculture  and 
at  the  .same  time  a  commercial  people,  trad- 
ing by  sea  and  by  land.  Their  chief  gods 
were  Dagon  (Jud.  xvi.  23),  Ashtoreth  (1 
Sam.  xxxi.  10),  Baal-Zebub  and  Derketo. 
They  were  superstitious,  and  their  priests 
and  divines  had  much  influence  (1  Sam.  vi. 
2-11,  Is.  ii.  0). 

The  principal  cities  still  exist  under 
names  similar  to  those  of  the  Bible,  but  in 
a  low  condition,  and  the  fellaliin  or  Moham- 


PHILISTINES 


(718) 


PHILOSOPHY 


medau  peasantry  are  sadly  oppressed  under 
the  wretched  administration  of  the  Turks. 
T.  W.  C. 

Philistines.    See  above. 

Phillips,  Philip,  Methodist  layman,  b,  in 
Chautauqua  County,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  13,  1834, 
was  brouglit  up  on  a  farm,  received  his 
musical  education  from  Dr.  Lowell  Mason, 
established  his  first  singing-school  at  Alle- 
gany, N.  Y.,  in  1853,  opened  a  music  store 
at  Cincinnati  in  1861,  removed  to  New  York 
in  1866,  visited  London  for  the  first  time  in 
1868,  and  has  published  the  following  musi- 
cal compositions:  Early  Blossoms,  1860;  Mu- 
sical Leaves,  1862;  Home  Songs,  The  Singing 
Pilgrim,  The  American  Sacred  Songster,  etc. 
(See  his  Song  Pilgrimage  Around  and 
Throughout  the  World,  with  a  biographical 
sketch,  Chicago,  1880,  London,  1883. ) 

Phillpotts,  Henry,  D.D.  (Oxford,  18—), 
bishop  of  Exeter;  b.  at  Gloucester,  1777;  d. 
at  Bishopstoke,  Exeter,  Sept.  18,  1869. 
He  was  educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  and  became  a  fellow  of  Magdalene 
1796;  rector  of  Stanhope,  and  prebendary  of 
Durham,  1809;  dean  of  Chester,  1828;  bishop 
of  Exeter,  1830.  He  was  an  extreme  Toiy 
and  High  Churchman,  often  in  controversy, 
as  with  the  Eomanists,  Lingard,  1806,  and 
C.  Butler,  1822;  with  Macaulay,  1849,  and  in 
the  Gorham  case,  1850,  wherein  zeal  led 
him  to  great  lengths.  F.  M.  B. 

Philo,  the  foremost  representative  of  the 
Jewish-Alexandrian  school  of  philosophy, 
was  born  at  Alexandria,  B.C.  25,  of  a  distin- 
guished family.  Little  is  known  of  his  life 
save  that,  a.d.,  40,  he  headed  an  embassy 
of  the  Jews  to  Caligula,  and  afterwards 
visited  Palestine.  His  chief  writings  are 
exegetical.  He  held  the  authority  of  the 
Old  Testament  but  explained  it  allegori- 
cally,  generally  retaining  the  liberal  sense 
also,  but  in  some  cases  excluding  it  as 
unworthy  or  as  self-contradictory.  In  his 
view  God  was  personal,  as  the  Scripture 
says,  but  he  was  also  the  universal  and 
absolute  being,  and  as  such  surrounded  by 
incorporeal  powers  which  represent  both 
the  biblical  angels  and  the  ideas  of  Plato. 
The  highest  of  these  powers  is  the  Logos, 
the  elder  son  of  God,  while  the  universe 
developed  through  his  mediation  in  his 
younger  son.  Man's  high  aim  is  through 
pai-ticipation  in  the  Logos  to  become  like 
to  God,  by  mystic  contemplation  to  sink 
himself  into  the  deity,  by  ascetic  practices 
to  loosen  his  connection  with  the  body,  so 
that  at  death  the  soul  like  ripe  fruit  would 
strip  off  its  material  vesture,  and  pass  over 
into  a  pure  spiritual  being.  It  is  a  great 
error  to  hold  that  John's  Logos-doctrine  is 
derived  from  Philo' s.  The  latter  is  a  nat- 
uralistic power,  without  real  personality, 
borrowed  from  an  ethnic  i^hilosophy,  while 
the  former  is  a  strictly  ethical  personality, 
the  fulfilment  of  the  messianic  promises  of 
the  Old  Testament.  Still  Philonean  theo- 
ries exerted  a  considerable  influence  upon 
the  early  Christian  fathers.  Eng.  trans,  of 
his  works  in  Bohn's  Library,  London,  1854- 
55,  4  vols.  T.  W.  C. 


Philopatris  is  the  name  of  a  dialogue,  a 
satire  upon  Christianity  from  a  proper 
point  of  view,  which  is  found  among  the 
works  of  Lucian  the  satirist  (q.v.),  and 
would  have  some  historical  interest  if  it 
were  genuine.  But  many  modern  critics 
refer  it  to  the  10th  century. 

Philopanus,  Joannes,  a  philosopher  of  the 
Alexandrian  school,  living  in  the  6th  or 
7th  century,  and  generally  connected  with 
the  Tritheists,  an  obscure  sect  of  his  time. 
Most  of  his  very  voluminous  writings  have 
been  printed,  but  never  attracted  any  great 
attention. 

Philosophy  {love  of  wisdom)  in  the  New 
Testament  means  the  emjity  speculations 
of  human  opposition  to  the  truth  revealed 
by  God  (1  Cor.  i.  18-27,  1  Tim.  vi.  20).  At 
Athens,  A.D.  51,  Paul  came  in  contact  with 
western  philosophy  in  his  encounter  with 
some  Epicureans  and  Stoics,  representa- 
tives of  the  two  great  schools  of  philosophy 
which  then  prevailed.  These  treated  his 
doctrine  with  indifference  or  contempt 
(Acts  xvii.  18).  In  his  epistle  to  the  Colos- 
sians  some  ten  years  later,  he  bade  them 
bewai-e  lest  anyone  should  make  spoil  of 
them  "  through  his  philosophy  and  vain  de- 
ceit" (ii.  8),  referring  doubtless  to  the  early 
efforts  of  eastern  speculation  to  make  void 
the  substance  of  the  gospel,  efforts  which 
afterwards  under  the  name  of  Gnosticism 
introduced  so  much  error  into  the  Chris- 
tian church.  Paul  had  before,  when  ad- 
dressing the  elders  of  Ephesus  (Acts  xx. 
29,  30),  expressed  his  anticipation  of  the 
rise  of  false  teachers  in  that  city,  and  when 
writing  to  Timothy  who  was  then  laboring 
there,  referred  to  a  vain  spiritualism  which 
insisted  on  ascetic  observances  (1  Tim.  iv. 
1-5)  and  interpreted  the  resurrection  as  a 
moral  change  (2  Tim.  ii.  IS),  and  to  a 
materialism  which  was  allied  to  sorcery 
(2  Tim.  iii.  13).  His  rebuke  of  Pagan  phi- 
losophy in  the  opening  of  1  Corinthians 
rests  upon  the  fact  that  to  the  wise  m^n  of 
that  day  the  gospel  seemed  to  be  mere 
folly  because  it  did  not  rest  upon  the  elo- 
quence or  the  subtlety  of  its  heralds,  but 
upon  the  demonstration  of  the  Spirit  in  the 
hearts  and  minds  of  them  that  hear. 

The  danger  against  which  Paul  warned 
the  church  in  his  day  still  exists.  There  is 
an  ample  field  for  philosophy  in  its  appro- 
priate work,  but  when  it  refuses  the  claim 
of  revelation,  and  substitutes  its  own  spec- 
ulations in  place  of  the  plain  statements  of 
Scripture,  when  it  rejects  whatever  dis- 
pleases its  taste  or  rises  above  its  compre- 
hension, when  spider-like  it  spins  out  of  its 
own  bowels  a  system  of  truth  and  duty,  it 
makes  spoil  of"  believers  and  is  apt  to  lead 
them  fatally  astray.  Christianity  fully  and 
fairly  viewed  gives  us  all  that  philosophy 
can  give,  and  in  a  more  pei-fect  form.  But 
it  also  gives  us  more;  and  this  more  that  it 
gives  is  what  man  most  needs,  and  unaided 
never  could  attain.  It  solves  the  vital 
problems  of  our  moral  destiny,  telling  us 
how  the  finite  can  meet  the  infinite,  how 
the  guilty  creature  can  be  reconciled  to  a 
holy  God  and  a  sinful  nature  become  regen- 
erate, and  how  the  mortal  can  be  assured 


PHILOSTORGIUS 


(719) 


PHOTIUS 


of  immortality.  Here  reason  in  the  pres- 
ence of  these  threat  questions  is  dumb,  and 
there  is  no  greater  folly  than  the  attempt 
to  substitute  her  stammerinj?  conjectures 
in  the  place  of  the  glorious  fulness  of  the 
Christian  system.  T.  W.  C. 

Philostorgius,  b.  in  Cappadocia,  368;  d.  in 
Constantinople  after  425;  wrote  a  history  of 
the  Christian  Church  from  the  Arian  point 
of  view,  representing  Arianism  as  the  older, 
the  genuine  Christianity  which  had  to  give 
way  for  the  invasion  of  pagan  mysticism. 
But  of  his  work  only  excerjits  have  come 
down  to  us,  made  by  Photius,  and  printed 
at  (leneva,  16-42,  Paris,  1678,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1855. 

Philostratus,  an  eminent  Greek.  Sophist, 
b.  in  Lemnos  between  170  and  Iv^O;  was  at- 
tached to  the  Court  of  the  Empress,  Julia 
Domna;  Avas  probably  in  Gaul  with  Cara- 
calla,  and  according  to  Suidas,  lived  until 
the  reign  of  Philip  (244-249).  He  wrote  the 
famous  life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  (q.v.). 
<See  his  works,  best  ed.  Kayser,  Ziirich,  1844, 
2  vols. ;  Ger.  trans,  of  his  life  of  Apollonius, 
lludolstadt,  1883;  French,  Paris,  1862.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Philoxenus,  whose  true  name  was  Xenai- 
ns;  b.  at  Tahal,  Persia;  was  elected  bishop 
of  Mabug  (Hierapolis,  near  Antioch)  in 
4S5,  but  was  deposed  in  518  by  the  emperor 
.Instinus  as  a  staunch  Monophysite,  and 
lied  to  Egypt.  He  was  one  of  the  best 
writers  of  the  Syrian  church,  but  his  works 
still  remain  unprinted  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. His  name  is  best  known  from  the 
.'io-called  Philoxenian  translation  of  the 
Xew  Testament,  a  literal  translation  into 
.Syrian,  on  the  basis  of  Peshito,  and  princi- 
])ally  done  by  his  Suffragan  bishop.  Poly- 
carp.  The  revision  of  it  by  Paul  of  Tela, 
about  616,  has  been  edited  by  White,  Ox- 
ford, 1778-1803,  4  vols. 

Philpot,  John,  an  English  martyr  from  the 
time  of  the  Reformation;  was  educated  at 
Oxford;  received  appointment  under  Ed- 
ward, but  was  arrested  under  Mary  and 
burnt  at  the  stake  at  Smithfield,  Dec.  18, 
1555.  His  works  have  been  published  bj' 
the  Parker  Society  under  the  title:  Exami- 
nations and  Writinys,  Cambridge,  1842. 

Phocas,  martyr  and  patron  saint  of  sea- 
men; said  to  have  lived  at  Sinope  in  Pontus 
as  a  gardener;  was  martyred  under  Trajan 
or  Diocletian  by  being  thrown  into  un- 
slacked  lime  and  then  into  boiling  water. 
The  Emperor  Phocas  built  a  church  to  his 
honor  in  Constantinople.  F.  H.  F. 

PhcB-nicl-a,  a  country  so  called  by  the 
Greeks  either  from  an  ancient  abundance 
of  palm  trees  or  from  Phfenix,  the  brother 
of  Cadmus.  It  was  a  narrow  strip  between 
the  Lebanon  mountains  and  the  sea,  extend- 
ing about  31)  m.  from  the  Ladder  of  Tyre  to 
the  Na/ir  Aicali,  2  m.  n.  of  Sidon.  Sandy 
on  the  shore  the  plain  behind  was  fertile, 
and  the  hillside  furnished  good  pasture  and 
fine  timber.  The  coast  was  indented  by 
several  harl)ors. 

Phoenicia  was  included   in   the   Land   of 


Promi.se  (Josh.  xiii.  4-6),  but  never  occu- 
pied by  Israel  ( Jud.  i.  31).  David  and  Solo- 
mon traded  with  its  king,  and  Ahab  mar- 
ried a  princess  of  the  country.  Elijah 
found  a  refuge  in  it.  The  only  time  Jesus 
left  Palestine  was  when  he  came  here  (Matt. 
XV.  21).  Paul  visited  Tyre,  Sidon  and 
Ptolemais  (Acts  xxi.  2-7,  xxvii.  3).  The 
country  now  is  a  land  of  ruins,  and  the 
prophecies  concerning  the  overthrow  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon  have  been  signally  fulfilled. 
At  the  dawn  of  history  the  Pliffinicians 
appear  as  a  rich  and  cultivated  people.  In 
race  they  were  Canaanitcs  ((ion.  x.  15),  and 
their  tongue  approaches  the  Hebrew  nearer 
than  any  other  of  the  Semitic  groui). 
Their  religion  was  a  debased  nature-wor- 
ship, alike  cruel  and  licentious.  They  had 
commercial  stations  on  the  Red  Sea,  and 
all  along  the  Mediterranean,  worked  silver 
mines  in  Si)ain  and  lead  mines  in  Cornwall, 
and  by  their  trade  were  bearers  of  civiliza- 
tion to  other  lands.  They  had  friendly  re- 
lations with  Israel.  Palestine  was  their 
granary  (1  Ki.  v.  11,  Acts  xii.  20),  and  Phoe- 
nicia the  commercial  agent  of  Palestine. 
Phoenician  mechanics  worked  on  the  tem- 
ple and  Jewish  and  Phoinician  vessels  sailed 
together  from  Ezion-geber.  After  the  di- 
vision of  the  kingdom  the  Phcenicians  sided 
with  Israel,  and  broke  the  covenant  with 
Judah,  even  .selling  Jews  as  slaves  to  the 
Edomites  (Joel  iii.  4-8,  Amos  i.  9.  10). 
Their  idolatry  exerted  a  baneful  influence 
on  the  covenant  people  which  did  not  cease 
till  the  final  captivity,  T.  W.  C. 

Photinus,  a  native  of  Ancyra,  a  pupil  of 
Marcellus,  bishop  of  Sirmium,  was  con- 
demned by  the  Synod  of  Antioch,  344, 
again  by  the  Synod  of  Milan.  345,  and  final- 
ly deposed  by  the  Synod  of  Sirmium,  351, 
because  like  his  master  he  carried  the  idea 
of  "  homoousion  "  into  an  extreme.  None 
of  his  writings  have  come  down  to  us. 

Photius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  ;  b. 
about  the  beginning  of  the  9th  centuiy; 
d,  in  an  Armenian  monastery  in  891,  ed- 
ucated in  all  the  science  of  his  time,  had 
become  a  famous  man  for  general  learning 
before  any  ecclesiastical  office  was  thought 
of  for  him.  His  Bihliotheca  contains  ex- 
tracts from  and  criticisms  upon  a  large 
number  of  authors,  many  of  them  now 
otherwise  unknown.  But  the  patriarch 
Ignatius  had  become  unacceptable  to  Bar- 
das,  who  was  Caisar,  and  powerful  at  tlie 
court.  Hence  in  8.57  he  was  deposed 
without  ground,  and  Bardas  pitched  upon 
Photius  as  his  successoi-.  He  feigned  great 
reluctance,  but  yielded  and  was  elevated 
from  the  rank  of  layman  by  successive  pro- 
motions to  the  patriarchatein  six  days.  His 
elevation  was  accompanied  with  great 
cruelties  iiiHicted  by  Bardas  upon  the  adhe- 
rents of  Ignatius.  Ignatius  himself  clung 
so  persistently  to  his  rights  that  it  became 
necessary  to  call  a  council  and  depose  him. 
which  was  done  in  859.  He  now  called 
upon  the  pope,  who  was  Nicholas  I.,  to 
interfere  in  his  behalf,  which  Nicholas  was 
nothing  loth  to  do.  He  assumed  it  his  posi- 
tion to  decide  in  the  matter,  and  sent  two 


PHRYGIA 


(720) 


PIERPONT 


bishops  as  his  letjates  to  investigate  and 
prouounce  the  decision.  But  the  Greeks 
were  not  inclined  to  be  obedient.  A  coun- 
cil in  861  proclaimed  Photius  as  rightful 
patriarch,  and  compelled  Ignatius  to  sign 
the  result.  Photius  wrote  a  skillful  letter 
to  the  pope,  but  in  vain,  for  he  was  con- 
demned and  excommunicated  at  a  council 
at  Rome  in  863.  Photius  now  changed  his 
position  from  one  of  defence  to  one  of 
attack  upon  the  Roman  Church  itself.  He 
said  that  it  had  made  innovations  in  the 
practice  and  liad  corrupted  the  doctrine  of 
the  church  by  allowing  the  use  of  milk  and 
cheese  in  Lent,  by  forbidding  the  priests  to 
marry,  and  by  giving  the  bishops  a  second 
chrism  when  the  chrism  given  to  the  priest 
is  enough;  and  worse,  by  introducing  the 
filioque  (q.v.)  into  the  creed!  Thus  they 
had  made  two  principles  of  divinity  in  the 
one  Godhead.  He  then  called  a  council  at 
Constantinople,  and  in  867  pronounced  the 
excommunication  of  the  Roman  Bishop. 
But  this  was  the  summit  of  his  power, 
from  which  he  had  soon  to  descend.  The 
Emperor  Michael  deposed  him,  another 
"ecumenical"  council  was  called  (869) 
which  was  attended  by  the  legates  of  the 
pope,  and  which  excommunicated  Photius 
as  a  liar,  adulterer,  parricide,  and  heretic. 
But  when  Ignatius  died  (878)  the  same  Pho- 
tius was  again  raised  to  the  patriarchate, 
the  council  of  879  acknowledged  him,  the 
legates  of  the  pope  assenting;  but  by  882 
the  pope  had  recovered  himself  enough  to 
excommunicate  him  finally.  He  was  him- 
self once  more  deposed  (886)  and  died  in  an 
Armenian  monastery.  (See  Hergenrother, 
Photius,  Patriarch  von  Constantinopel,  Ratis- 
bon,  1867-69,  3  vols.)  F.  H  F. 

Phryg'i-a  iparched),  a  central  district  of 
Asia  Minor  whose  limits  varied  so  much  at 
different  times  that  no-  exact  boundaries 
can  be  given.  Of  its  cities  Laodicea,  Hier- 
apolis,  Colossae  and  Antioch  of  Pisidia  are 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  People 
from  there  were  present  at  pentecost  (Acts 
ii.  10)  and  Paul  twice  traversed  the  country 
(xvi.  6,  xviii.  23).  Its  churches  were  repi-e- 
sented  in  the  Councils  of  Nice  and  Constan- 
tinople, A.D.  32.5  and  381.  T.  W.  C. 

Phylactery  {safeguard),  a  sort  of  amulet 
among  the  Jews  founded  on  a  literal  in- 
terpretation of  the  precept  to  bear  the  Law 
in  their  hearts  and  their  heads  (Ex.  xiii.  9, 
16,  Deut.  xi.  18).  One  kind  was  made  of  4 
pieces  of  parchment,  on  which  were  in- 
scribed Ex.  xii.  2-10,  xiii.  11-21,  Deut.  vi.  4- 
9,  xi.  18-21.  These  were  enclosed  in  a  piece 
of  rough  skin,  making  a  square,  one  side 
bearing  the  Hebrew  letter  shin,  and  this 
was  tied  to  the  forehead  and  worn  at  morn- 
ing pi-ayei".  They  were  called  "  frontlets." 
Another  kind  consisted  of  two  rolls  of  parch- 
ment, written  in  square  letters  with  an  ink 
made  for  the  purpose.  They  were  rolled 
to  a  point,  enclosed  in  a  case  of  black  calfskin 
and  then  put  on  a  square  bit  of  the  same 
leather,  whence  hung  a  thong  of  the  same, 
about  a  finger's  breadth  and  two  feet  long. 
These  rolls  were  placed  near  the  elbow  of 
the  left  arm,  and  after  the  thong  had  made 
a  little  knot  in  the  form  of  the  letter  yodh 


it  was  wound  about  the  arm  in  a  spiral 
line  which  ended  at  the  top  of  the  middle 
finger.  Our  Saviour  reproaches  the  ostenta- 
tion of  the  Pharisees  in  making  their  phy- 
lacteries broad  as  a  sign  of  their  superior 
wisdom  and  piety  (Matt,  xxiii.  5).  David 
hid  the  word  in  his  heart  (Ps.  cxix.  11)  to 
keep  him  from  sinning  against  God. 

T.  W.  C. 

Piarists,  in  Poland  called  Piares,  Fathers 
of  the  Pious  Schools,  an  order  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  founded  in  1607  by  a 
Spanish  nobleman,  Joseph  Calasanze,  and 
confirmed  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1621.  Besides 
the  three  common  monastic  vows  the  piarists 
make  a  fourth:  to  devote  their  time  to  the 
teaching  of  children  and  to  do  it  without 
receiving  any  remuneration.  They  are 
quite  numerous  in  Poland,  where  they 
have  done  much  good.  (See  Seyppert,  Or- 
densregeln  der  Piaristen,  Halle,  1783,  2  vols. ) 


Pi-be'-seth  (house  of  Bast),  an  important 
city  on  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile, 
named  from  the  goddess  called  by  the 
Greeks  Bubastis.  Ezekiel  (xxx.  17)  pre- 
dicted its  ruin,  and  B.C.  352  it  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  the  Persians.  Its  site, 
marked  by  extensive  mounds  and  broken 
pottery,  bears  the  name  Tel  Basta. 

T.  W.  C. 

Pierce,  Lovick,  D.D.  (Randolph  Mason), 
LL.D.  (Transylvania),  Methodist;  b.  in 
Halifax  Co.,  N.  C,  March  24,  1785;  d.  at 
Sparta,  Ga.,  Nov.  9,  1879.  He  entered  the 
S.  C.  Conference  1804,  and  was  a  member  of 
every  General  Conference  from  1824,  and 
"  fraternal  messenger  "  to  the  Northern  Con- 
ference in  1848  and  1876.  He  preached  for  75 
years,  besides  practicing  medicine  for  some 
time.  Bishop  George  Foster  Pierce  (1811- 
1884)  was  his  son.  F.  M.  B. 

Picards,  a  corruption  of  "  Beghards,"  is 
the  name  applied  by  many  Roman  Catholic 
writers  to  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit, 
the  Hussites,  the  Moravian  Brethren,  etc. 

Picus  of  Mirandula,  b.  at  Mirandula,  Mod- 
ena,  Italy,  Feb.  24,  1463;  d.  in  Florence, 
Nov.  17,  1494,  attracted  attention  in  1487  by 
his  900  thesis  de  omni  re  scihili,  about  which 
he  challenged  all  the  scholars  of  Europe  to 
come  to  Rome  and  dispute  with  him. 
Nobody  came  and  he  lived  afterwards 
quietly  in  Florence  engaged  in  reconciling 
Plato  and  Aristotle  and  constructing  every- 
thing known  into  one  science.  His  works 
were  edited  at  Basel,  1601.  (See  his  Life, 
with  translation  of  several  of  his  works, 
London,  1890.) 

Pierpont,  John,  Unitarian;  b.  at  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  April  6,  1785;  d.  at  Medford, 
Mass.,  Aug.  27,  1866.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
1804.  taught  for  twelve  years,  tried  law  and 
business,  studied  divinity  at  Cambridge, 
and  became  pastor  in  Hollis  St.,  Boston, 
1819;  Troy,  1845;  Medford,  1849-56;  army 
chaplain,  1861;  clerk  in  the  Treasury 
department,  1862-64.  He  was  an  earnest 
agitator  against  intemperance  and  slavery. 


PIERSON 


(721) 


PILGRIMAGES 


and  suffered  for  his  principles.  His  Airs  of 
Palestine,  1816,  gave  him  early  reputation, 
and  was  reprinted  with  other  poems  in 
1840.  Several  of  his  hymns  have  been 
extensively  used.  F,  M.  B. 

Pierson,  Arthiur  Tappan,  D.D.  (Knox 
College,  Galesl.urg.  Ills.,  1S74),  Presbyte- 
rian; b.  in  New  York,  March  (i,  18:57,  gradu- 
ated at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y., 
is.")7,  and  at  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  1860;  was  pastor  at  Bingham- 
ton  1860,  Waterford  1868,  Detroit  1849, 
Indianapolis  1882,Phila(lelphia  1883-88;  since 
an  evangelist;  is  editor  of  Miss.  Review  of 
the  Woi-ld  and  published  Keyn  to  the  Word, 
New  York,  1887;  The  crisis  of  missions,  1888; 
The  one  Gospel  (a  diatessaron)  1890,  etc. 

Pietism,  a  movement  in  the  Luthei-an 
Church  which  arose  as  a  reaction  against  a 
prevailing  reliance  upon  creeds  and  doctri- 
nal correctness.  It  was  begun  at  Frankfort 
by  Spener  in  1670,  who  invited  friendly  reun- 
ions at  his  own  house  for  mutual  edifica- 
tion. Others  followed  his  example  in 
these  coller/ia  pietatis,  and  hence  arose  the 
nickname  of  "  Pietists."  Some  of  these 
carried  their  opposition  to  doctrinalism 
and  the  established  .services  of  the  church 
so  far  as  to  awaken  bitter  opposition,  and 
there  was  a  long  controversy.  Francke 
and  others  of  Spener" s  friends,  being  ex- 
cluded from  Leipzig,  established  them- 
selves at  Halle,  which  became  the  home  of 
pietism.  These  revivers  of  piety  never 
attempted  to  form  a  separate  sect.  But 
their  ideas  were  too  much  akin  to  the  heart 
of  the  Reformation  not  to  win  wide  accept- 
ance. They  spread  their  infiuence  through 
all  classes  and  when  overborne  by  Ration- 
alism in  the  North  found  a  new  home  in 
Southern  Germany.  (See  the  histories  of 
Pietism  by  Schmid  1803,  Heppe  1870,  and 
Ritschl  1880.)  T.  W.  C. 

Pighius,  Albert,  D.D.  (Cologne,  1.517),  b. 
at  Campen  in  the  Netherlands,  1490,  d.  at 
Utrecht,  Dec.  26,  1542;  studied  theology  and 
was  by  his  teacher,  Adrian  VI.,  called  to 
Rome  and  by  Paul  III.  made  provost  of  the 
church  of  St.  John  in  Utrecht  (1542).  His  De 
lihero  hnmiuis  arbitrio,  Cologne,  1542,  called 
forth  Calvin's  Defensx  same  et  orthodoxce. 
Dortrince. 

Pi'ha-hi'roth  (mouth  of  caverns),  the  last 
place  where  the  Israelites  encamped  before 
crossing  the  Red  Sea  (Ex.  xiv.  2,  9,  Num. 
xxxiii.  7,  8).  Robinson  and  Lepsius  iden- 
tify it  with  Adi/rud,  12  miles  from  Suez, 
now  a  watering-place  for  caravans. 

T.  W.  C. 

Pi'late,  Pontius,  under  whom  our  Lord 
taught,  suffered  and  died  (Luke  iii.  1, 
xxiii.),  was  appointed  procurator  of  Judea, 
A.n.  29,  and  held  the  office  10  years.  He 
became  odious  to  all  classes  of  the  Jews  by 
his  cruelty  and  perfidy,  and  often  drove 
them  to  the  very  verge  of  insurrection. 
His  oflBcial  residence  was  at  Ca'sarea,  but 
during  the  great  festivals  he  stayed  at 
Jerusalem  to  preserve  order.  Though  his 
chief  duty  concerned  the  revenues,  yet  he 


was  at  the  head  of  the  whole  administra- 
tion, military  and  judicial.  Thus  when 
Christ  was  condemned  by  the  high  priest 
the  case  came  before  the  governor,  without 
whose  authority  he  could  not  be  executed. 
Pilate  saw  his  innocence,  and  sought  to 
save  him,  using  every  means  available  for 
the  purpose,  Imt  when  he  perceived  that 
the  acquittal  of  Jesus  would  lead  to  com- 
plaints at  Rome,  he  yielded  and  gave  him 
up  to  his  foes.  His  washing  his  hands  and 
the  inscription  on  the  cross  only  con- 
demned himself.  In  a.d.  36  the  governor 
of  Syria  sent  him  to  Rome  to  defend  him- 
self against  some  accusations.  He  did  not 
succeed,  and  was  banished  to  Vienne  in 
(iaul,  where,  according  to  tradition,  he 
committed  suicide.  A  wild  legend  links 
his  name  with  the  mountain  now  called 
Pilatus,  on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Lucerne. 
The  so-called  ^cirt  Pilati  (English  transla- 
tion in  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  ed.  Chris- 
tian Literature  Company,  New  York,  vol. 
viii.)  now  extant,  are  a  fabrication.  (See 
Lepsius,  Die  Pilatus  Aden,  Kiel,  1871,  2d 
ed.,  1886.)  T.  W.  C. 

Pilgrim  Fathers  is  the  name  generally 
given  to  those  Puritans  who  first  emigrated 
to  America  and  founded  the  colony  of  New 
England.  Persecuted  in  England,  they 
fled  to  Holland,  and  small  communities  be- 
gan to  form  about  1586.  Their  situation, 
however,  was  forlorn  in  the  extreme.  The 
language  and  manners  around  them  were 
strange,  and  they  had  to  find  subsistence 
under  such  disadvantages  that  "poverty 
came  upon  them  like  an  armed  man  from 
whom  they  could  not  fly."  By  removing 
to  Leyden,  and  congregating  together,  they 
did  better,  but  they  hungered  after  English 
language,  English  law,  English  nationality, 
and  the  idea  of  crossing  the  ocean  arose 
upon  them.  All  the  lands  of  North  Amer- 
ica belonging  to  the  English  crown,  had 
been  granted  to  two  great  companies:  the 
London  and  the  Western.  About  1617  ne- 
gotiations were  opened  with  the  London 
Company  for  power  to  form  a  distinct  plan- 
tation of  their  own  distant  from  any  other, 
and,  in  spite  of  great  difficulties  thrown  in 
their  way  by  the  bishops,  they  obtained  a 
patent.  In  August.  I(i20.  the  first  portion 
of  them  left  Leyden  for  Southampton. 
Sept.  6,  the  Mayjioiver  set  sail  from  South- 
ampton for  America.  Nov.  9  she  reached 
Cape  Cod,  and  Dec.  17  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
William  Brewster.  John  Bradford.  Edward 
Winslow.  Miles  Standish,  etc.,  landed  on 
Plymouth  Rock. 

Pilgrimages,  as  a  religious  discipline,  are 
by  no  means  confined  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  of  as 
frequent  occurrence  among  the  Hindus  and 
5lohammedans,  and  connected  with  as  ludi- 
crous and  pernicious  superstitions.  In  the 
Christian  Church,  pilgrimages  are  first 
heard  of  in  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cent- 
ury, and  .after  the  visit  of  Constantine  and 
Ik'lcna  to  Golgatha  and  Bethlehem,  they 
seem  at  once  to  have  become  frequent. 
But  those  pilgrimages  formed  no  part  of  a 
religious  discipline.  Thev  were  simply 
considered  as  means  of  de\'V)ti<m  and  edifi- 


PIIiKINGTON 


(T: 


PISA 


cation.  By  degrees,  however,  as  the  church 
took  hold  of  the  matter,  they  entirely 
changed  character.  Then  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  Holy  Laud  or  to  the  shrine  of  some 
saint  became  a  piece  of  good  work  by 
which  penance  could  be  paid  and  indul- 
gences bought.  On  the  one  hand,  the 
church  made  a  regular  business  out  of  pil- 
grimages, employing  many  devices  to  draw 
the  knights  and  their  ladies  to  Loretto,  or 
some  other  place,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
there  were  people  who  adopted  pilgrimages 
as  a  profession,  and  spent  their  whole  life 
in  roving  about  from  one  shrine  to  another, 
and  enjoying  all  those  immunities  and  privi- 
leges wliich  the  church  and  public  opinion 
accorded  to  the  pilgrim.  The  12tli  century 
saw  this  abomination  at  its  point  of  cul- 
mination. But  while  the  Protestant 
churches  have  entirely  discarded  the  idea 
of  a  pilgrimage  as  a  part  of  the  religious 
discipline,  and  returned  to  the  original 
view  of  a  visit  to  the  Holy  Land  or  any 
other  place  of  sacred  memory  as  a  means, 
not  of  grace,  but  simply  of  religious  and 
biblical  instruction,  the  Chui'ch  of  Rome 
still  clings  to  its  peculiar  formulas — (see 
Trident.  Sessio  2.5;  in  Schaff,  Creeds,  ii.  199, 
sqq.),  and  still  dapples,  though  mostly  in  a 
clandestine  way,  in  its  even  more  peculiar 
business.  C.  P. 

Pilking^on,  James,  b.  at  Rivington,  Lanca- 
shire, England,  1.520;  d.  at  Bishop's  Auck- 
land, Jan.  23,  1576;  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, lived  at  Ziirich  and  Basel  during 
the  reign  of  Mary,  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Durham,  1561,  and  wrote  commentaries 
on  the  minor  prophets,  etc.,  which  have 
been  reprinted  by  the  Parker  Society,  Cam- 
bridge, 1842. 

Pillar  Saints  or  Stylites  were  the  follow- 
ers or  imitators  of  Simeon  Stylites  (q.v.). 
The  peculiar  form  of  asceticism,  invented 
by  him  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century, 
consisted  in  standing  day  and  night,  year 
after  year,  on  the  top  of  a  pillar,  preaching 
during  the  day  and  praying  during  the 
night,  wearing  no  clothing  except  what  was 
necessary  for  decency's  sake,  eating  once  a 
week,  etc.  It  became  quite  common  in 
Palestine  and  Syria,  until  it  was  forbidden 
in  the  12th  century.  It  never  penetrated 
into  the  West. 

Pirke  Aboth,  ("  Sayings  of  the  Fathers  ") 
is  the  name  of  the  oldest,  uncanonical  col- 
lection of  pithy  Jewish  sayings,  made  by 
such  eminent  rabbis  as  Hillel,  Gamaliel, 
etc.,  and  chronologically  arranged  into  six 
chapters.  There  are  numerous  editions  of 
it,  the  last  by  H.  L.  Strack,  Karlsruhe, 
1882.  and  it  has  been  several  times  trans- 
lated into  German.  There  is  also  an  Eng- 
lish translation  by  Charles  Taylor,  Sayings 
of  the  Jewish  Fathers,  Cambridge,  1877. 

Pirkheimer,  Wilibald,  b.  at  Eichstiidt, 
Bavaria,  Dec.  5,  1470;  d.  at  Nuremberg, 
Dec.  22,  1.530;  sprung  from  a  rich  and  dis- 
tinguished family  of  the  free,  imperial  city 
of  Nuremberg,  studied  law  and  humaniora 
at  Pavia  and  Padua,  1488-95,  was  a  magis- 
trate   of  his    native  city,   1496-1523,  com- 


manded the  Nuremberg  contingent  in  the 
war  of  1499  in  Switzerland,  and-  was  often 
employed  both  by  Maximilian  I.  and  Charles 
V.  in  diplomatical  negotiations.  In  the  his- 
tory of  the  Reformation  he  played  a  con- 
si^icuous  part,  his  house  and  himself  being 
one  of  the  centres  of  humanism  in  Germany, 
but,  in  spite  of  his  vigorous  defence  of 
Reuchlin  against  the  Dominicans,  his  con- 
tributions to  the  Epistolce  ohsciirorum  viro- 
rum,  his  intimate  connection  with  Melanch- 
thon,  his  hatred  of  Tetzel,  his  formal 
excommunication  by  the  pope,  etc.,  he 
remained  a  member  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to  his  death.  The  collected  edition 
of  his  works  by  Melchior  Goldast,  Frank- 
fort, 1610,  contains  a  life  of  him  by  Conrad 
Rittershausen.  See  also  Drews,  W.  P.'s 
Stellung  zur  Beformation,  Leipzig,  1887. 

C.  P. 

Pirmin,  St.,  d.  Nov.  3,  753,  as  abbot  of 
Hoi-nbach,  Rhenish  Bavaria,  founded  sev- 
eral monasteries  in  Southwestern  Germany 
and  is  believed  to  have  been  a  great  celeb- 
rity in  his  own  days,  but  even  his  first 
biographers,  from  the  middle  of  the  9th 
century,  complain  that  they  know  nothing 
about  him.  Mone:  Quellensainmluny,  Carls- 
ruhe,  1848. 

Pisa,  the  seat  of  three  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cils. 1.  In  1133,  condemned  Peter  of  Leon. 
2.  The  great  Council  of  Pisa,  called  in  con- 
sequence of  the  papal  schism  to  reform  the 
church  "  in  head  and  members."  Gregory 
XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  were  both  recog- 
nized as  popes  by  different  nations  of  Chris- 
tendom, the  former  being  established  at 
Rome,  the  latter  at  Avignon.  The  majority 
of  the  cardinals,  under  the  influence  of 
ideas  which  had  been  advocated  for  some 
time  by  members  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
determined  to  abandon  their  respective 
leaders,  and  come  together  in  a  general 
council,  which,  as  a  representative  of  the 
whole  church,  might  put  an  end  to  the 
schism  by  deposing  both  popes  and  electing 
another.  Accordingly  at  a  meeting  at 
Livorno  in  1408  they  called  a  council  to 
meet  at  Pisa,  March  25,  1409,  which  assem- 
bled promptly  at  the  time  set.  It  was  very 
fully  attended,  4  patriarchs,  182  bishops  or 
their  representatives,  287  abbots  or  their 
representatives,  and  many  other  dignitaries 
being  present.  On  the  26th  of  June  the 
cardinals  united  in  the  choice  of  Peter 
Philargi  as  pope,  who  took  the  name  of 
Alexander  V.  But  they  had  neglected  to 
gain  the  promise  of  the  various  powers 
to  accept  the  pope  who  might  be  chosen, 
and  accordingly,  when  some  refused  to  ac- 
cept Alexander,  there  were  three  popes 
instead  of  two,  and  the  schism  was  made 
worse.  The  reform  in  the  "  head  "  of  the 
church  being  thus  effected,  the  council 
should  have  proceeded  to  a  reform  in  the 
"members."  But  though  all  the  cardinals 
had  solemnly  promised  to  undertake  this 
should  they  be  made  pope,  Alexander  put 
it  off,  and  nothing  was  done.  In  fact  the 
papacy  was  past  reform  by  its  own  internal 
force.  The  importance  of  this  council  in 
the  history  of  papacy  is  that  it  represented 
a  theory  of  the  supremacy  of  the  church  to 


PISCATOR 


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PITRA 


the  pope,  and  of  the  rei)iesciitative  charac- 
ter of  a  f^eneral  council,  whicli  was  in  direct 
conflict  with  the  lojrical  tendencies  of  the 
system,  and  which,  tlion<ili  triumphant  for 
a  time  at  Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basel,  was 
unable  to  maintain  itself,  and  was  sup- 
planted by  the  lo<^ical  monarchical  ten- 
dency, which  finally  seized  control  in  the 
Vatican  Council  of  1870.  3.  Held  in  the 
year  1511,  at  the  call  of  cardinals  who  were 
dissatisfied  with  Julius  II.  because  he 
would  nut  call  a  <ieneral  council.  It  was 
transferred  to  Milan  where,  in  1^>V2,  it  made 
a  fruitless  attempt  to  condemn  the  pope. 
F.  H.  F. 
Piscator,  Johannes,  h.  at  Strasshurff, 
March  27,  1540;  d.  at  Ilerhorn,  Nassau,  July 
20,  1025;  was  api)ointcd  professor  of  theol- 
ogy in  his  native  city  1572,  and  at  Heidelberg 
1574,  but  was  driven  from  both  places  by 
the  Lutherans.  In  1584  he  was  appointed 
professt)r  at  Ilerhorn  and  remained  there, 
thoufjh  now  he  was  bitterly  denounced  by 
the  Reformed.  He  tianslated  the  whole 
Bible  into  German,  Herhorn,  1002-24,  3 
vols.,  and  wrote  a  number  of  dogmatical 
and  polemical  treatises. 

Pise,  Charles  Constantine,  Roman  Catho- 
lic; b.  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  in  1802;  d.  in 
Brooklyn,  X.  Y.,  May  20,  18(>0.  He  studied 
in  Rome,  was  ordained  a  priest  iu  1825,  did 
missionary  work  for  several  years,  settled 
in  1849  as  pastor  of  the  church  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  and  published  Father  Roiolaml. 
a  tale,  Baltimore,  1829;  History  of  the 
Church  from  its  Eatahlishment  to  the  Refor- 
mation, 1830,  5  vols.,  etc. 

Pis'gah,  the  summit  from  which  Moses 
viewed  tlie  Promised  Land  (Deut.  xxxiv. 
1-4).  It  was  a  part  of  the  Abarim  range  in 
Moab,  associated  with  Xebo,  and  within 
the  limits  of  Reuben.  There  were  level 
spaces  upon  it,  as  "  the  field  of  Zophim  " 
(N'um.  xxiii.  14).  It  commanded  a  view  of 
the  Israelitish  camp  and  of  the  heights  of 
theentirelloly  Land.  Prof.  Paine  has  iden- 
tified its  site,  before  unknown,  with  a  well- 
marked  promontory,  5  m.  s.w.  of  Heban, 
which  rises  above  the  nearer  hills  and  has 
several  flat  summits,  the  eastern  one  known 
as  Jehel  Nebd  and  the  western  as  Jehel 
Sif/f/ha.  The  latter,  2300  ft.  above  the  seas, 
is  Pisgah.  T.  W.  C. 

Pi-sid'i-a,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  n. 
of  Pamphylia,  lying  on  the  Taurus  range. 
Swift  torrents  poured  through  the  defiles  of 
the  mountains,  and  the  inhabitants  were  a 
rough  and  lawless  race.  The  apostle  in  his 
jonrneys  through  Pisidia  which  he  visited 
twice  (Acts  xiii.  14,  xiv.  24)  may  have  been 
in  peril  bv" waters"  as  well  as  bv  " rob- 
bers "  (2  Cor.  xi.  20).  In  2  Tim.  iii.  11  he 
refers  to  the  trials  which  befel  him  at 
Antioch  in  Pisidia.  Churches  continued 
to  exist  here  for  7  or  8  centuries. 

T.  W.  C. 

Pi'-son,  (ftfrenminrf),  one  of  the  4  "  heads" 
into  which  the  stream  that  watered  Para- 
dise (Oen.  ii.  11)  was  divided.  It  has  been 
placed  as  variously  as  has  the  garden  of 
Eden.  If  Eden  was  in  Armenia,  the  Pison 
was  doubtless  the  modern  Phasis;  if  it  were 


near  the  Euphrates,  then  Joab,  a  tributary 
of  the  Tigris,  was  the  Pison.  Among  the 
streams  that  have  been  suggested  in  this 
connection  are  the  Indus,  the  Ganges,  the 
Nile  and  the  Ilyphasis.  T.  W,  C. 

Pistoia,  The  Synod  of,  was  convened 
Sei)t.  bs,  1780,  at  Pistoia,  in  the  Northeast- 
ern Tuscany,  in  order  to  consider  a  number 
of  propositions  laid  before  it  by  grand- 
duke  Leopold,  concerning  image-worship- 
and  the  invocation  of  saints,  the  use  of  the 
Italian  language  in  divine  service,  the  reform 
of  the  monasteries,  etc.  Grand-duke  Leo- 
pold was  a  brotiier  to  Joseph  II.  of  Austria 
and  imbued  with  the  same  spirit,  and  the 
synod,  presided  over  by  Scipio  Ricci,  bishop 
of  Pistoia,  and  numbering  234  members, 
mostly  priests  of  the  diocese,  adopted  his 
propositions  unanimously.  But  he  had  not 
power  to  carry  them  out' against  the  oppo- 
sition and  agitation  of  his  other  bishops. 
The  pope  condemned  them  and  Ricci  re- 
signed. (See  Potter,  Vie  et  Memoirs  de 
Scipion  dr  Rirri,  Brussels,  1823,  3  vols,  and 
art.  Ricci,  Sciimon  dk.  ) 

Pistorius,  Johannes,  b.  at  Nidda  in  Hesse, 
Feb.  4,  154();  d.  at  Freiburg,  in  September, 
1008.  He  studied  medicine,  was  body-phy- 
sician to  the  Margrave  of  Baden-Durlach, 
and  wrote  some  very  curious  medical  trea- 
tises. He  studied  also  history  and  published 
Srriptores  Rev,  Germ.,  3  vols.,  and  Polonica 
Hist.  Corp.,  3  vols.  And  finally  he  studied 
theology,  leaving  Lutheranism  for  Cal- 
vinism, and  then  again  Calvinism  for 
Romanism.  In  the  last  character  he  held 
disputations  with  the  Protestants  at  Heer- 
brand  and  Emmendingen,  became  provost 
of  the  cathedral  of  Breslau,  and  published 
Anatomid  Luther i;  Wegweiser  fiir  alle  ter- 
filhrten  Christen,  etc. 

Pi'-thom,  (house  of  Turn,  who  was  the  sun- 
god  of  On),  a  "  treasure-city  "  or  provision- 
depot,  built  by  the  Israelites  in  Goshen, 
(Ex.  i.  11).  It  has  been  regarded  as  the 
Pathumos  of  Herodotus  on  the  canal  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  But 
recent  investigations  in  a  mound  in  Wady 
et-Tameilat,  between  Ismailia  and  Ti'l  el- 
Kebir,  have  revealed  the  site  of  what  seems 
to  have  been  a  store-city,  containing  a  small 
temple  dedicated  by  Rameses  II.  to  Tum, 
and  a  large  brick  building,  0.50  ft.  sijuare, 
with  walls  8  ft.  thick  and  many  rooms  with- 
out doors,  apparently  used  as  k 'granary. 
T.  W.  C. 

Pitra,  Jean  Baptists,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Champ- 
forgueil,  near  Autun,  Eastern  France, 
Aug.  31,  1812;  d.  in  Rome,  Feb.  11.  1889. 
After  entering  the  Benedictine  order  he 
lived  at  Solesme-s,  about  100  m.  s.w.  of 
Paris,  devoting  himself  to  historical  re- 
searches, but  was  in  1858  sent  to  Russia  by 
the  pope  to  study  the  Slavic  liturgy  and 
entered  the  service  of  the  Propaganda  after 
his  return.  In  180.3  he  was  created  a  car- 
dinal and  in  1809  he  liecame  librarian  of 
the  Vatican  Library.  He  i)ublished  Spirlle- 
(/iniii  Solesuienxe,  Paris,  1852-85,  9  vols.;  Vie 
If.  R.  P.  Lihernidnn  Paris,  18.").'>.  2d  ed.,  1873; 
Jxris  ccrl.  Grnroruni  Historin.  Rome,  1804; 
Triodion  Katauacticon,  1879,  etc. 


i 


PIUS 


(724) 


PIUS 


Pius,  popes  of  that  name.  1.  Pope  from 
139  or  141  to  154  or  156.  2.  (Enea  Silvio 
[^neas  Sylvius]  Piccolomini)  b.  at  Cor- 
signano,  near  Siena,  Oct.  IS,  1405,  pope  from 
Aug.  10,  1453  to  Aug.  14,  1464.  He  became 
known  first  at  the  Council  of  Basel,  where 
in  the  service  of  several  different  masters 
he  obtained  a  leading  intiuence.  When 
Amadeus  of  Savoy  was  elected  pope,  he 
abandoned  the  cau.se  of  the  council,  and 
withdrew  to  the  imperial  court  at  Vienna. 
Here  he  became  noted  as  a  literary  man. 
Sent  to  Home  on  a  mission  in  1445,  he  re- 
turned with  the  purpose  of  serving  the 
papacy,  had  an  influential  part  in  making, 
peace  between  Eugenius  and  the  empire, 
and  was  made  bishop  of  Trieste  by  Nicho- 
las V.  In  Decembei",  1456,  he  became  car- 
dinal. Upon  his  election  to  the  papacy,  he 
adapted  himself  with  his  natural  versatility 
to  the  new  position.  He  called  an  assem- 
bly of  princes  at  Mantua  to  form  a  joint 
expedition  against  the  Turk.  When  after 
many  efforts,  his  plan  of  a  general  cru- 
sade had  failed,  he  himself  took  the  cross 
(1464)  and  went  to  Ancona.  Here  his  army 
melted  away,  Venice  delayed  furnishing  a 
fleet,  and  the  pope  died  two  days  after 
the  fleet  finally  arrived.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  his  autobiography  in 
Latin,  Commentaries  of  his  oivn  Times, 
published  first  in  Ptome,  1584,  with  some 
omissions.  3.  (Francesco  Todeschini)  b. 
at  Siena,  May  9,  1439,  pope  from  Sept.  22 
to  Oct.  18,  1503.  4.  (Giovanni  Angelo 
Medici)  b.  at  Milan,  Mar.  31,  1499,  pope 
from  Dec.  28,  1559  to  Dec.  9,  1565.  He  re- 
opened the  Council  of  Trent,  and  con- 
ducted its  affairs  with  great  skill  to  a  suc- 
cessful completion.  Its  definitions  and 
decrees  were  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  Jan.  26, 
1.564.  Personally  inclined  to  mildness,  his 
position  made  liim  at  times  severe  in  his 
public  policy.  5.  (Michele  Ghislierijb.  in 
Bosco,  duchy  of  Milan,  Jan.  17,  1504,  pope 
Jan.  7,  1566  to  May  1,  1.572.  A  Dominican 
and  supreme  inquisitor  before  his  election  to 
the  papacy,  his  general  policy  was  deter- 
mined by  these  facts.  He  endeavored  to 
give  the  inquisition  new  efficacy,  and  to  en- 
force the  canons  and  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Trent.  He  sought,  though  in  vain,  to 
reintroduce  the  reading  of  the  bull  In  Coena 
Domini  (q.v. ),  into  all  Catholic  countx-ies. 
He  succeeded  in  forming  a  general  league 
against  the  Turks,  resulting  in  the  battle 
of  Lepanto,  Oct.  7,  1571.  6.  (Giovanni 
Angelo  Braschi)  b.  at  Cesena,  .52  n).  s.e.  of 
Bologna,  Dec.  27,  1717,  pope  from  Feb.  15, 
1775,  to  Aug.  28,  1799.  He  was  looked  to 
by  both  parties  in  the  contest  over  the 
Jesuits  for  help,  and  of  course,  could  but 
partially  gratify  either.  The  banished 
fathers  found  an  asylum  with  Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia,  and  Catherine  II.  of  Russia.  In 
Austria  the  reforms  under  the  liberal  em- 
peror, Joseph  II.,  so  troubled  the  pope  that 
he  took  the  extraordinary  step  of  going  to 
Vienna  in  person,  but  was  able  to  effect  lit- 
tle. Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Rev- 
olution, Pius  attempted  to  save  the  church 
property,  but  in  vain.  He  subsequently 
threw  his  influence  against  France,  so  that 
Napoleon  invaded  Italy,  defeated  the  papal 


troops  (1796)  and  occupied  Lore  to  and  An- 
cona. Later  (1798)  Berthier  entered  Rome 
and  proclaimed  it  a  republic.  The  pope 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  died  while  still 
in  confinement.  7.  (Gregorio  Luigi  Bar- 
naba  Chiaramonti)  b.  at  Cesena,  Aug.  14, 
1742,  pope  from  March  14,  1800,  to  Aug.  20, 
1823.  His  attention  was  directed  at  the 
very  first  to  the  condition  of  things  in 
France,  where  many  churches  were  closed 
and  many  dioceses  without  bishops.  He 
finally  arranged  a  concordat  with  Napoleon 
(1801).  In  1804  Napoleon  opened  negotia- 
tions to  secure  his  coronation  by  the  pope, 
which  was  performed  at  Notre  Dame  in 
Paris.  Good  will  seemed  to  prevail,  but  in 
Oct.,  1805,  the  French  occupied  Ancona 
again,  and  in  1808  Rome.  The  original  do- 
nation of  Charlemagne  was  declared  re- 
voked by  Napoleon  .May  ,17,  1809,  and  the 
papal  states  reunited  to  the  empire.  Pius 
having  retaliated  with  an  excommunication, 
he  was  seized  July  5,  1809,  and  in  1812 
brought  to  Fontainebleau.  Napoleon's  de- 
feat at  Leipzig  in  1814  delivered  him  from 
duress  and  restoi-ed  him  to  Rome,  where  he 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  days  to  the 
improvement  of  the  local  government.  8. 
(Francesco  Xaviero  Castiglioni)  b.  at  Cingoli 
near  Ancona,  Nov.  20,  1761,  pope  from 
March  31,  1829  to  Nov.  30, 1830.  9.  (Giovanni 
Maria  Mastia-Feretti),  pope  June  16,  1846, 
to  Feb.  7,  1878;  b.  at  Sinigaglia,  16  m. 
w.n.w.  of  Ancona,  May  13,  1792.  Of  a  noble 
family,  his  first  plans  looked  to  a  military 
career,  but  hindered  by  epilepsy  from  this, 
he  studied  theology,  was  healed  of  his  dis- 
ease by  prayer  to  the  Virgin,  as  he  believed, 
was  ordained,  and  after  occupying  many 
subordinate  posts  was  elevated  to  the  car- 
dinalate  in  1840.  He  had  gained  the  repu- 
tation of  a  blameless  priest,  a  good  friend, 
and  an  Italian  patriot.  Upon  his  elevation 
to  the  papacy,  he  proclaimed  an  amnesty, 
appointed  commissions  to  consider  the  rem- 
edies for  existing  abuses,  and  thus  became 
the  favorite  of  all  lovers  of  freedom.  In 
ecclesiastical  matters,  however,  he  was  an 
adherent  of  the  old  order  of  things.  He 
complained  from  the  beginning,  as  at  the 
end,  of  the  freedom  of  the  press,  of  Bible 
societies,  of  indifferentism  and  liberalism, 
and  exalted  by  example  and  precept  the 
worship  of  the  Virgin.  Thus  favoring  two 
entirely  contradictory  tendencies,  that  of 
liberalism  in  the  state  and  conservatism  in 
the  church,  he  came  to  the  fateful  year  of 
1848.  The  general  movements  in  Italy  and 
Europe  at  large  tended  toward  revolution 
and  popular  government.  Pius  at  first  fell 
in  with  them,  granting  a  constitution  to  the 
States  of  the  Church  March  14,  1848.  But 
when  the  Italian  people,  under  the  lead  of 
the  king  of  Sardinia,  rose  against  Austrian 
rule,  Pius  refused  to  go  with  them.  He 
must,  as  the  universal  bishop,  live  in  peace 
with  all  nations.  He  forbade  his  troops 
to  cross  the  frontier  of  his  states.  With 
this  refusal,  the  popularity  of  the  pope 
was  lost.  Ministry  after  ministry  tried  to 
maintain  the  papal  govei'ument  upon  differ- 
ent principles,  but  finally  the  pope  fled 
from  the  city  (Nov.  24,  1848)  and  protested 
from  his  retreat  in  Gaeta  against  the  meas- 


PIUS 


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PIUS 


ures  adopted  in  Rome.  But  the  city  went 
forward  till  (Feb.  9,  1849)  it  proclaimed  a 
republic,  which  was  very  shortlived  for  on 
the  3d  of  July,  184U,  the  French  beset  the 
city  and  restored  the  papal  rule,  and  Pius 
returned  April  12,  1850  under  the  saluta- 
tions of  the  people,  "Evviva  Pio?  No! 
No!" 

Now  followed  upon  the  liberal  period, 
the  period  of  reaction,  1850-1870.  But 
little  need  be  said  of  the  secular  govern- 
ment of  the  States  of  the  Church.  The 
pope's  power  was  sustained  only  by  Aus- 
trian and  French  bayonets;  the  manage- 
ment of  things  surrendered  to  the  astute 
but  tyrannical  Antonelli.  The  papal  states 
were  notoriously  the  worst  governed  terri- 
tory of  Europe.  The  activity  of  the  pope 
was  all  the  more  extended  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical sphere.  lie  began  that  aggressive 
course  of  action  which  has  ever  since  been 
-characteristic  of  the  papal  see.  The  Cath- 
olic hierarchy  in  England  was  reorganized 
in  18.50.  that  of  the  Netherlands  in  1853. 
Cardinals  were  created,  saints  canonized, 
seminaries  erected,  the  Jesuits  favored 
and  put  in  charge  of  education,  and  a  Cath- 
olic press  established.  On  the  8th  of  Dec, 
1854,  without  i)revious  action  of  any  organ 
of  the  church,  the  pope  of  his  own  author- 
ity proclaimed  the  dogma  of  the  immacu- 
late conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  thus 
assuming,  on  the  strength  of  Jesuit  sup- 
port, the  infallible  teaching  office  in  the 
church.  From  this  time  the  advance  of 
the  pretentions  of  the  papacy  and  the  disso- 
lution of  the  papal  government  went  hand 
in  hand.  From  1851  to  1855  the  pope  is 
forming  concordates  with  various  nations 
as  to  the  relations  of  church  and  state, 
thereby  seeking  to  secure  the  monopoly  of 
religion  for  the  Roman  Church.  But  checks 
in  this  direction  are  not  lacking.  Bavaria 
refuses  to  enter  into  such  an  arrangement; 
"Wurtemburg  also.  In  1858  France  forms 
an  alliance  with  Italy  against  Austria.  In 
18()0  all  the  States  of 'the  Church  except  the 
Pdtrimnnium  Petri  are  incorporated  in  the 
new  Italian  kingdom.  In  1802  a  festival  is 
held  in  Rome,  ostensibly  to  canonize  2(5 
obscure  Japanese  martyrs  who  fell  at  Nag- 
asaki in  1.507;  but  the  occasion  is  employed 
to  declare  the  necessity  of  the  temporal 
power  of  the  pope.  In  1804  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  and  Victor  Emmanuel  made  a  con- 
vention by  which  the  emperor  was  to  evac- 
uate the  States  of  the  Church  within  two 
years.  The  8th  of  Dec,  1804,  was  the  occa- 
lon  of  a  new  encyclical  letter,  with  an 
appended  Syllabus  of  Errors,  in  which  the 
pope  declared  war  upon  all  modern  prog- 
ress. In  18(i0  the  French  trooi)s  withdrew 
fiom  Rome;  but  in  1807,  in  a  large  assembly 
of  bishops  at  Rome,  the  pope  expressed  liis 
desire  for  the  calling  of  a  general  council, 
and  reaffirmed  the  necessity  of  the  tem- 
poral power.  The  answer  of  Italy  were 
stei)s  to  incorporate  the  remaining  States 
of  the  Church,  in  which  they  were,  however, 
for  a  time  hindered  by  Napoleon.  The 
Frencii  re-enter  Rome  in  1807. 

The  closing  period  of  this  jiopc's  life  now 
begins  with  the  calling  and  assembling  of 
the  Vatican  CounciL    It  was  summoned  to 


meet  at  Rome,  Dec  8,  1800.  The  schis- 
matic bishops  of  the  Orient,  and  even  the 
Protestants  of  the  West,  were  invited  to  be 
present  and  to  submit  themselves  to  the 
l>ope,  but  they  all  declined.  As  the  time  ap- 
proached, curiosity  became  general  to  know 
what  the  council  was  intended  to  accom- 
plish; but  only  general  utterances,  which 
made  its  sphere  the  remedying  of  all  exist- 
ing evils,  were  permitted  to  issue  from  the 
papal  curia.  Finally,  however,  it  became 
reasonably  evident  fiom  intimations  let  fall 
by  Jesuit. authorities,  that  the  council  was 
to  consider  the  infallibility  of  the  poi)e. 
The  secular  powers  concluded  with  great 
unanimity  not  to  interfere  in  the  course  of 
its  proceedings.  Long  preparations  were 
made  at  Rome  for  the  conduct  of  the  coun- 
cil and  the  arrangement  of  its  business,  and 
at  length  all  was  ready.  On  the  2d  of  Dec. 
a  preliminary  assembly  was  held  for  the 
ai)pointment  of  the  officers  of  the  council, 
and  for  the  administration  to  them  of  the 
oath  of  office.  At  last,  upon  the  day  aj)- 
pointed,  the  council  assembled.  There 
were  719  members  present.  The  highest 
number  present  at  any  one  time  was  7(54,  of 
which  113  were  from  America.  Fifty  cardi- 
nals, 10  patriarchs,  130  archbishops,  .522 
bishojjs,  graced  the  council  Avith  their  pres- 
ence. The  place  chosen  for  the  meeting, 
the  right  transept  of  St.  Peter's,  was  acous- 
tically very  unfavorable  for  the  purposes  of 
deliberation,  but  the  influences  hoped  for 
from  its  propinquity  to  the  tomb  of  Peter 
disinclined  the  jiope  to  any  change,  though 
requested.  Three  sorts  oi  meetings  were 
held,  "special  congregations,"  or  commit- 
tee meetings,  "general  congregations"  for 
discussion,  where  all  the  members  assem- 
bled, but  none  else  were  admitted,  and  "  pub- 
lic sessions,"  where  a  few  privileged  persons 
were  admitted  to  scats  in  the  aula,  and  the 
public  were  ])ermittcd  to  view  the  assembly 
from  other  portions  of  the  church.  At  the 
last  class  of  meetings,  of  which  there  were 
four,  the  canons  and  decrees  were  read,  and 
were  issued  in  the  name  of  the  pope,  "  the 
sacred  council  approving." 

The  first  period  of  the  council,  to  and  in- 
cluding the  second  public  session  on  Jan. 
0,  1870,  was  occupied  with  nothing  essential 
to  the  work  of  the  council,  but  served  the 
important  purpose  of  defining  the  strength 
of  the  two  parties  present,  that  favoring 
and  that  opposed  to  the  declaiation  of  pa- 
pal infallibility.  A  petition  was  now  pre- 
pared by  the  adherents  of  infallibility,  in 
which  the  pope  was  reiiuested  to  ])resent  to 
the  council  the  subject  of  infallibility  for 
their  consideration,  and  obtained  410  signa- 
tures. A  counter-petition  declared  the  pro- 
mulgation of  infallibility  inopportune  or 
else  superfluous,  and  obtained  137  signa- 
tures. Public  debate  had  meantime  broken 
out  in  the  press.  All  was  excitement. 
The  minority  thought  of  leaving  the  coun- 
cil; but  they  remained.  Upon  the  21st  of 
.Jan.,  a  "Scheme  of  the  dogmatic  ct>nstitn- 
tion  of  the  Church  of  Christ"  had  been 
laid  before  the  fathers  for  their  considera- 
tion. It  contained  a  discussion  of  the 
l)rimacy  of  the  ])apacy.  Now.  suddenly, 
upon  the  0th  of  March,  "an  addition  to  this 


PIUS 


(726) 


PLAGUES 


scheme  was  proposed,  containing  a  defini- 
tion of  infallibility.  In  connection  with 
the  debates  upon  the  prooem'mm  to  the 
"  scheme,"  the  draft  of  which  had  con- 
tained a  charge  against  Protestantism  as 
the  mother  of  all  heresies,  a  scene  of  great 
confusion  had  ensued  as  Bishop  Stross- 
mayer  declared  the  charge  as  untrue  as  it 
was  uncharitable.  The  charge  was  subse- 
quently removed,  and  when  the  prooemium 
was  adopted,  it  was  done  without  a  voice 
of  absolute  dissent.  The  majority  could 
now  go  on  to  the  definition  of  infallibility 
with  greater  confidence.  On  the  10th  of 
May  came  a  new  "Scheme,"  and  on  the 
14th  the  general  debate  began.  The  minor- 
ity exercised  less  infiuence  than  they  other- 
wise might,  because  they  did  not  generally 
oppose  the  dogma  itself,  but  only  the  op- 
portuneness of  its  promulgation.  The 
pope  employed  all  his  personal  influence  in 
its  favor.  The  conclusion  of  the  debate 
was  inevitable,  still  it  was  prolonged  till, 
in  the  intense  heat,  the  council  was  wearied 
beyond  further  endurance,  when  finally, 
upon  the  13th  of  July,  the  vote  was  taken 
upon  the  whole  "  scheme,"  including  the 
declaration  of  infallibility.  Of  692  prelates 
present  in  Rome,  601  appeared  at  the  ses- 
sion. Four  hundred  and  fifty-one  voted 
Placet,  88  Non  placet,  62  Placet  juxta  mo- 
dum,  that  is  for  substance.  The  result  was 
thus  reached,  but  without  unanimity.  The 
bishops  voting  in  the  negative  made  various 
efforts  to  prevent  the  final  declaration  of 
the  doctrine.  A  special  deputation  was 
sent  to  the  pope,  and  the  archbishop  of 
Mayence  fell  upon  his  knees  before  Pius. 
But  in  vain;  for  the  foi-m  of  declaration 
was  even  intensified  by  the  addition  of  the 
words,  "and  not  from  the  consent  of  the 
church"  (see  Schaff's  Creeds  of  Christen- 
dom, vol.  ii.,  p.  271).  Fifty-six  of  the  88  pre- 
lates now  sought  leave  of  absence,  and  so 
at  the  fourth  and  final  public  session,  where 
535  prelates  were  present,  533  voted  Placet. 
Thus  the  dogma  was  proclaimed;  but  let  it 
be  ever  remembered  to  their  credit  that 
Riccio  of  Cajazzo  and  Fitzgerald  of  Little 
Rock  had  the  courage  of  their  convictions, 
and  voted  Non  placet.  A  thunder-storm 
broke  over  the  city,  which  those  who  had 
expected  that  a  sunbeam  would  fall  at  the 
critical  moment  from  heaven  upon  the  head 
of  the  pope,  were  prompt  to  interpret  as  a 
sign  marking  him  out  as  a  second  Moses 
giving  laws  as  if  from  Sinai. 

The  council  was  not  adjourned  till  Oct. 
20,  1870,  but  its  proceedings  were  of  no 
farther  interest.  The  day  of  the  fourth 
session,  July  19,  was  the  day  of  the  declar- 
ation of  war  by  France  against  Prussia.  In 
August,  in  consequence,  the  French  troops 
wei'e  withdrawn  from  Rome,  and  on  the 
20tli  of  Sept.,  the  Italian  troops  took  the 
city.  A  plebiscit  of  133,000  votes  to  1500 
pronounced  for  the  incorporation  of  Rome 
in  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  which  immediately 
followed.  Under  the  curse  of  the  pope, 
Victor  Emmanuel  took  up  his  residence  in 
Rome  as  his  capital  in  December,  and  the 
pope  professed  himself  a  prisoner  in  the 
Vatican.  Hereupon  followed  the  Kultur- 
kampf  (q.v.)  with  Germany.     The  remain- 


ing events  in  the  career  of  Pius  may  be 
briefly  described.  On  the  16th  of  June^ 
1871,  he  celebrated  the  25th  anniversary  of 
his  pontificate;  May  13.  1872,  his  80th  birth- 
day; 1876,  the  30th  anniversary  of  his  pon- 
tificate. These  were  all  made  occasions  of 
large  gifts.  He  died  at  the  age  of  86,  hav- 
ing been  jjope  32  years,  longer  than  any  of 
his  pi-edecessors. 

For  lives  of  Pius  IX.  see  J.  F.  Maguire's, 
London,  1878,  Wappmannsperger's,  Regens- 
burg,  1878,  and  Ranke's  Edmische  Pdpste, 
Leipzig,  vol.  ii.  For  the  history  of  the 
Vatican  Council,  see  the  sources  in  Das 
Concil  und  die  Civilta,  Lei^jzig,  1869;  Janus 
(Huber),  Tlie  Pope  and  the  Council,  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1869;  Hergenrother,  Anti- 
Janus,  Eng.  trans.,  Dublin,  1870.  Quiri- 
nus,  Romische  Briefe  vom  Concil,  1870; 
Friedberg,  Sammlung  der  Aktenstiicke  zum 
ersten  Vaticanischen  Concil,  mit  einem  Ab- 
riss  der  Geschichte  desselben,  Tiibingen^ 
1871-72;  Friedrich,  Docurnenta  ad  Ilhtstran- 
dum  Concilium  Vaticanum  a.  1870,  Nord- 
lingen,  1871;  the  same,  Tagebuch  wuhrend 
des  Vaticanischen  Concils  gefilhrt,  Ntird- 
lingen,  1871;  the  same,  Geschichte  des  Vati- 
canischen Concils,  Bonn,  1877,  3d.  vol.  1886. 
Further,  Pressense,  Le  Concile  du  Vatican, 
son  Histoire  et  ses  Consequences,  1S12;  Man- 
ning, The  True  History  of  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil, London,  1877;  Gladstone,  The  Vatican 
Decrees  and  Vaticanism,  1874;  also  Father 
Hyacinthe.  Catholic  Reform,  with  preface  by 
Dean  Stanley,  1874.  F.  H.  F. 

Pius  Society,  The,  thus  called  in  honor  of 
Pope  Pius  IX.,  was  formed  at  Mayence  in 
1848  as  a  counterpart  to  the  Gustavus 
Adolphus  Society,  and  with  the  purpose  of 
laboring  for  the  freedom  and  independence 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Germany. 
It  has  branch  societies  all  over  Germany, 
often  with  distinct  names — Boniface  Soci- 
ety, Vincent  Society,  etc.,  and  distinct  pur- 
poses: mission,  education,  etc.,  but  the 
organization  is,  nevertheless,  strongly  cen- 
tralized, and  its  power  is  unmistakably  felt 
at  every  turn  in  the  political  life. 

Placet  (Latin,  granted),  means  the  recogni- 
tion which  a  papal  bull  or  edict,  not  strictly- 
doctrinal,  must  obtain  from  the  authorities 
of  the  state  before  it  can  be  enforced  or 
even  published.  It  was  adopted  by  the 
state  as  a  simple  means  of  self-defence 
against  the  outrageous  encroachments  of 
the  church.  It  dates  back  to  the  close  of 
the  14th  century,  has  been  most  vigorously 
vindicated  by  Philip  II.,  and  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  Protestant  powers,  though,  of 
course,  it  is  very  much  objected  to  by  the 
pope. 

Placeus,  Josua,  b.  in  Bretagne,  1606;  d.  at 
Saumur,  Aug.  17, 1655:  was  in  1632  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Saumur.  His 
French  name  was  Laplace.  Though  the 
views  which  were  propagated  by  him  and 
Amyraut  and  other  Saumur  professors,  were 
formally  i-ejected  in  1675  by  the  Formula 
Consensus,  a  collected  edition  of  his  works 
appeared  at  Franeker,  1699,  and  again  at 
Aubencit,  1702. 

Plagues. — The  term  is  employed  in  Scrip- 


PLATINA 


(727) 


PLATONISTS 


ture  to  express  any  territic  and  desolating; 
disease,  such  as  leprosy  (Lev.  xiii.  o),  or 
any  severe  calamity  or  scourge  (Luke  vii. 
21.'). 

Plagues  of  Eyypt.  These  were  the  judg- 
ments visited  upon  Pharaoh  before  he 
would  let  the  people  go.     Ex.  vii.-xi. 

1.  The  Nile  turned  into  blood,  so  that  the 
tishes  died  and  no  man  could  drink  it  (Ex. 
vii.  14-25).     This  the  magicians  imitated. 

2.  The  swarming  of  the  frogs,  which  also 
the  magicians  imitated. 

0.  Tlie  dust  turned  into  lice,  which  the 
magicians  acknowledged  to  be  "  the  linger 
of  God  "  (Ex.  viii.  1!)). 

4.  The  swarms  of  flies,  which  made  Pha- 
raoh relent;  but  he  hardened  his  heart 
again. 

5.  The  grievous  murrain  on  the  domestic 
animals. 

6.  Boils  upon  man  and  beast,  even  the 
magicians. 

7.  A  thunder  storm,  destroying  crops, 
trees  and  buildings  in  Egypt  but  not  in  Go- 
shen. 

8.  Locusts  devouring  all  that  the  hail 
storm  had  left. 

9.  Thick  darkness  for  three  days  upon  all 
Egypt. 

10.  The  first-born  of  man  and  beast  smit- 
ten dead  at  midnight.  These  plagues  were 
spread  over  a  long  time  and  doubtless  fol- 
lowed the  order  of  the  seasons.  They  were 
adapted  to  the  peculiar  physical  conditions 
of  the  country  and  bore  a  relation  to  the 
idolatry  of  the  people,  thus  fulfilling  Jeho- 
vah's word  (Ex.  xii.  12),  "Against  all  the 
gods  of  Egypt  I  will  execute  judgments." 

T.  W.  C. 

Platina  (family  name  Sacchl),  Bartholo- 
mevr;  b.  at  Piadena  (Latin  form  Platina, 
hence  his  name),  a  little  village  between 
Mantua  and  Cremona,  Italy,  in  1421 ;  died  as 
librarian  of  the  Vatican  Library  in  14S1. 
His  great  work  is  his  Lives  of  the  Popes  to 
SUtua  IV.,  Venice,  1471),  Eng.  trans,  reprint 
of  that  of  1705,  London,  1888,  2  vols.,  a  work 
of  great  compass  and  industry,  but  not  crit- 
ical. F.  H.  F. 

Platonism.  The  philosophy  of  Plato  will 
always  be  interesting  to  the  Christian  stu- 
dent because  of  the  recognition  given  to  it 
by  the  eai'ly  Fathers  as  a  preliminary  to  the 
gospel,  it  being,  as  Clement  of  Alexandria 
said,  "  to  the  Greeks  what  the  law  was  to 
the  .lews,  a  schoolmaster  to  bring  them  to 
Christ."'  Similar  was  tlie  thought  of  Justin 
Martyr  and  Athenagoras.  Nor  was  it  a 
mere  fancy,  for  there  is  a  marked  resem- 
blance in  the  principles  and  spirit  of  Plato's 
writings  to  the  Christian  system,  as  has 
been  shown  liy  various  writers. 

1.  Platonism  is  a  spiritual  philosophy,  for 
as  Ilegel  says,  ■'  it  seeks  the  elevaticm  of  the 
consciousness  into  the  realm  of  spirit.''  It 
insists  that  the  soul  is  not  only  suj»erior  to 
the  body  but  prior  to  it  in  time,  that  it  is 
capable  of  communing  with  things  un.seen 
and  eternal  and  partakes  of  their  nature, 
that  being  self-moved  it  can  never  cease  to 
live  and  move.  Life  in  the  liighest  sense 
bebuigs  to  the  soul  which  the  body  only 
clogs   and    entombs.     Hence   Platonism   as 


well  as  Christianity  says,  '■  Look  not  at  the 
things  which  are  seen,  but  at  the  things 
which  are  not  seen,"  and  for  the  same 
reason. 

2.  It  is  a  theistic  philosophy.  God,  Plato 
says,  is  the  beginning,  middle  and  end 
of  all  things.  He  impersonates  the  True, 
the  Beautiful  and  the  Good,  and  is  maker 
and  ruler  of  all.  Plato  speaks  of  "  the 
gods,"  but  seems  to  hold  them  as  inferior 
deities,  the  n^inisters  of  the  supreme  God, 
who  is  the  author  of  all  good,  and  of  good 
only,  not  of  evil.  This  being  so,  atheism  is 
a  disease  and  corruption  of  the  soul. 

3.  It  maintains  the  existence  of  final 
causes.  Such  causes  together  with  rational 
and  spiritual  agencies  are  the  only  causes 
worthy  of  the  name.  Mind,  being  the  ori- 
gin of  all  things,  must  dispose  of  them  for 
the  best,  and  when  we  know  how  it  is  best 
for  anything  to  be  disposed,  then  only  do  we 
know  how  it  i.s  and  the  cause  of  its  being 
so.  The  whole  structure  of  Plato's  system 
implies  the  truth  that  God  made  and  gov- 
erns the  world  with  a  view  to  the  highest 
possible  good. 

4.  Its  ethical  tone  is  elevated.  Besides 
the  four  cardinal  virtues  temperance,  cour- 
age, justice  and  wisdom,  Plato  recognized 
meekness  and  holiness,  saying  that  it  is 
better  to  suffer  wrong  than  to  do  wrong. 
The  highest  excellence  of  which  man  is 
capable  is  likeness  to  God,  the  supreme  and 
absolute  Good. 

5.  It  is  a  religious  system.  All  duties  are 
based  on  religion.  They  are  sanctioned  and 
enforced  by  divine  authority. 

(3.  A  future  state  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments is  distinctly  held.  The  good  are  with 
the  gods  in  bliss,  but  the  incurably  wicked 
are  sent  to  Tartarus  where  they  are  pun- 
ished forever. 

There  are  many  imperfections  in  Platon- 
ism. its  low  idea  of  sin,  its  notion  of  matter 
as  the  origin  of  evil,  its  ignorance  of  atone- 
ment and  grace,  its  frequent  tone  of  uncer- 
tainty, etc.,  but  its  excellences  are  many 
and  great. 

LiTEKATfKE.— G.  C.  B.  Ackcrmaun,  The 
Christian  Element  in  Plato,  English  transla- 
tion. Edinburgh.  lS(il;  Tayler  Lewis,  Plato 
ar/ain.st  the  Afheistii,  ^few  York,  1845; 
Cocker,  CliristianHy  and  Greek  Philosophy, 
New  York,  1870.  T.  W.  C. 

Platonists,  The  Cambridge,  the  name 
given  to  a  number  of  scholars  in  Cambridge 
University  who  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
17th  century  revived  the  study  of  Plato. 
Its  leading  men  were  Benj.  Whichcote, 
Ralph  Cudworth,  John  Smith  and  Henry 
More.  They  '•  un sphered  the  .sjiirit  of 
Plato,"  and  translated  his  doctrines  into  the 
forms  of  modern  thought.  Yet  they  were 
genuine  disciples  of  Christ  and  sat  at  the 
Master's  feet.  Their  position  exposed  them 
to  suspicion  both  from  Prelatists  and  Puri-* 
tans,  as  being  opposed  alike  to  High 
Churchism  and  High  Calvinism.  Tliey 
were  called  "  The  Xew  Sectof.the  Latitude- 
men,"  and  their  teaching  was  stigmatized 
as  the  *'  New  Philosophy."  Possibly  they 
erred  in  their  attempt  to  establish  Chris- 
tian doctrines  from  the  light  of  nature  and 


PLE'-IA-DES 


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POOOOK 


the  teachings  of  philosophy,  but  their 
works  remain  a  mine  of  learning  and  acute- 
ness  for  the  generations  that  followed. 
The  best  account  of  the  men  and  their  sys- 
tem is  given  in  Dr.  John  TuUoch's  Rational 
Theology  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  Edin- 
bur^^h  and  New  York,  1872,  2  vols. 

T.  W.  C. 

Ple'-ia-des,  a  cluster  of  7  stars  in  the  neck 
of  Taurus  or  the  Bull,  one  of  the  signs  of 
the  Zodiac.  The  sun  now  enters  this  con- 
stellation in  April  or  May,  anciently  much 
earlier,  and  the  appearance  of  the  Pleiades 
marked  the  return  of  spring  (Job  ix.  9, 
xxxviii.  31,  Amos  v.  8).  T.  W.  C. 

Plessis-Mornay.    See  Moenay. 

Pletho,  Georgius  Gemistus,  a  Greek 
scholar  and  court  official,  who  accompa- 
nied the  emperor  Johannes  to  the  Council 
of  Ferrara,  1439,  and  subscribed  to  the  act 
of  union  or  formula  of  compromise  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  Roman  churches.  On 
that  account  he  found  it  inexpedient  to  re- 
turn to  Greece.  He  remained  in  Italy,  set- 
tled at  Floi'ence,  became  intimate  with 
Cosmo  di  Medici,  and  was  the  principal 
cause  of  that  turn  in  the  spiritual  current 
of  the  age  by  which  Plato  superseded 
Ai'istotle,  Platonism  Averroism.  The  ex- 
act dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  not 
known,  and  of  his  very  numerous  writings 
— mostly  extracts  from  elder  Greek  writers 
— only  a  few  have  been  printed. 

Plitt,  Gustav  Leopold,  D.D.  (Dorpat, 
1872),  b.  at  Genin,  near  Lubeck,  March  27, 
1836;  d.  at  Erlangen,  Sept.  10,  1880;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  church-history  in  the 
university  of  Erlangen,  1807,  published  Aus 
SchelllndS  Leben  in  Briefen,  Leipzig,  1869,  3 
vols. ;  Einleltunrj  in  die  Augustana,  Erlangen, 
1867-68,  2  vols, ;  a  life  of  Luther  published 
after  his  death;  and  was  associate  editor  of 
the  second  edition  of  Herzog's  Encyklo- 
pcidie. 

Plumer,  William  Swan,  D.D.  (Washing- 
ton, Pa.,  1838;  Lafayette,  1838;  College  of 
New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1838),  LL.D.  (Univ. 
of  Mississippi,  1857),  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Greersburg  (now  Darlington)  in  Beaver 
Co.,  Pa.,  July  26,  1802;  d.  in  Baltimore, 
Oct.  22,  1880.  He  graduated  at  Washington 
College,  Lexington,  Va.,  182.5,  studied 
divinity  at  Princeton,  and  was  pastor  at 
Petersburg,  1831-34;  Richmond,  1834-47; 
professor  of  theology  in  the  Western  Sem- 
inary, Allegheny,  Pa.,  1854-62;  supply  in 
Arch  St.,  Philadelphia,  1862-65;  pastor 
at  Pottsville,  1865-67;  professor  in  Colum- 
bia Seminary,  S.  C,  1867-80.  While  teach- 
ing there  and  at  Allegheny,  he  was  also  an 
efficient  pastor.  He  "declined  several  col- 
lege presidencies,  and  established  in  1837 
The  [Vatchman  of  the  South.  He  wrote 
.many  books,  including  compilations  on  the 
'Psalms  (Philadelphia,  1866);  Romans  (New 
York,  1870)  and  Hebrews  (1872)  and  tracts, 
some  of  which  have  been  translated  into 
German,  French,  etc.  F.  M.  B. 

Plumptre,  Very  Rev.  Edward  Hayes, 
D.D.  (Glasgow,  1875),  Church  of  England; 
b.  in  London,  Aug.  6,  1821,  was  educated 


at  Oxford;  professor  of  King's  College, 
London,  in  pastoral  theology,  1853-63,  in 
exegesis,  1863-81,  and  was  in  1881  made 
dean  of  Wells.  He  has  published  com- 
mentaries on  various  parts  of  the  Bible, 
ti-anslations  of  Sophocles  (London,  1865); 
Aescliylos,  (1868),  and  Dante  (1887,  2  vols.); 
The  Epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches,  1877,  2d 
ed.,  1879;  Biblical  Studies,  1870,  4th  ed., 
1884;  Spirits  in  Prison,  and  other  Stitdies  on 
Life  and  Death,  1884;  Life  and  Letters  of 
Thomas  Ken,  1888,  2  vols.;  Wells  Cathedral 
and  its  Deans,  1888.  He  was  one  of  the  Old 
Testament  revisers  ;  d.  at  Wells,  Feb.  1, 1891. 
Plurality  is  a  term  of  canon  law  denoting 
the  holding  of  two  or  more  benefices  at  the 
same  time.  It  was  forbidden  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon,  451;  already  at  that  time 
it  had  proved  dangerous.  It  was  found 
necessary,  however  to  repeat  the  prohibi- 
tion century  after  century,  and  with  stead- 
ily increasing  severity;  see  especially  the 


3d  a 


3d  and  4th  councils  of  the  Lateran,  1179 
and  1215.  The  Council  of  Trent,  1545-63, 
absolutely  condemns  plurality,  Sess.  XXIV. 
C.  17,  but  adds — very  characteristically — 
"  provided  the  benefice  held  is  sufficient  to 
the  support  of  the  holder;"  the  key  to  that 
door  the  pope  holds.  In  the  Church  of 
England  the  matter  was  settled  by  the  Plu- 
ralities Amendment  Act  of  1885,  which 
px'ovides  that  a  clergyman  may  hold  to- 
gether any  two  benefices,  whose  churches 
are  within  four  miles  of  one  another  and 
the  revenue  of  one  of  which  does  not  ex- 
ceed two  hundred  pounds. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  a  sect  called  on  the 
Continent  Darbyites,  after  John  Nelson 
Darby  (q.v.),  their  great  leader,  but  by 
themselves  simply  Brethren;  now  wide- 
spread through  Europe  and  America,  al- 
though not  numerous;  started  in  1830  at 
Plymouth.  It  is  now  torn  by  internal  dis- 
sensions into  different  parties,  while  agree- 
ing in  constant  protests  against  sectarian- 
ism. Their  interpretation  of  the  Scripture 
is  literal  and  narrow.  They  reject  a  regular 
ministry,  making  much  out  of  the  parity  of 
all  believers,  church  government,  and  every 
distinctive  designation;  but  in  theology  are 
in  the  main  Calvinistic.  (See  Tevlon,  His- 
tory and  Doctrines  of  the  P.  B.,  London,  1883  ) 

Pneumatomachi :  "  Adversaries  of  the 
Spirit "  is  a  term  first  introduced  by  Atha- 
nasius  in  his  letter  to  Serapian,  360,  and 
generally  applicable  to  all  those  who,  after 
the  subsidence  of  the  Arian  controversy, 
transferred  the  whole  line  of  argument 
from  the  discussion  of  the  nature  of  Christ 
to  the  discussion  of  the  nature  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  and  from  that  standpoint  renewed 
the  attack  on  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  but  more  especially  applied 
to  tiie  followers  of  Macedonius,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  who  was  the  first  to  make 
the  move.  They  were  finally  condemned  by 
the  Synod  of  Constantinople,  382. 

Pocock,  Edward,  D.D.  (Oxford,  16—), 
Church  of  England;  b.  at  Oxford,  Nov.  8, 
1604;  d.  there,  Sept.  10,  1691.  He  entered 
Corpus  Christi  College  1620,  and  became 
fellow  1628.     At  Aleppo  as  chaplain,  1630- 


PODIEBRAD 


(729) 


POIiLOK 


36,  and  in  Constantinople  1637-40,  he  gained 
vast  oriental  knowledge  and  collected  many 
MSS.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Oxford  1636,  and  of  Hebrew  1648, 
with  the  canoury  of  Christ  Church,  but 
could  not  fully  enjoy  these  i>osts  till  the 
Restoration;  meantime  he  was  rector  of 
Childsey,  Berkshire,  from  1643.  lie  was 
among  the  greatest  oriental  and  biblical 
scholars;  his  commentaries  on  Micah  and 
Malachi,  1677,  Hosea,  1685,  and  Joel,  1691, 
have  value  still.  His  Theological  Works 
were  collected  London,  1740,  2  vols.  fol. 
with  a  life  by  L.  Twells.  F.  M.  B. 

Podiebrad,  George,  king  of  Bohemia, 
1457-71,  and  one  of  the  greatest  statesmen 
of  the  age,  labored  all  his  life  through  for 
the  reconstruction  and  consolidation  of  his 
native  country  as  one  of  the  great  powers  of 
Europe.  The  first  condition  of  success  was 
to  prevent  the  pope  from  disavowing  the 
compacts  with  the  Hussites  made  by  the 
Council  of  Basel.  With  consummate  diplo- 
macy he  understood  how  to  stave  off  the 
brea'ch  from  year  to  year;  but  finally  it 
came  with  a  crash,  and,  though  in  the  war 
with  Hungary  which  ensued  he  was  the 
victor,  the  strength  of  Bohemia  was  broken 
in  tlie  contest.  The  study  of  his  reign, 
however,  is  of  the  greatest  interest  to  the 
church-historian  because  it  proves  with 
irrefragable  evidence  the  utter  incompati- 
bility between  the  traditions  upon  which 
the  papacy  rested,  and  the  spirit  of  freedom 
which  was  abroad  in  every  country  north 
of  the  Alps.  (See  Palacky,  Geschichte  von 
Bohiuen,  Prague,  1857,  vol.  ix.,  and  Yoigt: 
Pius  11.,  Berlin,  1863,  vol.  iii.) 

Poetry,  Hebrew.     See  Hebkews,  p.  359. 

Pohlman,  William  John,  Dutch  Re- 
formed; b.  at  Albany,  X.  Y.,  1812,  drowned 
at  Breaker's  Point,  between  Hong  Kong  and 
Araoy.  China,  Jan.  5,  1849.  He  was  gradu- 
ated'at  Rutgers  College,  1834,  and  at  the 
New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary,  1837, 
and  went  the  following  year  as  missionary 
to  Borneo.  Thence  he  was  transferred  to 
Cliina  in  1844,  and  there  he  established  the 
Anioy  mission. 

Poimenics.    See  Pastoral  TnEOLoar, 

Poiret,  (pwa-ra),  Pierre,  b.  at  Metz,  April 
15,  ItUti;  d.  at  Rheinsburg,  near  Leyden, 
Holland,  May  21,  1719;  studied  theology  at 
Basel,  was  appointed  preacher  at  Heidel- 
berg, 1668,  and  at  Annweiler,  Rheinish  Ba- 
varia. 1672.  but  was  driven  away  by  the  war 
167t).  and  lived  in  various  places  until  he 
settled  down  at  Rheinsburg  in  1688.  The 
study  of  Taiiler,  Thomas  a  Kempis,  Bohme, 
and  more  especially  his  intimate  friendship 
with  Antoinette  Bourignon  made  him  a 
mystic,  the  only  one  among  the  French  Re- 
formed theologians,  and  in  a  number  of 
writings  he  developed  a  theology  based  on 
ecstatic  sentiment  and  inner  visions,  and 
conijiletely  indifferent  to  churches  or  creeds. 
His  chief  work,  L' Economie  Dlcine,  Amster- 
dam. lt>87,  was  translated  into  English, 
London,  1713.  6  vols.  He  also  edited  the 
works  of  Ant.  Bourignon  and  Mad.  Guyon. 
(See  those  arts.)  C.  P. 


Poissy,  Conference  of.  See  France,  Re- 
formed CuuucH  OF,  p.  299. 

Poland,  Churches  of.  See  Presbyterian 
Churcues,  Poland. 

Pole,  Reginald,  b.  at  Lordington,  Sussex, 
England,  in  March,  1500;  d.  at  Lambeth, 
Nov.  15,  1558,  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
studied  in  Italy  1.520-23,  received  various 
church  preferments  after  his  return  and 
was  used  much  by  Henry  YIII.  in  his 
divoi-ce  suit,  but  declined  the  archlnshopric 
of  York  in  1531,  left  England  in  the  next 
year,  and  broke  altogether  with  the  king  in 
1535  by  his  Be.  unitate  ecdexiie.  Paul  III. 
made  him  a  cardinal  in  1537  and  used  him 
as  a  legate  in  the  Netherlands,  Toledo,  etc., 
though  he  was  not  so  very  successful  as  a 
diplomatist.  In  1.554  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  in  1556  he  was  made  archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  In  the  two  years  of  his  reign 
he  burnt  5  bishops,  21  priests,  80  nobles, 
84  artisans,  100  peasants,  and  20  women. 
Nevertheless,  in  Rome  he  was  considered  a 
heretic  and  Paul  IV.  summoned  him  to 
Rome  before  the  Inquisition  shortly  before 
his  death.  (See  his  life  by  F.  G.  Lee,  Lon- 
don, 1887.) 

Polemics,  the  name  of  that  branch  of 
theology  in  which  Christianity  defended  it- 
self by  attacking  the  various  forms  of  error 
which  opposed  its  progress.  It  came  into 
active  exercise  at  quite  an  early  period. 
Instances  are  seen  in  Irenseus,  TertuUian, 
Athanasius  and  Augustin,  but  they  only 
practised  it  as  an  art,  without  developing  it 
into  a  science.  Nor  did  it  reach  that  stage 
in  the  middle  ages.  It  was  only  at  the 
Reformation  that  the  subject  began  to  take 
a  scientific  shape.  Hints  are  found  in 
Bellarmin,  Chemnitz  and  others,  but  the 
Jesuits  first  gave  a  systematic  form  to 
polemics.  Their  example  was  followed  by 
the  Protestants,  first  by  Calovius  {Synopsis 
controverxiarum,  Wittenberg,  1685).  Schlei- 
ermacher  (1811)  and  his  disciple.  Sack 
(1838),  incorporated  polemics  with  their  sys- 
tems as  a  part  of  philosophical  theologj*. 
And  so  the  matter  has  continued  to  this 
day,  although  it  is  not  always  made  a  sepa- 
rate department  in  a  theological  system. 
T.  W.  C. 

Polentz.    See  Georg  of  Polentz.  p.  322. 

Poliander,  Johann,  b.  at  Neustadt,  Rhe- 
nish Bavaria,  1487;  d.  at  Konigsberg,  1541; 
was  secretary  to  Dr.  Eck  during  his  dispu- 
tation with  Luther  in  1519,  but  was  con- 
verted by  the  arguments  of  the  latter,  em- 
braced the  Reformation,  and  was  in  1525 
made  preacher  at  Konigsberg.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  hymn:  "Now  to  the  Lord 
sing  praises."  translated  into  English  by 
Mills.  (SeeRost:  Memoria  Poliandri,Lei-p- 
zig,  1808.) 

Polity,  Church.  See  CnuRcn  Govern- 
ment, p.  167. 

Pollok,  Robert,  Presbyterian,  b.  at  Muir- 
house.  Renfrewshire,  England,  1798:  d.  at 
Southami)ton,  Sept.  15,  1827.  A  small  farm- 
er's son.  he  graduated  at  Gla-sgow  Univer- 
sity, studied  theology  under  Dr.  Dick,  and 


i 


POLYOARP 


(730) 


POMEGRANATE 


was  licensed  in  the  United  Secession  Church 
a  few  months  before  his  death.  His  Talas  of 
the  Covenanters,  first  published  in  three  sep- 
arate volumes,  were  collected  Edinburgh, 
1833,  and  have  often  been  reprinted.  His 
poem,  The  Course  of  Time,  appeared  March, 
1827,  and  was  long  immensely  popular, 
reaching  its  78th  thousand  in  1868,  besides 
many  American  editions.  His  Memoir  was 
written  by  his  brother,  Edinburgh,  1843, 
F.  M.  B. 

Polycarp,  bishop  and  martyr  at  Smyrna, 
d.  155,  or  l(3fi.  But  little  is  known  of  his 
life,  and  nothing  of  his  youth  except  the 
statement  of  Irenaeus  that  he  was  a  pupil 
of  the  apostles  and  particularly  John.  Ter- 
tullian  says  that  John  appointed  him  bishop 
of  Smyrna.  He  was  at  one  time  in  Rome, 
and  disputed  with  the  Bishop  Anicetus  as 
to  the  proper  time  of  celebrating  Easter, 
but  their  disagreement  did  not  interrupt 
church  communion.  We  have  an  account 
of  his  martyrdom  which  professes  to  have 
been  written  by  the  church  at  Smyrna,  soon 
after  the  event.  It  has  generally  been 
regarded  as  genuine.  It  relates  the  readi- 
ness of  Polycarp  to  meet  those  who  sought 
him,  when  persecution  arose,  his  yielding 
to  the  requests  of  his  friends  to  protect 
himself  by  flight,  his  apprehension,  his 
trial,  where  he  openly  confessed  himself  a 
Christian.  He  was  requested  by  the  pro- 
consul to  reproach  Christ,  when  he  gave  the 
immortal  answer:  "Eighty  and  six  years 
have  I  served  Him,  and  He  never  did  me 
any  injury;  how  then  can  I  blaspheme  my 
King  and  Saviour?  "  Upon  this  ansAver  he 
was  sentenced  to  be  burnt,  and  after  a 
noble  prayer  ascended  the  funeral  pile. 
Polycarp  left  a  letter  addressed  to  the  church 
atPhilippi,  which  though  disputed  seems  on 
the  whole  to  be  genuine.  It  refers  to  the 
"  epistles  of  Ignatius  written  by  him  to  us," 
and  thus  forms  a  link  in  the  chain  of  evi- 
dence for  the  genuineness  of  these  produc- 
tions. It  is  chiefly  composed  of  exhorta- 
tions couched  in  the  language  of  Scripture. 
It  corresponds  closely  to  the  other  epistles 
of  the  time,  and  is  without  doctrinal  signifi- 
cance. For  the  originals  of  these  writings 
see  Gebhardt,  Harnack,  and  Zahn's  edition, 
translation  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  of 
the  Christian  Literature  Publishing  Com- 
pany, N.  Y.,  vol.  i.  F.  H.  F. 

Polyglot  Bibles,  from  the  Greek  ttoAvc  and 
y?.<jTTa:  in  many  tongues,  are  editions  of  the 
Bible  in  which  the  original  text  and  two 
or  more  versions  in  different  languages  are 
printed  side  by  side,  in  parallel  columns. 
The  four  most  important  Polyglot  Bibles 
are:  I.  The  Coinplutensian,  thus  called  from 
Complutum,  the  ancient  name  of  its  place 
of  printing,  Alcala  de  Henarez,  Spain,  pie- 
pared  at  the  cost  and  under  the  care  of 
Cardinal  Ximenes  by  a  number  of  Spanish 
scholars,  1502-17,  published  in  6  vols.,fol., 
in  1.520  with  special  permission  of  the  pope, 
and  containing  the  original  text,  the  Vul- 
gate, and  the  Septuagint,  with  the  Targum 
of  Onkelos;  II.  The  Antwerp,  also  called 
Biblia  Begia,  published  at  Antwerp,  1569- 
72,  in  8  vols.,  fol.,  prepared  at  the  cost  of 
Philip  II.,  and  under  the  care  of  the  Bene- 


dictine scholar.  Arias  Montanus,  and  con- 
taining, besides  all  that  the  Coutplutensian 
contains,  the  Chaldee  Targum  and  the 
Peshito  with  a  Latin  translation;  III.  27/e 
Paris,  published  in  Paris,  1629-15,  in  10 
magnificent  fol.  vols.,  prepared  at  the  cost 
of  Guy  Michel  le  Jay,  an  advocate,  and  un- 
der the  care  of  Gabriel  Sionita,  and  adding 
to  the  contents  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglot  a 
Syriac  and  an  Arabic  translation  with'Latin 
translations;  IV.  The  London,  published  by 
subscription  in  London,  1654-57,  in  6  vols., 
fol.,  edited  by  Brian  Walton,  first  dedicated 
to  Cromwell,  afterwards  to  Charles  II.  and 
adding  to  the  Paris  Polyglot  an  Ethiopic 
and  Persian  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
the  Targums  of  Pseudo-Johannes,  the 
Samaritan  translation  of  the  Pentateuch, 
etc.  See  LeLong:  Discours  historique  sur 
les  principales  editions  des  Bibles  polyglottes, 
Paris,  1713. 

Polytheism,  the  belief  in  more  gods  than 
one.  It  has  prevailed  and  still  prevails 
largely  on  earth,  yet  is  absurd  and  debas- 
ing. We  see  more  and  more  that  the  uni- 
verse is  a  single  self-consistent  whole.  If 
so,  there  cannot  be  separate  and  discordant 
deities  ruling  over  different  portions  of 
nature,  nor  could  we  give  to  many  gods  the 
affection  or  the  obedience  proper  to  One, 
nor  could  their  nature  as  finite  satisfy  the 
mind  which  craves  an  infinite  object  of 
trust  and  worship. 

The  question  of  the  origin  of  polytheism 
is  gi-eatly  debated.  Some  regard  it  as  the 
primitive  religion  of  man,  above  which  he 
gradually  rises  by  the  growth  and  exercise 
of 'his  reason  until  he  comes  to  recognize 
the  One  in  the  many  everywhere,  and  so 
carry  up  all  his  conceptions  into  a  unity. 
In  this  way  they  hold  that  monotheism  is 
by  degrees  developed  from  either  Fetichism, 
the  belief  in  charms  or  enchanted  objects; 
Animism,  the  belief  in  the  spirit  of  ances- 
tors and  heroes;  or  Sabaism,  the  belief  in 
the  ruling  power  of  the  stars.  Believers  in 
the  Bible,  on  the  contrary,  hold  monotheism 
as  the  earliest  form  of  belief,  of  which 
polytheism  is  a  corruption.  Certainly  this 
is  the  doctrine  of  Scripture  which  gives  his- 
torical illustrations  of  it  in  the  accounts  of 
Abraham,  Jacob  and  Joseph.  The  apostle 
says  (Rom.  i.  21)  that  men  "knowing  God 
glorified  him  not  as  God,  neither  were 
thankful,  but  became  vain  in  their  reason- 
ings and  their  foolish  heart  was  darkened. 
.  .  .  and  changed  the  glory  of  the  incorrup- 
tible God  for  the  likeness  of  the  image  of 
corruptible  man,  etc."  Hence  heathenism  is 
not  the  primeval  religion  but  a  falling  away 
from  the  original  revelation  of  the  true  God 
in  his  works.  The  investigations  of  science 
and  the  researches  of  archaeology  more  and 
more  confirm  this  view. 

(See  Max  Midler,  Science  of  Beligion,  Lon- 
don, 1875;  LePage  Renouf,  Uibbert  Lee, 
London,  1880.)  T.  W.  C. 

■  Pomegranate  (Lat.  pomum  granatum, 
"  grained  apple),"  a  fruit  containing  many 
pink  pips  or  grains.  It  is  a  large  bush  or 
tree  of  the  myrtle  family,  with  a  straight 
stem,  glossy  leaves  which  survive  the  win- 
ter, brilliant  scarlet  or  orange  blossoms  and 


POMPONATroS 


(731) 


POPE 


fruit  of  an  agreeable  flavor.  The  pink  pulj) 
was  an  imase  of  beauty  (Cant.  iv.  3,  vi.  7) 
and  the  juice  was  made  into  wine  or  sherbet 
(viii.  2).  Its  fruit  and  flowers  made  tlie 
tree  welcome  in  gardens  (iv,  13,  vi.  11).  It 
was  early  cultivated  in  Egyi>t  (Num.  xx.  5) 
and  abounded  in  Palestine  (Num.  xiii.  23, 
Deut.  viii.  8,  Joel  i.  12,  Hag.  ii.  1!))  where 
Jiiininon,  the  Hebrew  term  for  it,  was  the 
name  of  several  places.  Its  graceful  shai)e 
caused  it  to  be  imitated  in  the  ornaments 
of  the  high  priest's  robe  (Ex.  xxviii.  23)  and 
also  in  the  architectural  decorations  of  JSol- 
omon's  temple  (1  Ki.  vii.  IS,  etc.). 

T.  W.  C. 

Pomponatius,  Petrus,  b.  at  Mantua,  1462; 
d.  1524;  taught  philosoi)hy  with  great  suc- 
cess at  Ferrara  and  Bologna,  and  is,  if  not 
the  inventor,  at  all  events,  the  most  out- 
spoken expositor  of  the  idea  of  a  double 
truth:  theological  and  philosophical,  which 
may  end  in  direct  contradiction  without 
either  side  being  false.  Thus  in  his  Dc  Ini- 
iiiortalitate  AniiiKV  he  rejects  the  doctrine 
of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  on  philosoph- 
ical grounds  but  accepts  it  a  divine  revela- 
tion.    The  Inquisition  said  nothing. 

Pond,  Enoch,  D.D.  (Dartmouth  College, 
183.5),  Congregationalist;  b.  at  Wrentham, 
Mass..  July  29,  1701;  d.  at  Bangor,  Me.,  Jan. 
21,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity, Providence,  K.  I.,  1813,  studied 
theology  under  Dr.  Nath.  Emmons,  and 
was  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  of 
Auburn  (Ward),  Mass.,  1815-28,  editor  of 
The  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,  Boston,  1828-32, 
and  professor  from  1832,  from  1856  also 
president  of  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Bangor,  which  institution  he  made  very 
prosperous.  Among  his  numerous  writings 
are:  Christian  Baptism,  Boston,  1817,  3d  ed. 
1832;  No  Fi'Uowskip  with  Romanism,  1843; 
Swedcnborgianism,  1846,  new  ed.,  1861;  A 
History  of  GoiVs  Church,  Hartford,  1871; 
Conversations  on  the  Bible,  1881,  etc. 

Pontianus,  pope  23(V235;  succeeded  Ur- 
banus  but  was,  according  to  the  Catalogus 
J/ihirianns  banished  to  Sardinia  by  Maxi- 
minus,  where  he  died  from  want  and  ex- 
posure. 

Pontificale  Romanum,  a  regulation  con- 
cerning everytliing  pertaining  to  a  bishop; 
poiitifis:  vestments,  ornaments,  ensigns, 
ceremcmies,  rites,  etc..  drawn  up  by  the 
order  of  Clement  VIII.,  confirmed  by  him 
in  1596,  and  never  changed  since. 

Pontoppidan,  Erik,  b.  at  Aarhuus,  Den- 
mark. Aug.  24.  Iti98;  d.  in  Copenhagen,  Dec. 
20,  1764;  studied  theology  in  the  university 
of  Copenhagen,  became  professor  there  in 
1738,  bishop  of  Bergen,  Norway,  1745,  and 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Copenhagen 
in  1755.  He  was  somewhat  affected  by  the 
reigning  pietism  but  had  a  sound  heart  and 
a  strong  mind.  He  wrote  with  interest  and 
effect  on  jtolitical  economy,  and  published 
Danske  Atlas.  Copenhagen,  1763-Sl,  4  vols. 
His  Xatnrnt  History  of  Xonca;/,  1752-54,  was 
translated  into  English.  Among  his  theo- 
logical works  are:  Menoza,  1742-43,  3  vols.. 


a  kind  of  philosophical  novel  about  an 
Asiatic  prince  who  travels  through  the 
world  to  find  the  Christians;  reprinted  in 
1876  and  translated  into  Dutch  and  German; 
an  explanation  of  Luther's  catechism, 
whic^h  was  used  for  many  years  as  a  text 
book  in  the  religious  institution  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  both  in  Denmark  and  Norway; 
Annates  Eccl.  Dan.,  1741-53,  4  vols,  quar., 
etc. 

Pontus  (the  sea),  the  n.e.  pi-ovince  of 
Asia  Minor,  bordering  on  the  Euxine  Sea. 
Originally  governed  by  kings,  it  main- 
tained a  long  struggle  with  the  Romans, 
under  Mithridates,  who  was  defeated  by 
Pompey,  h.c.  m,  after  which  it  became  a 
Roman  province.  One  of  its  principal 
towns  still  flourishes  under  the  name  of 
Trebizond.  Many  Jews  resided  there,  and 
had  their  representatives  in  Jerusalem  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  9).  Aquila, 
the  useful  helper  of  Paul,  was  born  in  Pon- 
tus (Acts  xviii.  2),  and  "sojourners  of  the 
Dispersion "  residing  there  were  among 
those  to  whom  Peter  wrote  (1  Pet.  i.  1). 
T.  W.  C. 

Poole,  Matthew,  nonct)nformist;  b.  at 
York,  England,  1()24;  d.  at  Amsterdam, 
Oct.,  1679.  He  studied  at  Emmanuel  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  was  rector  of  St. 
Mary  le  Querne,  London,  from  1648  till 
ejected  in  1662.  He  attacked  Biddle,  a  Uni- 
tarian, in  2"he  Blasphemer  Stain,  1()54,  and 
the  Eomanists  in  Nullity  of  the  Romish 
Faith.  London,  1666,  and  IJialogues,  1667. 
His  greatest  work.  Synopsis  Critirormn 
Bihlirorum,  5  vols.,  folio,  1669-76,  is  a  treas- 
ury of  biblical  lore,  and  has  often  been  re- 
printed. His  Annotations  on  the  Holy  Bible, 
carried  to  Is.  Iviii.,  was  comi)leted  by  some 
of  his  friends,  and  issued  in  2  vols.,  folio, 
1685.  The  reprint  of  1801  has  in  its  fourth 
volume  an  account  of  Poole  and  his  numer- 
ous writings.  F.  M.  B. 

Poor,  Daniel,  D.D.  (Dartmouth,  1835), 
Congregationalist;  b.  at  Danvers,  Mass., 
June  27,  1789;  d.  at  Mempy.  Ceylon,  Feb.  2, 
1855.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth,  1811,  and 
at  Andover.  1814;  sailed  Oct.  23,  1815,  and 
reached  Colombo,  March  23,  1816;  and  la- 
bored in  India  and  Ceylon  till  his  death, 
except  two  years,  1848-50,  spent  at  home  in 
stimulating  missionary  enterprise.  He 
wrote  much  in  Tamil  and  English. 

F.  M.  B. 

Poor  Men  of  Lyons.    See  Waldknsks. 

Pope.  The  general  topics  coming  under 
this  head  have  been  discussed  under  Pa- 
pacy, Pkimacy,  Cardinal.  Infallibil- 
ity, etc.,  to  which  articles  the  inquirer  is 
referred.  It  remains  here  only  to  give  a 
list  of  the  popes,  which  we  take  without 
essential  change  from  H.  B.  Smith's  Chro- 
nological Tables  of  Church  History,  New 
York,  1875.  The  special  articles  in  this 
Dictionary,  sometimes  correct,  and  some- 
times add  to  these  dates.  F.  H.  F. 

1.  Linus.   67-78? 

2.  Anacletus  (Cletus?)  91? 

3.  Clement,    100? 

4.  Evaristus,  109,  27th  Oct.? 


i 


POPE 


(732) 


POPE 


5.  Alexander  I.,  109,  martyr,  119? 

6.  Sixtus  I.  (Xystus),  to  127. 

7.  Telesphorus,  127-39. 

8.  Hyginus,  to  142. 

9.  Pius  I.,  142-57? 

10.  Aiiicetus,  martyr,  161  (168). 

11.  Soter,  170  (177). 

12.  Eleutherius,  185  (193)?  or,  177-190. 
1.3.  Victor  I.,  185  (193)  to  197  (202). 

14.  Zephyrinus,  202  to  218  (219). 

1.5.  Callistus  I.,  219  to  14th  Oct.,  22.3. 

16.  Urban  I.,  223  to  25th  May,  2.30? 

17.  Pontian,  22d  July,   230,  to  28th  Sept., 

235. 

18.  Anterus,  21st  Nov.,  235,  to  3d  Jan.,  236. 

19.  Fabian,    11th  Jan.,   236,  to    20th  Jan., 

250. 

20.  Cornelius,  June  4th?  251,  died  in  exile, 

14th  Sept.,  2.52. 

21.  Lucius,   25th   Sept.,  2.52,    martyr,    4th 

March,  2.53. 

22.  Stephen,  March,  253,  martyr,  2d  Aug., 

257? 
2.3.  Sixtus  II.  (Xystus),  martyr,  6th  Aug., 
258. 

24.  Denys  (Dionysius),   22d    July,   2.50,  to 

26th  Dec,  269. 

25.  Felix  I.,  28th  Dec,  269,t  22d  Dec?,  274. 

26.  Eutychian,  .5th  Jan.,  275,t  7th  Dec,  283. 

27.  Caius,  17th  Dec,  283,t  21st  April,  296. 

28.  Marcellinus,  30th  June,  296,t   martyr, 

24th  Oct.,  304. 

29.  Marcellus,t  308  or  310? 

.30.  Eusebius,  May  to  Sept.,  310. 

31.  Miltiades,  2d    July,  311,    to  10th  Jan., 

314. 

32.  Sylvester    I.,     31st   Jan.,  314,   to    31st 

Dec,  335. 

33.  Marcus,  18th  Jan.,  336,  to  7th  Oct.,  336. 

34.  Julius  I.,  6th  Feb.,  337,  to  12th  April, 

.352. 

35.  Liberius,  22d  May,  .352,  to   24th  Sept., 

366.     Felix  II.,  Anti-pope,  355. 
.36.  Damasus  I.,  1st  Oct.,  3(56?,  to  11th  Dec, 

384. 
37.  Siricius,   22d  Dec,   384,  to  25th  Nov., 

398. 
.38.  Anastasius  I.,  Dec,  398,  to  14th  Dec, 

401. 

39.  Innocent  I.,  401  or  402,  to  12th  March, 

417. 

40.  Zosimus,  18th  March,  417,  to  26th  Dec, 

418. 

41.  Boniface  I.,  28th  Dec,  418,  to  4th  Sept., 

422. 

42.  Oelestine  I.,  10th    Sept.,   422,   to    26th 

July,   432. 
4.3.  Sixtus  III.,  31st  July,  432,  to  18th  Aug., 
440. 

44.  Leo.  I.,  The  Great,  29th  Sept.,  440,  to 

3d  (5th)  Nov.,  461. 

45.  Hilary,  10th  Nov.,  461,  to  21st  Feb.,  468. 

46.  Simplicius,  25th  Feb.,  468,  to  27th  Feb., 

483. 

47.  Felix  II.  (III.),  6th  March,  483,  to  24th 

Feb.,  492. 

48.  Gelasius,  1st  March,  492,  to  19th  Nov., 

496. 

49.  Anastasius  II.,   24th  Nov.,  496,  to  17th 

Nov.,  498. 

50.  Symmachus,  22d  Nov.,  498,  to  19th  July, 

514. 

51.  Hormisdas,  27th  July,  514,  to  6th  Aug., 

523. 


52.  John  I.,  13th  Aug.,  .523,  to  18th  May, 

526. 

53.  Felix  III.    (IV.),     24th    July,    526,    to- 

Sept.?,  .530. 

54.  Boniface   II.,   15th    Oct.,   .5.30,    to  Oct. 
(November),     .532.       Dioscurus,     Anti- 
pope,  530. 

55.  John  II.,  Mercurius,  22d  Jan.,  .533,   ta 

27th  May,  535. 

56.  Agapetus  I.,  3d  June,  .535,  to  23d  ApriL 

.536. 

57.  Sylverius,  8th   June,  536, t  20th   June 

58.  Vigilius,  22d  Nov.,   .537,  to   10th  Jan., 

555. 

59.  Pelagius   I.,  April,   5-55,  to  1st  March, 

560. 

60.  John    III.,  Catelinus,    18th    July,    560, 

to  13th  July  (25th  Oct.?),  .573. 

61.  Benedict    I.,    3d  June,    .574,    to     30tli 

July,  578. 

62.  Pelagius    II.,   30th  Nov.,   578,     to   8th 

Feb.,   590. 
6.3.  Gregory  I.,  The  Great,  3d  Sept.,  590, t 
12th  March,  604. 

64.  Sabinian    [13th    Sept.,    604    (Herzog's 

KE)],t  22d  Feb.,  606. 

65.  Boniface   III.,   25th   Feb.,  606.  to  12tli 

Nov.,  (;0()  (or,    10th  Nov.,  607). 

66.  Boniface  IV.,  607  or  608,  to  7th  May,. 

61.5. 

67.  Deusdedit  (Theodatus),   614  or  615;  d. 

in  617  or  618. 

68.  Boniface  V.,  617  or  619,t  625. 

69.  Honorius,  625  or  626,t  12th  Oct.,  638. 

70.  Severinus,   28th   May,   640;  t   1st  Aug., 

640. 

71.  John  IV.,  24th  Sept.,  640,  to  11th  Oct., 

642. 

72.  Theodore,   24th  Nov.   (8th  Dec),  642, 

to  13th  Mav,  649. 

73.  Martin  I.,  .5th  July,  649,t  16th  Sept., 

655. 

74.  Eugenius,   8th  Sept.,   644,t   1st    June. 

657. 

75.  Vitalian,  30th  July,  657,  to  27th  Jan., 

672. 

76.  Adeodatus  (Theodatus),  22d  April,  672,. 

to  June,  (i76. 

77.  Domnus   (Donus),  2d  Nov.,  676,  to  11th 

April,  678. 

78.  Agatho,  678  or  9,1  10th  Jan.,  682? 

79.  Leo  II.,  17th  Aug.   (19th  Oct.),  682,  to- 

3d  July,  683. 

80.  Benedict   II.,    26th     June,  684,   to  7th 

May,  685. 

81.  John  v.,  685  or  686, t  686  or  687. 

82.  Conon,  21st  Oct.,   686,   to    21st    Sept., 

687.      Paschalis,    Anti-pope,     687    to 
about  692. 

83.  Sergius,  15th  Dec,  687,  to  8th  Sept., 

701. 

84.  John  VI.,  28th  Oct.,  701,   to  9th  Jan., 

705. 

85.  John   VII.,    1st    March,    705,    to    17th 

Oct.,  707. 

86.  Sisinnus,   18th  Jan.,  708,  to  7th  Feb., 

708. 

87.  Constantine,  25th  March,  708,   to    9th 

April,  715. 

88.  Gregory  II.,  19th  March,   715,   to   10th 

Feb.,  731. 

89.  Gregory  III.,  18th  March,  731,  to  27th 

Nov.,  741. 


POPE 


(T:«) 


POPE 


00.  Zacliary,  30th  Nov.,  741,  to  14th  March, 

752. 

01.  Stephen   II.,  26th  March,  752,  to  25th 

April,   757. 

92.  Paul,  29th    May,  757,   to    2Sth    Juue, 

767. 

93.  Stephen  III.,  7th  Aug.,  768,  to  1st  Feb., 

772. 
04.   Adrian  I.,  9th  Feb.,  772,  to  25th  Dec, 

705. 
9.5.  Leo  III.,  27th  Dec,  70*,  to  11th  June, 

816. 

06.  Stephen   IV.,   22d  June,    816,  to    24th 

Jan..  817. 

07.  Pascal  I.,  25th  Jan.,  817,  to  11th  May, 

824. 
98.  Eugene  II.,  5th  June  (14th  Feb.),S24, 

to  Aug.,  827. 
00.  "Valentine,  about  40  days. 

100.  Gregory  IV.,  beginning  of  828,  to  Jan., 

844. 

101.  Sergius,  27th  Jan.  (10th  Feb.),  844,  to 

27th  Jan.,  847. 

102.  Leo  IV.,  Jan.,  847,  to  27th  June,  855. 

103.  Benedict   III.,  20th   Sept.,   855,   to  8th 

April,  858? 

104.  Nicholas  I.,  24th  April,   858,   to    13th 

Nov..  867. 
10.-..  Adrian  II..  14th  Dec,  867,  to  872. 

106.  Jt)hn   VIII.,    14th    Dec,   872,   to    15th 

Dec,  882. 

107.  Marinus,  Dec,  882,  to  May,  884. 
las.  Adrian  III.,  May  to  Sept.,  884. 

100.  Stephen  V.,  Sept.,  885.  to  7th  Aug.,  801. 

110.  Formosus,    10th   Sept.,   891,   to   April, 

80t). 

111.  Boniface  VI.,  only  15  day.s. 

112.  Stephen  VI..  Aug..  806. 

113.  Konianus,  less  than  4  months,  807. 

114.  Theodore,  20  days.  May,  808. 

115.  John    IX.,    July,  808,  to    30th    Nov., 

000. 

116.  Benedict  IV.,  000,  to  Oct.,  903. 

117.  Leo  v.,   2Sth  Oct.,  003,  imprisoned  in 

Nov.  by. 

118.  Christopher,  imprisoned,   904,    by. 

119.  Sergius   IIL.t  Aug.,  911. 

120.  Anasta.sius  III..  Aug.,  911,  to  Oct.,  913. 

121.  Lando.  013  or  914.t  26th  April. 

122.  John  X.,  April,  014;  strangled,  028. 

123.  Leo  VI.,  June,  028,  to  Feb.,  020. 

124.  Steplien  VII.,  Feb.,  020,  to  March,  931. 

125.  Jolin  XI.,t  Jan.,  936. 

126.  Leo  VII.  (VI.),  Jan.,  9.36,  to  July,  939. 

127.  Stephen  VIII.,  July,  9,30,  to  042. 

128.  Martin  V.,  Nov..  042,  to  Jan.,  046. 

120.  Agapctus  II.,  March,  946,  to  close  of 
0.-)5. 

1.30.  Jolin  XII.  (Octavian),  Jan.,  956?,  to 
0(;3. 

131.  Leo  VIIL,  6th  Dec,  963.  [t  065].  Ben- 
edict v.,   964. 

1.32.  John  XIII.,  1st  Oct.,  965,  to  Sept., 
072. 

i:^^.  Benedict  VI.,  072,  .strangled,  974. 

i:U.  Doninus  II..  t  074. 

13.5.   Benedict  VII.,  07.5-8:1 

136.  John  XIV.,  Nov.,  OS:J.  to  084. 

137.  John    XVL,  July,  O.-^^,  to  0l>6. 

138.  Gregory   V..   .3d  May,  SKt6,t   4th  Feb., 

000. 
1.30.  Svlvcstor  II.  (Gerbert),  2d  April,  999,  t 

lltb  Ma  v.  HK)3. 
140.  John  XVil.,  five  months,  in  1003. 


Dec,  1003,    abdicated, 


John   XVIII. 

May,  1000. 
Sergius  IV.  (Buca  Porci),  100i)-12. 
Benedict  VIIL,    July,     1012,    t    July, 

1024. 
John  XIX.,  1024  (5),  to  May,  1033. 
Benedict  IX.,  1033,  to  17th  July,  1048. 
Gregory  VI.,  1044  (5),  to  1046 
Clement  II.,  1046,  [t  1047]. 
Damasus  11. ,1048,  23  days. 
Leo  IX..  1048,  died,  10th  April,  1054. 
Victor  IL,  March,  1055?,  t  28th  July, 

1057. 
Stephen   IX.,   2d   Aug.,  10-57,    to   29th 

March,  1058.    Benedict  X.,  Anti-pope, 

30th  March,  1058,  to  18th,  Jan.,  1050. 
Nicholas  IL,  18th  Jan.,    10.50,  t   July, 

10()1. 
Alexander  II. ,  30th  Sept.,  1001,  to  21st 

April,  1073. 
Gregory   VII.  (llildebrand)  The  (ireat, 

22d  Ai)ril,  1073,  died,  25th  May,  10S5. 
Victor  III.,    24th   May,     1086,    to   16th 

Sept.,  1087. 
Urban  II. ,   12th  March,    1088,  to  20th 

July,  1000. 
Pascal  IL,   13th     Aug.,     1009,   to   18th 

(21st)    January,  1118.    Guibert,  Anti- 
pope. 
Gelasius  IL,  25th  Jan..  1118,  died,  20th 

Jan.,  1110.    Gregory  VIIL,  Anti-pope. 
Callistus  (Calixt)  IL,    0th   Feb.,  1119, 

died,     12th     Dec,     1124.       Burdinus 

(Gregory  VIIL),  Anti-pope. 
Honorius     IL     (Lambert),    21st  Dec, 

1124,  to  14th  Feb.,  1130. 
Innocent  IL  [Feb.  14,  1130.   to  Sept.  23, 

1143.]     Anti-popes,  Anactetus,  1 1138, 

Victor. 
Celestine     IL,  26th   Sept.,  1143,  to   9th 

March,  1144. 
Lucius    IL,  12th  March,  1144,  to  25th 

Feb.,  1145. 
Eugene     III.,   27th   Feb.,   1145,   to  7th 

Julv,   1153. 
Anastasius   IV.,  0th  July,    11-53,  to  2d 

Dec,  11-54. 
Adrian    IV.    (Nicholas   Breakspeare), 

3d  Dec,  1154,  to  30tli  Aug..  11-50. 
Alexander  III.,  7tb  Sept.,  11-50,  to  30th 

Aug.,  1181.     Anti-popes:   Victor  IV., 

11.5i)-64.     Pascal  III.,    1164-8.     Calixt 

III.,  1168-78.     Innocent  III.,  1178,  im- 

pri.soned,  1180. 
Lucius   III.,    Lst  Sept.,    1181,   to  24th 

Nov.,  118-5. 
Urban    III.,   25th    Nov.,    1185,  to  11th 

Oct.,  1187. 

20th  Oct.  to  17th  Dec, 


i 


0th   Dec,    1187,  to   27th 


Gregory  VIIL 

1187. 
Clement  III., 

March,  1101. 
Celestine  III.,  :Wth  March,  1191,  to  7th 

(8th)  Jan.,   1198. 
Innocent  III.  (Lothaire),  8th  Jan.,  1198, 

t  lOtli  -hilv.  1216. 
Honorius  111.,  18th  July,  1216,  to  18th 

March.  1227. 
(4regorv  IX.,  19th  March,  1227,  to  21st 

Aug., '1241. 
Innocent  IV.,   25th  June,  1243,  to  7th 

Dec,   12-54. 
Alexander  IV.,  12th  Dec,  1254  to  25th. 

May,   1261. 


POPE 


(734) 


POPE 


lath  May,  1342,  to  6tli 
18th  Dec,  1352,  to  12th 
19th 


178.  Urban  IV.,  29th     Aug.,    1261,    to    2d 

Oct.,  1264. 

179.  Clement  IV.  (Guy  Foulques),  5th  Feb., 

1265,  to  29th  Nov.,  1268. 

180.  Gregory  X.,  27th  March,   1272,   t  10th 

Jan.,  1276. 

181.  Innocent  V.,    23d   Jan.,  to  22d   June, 

1276. 

182.  Adrian  V.,  11th  July,  1 16th  Aug.,  1276. 

183.  John    XXI.  (XX.?),  13th  Sept.,   1276, 

to   17th  May,    1277. 

184.  Nicholas    III.,   23d    Nov.,    1277,  died, 

22d  Aug.,  1280. 
18.5.  Martin  IV.,  22d  Feb.,  1281,  to  28th  Mar., 
1285. 

186.  Honorius    IV.,    2d   April,    1285,   to  3d 

April,  1287. 

187.  Nicholas  IV.,   15th  Feb.,    1288,  to  4th 

April,  1292. 

188.  Celestine  V.,  5th  July,  1294,  died,  19th 

May,  1296. 

189.  Boniface  VIII.,  21st  Dec,  1294,  to  11th 

Oct.,  1303. 

190.  Benedict   XI.,    22d   Oct.,  1303,    to  6th 

July,  l:W4. 

191.  Clement   V.,   5th   June,    1305,    to  20th 

April,  1314. 

192.  John    XXII.  (XXI.?),  7th  Aug.,   1.316, 

to  4th  Dec,  1334. 

193.  Benedict  XII.,  20th  Dec,  1334,  to  25th 

April,  1342. 

194.  Clement   VI. 

Dec,  13.52. 

195.  Innocent   VI 

Sept.,  1.362. 

196.  Urban  V.,   28th    Sept.,   1362,    to 

Sept.,   1370. 

197.  Gregory  XI.,   30th    Dec,    1370,     died; 

27th  March,  1378. 

198.  Urban  VI.,  9th  April,  1378,  1 15th  Oct., 

1389.  At  Avignon :  Clement  VII.,  21st 
Sept.,  1378,  died,  26th  Sept.,   1394. 

199.  Boniface  IX.,  2d  Nov.,  1389,  f  1st  Oct., 

1404.  At  Avignon:  Benedict  XIIL, 
28th  Sept.,  1394.  [Deposed,  at  Con- 
stance July  26,  1417,  t  1424.] 

200.  Innocent  VII.,    17th     Oct.,     1404,     t6 

Nov.,  1406. 

201.  Gregory  XII.,  3d   Nov.,    1406,  to  1415, 

[t  14171. 

202.  Alexander  V.,   26th   June,    1409,    t  3d 

May,  1410.  At  Avignon:  Clement 
VIII.,  1424  to  1429. 

203.  John  XXIII.,  17th  May,    1410,  to   1415, 

[t  1419]. 

204.  Martin  V.,  11th  Nov.,  1417,  t  21st  Feb., 

1431. 

205.  Eugene   IV.,  11th   March,   1431,  to  23d 

Feb.,  1447. 

206.  Nicholas   V.,   6th   March,   1447,    1 24th 

March,  1455. 

207.  Calixt  III.   (Borgia),   8th   April,    14.53, 

to  6th  Aug.,  1458. 

208.  Pius  II.   (Aeneas  Silvius  Piccolomini), 

27th  (19th)  Aug.,  1458,  to  16th  Aug., 
1464. 

209.  Paul  II.,  31st    Aug.,  1464,    died,   28th 

July,  1471. 

210.  Sixtus  IV.,  9th  Aug.,  1471,  to  13th 

Aug.,  1484. 

211.  Innocent    VIII.,   29th    Aug.,    1484,   to 

23d  July,  1492. 

212.  Alexander    VI.,   Borgia,     11th    Aug., 

1492,  t  18th  Aug.,  1503. 


213.  Pius  III.,  22  days,  1503. 

214.  Julius  II.,  1st  Nov.,  1503,  to  20th  Feb., 

1513. 

215.  Leo  X.,  11th   March,  1513,  to  1st  Dec, 

1.521. 

216.  Adrian  VI.,  9th  Jan.,  1522,  t  24th  Sept., 

1523. 

217.  Clement  VII.,   19th  Nov.,    1523,  t  25th 

Sept.,  1534. 

218.  Paul  III.,  13th  Oct.,  1534,  to  10th  Nov., 

1.549. 

219.  Julius  III.  (Del  Monte),  8th  Feb.,  15.50, 

23d  March,  1.555. t 

220.  Marcellus  II.,  9th  April,  1555,  died  30th 

April,  1.5.55. 

221.  Paul  IV.,  23d  May,  1555,  to  18th  Aug., 

1559. 

222.  Pius  IV.   (Medici),  26th  Dec,  1.559,  to 

9th  Dec,  1-565. 

223.  Pius   V.    (Ghislieri),  7th  Jan.,  1566,  t 

1st  May,  1572. 

224.  Gregory   XIIl.,    Buoncompagno,    13th 

May,  1572,  t  10th  April,  1585. 

225.  Sextus  V.,  Felix  Bretti,  24th  April,  1585, 

t  27th  Aug.,  1.590. 

226.  Urban  VII.,  15th  Sept.,    1590,  died  in 

13  days. 

227.  Gregory  XIV.,  5th  Dec,  1590,    t  15th 

Oct.,  1.591. 

228.  Innocent   IX.,   29th  Oct.,    1591,   t  .30th 

Dec,  1.591. 

229.  Clement     VIII.,     Aldobrandini,     .30th 

January,    1592,    to    3d    (5th)    March, 
1605. 

230.  Leo  XL  (Medici),  1st  April  1605,  t  27th 

April. 

231.  Paul  V.  (Borghese),  16th    May,   1605, 

t  28th  Jan.,  1621. 

232.  Gregory   XV.    (Ludovizio),    9th  Feb., 

1621,  t  8th  July,  1623. 
2.33.  Urban   VIII.    (Barberini),     6th    Aug., 
1623,  t  29th  July,  1644. 

234.  Innocent  X.,    1.5th    Sept.,    1644,   1 7th 

Jan.,  1655. 

235.  Alexander  VIL,  April  6,  1655,  to  May 

22, 1667. 

236.  Clement    IX.    (Rospigliosi),    June    20, 

1667,  to  Dec.  9.  1669. 

237.  Clement  X.   (Altieri),  April    29,    1670, 

to  July  22,  1676. 

238.  Innocent  XI.    (Odescalchi),   Sept.    21, 

1676,  to  Aug.  12,  1680. 

239.  Alexander   VIII.    (Ottoboni),    Oct.    6, 

1680,  to  Feb.  1,  1691. 

240.  Innocent  XII.     (Pignatelli),    July    12, 

1691,  to  Sept.  27,  1700. 

241.  Clement  XI.  (Albanos),  Nov.  23,   1700, 

to  March  19,  1721. 

242.  Innocent  XIIL  (Conti),  May   8th,  1721, 

to  March  7,  1724. 

243.  Benedict  XIIL  (Orsini),  May  24,  1724, 

to  Feb.  21,   1731. 

244.  Clement  XII.  (Corsini],  July  12,  1730, 

to  Feb.  6,  1740. 

245.  Benedict  XIV.  (Lambertini),  Aug.  17, 

1740,  to  May  3,  1758. 

246.  Clement    XIIL     (Razzonico),    July    6, 

1758,  to  Feb.  2,  1769. 

247.  Clement  XIV.   (Ganganelli),   May    19, 

1769,  to  Sept.  22,  1774. 

248.  Pius  VI.    (Braschi),   Feb.  15,  1775,   to 

Aug.  29,  1799. 

249.  Pius   VIL     (Chiramonti),     March     13, 
1800,  to  Aug.  20,  1823. 


POPE 


(735) 


PORT  ROYAL 


250.  Leo  XII.  (Delia  Genga),  Sept.  28,  1823, 

to  Feb.  10,  182i). 

251.  Pius  VIII.  (Castaglione),  May  24,  1829, 

to  Feb.  2,  1831. 

252.  Gregory    XVI.    (Cappellari),     Feb.    2, 

1831,  to  June,  1846. 

253.  Pius  IX.  (John  Maria  Mastai  Ferretti), 

Jan.  10,  1840,  [to  Feb.  7,  1878.] 
[254.  Leo     XIII.,    reigning    Pope,    elected 
Feb.  20,  1878.] 

Pope,  William  Burt,  D.D.  (Edinburgh, 
1870), Methodist;  b.  at  Horton,  Nova  Scotia, 
Feb.  I'.t,  1822:  studied  theology  at  Richmond 
College,  England,  held  various  pastoral 
charges,  1841-07,  and  was  in  the  latter  year 
made  professor  of  theology  in  Didsbury 
College,  Manchester.  He  published  a 
translation  of  Stier's  Wor(U  of  the  Lord 
JrsKs,  Edinburgh,  18.5.'3-02,  10  vols.;  Dis- 
conrsi's  on  the  Khujdom  atid  liri(/n  of  Christ, 
London,  1809,  Thf  rcrsmi  of  Christ.  Fernley 
lectures.  1875;  Co)iii»'n<liiiiii  of  Chrisli,(n  Thc- 
olor/i/,  1875-70;  3  vols.,  sermons  and  .1  Hinher 
€atechis,n  of  Theoloyy,  1883,  2d  ed.,  1884. 

Pordage,  John,  a  founder  of  the  Philadel- 
phian  Society  (q.v.);  b.  in  London,  1008; 
d.  there  1098.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  veas 
curate  at  Reading,  and  then  rector  at  Brad- 
field,  Berkshire,  till  dejjosed  for  his  here- 
sies or  eccentricities.  A  zealous  disci])le  of 
Jacob  Bohnie,  he  gathered  at  Brad  field 
and  London  a  group  of  mystics,  who  were 
favored,  in  his  person  and  that  of  Mrs. 
Leade,  with  visions,  illuminations,  etc.  He 
wrote  Theolofjia  Mystica,  London,  1080; 
Mystic  divinitie,  1683;  and  Metaphysica  vera 
et  divina,  1098.  Mundormn  Explicatio,  1001, 
a  strange  hook  of  verse,  ascribed  to  him  in 
Blakey's  History  of  Philosophy,  is  by  Samuel 
Pordage.  F.  M.  B. 

Porter,  Ebenezer,  A.M.  (Yale  College, 
1795).  D.D.  (Dartnioutli  College,  1814),  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Cornwall,  Conn.,  Oct.  5, 
1772;  d.  at  Andover,  Mass.,  April  8,  18.34. 
He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College, 
1792,  and  ordained  pastor  of  Washington, 
Conn.,  in  1790.  In  1812  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  and  in  1827  its  presi- 
<lent.  Prominent  among  his  writings  are: 
Younn  Preacher's  Manual,  Boston,  1819,  2d 
ed.,  S'ew  York,  1829;  An  Analysis  of  the 
Principles  of  Rhetorical  Delivery,  Andover, 
1827,  8th  ed.,  Boston,  1829;  Rhetorical 
Reader.  Andover  1831,  which  ran  through 
300  editions;  Lectures  on  Iloiuilctics.  ls;U, 
etc.  (See  his  Memoir  by  L.  Matthews.  Bos- 
ton. 1837.) 

Porter,  Josias  Leslie,  D.D.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1804),  LL.D.  (Glasgow,  1864),  D. 
Litt.  Queen's  University,  Ireland,  1881), 
Presl)vterian;  b.  at  Burt,  Countv  Done- 
gal, Ireland,  Oct.  4,  1823;  d.  in  Belfast, 
March  10.  18S9.  He  was  graduated  at  Glas- 
gow, studied  theology  at  the  Free  Church 
College  and  University.  Edinburgh,  and  in 
the  Presbyterian  (liuicli  »>f  England,  la- 
bored as  missionary  at  Damascus,  184'.»-59, 
was  professor  of  Biblical  criticism  in  the 
Assembly's  College,  Belfast.  lS(i()-77,  and 
was  in  1878  appointed  British  I'arliamcnt 
commissioner  of  education  in  Iicland.     He 


has  published  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  Lon- 
don, 18.55,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1870;  Uand-hook 
for  Syria  and  Palestine,  1858,  2  vols.,  3d 
ed.,  1875;  The  Life  and  Times  of  Henry 
Cooke,  London,  1871,  3d  ed.,  Belfast,  1877; 
besides  a  number  of  articles  in  dictionaries, 
reviews,  etc. 

Porter,  Noah,  D.D.  (University  of  New 
York,  1858,  Edinburgh,  188()),  LL.D.  (West- 
ern Reserve  College,  O.  1870;  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Hartford,  Conn.,  1871).  Congregation- 
alist;  b.  at  Farmington,  Conn.,  Dec.  14, 
1811,  graduated  at  Yale  College,  1831,  was 
Clark  professor  of  n)etai)hysics  and  moral 
philosophy  there,  1840-71,  and  president, 
1871-80.  He  published  The  Educational 
Systems  of  the  Puritans  and  Jesuits  Com- 
pared, New  York,  1851;  The  Human  Intel- 
lect, 1808,  M  ed.,  1876;  Books  and  Reading, 
1870,  6th  ed.,  1881;  American  Collerjes  and 
the  American  Public,  1870,  2d  ed.,  1878; 
Elements  of  Intellectual  Science.  1871,  2d  ed., 
1876;  Bishop  Berkeley.  1885:  Kant's  Ethics, 
Chicago.  1886;  Fifteni  ,,riirs  in  the  Chapd 
of  Yale  College,  1871-S(;  {s.'nNmis)  AVc  York, 
1887.  He  edited  The  Ltln-nallonal  Diction- 
ary (Webster's)  Springlicld,  Mass.,  1890. 

Eortiuncula  Indulgence,  thus  called  after 
the  Portiuncula  Church,  Nostra  Svjnora 
defjli  Angeli,  near  Assisi,  which  was  built 
over  the  cell  of  St.  Francis  of  Assi.si,  just  as 
the  church  of  Loreto  was  built  over  the 
s((nta  casa.  According  to  legend  Christ  ap- 
peared to  St.  Francis  and  assured  him  that, 
"  if  the  pope  would  give  his  consent," 
plenary  indulgence  should  be  granted  to 
everyone  who  ctmfessed  in  that  church. 
Honorius  III.,  however,  1210-27,  did  not 
think  that  he  could  afford  so  much  and  lim- 
ited the  Portiuncula  indulgence  to  one  day 
a  year,  fiom  evening  Aug.  1.,  to  evening 
Aug.  2.  Later  po])es  were  more  generous. 
Innocent  XII.,  1691-1700,  extended  the  term 
to  every  day  of  the  year,  and  Pius  IX., 
1840-78,'  to  every  church  of  the  Franciscan 
order. 

Port  Royal,  a  French  nunnery  of  great 
celebrity,  was  founded  in  1204  by  Mathilde 
de  Garlande  and  situated  a  few  miles  from 
Paris  in  the  valley  of  the  Yvette.  It  lie- 
longed  to  the  Cistercian  order  and  was  sub- 
ject to  the  visitations  of  the  abbot  of 
Citeaux,  but  originally  it  was  exempted 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishop  of 
Paris,  and  Honorius  III.,  1210-27,  granted  it 
great  privileges,  as  for  instance,  to  liave 
the  Lord's  supper  administered  even 
though  the  whole  country  were  laid  under 
the  ban.  to  receive  laymen  who  wished  to 
renounce  the  world  and  do  penance  but  did 
not  wi.sh  to  take  the  monastic  vows,  etc. 
On  account  of  its  intimate  connecticms  with 
the  most  distinguished  families  of  the 
cf)untry.  it  grew  very  rich  and  there  was 
always  an  air  of  grandeur  and  exclusiveness 
about  it.  But  its  celebrity  it  owes  to  the 
family  of  Arnanld  (q.v.). 

I'nder  the  management  of  Jacqueline 
Marie  Arnanld  or,  as  she  was  generally 
called  Mere  Angelique,  abbess  of  Port 
Royal  from  1002  to  1001,  and  under  tlie  in- 
fluence of    her    confessor,   St.   Francis    of 


i 


POSCHL 


(736) 


POTTER 


Sales,  the  institution  was  thoroughly  re- 
formed and  experienced  a  great  expansion. 
Its  chief  seat  was  removed  to  Paris.  Port 
Royal  des  Champs  now  became  known 
principally  as  the  refuge  of  a  great  number 
of  famous  recluses,  among  whom  were 
Palla  the  physician,  Fontaine  the  historian, 
Arnauld  d'Audilly,  the  translator  of  the 
fathers,  the  Duke  de  Luynes,  Pascal,  etc. ; 
while  the  schools  of  Port  Royal  proved  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  educational  institu- 
tions France  had  ever  seen.  The  nuns, 
mostly  ladies  of  elegant  education,  proved 
to  be  excellent  teachers,  and  they  had  from 
outside  the  aid  of  male  teachers  of  the 
highest  order.  No  wonder  that  the  finest 
talents  and  noblest  aspirations  gathered  to 
their  rooms;  Racine  was  aniong  their 
pupils.  But  when,  after  the  death  of  St. 
Francis  of  Sales,  St.  Cyran  became  the  spir- 
itual adviser  of  Mere  Angelique,  storms  be- 
gan brewing.  He  was  an  enthusiastic 
disciple  of  Jansen  and,  together  with 
Antoine  Arnauld,  Pascal  and  others,  he 
made  Port  Royal  the  centre  of  Jansenism, 
(q.v.). 

Neither  in  Jansenism  generally  nor  in 
Port  Royal  specially  was  there  any  leaning 
toward  Protestantism.  Port  Royal  stood 
firmly  and  safely  on  Roman  Catholic 
ground,  but  the  Jansenists  demanded  jjer- 
sonal  conviction  and  personal  sincerity, 
first  and  last,  in  everything  and  at  every 
moment,  and  were  thus  by  fate  placed  in 
an  irreconcilable  antagonism  to  the  Jesuits 
who,  on  account  of  their  very  vow  of  abso- 
lute and  unconditional  obedience,  can  have 
nothing  to  do  with  such  things  as  personal 
conviction  and  personal  sincerity.  At  one 
time  it  looked  as  if  Port  Royal  should  come 
out  victorious  from  the  contest  with  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  but  when  in  1660  Louis 
XIV.  assumed  tlie  government  of  France  in 
person,  the  situation  changed.  He  could 
not  bear  Jansenism;  the  better  he  knew  it, 
the  more  he  hated  it.  But  he  felt  a  kind  of 
affinity  to  Jesuitism.  In  1667  he  severed 
the  connection  between  Port  Royal  des 
Champs  and  Port  Royal  de  Paris,  and  as- 
sumed the  right  to-  appoint  the  abbess  of 
the  latter.  In  1679  he  forbade  Port  Royal 
des  Champs  to  receive  novices,  and  when 
the  nuns  of  Port  Royal  de  Paris  refused  to 
subscribe  the  bull  Vineam  Bombii  of  July 
15,  1705,  the  storm  burst  upon  them.  Nov. 
22,  1707,  the  monastery  was  excommuni- 
cated. July  11,  1709,  the  archbishop  of 
Paris  issued  orders  for  its  dissolution,  and 
Oct.  29,  same  year,  the  police  expelled  the 
nuns.  Finally,  Jan.  22,  1710,  the  buildings 
were  razed  to  the  ground.  (See  Sainte- 
Beuve:  Port  Royal,  Paris,  1840-59,  5  vols., 
and  Beard:  Port  Royal,  London,  1861,  2  vols. 
2d  ed.,  1873.)  C.  P. 

PoschI,  Thomas,  Roman  Catholic,  b.  at 
Horetz,  Bohemia,  March  2,  1769;  d.  in 
Vienna,  Nov.  15,  1837.  While  chaplain  of 
Ampfelwang.  Upper  Austria,  he  began  to 
preach  his  "new  revelations"  and  formed 
a  sect,  the  Poschlians.  The  assemblies  of 
those  enthusiasts  were  so  licentious,  how- 
ever, that  the  police  interfered.  PoschI  was 
arrested  and  shut  up  in  a  lunatic  asylum 


where  he  died.  His  followers  were  dis- 
persed. See  Wiirth:  Voklabruch,  Markt- 
breit,  1825. 

Positivism.    See  Comte,  p.  183. 

Possession,  Demoniacal.    See  Demoniac. 

Possevino,  Antcnio,  b.  at  Mantua,  1534;  d. 
at  Ferrara,  1611;  entered  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits  in  1559,  labored  as  a  missionary 
among  the  Waldenses,  in  Savoy  and  the 
Protestants  in  Transylvania,  and  was  sent 
as  diplomatical  agent  first  to  Sweden  and 
afterwards  to  Poland  and  Russia.  Towards 
the  close  of  his  life  he  was  professor  at 
Padua  and  had  St.  Francis  of  bales  among 
his  pupils.  His  Moscovla,  Vilna,  1.586,  has 
some  historical  interest;  Apparatus  sacer, 
Venice,  1603-6;  3  vols.,  fob,  was  the  most 
complete  catalogue  of  its  time.  His  life 
was  written  in  French  by  d'Origny,  Paris, 
1712. 

Possidius  or  Possidanius,  bishop  of  Cal- 
ama  in  Numidia,  an  intimate  friend  of 
Augustine,  banished  by  Genseric  in  437, 
wrote  a  life  of  Augustine  which  is  generally 
printed  together  witli  his  works  but  also 
separately  edited  by  Salinas,  Rome,  1731, 
Augsburg,  1768. 

Postel,  Guillaume,  b.  at  Doleric,  Nor- 
mandy, May  28,  1.503;  d.  in  Paris,  Sept.  6, 
1581;  led  a  very  erratic  and  troubled  life, 
was  twice  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  Oriental  languages  in  Paris  and 
gathered  great  audiences,  enjoyed  great  es- 
teem as  a  scholar,  but  was  prevented  from 
being  really  useful  by  eccentricities  and 
vagaries.  Among  his  works  are  De  ration- 
bus  Spiritus  Sancti,  Paris,  1643;  La  doctrine 
du  Steele  dore,  Paris,  1551,  etc. 

Postil  meant  originally,  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne  and  later  on,  a  collection  of 
notes  to  the  Scriptures,  and  received  its^ 
name  from  the  notes  following  after  the 
text:  postilla,  but  came  afterwards  to  mean, 
a  collection  of  sermons. 

Potter,  Alonzo,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1846), 
LL.D.  (Union,  1846),  Bishop  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; b.  at  La  Grange,  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  Y., 
July  6,  1800;  d.  in  San  Francisco  harbor,. 
July  4,  1865.  He  graduated  at  Union,  1818, 
studied  for  the  ministry  under  Bishop 
White,  taught  for  a  time  at  Union,  and 
married  the  daughter  of  President  Nott; 
was  rector  of  St.  Paul's,  Boston,  1826-31; 
professor  at  Union,  1831-45;  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Pennsylvania,  Sept  23,  1845.  His 
administration  was  wise,  fatherly  and 
efficient;  his  churchmanship  was  moderate; 
his  character  alike  official  and  personal, 
won  the  highest  respect.  He  delivered  five 
courses  of  Lowell  Institute  Lectures,  1845, 
1847-49,  and  1853,  and  published  sundry 
volumes,  educational  and  other;  but  his 
most  eminent  talents  were  executive.  See 
his  Life,  by  Bishop  Howe,  Philadelphia. 
1871.  All  his  sons  rose  to  eminence,  and 
one  of  them  is  the  present  Bishop  of  New- 
York.  F.  M.  B. 

Potter,  Right  Rev.  Henry  Codman,  D.D. 
(Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1865; 
Trinity    College,    Hartford,    Conn.,    1883) > 


POTTER'S  FIELD 


(737) 


PRiETORIUM 


LL.D.  (Union  College,  1881),  Episcopalian, 
bishop  of  'Sew  York;  b.  at  Schenectady, 
May  25,  1885,  grjiduated  from  the  Pi-otes- 
tant-Episcopal  Theological  Seminary  of 
Virginia,  1857,  held  various  pastoral 
charges  and  became  assistant  bishop  of 
New  York  in  1883,  and  bishop  in  1887. 
He  has  published  Sisterhoods  iwd  Deacon- 
esses at  Ilome  and  Abroad,  New  York,  1871; 
Gates  of  the  East,  a  winter  in  Ef/ypt  and 
Syria,  1876;  Sermons  of  the  City,  1881. 

Potter's  Field,  a  piece  of  ground  accord- 
ing to  tradition  located  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  was  bought 
for  the  thirty  pieces  t)f  silver  which  Judas 
obtained  by  betraying  Christ  and  then  con- 
verted into  a  burial  ground  for  .Jews  not 
belonging  to  the  city  of  Jerusalem  (Matt, 
xxvii.  7;  Acts  i.  18.). 

Potts,   George,   D.D.    (  ), 

Presbyterian;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  March  15, 
1802;  d.  in  New  York,  Sept.  15,  1864;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1810  and  Princet(m  Theological 
Seminary  in  1823,  and  held  pastoral  charges 
at  Natchez,  Miss,,  182.3-35,  aiul  in  New 
York  from  1836  to  his  death.  He  published 
sermons  and  pamphlets,  among  which  the 
well-known  No  (Jhurch  icithout  a  Bishop, 
New  York,  1844,  in  the  controversy  with 
Bishop  Wainwright. 

Poulain,  Nicolas,  French  Keformed,  b.  at 
Mesnils,  Seine  Inferieure,  France,  Jan.  13, 
1807;  d.  at  (ieneva,  April  3,  1868.  He 
held  various  pastoral  charges  in  France 
and  Switzerland,  and  was  editor-in-chief  of 
V Esperance  when  he  died.  He  published 
Qii'est  ce  qii  un  Christianisnie  sans  do(/)nes 
et  sans  miracles?  Paris,  1863,  and  Va'uvre 
des  missions  evani/eliqiies  an  point  de  vue  de  la 
<rivinite  dn  Christianisnie,  18(57,  which  have 
obtained  a  prominent  place  in  Christian 
apologetics. 

Powell,  Baden,  b.  in  London,  1796;  d, 
there,  June  11,  1860;  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, and  was  jirofcssor  of  geometry  there, 
1827-54.  Besides  his  purely  scientific  works 
he  has  written  much  on  topics  connected  at 
once  with  science  and  Christianity:  Connec- 
tion of  Natural  and  Divine  Truth,  London, 
18:38;  Three  Essays,  18.55,  2d  ed,,  1856;  Chris- 
tianity without  Judaism,  18.57;  On  the  Study 
of  the  Eridences  of  Christianity  in  Essays  and 
iiecieics,  1860. 

Practical  Theology  forms  a  distinct  de- 
partment of  the  science  of  Theology,  co- 
ordinate with  exegetical,  historical,  and 
systematic  theology,  and  comprising  Homi- 
letics,  Catechetics,  Liturgies,  Pastoral 
Theology,  and  Theory  of  Church  Govern- 
ment. 

Prades,  Jean  Martin  de,  abbe,  b.  at  Cas- 
telsarrazin,  in  south-western  France,  about 
1720:  d.  at  Clogau.  Silesia,  in  1782,  belonged 
to  the  Encyiloi)edist  circle.  As  some  theses 
of  his.  in  whii-h  he,  among  other  scandals 
drew  up  a  comparison  between  E.sculapius 
and  Christ,  were  condemned  not  oidy  by 
the  Sorbonne,  the  archbishop  of  Paris,  and 
the  pope,  but  also  by  the  parliament  of 
Paris,  he  Hod  to  Holland  and  afterwards  to 


Berlin,  where,  on  the  recommendation  of 
Voltaire,  he  was  made  reader  to  Frederick 
II.  The  latter,  however,  suspected  him  of 
treacherous  correspondence  with  duke  de 
Broglie  and  banished  him  to  Glogau.  where 
he  recanted  and  was  made  archdeacon  of 
the  cathedral.  He  published  an  abridg- 
ment of  Fleury's  church-history,  with  a 
preface  by  Frederick  II.,  Berlin,  1767  2 
vols. 

Pradt,  Dominique  Dufour  de,  abbe;  b.  at 
AUanches,  A uvergne,  France,  April  23,  1759; 
d.  in  Paris,  March  IS,  1837;  was  a  member 
of  the  States-(ieneral  in  1789,  and  emigrated 
as  an  adherent  of  the  king  in  1791.  In  1801 
he  returned,  was  appointed  almoner  to  the 
emperor,  bishop  of  I'oitiers,  archbishop  of 
Malines,  and  in  1S12  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Warsaw.  In  this  last  position  he  proved  a 
failure,  and  when  he  was  recalled,  he  became 
a  bitter  enemy  of  Napoleon.  But  Jie  was 
coldly  received  by  the  Bourbons  and  even 
compelled  to  resign  his  archbishopric.  He 
then  joined  the  opposition  until  in  the  July 
revolution  he  again  became  a  solid  mon- 
archist. Besides  his  Histoire  de  Vamhassade 
an  Varsovie,  Paris,  1815,  he  wrote  a  great 
number  of  pamphlets  on  miscellaneous 
matters. 

Praemunire,  the  name  given  to  a  writ 
originating  in  the  14tli  century  (statute  of 
Provisors,  Edward  I.,  statute  of  Praimu- 
nire,  Richard  II.,  1392),  to  the  offence  for 
which  the  wi'it  was  granted,  and  to  the 
penalty  inflicted  under  it.  It  originally 
put  restraint  upon  the  papal  authority  in 
the  disposal  of  English  benefices,  and  upon 
resort  to  the  Roman  court  rather  than  to 
the  English  courts,  and  was  designed  to  put 
a  bar  to  the  papal  encroachments  upon  the 
civil  powei".  At  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion it  was  widened  in  its  application,  and 
became  a  means  in  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment of  checking  the  papal  party.  The 
penalties  of  prfemunire  involved  loss  of 
all  civil  rights,  forfeiture  of  property,  and 
imprisonment  during  the  royal  pleasure. 
The  principal  historical  case  of  prieniunire 
is  the  fall  of  Wolsey  under  that  charge,  and 
his  deprivation  of  dignities  and  property. 
(1.529).  F.  H.  F, 

Prsetorium,  the  headquarters  of  a  Roman 
commander  or  governor.  Three  are  men- 
tioned in  Scripture.  1.  At  Jerusalem  (Mar. 
XV.  16).  The  same  Greek  word  is  rendered' 
by  the  A.  V.  "common  hall"  (Matt,  xxvii. 
27),  and  "judgment  hall"  (.John  xviii.  28, 
33,  xix.  9),  by  the  R.  V.  "  palace."  It  was  a 
large,  rectangular  space,  containing  bar- 
racks for  soldiers,  on  the  western  hill  of  Je- 
rusalem, whence  it  communicated  with  the 
temi>le  by  a  causeway  across  the  Tyropoeon 
valley.  2.  At  Caisarea.  The  official  resi- 
dence of  the  govennn-  Felix,  where  Paul 
was  imiuisoned  2  vears  (Acts  xxiii.  35).  3. 
At  Rome  (Phil.  i.  13).  Some,  as  A.  V.. 
consider  this  the  palace  of  the  Ca-sars  on 
the  Palestine  hill  which  was  garrisoned 
by  the  soldiers  called  Pra>torians  :  others, 
with  R.  v.,  refer  it  to  the  general  camp  of 
the  Pra'torian  guard,  situated  just  outside 
the  city  walls  on  the  northeast.     T.  W.  C. 


PRAZEAS 


(738) 


PRE  ADAMITES 


Praxeas,  a  Mouarchian,  a  native  of  Phiy- 
gia,  who  came  to  Rome  towards  the  close 
of  the  2d  century  and  stirred  up  a  bitter 
opposition  to  the  Montanists,  but  then  he 
was  himself  formally  arraigned  as  a  heretic 
by  TertuUian  in  his  treatise  Adversus  Prax- 
eam,  the  only  source  from  which  anything 
is  knowu  about  him.  C.  P. 

Prayer,  the  chief  act  of  public  and  pri- 
vate worship  in  all  ages  and  lands.  It  has 
its  root  in  man's  moral  nature,  is  enjoined 
by  God,  and  commended  by  the  highest 
examples.  It  is  the  communion  of  the 
soul  with  God,  and  includes  adoration, 
petition,  intercession  and  thanksgiving 
(1  Tim.  ii.  1).  It  may  be  either  mental  or 
vocal,  in  the  closet  or  in  the  family,  or  in 
the  house  of  God.  We  are  directed  to  pray 
for  others  as  well  as  ourselves  (Jas.  v.  10), 
for  kings  and  magistrates  (1  Tim.  ii.  2),  for 
the  church  (  Ps.  cxxii.  6),  for  the  world 
(Is.  Ixii.  6,  7),  and  even  for  our  enemies 
(Matt.  V.  44);  and  have  the  right  and  the 
duty  to  pray  for  all  that  we  need  for  the 
body  or  the  soul,  as  the  Lord's  Prayer 
shows.  Our  prayer  is  to  be  offered  to  the 
Father,  in  the  name  of  the  Son,  through 
the  Holy  Spirit. 

In  the  Mosaic  law  the  duty  of  prayer  is 
taken  for  granted  as  a  necessary  adjunct  of 
sacrilice,  but  at  first  as  well  as  in  later 
ages  public  prayer  accompanied  the  offer- 
ings (1  Chr.  xxiii.  30,  Neh.   ix.,  Luke  i.  10, 

1  Ki.  viii.).  It  formed  a  part  of  synagogue 
worship,  and  even  where  no  synagogue 
existed,  a  slight  structure,  often  roofless, 
was  made  "  a  place  of  prayer  "  (Acts  xvi. 
13).  All  the  eminent  servants  of  God  were 
mighty  in  prayer:  Abraham  (Gen.  xviii.  23, 
XX.  17),  Jacob  (xxxii.  26-31),  Moses  (Num. 
xi.  2),  Joshua  (Jos.  x.  12),  Samuel  (ISam. 
xii.lS),  David  (the  whole  Psalter),  Elijah  (1 
Ki.  xvii.  21),  Elisha  (2  Ki.  iv.  .33),  Hezekiah 
(xix.  1.5),  Daniel  (Dan.  vi.  10),  Anna  (Luke 
ii.  37).  The  apostles  made  pi'ayer  as  much 
a  part  of  their  function  as  the  ministry  of 
the  word  (Acts  vi.  4),  and  on  all  occasions 
abounded   in   the    exercise  (Acts     xvi.    25, 

2  Cor.  xii.  8).  Our  Lord  often  withdrew  to 
a  solitai-y  place  for  prayer,  sometimes  ris- 
ing up  "  a  great  while  before  day"  (Mark 
i.  35),  at  others  continuing  "all  night" 
(Luke  vi.  15),  in  the  service. 

Some  of  the  pious  were  accustomed  to 
pray  thrice  a  day  at  fixed  hours  (Ps.  Iv.  17, 
Dan.  vi.  10),  and  at  times  to  utter  brief 
ejaculations  in  the  midst  of  tempoi-al  busi- 
ness (Neh.  ii.  4,  v.  19).  No  uniform  posture 
is  enjoined.  Good  men  have  prayed  stand- 
ing with  hands  outspread  (1  Ki.  viii.  22), 
bowing  the  head  (Gen.  xxiv,  26),  sitting  on 
the  ground  (2  Sam.  vii.  18),  kneeling  (Dan. 
vi.  10)  and  prostrate  on  their  face  (Josh, 
vii.  6),  and  in  every  case  with  equal  accept- 
ance. The  main  thing  is  the  reverential 
frame  of  mind  and  genuine  sincerity  and 
earnestness  which  always  accompany  true 
faith.  Habitual  prayer  is  a  duty  enjoined 
by  sound  reason  and  right  affections  as 
well  as  by  the  divine  word,  and  he  who 
lives  without  it  is  an  atheist  in  his  heart. 

Objections  to  the  duty  proceed  upon  a 
mistaken  basis.     God's  unchangeable   pur- 


pose presents  no  difficulty,  for  the  great 
sclieme  of  his  providence  embraces  alike 
the  prayer  and  the  answer,  and  men's  devo- 
tions, as  much  as  their  other  free  acts,  are 
included  in  his  eternal  plan.  Nor  is  prayer 
intended  to  increase  God's  knowledge  of 
man's  wants,  or  make  him  more  ready  to 
supply  them;  but  it  is  a  fact  that  he  grants 
many  blessings  in  answer  to  pra,yer  which 
otherwise  he  would  withhold.  He  is  not  a 
cold  abstraction,  but  a  living,  loving  Per- 
son, near  at  hand,  and  that  his  people  may 
feel  this  more  and  more  he  makes  prayer 
the  condition  upon  which  he  puts  forth 
his  power. 

Yet  while  God  always  hears  prayer,  he 
does  not  always  comply  literally  with  every 
request,  for  that  would  be  to  put  his  om- 
nipotence into  the  hand  of  a  creature.  The 
prayers  even  of  good  men  are  often  mis- 
guided, and  to  grant  them  would  be  an 
injury  rather  than  a  blessing.  Hence  every 
Scriptural  suppliant  adds  even  to  the  most 
importunate  entreaty,  "  Yet  not  my  will 
but  thine  be  done." 

False  and  formal  religion  makes  a  merit 
of  prayers,  as  though  "  much  speaking " 
and  "vain  repetitions"  could  atone  for 
heart] essness  or  lay  up  a  claim  before  God. 
Our  Lord  reproved  such  notions  (Matt.  vi. 
.5-15)  and  gave  to  his  disciples  a  model  of 
devotion  which  is  simple  and  brief  but 
wonderfully  complete  and  suggestive.  The 
prayer  of  the  publican  (Luke  xviii.  13)  and 
that  of  the  penitent  robber  on  the  cross 
(xxiii.  42)  were  very  short  but  thev  reached 
the  end.  t.  W.  C. 

Prayers  for  the  Dead  were  offered  among 
the  later  Jews  (2  Mac.  xii.  43-45),  and  had 
place  among  the  Christians  at  an  early 
period.  TertuUian  (De  ex//or.  c«si.  cap.  ii. ) 
refers  to  the  custom  as  an  established  one, 
and  forms  of  such  prayer  are  found  in  the 
liturgies  of  James,  and  Mark  and  the  holy 
apostles.  It  has  been  claimed  that  Paul's 
prayer  for  Onesiphorus  (2  Tim.  i.  18)  is  an 
example  of  such  supplication,  but  there  is 
no  evidence  that  the  apostle's  benefactor 
was  dead  at  that  time.  He  may  have  sim- 
ply been  absent  from  home.  The  great 
body  of  Protestants  now  decline  to  pray 
for  the  departed,  on  the  ground  that  in  the 
case  of  the  bles.sed  dead  it  is  needless  and 
for  others  it  is  unavailing.  T.  W.  C 

Prayer,  Book  of  Common.  See  Eng- 
land, Church  of,  p.  256. 

Prayer,  Lord's.  See  Lokd's  Prayer,  p. 
512. 

Preaching.    See  Homiletics. 

Preaching    Friars.      See    Dominic    and 

Dominicans. 

Preadamites.  The  question  of  the  exist- 
ence of  human  beings  on  earth  before  the 
creation  of  Adam  and  Eve,  that  is,  the 
question  of  the  origin  of  the  human  race, 
was  first  raised  by  Isaac  Peyrerius  (La 
Peyrere)  in  his  Prce  Admitce,  and  Sys- 
temn  Theoloqiciun  ex  Prceadyiritcerum  Hy- 
potheai,  both  Paris,  1655,  and  is  there 
treated  in  a  strictly  theological  form.  As 
the  author  assumes  that  the  ancestors  of 


PREBEND 


(739) 


PREMILLENNIALISM 


the  human  race  in  general  were  created 
on  the  sixth  day,  while  Adam  and  Eve,  the 
specific  ancestors  of  the  Jews,  were  not 
created  until  long  after,  and  draws  a  num- 
ber of  queer  conclusions  therefrom,  his  book 
was  condemned  and  he  himself  seized  by 
tlie  Inquisition,  from  which  he  was  only 
rescued  by  the  interference  of  the  Prince  of 
Conde.  In  modern  science  the  question  has 
arisen  a  second  time,  from  various  points, 
philological,  anthropological,  physiological, 
etc.,  but  principally  in  connection  with  the 
theory  of  evolution,  and  here  it  is  treated 
in  a  strictly  scientitic  form.  C.  P. 

Prebend,  from  the  Latin  pr<ehenda,  allow- 
ance, meant  originally,  while  all  the  clerks 
of  a  cathedral  were  still  living  in  common 
under  the  episcopal  roof,  that  portion  of 
food  which  was  handed  to  each  of  them  at 
the  episcopal  table,  or,  in  a  wider  sense, 
that  portion  of  provision  in  general,  not 
only  food  but  also  clothing,  money,  etc., 
which  was  allowed  to  each  of  them  from 
the  episcopal  household.  When  the  clerks, 
however,  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries 
ceased  to  live  together,  the  cathedral  reve- 
nues also  ceased  to  go  in  one  lump  into  the 
episcopal  chest.  It  was  divided  up  in 
various  portions,  one  portion  being  derived 
from  a  piece  of  land,  another  from  a  toll- 
gate,  and  consequently  varying  very  much 
in  value,  and  according  to  his  station  each 
clerk  i-eceived  such  a  portion  upon  which  to 
live.  But  in  this  form  too  tlie  allowance 
was  called  a  prebend,  the  principal  distinc- 
tion between  prebend  and  benefice  being 
that  the  former  refers  exclusively  to  the 
comi)ensation,  the  latter  also  to  the  duties 
of  a  position. 

Precious  Stones.    See  Gem,  p.  320. 

Preconization,  in  mediaeval  Latin,  a  proc- 
lamation or  public  announcement,  from 
pra'cn,  "  a  public  crier."  is  in  the  termin- 
ology of  the  Roman  Catholic  (Church  the 
specific  name  of  the  act  by  which  the 
pope  consummates  and  announces  the  ap- 
pointment to  an  e])iscopal  see.  After  the 
canonical  election  or  the  nomination  by  the 
state-government,  the  case  of  a  candidate  is 
by  the  cardinal-protector  of  the  country  to 
which  the  vacant  see  belongs  laid  before 
the  Congregation  of  Cardinals  and  there 
prepared  for  the  Consistory,  in  which  the 
pope  decides  it  according  to  the  majority  of 
the  voting  cardinals. 

Predestination  is  the  decree  of  God  by 
which  for  his  own  glory  He  foreordained 
whatever  comes  to  pass.  Its  advocates 
hold  tliat  it.  being  the  act  of  a  personal  be- 
ing who  is  infinitely  wise  and  good,  differs 
from  pagan  fate,  which  is  blind  and  unin- 
telligent, and  from  Mahommedan  destiny, 
which  is  the  arbitrary  desjxttism  of  Allah. 
God  is  not  the  author  of  sin  but  decrees  to 
permit  it:  and  he  acts  through  second 
causes,  among  which  is  the  will  of  man,  and 
so  he  takes  away  no  man's  liberty. 

The  germs  of  the  doctrine  are  found  in 
the  Old  Testament,  in  the  choice  of  Israel 
and  in  the  dealings  with  Abraham  and  other 
servants  of  God.  Its  full  and  formal  dis- 
closure is  given  in  tlie  New,  specially  in  the 


epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Ephesians.  Its. 
first  logical  development  in  the  church  was- 
given  by  Augustine,  whose  views  were  fur- 
ther carried  out  by  (xottschalk,  but  did  not 
find  favor  either  with  the  Thomists  or  the 
Scotists  yet  were  held  by  Anselm  and  Peter 
Lombard,  At  the  Kelorn)ation  the  doc- 
trine was  put  into  confessional  statement, 
by  the  Reformed  under  Calvin,  but  opposed 
by  the  Anninians.  Tliere  are  those  wIuk 
hold  the  election  of  nations  to  the  external 
privileges  of  the  gospel,  and  others  wri«v 
extend  it  to  individuals  but  confine  its 
scope  to  the  means  of  grace:  neither  of 
tliese  meets  the  case  as  stated  by  Paul,  who 
answers  the  objection  "  Who  resisteth  his 
will?  "  The  moral  uses  of  the  doctrine  are 
to  hide  pride  from  man;  to  exclude  the  idea 
of  chance;  to  exalt  the  grace  of  God:  to 
render  salvation  certain;  and  to  aftord  be- 
lieveis  great  consolation.  T.  W.  C. 

Premillennialism  is  the  doctrine  that 
prior  to  the  reign  of  universal  righteousness 
(or  millenium.  Rev.  xx.  ^)),  which  nearly  all 
Christians  agree  in  expecting.  Uie  Lord 
Jesus  will  return  to  earth  in  a  visible  foini 
and  establish  a  theocratic  king(h>m  over  the 
whole  world.  Its  advocates  hold  that  the 
time  of  the  Advent  is  unknown,  yet  it  may 
occur  any  hour,  the  Lord's  puipose  being  to 
leave  his  people  in  a  state  of  constant  expec- 
tati(m.  When  lie  comes  there  will  be  "  the 
first  resurrection"  (Rev.  xx.  5),  that  of  the 
righteous  dead  who  will  enjoy  a  blessed  life 
.suited  to  the  nature  of  a  i)eifectly  sancti- 
fied spirit  and  a  spiritual  and  incorrujitilde 
body.  The  whole  millennial  period  will  be 
occupied  with  the  judgment  work  of  Christ, 
rewarding  all  men  according  to  their 
doings,  and  it  will  close  with  the  resurrec- 
tion and  judgment  of  the  wicked  and  the 
full  establishment  of  "the  new  heavens  and 
the  new  earth"  (2  Pet.  iii.  13).  Meanwhile 
the  Jews,  restored  wholly  or  in  jinrt  to 
their  own  land,  shall  look  upon  Him  whom 
they  pierced  (Zech.  xii.  10),  and  rejient  an<l 
own  the  crufificd  Jesus  as  Messiah:  the 
hosts  of  anti-Clirist  shall  be  destroyed  and 
Satan  bound  f<n-  a  definite  period.  The 
Holy  Spirit  shall  be  poured  out  as  never  be- 
fore, whole  nations  being  saved  at  once. 
Yet  sin  shall  remain  (Isa.  Ixv.  20),  though 
in  subordination  to  the  prewiiling  right- 
eousness. Toward  the  end  of  the  ]ieriod 
Satan  released  will  make  a  last  but  fruitless 
attempt  to  regain  his  lost  dominion,  for  he 
and  his  followers  and  evil  men  raised  from 
the  dead  will  then  be  judged  and  cast  into 
the  bottomless  pit.  The  earth,  renewed  by 
fire  and  forever  delivered  from  the  curse, 
will  be  the  home  of  a  lioly  humanity,  ruled 
over  by  the  Lord  Jesus  as  the  head  of  a  re- 
deemed people, 

Tlie  foregoing  is  a  rough  outline  of  the 
points  in  which  nearly  all  modern  jjremil- 
lenarians  agree,  although  there  are  minor 
questions  as  to  certain  details,  e.g.  the  rela- 
tion of  the  risen  saints  to  the  unglorified 
nations,  the  position  of  Israel,  etc..  upcm 
which  opinions  vary.  It  is  geneialiy  ad- 
mitted that  Chiliasm  premillennialism  i)re- 
vailed  in  the  early  church  till  tlie  time  of 
Origen,  but  soon   after   the   conversion  of 


PREMONSTRANTS 


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PRESBYTERIAN 


Constantine  men  came  to  hold  that  the  mil- 
lennium was  realized  in  the  triumph  of  the 
church  over  the  heathen  state,  being 
counted  from  the  first  Advent  and  not  the 
second.  This  faith  prevailed  until  after 
the  Keformation,  when  the  chiliastic  view 
was  revived  by  Joseph  Mede  (l(i27)  and  met 
with  general  acceptance.  In  1703  Dr.  Dan- 
iel Whitby  advocated  the  view  which  places 
the  Advent  at  the  close  of  the  millennium, 
and  this  is  the  prevailing  opinion  to-day, 
but  premillenarians  are  numerous  in  Great 
Britain  and  America,  and  number  many 
eminent  names.  T.  W.  C. 

Premonstrants   or  Premonstratensians   is 

the  name  of  a  monastic  order  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  founded  in  UHl  by  Xor- 
bert  of  Genuep  and  confirmed  in  1120  by 
Honorius  II.  Its  first  monastery,  the 
mother-house,  was  built  in  an  o^jen  glade  in 
the  forest  of  Coney,  in  the  diocese  of  Laon, 
France,  and  the  place  was  selected  by  Nor- 
bert  because  it  was  "  foreshown "  him  by 
the  Lord,  pratum  promonstratutn.  The  rule 
was  that  of  St.  Augustine,  though  some- 
what sharpened.  Fasts  were  very  frequent; 
flesh  was  altogether  forbidden;  scourgings 
formed  an  element  of  the  daily  discipline, 
etc.  The  costume  was  white,  hence  the 
English  name  of  the  order,  White  Canons. 
Norbert,  who  was  a  relative  of  the  emperor, 
Henry  V.  was  in  1120  made  archbishop  of 
Magdeburg  and  the  historical  merit  of  his 
order  consists  in  the  splendid  missionary 
work  it  did  in  the  12th,  13th,  and  14th  cen- 
tui'ies  among  the  Slavs  between  the  Elbe  and 
the  Baltic.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Refor- 
mation it  is  said  to  have  numbered  1000 
male  and  .500  female  houses  which  all  stood 
under  the  authority  of  the  abbot  of  Pre- 
montre,  and  it  was  possessed  of  considera- 
ble wealth.  But  its  historical  influence  had 
gone  long  ago  and  its  moi-al  standard  was 
not  edifying.  Before  the  spirit  of  the 
Reformation  and  the  Revolution  it  dwin- 
dled into  nothingness.  Only  a  few  houses 
are  still  in  existence,  in  Poland  and  Austria. 
See  Hugonis  Annal  Ord.  P.,  Xancy,  1734; 
Winter:  Die  Pr.  d.  12  Jahrhunderts,  Berlin, 
1865. 

Prentiss,  Elizabeth  (Payson),  Presbyte- 
rian; b.  at  Portland,  Me.,  Oct.  26,  1818;  d.  at 
Dorset,  Vt.,  Aug.  13,  1878.  She  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  Rev.  Dr.  E.  Payson  (q.v.),  and  in  1845 
married  to  Rev.  Dr.  G-.  L.  Prentiss,  with 
whom  in  1851  she  removed  fx'om  New  Bed- 
ford to  New  York.  A  writer  from  early 
youth,  her  Susy  books  and  other  juveniles 
circulated  widely,  and  some  of  them  were 
translated  into  German  and  French.  Her 
Stepping  Heavenward,  New  York,  1869,  won 
a  phenomenal  success  at  home  and  abroad. 
Her  Religious  Poems,  appeared  1870,  and 
Hymns  and  Songs  of  the  Christian  Life,  1873. 
(See  her  Life  and  Letters,  edited  by  her  hus- 
band, 1882.)  F.  M.  B. 

Preparation,  Day  of,  the  term  applied  to 
Friday  because  on  it  preparation  of  meals, 
etc.,  was  made  for  the  ensuing  Sabbath 
'  (Mark  xv.  42).  The  "  preparation  of  the 
Passover"  (John  xix.  14)  means  the  Friday 
preceding  the  Sabbath  that    occurred    in 


Passover  week.     On  that  Friday  (the  15th 
of  Nisan)  our  Lord  was  crucified. 

T.  W.  C. 

Presbyterian,  The,  Churches.  The  name 
Presbyterian  has  become  historically  equiv- 
alent to  the  name  Reformed,  as  appears  by 
the  title  of  the  organization  commonly 
known  as  the  ''Presbyterian  Alliance," 
which  is  "  The  Alliance  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  throughout  the  world  holding  the 
Presbyterian  Sj^stem."  As  distinctive  oigan- 
izations  the  Presbyterian  churches  of  the 
present  time  first  arose  in  connection  with 
the  great  Reformation  of  the  16th  century. 
The  Presbyterian  faith  and  polity,  how- 
ever, were  not  an  invention  of  the  Refor- 
mation, but  a  restoration  of  the  faith  and 
polity  of  the  Christian  churches  of  the  first 
century.  The  order  of  arrangement  in  this 
series  of  articles  on  the  history  of  the  Pres- 
byterian churches,  is  indicated  by  the  order 
of  the  following  tabular  statement  of  their 
strength  in  the  various  countries  in  which 
they  are  found. 

Communicants  and  Adherents,  Pkesby- 
TEKiAN  Churches,  1890. 

(Includes  the  Dutch  aud  German  Reformed 
Churches.) 

Countries.                 Communicants.  Adherents. 
Great  Britain. 

Scotland 1,107,920  3,600,000 

England 67,000  200,000 

Wales 143,040  4.50,000 

Ireland 115,000  400,000 

Europe. 

A  u  stro-Hung  ary. 

Austria  Proper . .         15,000 

Bohemia 70,000 

Moravia , 40,000 

Hungary 2,000,000 

Belgium 6,312  20,000 

France 800,000 

Germany 1,300,000 

Holland 2,500,000 

Italy 18,765  60,000 

Poland  (Russia) ....       7,000  25,000 

Spain 1,000  3,500 

Switzerland 1,700,000 

America. 

United  States 1,587,879  5,500,000 

Canada 167,065  550,0fX) 

West  Indies 10,244  35,000 

Mexico    and    Cen- 
tral America....       6,000  20,000 

South  America 7,032  20,000 

Africa 140,000  400,000 

Asia. 

Japan 8,954  25,000 

Persia 2,269  5,000 

Colonial  Churches 

and  Missions....      21,264  270,000 
Australasia. 

Australia 34,035  120,00G 

New  Hebrides......        3,520  10,000 

New  Zealand 18,603  60,000 

20,198,500 

Great  Britain.  Scotland,  the  estab- 
lished CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  The  history 
of  religion  in  Scotland  begins  withthe  second 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  The  earliest 
churches  established  were  of  the  primitive 


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PRESBYTERIAN 


pattern  in  faith,  polity  and  worship.  (For 
the  Celtic  and  British  churches,  see  article 
■on  that  subject.)  The  tirst  powerful  im- 
I)ulse  towards  the  substitution  of  the  papal 
system  for  the  native  church  was  the 
marriage  of  Malcolm  111.  with  Margaret  of 
England,  the  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling. 
This  queen  was  a  devoted  adherent  of  Eng- 
lish customs  and  the  Roman  religion,  and 
the  changes  introduced  by  her  were  carried 
to  completion  by  her  son  David  I.  By  the 
end  of  the  12th  century,  Scotland  had  been 
brought  outwardly  into  conformity  to  the 
rest  of  Europe  in  faith  and  worship,  and 
in  submission  to  the  pope  of  Rome. 

Ecclesiastical  Scotland  in  the  l^th  cen- 
tury was  divided  into  12  dioceses,  to  which 
in  the  15th  century,  Orkney  was  added.  At 
first  these  dioceses  were  independent  of 
any  general  control,  but  in  1225.  Pope  Hono- 
rius  III.  authorized  the  Scotch  Church  to 
meet  in  Provincial  Council,  the  presidents 
or  conservators  of  the  council  being  chosen 
by  and  from  the  bishops.  It  was  not  until 
1472  that  an  archbishop  exercised  author- 
ity within  the  kingdom,  St.  Andrews  being 
elevated  in  that  year  into  an  Archiepisco- 
pal  See.  The  Scotch  Church  was  therefore 
governed  by  a  synod,  with  an  elective  mod- 
■erator,  for  two  centuries  and  a  half  immedi- 
ately preceding  the  Reformation. 

Tlie  Scotch  Church  like  other  European 
■churches  retrograded  greatly,  both  in  doc- 
trine and  life,  during  the  century  preceding 
the  Reformation.  The  superstitious  and 
degrading  tenets  of  Romanism  were 
largely  accepted  in  the  land,  though  not 
without  protest  in  some  quarters.  Further, 
"  the  lives  of  the  clergy  were  become  a 
scandal  to  religion  and  an  outrage  on  de- 
cency." and  as  a  result  general  profligacy 
prevailed.  Three  influences  however,  com- 
bined to  operate  against  the  degeneracy  of 
the  times,  and  to  hasten  reform.  These 
were,  the  natural  revolt  of  human  nature 
from  the  grossness  prevalent  in  the  church, 
the  revival  of  learning  with  the  consequent 
awakening  of  the  human  mind,  and  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  by  John  Wick- 
liff.  In  addition,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  15th  centur)',  those  forerunners  of 
Protestantism,  the  Lollards,  held  ground  in 
Kyle  and  other  parts  of  the  Southwest. 
As  early  as  140t),  an  English  priest  by  the 
name  of  James  Resby  was  burned  at  Perth 
for  holding  WicklifKte  doctrines. 

The  beginning  of  the  Reformation  in 
Germany  was  followed  immediately  by  agi- 
tation in  Scotland.  So  close  was  the  con- 
nection between  the  two  lands,  that  in  1525, 
an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed  forl>idding 
persons  from  abroad  "  to  biing  with  them 
any  books  or  works  of  liUther's,  liis  disci- 
ples, or  his  servants,  into  the  country," 
upon  the  pain  of  the  loss  of  their  goods, 
and  imprisonment.  But  acts  of  Parliament 
were  weak  obstacles  against  the  inrush  of 
the  Truth.  The  doctrines  of  the  Reforma- 
tion rai)idly  sj)read.  and  the  resulting  per- 
secution culminated  in  152S  in  the  martyr- 
<lom  by  lire,  at  St.  Andrews,  of  Patrick 
Hamilton,  abbot  of  Feme,  for  teaching  and 
preaching  the  Reformed  Faith.  Others 
were  also  burned,  and  some  persons  found 


safety  in  flight.  Many,  however,  of  the 
Reform  party  remained  in  the  country, 
their  courage  increased  with  their  num- 
bers, and  an  armed  collision  at  last  took 
place  between  them  and  their  enemies. 
In  154(5,  George  Wishart  was  put  to  death 
for  his  religious  opinions  as  the  result  of 
the  sentence  of  an  ecclesiastical  court,  pre- 
sided over  by  Cardinal  Beaton,  archbishop 
of  St.  Andrews;  and  three  months  later,  the 
cardinal  himself  was  killed  by  Norman 
Leslie,  and  other  resolute  spirits  among 
the  Reformers.  The  open  conflict  which 
followed  continued  for  several  years,  but  in 
1559,  the  Reformers  were  greatly  strengtli- 
ened  by  the  return  of  John  Knox  from 
Geneva.  The  arrival  in  Scotland  of  that 
Master  of  Men,  was  the  signal  for  decisive 
action  on  the  part  of  the  Reform  party, 
now  known  as  the  Congregation,  and  on 
Aug.  1,  15(50,  the  Parliament  with  extra- 
ordinary unanimity  threw  off  the  papal 
authority,  and  established  the  Refornud 
religion  as  the  religion  of  the  kingdom. 
A  Confession  of  Faith  was  adopted  drawn 
upon  Calvinistic  lines,  a  Book  of  Discipline 
was  issued  and  a  Presbyterian  Ecclesiasti- 
cal System  was  set  in  operation.  The  lat- 
ter was  not  the  exact  system  now  in  vogue. 
Containing  the  elements  of  existing  Pre-sby- 
terianism,  it  differed  in  certain  matters  of 
detail.  Its  main  features  were  these:  the 
ofKcers  of  the  church  were  declared  to  be 
Ministers,  Elders  and  Deacons.  Ministers 
were  to  be  set  ajjart  to  their  office  bj'  minis- 
ters only;  elders  and  deacons  were  to  be 
chosen  annually.  The  country  was  divided 
into  districts  over  each  of  which  an  officer 
called  a  superintendent  was  placed;  and  the 
system  found  its  c(msummation  in  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  composed  of  superintend- 
ents, ministers  and  laymen.  In  this 
a.ssembly,  further,  was  vested  the  execu- 
tive and  legislative,  as  well  as  the  judicial 
power,  and  its  first  meeting  was  held  on 
Dec.  20,  15(50,  in  the  Chapel  of  St.  Magda- 
lene, Edinburgh. 

The  Reformed  Church  of  Scotland  was 
founded  upon  a  great  and  permanent  prin- 
ciple in  ecclesiastical  government,  the  in- 
dejtendence  of  the  church  from  state  con- 
trol. The  claim  was  made,  in  connection 
with  the  first  assembly,  that  its  convoca- 
tion depended  upon  the  queen's  will.  To 
the  claim,  Knox  replied.  "'Take  from  us 
the  freedom  of  Assemblies,  and  take  from 
us  the  p]vangel."  The  indeijcndence  of  the 
church  from  control  l)y  the  state  was  thus 
insisted  upon  at  the  outset  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. In  order,  howevei",  that  due  respect 
might  be  paid  to  the  civil  authorities,  it 
was  determined  to  have  present  at  each 
assemldy,  a  representative  of  the  crown. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  office  of 
Lord  High  Commissioner.  The  prominent 
characters  of  this  perif)d.  in  addition  to 
Knox,  were  Andrew  Melville.  Maitland  of 
Lethington,  Mary.  Queen  of  Scots,  and  the 
Regent  Murray.  Had  the  moral  sensitive- 
ness of  Queen  Mary  equalled  her  ability 
and  Iteauty,  the  Reformation  would  have 
met  in  her  adlierence  to  the  i)apacy,  with  a 
well  niirh  insurmountable  obstacle.  As  it 
was,  lier  folly  and   lier  weakness  were  in- 


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fluential  in  securing  the  firm  establishment 
in  the  land  of  the  Reformed  Faith. 

In  1572,  the  Convention  of  Leith  was 
held,  and  an  effort  was  made  to  restore 
Episcopacy.  The  endeavor,  however,  ut- 
terly failed,  the  church  continued  to  pro- 
gress despite  conflicts  and  divisions,  and  at 
last,  in  1.581,  the  Presbyterian  government 
was  fully  organized  in  accordance  with  the 
plan  laid  down  by  Melville  in  the  Second 
Book  of  Discipline.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
one  of  the  fundamental  features  of  Presby- 
terian government  was  introduced  Into  the 
Scotch  Church.  Hitherto  the  presbyterial 
supervision  of  the  congregations  had  been 
in  the  hands  of  officers,  called  superintend- 
ents. Now,  the  Diocese  or  District  gave 
way  to  the  Presbytery,  and  the  office  of 
superintendent  disappeared,  after  an  ex- 
periment of  twenty  years. 

The  accession  of  James  VI.  ushered  in 
troublous  days  for  religion  in  Scotland.  As 
early  as  1.584,  the  king's  prejudices  in  favor 
of  Episcopacy  became  evident  through  the 
passage  of  the  Black  Acts,  ordaining, 
among  other  things,  that  no  general  as- 
sembly should  meet  without  royal  author- 
ity. These  acts  were  repealed  in  1-592,  and 
the  Parliament  of  that  year  established  the 
Presbyterian  Church  upon  a  firm  footing, 
with  the  king's  approval.  By  1600,  how- 
ever, the  king  had  changed,  and  persisting 
in  his  Episcopizing  tendencies,  succeeded 
in  securing  the  recognition  of  bishops  as 
constant  moderators  of  the  synods.  He 
sought  also,  in  other  ways,  to  re-introduce 
Episcopacy.  On  his  elevation  to  the  throne 
of  England  as  James  I.,  he  laid  aside  all 
masks,  and  took  resolute  measures  against 
tlie  Presbyterians.  Believing  in  the  maxim, 
''No  Bishop,  no  King,"  he  determined  to 
control  the  General  Assembly,  and  suc- 
ceeded. In  1610,  a  subservient  assembly 
gave  to  bishops  precedence  in  all  church 
courts,  and  the  assembly  of  1617  passed 
what  are  called  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth. 
These  latter  were  concerned  mainly  with 
worship  and  the  observance  of  holidays, 
but  involved  the  question  of  the  right  of 
the  church  to  settle  for  herself  all  points 
connected  with  the  ordinances  of  religion. 
After  the  death  of  James  in  1625,  his  son, 
Charles  I.,  continued  the  Stuart  policy,  and 
proceeded  to  force  a  liturgy  upon  the 
Scotch  nation.  Archbishop  Laud  was  the 
compiler  of  the  service-book  prescribed, 
and  its  introduction  into  St.  Giles  Cathe- 
dral, Edinburgh,  led  to  the  historic  scene 
of  Janet  Geddes  and  her  stool.  The  act  of 
the  apple  woman,  in  flinging  her  stool  at 
the  dean,  as  he  began  the  reading  of  the 
liturgy,  was  the  signal  for  a  general  upris- 
ing. The  nation  was  determined  upon 
"  home-rule  "  in  church  affairs,  and  a  pro- 
visional government  was  at  once  formed. 
The  National  Covenant  drawn  up  in  1580, 
and  which  had  been  then  signed  by  the 
king  and  many  of  his  subjects,  was  again 
signed  on  the  first  of  March,  16.38,  in  the 
Grey  Friars'  Church,  Edinburgh,  by  all 
classes  of  the  population.  Nobility,  Gentry, 
Ministers,  and  people.  In  November,  the 
General  Assembly  met  at  Glasgow,  the 
bishops  were  removed  from  their  offices, 


and  the  articles  of  Perth  with  other  acts  of 
servile  assemblies  were  annulled.  King 
Charles  did  not  take  the  Scotch  uprising 
quietly,  but  gathered  an  army,  and  in  16;j9 
marched  into  the  country,  but  finding  the 
Scotch  armed  and  upon  the  defensive,  he 
concluded  discretion  to  be  the  better  part  of 
valor,  and  returned  to  England.  The  fol- 
lowing year  his  invasion  was  renewed,  but 
resulted  in  an  ignominious  failure.  The 
times,  indeed,  were  unfavorable  to  Epis- 
copacy. In  England,  Presbyterianism  was 
rapidly  gaining  the  ascendancy;  the  Long 
Parliament  was  in  session,  and  acting  in 
accord  with  the  Scotch;  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  was  adopted  by  both  the 
Scotch  and  the  English;  a  Confession  of 
Faith  and  Catechisms  were  drawn  up  by 
the  Westminster  Assembly  with  the  help  of 
commissioners  from  Scotland,  and  in  1647 
were  adopted  by  the  General  Assembly  of 
the  Scotch  Church.  This  happy  condi- 
tion of  affairs  continued,  however,  but  a 
brief  season.  The  ascendancy  of  Oliver 
Cromwell  checked  the  Presbyterian  ad- 
vance. Being  an  independent  in  church 
government,  his  policy  was  directed  towards 
the  suppression  of  both  Episcopacy  and 
Presbytery.  And  the  Scotch  having  on  the 
death  of  Charles  I.  concluded  to  support 
his  son,  Charles  II.,  Cromwell  invaded  the 
country,  thoroughly  subjugated  it,  and 
prevented  opposition  to  his  rule  within  the 
church,  by  the  suppression  (1653)  of  the 
General  Assembly. 

The  restoration  of  Charles  II.  to  the 
throne  of  England,  was  the  opening  of 
another  dark  chapter  in  the  religious  his- 
tory of  Scotland.  The  king  was  a  strong^ 
partisan  of  Episcopacy,  and  the  Parliament 
rescinded  in  1661  all  acts  favoring  the  Pres- 
byterian government.  Four  persons  were 
chosen  and  sent  to  London,  and  there  re- 
ceived consecration  from  English  bishops. 
On  their  return  to  Scotland  they  were  in- 
vested by  the  Parliament  with  all  the 
ancient  privileges  of  the  Episcopal  estab- 
lishment. The  leader  in  the  new  move- 
ment was  James  Sharp,  who  had  been  con- 
stituted by  the  Scotch  their  agent  at  the 
Restoration,  but  who  shrewdly  took  per- 
sonal advantage  of  the  condition  of  affairs, 
and  secured  for  himself  the  appointment  to 
the  archbishopric  of  St.  Andrews.  The 
harsh  measures  which  he  adojited  against 
Presbyterians  are  a  matter  of  history. 
Brutal  soldiers,  of  whom  Claverhouse  was 
chief,  became  willing  instruments  to  harass 
and  kill  those  who  preferred  to  worship 
God  according  to  the  custom  of  their 
fathers  and  the  rights  of  conscience.  Many 
among  the  persecuted  further  took  the  law 
into  their  own  hands.  The  Covenanters 
proclaimed  that  Charles  II.  was  no  lawful 
king,  and  they  might  well  be  regarded 
therefore  as  guilty  of  treason.  The  killing 
of  Archbishop  Sharp  intensified  the  crisis. 
The  times  were  rough,  and  harsh  measures 
were  met  by  harsh  measures.  The  Scotch 
were  not  ready  to  be  led  as  sheep  to  the 
slaughter.  Several  engagements  took  place 
between  the  soldiers  of  the  king  and  their 
opponents,  two  of  which,  the  battles  of  the 
Pentland    (1666),   and   of  Bothwell   Bridge 


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PRESBYTERIAN 


(1667),  resulted  disastrously  to  the  Cove- 
nanters. The  Church  of  Scotland  was 
thenceforward  virtually  driven  into  the  wil- 
derness. Those  who  were  faithful  to  the 
Covenant  met  in  conventicles  amid  the  re- 
cesses of  the  hills,  and  under  the  shadows 
of  the  woods.  Large  numbers  of  persons 
were  imprisoned,  and  many  of  them  were 
sold  as  slaves  to  the  American  Colonies  and 
to  the  West  Indies.  The  hlood  of  martyrs 
proved,  however,  in  this  as  in  other  cases, 
to  be  the  seed  of  the  church.  Thouj^h  per- 
secution continued  upon  the  accession  of 
James  II.  to  the  throne,  in  1685,  yet  the 
people,  both  of  Scotland  and  of  England, 
were  being  rapidly  prepared  by  the  cruel 
and  bloody  measures  of  the  Stuart  kings, 
for  the  revolution  which  took  place  at  the 
landing  in  England,  in  168)r<,  of  William, 
Prince  of  Orange. 

When  the  Scotch  Parliament  met  in  1689, 
the  bishops  declined  to  abandon  King 
James,  and  by  so  doing  sealed  the  fate  of 
Episcopacy.  In  1690,  the  Parliament  re-es- 
tablished Presbyterianism,  and  the  surviv- 
ing ministers  who  had  been  ejected  at  the 
Restoration  were  reinstated  in  their  par- 
ishes. The  act  of  1661,  which  had  made 
the  king  supreme  over  ecclesiastical  courts, 
was  annulled,  and  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  and  the  Presbyterian  Polity 
were  declared  to  be  authoritative  in  the 
kingdom.  The  General  .\ssembly  of  1690, 
was  the  first  which  had  been  allowed  to 
meet  since  the  forcible  suppression  of  the 
body  by  Cromwell.  The  two  principal 
events  during  King  William's  reign  were 
the  popular  uprisings  called  the  "Rabbling 
of  the  Curates,"  directed  against  the 
numerous  ministers  who  had  been  intruded 
upon  unwilling  peoples;  and  the  passing 
by  the  General  Assembly  in  1697  of  the 
Barrier  Act.  intended  to  prevent  sudden 
legislation  changing  the  constitution  of  the 
church.  By  this  act  it  was  provided  that 
changes  in  standing  laws  should  be  made 
only  with  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  the 
presbyteries. 

In  1707  Scotland  and  England  were 
united,  and  in  connection  with  the  union, 
the  act  of  security  was  passed  by  Parlia- 
ment, by  wliich  the  Confession  of  Faith 
and  the  Presbyterian  government  were  "  to 
continue  without  any  alteration  to  the  peo- 
ple of  this  land  in  all  succeeding  genera- 
tions." This  act  of  security  was  likewise 
made  a  fundamental  and  essential  article 
of  the  treaty  of  union.  Five  years  after 
the  union,  however,  the  P^nglish  Parlia- 
ment restored  the  Patronage  system  in 
Scotland,  and  by  so  doing  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  several  secessions  which  went  out 
from  the  Established  Church,  culminating 
in  the  Free  Church  movement  of  184;j. 
The  first  of  these  secessions  was  that  led  by 
the  Kev.  Ebenezer  Erskine.  who  in  17;33 
formed  wliat  was  called  the  Associate  Pre-s- 
bvtery;  the  second  was  the  organization  of 
tAe  Relief  Presbytery,  in  1761,  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Gillespie.  (For  the  history  of 
these  movements,  see  under  tlie  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland.) 

During  the  18th  century,  the  Associate 
and   the   Relief  movements  were  the  only 


secessions  of  note;  but  within  the  church, 
the  i-onriict  between  the  parties  called  by 
the  names  of  "  Moderates  "  and  "  Evangeli- 
cals" was  persistent  and  bitter.  The  era  of 
Moderatism  was  generally  characterized  in 
the  church  by  a  lack  of  spiritual  life  and 
power.  Here  and  there  throughout  the 
land,  ministers  possessed  of  a  thoroughly 
evangelical  si)irit  were  found,  but  in  the  Es- 
tablishment they  were  for  a  long  time  in 
the  minority.  It  must  be  said,  that  the 
secession  churches  were  during  the  18th 
century,  the  main  centres  of  Scotch  spirit- 
ual life.  The  Moderates  under  the  lead  of 
Principal  Robertson  controlled  the  assem- 
bly, upheld  the  Patronage  system  and 
failed  in  maintaining  doctrinal  soundness. 
Arianism  was  tolerated  and  immorality  in 
life  went  unrebuked.  The  spirit  of  the 
dominant  party  was  strikingly  exemplified 
in  1796,  when  the  famous  debate  on  For- 
eign Missions  took  place  in  the  General 
Assembly,  and  the  proposition  to  establish 
such  missions  was  largely  negatived.  But 
though  the  assembly  stood  in  opposition  to 
evangelical  measures,  many  within  the 
church  gave  hand  and  heart  to  mission 
work  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Some  per- 
sons however,  withdrew,  among  whom 
were  the  Haldanes,  who  through  their  re- 
vival work  laid  the  foundation  for  Scotch 
Congregationalism. 

With  the  opening  of  the  19th  century,  a 
decided  increase  of  spiritual  life  was  mani- 
fest in  the  land.  The  Evangelical  element 
found  as  a  leader  Dr.  Andrew  Thomson, 
minister  of  New  Grey  Friars'  Parish,  Edin- 
burgh. This  earnest  minister  established 
"The  Christian  Instructor,"  which  exerted 
a  wide-spread  infiuence  for  good,  and  be- 
came so  strong  an  upholder  of  Evangelical- 
ism that  it  was  censured  by  the  assembly. 
The  most  imjtortant  event,  however,  of  this 
period,  was  the  conversion  of  Dr.  Thomas 
Chalmers,  an  event  which  the  great 
preacher  and  theologian  assigned  to  Dec. 
24.  1810.  and  to  the  reading  of  Wilberforce's 
"  Practical  view  of  Christianity."  Chal- 
mers was  the  most  efiective  religious  leader 
of  his  generation,  and  the  church  and  the 
world  will  ever  remain  in  his  debt.  Under 
his  leadership  the  changes  which  had  been 
for  some  time  in  i)rogress  went  rapidly  for- 
ward. The  assembly,  in  1824,  by  a  unani- 
mous vote,  rescinded  the  anti-mission  reso- 
lutions of  1796;  and  at  last  in  May,  1834, 
the  Patronage  controversy  was  apparently 
ended  by  the  passage  of  what  was  called 
the  "  Veto  Act."  By  this  act,  presbytery 
was  authorized  to  refuse  to  install  a  minis- 
ter who  had  been  nominated  by  the  patron 
of  a  parish,  if  he  proved  objectionable  to  a 
majority  of  the  male  heads  of  families. 
But  the' settlement  thus  reached  was  by  no 
means  a  finality.  In  October,  is34.  Mr. 
Robert  Young  was  presented  to  the  Parish 
of  Auchterarder.  and  although  opposed  by 
all  but  three  of  the  parishioners,  and  by  his 
presbytery,  he  carried  the  case  as  against 
the  presbytery  to  the  civil  courts.  This 
raised  the  question  of  the  legality  of  ihe 
Veto  Act,  and  tlie  Court  of  Sessions,  the 
chief  civil  authority  in  Scotland,  decided  in 
favor  of  the  complainant,  pronouncing  the 


PRESBYTERIAN 


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PRESBYTERIAN 


Veto  Act  illegal.  This  decision  led  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Free  Church.  (See 
under  that  title  for  further  particulars.) 
After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Free  Church, 
the  Patronage  question  was  finally  settled 
within  the  Establishment  by  the  passage  in 
1874  of  an  act  repealing  the  act  of  1712,  and 
substituting  popular  election  for  the  will  of 
patrons  in  the  appointment  of  ministers. 
The  Established  Church  is  at  present  strong 
and  prosperous. 

Standards.— The  chief  standard  of  doc- 
trine is  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith, 
first  adopted  in  1647,  and  now  by  the  acts 
of  1690  and  the  terms  of  union,  a  part  of 
the  law,  not  only  of  the  Kingdom  of  Scot- 
land, but  also  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
Since  1.581,  the  prevalent  form  of  church 
polity  has  been  strictly  Presbyterian,  con- 
ducted by  four  courts  or  judicatories, 
known  as  the  Church  Session,  the  Presby- 
tery, the  Synod  and  the  General  Assembly. 
The  latter  body  occupies  a  unique  position, 
possessing  full  legislative,  judicial  and  ex- 
ecutive authority,  excepting  as  its  legis- 
lative power  has  been  limited  by  the 
"Barrier  Act"  of  1607.  The  meeting  of 
the  General  Assembly  is  always  attended 
by  a  representative  of  the  crown,  the  Lord 
High  Commissioner,  who  appoints  by  royal 
authority  the  time  and  place  of  the  next 
meeting.     The  church  uses  no  liturgy. 

Relations  to  the  State. — The  Church 
of  Scotland  is  virtually  independent  of  the 
state.  That  it  is  the  national  church,  by 
the  acts  of  the  Revolution  settlement  in 
1690,  and  by  the  terms  of  union,  does  not 
militate  against  its  independence.  In  re- 
cent decisions,  the  supreme  law  courts  have 
held  that  "within  their  spiritual  provinces 
the  church  courts  are  as  supreme  as  we  are 
within  the  civil." 

Missionary  Agencies.— Foreign  mis- 
sions are  maintained  in  China,  India  and 
Africa,  and  among  the  Jews.  The  force  in 
the  field  in  1889  consisted  of  52  missionaries 
in  heathen  lands,  and  20  among  the  Jews. 
The  missionary  income  was  £31,492, 
and  the  other  benevolent  contributions 
amounted  to  £368,590. 

Educational,  Institutions. — There  are 
four  theological  faculties  connected  with 
the  universities  of  St.  Andrews,  Glasgow, 
Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh,  and  under  the 
control  of  the  church.  There  are  also  three 
normal  colleges,  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow 
and  Aberdeen,  under  the  management  of 
the  education  committee  of  the  assembly. 
The  students  of  divinity  at  the  universities 
numbered  in  1889,  about  280,  with  16  divinity 
professors. 

Statistics  (1889).  —  Ministers,  1450; 
churches  and  parishes,  1650;  communi- 
cants, 581,-568.  (See  Acts  of  the  General  As- 
sembly, various  editions,  and  the  Histories 
by  Calderwood,  Wodrow,  Lee,  Cunning- 
ham, McCrie,  Hetherington  and  Walker.) 

THE  FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.— This 
church  may  certainly  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  true  heirs  of  the  Reformation  Church. 
Originating  in  an  issue  with  the  civil  gov- 
ernment over  the  question  of  the  settlernent 
of  a  minister  over  an  unwilling  congrega- 
tion, it  has  vindicated  in  a  notable  manner 


the  "  Liberty  of  the  Church."  The  Patron- 
age Act  of  1712  was  the  primary  cause  of 
tiie  Free  Church  movement.  This  act  re- 
stored the  system  of  lay-pati'onage  sup- 
pressed at  the  Revolution  establishment, 
by  which  certain  landed  proprietors  in  par- 
ishes were  given  the  right  to  nominate  the 
ministers,  and  virtually  to  force  their  set- 
tlement in  the  face  of  opposition  from  a 
majority  of  the  congregation.  Against  the 
Patronage  system,  an  increasing  protest 
was  made  from  year  to  year,  until  in  1834, 
the  Veto  Act  was  passed  by  the  General 
Assembly,  by  which  provision  was  made 
for  the  exclusion  from  parishes  of  all  min- 
isters nominated  by  the  patrons,  but  unac- 
ceptable to  the  congregations.  In  the  very 
year  that  the  act  was  passed,  a  case  arose 
under  it  in  the  parish  of  Auchterarder. 
Lord  Kinnoul,  the  patron  of  the  parish, 
nominated  Mr.  Robert  Young  to  be  its  min- 
ister. The  people,  however,  rejected  the 
nominee  by  a  vote  of  287  to  3,  yet  despite 
this  opposition,  Mr.  Young  requested  the 
presbytery  to  proceed  with  his  ordination. 
On  the  refusal  of  the  presbytery,  the  patron 
carried  the  case  into  the  civil  coui'ts,  and 
the  suit  was  decided  in  his  favor.  The 
courts,  in  addition  to  so  deciding,  also  re- 
quired the  presbytery  to  ordain  Mr.  Young, 
if  he  should  be  found  qualified,  and  to  in- 
stall him  over  the  parish.  The  subsequent 
litigation  in  the  case  was  long-continued 
and  complicated,  and  the  civil  courts,  step 
by  step,  proceeded  to  claim  jurisdiction 
over  the  church,  going  to  the  extent  even 
of  holding  that  "  The  church  as  such  had 
no  original  or  independent  jurisdiction, 
and  that  in  all  causes,  civil  and  ecclesiastic, 
the  Court  of  Session  and  the  House  of 
Lords  were  supreme."  It  was  also  asserted 
that  "  the  Parliament  is  the  temporal  head 
of  the  church,  from  whose  acts,  and  from 
whose  acts  alone,  it  exists  as  a  national 
church,  and  from  which  alone  it  derives  all 
its  powers."  The  civil  courts  went  so  far 
as  to  order  ministers,  who  had  been  sus- 
pended for  contumacy  by  the  General  As- 
sembly, to  continue  in  the  exercise  of  their 
office,  and  proclaimed  that  no  ministers 
were  to  be  allowed  to  preach  within  desig- 
nated particular  districts,  excepting  those 
whose  commissions  were  signed  by  the 
judges.  These  and  other  assertions  of  the 
civil  authority  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  church,  stirred  Scotland  to  its  centre, 
and  led,  in  1843,  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Free  Church.  When  the  assembly  met 
in  May  of  that  year,  the  opening  sermon 
was  preached  by  the  retiring  moderator,  the 
Rev.  Dr.  John  Welsh,  professor  of  church 
history  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  the 
discourse  giving  definite  notice  of  the 
event  which  was  about  to  take  place.  After 
the  sermon,  the  moderator,  according  to 
custom,  took  the  chair,  but  instead  of  an- 
nouncing the  election  of  a  new  moderator, 
stated  that  he  and  many  other  members  of 
the  body  held  that  the  sitting  General  As- 
sembly was  not  free,  should  therefore  not 
be  acknowledged  as  a  church  court,  and 
that  to  give  emphasis  to  this  conviction,  he 
and  those  agreeing  with  him  intended  to 
leave   the   church,   abandon  the   establish- 


PRESBYTERIAN 


(745) 


PRESBYTERIAN 


meat,  and  constitute  a  General  Assembly 
elsewhere.  When  he  had  ceased  reading 
the  protest,  the  moderator  handed  the 
paper  to  the  clerk  and  proceeded  to  leave 
the  house.  As  he  passed  down  the  aisle, 
others  arose  with  him,  and  in  all  128  minis- 
ters and  70  elders  took  their  departure. 
The  protesters  i)assed  in  an  orderly 
manner  through  the  streets  of  the  city, 
amid  an  immense  throng  of  sympathizers, 
and  the  ''extraordinary  procession  was  dig- 
nified by  about  8  old  moderators,  2  princi- 
pals of  universities,  4  theological  profes- 
sors, and  also  peers,  baronets,  knights, 
provosts,  sheriffs,  and  a  long  train  of  gen- 
try." The  new  assembly  was  called  to 
order  in  the  great  hall  at  Canonmills,  and 
around  the  moderator  were  gathered  such 
men  as  Candlish,  Cunningham,  Guthrie, 
Gordon,  Chalmers,  etc.  Lord  Cockburn 
says  of  the  movement  which  led  these  min- 
isters to  surrender  "their  livings"  in  the 
interest  of  truth,  that  "  in  some  cases  these 
self-immolations  of  the  ministers  are  sur- 
passed by  the  gallantry  of  the  two  hundred 
probationers,  who  extinguished  all  their 
hopes  at  the  very  moment  when  the  vacan- 
cies of  4.50  pulpits  made  their  rapid  success 
almost  certain.  What  similar  sacrifice  has 
ever  been  made  in  the  British  Empire?  It 
is  the  most  honorable  fact  for  Scotland  that 
its  whole  history  supplies."  The  number 
of  ministers  who  aclhered  to  the  Protest 
and  to  the  Free  Church  General  Assembly 
Avas  470.  out  of  a  total  of  1200  previously 
connected  with  the  Established  Church. 

Since  1848,  the  work  of  the  Free  Church 
has  progressed  vigorously  and  prosperously 
despite  considerable  internal  agitation. 
The  most  noted  case  of  controversy  was 
that  concerning  Prof.  Robertson  Smith,  who 
was  called  to  account  for  opinions  advanced 
by  him  in  connection  with  the  authenticity 
and  integrity  of  the  Old  Testament  Books. 
The  controversy  ended  by  the  removal  of 
the  professor  from  his  chair  in  Aberdeen 
College.  A  movement  towards  union  with 
other  churches  was  also  a  cause  of  dissen- 
sion, and  failed  through  opposition  in  the 
Free  Church. 

MixisTEiJiAL  SrsTENTATTox. — The  most 
notalde  agency  established  by  the  Free 
Church  in  connection  with  its  general  work 
was  and  is  the  Sustentation  J'und,  origi- 
nated by  Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers  and  most 
successfully  carried  out  by  him  and  others. 
The  ministers  of  the  Free  Church  had  many 
of  them  literally  forsaken  "  all  their  living  " 
in  support  of  a  great  principle.  Di\  Chal- 
mers proposed  that  collectors  be  appointed 
to  gather  funds  in  all  districts,  by  periodi- 
cal visitations,  to  provide  an  annual  salary 
of  at  least  £1.")0  sterling,  for  each  minister. 
Despite  doubt  and  debate  the  work  was 
undertaken,  and  the  Fund  became  a  com- 
plete success.  In  the  year  1800.  the  equal 
dividend  scheme  resulted  in  giving  to  828 
ministers,  the  sum  of  i'biO  each,  in  addition 
to  amounts  provided  by  the  congregations: 
and  this  without  reference  to  provision 
made  for  ol8  other  ministers,  not  participat- 
ing in  the  equal  dividend.  The  Fund  also 
provides  for  every  minister's  widow  an 
annuity  of  about  i.'50,  and  fair  allowances 


to  the  orphans  of  ministers.  It  is  due  to 
the  Free  Church  to  state,  that  its  sustenta- 
tion scheme  is  at  once  an  ideal  for  other 
churches,  and  the  glory  of  the  denomina- 
tion. 

MissioxARY  Agencies. — At  the  Disrup- 
tion in  1843  all  the  missionaries  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  adhered  to  the  Free 
Church.  Foreign  Missions  are  maintained 
in  India,  South  Africa.  Melanesia,  Syria 
and  South  Arabia.  The  missionary  force 
consists  (1890)  of  0.5  ministers,  742  assist- 
ants, with  0,()'20  communicants.  The  Mis- 
sion revenue  for  the  year  was  £118,431. 

Theological  Edtcation. — The  church 
has  three  theological  institutions,  located 
at  Aberdeen,  at  Glasgow,  and  at  Edin- 
burgh. The  number  of  professors  (1890)  is 
15,  and  of  students,  323. 

Statistics  (1890).— Ministers,  1249;  con- 
gregations. 1030;  communicants,  33.5,000. 
Total  income,  £049,713.  (See  Procfodinffs 
and  Acts  of  the  General  Assoidihj,  1843-90; 
II.  Buchanan,  Ten  Years^  Conflict,  Glasgow, 
18.52,  2  vols.;  Brown,  Annalt^  of  the  Disrup- 
tion, Edinburgh,  1877,  2  pts. 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF  SCOT- 
LAND.— This  church  is  the  existing  repre- 
sentative of  the  Associate  and  Belief  Seces- 
sions from  the  Established  Church.  It  is 
necessary  therefore  to  sketch  briefly  the 
history  of  the  origin  of  the  two  churches. 

l^he  AsHOciate  or  Secession  Chvrch  move- 
ment began  in  1733,  by  the  organization  of  a 
Presl)ytery,  known  as  the  Associate  Presby- 
tery, and  consisting  of  the  Kev.  Ebenezer 
Erskine  and  three  other  ministers.  Mi-. 
Erskine  in  1731  was  moderator  of  the  Synod 
of  Perth  and  Sterling,  and  as  moderator 
preached  a  sermon  in  1732  before  the  synod 
testifying  in  strong  terms  against  the  defec- 
tions of  the  day,  and  the  imposing  of  min- 
isteis  by  virtue  of  the  Patronage  Act  upon 
unwilling  congregations.  P'or  expressions 
used  in  this  discourse.  Mr.  Erskine  was  cen- 
sured by  Synod.  Against  the  action  of  Syn- 
od, Mr.  Erskine  ai)i)caled  to  the  General  As- 
sembly. The  assembly  rejected  the  a])peal. 
and  suspended  the  appellant,  but  after- 
wards restored  the  four  brethren,  as  they 
were  called,  to  their  charges.  The  latter, 
upon  due  consideration,  concluded  to  con- 
tinue their  Presbyterial  organization.  In 
1736.  they  is.sued  a  testimony,  and  in  1737, 
established  a  Divinity  Hall  at  Perth  with 
William  Wilson  as  professor.  In  1745,  a 
synod  was  organized  at  Sterling,  under  the 
title  of  the  Associate  Synod,  and  by  1747, 
the  number  of  congregations  had  increased 
to  45.  In  that  year  arose  the  unhappy  con- 
troversy res)iecting  the  Burgess  oath .  It 
was  claimed  by  some  members  of  the  synod, 
that  said  oath,  re<iuired  of  certain  civil 
officers,  was  equivalent  to  an  approval  of 
all  the  errors  of  the  Established  Church, 
against  which  the  seceders  had  testified. 
Others  maintained  that  the  oath  simply  ap- 
proved of  the  true  religion  itself  in  the 
realm  of  Scotland,  and  that  seceders  might 
with  good  conscience  swear  thereto.  The 
result  of  the  controversy  was  the  division 
of  the  denomination  into  the  Burgher,  and 
the  Anti-Burgher  Synods.  These  two  bod- 
ies grew  slowly  from  1747  forward,  the  only 


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noteworthy  event  in  the  history  of  either 
being  tlie  Old  and  New  Lij;ht  Controversy, 
concerning  the  province  of  the  civil  magis- 
trate in  matters  of  religion.  This  contro- 
versy resulted  in  another  defection,  two 
additional  smaller  bodies  being  organized, 
one  known  as  the  Original  Burgher,  and  the 
other  as  the  Original  Associate  Synod. 
During  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century, 
efforts  were  made  for  a  healing  of  the  di- 
vision of  1747,  and  at  last  in  1820  the  breth- 
ren who  had  been  parted  for  seventy  years 
came  together.  The  total  number  of  con- 
gi-egations  at  the  time  of  the  union  was  262, 
of  which  139  were  connected  with  the 
Burgher  Synod.  The  United  Synod  was 
disturbed  in  1840,  by  another  controversy, 
this  time,  however,  doctrinal  in  its  charac- 
ter, and  mainly  concerned  with  the  Atone- 
ment. Dr.  McLeod  Campbell  of  the 
Established  Church  had  begun  some  years 
before  to  teach  his  peculiar  views  on  this 
fundamental  doctrine.  With  these  views 
the  Rev.  James  Morison  sympathized,  was 
put  on  trial,  and  was  suspended  from  his 
office.  The  result  of  the  controversy  was 
the  loss  of  several  ministers  to  the  church, 
but  a  decided  gain  in  theological  clearness 
and  definiteness.  Efforts  for  union  with 
the  Relief  Church  began  as  early  as  1821,  by 
the  record  made  of  the  desirableness  of 
such  a  union  by  the  Relief  Synod  in  its  pro- 
ceedings for  that  year.  In  1840  a  scheme 
of  union  was  submitted  to  the  respective 
synods,  but  the  doctrinal  controversy 
within  the  Secession  Church  jsrevented  a 
consummation  at  that  time. 

The  union  was  finally  effected  on  May 
lo,  1847,  at  Edinburgh.  At  that  date  the 
Secession  Church  had  400  congregations, 
60  foreign  missionaries  and  a  theological 
seminary.  Its  contributions  for  all  pur- 
poses amounted  to  about  £70,000. 

The  Belief  Church. —  'nm  Patronage  Act 
of  1712  was  the  main  cause  of  the  rise  of 
this  denomination,  as  it  was  also  instru- 
mental in  the  origin  of  the  Secession 
Church.  In  1749,  Thomas  Gillespie,  minis- 
ter of  Carnock,  refused  to  obey  an  order  of 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Established 
Church,  requiring  him  to  take  part  in  the 
installation  of  a  minister,  proposed  to  be 
thrust  into  Inverkeithing  Church  against 
the  will  of  the  people.  For  this  act  he 
was  suspended  from  his  office,  neverthe- 
less, many  persons  joined  themselves  to 
him  and  a  congregation  was  gathered  at 
Dumfernline.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Boston 
united  with  him  in  1757,  and  in  Oct.  1761, 
the  Presbytery  of  Relief  was  formed,  "  for 
the  relief  of  Christians  oppressed  in  their 
Christian  privileges."  The  church  grew  to 
that  extent  that  in  the  year  1774,  a  synod 
was  constituted.  One  of  the  marked  fea- 
tures of  the  early  history  of  this  denomin- 
ation was  its  fellowshipping  at  Communion, 
all  Christian  Believers,  in  harmony  with 
the  declaration  of  Gillespie,  "  I  hold  Com- 
munion with  all  that  visibly  hold  the  Head 
and  with  such  only."  As  before  indicated 
the  movement  for  union  with  the  Secession 
body  began  with  this  church.  At  the  time 
of  the  union  in  1847,  the  number  of  congre- 
gations in  its  connection  was  118. 


Since  the  union,  the  progress  of  the 
United  Church  has  been  prosperous  with- 
out interruption.  In  May,  1863,  the  synod 
appointed  a  committee  to  confer  with  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  on  the  question 
of  union.  As  a  result,  joint  committees 
were  appointed  and  after  ten  years  of 
patient  negotiations,  the  plan  was  wrecked 
'*  owing  to  the  opposition  from  a  section  of 
one  of  the  negotiating  synods."  A  founda- 
tion however,  was  laid  for  a  future  union. 
The  church  entered  in  1886  into  a  plan  for 
a  Federal  Council  with  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  England,  and  the  Free  Church,, 
with  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Church  have 
more  recently  agreed  to  the  scheme. 

Standards. — The  standards  of  this  church 
are  the  Westminster  Confession  and  Cate- 
chisms, the  Basis  of  Union  of  1847,  A  Sum- 
mary of  Principles,  and  the  Declaratory 
Act  of  1879.  The  latter  act  is  in  the  na- 
ture of  an  interpretation  of  the  Westmin- 
ster doctrines  of  (1)  Redemption,  (2)  The 
Divine  Decrees,  (3)  Total  Depravity,  (4) 
Salvation  of  Infants  and  of  Heathen,  (5) 
Doctrine  of  the  Civil  magistrate,  and  (6) 
Christian  Liberty.  The  general  trend  of 
the  statement  is  in  the  direction  of  empha- 
sizing the  love  of  God  for  all  mankind,  and 
the  sufficiency  of  salvation.  It  has  not 
really  altered  the  creed  of  the  church,  "but 
has  supplied  deficiencies,  has  balanced 
inequalities,  and  has  given  examples  of 
questions  in  regard  to  which  liberty  of 
opinion  is  allowed,  because  they  do  not 
enter  into  the  substance  of  the  faith." 

Missionary  Agencies. — The  Mission 
work  of  this  church  is  conducted  under  the 
control  of  a  General  Mission  Board,  divided 
into  three  sections  called  the  Home  Mission, 
Foreign  Mission,  and  the  Continental  and 
Colonial  Boards.  Foreign  Missions  are 
maintained  among  the  Jews  in  Europe,  in 
the  West  Indies,  Old  Calabar,  Kaffraria, 
India,  China,  Manchuria  and  Japan.  The 
Foreign  Mission  income  in  1889  was  £40,491, 
the  total  benevolent  and  missionary  in- 
come, £81,124. 

Education.— There  is  under  the  care  of 
the  synod  a  Theological  Hall,  located  at 
Edinburgh.  This  institution  was  formed 
in  1847  by  the  union  of  the  Divinity  Schools 
of  the  two  Secession  Churches.  In  1889  it 
had  .5  professors  and  93  students. 

Statistics  (1890). — Ministers,  615;  con- 
gregations, 567;  communicants,  184, .352; 
total  contributions,  £330,670.  (See  Annals 
of  the  General  Assembly,  1739-52,  1753-66, 
Edinburgh,  2  vols;  Andrew  Thomson,  His- 
torical Sketch  of  the  Secession  Church,  1848; 
William  Blair,  U.  P.  Church,  a  handbook  of 
its  history  and  j)rinciples,  1888. ) 

Scotland.  Other  Churches. — In  addition 
to  the  denominations  whose  histories  have 
been  given  at  considerable  length,  there  are 
in  Scotland  two  other  Presbyterian 
churches.  One  is  the  Reformed  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  with  (1889)  2  presbyteries.  8 
ministers,  and  13  congregations.  This 
church  is  in  full  communion  with  the 
churches  of  like  designation  in  the  U.  S.  A. 
and  in  Ireland,  and  conducts  and  supports 
in  conjunction  with  the  Irish  Church  a 
Medical  Mission  in    Antioch,   Syria.    The 


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second  is,  The  Synod  of  the  United  Origi- 
nal Seceders,  which  represents  that  portion 
of  the  Secession  Church  whicli  declined  to 
enter  into  the  union  formed  in  1847.  This 
church  consisted  (1889)  of  4  presbyteries, 
2S  ministers,  and  29  con<irej;ations.  The 
dissenting  denominations  in  Scotland,  viz., 
Tlie  Protestant  Ki)isr(>paliaiis,  Roman  Cath- 
olics, CongreRatioiialisls,  Uajjtists  and  Wes- 
Icyan  Methodists  are  comparatively  weak 
in  numbers. 

England,  the  Presbyterian  church 
OF  ENGLAND. — Presbyterianism  in  Enijland 
as  to  its  origin,  has  been  traced  back  by 
some  persons  into  the  Pre-reformation  pe- 
rit.)d.  It  is  better  however,  to  regard  its 
beginnings  as  found  in  English  Puritanism. 
The  Puritans  were  generally  Calvinistic  in 
doctrine,  and  essentially  Presbyterian  in 
worship.  The  first  presbytery  in  England 
was  organized  during  the  Puritan  period 
under  the  inlluence  of  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Cartwright,  Nov.  20,  1572,  at  Wandsworth, 
near  London.  Authorities  differ  as  to  the 
nature  of  tliis  jtresbyterial  organization, 
but  whatever  it  was,  the  spread  of  Presby- 
terian doctrinal  and  governmental  views  was 
rapid  from  1572  on,  and  finally  culminated 
in  the  politico-religious  movements  whiidi 
led  to  the  death  of  Charles  I.  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Protectorate.  The  tri- 
umph of  Presbyterianism  found  expression 
in  the  meeting  of  the  body  of  divines, 
known  as  the  Westminster  Assembly  (KU:!- 
48),  and  the  confirmation  by  the  English 
Parliament,  of  the  standards  of  faith  pre- 
pared by  that  assembly,  and  called  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  and 
Catechisms  from  the  Great  Abbey  in  Lon- 
don in  which  they  were  framed.  These 
documents  are  to-day  accepted  as  standards 
of  faith  by  tiie  great  majority  of  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking Presbyterian  churches,  and 
constitute  the  enduring  monument  of  Puri- 
tan Presbyterianism.  As  a  form  of  church 
polity,  Presbyterianism  was  established  in 
England,  .lune  2'.t,  1647,  but  the  influence  of 
the  Independent  Party  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Cromwell,  prevented  the  carrying 
of  the  i)lan  of  government  into  efficient 
operation,  except  in  London  and  Lanca- 
shire. In  London  and  vicinity,  twelve 
presbyteries  were  organized,  and  the  Pro- 
vincial Synod  of  London  held  regular  half- 
yearly  meetings  until  l(w5.  With  the  resto- 
ration of  Cliarles  II.,  a  sharp  crisis  occurred 
in  tlie  history  of  the  church.  Very  many 
of  the  Presbyterian  ministers  in  England 
were  '•  Comprehensionists,*'  and  the  fa- 
mous Savoy  Conference  was  held  in  1061, 
in  tiie  hope  of  so  adjusting  to  each  other 
the  relatitjns  of  Presbyterians  and  Episco- 
palians, as  to  secure  "  perfect  unity  and  uni- 
formity tliroughout  the  nation."  The  con- 
ference, however,  utterly  failed  of  its  pur- 
l>ose.  Parliament  passed  an  Act  of  Uni- 
formity, and  on  Aug.  24,  1062,  nearly  2000 
ministers  resigned  their  charges,  or  were 
ejected  from  them,  because  of  their  refusal 
to  conform  to  the  Episcopal  Church  of 
England.  Of  these  ministers  1.500  were 
Presbyterians. 

The  policy  of  ''Comprehension"  which 
had  found  expression  in  the  famous  Savoy 


Conference,  continued  for  a  considerable 
time  thereafter,  to  influence  aiul  injure 
English  Presbyterianism.  It  led  in  1691, 
to  an  arrangement  for  friendly  intercourse 
and  co-operation  between  Presbyterians  and 
Independents,  but  this  "happy  union"  as 
it  was  called  lasted  but  three  years.  In 
1719,  another  Union  Conference  between 
the  dissenting  bodies,  the  famous  Salters 
Hall  Synod,  was  held,  to  check  the  rapid 
growth  of  Arianism,  but  the  results  at- 
tained were  of  little  value,  for  the  decay  in 
spiritual  life  in  the  churches,  and  the  doc- 
trinal departures  widely  prevalent,  continued 
unchecked.  Further,  subscription  to  the 
Doctrinal  Standards  was  not  regarded  as  es- 
sential. So  tar  did  many  Englisii  Presbyteri- 
ans diverge  from  the  faith  of  tlicir  fathers, 
that  at  tlie  close  of  the  18th  century  in 
many  portions  of  England,  Presbyterian 
and  Unitarian  had  become  synonymous 
terms.  The  estimates  of  the  number  of 
congregations  at  ditferent  periods  are  also 
suggestive  of  the  spiritual  declension  which 
took  place.  In  1715,  there  were  in  England 
580 Presbyterian  congregations;  in  1772,  300; 
and  in  1812,  252,  ot  which  only  about  100 
were  orthodox. 

The  Arian  and  Socinian  opinions  did  not 
affect,  however,  all  the  Presbyterian  con- 
gregations. In  the  three  northern  coun- 
ties, Northumberland,  Cumberland  and 
Durham,  and  in  the  city  of  London,  a  con- 
siderable number  of  churches  maintained  a 
pure  doctrine  and  a  sound  polity.  These 
congregations  came  naturally  into  ecclesi- 
astical communion  with  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  But  while  dependent  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  upon  Scotland  for  minis- 
ters, the  extent  to  which  the  Old  Puritan 
Presbyterianism  continued  to  exist  and  to 
influence  the  future,  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  when  "  the  Synod  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  England  was  formed  in 
1842,  of  the  70  congregations  which  then 
composed  it,  no  fewer  than  50  were  congre- 
gations that  had  come  into  existence  prior 
to  the  present  century,  35  being  prior  to 
1750."  English  Presbyterianism  is  there- 
fore, within  orthodox  lines,  both  vigorous 
and  reproductive. 

Churches  composed  of  Scotch  persons  and 
their  descendants  also  existed  in  England 
at  an  early  date,  and  were  ccmnected  with 
the  Secession  Church.  Congregations  in 
connection  with  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  were  also  formed,  but  at  the  time 
of  the  formation  of  the  Free  Church  (1843), 
the  great  majority  of  the  English  Presby- 
terian churches  sympathized  with  the  lat- 
ter, and  organized  a  synod  affiliated  with 
that  body.  In  1876,  this  svnod  formed  a 
union  with  the  English  branch  of  the 
I'nited  Presbyterian  (Secession)  Church  of 
Scotland,  and  the  united  body  took  the 
name  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Eng- 
land. A  Scottish  Synod  in  England  still  ex- 
ists as  a  separate  organization,  but  has  only 
14  ministers  and  17  congregations. 

Stanpaiids. — The  standards  of  doctrine 
are  the  Westminster  C(mfession  and  Cate- 
chisms. The  church  however,  is  engaged 
'•  in  the  consideration  of  its  relations  to  the 
Westminster  Confession,"  and  a  document 


i 
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PRESBYTERIAN 


entitled  "  The  Articles  of  the  Faith,"  was 
approved  by  the  synod  in  1890,  "  as  a  state- 
ment of  the  fundamental  doctrines  held 
and  taught  by  this  church."  The  articles 
are  24  in  number  [are  accompanied  by  a 
"declaratory  statement,"  which  explains 
the  church's  position  respecting  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Westminster  Confession  on  (1) 
redemption,  (2)  total  depravity,  (:3)  salvation 
of  infants  and  the  heathen,  and  (4)  civil 
rulers,  and  grants  liberty  of  opinion  on  non- 
essential points  of  the  Confession],  and  may 
be  regarded  as  the  authoritative  interpreta- 
tion by  the  church  of  its  view  of  the  West- 
minster Confession.  [They  are  reprinted  in 
the  Magazine  of  Chi-istian  Literature,  for 
Jan.,  1890.     (Vol.  i.  No.  4.)] 

Missionary  Agencies  and  Education. 
— The  missionary  and  evangelistic  work  of 
the  church  is  carried  on  under  the  direc- 
tion of  committees  of  Home  and  Foreign 
Missions.  The  total  contributions  to  mis- 
sionary work  in  1890  was  £13,813.  Foreign 
Missions  are  conducted  in  China,  Formosa, 
Singapore,  India,  and  among  the  Jews, 
and  48  European  and  116  native  mission- 
aries are  employed.  There  is  also  a  theo- 
logical college,  located  in  the  city  of 
London,  witli  (1890)  3  professors  and 
28  students.  The  sustentation  fund  of 
this  church  is  exceedingly  well  managed, 
securing  to  each  minister  an  annual  salary 
of  not  less  than  £200,  and  it  is  asserted  that 
ministers'  salaries  are  on  the  average  higher 
in  this  church  than  in  any  other  Presbyte- 
rian church. 

Statistics  (1890). — Ministers,  800;  con- 
gregations, 288;  communicants,  65,019;  total 
contributions  for  all  purposes,  £234,663. 
(See  Thomas  McCrie,  Annals  of  English 
Presbytery,  London,  1872;  A.  F.  '  Mitchell, 
Westminster  Assembly,  its  History  and  Stand- 
ards, 1883;  Drysdale,  History  of  the  Pres- 
byterians in  England,  1889;  and  the  Annual 
Minutes  of  the  Synod. ) 

Waives,  the  welsh  calvinistic  Metho- 
dist (or  Presbyterian)  CHURCH  is  in  origin 
independent  of,  and  in  organization,  prior  to, 
English  Methodism.  The  Welsh  Methodist 
revival,  properly  so  called,  began  in  1735- 
36,  through  the  earnest  ministry  of  Howell 
Harris,  Daniel  Kowlands,  and  Howell 
Davies;  the  first  a  layman,  the  two  latter 
clergymen.  The  work  of  Welsh  religious 
reform  however,  was  carried  on  at  first 
wholly  within  the  Established  Church. 
The  first  society  was  organized  at  Erwood, 
in  Brecknockshire,  in  1736;  and  the  first 
general  association  was  held  at  Watford, 
Glamorganshire,  Jan.  5  and  6,  1742,  two 
years  and  a  half  prior  to  the  first  confer- 
ence of  English  Methodists,  convened  by 
Wesley,  at  London.  The  moderator  at  the 
Watford  Association  was,  by  invitation,  the 
Rev.  George  Whitfield.  From  1751  to  1762 
the  denomination  grew  but  little,  owing  to 
internal  dissensions,  but  in  1762-63  a  great 
revival  welded  the  conflicting  factions  into 
an  indissoluble  union.  The  year  1785  was 
signalized  by  the  accession  of  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Charles,  of  Bala,  whose  great  work 
was  the  organizing  of  the  denominational 
Sabbath  schools.  The  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  these  schools,  by  the  whole  church, 


led  to  a  demand  for  Welsh  Bibles  beyond 
the  then  means  of  supply,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence, to  the  formation  in  1801,  of  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  for- 
mal act  of  separation  from  the  Established 
Church  was  forced  upon  the  denomination 
by  its  rapid  growth.  Communion  in  the 
few  parish  churches  having  "  Methodistic  " 
rectors,  became  impossible  to  a  body  num- 
bering its  members  by  tens  of  thousands, 
and  ordained  ministers  were  but  few  in 
number.  In  the  general  associations  held 
at  Bala,  and  at  Llandilo  Fawr,  in  1811, 
21  persons  were  therefore  ordained  to 
the  office  of  the  ministry,  and  a  separate 
church  organization  was  established  based 
upon  the  Polity  of  the  New  Testament.  In 
1813  the  Home  Mission  Society  was  organ- 
ized, for  work  in  the  English  districts  bor- 
dering on  Wales.  In  1823  a  confession  of 
faith  was  adopted.  In  1839,  a  theological 
seminary  was  established  at  Bala,  and  in 
1842  another,  at  Trevecca.  The  work  of 
Foreign  Missions  was  carried  on.  until  1840, 
in  connection  with  the  London  Missionary 
Society;  but  since  that  date  the  church  has 
maintained  missions  of  its  own  in  Khassia, 
India,  in  Brittany  to  the  Breton  kinsmen 
of  the  Welsh,  and  in  London  to  the  Jews. 
The  last  step  in  its  organization  was  taken 
by  the  constitution  of  the  General  Assembly 
at  Swansea  in  1864.  The  church  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Alliance  of  the  Reformed 
Churches,  and  is  in  numbei'S,  influence  and 
Christian  work,  the  foremost  church  of  the 
Principality. 

The  doctrines  of  the  confession  of  this 
church  are  in  substantial  agreement  with 
the  doctrines  of  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion. The  word  "  Methodist  "  in  its  name 
is,  therefore,  to  be  understood  as  defining, 
not  a  form  of  doctrine,  but  methods  of 
Christian  life  work.  The  confession  is  pub- 
lished both  in  English  and  Welsh. 

The  church  uses  no  Liturgy,  and  its  ser- 
vices are  simple,  characterized  by  earnest- 
ness, and  conducted,  as  a  rule,  in  the  Welsh 
language. 

Statistics  (1890).— Synods,  2;  presbyter- 
ies, 25;  churches,  1433;  ministers  and 
preachers,  987;  communicants,  143,040.  (See 
the  Year  Book;  1890;  John  Hughes,  Welsh 
Methodism,  Gwrecsam,  1851-56,  3  vols.,  (in 
Welsh);  and  Williams,  Welsh  Calvinistic 
Methodism,  IGmo,  1872.) 

Ireland,  the  Presbyterian  church  in 
IRELAND. — The  basis  for  the  development  of 
Irish  Presbyterianism  was  furnished  by 
what  has  been  called  the  "Plantation  of 
Ulster."  That  province  had  been  virtually 
depopulated  by  internecine  strife  and  the 
bloody  sujjpression  of  rebellious  outbreaks, 
and  King  James  I.  divided  the  lands  (1608) 
among  English  and  Scotch  settlers.  The 
first  presbytery  was  not  organized  until 
1642,  the  occasion  being  the  frightful  mas- 
sacre of  Protestants  by  the  Romanists  in 
the  great  Rebellion  of  1641.  This  event  led 
the  Parliament  to  send  Scotch  trooj^s  into 
Ulster,  and  the  ministers  accompanying 
them  proceeded  to  the  organization  of  a 
presbytery.  The  church  grew  to  such  ex- 
tent that  at  the  Stuart  Restoration  in  1661, 
sixty  Presbyterian  ministers  were  ejected 


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from  their  charges,  because  of  their  refusal 
to  couform  to  the  Episcopal  Church  as  then 
established.  The  Revolution  of  lOSS  re- 
stored to  Irish  Presbyterians  a  <jreat  part  of 
their  rights  and  privileges,  and  their  num- 
bers were  largely  increased  through  the 
leasing  of  lands  in  Ulster  for  terms  of  80 
years,  to  Scotch  settlers.  In  l()lt2,  the  Irish 
ministers,  to  the  number  of  more  than  a 
hundred,  met  in  synod.  But  discord  arose 
in  the  church  within  a  few  years.  About 
the  lieginning  of  the  18th  century,  through 
the  influence  of  an  organization  called  the 
•'  Belfast  Society,"  opinions  subversive  of 
both  Faith  and  Polity  were  introduced. 
Arianism  in  particular  exerted  its  devitaliz- 
ing influence,  and  in  1727,  the  Synod  ftf 
Antrim  withdrew,  being  opposed  to  the 
AVestminster  Confession.  Another  cause 
of  weakness  at  this  time  was  the  emigration 
of  many  of  the  Scotch  settlers  and  of  their 
descendants  to  the  American  Colonies. 
When  the  leases  granted  under  William  III. 
expired,  many  of  the  tenants,  for  secular  as 
well  as  religious  reasons,  concluded  to  bet- 
ter their  condition  by  removal  across  the 
Atlantic.  Aid,  however,  came  in  due  time 
to  the  Orthodox  party.  Tlie  Associate 
Presbytery  of  Scotland  sent  ministers  to 
Ireland  in  1745,  and  strengthened  the  hands 
of  those  who  were  resisting  the  Arian 
and  Socinian  defections.  The  Secession 
churches  thus  formed,  divided  in  Ireland 
on  the  same  lines  as  in  Scotland,  the 
Burghers,  organizing  in  1779,  a  synod  hav- 
ing three  presbytei'ies,  and  the  Anti-Burg- 
hers in  1781,  erecting  a  synod  composed  of 
two  presbyteries.  These  two  branches, 
however,  were  reunited  in  1818,  uiider  the 
name  of  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  Ireland, 
and  the  united  body  was  commonly  known 
as  the  Seceder  Synod. 

The  early  part  of  the  19th  century  was 
characterized  by  a  still  further  development 
of  Arianism  among  the  ministers  and 
churches  connected  with  the  Synod  of 
Ulster,  and  finally  in  1827,  under  the  lead- 
ership of  the  famous  Henry  Cooke,  Arian- 
ism was  utterly  overtlirown,  and  the  synod 
was  established  on  a  thoroughly  evangelical 
basis.  This  great  victory  was  followed  by 
the  auspicious  union  in  1840,  of  tbe  Synod 
of  Ulster  with  the  Seceder  Synod,  under 
the  name  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Ireland,  the  former  synod  bringing  with  it 
292  congregations,  and  the  latter  141.  In 
the  same  year,  the  church  erected  as  its 
sui)reme  judicatory,  the  General  Assembly, 
and  the  jultilee  of  this  body  was  joyously 
celebrated  in  June,  1890.  The  disestablish- 
ment in  1870  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
Ireland,  lias  lieen  of  advantage  to  Presby- 
terianism  as  well  as  to  other  dissenting 
churches.  The  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Ireland  does  not  however,  include  all  the 
Presbyterian  bodies  in  the  country.  The 
following  organizations  continue  an  inde- 
pendent existence,  though  weak  in  numbers 
and  inriuence.  viz.;  the  Presliytery  of  An- 
trim, which  withdrew  from  t)ie  synod  in 
1727;  the  Kemonstrant  Synod  of  Ulster, 
organized  in  ISJO:  the  Northern  Presbytery 
of  Antrim,  established  in  18r»2;  a  remnant 
of  the  Secession  Church,  wliich  refuses  to 


consent  to  the  Union  of  1840;  two  branches 
<^f  the  Kef ormed  Presbyterian  Church;  and 
the  Associate  Presbytery  of  Ireland,  con- 
nected with  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland. 

The  standards  of  the  church  are  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  and  Cate- 
chisms. Foreign  missions  are  sustained  by 
it  in  India,  China,  on  the  Continent  of 
P^urope,  and  among  the  .Jews.  An  exten- 
sive mission  work,  begun  in  1710,  is  also 
carried  on  in  the  South  and  West  of  Ire- 
land, where  mure  than  a  hundred  stations 
are  now  regularly  maintained.  The  edu- 
cational institutions  are  two  in  number: 
Magee  College,  Londonderry;  and  the 
Assembly's  (College,  Belfast.  Tlie  number 
of  students  in  the  two  colleges  is  169. 

Statistics  (1890).— Ministers.  02(5;  con- 
gregations, ')5.">;  communicants,  102,(578; 
total  income,  £222, ()2().  (Sec  Mi  mites  of  the 
General  Asseinhh/,  1840-90;  iU-id.  Ilistnry  of 
the  Presln/teridii  Chnrrh  in.  IrrltDnl,  Belfast, 
18(57,  :J  vols.;  Tliojnas  Hamilton.  History  of  tlie 
Irish  Presbi/teridu  Vhiirrh,  Edinburgh,  1888.) 

EXTKOPEAN  CONTINENT : 

Austria.     See  Bohemia  and  lluniiarij. 

Belgium. — The  history  of  the  Keformed 
Church  in  Belgium  during  the  10th  and 
17th  centuries,  is,  like  that  of  Spain,  a  his- 
tory of  bloody  persecutions.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  adhered  at  the  Reforma- 
tion to  Roman  Catholicism.  The  Reform- 
ers, however,  were  numerous,  and  adopted 
in  15(52,  the  celebrated  Belgic  Confession, 
an  enduring  monument,  both  to  the  learn- 
ing and  the  orthodoxy  of  its  frameis. 
Shortly  thereafter,  the  persecutions  began, 
with  the  Duke  of  Alva  and  his  successors 
as  the  willing  agents  of  bigoted  monarchs, 
and  as  a  result.  Protestantism  was  crushed 
utterly.  The  existing  Reformed  organiza- 
tions are  two  in  number,  the  .Synod  of  the 
Union  of  Evangelical  Churches,  consisting 
of  1(5  congregations,  and  the  Synod  of  the 
Missionary  Christian  Clnirch  of  Belgium, 
consisting  (1890)  of  21  ministers,  92  church- 
es and  stations,  and  4812  communicants. 

Bohemia. — This  country  is  well  called  the 
cradle  of  the  Reformation.  It  was  here 
that  Peter  Waldo,  in  the  12th  century, 
found  refuge  from  papal  persecution. 
Here,  likewise,  the  influence  of  John 
Wickliff  produced  a  remarkable  awakening 
in  the  14th  century.  And,  further,  the 
Bohemians  were  the  first  people  positively 
to  separate  themseves  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  labors  of  John  IIuss 
and  Jerome  of  Prague,  and  the  tragic  death 
of  both,  during  the  opening  years  of  the  15th 
century,  gave  an  imjuilse  to  reformation 
principles  which  no  ojjposition  could  check. 
The  historv  of  the  l)loody  politico-rcligicms 
conflicts,  which  ended  with  tlic  battle  of  the 
Wcissbcrg.in  1020,  is  a  part  of  the  secular 
history  of  the  country.  It  is  sufficient  to 
indicate  that  the  struggles  between  Protes- 
tantism and  Catholicism  resulted  in  the 
reduction  of  the  population  of  Bohemia 
from  ;l,000.000  to  less  than  800,00<).  From 
1020  until  1781,  Protestants  and  Protestant 
books  were  not  tolerated  in  the  land.  A 
few  persons,  it  is  true,  clung  steadfastly  to 


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the  Reformed  Faith,  but  their  meetings  were 
of  necessity,  secret.  Joseph  II.,  Emperor  of 
Austria,  however,  on  Oct.  13,  1781,  issued 
the  famous  Edict  of  Toleration  by  which 
Protestants,  whether  connected  with  the 
Reformed  or  Lutheran  churches,  were  al- 
lowed openly  to  give  expression  to  their 
religious  preferences.  The  result  was,  that 
within  a  year  in  Bohemia  alone,  40,000  per- 
sons publicly  acknowledged  their  adherence 
to  the  Reformed  Faith.  Persecution  how- 
ever, did  not  cease  with  the  promulgation 
of  the  Edict  of  Toleration.  Even  as  late  as 
1879,  the  meetings  of  Bohemian  Protestants 
were  broken  up  by  the  police  of  the  Em- 
pire. 

The  Bohemian  Church  has  been  from  the 
first,  essentially  Presbyterian.  The  stand- 
ards of  the  present  organization  are  the 
Second  Helvetic  Confession,  and  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism.  The  same  standards  are 
held  by  other  branches  of  the  Reformed 
Church  within  the  Austrian  Empire.  The 
supreme  government  of  the  church  is  con- 
ducted by  a  synod.  Latest  statistics  show 
that  the  church  consists  of  4  presbyteries, 
56  ministers,  53  congregations,  with  4,843 
communicants.  In  addition  to  the  Bohe- 
mian Synod  there  also  exists  a  Synod  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  the  Province  of 
Moravia,  and  one  in  the  Province  of  Austria. 
The  Moravian  Synod  consists  of  2  pres- 
byteries, 25  ministers,  34  congregations,  and 
22,200  communicants.  The  Austrian  Synod 
reports  6,388  communicants.  (SeePalacky, 
Gesddchte  von  Bohmen,  Prag,  1836-60, 8  vols. ; 
B.  Czerwenka,  Geschichte  d.  Evangelischen 
Kirche  in  li.,  Leipzig,  1869.)  See  also,  Hun- 
(jary. 

France.  See  Fkance,  Beformecl  Church 
of,  p.  298. 

Germany.  See  Lutheran  Church,  p.  520, 
and   Reformed   (German)  Church,   p. — . 

There  are  numerous  Reformed  or  Presbyte- 
rian organizations  declining  union  with  the 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  and  existing 
in  the  German  Pi-ovinces.  The  total  number 
of  their  adherents  is  estimated  at  1,300,000. 
Among  the  more  important  of  these  bodies 
are,  the  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Pi'ovinces 
of  Hanover,  Lower  Hesse,  Westphalia,  the 
Rhine  Provinces  and  Alsace  Lorraine. 

Greece. — The  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Greece  is  of  recent  date,  having  begun  with 
the  mission  established  by  the  American 
Board  in  1826.  In  1873,  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  (South)  undertook  the 
conduct  of  the  Greek  Mission,  and  its  mis- 
sionaries organized  the  Greek  Evangelical 
Church.  The  Greek  Church,  however,  de- 
cided in  1886  to  become  an  independent 
organization,  believing  that  such  a  course 
would  inure  to  the  greater  benefit  of  the 
cause  of  Christ  in  the  coimtry.  The  church 
consists  of  1  Presbytery,  3  ministers,  and 
about  100  communicants. 

Holland.  See  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church,  p.  — . 

Hungary. — The  Reformation  in  Hungary 
began  with  the  dissemination  about  the 
year  1520,  of  Lutheran  doctrine.  The  Diet 
of  the  kingdom  as  early  as  1523  adopted 
stringent  measures  against  Protestants,  but 
the  battle  of  Mohacz  in  1526  with  the  Turks, 


in  which  the  Hungarian  king  with  most  of 
his  nobles  fell  on  the  field,  brought  about 
such  civil  disorder  that  these  measures 
could  not  be  enforced.  Lutheranism  was 
adopted  by  the  Protestants  in  1.545,  but 
Calvinistic  opinions  began  immediately  to 
gain  ground  through  the  influence  of  Ma- 
tliias  Devay,  the  first  of  the  Hungarian 
Reformers.  In  1557  the  Transylvania  Diet 
proclaimed  the  equal  rights  of  Lutherans 
and  Roman  Catholics,  and  this  gave  Calvin- 
ists  the  liberty  which  they  desired.  A 
synod  met  at  Varad,  Aug.  18,  1559,  consist- 
ing of  9  pastors,  among  whom  was  Peter 
Melius,  and  in  1560,  the  famous  Confessio 
Debrecinensis  was  adopted  and  became 
kifown  commonly  as  the  Hungarian  Confes- 
sion. The  final  separation  between  the 
Lutherans  and  the  Calvinists  took  place  in 
1566,  the  general  result  being  that  the  Mag- 
yars and  the  Slavs  adopted  the  Presbyterian 
faith  and  polity.  This  separation  was 
followed  by  a  conflict  with  Unitarianism, 
against  which  the  Synod  of  Debreczen  in 
1.567  took  decisive  measures,  though  that 
heresy  continued  for  some  time  to  trouble 
the  church.  Civil  dissensions  also  aftected 
injuriously  for  a  time  the  growth  of  the 
Reformed  body.  The  Jesuits  in  alliance 
with  the  secular  authorities  endeavored 
time  and  again  to  suppress  Protestantism, 
and  three  times  the  Hungarian  Protestants 
rose  in  revolt,  compelling  by  force  of  arms, 
the  granting  of  Freedom  of  Conscience  and 
Liberty  of  Worship.  These  struggles  were 
closed  respectively  by  the  treaties  of  Vienna, 
1606,  Linz,1645,  and  Szatmar,  1711.  Final 
deliverance,  however,  from  the  machina- 
tions of  the  Jesuits  was  had  only  by  the 
Edict  of  Toleration  of  Joseph  II.  in  1781. 
The  standards  of  the  Hungarian  Church  are 
the  second  Helvetic  Confession,  and  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism.  Its  principles  of 
church  polity  find  expression  in  the  elec- 
tion by  each  congregation  of  its  own  elder- 
ship; and  the  congregations  within  a  given 
district  are  governed  by  a  seniorate  or 
presbytery.  The  seniorates  are  themselves 
under  the  control  of  5  superintendences 
or  synods.  The  educational  institutions 
connected  with  the  church  are  the  Reformed 
Colleges  of  Saros  Patak,  founded  in  1531; 
of  Debreczen,  founded  in  1-588;  of  i*^agy- 
Enyed,  founded  in  1661,  and  the  academies 
of  Papa  and  of  Buda-Pesth,  founded  at  later 
dates.  The  latest  statistics  show  that  the 
church  consists  of  5  synods,  57  seniorates 
or  presbyteries,  1909  ministers,  3,261  congre- 
gations, 15,776  elders,  and  that  the  number 
of  baptized  adherents  is  about  2,000,000. 
The  number  of  actual  communicants  cannot 
be  well  ascertained,  but  the  number  of  Sab- 
bath School  scholars  in  1889,  was  more  than 
200,000.  (See  Francis  Balogh,  "  History  of 
the  Hungarian  Protestant  Church"  (in  Hun- 
garian), Debreczen,  1872). 

Italy. — The  Reformation  tendencies  in 
Italy  were  wide-spread  during  the  early  and 
middle  portions  of  the  16th  century.  The 
geographical  centre  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Hierarchy,  it  was  natural,  however,  that  all 
efforts  for  reformation  should  find  both 
large  sympathy  and  strong  opposition.  In 
Venice,     for    instance,    the    doctrines    of 


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PRESBYTERIAN 


Luthei-were  accepted  by  many  persons,  as 
was  also  the  case  in  Florence  and  Naples ; 
but  in  1542,  the  Inquisition  was  established, 
and  at  once  persecution  of  the  most  relent- 
less character  began.  Thousands  of  per- 
sons were  either  burned,  drowned,  decajii- 
tated,  tortured  or  exiled,  in  every  part  of 
the  country,  and  within  50  years,  Prot- 
estantism was  either  extirpated  or  expa- 
triated, except  in  Piedmont.  There  the 
Waldenses  held  their  ground  in  the  moun- 
tain valleys,  a  JSpartan  band  confronting 
vast  hosts  of  enemies.  (For  the  history  of 
the  Waldenses  see  article  under  that  title. ) 
The  evangelical  organizations  at  present 
existing  in  Ital}%  apart  from  Mission  Sta- 
tions, are  two  in  number,  the  Synod  of  the 
Waldensian  Evangelical  Church,  with  eight 
presbyteries,  77  ministers,  44  congrega- 
tions, and  17,o35  communicants;  and  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Christian 
Church  in  Italy,  founded  in  1870,  and  con- 
sisting of  one  synod,  13  ministers  and  42 
congregations,  with  1430  communicants. 
There  is  a  Theological  Hall  connected  with 
the  Waldensian  Church  at  Florence,  and 
also  a  similar  institution  connected  with  the 
Free  Christian  Church,  in  the  city  of  liome. 

NomvAY  AND  Sweden.  See  Lutheran 
ClIUKCH.  p.  520. 

Poland. — The  Polish  nobility  and  other 
persons  in  the  country  of  Slavonic  blood 
accepted  during  the  Uith  century  the  Re- 
formed Faith  and  Polity.  The  first  synod 
was  held  at  Pinkzow  in  15.50;  and  in  1.570,  at 
Sandomir,  a  confession  of  faith  was 
adopted,  though  it  was  found  impractica- 
ble to  carry  out  the  Presbyterian  system  of 
government  to  its  full  extent.  Synods  were 
held  thereafter  from  time  to  time  until 
1055,  the  date  of  the  invasion  by  the 
Swedes.  The  reformed  Church  of  Poland 
thenceforward  grew  feebler  and  feeblei', 
through  war  and  other  causes,  and  became 
virtually  extinct  at  the  date  of  the  Partition 
of  the  Kingdom.  There  are  at  present  two 
evangelical  bodies  in  Polish  Russia,  the 
Evangelical  Church  of  Poland  with  2,000, 
and  the  Reformed  Church  of  Lithuania  with 
5t>(Mi  communicants.  Both  cliurches  labor 
under  serious  difficulties  owing  to  the  re- 
pressive measures  against  Protestanism 
enforced  by  the  Russian  Government. 

Rlssia. — See  above. 

Spain. — Protestant  doctrines  found  ad- 
herents in  this  country  from  the*  opening  of 
the  Reformation,  and  several  translations 
of  the  Scriptures  wei-e  published  during  the 
Kith  century.  A  confession  of  faith  was 
also  framed  and  published  in  1.5.50,  at  Lon- 
don. The  place  of  the  publication  of  this 
first  confession  indicates  however,  that  tlie 
Spanish  Church  was  l>y  that  time  the  vic- 
tim of  persecution,  Philip  II.  and  other 
bigots  suceeding  in  crushing  out  Protes- 
tantism in  the  Peninsula,  by  measures  of  the 
most  cruel  and  bloody  charactej-.  The 
present  Reformed  Cliurch  of  Spain  is  the 
I'csult  of  Protestant  mission  work  in  the 
present  century.  Its  confession  of  faitli, 
adopted  by  the  General  .\sscmlily  in  1872,  is 
a  virtual  reproduction  of  the  Westminster 
confession.  Presbyterian  government, 
however,  is  as  yet  imperfectly    organized. 


The  church  consists  of  two  presbyteries,  16 
ministers,  21  congregations,  and  in  the 
neigborhood  of  1000  communicants. 

Switzerland. — The  Reformation  in  Swit- 
zerland began  with  the  preaching  of  the 
reformed  doctrine  in  1519,  by  Ulrich 
Zwingli.  The  first  of  the  Cantons  to  de- 
clare for  the  Reformation  was  Ziirich,  in 
1525.  War  between  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  the  Protestant  Cantons  broke  out  in 
1.531,  and  ended  with  the  defeat  of  the  re- 
form j)arty  and  the  death  of  Zwingli.  The 
Reformation,  however,  did  not  fail,  owing 
to  the  energy  of  Farel  and  Calvin,  the  lead- 
ers in  Geneva.  The  conflict  between  the 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  was  re- 
newed, and  did  not  cease  until  1712,  when 
the  decisive  1  atlle  of  Vilmergen  brought 
about  an  enduiing  ])eace.  The  authorita- 
tive doctrinal  standard  of  the  Swisa 
churches  is  the  Second  Helvetic  Confes- 
sion, formulated  in  1530.  At  present,  about 
three-fifths  (1,700,000)  of  the  population  of 
the  land  are  connected  with  the  reformed 
churches  of  the  several  Cantons.  There 
are  in  addition,  three  independent 
churches:  the  Synod  of  the  Evangelical 
Church  of  Neuchatel,  with  78  ministers  and 
8,128  communicants;  the  Synod  of  the  Free 
Evangelical  Church  of  the  Canton  deYaud, 
Avith  137  ministers,  and  4000  communi- 
cants; and  the  Presbytery  of  the  Free 
Evangelical  Church  of  Geneva,  with  3 
ministers,  and  500  communicants.  The 
theological  faculties  in  this  country,  con- 
nected directly  or  indirectly  with  the 
churches,  are  those  of  the  universities  of 
Bale,  Zurich,  Berne,  and  Geneva,  and  the 
academy  faculties  of  Lausanne,  Neuchatel 
and  Geneva. 

THE  AMERICAN  CONTHTENT. 
The  United  States: 

THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  THE  U.  S.  A 

— American  Presbyterianism  is  in  origin  as 
diverse  as  are  the  various  peoples  who  have 
blended  to  form  the  American  nation.  Its 
component  elements  are,  in  the  main,  Eng- 
lish and  Scotch-Irish,  Scotch  and  Welsh, 
French  and  German. 

The  country  which  gave  to  the  Reformed 
churches  the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith,  was  the  original  home  of  the  first 
settlers  in  the  American  Colonies  with  Pres- 
byterian tendencies.  The  stream  of  Puri- 
tan emigration  westward,  set  in  motion 
from  England  by  Prelatical  tyranny  touched 
first  the  shores  of  Virginia.  The  Puritans 
in  that  colony  increased  largely  in  number 
until  the  year  1642,  when  the  royal  gov- 
ernor, Sir  William  Berkeley,  commenced  a 
systematic  and  vigorous  persecution  which 
resulted  in  their  removal  for  the  most  part, 
in  1640.  to  Maryland,  where  they  located  on 
the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Annapolis. 
Their  churches  aj)pear  to  have  been  gov- 
erned by  ruling  elders,  and  it  is  certain  that 
Presbyterian  ministers  preached  in  their 
midst,  among  whom  were  Francis  Doughty 
(lf..-)8)  and  Matthew  Hill  (1667). 

Presbyterianism  al.so  entered  the  Ameri- 
can Colonics  with  the  Puritans  of  New  Eng- 
land. .John  Robinscm,  the  pastor  of  the 
Plymouth  Pilgrims   while  in    Holland,  has 


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left  on  recoi'd  the  following  declaration  of 
their  church  principles:  ''Touching  the 
ecclesiastical  ministry — namely,  of  pastors 
for  teaching,  elders  for  ruling,  deacons  for 
distributing  the  church's  contributions — we 
do  wholly  in  all  points  agree  with  the 
French  Keformed  Churches."  Indepen- 
dents, however,  became  dominant  in  Massa- 
chusetts at  an  early  date,  and  those  colonists 
who  had  Presbyterian  tendencies  found  it 
advantageous  to  settle  in  Connecticut,  and 
gradually  passed  thence  to  Long  Island  and 
Northern  New  Jersey. 

The  following  additional  points  of  the 
history  of  Presbyterianism  in  the  colonies 
during  the  17th  century  are  noteworthy. 
The  first  Presbyterian  minister  on  North 
American  shores  appears  to  have  been  the 
Rev.  Richard  Denton,  who  landed  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1G30.  In  1643,  the  Rev.  Francis 
Doughty  held  English  services  in  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church,  in  the  City  of  New 
Amsterdam  (New  York).  Presbyterian 
immigrants  appear  to  have  entered  North 
Carolina  as  early  as  1650,  driven  there  by 
persecution  in  Virginia.  Presbyterians  and 
Independents  settled  jointly  in  South  Caro- 
lina as  early  as  1670.  Tlie  first  Presbyte- 
rian Congregation  in  Philadelphia  met  in 
1692  in  the  "  Barbadoes  Company  Ware- 
house," and  in  1698  the  Rev.  Jedidiah 
Andrews,  a  graduate  of  Harvard  College, 
began  his  ministrations  in  that  city. 

Churches  of  French  Presbyterians — com- 
monly called  Huguenot  churches — were  also 
established  at  an  early  date  and  at  several 
points — at  New  York  in  1683,  at  Charleston, 
S.  C,  in  1686,  at  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  in  1688, 
etc.  These  churches  originated  in  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Protestants  from  France,  by 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  The 
French  chvirches,  with  one  exception,  have 
ceased  to  exist. 

The  religious  necessities  of  the  Presby- 
terian colonists  led  them  to  make  applica- 
tion time  and  again  to  their  friends  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  for  a  supply  of  minis- 
ters. In  1680,  the  Presbytery  of  Laggan, 
Ireland,  received  a  letter  from  Col.  Wil- 
liam Stevens,  a  member  of  the  council  of 
the  Province  of  Maryland,  entreating  that 
ministers  be  sent  to  that  colony  and  to  Vir- 
ginia. In  compliance  with  this  request,  the 
Rev.  Francis  Makemie,  came  to  Maryland 
in  1683. 

Mr.  Makemie' s  landing  marked  a  new  era 
in  the  development  of  American  Presbyte- 
rianism. Within  a  few  years  after  his 
arrival,  owing  to  persecution,  a  stream  of 
immigration  set  in  from  Scotland  and  the 
North  of  Ireland,  which  largely  swelled  the 
Presbyterian  population  in  the  middle  and 
southern  colonies.  Increase  in  population, 
joined  with  gi-eater  facilities  for  intercom- 
munication, made  it  both  desirable  and 
possible  to  give  colonial  Presbyterianism 
an  organized  form.  In  the  movement  to 
this  end,  Mr.  Makemie  was  the  master- 
spirit. Indefatigable  in  labor,  he  suffered 
persecution,  and  dared  imprisonment  in 
behalf  of  the  cause  he  had  so  heartily  es- 
poused, and  finally  secured  the  organization 
of  the  first  American  presbytery,  in  the 
year    1705.      The    first  meeting    of    which 


recoi'd  remains  was  held  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,. 
Dec.  29,  1706.  By  the  year  1716,  the  cliurch 
had  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was 
deemed  advisable  to  constitute  a  synod, 
which  met  for  the  first  time  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Sept.  17,  1717.  The  church  then  con- 
sisted of  19  ministers,  about  40  churches, 
and  some  3000  communicants.  In  1729,  the 
General  Synod  passed  what  is  called  the 
Adopting  Act,  by  which  it  was  agreed 
'*  that  all  the  ministers  of  this  synod  or 
that  shall  be  hereafter  admitted  into  this 
synod,  shall  declare  their  agreement  in, 
and  approbation  of  the  Confession  of  Faith, 
with  the  larger  and  shorter  catechisms  of 
the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster," 
and  "  also  adopt  the  said  confession  as  the 
Confession  of  our  Faith." 

In  the  same  year  that  body  took  action  in 
the  line  of  tlie  denial  of  the  authority  of  the 
State  over  the  Church.  Chapter  xxiii.  of 
the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  deals 
witli  the  power  of  the  civil  magistrate,  and 
the  synod  denied  to  the  civil  magistrate, 
what  the  Westminster  Assembly  permitted 
— a  controlling  power  over  the  synods  with 
respect  to  "the  exercise  of  their  ministerial 
authority,"  and  "  power  to  persecute  any 
for  their  religion."  These  were  notable 
acts  on  the  part  of  the  synod,  appearing  to 
be  the  first  declaration,  by  an  organized 
church,  on  American  soil,  of  the  freedom  of 
the  Church  from  control  by  the  State. 

The  first  division  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  took  place  in  174-5.  The  strife  arose 
in  part,  over  the  standard  of  ministerial 
qualifications.  William  Tennent  had  estab- 
lished in  1726,  the  first  Presbyterian  theolog- 
ical school  in  the  colonies  at  Neshaminy, 
Pa.,  an  institution  commonly  called  the 
"  Log  College."  By  1737  he  "had  prepared 
seven  or  eight  persons  for  the  ministry. 
Objections  were  made  to  the  licensure  and 
ordination  of  these  students,  by  some  mem- 
bers of  the  synod,  on  the  ground  that  the 
course  of  study  which  they  had  pursued 
was  not  adequate  to  the  requirements  of  the 
ministry.  The  Presbytery  of  New  Bruns- 
wick sided  with  the  Tennents,  and  while 
the  controversy  was  in  progress  George 
Whitefield  came  upon  the  ground,  revivals 
of  religion  broke  out  with  power,  and  as  a 
result  a  still  greater  need  for  ministers  was 
created.  Tennent  and  those  who  sided  with 
him  entered  earnestly  into  revival  work, 
and  to  their  methods,  as  well  as  to  the  qual- 
ifications of  the  "Log  College"  ministers, 
objections  were  made.  Other  causes  also, 
in  part  doctrinal  and  in  part  personal, 
operated  to  divide  the  church,  and  after 
repeated  efforts  for  reconciliation  had  failed, 
the  Presbytery  of  New  Brunswick  in  1741 
withdrew  from  the  synod,  and  in  174.5,  with 
the  Presbytery  of  New  York  and  certain 
ministers  of  the  Presbytery  of  New  Castle, 
formed  the  Synod  of  New  York.  One  good 
result  from  the  controversy  respecting  min- 
isterial qualifications,  carried  on  by  the 
"Old  Side"  and  the  "New  Side,"  was  the 
impetus  given  to  the  cause  of  ministerial 
education.  The  former  party  established 
classical  academies.  The  "New  Side" 
established  the  institution  now  known  as 
Princeton  College. 


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PRESBYTERIAN 


The  two  bodies  into  which  the  General 
Sj^nod  had  been  divided  in  1745,  the  Synod 
of  Philadelphia  and  the  Synod  of  New 
York,  were  reunited  in  175S  on  the  basis  of 
the  Westminster  standards.  The  period 
extending  from  1758  to  1775,  was  one  of  en- 
larfjed  activity.  The  number  of  ministers 
was  nearly  doubled;  John  Witherspoon  was 
inaugurated  (17<58)  president  of  Princeton 
College,  and  also  professor  of  Divinity  ;  a 
general  missionary  collection  was  ordered 
(1767)  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel  on  the  frontier; 
a  scheme  for  the  support  of  candidates  for 
the  ministry  was  approved  (1771),  and  a 
committee  was  appointed  (1773)  to  supervise 
the  distril)Ution  of  religious  publications. 
These  last  three  acts  of  the  General  Synod 
were  severally  the  germs  of  the  Boanls  of 
Home  Missions,  Education,  and  Publication. 

Religious  liberty  at  this  period  was  endan- 
gered by  a  proposal  to  set  uj)  in  the  colonies 
an  Episcopal  establishment.  To  prevent 
the  carrying  out  of  a  scheme  so  frauglit 
with  peril  to  tlie  highest  welfare  of  Ameri- 
can Christians,  the  synod  entered  (1776) 
into  a  plan  of  union  with  the  (General  Asso- 
ciation of  Connecticut,  one  main  purpose 
of  which  was  to  protect  the  rights  of  the 
churclies.  In  fact,  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful intluences  in  bringing  on  and  carrying 
to  successful  termination  the  American 
Revolution,  was  the  invincible  opposition 
of  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists  to 
this  threatened  attack  upon  the  inalienable 
rights  of  conscience. 

The  opening  of  the  Revolutionary  strug- 
gle found  the  Presbyterian  ministers  and 
churches  to  a  man  on  the  side  of  the  col- 
onies, in  1775  the  General  Synod  issued  a 
pastoral  letter,  bidding  the  churches 
"adhere  firmly  to  the  resolutions  of  the 
Congress,  and  to  let  it  be  seen  that  the  col- 
onial authorities  were  able  to  bring  out  the 
whole  strength  of  this  vast  country  to  carry 
them  into  execution."  The  American 
Presbyterian  Church  in  all  her  branches 
never  faltered  in  devotion  to  the  cause  of 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  ; 
ministers  and  members,  being  ready,  with 
Witherspoon,  to  go  to  the  block,  if  need  be, 
in  defence  of  civil  and  religious  liberty. 

With  the  restoration  of  peace  in  1783,  the 
church  giadually  recovered  from  the  evils 
wrouuht  by  war,  and  the  need  of  a  fuller 
organization  was  deeply  felt.  After  three 
years  of  deliberation,  the  General  Synod 
therefore,  adopted  in  17SS,  the  Constitution 
of  the  Church,  and  appointed  the  General 
Assembly  to  meet  on  the  third  Thursday  of 
May,  1789,  in  tlie  city  of  Philadelphia. 

The  work  of  organization  was  followed 
by  another  endeavor  after  co-operation 
with  the  Congi-egational  churches.  In 
17!»2.  the  General  As.sembly  entered  into 
correspondence  with  the  General  Associa- 
tion of  the  Churches  of  Connecticut,  with  a 
view  to  adecjuate  and  harmonious  labors  in 
Home  Mission  fields.  The  need  for  such 
labors  soon  became  very  great.  Central 
and  Western  New  York,  and  Kentucky 
were  the  centres  from  1798  to  ISOO  of  wide- 
spread revivals  of  religion,  and  the  church 
as  a  whole  was  decidedly  quickened.     Many 


coiiverts  were  added  to  the  congregations, 
and  the  organization  of  new  churches 
became  imperative  in  the  frontier  districts. 
To  avoid  conflict  or  collision  in  the  work  of 
churcli  extension,  the  General  Assembly 
and  the  General  Association  therefore 
adopted  in  1801  the  Plan  of  Union.  This 
plan  among  other  features,  allowed  Congre- 
gational ministers  to  serve  Presbyterian 
churches,  and  vice  versa,  and  also  permitted 
mixed  churches  of  Congregationalists  and 
Presbyterians  to  be  governed  by  committee- 
men, and  to  be  re])resented  in  presbytery. 
As  a  result  of  the  last  provision  named, 
committeemen  sat  at  times  as  commission- 
ers in  the  General  Assembly.  The  plan 
remained  in  operation  for  a  generation. 
That  it  was  useful  to  the  churches  consent- 
ing to  it  and  to  the  cause  of  Christ,  for  a 
time,  is  freely  admitted  ;  but  it  also  intro- 
duced germs  of  strife,  for  its  features  were 
main  causes  of  the  ccmtroversies  and  con- 
tlicts  which  in  1837  led  to  the  great  division. 

At  this  period  a  crisis  took  place  in  the 
history  of  Presbyterianism  in  the  South. 
The  action  of  the  Cumberland  Presbytery 
in  ordaining,  to  the  ministry,  during  and 
after  the  "  Great  Revival,"  persons  who,  in 
the  judgment  of  the  Synod  of  Kentucky, 
were  not  qualified  for  the  office,  either  by 
learning  or  by  sound  doctrine,  occasioned 
the  dissolution  of  tlie  presbytery  by  that 
synod  in  1806,  and  finally,  in  1810,  to  the 
initial  steps  in  the  establishment  of  what  is 
now  known  as  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church.     (See  article  on  that  church.) 

The  growth  of  tlie  church  from  1800  to 
1830  was  very  decided.  The  total  member- 
ship in  the  first  year  named  was  about 
20,000;  in  the  last  it  was  reported  as  being 
173,327.  The  regions  in  which  progress 
was  chiefiy  made  were  the  AVest  and 
South.  This  period  was  also  characterized 
by  a  strong  educational  and  missionary 
movement  resulting  in  the  establishment  of 
theological  seminaries,  the  first  of  which 
was  begun  in  1812  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and 
also  in  the  formation  of  the  Board  of  Mis- 
sions in  1816,  and  the  Board  of  Education 
in  1819. 

About  the  year  1825,  the  peace  of  the 
church  began  seriously  to  be  disturl)ed  by 
controversies  respecting  tlie  Plan  of  Union. 
In  addition  to  questions  constitutional  in 
their  nature,  there  were  also  questions  of 
policy  which  forced  themselves  upon  the 
church.  Tlie  contributions  of  many  of  the 
churches  for  Home  Mission  objects  were 
made  to  the  American  Home  ^lissionai-y 
Society.  The  contributions  to  Foreign 
Missions  were  made  to  the  American  Board. 
A  large  portion  of  tlie  church  contended 
that  the  time  had  come  for  the  conduct  by 
strictly  denominational  agencies  of  all 
evangelistic  work,  and  tlie  Pittsburg  Synod 
in  ISM  constituted  itself  into  the  Western 
Foreign  Missionary  Society.  Those  op- 
l)Osed  to  tlie  establishment  of  denomina- 
tional agencies  belonged  to  the  i)arty 
known  as  the  "New  Sciiool;"  those  who 
advocated  it  to  the  "Old  .School."  Doc- 
trinal questions  were  also  to  a  considerable 
extent  raised,  through  the  infiuence  of  the 
"  New  Divinity,"  whose  si)read  occasioned 


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much  alarm  in  certain  quarters;  and  the 
trials  of  Albert  Barnes  and  Lyman  Beecher 
for  heresy,  the  former  at  Philadelphia,  the 
latter  at  Cincinnati,  increased  the  tension 
between  the  parties.  The  slavery  question 
also  added  a  new  and  bitter  element  to  the 
controversy. 

The  strugcrle  between  the  Schools  came  to 
a  direct  issue  in  the  General  Assembly  of 
1837,  and  solely  upon  matters  o.f  policy  and 
administration.  That  assembly  under  the 
leadership  of  the  "Old  School"  abrogated 
the  "'Plan  of  Union,"  exscinded  from  the 
church  the  Synods  of  Western  Keserve, 
Genesee,  Geneva  and  Utica,  passed  resolu- 
tions against  the  American  Home  Mission- 
ary Society  and  the  American  Education 
Society,  and  established  the  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  When  the 
Assembly  of  1838  met,  the  "New  School" 
commissioners  protested  against  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  delegates  from  the  four  ex- 
scinded synods,  organized  an  assembly  of 
their  own  in  the  presence  of  the  sitting 
assembly,  and  then  withdrew  from  the 
house.  The  matters  at  issue  between  the 
Schools  were  i-eferred  to  the  civil  courts 
for  settlement,  and  the  course  of  the  liti- 
gation was  such  as  to  make  the  "  Old 
School"  trustees  the  legal  trustees  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America. 

From  1838  on,  the  two  branches  of  the 
church  grew  slowly  but  steadily;  both  were 
benefitted  by  revivals  of  religion  at  inter- 
vals— notably  the  revival  of  1857;  and  both 
made  progress  in  the  organization  of  their 
own  benevolent  work.  The  "  Old  School  " 
established  the  Board  of  Church  Erection 
in  1844,  Ministerial  Eelief  in  1855,  and  Mis- 
sions for  Freedmen  in  1866.  As  early  as 
18.52,  the  "New  School"  Assembly  began 
to  appoint  committees  for  the  receipt  and 
control  of  the  benevolent  contributions 
from  the  churches  under  its  care;  in  1862  it 
cotistituted  the  Presbyterian  Committee  of 
Home  Missions,  and  in  1865  its  work  for  the 
negroes  in  the  South. 

The  growth  of  both  branches  was  checked 
by  disruption.  The  New  School  Assembly 
of  1857  took  strong  ground  in  opposition  to 
slavery,  as  a  result  of  which,  several  South- 
ern presbyteries  withdrew,  and  organized 
the  United  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church.  This  body  in  1863  formed  a  union 
with  the  body  now  known  as  the  "Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  United  States." 

In  May,  1861,  the  Old  School  Assembly 
met  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  with  but  13  com- 
missioners present  from  the  states  which 
claimed  to  have  seceded  from  the  Union. 
Dr.  Gardiner  Spring,  a  commissioner  from 
the  Presbytery  of  New  York,  offered  reso- 
lutions, recommending  a  day  of  prayer, 
professing  loyalty  to  the  Federal  govern- 
ment, and  declaring  it  a  duty  to  support 
that  government  and  preserve  the  Union. 
These  resolutions  were  passed  by  a  vote  of 
156  to  66,  the  minority  however,  simply 
protesting  against  the"  assembly's  acting 
upon  political  issues,  so  as  to  determine 
questions  of  civil  allegiance.  The 
"Spring  Resolutions"  were  the  reasons 
alleged  by  Southern  Presbyterians  for  their 


withdrawal  from  the  church,  and  for  the 
organization  of  the  "  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  Confederate  States  of  America." 
(See  next  section  on  the  Pi-esbyterian  Church 
in  the  U.S.,  p.  755.) 

Under  the  pressure  of  a  widely-extended 
and  growing  fraternal  feeling,  correspond- 
ence between  the  "Old  School"  and  the 
"New  School"  General  Assemblies  was  es- 
tablished as  early  as  1862,  and  after  much 
deliberation,  reunion  was  consummated  be- 
tween the  two  on  the  basis  of  the  "  Standards 
pure  and  simple,"  Nov.  12,  1869,  at  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.  Article  II.  of  the  Plan  of  Union 
containing  this  basis  is  as  follows:  "The 
reunion  shall  be  effected  on  the  doctrinal 
and  ecclesiastical  basis  of  our  common 
standards;  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  shall  be  acknowledged  to 
be  the  inspired  word  of  God  and  the  only 
infallible  rule  of  faith  and  practice;  the 
Confession  of  Faith  shall  continue  to  be  sin- 
cerely received  and  adopted  as  containing 
the  system  of  doctrine  taught  in  tlie  Holy 
Scriptures;  and  the  government  and  disci- 
pline of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  shall  be  approved  as  contain- 
ing the  principles  and  rules  of  our  polity." 
In  connection  with  reunion  a  memorial 
fund  was  raised,  the  amount  of  which  was 
reported  as  being  $7,883,983.85.  It  was 
mainly  expended  in  paying  church  debts, 
in  endowing  colleges,  and  in  erecting  new 
houses  of  worship. 

Among  important  events  in  the  history  of 
the  church  since  1870,  mention  is  made  of 
the  following.  In  1876,  the  General  Assem- 
bly entered  into  the  "  Alliance  of  the  Re- 
formed Churches  throughout  the  world, 
holding  the  Presbyterian  System."  In  1879, 
the  committee  on  Systematic  Beneficence 
was  appointed,  and  in  1881  the  important 
work  of  temperance  reform  was  entrusted 
to  the  permanent  committee  on  temper- 
ance. The  establishment  of  the  Board  of 
Aid  for  colleges  and  academies  in  1883,  was 
caused  by  the  demands  of  the  West,  and 
the  great  and  growing  importance  of  edu- 
cational interests.  In  1888  the  Centennial 
of  the  General  Assembly,  was  celebrated  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  a  Centenary  Fund  of 
$600,000  was  raised,  which  was  devoted  to 
Ministerial  Relief. 

Correspondence  between  the  General 
Assemblies,  North  and  South,  was  first 
established  in  1882.  In  1883,  fraternal  dele- 
gates were  appointed,  and  appeared  in  the 
respective  bodies.  In  1887  committees 
were  appointed  whose  purpose  was  practi- 
cally the  inquiry  as  to  the  possibility  of 
reunion  between  these  separated  bodies  of 
brethren  holding  a  common  faith  and 
polity.  In  1889  these  committees  reported 
to  their  respective  assemblies,  a  plan  of 
co-operation  in  Foreign  and  Home  Mission, 
and  the  Freedmen' s  work.  The  plan  was 
adopted.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  these  two  branches  of 
the  church  may  once  more  be  united,  labor- 
ing shoulder  to  shoulder  for  the  advance- 
ment of  Christ's  Kingdom  on  the  American 
continent. 

The  most  recent  event  in  the  history  of 
this  church  is  the  movement  now  progres- 


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sing  (1890)  for  the  Revision  of  the  Westmin- 
ster Confession  of  Faith. 

The  growth  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
during  the  lOth  century  has  been  very 
marked.  Wliile  the  population  of  the 
country  has  increased  15  times,  the  church 
has  increased  50  times.  Of  the  1,000,000 
persons  reported  as  added  to  her  member- 
ship on  profession  of  faith,  during  the  100 
years  ending  1800,  740,000  have  been  re- 
ceived since  1870.  The  growth  of  the 
church  is  sliown  by  the  following  table: 
Years.      Ministers.  Churches.   Communicants. 

1G40 5   2   500 

1690 10  18   1,000 

1705 12  22   1,500 

1717 19  40  3,000 

1758 98  200  10,000 

1789 177  431   18,000 

1800 189  449  20,000 

18;37 2140  2965   220,557 

1870 4238  4.526  446,561 

1880 5044  5489  578,671 

1887 5654  6436  697,835 

1890 6158 6894  775,903 

Missionary  Agencies.  — The  missionary 
and  evangelistic  work  of  the  church  is  con- 
ducted by  8  boards,  the  names  of  which 
with  the  dates  of  organization  are  as  follows : 

1.  Home  Missions 1816 

2.  Education 1819 

3.  Foreign  Missions 1837 

4.  Publication    1838 

5.  Church  Erection 1844 

6.  Ministerial  Kelief 1855 

7.  Freedmen 1865 

8.  Aid  for  Colleges 1883 

Home  Mission  effort  was  begun  as  early 

as  1719,  and  was  carried  on  by  the  General 
Synod,  and  afterwards  by  the  General  As- 
sembly by  means  of  committees,  the  Board 
of  Missions  not  being  organized  until  1816. 
This  latter  agency  has  been  greatly  pros- 
pered in  its  work,  and  had  in  its  employ  in 
1890,  1701  missionaries,  and  expended  con- 
tributions to  the  amount  of  sSol,170. 

Foreign  Mission  work  is  carried  on 
among  the  American  Indians  (since  1741); 
in  Syria,  (1821);  in  India,  (1833);  in  Persia, 
(1835);  and  also  (at  later  dates)  in  China, 
Siam,  West  Africa,  Corsica,  among  the 
Chinese  in  California,  in  Columbia,  Brazil, 
Japan,  Chili,  the  Laos,  Mexico  and  Korea. 
In  1890,  the  total  number  of  missionaries 
both  lay  and  clerical,  native  and  American, 
in  the  employ  of  the  board  was  1S7S,  dis- 
tril)uted  in  15  fields,  having  under  their 
control  26.775  communicants,  2('),  34s  scholars 
and  expending  si)()7,ti72.  The  total  contri- 
butions for  the  work  of  all  the  boards  and 
for  general  benevolence  in  1S90,  was 
$4,287,180. 

Standards. — Since  1729,  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith  and  Catechisms  have 
been  the  doctrinal  standards  of  the  church, 
with  the  exception  that  tlie  chapters  deal- 
ing with  the  "civil  magistrate"  have  been 
conformed  to  the  American  doctrine  of  the 
true  relation  of  Church  and  State.  The  ad- 
ministrative standards  were  adopted  by  the 
General  Synod  in  1788,  and  consist  of  a 
Form  of  Govei-nment,  Book  of  Discipline, 
and  Directory  for  Worship.     A  new  Book 


of  Discipline  was  adopted  in  1885.  In  1889, 
the  General  Assfml)ly  sent  down  an  over- 
ture to  the  pivsbyteries  on  the  subject  of 
the  revision  of  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and 
as  a  result,  the  General  Assembly  of  1890 
appointed  a  committee  of  25  to  report  in 
1891  upon  the  whole  subject. 

Educationai.  Institutions. — There  are 
at  present  13  theological  institutions  which 
report  annually  to  the  General  Assembly. 
The  first  of  these  was  established  in  1812  at 
Princeton,  N.  ,1.  The  dates  of  the  -estab- 
lishment of  other  seminaries  are:  Auburn 
(New  York),  1819;  Union  (Va.),  1824;  West- 
ern (Allegheny),  1827;  Lane  (Cincinnati), 
1829;  McCormick  (Chicago),  1830;  Colum- 
bia (South  Carolina),  1831;  Union  (Xew 
York),  18;}5;  Danville  (Kentucky),  18.53; 
German  (Dubuque),  1856;  Biddle  (coloredj 
North  Carolina),  1868;  German  (Bloom- 
field,  N.  J.).  1869;  San  Francisco,  1871;  and 
Lincoln  (colored,  Pa.),  1871.  Of  these  the 
seminaries  in  Virginia  and  South  Carolina 
are  now  in  connection  with  the  Presbyter- 
ian Church  in  the  United  States.  The 
total  number  of  professors  and  teachers  in 
these  is  76;  of  scholars  786. 

Statistics  (1890).— Synods,  30;  presby- 
teries, 213;  ministers,  6,158;  churches,  6.894; 
communicants,  775,903;  total  contrilnitions 
for  all  purposes,  $14,368,131.  (See  Minutes 
of  the  General  Assemhlij,  1789-1890,  and 
iiecords  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  1705- 
1788;  also,  Charles  Hodge,  Constitutional 
History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  Pliila- 
delphia,  1839-40,  2  vols.;  E.  H.  Gillett,  His- 
tory of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  1873,  2  vols. ; 
C.  A.  Briggs,  American  Presbyterianism, 
New  York,  1885.) 

THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  commonly  known  as  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  South.  This  church  assumed 
organic  form  on  Dec.  4.  1861.  On  that 
date,  93  ministers  and  ruling  elders  met  at 
Augusta,  Ga.,  and  constituted  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Cliurch  in  the 
Confederate  States  of  America.  The  con- 
gregations forming  the  constituency  of  this 
General  Assembly  were  to  be  found  within 
the  states  south  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio 
rivers,  and  which  claimed  to  have  seceded 
from  the  Union.  In  addition  to  the  ])oliti- 
cal  exigencies  which  had  arisen,  there  was 
likewise  a  difference  of  opinion  between 
the  majority  of  the  Presbyterians  in  the 
loyal  states,  and  those  in  the  Southern 
States,  as  to  the  nature  of  the  action  taken 
by  the  "  Old  School  "  Assembly  in  what  are 
called  the  "Spring  Resolutions."  The 
Presbyterians  South  claimed  that  said  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  U.  S.  A.,  had  taken  action  on  a 
purely  political  <iuestion  by  the  i>assage  of 
these  resolutions,  and  had  assumed  to  de- 
termine the  question  of  civil  allegiance. 
For  political  and  ecclesiastical  reasons 
therefore,  tlie  Preshyterians  in  tlie  South- 
ern States  withdrew  from  the  Old  School 
body,  and  constituted  a  new  church  organi- 
zati(>n,  consisting  (18»il)  of  10  synods.  47 
presbvteries.  about  700  ministers.  1000 
churdies,  and  75.fMX)  communicants,  of 
whom  about  10.0(M)  were  colored  persons. 
In   1863,  this  cliurch  was  enlarged  by  the 


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accession  of  the  United  Synod  South,  the 
New  School  body  which  had  withdrawn  in 
1857,  and  received  by  this  union,  about  120 
ministers,  190  churches,  and  12,000  commu- 
nicants. 

On  the  cessation  of  hostilities  between 
the  States  of  the  Union  in  1865,  the  name  of 
the  church  was  changed  to  that  of  the 
Presbyterian  Cliurch  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  further  strengthened  in  1869,  by  the 
adherence  of  that  party  in  the  Synod  of 
Kentucky,  which  by  "  declaration  and  tes- 
timony "  had  protested  in  1867  against  the 
action  of  the  Old  School  General  Assembly 
with  regard  to  ministers  and  members  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  South.  The  same 
cause  led  to  the  reception  in  1874  of  a  part 
of  the  Synod  of  Missouri.  The  total  addi- 
tion to  the  church  by  these  accessions  was 
142  ministers,  278  churches,  and  21, .540  com- 
municants. 

Repeated  efforts  were  made  from  time  to 
time  after  fratei-nal  correspondence  be- 
tween this  church  and  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  A.  but  without  success, 
until  the  year  1882.  In  that  year  the  initia- 
tive was  taken  by  the  Southern  General 
Assembly,  and  as  a  result  of  the  correspond- 
ence then  had,  fraternal  delegates  appeared 
from  both  churches  in  the  respective  Gen- 
eral Assemblies  for  1883.  In  1889,  a  plan 
for  co-operation  in  Foreign,  Home  Mission 
and  Freedmen's  work,  was  jointly  adopted. 
Both  churches  are  unquestionably  at  pres- 
ent in  cordial  fraternal  relations. 

Missionary  Agencie:s. — The  Missionary, 
Evangelistic  and  Benevolent  Agencies  of 
this  church  are  conducted  by  means  of 
executive  committees.  All  the  members 
of  the  several  committees  as  well  as  the 
secretaries  are  elected  annually  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  and  are  directly  responsible 
to  that  body.  This  method  of  administra- 
tion constitutes  one  point  of  difference  in 
policy  between  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  and  the 
Presbyterian  Church  South;  the  former 
conducting  its  work  through  corporate 
bodies,  called  Boards.  The  executive  com- 
mittees are  four  in  number,  viz..  Foreign 
Missions,  Home  Missions,  Education,  and 
Publication.  Foreign  Mission  work  is  con- 
ducted through  mission  stations  in  China, 
India,  Japan,  Mexico,  South  America, 
Greece,  Italy,  the  Congo  Free  State,  Africa, 
and  among  the  Choctaw  and  Cherokee  In- 
dians in  the  United  States.  The  receipts 
for  this  branch  of  work  for  the  year  1889-90 
were  $107,627.00.  The  other  departments 
•of  church  work  are  carried  on  with  energy 
and  success.  The  total  contributions  to 
benevolence  for  the  year  1889-90  were 
$271,051. 

Theological  Ixstitutions. — Three  insti- 
tutions are  directly  under  the  care  of  the 
General  Assembly:  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary, Va.,  established  in  1821;  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  estab- 
lished in  1881;  and  the  institute  for  training 
colored  ministers,  established  at  Tuska- 
loosa,  Ala.,  in  1877.  In  these  institutions 
during  the  year  1889-90,  there  were  10  pro- 
fessors, and  more  than  a  hundred  students. 

Standards. — This  church  has  adopted  as 


its  confession  of  faith,  the  Westminster 
Confession  and  Catechisms.  When  first 
organized,  its  standards  were  those  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  but  in 
1879,  a  new  "Book  of  church  order"  was 
adopted.  Special  emphasis  is  laid  by  the 
denomination  upon  the  doctrine  of  the 
spirituality  of  the  church  as  expressed  in 
the  Westminster  Confession  (Chap.  xxxi. 
Sect.  4)  in  the  words  "Synods  and  Coun- 
cils are  to  handle  or  conclude  nothing,  but 
that  which  is  ecclesiastical." 

Statistics  (1890).— Synods,  1.3;  presby- 
teries, 71;  ministers,  1,179;  churches,  2,400; 
communicants,  168,791;  total  contributions 
for  all  purposes,  $1,727,263.  (See  Minutes 
of  the  General  As><emhly,  1862-90.) 

THE  CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH.- 
This  church  originated  in  the  great  "Re- 
vival of  1800,"  whose  effects  in  Kentucky 
were  widespread  and  remarkable.  One  re- 
sult was  a  demand  for  ministers  beyond  the 
supply,  and  in  the  endeavor  to  meet  this 
demand,  the  Cumberland  Presbytery,  in 
the  judgment  of  the  Synod  of  Kentucky, 
erred  in  ordaining  men  who  were  not  quali- 
fied for  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  either 
by  literary  attainments,  or  theological 
views.  The  synod,  therefore,  in  1806,  dis- 
solved the  presbytery.  Certain  members  of 
the  presbytery,  however,  though  prohibited 
by  the  synod  from  performing  ministerial 
functions,  organized  what  was  called  a  coun- 
cil, and  this  agency  was  for  four  years  the 
bond  of  union  between  them  and  their  ad- 
herents. On  the  4th  of  Feb.,  1810,  three  min- 
isters, Finis  Ewing,  Samuel  King,  and  Sam- 
uel McAdow,  reorganized  the  Cumberland 
Presbytery  in  Dickson  Co.,  Ky.  By  1813. 
the  church  was  large  enough  to  form  three 
presbyteries,  and  these  were  organized  in 
that  year  into  the  Cumberland  Synod.  This 
body  formulated  and  issued  a  "  Brief  State- 
ment," indicating  the  points  at  which  its 
members  dissented  from  the  Westminster 
Confession.  They  were  as  follows:  (1) 
That  there  are  no  eternal  reprobates.  (2) 
That  Christ  died  not  for  a  part  only,  but 
for  all  mankind.  (3)  That  all  infants  dy- 
ing in  infancy  are  saved  through  Christ 
and  the  sanctification  of  the  Spirit.  (4) 
That  the  Spirit  of  God  operates  co-exten- 
sively  on  the  world  as  Christ  has  made 
atonement,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  all 
men  inexcusable."  To  give  definite  form 
to  the  new  theological  departure,  the 
synod,  in  1814,  adopted  a  revision  of  the 
Westminster  Confession. 

The  General  Assembly  of  this  church 
held  its  first  meeting  at  Princeton,  Ky.,  in 
the  year  1829.  Since  that  date,  the  church 
has  grown  steadily  in  numbers  and  in  in- 
fluence in  the  southern  and  western  por- 
tions of  the  United  States.  The  principal 
event  in  its  recent  history  was  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  new  confession  of  faith  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  amended  Westminster  Con- 
fession, adopted  in  1814.  One  of  the  rea- 
sons for  this  revision  is  thus  stated:  "It 
was  impossible  to  eliminate  from  the  West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith  all  the  features 
of  hyper-Calvinism,  by  simply  expunging 
words,  phrases,  sentences,  or  even  sections, 
and   then  attempting  to  fill  the  vacancies 


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thus  made  by  corrected  statements  or  other 
declarations;  for  the  objectionable  doctrine, 
with  its  logical  sequences,  pervaded  the 
whole  system  of  theology  formulated  in  that 
book."  The  new  confession,  having  been 
submitted  to  the  presbyteries  for  their  ap- 
proval, was  unanimously  adopted,  after 
careful  deliberation,  by  the  General  As- 
sembly, which  met  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in 
the  year  1883.  The  delegates  of  this  church 
were  received  by  vote  into  the  "Presby- 
terian Alliance,"  at  the  Belfast  Council,  in 
the  year  1884. 

MissioNAKY  Agencies. — The  mission  and 
other  evangelistic  work  of  the  denomina- 
tion is  conducted  by  five  boards,  viz.:  The 
Board  of  Missions,  which  has  charge  of 
both  the  home  and  foreign  work,  the 
Women's  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  the 
Board  of  Publication,  the  Board  of  Minis- 
terial Relief,  and  the  Board  of  Education. 
The  foreign  missions  of  the  church  are  lo- 
cated in  Japan,  Mexico  and  the  Indian 
Territorv.  The  receipts  for  mission  work 
in  188iMk)  were  $38,005.00. 

Educatiox. — The  principal  institution 
connected  with  this  church  is  the  Cumber- 
land University.  It  was  first  established  in 
18'2t)  at  Princeton,  Ky.  It  is  now  located  at 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  and  has  a  preparatory,  a 
collegiate,  and  a  theological  department. 
In  18StO,  o8  students  were  entered  for  the 
theological  course.  The  institution  is  one 
of  the  most  prominent  and  useful  in  the 
Southwest.  Several  other  educational  in- 
stitutions are  affiliated  with  the  church, 
though  not  directly  denominational. 

Statistics  (1890). — Synods,  15;  presby- 
teries, 118;  ministers,  164(5;  congregations, 
2770;  communicants,  163,216;  total  contri- 
butions for  all  purposes,  $751,681.  (See 
Minutes  of  the  General  Assewhli/,  1829-90; 
MacUonaid,  History  of  the  Ciuuherland  Pres- 
bi/terian  (Jhurrh,  Nashville,  1888.) 

CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  COL- 
ORED,—The  (General  Assembly  of  the  Cum- 
berland Presbyterian  Church,  in  session  at 
Murfreesboro,  Tenn.,  in  1869,  took  the  deci- 
sive step  of  setting  apart  as  an  independent 
organization  the  colored  ministers  and  mem- 
bers under  its  jurisdiction.  As  a  result  of 
this  action,  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Cumberland  Church,  Colored,  was  organ- 
ized at  Nashville,  Tenn..  in  May,  1874.  It 
consists  ( IWiO),  of  6  synods,  20  presbyteries, 
200  ministers.  300  congregations;  with,  it  is 
claimed.  20.(MK)  conimunicants. 

THE  UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA  is  the  principal  American 
rei)resentative  of  the  dissenting  chundies  of 
Srotland.  For  information  with  reference 
to  tbe  causes  which  led  to  their  dissent,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  tlie 
United  Presl)yterian  Church  of  Scotland. 
On  the  American  continent,  this  church 
reached  organic  form  during  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century. 

The  emigrants  from  the  nortli  of  Ireland 
and  from  Scotland  to  tbe  colonics,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  were  connected  with  the 
organizatioTis  known  as  the  Associate  and 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Clunclies  of  .Scot- 
land. To  suj)i)ly  the  religious  needs  of  the 
colonists,      the      Reformed      Presbyterian 


Church  sent  out  as  its  f.rst  minister,  the 
Kev.  Joseph  Cuthbertson,  who  settled  in 
Eastern  Pennsylvania,  in  the  year  1751;  and 
the  first  Reformed  Presbyterian  Presbytery 
of  America  was  organized  in  1773.  The 
Associate  Synod  of  Scotland  sent  out  to  the 
colonies  the  Revs.  Alexander  Gellatly  and 
Andrew  Arnot,  who  organized  l)y  its  order 
on  the  2d  of  Nov.,  1753,  the  Associate  Pres- 
bytery of  Pennsylvania.  In  1777,  a  confer- 
ence was  held  between  representatives  of 
the  Associate  and  of  the  Reformed  Presby- 
terian Churches  with  a  view  to  union.  This 
movement  was  delayed  by  the  war  for 
Independence,  in  which  the  ministers  and 
members  of  both  bodies  took  a  prominent 
part  on  the  side  of  the  colonies;  but  at  the 
close  of  the  war,  the  union  was  consum- 
mated Nov.  1,  1782,  in  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  and  the  chief  judicatory  of  the 
church  received  the  name  of  "  The  Synod 
of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church."  A 
portion  of  the  ministers  and  members  how- 
ever, declined  to  enter  into  this  union  and 
continued  as  the  Associate  Synod. 

The  United  Church  proceeded  gradually 
with  the  work  of  a  more  complete  oiganiza- 
tion,  adopting  its  standards  of  faith  and 
discipline  in  1799,  and  erecting  a  General 
Synod,  which  met  first  at  Greencastle,  Pa., 
in  1804.  In  1810  a  discussion  arose  upon 
the  subject  of  "Sacramental  Communion" 
ni  which  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  M.  Mason,  of 
New  York  took  a  leading  part,  and  main- 
tained finally  that  the  church  was  under  ob- 
ligation to  fellowship  at  the  Lord's  table,  all 
true  believers.  This,  and  other  issues,  led 
to  the  withdrawal  in  1820  of  the  Synod  of 
Scioto,  which  took  the  name  of  the  Associ- 
ate Reformed  Synod  of  the  West.  In  1821, 
the  Synod  of  the  Carolinas  also  withdrew, 
and  took  the  name  of  the  Associate  Re- 
formed Synod  of  the  South.  In  1822,  the 
General  Synod  united  with  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  U.  S.  A.,  thus  bringing  its  history  to  a 


The  union  with  the  Presbyterian  Church 
was  not  satisfactory  to  many  persons  who 
had  been  connected  with  the  General  Synod. 
As  a  result,  the  Associate  Reformed 
Synod  of  New  York  met  at  Newburg,  Sept., 
1822,  and  determined  to  continue  its  exist- 
ence. This  body  remained  separate  from 
the  General  Synod  of  the  West,  until  1855, 
when  the  two  bodies  coalesced:  the  first 
United  Synod  meeting  at  Allegheny  City, 
Pa.,  in  1800. 

Negotiations  looking  toward  union  be- 
tween the  Associate  and  Associate  Re- 
formed Churches,  began  as  early  as  May, 
1842,  but  were  not  completed  until  1858,  at 
which  date  both  churches  were  made  one. 
and  the  new  organization  was  called  The 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America.  The"  first  General  Assembly  met 
at  Xenia,  O.,  May,  18.59. 

Standaiids. — The  basis  of  union  adopted 
in  18.")S  consisted  of  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  and  Catechisms,  modified  in 
relation  to  the  ])ower  of  the  civil  magis- 
trate, and  in  addition  a  judicial  testimony 
containing  eighteen  articles  and  declara- 
tions.    These  latter  are  explanatory  of  the 


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Confession  of  Faith,  and  amoncr  other  state- 
ments, include  tlie  following  distinctive 
denominational  principles:  (1)  that  slave 
holding  is  a  "  violation  of  the  law  of  God:" 
(2)  that  secret  societies  are  inconsistent 
with  church  membershii):  (8)  that  com- 
munion is  ordinarily  to  be  limited  to  the 
membership  of  the  denomination;  (4)  that 
"  public  social  covenanting  is  a  moral  duty  " 
on  extraordinary  occasions;  and  (5)  that 
the  Psalms  are  to  be  "  sung  in  worship  both 
public  and  private,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
devotional  compositions  of  uninspired 
men."  The  church  has  also  adopted  a 
book  of  government  and  discipline,  and  a 
directory  for  worship.  Ministers,  elders, 
and  church  members  are  all  required  to 
subscribe  to  both  the  doctrinal  and  adminis- 
trative standards. 

Missionary  Agencies.— The  evangelistic 
work  of  this  church  is  carried  on  by  7  Boards, 
Foreign  Missions,  Home  Missions,  Freed- 
men's  Missions,  Church  Extension,  Publica- 
tion, Education  and  Ministerial  Relief. 
Foreign  Missions  were  at  one  time  con- 
ducted by  it  in  Trinidad,  Syria,  and  China 
as  well  as  in  Egypt  and  India,  but  the  work 
is  now  concentrated  in  the  two  latter  coun- 
tries. In  1890  there  were  in  these  two  lands, 
185  mission  stations,  with  529  missionaries 
and  missionary  helpers,  and  the  total  ex- 
penditures for  the  year  were  $100,539.00. 
The  total  benevolent  denominational  con- 
tributions in  1890  was  .«;199,5;38.00. 

Institutions. — The  work  of  theological 
education  was  begun  by  this  denomination 
in  1794  by  the  appointment  of  the  Rev.  John 
Anderson,  D.D.,  as  the  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy, and  the  establishment  of  the  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  at  Service  Creek,  Pa.  The 
claim  is  made  that  this  was  the  first  theo- 
logical school  in  the  U.  S.  There  are  now 
5  theological  seminaries;  Xewburg,  Alle- 
gheny, and  Xenia  in  the  United  States, 
and  also  1  each  in  Egypt  and  India.  Six 
colleges  are  also  under  denominational  con- 
trol, and  in  addition  2  Foreign  Mission  train- 
ing schools. 

Statistics  (1S90.) — Synods,  10;  presbyter- 
ies, 59;  ministers,  774;  congregations,  904; 
communicants,  103,921;  total  contributions, 
$1,134,223.00.  (See  Scouller,  3Ianual  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church,  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,  1881.) 

REFORMED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA.  GENERAL  SYNOD.-The  early 
history  of  this  body,  which  is  a  lineal  de- 
scendant of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland,  will  be  found  under  the 
heads,  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scot- 
land and  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
North  America.  The  union  formed  in  1782 
between  the  Reformed  and  Associate  Presby- 
teries in  the  U.  S.  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Synod  of  the  Associate  Reformed 
Church,"  was  not  satisfactory  to  a  consid- 
erable number  of  the  members  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church.  This  dissat- 
isfaction led  to  the  formation  in  the  city 
of  Philadelphia,  in  1798,  of  the  Reformed 
Presbytery  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America. 
The  widely  scattered  condition  of  the  con- 
stituency of  the  presbytery,  made  it  neces- 
sary at  first  to  conduct  the  work  of  over- 


sight by  3  committees.  In  1809,  however, 
these  committees  were  organized  into  pres- 
byteries, and  a  synod  was  constituted  in 
the  city  of  Philadelphia.  In  1823,  this 
synod  was  erected  into  a  General  Synod. 
The  alleged  secular  character  of  the  U.S. 
constitution  was  the  occasion  of  consider- 
able controversy  in  the  denomination,  and 
finally,  in  1833,  led  to  the  withdrawal  of 
a  part  of  the  ministers  and  churches,  and 
the  organization  of  the  body  known  as  the 
Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church 
in  North  America. 

The  Westminster  standards  are  accepted 
by  this  church  as  its  standards  of  doctrine, 
with  the  addition  of  the  principles  con- 
tained in  a  document  called  ''  Reformation 
Principles  Exhibited."  The  Psalms  of 
David  are  used  to  the  exclusion  of  hymns 
in  public  worship.  Participation  in  sealing 
ordinances  is  permitted  only  to  such  per- 
sons as  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  body. 

It  conducts  its  missionary  and  evange- 
listic work  by  means  of  4  Boards,  Foreign 
Missions,  Home  Missions,  Education  and 
Church  Extension.  Its  Foreign  Mission  is 
located  in  Northern  India,  and  there  is  also 
a  theological  seminary  with  2  professors, 
in  the  city  of  Philadelphia. 

Statistics  (1890). — Presbyteries,  6;  minis- 
ters, 32;  churches,  47;  communicants,  6000; 
benevolent  contributions,  .$11,000.00. 

ASSOCIATE  REFORMED  SYNOD  OF  THE  SOUTH. 
— This  body  began  its  organic  existence  in 
May,  1785,  when  certain  congregations  nom- 
inally in  connection  with  the  Associate 
Pi-esbyteries  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  were 
taken  under  the  care  of  the  Synod  of  the 
Associate  Reformed  Church  These  con- 
gregations in  1790,  were  constituted  into 
the  presbytery  of  the  Carolinas  and  Geor- 
gia; and  in  1803,  the  presljytery  was  divided 
and  the  Synod  of  the  Carolinas  was  organ- 
ized. The  connection  of  the  Synod  with  the 
General  Synod  of  the  Associate  Reformed 
Church  continued  until  1822.  In  that  year 
"  on  account  of  various  practices  which  pre- 
vailed in  some  sections  of  the  denomination 
it  withdrew,  and  with  the  permission  of  the 
higher  court,  resolved  itself  into  an  inde- 
pendent co-ordinate  synod,  its  name  being 
changed  to  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod 
of  the  South."  The  churches  of  this  de- 
nomination are  now  scattered  from  Vir- 
ginia to  Texas,  and  have  been  more  pros- 
perous within  the  past  ten  years  than 
in  any  other  period  of  their  history. 

Foreign  Mission  work  was  carried  on  by 
this  church  in  conjunction  with  affiliated 
bodies  until  1879,  when  the  synod  estab- 
lished its  own  mission  work  in  Mexico.  In 
1830,  a  theological  seminary  was  founded 
at  Due  West,  S.  C,  and  in  1839,  Erskine 
College  was  established.  Both  of  these 
institutions  are  in  a  prosperous  condition. 

Statistics  (1890). — Ministers,  85;  congre- 
gations, 117;  communicants,  9000. 

THE  SYNOD  OF  THE  REFORMED  PRESBYTERI- 
AN CHURCH  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.— Thischurch 
is  one  of  the  several  churches  in  the  United 
States  which  trace  their  origin  back  to  the 
Scotch  Dissenters.  Until  1833,  the  synod 
was  one  with  the  body  now  known  as  the 
General  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyte- 


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rian  Church.  In  that  year  a  controversy- 
arose  concernin<j  the  relations  of  members 
of  the  church  to  the  civil  institutions  of  the 
country,  and  as  a  result  the  body  divided 
and  this  branch  holds  as  a  special  and  dis- 
tinctive principle,  "  that  civil  government 
is  a  divine  ordinance,"  and  that  therefore, 
Reformed  Presbyterians  are  to  "  refuse 
close  incorporation  with  any  government 
which  does  not  in  some  form  recognize 
this  principle  and  give  it  effective  expres- 
sion in  its  legislation."  And  inasmuch  as 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
"  gives  no  legal  basis  for  any  Christian 
feature  in  the  administration  of  govern- 
ment" therefore,  Keformed  Pi'esbyterians 
are  to  refuse  to  periorm  any  civil  act  which 
involves  an  oath,  such  for  "instance,  as  vot- 
ing for  state  officers. 

The  standards  of  the  church  are  the 
Westminster  Confession,  a  testimony  en- 
titled "  Keformed  Principles  Exhibited," 
and  a  covenant  solemnly  sworn  and  sub- 
scribed by  the  synod,  at  Pittsburg  in  1871, 
the  presbyteries  having  previously  approved 
the  same.  For  other  distinctive  principles, 
see  the  i)ublication,  lie/orniation  Principles. 

Tiie  denomination  conducts  Home  Mission 
work  through  a  Central  Board  of  Missions, 
located  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  Foreign  Mis- 
sion work  through  a  board  with  headquar- 
ters in  New  York  City.  Foreign  Missions 
are  successfully  sustained  by  it  in  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor. 

Institutions. — Its  educational  institutions 
are  Geneva  College,  Beaver  Falls,  Pa.,  and 
the  Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny,  Pa. 
Statistics  (1890).— Presbyteries,  11;  miri- 
isters,  124;  congregations,  124;  communi- 
cants, 11,289;  total  contributions  for  all 
purposes,  $238,615.  (See  Reformed  Presbyte- 
rian Test/moH?/,  Philadelphia,  1881 ;  Glasgow, 
History  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church 
in  America,  Baltimore,  1888.) 

ASSOCIATE  SYNOD  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.-This 
church  consists  of  the  ministers  and  congre- 
gations which  declined  to  enter  into  the 
union  formed  in  1S5S  between  the  Associate 
and  Associate  Keformed  Synods.  (See 
The  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
Anterica.)  It  cons'ists  (1890)  of  4  presby- 
teries, 15  ministers,  33  congregations,  and 
1,128  communicants. 

REFORMED  (THE)  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA,  and 
REFORMED    'THE)    CHURCH     IN     THE     UNITED 

STATES,  will  be  found  under  the  head  of 
Rkfok.mki>  CiirRciiEs. 

WELSH  CALVINISTIC  METHODIST  CHURCH.- 
Purit;vns  from  the  principality  of  Wales  set- 
tled in  tiie  several  colonies  during  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries.  As  early  as  1714,  a  Welsh 
Presbyterian  congregation  was  gatliered  in 
the  Great  Valley,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  and  was 
ministered  to  by  the  Kev.  David  Evan,  who 
was  the  first  licentiate  educated  by  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A.  The 
Welsh  Calvinistic  Metliodist  Church  is, 
however,  in  origin  directly  connected  with 
the  church  of  the  similar  name  in  the  prin- 
cipality. (See  this  article  under  the  head  of 
Walks,  p.  748.)  The  earliest  sei)arate  con- 
gregation in  the  United  States  was  estab- 
lished at  Kemsen,  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  182f). 
The  first  presbytery  was  held  on  the  10th  of 


May,  1828.  The  Synod  of  New  York  was 
established  in  the  same  year,  the  Synod  of 
Ohio  in  1832,  that  of  Wisconsin  in  1844,  and 
that  of  Pennsylvania  in  1845.  A  General 
Assembly  was  erected  in  1869,  and  has  been 
represented  in  all  the  Councils  of  the  "  Alli- 
ance of  the  Keformed  Churches." 

The  church  conducts  Home  Mission  work 
through  a  committee,  and  sustains  jointly 
with  the  church  in  tlie  motherland.  Foreign 
Mission  work  in  India.  Its  standards  are 
strongly  Calvinistic,  its  worship  is  simple, 
and  its  services  are  conducted  altogether  in 
the  Welsh  language.  A  monthly  denomi- 
national magazine,  "  The  Friend  from  the 
Old  Country,"  has  been  sustained  for  more 
than  forty  years.  The  younger  members  of 
the  congregations  as  a  rule,  connect  them- 
selves, in  time,  with  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  so  that  the  church 
is  largely  composed  of  older  persons,  and 
recent  immigrants. 

Statistics  (1890).— Synods,  5;  presby- 
teries, 19;  preachers,  130;  churches,  187; 
communicants,  12,275;  adherents,  27,577; 
total  contributions,  $90,297. 

Canada,  the  presbyterian  church  in 
CANADA. — The  first  Presbyterian  minister  in 
the  territory  now  covered  by  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  apijears  to  have  been  the  Kev. 
James  Lyon,  who  was  ordained  by  the 
Presbytery  of  New  Brunswick,  U.  S.  A., 
and  sent  in  1764  to  Nova  Scotia  to  minister 
to  the  immigrants  in  that  region.  From 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century  forward, 
settlements  of  colonists  with  Presbyterian 
views  were  founded  both  in  the  Maritime 
and  Western  Provinces,  and  naturally  the 
religious  divisions  existing  in  Scotland 
were  perpetuated  on  this  side  of  the  At- 
lantic. In  1769,  a  presbytery  connected 
with  the  Associate  Synod  of  Scotland  was 
formed  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  at  a  little  later 
date,  congregations  both  in  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick  were  gathered  whose 
ecclesiastical  connection  was  with  the  Es- 
tablished Church  of  Scotland. 

The  first  congregation  of  Presbyterians 
established  in  Quebec,  was  organized  in 
1787,  and  about  1790,  a  similar  congregation 
was  gathered  in  Montreal.  The  latter 
organization  was  formed  by  a  minister  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  min- 
isters connected  with  both  the  Presbyterian 
and  Reformed  Dutch  churches  of  the 
U.  S.  A.,  entered  Canada  at  several  points, 
and  established  churches  and  preaching 
stations.  For  instance,  the  first  church  in 
Toronto  was  organized  by  a  minister  of  the 
Keformed  Dutch  denomination.  The  ear- 
liest jnesbytery  in  the  Western  Provinces 
was  organized  in  1803  in  Montreal.  The 
first  ecclesiastical  union  effected  in  Canada 
was  that  between  the  Burgher  Presbytery 
of  Truro,  and  the  Anti-Burgher  Presbytery 
of  Pictou,  under  the  name  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  of  Nova  Scotia. 

In  1818,  an  attempt  was  made  to  unite  all 
the  Presbyterian  congregations  in  the  coun- 
try into  one  churcli,  but  the  movement 
failed  through  lack'  of  support  by  the  min- 
isters connected  with  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land.     The    first    meeting    of    the    synod 


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connected  with  the  lattei-  church,  was  held 
in  1831,  and  of  the  «ynod  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  in  1840.  In  1844,  the 
period  of  the  "great  disruption,"  about 
one-fourth  of  the  ministers  and  churches  in 
the  Scotch  connection  separated  from  their 
brethren,  and  organized  the  Presbyterian 
(Free)  Church  of  Canada.  In  1861,  this 
cliurcli  united  witli  the  church  which  had 
been  organized  in  1847  out  of  the  Secession 
and  Relief  Churches,  under  the  name  of 
the  United  Presbyterian  Synod  in  Canada. 
The  new  organization  took  the  name  of  the 
Canada  Presbyterian  Church. 

The  need  and  desire  for  church  unity 
found  expression  repeatedly  as  already 
suggested,  in  the  history  of  the  church, 
and  finally  culminated  in  1875.  In  that 
year  there  were  four  churches  occupying 
the  ground,  in  addition  to  a  number  of  con- 
gregations connected  with  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  in  the  U.  S.  A.  These  four 
churches  were  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Canada,  connected  with  the  Church  of 
Scotland;  the  Canada  Presbyterian  Church; 
the  Church  of  the  Lower  Provinces;  and 
the  Church  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  in 
connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland. 
These  four  churches,  "  Believing  that  it 
would  be  for  the  glory  of  God,  and  the 
advancement  of  the  cause  of  Christ  that 
they  should  unite,"  constituted  at  Montreal, 
June  15,  1875,  the  church  known  as  "The 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada." 

At  the  time  of  union,  the  churclx  con- 
sisted of  4  synods,  33  presbyteries,  771  min- 
isters, 1000  congregations,  and  about  90,000 
communicants. 

The  territory  occupied  by  this  church  is 
very  great.  It  extends  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  is  divided  politically  into 
nine  provinces,  and  has  an  area  equal  to 
that  of  the  United  States  of  America. 
Here  and  there,  in  this  broad  field,  there 
are  a  few  churches  still  unconnected  with 
the  general  organization,  but  this  condition 
of  affairs  is  being  gradually  remedied.  In 
1887,  the  Church  of  Scotland  withdrew  from 
British  Columbia,  surrendering  the  congre- 
gations in  that  province  to.  the  Canadian 
Church.  In  Quebec  and  Ontario,  a  synod  in 
connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland  yet 
exists,  having  under  its  care  some  eight  or 
nine  congregations,  and  in  Nova  Scotia,  a 
synod  with  the  same  connection  controlling 
about  12  churches,  and  1,600  communicants. 
These  bodies,  it  is  probable  will  be  soon 
absorbed  by  the  Canadian  Church,  and 
then  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 
will  be  a  living  illustration  of  the  value  and 
power  of  unity  in  Christian  faith  and  work. 

Standards. — This  church  adheres  to  the 
Westminster  standards. 

Missionary  Agp:ncies.— Evangelistic  and 
benevolent  work  is  carried  on  under  the 
direction  of  Home  Mission  and  Foreign 
Mission  committees,  a  Board  of  French 
Evangelization,  and  a  Widows',  Orphans' 
and  Infirm  Ministers'  Fund.  Foreign  Mis- 
sions are  conducted  in  the  New  Hebrides, 
Trinidad,  Formosa.  Honan  (China),  Central 
India,  and  among  the  Indians  in  the  north- 
west. The  total  number  of  missionaries 
and  missionary  helpers  (1890)  was  236,  and 


the  total  expenditures  for  the  year  $103,915. 
The  Board  of  French  Evangelization  em- 
ployed (1890)  37  missionaries,  36  teachers, 
expended  $51,245  and  had  under  its  care  26 
churches,  and  92  stations.  There  is  also  in 
connection  with  the  church,  a  Women's 
Foreign  Mission  organization. 

Institutions.— These  are  six  in  number; 
the  Presbyterian  College  (Halifax),  Morrin 
College  (Quebec),  Piesbyterian  College 
(Montreal),  Queen's  University  and  College 
(Kingston),  Knox  College  (Toronto),  and 
Manitoba  College  (Winnipeg).  These  in- 
stitutions have  each  a  theological  depart- 
ment, and  had  in  1889-90,  an  aggregate  of 
772  students. 

Statistics  (1890).— Ministers,972;  churches 
and  stations,  2,358;  communicants,  164,465; 
total  benevolent  contributions,  $2,054,951.00. 
(See  J.  Croil,  Historical  and  Statistical  Re- 
port of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada  in 
connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  Mon- 
treal, 1868;  Gregg,  History  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  Toronto, 
1885;  Campbell,  History  of  the  St.  Gabriel 
Presbyterian  Church,  Montreal,  Montreal, 
8vo,  1887. ) 

The  West  Indies,  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral, America.— The  earliest  Presbyterian 
organization  in  these  regions  was  the  Pres- 
bytery of  Caledonia,  organized  in  1699  in 
connection  with  the  unfortunate  Scotch  col- 
onial enterprise  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 
Upon  the  failure  of  the  colony  in  1701,  one 
of  the  ministers  became  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Charleston,  S.  C. 

Presbyterian  missions  were  established 
in  Honduras  in  1850,  in  Mexico  in  1872,  and 
in  Guatemala  in  1882.  The  total  strength 
of  the  several  Presbyterian  mission  organi- 
zations in  Mexico  appears  to  be  (1890) 
ministers,  44;  congregations,  105  ;  commu- 
nicants 6,000:  of  whom  more  than  5,000  are 
in  connection  with  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  U.  S.  A.  The  other  general  stations 
have  each  one  minister  and  a  single  congre- 
gation. 

In  the  West  Indies,  there  are  two  inde- 
pendent organizations,  one  of  which  is  the 
Presbytery  of  Trinidad  with  12  ministers,  12 
congregations,  and  800  communicants.  The 
other  is  the  Presbyterian  Synod,  of  Jamaica. 

Presbyterianism  in  the  Island  of  Jamaica 
began  in  1820  by  the  arrival  of  missionaries 
sent  by  the  Glasgow  Mission  Society.  In 
1836,  these  missionaries  with  others  organ- 
ized the  Jamaica  Missionary  Presbytery. 
A  theological  seminary  for  the  education 
of  ministers  was  established  in  1841,  and  is 
located  at  Kingston.  In  1848,  the  Synod  of 
the  Presbyterian  ('hurch  of  Jamaica  was 
constituted  as  an  independent  body.  In 
addition  to  congregations  under  the  care  of 
the  synod,  three  colonial  congregations  of 
the  Established  Church  of  Scotland  are 
found  on  the  island.  The  synod  is  a  flour- 
ishing body,  consisting  (1890)  of  4  presby- 
teries, .30  imnisters,  66  congregations  and 
stations,  9,444  communicants;  and  the  total 
contributions  were  £7.150. 

South  America. — Presbyterian  missio" 
stations  were  estaldished  on  this  continent, 
in  Guatemala  in  1840:  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic. 1850;  Brazil,  1859;  Chili,     1873.     Statis- 


PBE  SBYTERIAN 


(761) 


PRESBYTERIAN 


tics  show  that  the  missions  consist  of 
ministers,  45;  missionary  helpers,  84;  con- 
gregations, 61 ;  communicants  2,832.  The 
following  churches  exist  virtually  as  inde- 
pendent bodies.  The  Synod  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church  in  Surinam,  with  6  minis- 
ters, 6  congregations  and  about  1200  com- 
municants. In  Patagonia,  on  the  Rio 
Chupat,  there  are  two  congregations  of 
Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists,  served  by  a 
minister  and  having  about  800  communi- 
cants. These  latter  churches  are  not  mis- 
sion churches  but  organized  congregations 
connected  with  a  Welsh  colony  established 
in  that  region.  The  strongest  Presbyterian 
organization  in  South  America  is  the 
Church  of  Brazil. 

THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  OF  BRAZIL. — 
The  first  effort  to  establish  the  Calvinistic 
faith  in  Brazil  was  made  in  15.55  under  the 
auspices  of  the  celebrated  Admiral  Coligny, 
and  by  the  establishment  of  a  colony  of 
Huguenots,  on  an  i.sland  in  the  Bay  of'  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  Pajial  persecution,  however, 
made  short  work  of  the  colony,  and  the 
principal  minister,  John  Boles,  was  put  to 
death  by  the  Jesuits  on  the  site  of  the  cap- 
ital of  Brazil. 

The  first  Presbyterian  missionary  who 
labored  in  Brazil  in  the  present  century 
was  tiie  Rev.  A.  G.  Simonton,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, who  was  sent  out  by  the  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  U.  S.  A.,  and  landed  at  Rio  de  Jan- 
eiro in  August,  1859.  In  1862,  a  church 
was  organized  at  Rio,  and  in  1865,  the 
jiresbytery  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  formed, 
with  4  ministers  and  2  churches,  and  ha<l 
under  its  care  (1881)),  20  ministers,  28 
churches,  and  616  communicants. 

In  1885,  the  Presbytery  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
submitted  a  plan  of  union  to  the  different 
missionaries  and  churches.  As  a  first  result 
of  this  movement,  the  ministers  and 
churches  connected  with  the  Presbyterian 
Church  South,  organized  the  Presbytery  of 
Campinas  in  1886,  and  that  of  Pernambuco 
in  1888.  These  bodies,  in  1888,  together 
with  the  Presbytery  of  Rio,  met  in  the  fii'st 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and 
organized,  by  the  consent  of  the  General 
Assemblies  interested,  the  Synod  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Brazil.  This  synod 
is  an  indei)endent  body,  is  a  member  of  the 
"  Alliance  of  tlie  Reformed  Churches,"  and 
has  under  its  care  (1890)  4  presbyteries,  .32 
ministers,  67  churches,  3000  communicants, 
and  7000  adherents. 

AFRICA,    ASIA   AND   AUSTRALIA. 

Afkica. — The  Presbyterian  organizations 
in  Africa  are  mostly  either  mission  presby- 
teries, connected  with  the  churches  in  Europe 
and  America,  or  colonial  churches,  of  Holland 
origin.  In  Algeria,  there  are,  however,  three 
presbyteries  in  connection  with  the  National 
Reformed  Church  of  France,  having  under 
tlieir  care  13  congregations.  In  South 
Africa,  there  are  six  organizations  bearing 
the  name  of  Reformed  Churches,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  the  Synod  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church  of  South  Africa,  with 
(18S9)  10  presbyteries.  109  ministers,  101 
congregations,    and    63,233     couuuunicauts. 


Presbyterian  missions  began  in  Sierra  Le- 
one in  1797;  Kaffraria,  1820;  Liberia,  1830; 
Basuto  Land.  1833;  Old  Calabar,  1846; 
Egypt,  1853;  Natal,  1867;  Gaboon  and  Cor- 
isco,  1870;  and  Livingstonia,  1875.  The 
statistics  of  the  Presbyterian  mission  .sta- 
tions in  Africa,  in  1889,  were,  ministers, 
115;  missionary  helpers,  797;  congregations, 
123;  communicants,  15,000.  Theological 
seminaries  have  been  established  by  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America  at  Cairo;  by  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  of  South  Africa,  at  Stellenbosch, 
Cape  Colony;  and  by  the  Christian  Re- 
formed Church,  at  Burghcrsdorp,  South 
Africa.  The  total  number  of  Presbyterian 
and  Reformed  church  members  on  the  con- 
tinent is  probably  (1890),  about  ]40.()()0. 

Asia. — There  are  several  independent 
Presbyterian  chui-ches  in  existence  in  Asia, 
distinct  from  the  numberless  mission  or- 
ganizations found  therein.  Presbyterian 
mission  work  began  in  India  in  1820;  Syria, 
1821;  China,  1827;  Persia,  1835;  Siam,  1840; 
Japan,  18.59;  Burmah,  1871;  Korea,  1884. 
The  total  strength  of  Asiatic  Presbyterian 
missions  is  about  as  follows:  ministers,  .5.34; 
missionary  helpers,  3703;  congi-egations, 
660;  communicants,  26,264;  adherents,  27C),- 
418,  of  whom  240,000  are  connected  with 
the  Colonial  Reformed  Church  of  Holland. 
The  independent  church  organizations  con- 
sist of  two  presbyteries  in  China;  a  presby- 
tery in  Ceylon,  with  5  ministers,  16  congre- 
gations, and  1125  communicants;  and  also 
of  native  churches  located  in  Japan,  Persia 
and  Syria.  The  native  church  of  Syria  has 
not  as  yet  reached  a  full  organization, 
though  an  effort  to  that  end  has  been  in 
progress  since  1882.  Only  two  presbyteries 
as  yet  exist,  that  of  Sidon,  formed  in  1883, 
and  that  of  Beirut,  formed  in  1885.  In  con- 
nection with  the  Presbyterian  Mission  in 
Syria,  a  college  has  long  existed,  known  as 
the  Syrian  Protestant  College,  and  located 
at  Beirut.  There  is  also  a  theological  semi- 
nary in  the  same  city.  In  Persia  and  Japan, 
the  movements  to  secure  independent  Pres- 
byteiian  churches  have  reached  a  full  de- 
velopment. 

Japax. — Nipon  Itchi  Kirisnto  Kyokmni, 
or  the  United  Church  of  Christ  in  Japan. 
Missions  in  Japan  began  in  1859,  Dr.  Hep- 
burn, of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
U.  S.  A.,  arriving  in  the  country  in  Octol)er 
of  that  year.  In  1872,  the  first  Protestant 
churches  were  organized  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Ballagh  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church, 
and  the  Rev.  David  Thomson  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  under  the  title  of  the 
"  Chui'ches  of  Christ  in  Japan."  In  the 
same  year,  a  convention  of  missionaries  and 
others  was  held  in  Yokohama  with  a  view 
to  arranging  for  the  publication  of  the 
Scriptures.  Presbyterian  missionaries  or- 
ganized, in  1873,  the  presbytery  of  Japan. 
Steps  towards  a  union  of  Christian  churches 
were  taken  from  year  to  year,  and  the  de- 
sired end  was  finally  reached  in  1877,  when 
the  United  Church  of  Christ  in  Ja])an  was 
organized  at  Yokohama  with  a  presbytery 
as  the  supreme  judicatory.  By  1881.  it  had 
become  necessary  to  form  a  synod,  and  in 
1886,  all  the   Presbyterian  missionaries  in 


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PRESBYTERIAN 


the  country  entered  into  the  organization. 
In  1887,  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  to 
unite  the  Congregational  with  the  Presby- 
terian churches  and  ministers.  After  con- 
siderable progress  had  been  made,  opposi- 
tion arose,  however,  first  among  the  Con- 
gregationalists  in  the  U.  S.,  and  then  in 
Japan.  As  a  result,  the  movement  failed. 
The  failure  may  be  regarded  as  happily 
providential,  for  no  permanent  prosperity 
follows  ill  assorted  unions.  The  church  is 
now  thoroughly  organized,  and  is  a  member 
of  the  Presbyterian  Alliance.  The  stand- 
ards of  the  church  are  the  Westminster 
Confession  and  Shorter  Catechism,  the 
Canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  with  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism.  The  system  of  pol- 
ity is  essentially  Presbyterian.  A  theolog- 
ical seminary  was  established  in  the  city  of 
Tokio  in  1877,  and,  in  1883,  the  academy  at 
Yokohama  was  united  with  the  institution 
at  Tokio,  under  the  name  of  the  Union  Col- 
lege. The  object  of  this  institution  is  to 
train  leaders  for  the  church,  both  ministers 
and  laymen.  The  number  of  theological 
students  in  1890  was  34. 

Statistics  (1889). — Native  ministers,  40; 
licentiates,  47;  congregations,  68;  stations, 
94;  communicants,  8,954. 

Persia,  the  evangelical syriac church 
of  Persia  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  Presby- 
terian mission  in  that  country,  which  was 
organized  in  1835.  Its  members  came  from 
the  Old  Syrian  or  Nestorian  Church.  The 
first  conference,  with  a  view  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  converts  as  an  independent 
body,  was  held  in  1862.  In  1878,  a  confes- 
sion of  faith  and  a  form  of  government 
were  adopted.  The  system  of  polity  is  es- 
sentially Presbyterian,  with  a  few  points  of 
divergence  from  that  system  as  it  exists 
in  Europe.  The  native  ministers,  for  in- 
stance, insist  upon  the  maintenance  of  the 
diaconate  as  a  preaching  order.  The  chui'ch 
was  admitted  to  the  Presbyterian  Alliance 
in  1888,  and  had,  in  1890,  42  ministers,  47 
licentiates,  27  congregations,  83  stations, 
and  2,269  communicants. 

Australasia.  (1.)  Australia. — Neio 
South  Wales  is  the  oldest  of  the  Australian 
colonies  (1788),  and  Presbyterians  settled 
in  the  country  at  Portland  Head  in  1802, 
although  a  congregation  was  not  organized 
until  1809.  In  1823,  the  Rev.  John  D. 
Lang,  D.D.,  began  his  ministi-y,  and  in 
1831,  the  Presbytery  of  New  South  Wales 
was  formed,  including  Avithin  its  bounds 
the  entire  continent.  After  that  date,  min- 
isters and  members  representing  the  three 
divisions  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  entered 
the  colony  and  organized  churches  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  ecclesiastical  predilec- 
tions; forming  in  1840  the  Scotch  Synod  of 
Australia,  in  1842,  the  Synod  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  in  1846,  the  Synod  of  Eastern 
Australia  on  Free  Church  lines.  These 
bodies  finally  united  in  1865  under  the  des- 
ignation of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
New  South  Wales.  A  few  ministers  and 
churches  however,  retain  a  separate  or- 
ganization under  the  title  of  the  Synod  of 
Eastern  Australia.  The  other  Australian 
colonies,  Victoria,  Queensland,  South  Aus- 
tralia,  Western   Australia    and   Tasmania, 


have  each  full  Presbyterian  Church  organi- 
zations. 

In  Victoria,  the  earliest  congregations 
were  formed  in  1836-39,  and  in  1842,  the 
Presbytery  of  Port  Philip  or  Melbourne 
was  organized.  Tlie  ministers  were  from 
both  the  Scotch  Secession  and  Established 
Churches.  The  discovery  of  gold  led  to  a 
great  increase  in  population,  so  that  in 
1850,  the  United  Presbyterian  Synod  of 
Victoria  was  formed,  and  finally  ministers 
and  churches  were  sufficiently  numerous 
by  1859  to  form  out  of  the  Established, 
Free,  and  United  Presbyterian  Churches, 
the  single  Presbyterian  Church  of  Victoria. 

Other  Churches. — The  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Queensland  was  founded  at  Moreton  Bay 
in  1847,  and  attained  to  its  present  condi- 
tion by  a  union,  in  1863,  of  the  different 
churches  in  the  colony.  The  first  minister 
settled  in  South  Australia  in  1839,  and  the 
several  churches  of  the  colony  united  in  a 
General  Synod  in  1865.  Tasmania  Avas 
occupied  by  Presbyterians  as  early  as  1822, 
the  Presbytery  of  Van  Dieman's  Land  was 
formed  in  1835,  and  a  Free  Church  Presby- 
tery in  1853. 

The  several  Presbyterian  Churches  above 
named  sustain  missionaries  in  the  New 
Hebrides,  South  Pacific,  and  some  of  them 
maintain  missions  among  the  Cliinese  set- 
tlers in  Australia.  The  educational  insti- 
tutions are  four  in  number,  St.  Andrews 
College,  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.  ;  Ormond  Col- 
lege, Melbourne,  Victoria;  Brisbane  Col- 
lege, Queensland;  and  Union  College,  S. 
Australia.  The  formation  of  the  Federal 
Assembly  of  the  Churches  of  Australia  and 
Tasmania  promises  largely  for  the  inci-ease 
of  every  Presbyterian  interest  in  this  great 
field.  The  statistics  of  the  Australian  church- 
es are  as  follows,  (1889) — Synod  of  Eastern 
Australia,  4  presl)yteries,  20  congregations, 
12  ministers,  300  communicants;  General 
Assembly  of  New  South  Wales,  12  presby- 
teries, 242  congregations,  129  ministers, 
9000  communicants;  General  Assembly  of 
Queensland,  5  presbyteries,  86  congregations, 
32  ministers,  4000  communicants;  General 
Assembly  of  Victoria,  12  presbyteries,  300 
congregations,  176  ministers,  15,600  com- 
municants; Presbytery  of  West  Australia,  2 
congregations,  2  ministers,  350  communi- 
cants; Synod  of  Tasmania,  2  presbyteries,  40 
congregations,  15  ministers,  1500  communi- 
cants; Presbytery  (Free  Ch.)  of  Tasmania, 
15  congregations,  4  ministers,  607  communi- 
cants; Total,  40  presbyteries,  743  congre- 
gations, 384  Ministers,  33,157  communicants. 
(See  Minutes  of  the  sevei'al  General  Assem- 
blies.) 

Neav  Zealand. — This  colony  in  its  three 
islands  equals  in  size  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  is  largely  occupied  by  Presby- 
terians. Prior  to  1840,  there  were  no  orga- 
nized congregations  strictly  speaking,  but 
from  that  year  forward,  Presbyterian  min- 
isters have  labored  in  the  islands.  A  pres- 
bytery was  established  in  Otago,  in  1854, 
and  at  Auckland  in  1856.  A  union  of  the 
various  divisions  of  Presbyterians  in  that 
colony  took  place  in  1862,  and  at  present 
the  New  Zealand  Church  comjirises  two 
organizations,  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 


PRESBYTERIAN  SYSTEM 


(7&3) 


PRESBYTERIAN  SYSTEM 


New  Zealand,  occupying  tlie  northern 
provinces,  and  the  Presbyterian  Cliurch  of 
Otago,  occupying  the  southern.  The  for- 
mer consists  (181)0)  of  a  General  Assembly, 
8  presbyteries,  25.'3  congregations  and  sta- 
tions, and  6,849  communicants;  the  latter 
of  a  synod,  5  presbyteries,  223  congrega- 
tions and  11,754  communicants.  The  Ota- 
go Presbyterian  Church  established  in  1876 
the  Theological  College  at  Dunedin,  and 
both  churches  sustain  missions  in  the  New 
Hebrides. 

In  addition  to  these  ten  organizations  in 
Australasia,  there  is  also  a  Mission  Synod 
of  the  New  Hebrides,  composed  of  the  mis- 
sionaries in  that  field.  The  present  mis- 
sion was  established  in  1848  by  the  Kev. 
John  Geddie,  and  the  synod  consists  of 
16  ministers,  33  congregations,  and  3520 
communicants. 

Pkesbytekiax  Alliance. — With  few  ex- 
ceptions, the  several  Presbyterian  and  Re- 
formed Churches  have  entered  into  the 
"Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches  hold- 
ing the  Presbyterian  System,"  which  was 
organized  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1877. 
This  alliance  finds  expression  for  its  ob- 
jects through  a  General  Council  composed 
of  delegates  elected  by  the  General  Synods 
or  Assemblies  of  the  associated  Churches, 
and  possesses  only  advisory  powers.  The 
General  Council  met  first  at  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  in  1877,  and  also  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  in  1880;  at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1884, 
and  at  London,  England,  in  1888.  The 
meeting  for  1892  has  been  appointed  at 
Toronto,  Canada. 

"Wii.  Hexry  Robekts. 

Presbyterian  System,  The.  I.  Doctrine. 
See  Calvinism,  p.  13;J;  Dort,  Synod  of,  p. 
235;  Heidelberg  Catechism,  p.  360;  Hel- 
vetic Confession,  p.  361;  Westminster 
Confession. 

II.  Polity.  The  Presbyterian  polity,  it  is 
maintained,  finds  clear  warrant  in  Scrip- 
ture. Its  primary  source  was  the  Jewish 
ecclesiastical  system  of  the  time  of  Christ, 
excluding  the  priestly  element.  In  that 
system  the  people  were  associated  together 
in  synagogues  or  congregations  for  worship 
and  godly  living,  and  were  governed  by 
bodies  of  men  called  elders.  (Acts  xiii.  15.) 
In  each  congregation,  also,  there  was  an 
officer  known  as  the  chief  ruler  of  the  syna- 
agogue,  wlio  was  the  president  of  the 
elders,  and  instruction  was  given  either  by 
the  "legate"  of  the  synagogue  or  by  the 
di)ctors  of  the  law.  Tlie  elders  also  consti- 
tuted the  bodies  called  the  local  Sanhedrins, 
which  exercised  judicial  functions  within 
limited  districts;  while  the  control  of  the 
affairs  of  the  Church-state  as  a  whole  was 
vested  in  a  council  composed  of  priests, 
elders  and  scribes,  designated  as  the  Great 
Sanhedrin.  Under  this  Jewish  system  our 
Lord  lived.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  His 
ministry  was  performed  in  the  synagogue  at 
Nazareth  (Luke  iv.  16),  and  the  authority 
of  tlie  synagogue  was  recognized  by  Him 
(Matt,  xviii.  17)  in  the  command  "  Tell  it  to 
the  Church." 

The  general  features  of  the  Jewish  sys- 
tem were,  it  is  believed,   adoi>ted  by  the 


Primitive  Christian  Church,  modified  in 
matters  of  detail  by  apostolic  sanction. 
The  elders  of  the  synagogue  became  the 
elders  of  the  Christian  congregation  (Acts 
xiv,  23);  the  chief  ruler  of  the  synagogue 
was  probably  reproduced  in  the  ei)iseopos 
or  parochial  bishop;  the  local  Sanhedrin 
was  modified  and  established  as  the  pres- 
bytery; and  the  Great  Sanhedrin  was  the 
prototype  of  synods.  General  Assemblies 
and  councils. 

Again,  the  Presbyterian  system  finds 
warrant  in  and  gives  clear  expression  to  the 
main  principles  of  ecclesiastical  polity  set 
forth  in  the  New  Testament.  These  princi- 
ples are: 

1.  The  supreme  headship  of  Jesus  Christ: 
involving  sul)mission  to  His  law,  contained 
in  the  Cliristian  Scrii)tures,  as  the  only  rule 
of  practice. 

2.  The  parity  of  the  ministry  as  aml)assa- 
dors  of  the  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church. 

3.  Participation  by  the  people  in  the  gov- 
ei-nment  of  the  Church  through  officers 
chosen  by  them. 

4.  The  unity  of  the  Church,  involving  an 
authoritative  control,  not  by  individuals, 
but  by  representative  courts. 

These  principles  were  essential  factors  in 
the  government  of  the  New  Testament 
Church,  and  as  applied  in  the  Presbyterian 
system  result  in  views  of  the  Church,  her 
officers  and  judicatories  as  follows: 

1.  Of  the  Church.  There  is  an  invisible 
and  there  is  a  visible  Church.  "  The  Cath- 
olic or  Universal  Church,  which  is  invisible, 
consists  of  the  whole  number  of  the  elect 
that  have  been,  are,  or  shall  be  gathered 
into  one,  under  Christ  the  head  thereof." 
"  The  visible  Church  which  is  also  Catholic 
or  Universal  under  the  Gospel  (not  confined 
to  one  nation  as  before  under  the  law),  con- 
sists of  all  those  persons  in  every  nation, 
together  with  tlieir  children,  who  make 
profession  of  the  holy  religion  of  Christ, 
and  of  submission  to  His  laws."  The 
name  Catholic  or  Universal  is  therefore  the 
exclusive  property  of  no  one  Communion  or 
Denomination,  and  all  churches  holding  to 
the  fundamentals  of  the  Christian  religion 
are  churches  of  Christ. 

2.  Of  Church  Power.  Tlie  power  of  the 
Church  is  simply  ministerial,  declarative 
and  spiritual.  It  is  ministerial,  in  that  the 
Church  exercises  power  only  liy  Christ's 
authority.  It  is  declarative,  in  that  the 
Church  is  limited  to  the  interpretation  of  a 
law  already  contained  in  the  word  of  God. 
The  Church  can  neither  add  to  nor  take 
away  from  this  divine  law.  It  is  spiritual, 
in  tiiat  the  Cliurch  is  to  be  concerned  alone 
with  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The  church  is 
not  to  exercise  power  in  or  over  the 
State,  neither  is  the  State  to  usurp  authority 
in  or  over  the  Church.  The  ideal  ecclesias- 
tical organization  is,  "  A  free  Church  in  a 
free  State,"  obedient  to  the  law  of  God,  and 
recognizing  Christ  alone  as  King. 

3.  Of  the  Officers  of  (he  Church.  (a) 
The  :Mhiit<try.  There  is  but  one  order 
in  tlie  ministry,  and  all  ministers  are  peers 
each  of  the  other.  Denying  an  apostolical 
succession  of  diocesan  bishoj^s  witli  author- 
ity over  ministers,  Presbyterians  affirm  an 


PRESBYTERIAN  SYSTEM 


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PRESBYTERIAN  SYSTEM 


apostolic  succession  of  apostolic  men  who 
have  been  specitically  set  apart  "  to  prayer 
and  to  the  ministry  of  the  Word,  and  who 
are  ordained  to  their  office  by  ministers 
alone."  (Acts  vi.  4;  2  Tim.  ii.  2.)  The  dis- 
tinctive mark  of  a  true  minister  is  not 
apostolical  succession  in  any  sense,  but  the 
preaching  of  a  pure  gospel.  Further,  the 
diocese  of  the  New  Testament  bishop  was 
limited  to  his  parish  and  every  pastor  is 
therefore,  at  once  both  preacher  and  paro- 
chial bishop.  "Pastors  not  prelates  "  such 
are  Presbyterian  ministers,  (b)  The  Elder- 
ship. The  New  Testament  Presbyter  was  a 
ruler  in  the  local  congregation  and  was 
chosen  to  office  by  the  people  (Acts  xiv.  23). 
Further,  in  each  congregation  a  number  of 
elders  were  associated  together  as  a  court  of 
control,  and  exercised  authority,  not  as  in- 
dividuals, but  as  organized  bodies  (Acts  xx. 
17-28).  Every  Presbyterian  congregation  is, 
therefore,  governed  by  a  session  composed 
of  elders  elected  by  the  people,  ordained  by 
the  ministry,  and  presided  over  by  the 
bishop  or  pastor  of  the  congregation,  (c) 
The  Diaconate.  This  office,  in  its  original, 
was  a  provision  for  the  distribution  of  the 
benevolence  of  the  Apostolic  Church.  (Acts 
vi.  1-4.)  Presbyterian  deacons,  therefore, 
are  officers  charged  with  the  care  of  the 
poor  and  of  the  temporalities  of  the  congre- 
gations. They  are  chosen  by  the  people, 
and  ordained  by  the  ministry. 

4.  Of  Church  Membership.  The  terms  of 
admission  to  the  communion  of  the  visible 
church  are  the  same  as  the  conditions  of 
salvation  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  viz., 
belief  in  one  God,  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy 
Ohost,  and  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
involving  acceptance  of  the  Bible  as  the  only 
rule  of  faith  and  practice,  and  a  sincere  pui-- 
pose  to  lead  a  life  acceptable  to  God  in  Jesus 
Christ.  The  Christian  denominations  or 
Communions  can  neither  add  to  nor  take 
from  these  terms  or  conditions,  and  all  who 
have  consented  to  them  are  to  be  treated  as 
brethren  in  Christ.  Church  members,  fur- 
ther, are  under  the  conti-ol  of  the  particular 
church  through  the  session,  and  subject  to 
discipline  for  offences  (Matt,  xviii.  17),  pro- 
vided, however,  that  every  member,  deem- 
ing himself  injured  by  the  action  of  a 
session,  has  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  higher 
courts. 

5.  Of  Church  Courts.  In  addition  to  the 
sessions  of  the  particular  congregations, 
fully  organized  Presbyterian  Churches  have 
higher  or  superior  courts,  known  as  presby- 
teries, synods  and  General  Assemblies, 
through  which  the  four  ^reat  principles  of 
ecclesiastical  polity  above  mentioned  find 
combined  expression.  A  presbytery  is  a 
church  court  exercising  authority,  legisla- 
tive, executive,  and  judicial,  over  congrega- 
tions within  a  limited  geographical  area, 
and  is  composed  of  all  the  ministers  within 
said  area,  with  the  addition  of  an  elder 
from  each  congregation.  The  presbytery 
thus  exhibits  the  unity  of  the  church  in  a 
visible  and  tangible  form;  emphasizes  the 
parity  of  the  ministry,  by  concentrating  the 
episcopal  authority  in  all  its  ministerial 
members;  sets  forth  the  rights  of  the  peo- 
ple by  the  presence  of  elders  as  their  repre- 


sentatives, ruling  conjointly  with  ministers: 
and  exalts  the  Headship  of  Christ  by  mag- 
nifying His  law  as  the  sole  rule  of  proced- 
ure, and  the  interests  of  His  Kingdom  as 
the  sole  sphere  of  Christian  activity. 
Synods  and  General  Assemblies  are  but 
larger  presbyteries,  necessitated  by  the  ex- 
tent and  numbers  of  any  given  denomina- 
tion, and  emphasizing  in  a  yet  more  marked 
manner,  the  unity  of  the  church.  The 
Scriptural  warrant  for  the  presbytery  is 
found  in  such  passages  as  in  1  Tim.  iv.  14, 
and  for  the  synod  and  General  Assembly  in 
Acts  XV.  22-24,  and  xvi.  14. 

III.  Worship.  A  human  priesthood  is  un- 
known in  the  New  Testament.  The  only 
priest  of  the  New  Dispensation  is  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  Ministers  are  not  priests 
but  preachers.  Sacerdotalism,  therefore, 
whether  in  connection  with  the  sacraments, 
or  enforced  liturgies,  or  priestly  vestments, 
has  no  jilace  in  the  worship  of  the  Presby- 
terian and  Reformed  Churches.  The  sac- 
raments are  simply  ordinances,  wherein  by 
sensible  signs  Christ  and  His  benefits  "  are 
represented,  sealed  and  applied  to  believ- 
ers." Prayer  is  the  free  intercourse  of  the 
soul  with  God,  and  ought  not  to  be  hin- 
dered by  such  human  devices  as  compul- 
sory prayer  books.  Ministers  are  not  me- 
diators between  God  and  man,  i^ossessed 
of  a  delegated  divine  authority  to  forgive 
sins,  but  simply  leaders  of  the  people  in  all 
that  constitutes  the  worship  of  and  fellow- 
ship with  the  Triune  God.  True  worship- 
pers worshiiJ  the  Father  neither  in  Samaria 
nor  in  Jerusalem,  but  in  spirit  and  in  truth. 
God  is  nigh  to  every  penitent  and  believing 
soul. 

By  its  Doctrine  the  Presbyterian  system 
honors  the  Divine  Sovereignty  without  de- 
nying human  responsibility;  by  its  Polity  it 
exalts  the  Headship  of  Christ  while  giving 
full  development  to  the  activities  of  the 
Christian  people;  and  in  its  Worslnp  it 
magnifies  God  while  it  brings  blessing  to 
man,  by  insisting  upon  the  right  of  free  ac- 
cess on  the  part  of  every  soul  to  Him  whose 
grace  cannot  be  fettered  in  its  ministrations 
by    any    human     ordinances    whatsoever. 

Among  numerous  works  whose  titles 
might  be  given,  see  more  especially,  for 
Presbyterian  polity  and  worship,  Vitringa, 
De  Synagoga  vetere,  Franequerse,  1696,  2  vols. 
Jus  Divinurn  regiminis  ecclesiastici,  London, 
1646.  Gillespie,  Aaron''s  Bod  Blossoming, 
1646.  Jtis  Bivinum  ministerii  evangelici, 
1654.  Richard  Baxter,  Five  Disputations, 
16")9.  Government  of  Bishops,  16S0.  Samuel 
Miller,  Presbyterianism,  Philadelphia,  1835. 
David  King,  Defence  of  Presbyterian  Form 
of  CIturch  Government,  Edinburgh,  1854.  C. 
Hodge,  Discussions  in  Church  Polity,  New 
York,  1879.  Thomas  Witherow,  Which  is 
the  Apostolic  Church  ?  Belfast,  1856,  reprinted 
Philadelphia,  1879.  A.  T.  McGill,  Church 
Government,  Philadelphia,  1889.  For  the 
doctrine  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches,  see 
A.  A.  Hodge,  Commentary  on  the  Confession 
of  Faith,  Philadelphia,  [1869].  C.  Hodge, 
Systematic  Theology,  New  York,  1872-73,  3 
vols.  H.  B.  Smith,  Christian  Theology,  Svo, 
New  York,  1886,  4th  ed.,  1890. 

Wm  Henry  Roberts. 


PRESENCE 


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PRIEST 


Presence,  The  Real.  See  Lord's  Sup- 
PEK,  p.  513,  2d  col. 

Presentation,  as  a  term  of  ecclesiastical 
law,  desifinates  the  act  by  which  the  patron 
of  a  benefice  offers  a  cleiic  to  the  ordinary 
for  institution.  Tlie  rij>ht  of  nomination 
and  presentation  may  be  vested  in  the 
same  person,  but  very  often  he  who  has 
the  riftht  of  presentation  must  make  a  se- 
lection from  a  list  of  nominees  drawn  up 
by  somebody  else.  If  the  ordinary  finds 
the  clerc  presented  incapable  or  disquali- 
fied, he  may  refuse  to  institute  him.  If  a 
presentation  is  not  made  within  six  months, 
the  vacant  benefice  lapses  to  the  bishop, 
after  another  six  months  to  the  arch- 
bisliop,  and  finally  to  the  crown. 

Pressense  (pra-son-sa),  Edmond  de,   D.D. 

(Breslau,  18U1»,  Moutauban,  1876,  Edin- 
burf,di.  1S84),  Frencli  Protestant;  b.  in  Paris, 
.Jan.  24,  1824;  studied  theolof^y  at  Lausanne, 
Halle,  and  Berlin,  was  pastor  of  the  Free 
Evangelical  Congrcfjation  of  the  Taitbout 
at  Paris,  1847-70,  member  of  the  National 
Assembly,  1871-76  and  senator  since  1883. 
Of  his  numerous  publications  the  following 
have  been  translated  into  English:  The  Re- 
deemer, Edinburgli,  1864,  Boston,  1867; 
The  Land  of  the  Gospel,  London,  1865;  Jesus 
Christ,  London,  1866,  4th  ed.,  1871;  Relti/ioii 
and  the  Iiei</n  of  Terror,  New  York,  18(18, 
London,  18(>9;  Mystery  of  Suff'erin</,  hondon, 
1868;  Ulstory  of  the  Three  First  Centuries  of 
the  Christia)i  Church,  London  and  New  York, 
1869-78,  4  vols.;  Home  and  Italy  at  the  open- 
in;/  of  the  (Ecumenical  Council,  New  York, 
1870;  Contemporary  Portraits,  New  York, 
1880;  Study  of  Oriffins,  London,  1883;  An- 
cient ^yorld  and  Christianity,  New  York, 
1888  ;  d.  in  Paris,  April  8,  1891. 

Prester  John.  See  Joux  the  Pkesbt- 
TEK,  p.  457. 

Preston,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  16—),  b. 
at  Heyford,  Northamptonshire,  England,  in 
1587;  d.  there  in  1628;  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, l>ecame  chaplain  to  Prince  Charles, 
preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  master  of 
Emanuel  College.  He  was  a  strongly  pro- 
nounced Puritan,  but  attracted  great  audi- 
ences as  a  preacher.  Several  of  his  collec- 
tions of  sermons  and  treatises  ran  through 
manv  editions,  as  for  instance  The  Saints' 
Daily  Exf-rcise,  London,  1633,  9th  ed.,  1635; 
Sermons  before  Ills  Majestic,  1635,  5th  ed. 
1637.  etc. 

Prideaux  (prid'-o).  Humphrey,  D.D.  (Ox- 
ford. 16S(1).  Church  of  England;  b.  at  Pad- 
stow,  Cornwall,  242  m.  w.  by  s.  of  London, 
May  3,  1()4S;  d.  at  Norwich,  Nov.  1,  1724.  He 
passed  from  Westminster  to  Christ  Churcli, 
Oxford.  lt)()8.  and  became  Hebrew  lecturer 
there  and  rector  of  .St.  ("lement's,  1679;  pre- 
bendary of  Ndrwich,  l(i81 ;  rectm- of  Bladon 
and  Woodstock.  168.3.  and  of  Saham,  Nor- 
folk. lt;8ti;  archdeacon  of  Suffolk,  1688; 
vicar  of  Trowse.  near  Norwich.  U;9(i;  dean 
of  Norwich.  1702.  Of  his  writings  the  chief 
are  a  Liff  of  Mahomet,  London,  1697.  which 
is  one-sided  and  unfair,  and  The  Old  and 
Xew  Testament  Connected,  1716.  which  liad  a 
great  success  and  is  still  in  print.     His  Life 


appeared,  1748,  and  his  Letters  to  J.  Ellis, 
1875.  F.  M.  B. 

Prierias  (pree'-re-as),  Sylvester,  b.  at  Pri- 

erio.  Piedmont,  in  1400;  d.  in  Rome,  1523; 
entered  the  Dominican  order  in  1475,  ob- 
tained some  success  as  a  professor  at  Padua 
ajid  Bologna,  was  made  Mayister  Sarri  Palor- 
tii  by  Leo  X.  in  1515,  and  gained  an  un- 
enviable notoriety  by  his  writings  against 
Luther,  In  i^ruiumiHuosas  Martini  Lutheri 
conclusiones  ....  dialogus,  1518;  Errata 
Lutheri,  1519;  etc.,  which  were  so  inferior 
that  the  pope  had  to  silence  him. 

Priest  (contracted  from  presbyter, 
"elder"),  is  the  general  name  for  ministers 
of  religion  in  all  ages  and  countries.  In  the 
Scrijiture  a  priest  is  one  who  offers  sacrifice 
(Ileb.  V.  1)  and  acts  as  intermediary  be- 
tween God  and  man.  Prior  to  the  Mosaic 
economy,  the  fathers  were  priests  of  their 
own  families,  though  there  were  individual 
priests,  as  Melchisedek  and  Hobat.  The 
patriarchs,  Noah,  Abraham,  etc.,  offered 
their  own  sacrifices.  When  the  covenant 
was  made  at  Sinai  Moses  acted  asmediatoi", 
and  young  men  were  chosen  to  make  the 
offerings  (Ex.  xxiv.  5).  But  after  the  Lord 
liad  chosen  Levi  to  serve  in  the  tabernacle 
and  annexed  the  priesthood  to  Aaron  and 
his  descendants,  no  others  were  allowed  to 
discharge  the  function,  and  Uzziah  who 
attempted  it  was  smitten  with  leprosy 
(2  Chron.  xxvi.  19).  Still  on  occasion  the 
prophets  offered  sacrifice  (1  Sam.  vii.  9,  ix. 
13,  1  Ki.  xviii.  33). 

The  priests  served  immediately  at  the 
altar.  They  presented  the  daily",  weekly 
and  monthly  sacrifices,  and  such  as  were 
brought  on  the  great  festivals  or  by  indi- 
viduals. They  sprinkled  the  blood,  kept 
up  the  perpetual  fire  on  the  altar,  trimmed 
the  golden  lamps,  burned  the  incense  and 
officiated  at  purifications.  In  war  they 
sounded  the  silver  trumpets  and  bore  the 
ark  of  the  covenant.  In  peace  they  minis- 
tered as  judges  at  the  trial  of  jealousy,  at 
the  estimation  of  redemption  money  for  a 
vow,  etc.  David  divided  them  iiito  24 
courses — 16  of  Eleazar's  family  and  8  of 
Ithamar's;  and  as  they  served  in  succes- 
sion, changing  every  Sabl)ath  (2  Chnm. 
xxiii.  8),  each  coixrse  would  officiate  at  least 
twice  a  year.  During  the  captivity  this 
arrangement  seems  to  have  fallen  into  some 
confusion  (Ezra  ii.  36-39,  Neh.  vii.  39-42), 
only  4  courses  being  mentioned. 

The  consecration  of  a  priest  took  place 
with  great  solemnity.  The  ceremonies, 
which  were  miinitely  prescribed  (Ex.  xxix. 
1-37.  Lev.  viii.,  ix.),  lasted  for  7  days,  and 
consisted  in  sacrifices,  washings,  putting 
on  the  holy  garments,  sprinkling  with 
blood  and  anointing  with  oil.  The  priest's 
dress  consisted  of  a  white  linen  tunic  reach- 
ing to  the  ankles,  furnished  with  tight 
sleeves  and  held  together  with  a  lincN 
girdle  interwoven  with  blue,  jiurple  and 
scarlet  (Ex.  xxviii.  39).  On  the  head  was  a 
turban,  also  of  fine  linen,  in  many  folds. 
The  high  priest  wore  the  same  dress  with 
the  addition  of  4  articles;  an  outer  tunic  of 
blue  with  an  ornamented  border  at  the 
neck  and    a  fringe  of   pomegranates  and 


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PRIESTLEY 


golden  bells  at  the  bottom;  a  linen  ephod 
of  blue  and  purple  and  scarlet  interwoven 
with  golden  threads,  covering  the  body 
from  the  neck  to  the  thighs,  having  shoul- 
der-i^ieces  joined  by  golden  clasps  on  which 
were  onyx  stones  graven  with  the  names  of 
the  12  tribes;  a  breastplate  attached  at  its 
4  corners  to  the  ephod,  and  also  bearing  the 
names  of  the  12  tribes  on  12  precious  stones; 
and  the  mitre,  a  high  and  ornamented  tur- 
ban with  the  inscription  Holy  to  the 
LoKD.  Neither  he  nor  the  priests  wore 
their  sacred  dresses  out  of  the  temple 
(Ezek.  xlii.  14,  xliv.  17-19,  Acts  xxiii.  5). 
They  could  not  mourn  at  the  death  save  of 
the  nearest  relatives,  or  practise  shavings  or 
cuttings  that  were  common,  nor  marry  a 
divorced  woman,  nor  could  they  serve  if 
laboring  under  any  bodily  defect.  As  their 
oflfice  was  to  approach  the  Lord  on  behalf 
of  the  people  they  must  be  and  remain  pure 
within  and  clean  without. 

For  their  maintenance  they  had  13  of  the 
Levitical  cities  witli  their  pasture  grounds 
(Josh.  xxi.  10-19),  one-tenth  of  the  tithes 
paid  to  the  Levites  (Num.  xviii.  26),  a  spe- 
cial tithe  every  third  year  ilDeut.  xiv.  28), 
the  first-fruits  of  corn,  wine  and  oil,  the  re- 
demption money  paid  for  the  first  born, 
part  of  the  spoils  taken  in  war,  and  when 
they  were  officiating,  the  shew-bread  and  a 
prescribed  portion  of  the  various  offerings 
that  were  made.  After  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  the  true  Aaronic  priests  left  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  and  settled  in  Judah 
(2  Chi'on.  xi.  13).  The  "chief  priests"  of 
the  Gospels  and  Acts  were  heads  of  the 
courses  and  ex-high  priests,  the  office  at 
tliat  time  being  no  longer  held  for  life  and 
by  hereditary  succession,  but  obtained  by 
appointment  and  subject  to  frequent 
changes. 

The  priesthood  of  Christ  is  the  substance 
of  which  that  of  the  Old  Testament  was  a 
figure.  He  a  priest  after  the  order  of  Mel- 
chisedek  abides  for  ever,  whereas  the 
Aaronic  priests,  Tjeing  mortal,  could  not 
continue  but  had  constant  succession. 
Now  the  ascended  Saviour  is  a  priest  upon 
his  throne,  and  no  other  vicarious  mediator 
is  needed  or  is  possible.  But  an  earthly 
priesthood  in  a  qualified  sense  still  contin- 
ues. The  promise  made  by  the  Lord  to 
ancient  Israel  (Ex.  xix.  6)  that  he  would 
constitute  them  kings  and  priests  is  ful- 
filled to  believers  under  the  Gospel  (1  Pe.  ii. 
5,  9).  Christians,  instead  of  being  shut  up 
to  the  offices  of  any  earthly  official,  are 
their  own  priests  and'have  immediate  access 
to  God  (Rom.  v.  2,  Eph.  ii.  10,  Heb.  x. 
19-22).  They  present  themselves  a  living 
sacrifice  well-ijleasing  to  God  (Rom.  xii.  1), 
and  their  worship,  their  gifts,  their  deeds 
of  kindness  and  love  are  all  so  many  acts  of 
priestly  service  laid  upon  Jehovah's  altar 
(Phil.  ii.  17,  iv.  IS,  Heb.  xiii.  15,  16). 

The  term  priest  is  still  retained  in  certain 
branches  of  the  Christian  Chiarch,  and  their 
ministers  of  religion  are  considered  as  in- 
vested with  sacerdotal  functions.  The 
Lord's  Supper  is  regarded  as  the  memorial 
of  a  sacrifice,  and  though  it  is  unbloody,  it 
is  maintained  that  at  every  proper  celebra- 
tion Christ  is  offered  anew,  and  that  this 


sacrifice  is  efficacious  for  the  living  and  the 
dead.  Hence  the  officials  who  offer  it  are 
real  priests,  and  stand  between  the  worship- 
per and  his  God  just  as  did  the  priests  of 
ancient  Israel.  But  those  who  oppose  this 
doctrine  maintain  that  there  is  nothing  in  the 
institution  of  the  Supper  that  indicates  that 
it  is  in  any  sense  a  sacrifice,  nor  are  the 
ministers  of  the  Gospel  ever  in  Scripture  call- 
ed priests.  They  have  a  great  variety  of 
names,  but  never  any  title  which  implies  sac- 
erdotal functions.  The  cardinal  principle  of 
Protestantism,  they  further  maintain,  is  that 
there  is  but  one  real  priest  in  the  universe, 
even  the  Lord  Jesus,  who  is  at  God's  right 
hand,  and  that  througli  Him  all  men  of 
every  class  have  direct  access  to  God  with- 
out any  human  intervention. 

T.  W.  C. 
Priesthood,  Roman  OathoUc,  is  a  growth 
in  the  church,  accompanied  by  and  largely 
dependent  upon  the  growth  of  the  concep- 
tion of  the  eucharist  as  a  true  sacrifice. 
In  the  earliest  church  writers,  like  Justin 
Martyr,  the  whole  congregation  of  believers 
is  represented  as  clothed  with  the  priest- 
hood, and  as  such  make  the  offering  of  the 
eucharist,  which  is  a  thank  offering.  Ire- 
nfeus  teaches  that  all  saints  possess  the 
priestly  order.  Tertullian  presents,  and 
Leo  the  Great  dwells  upon  the  same  truth. 
But  at  an  early  date  the  habit  of  calling  the 
clergy  priests,'  in  imitation  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament usage,  became  prevalent,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  tendency,  to  limit  the  re- 
quirements of  the  law  in  general  to  them, 
against  which  Tertullian  contends.  In  the 
3d  century  the  offering  began  to  be  re- 
garded as  one  made  in  behalf  of  the  people 
instead  of  by  the  people,  and  hence  by  the 
imddle  ages  the  necessity  of  a  proper  sacri- 
fice for  the  sins  of  the  peojile,  and  of  a 
priestly  class  to  offer  these  sacrifices,  had  be- 
come a  fixed  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  Church. 
Where  suggestions  of  the  general  priest- 
hood of  all  believers  still  remained,  as  in 
Thomas  Aquinas,  and  in  the  Roman  Cate- 
chism, prepared  by  the  direction  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  the  representation  of  this 
priesthood  in  a  special  order  is  nevertheless 
declared  to  be  necessary,  and  the  necessity 
of  mediators  between  the  congregation 
and  God  is  maintained.  The  power  con- 
ferred on  the  priest  is  twofold,  that  of 
offering  sacrifice  for  the  living  and  the  dead, 
and  that  of  governing  the  people,  including 
the  work  of  teaching.  Ordination  is  a  sac- 
rament which  besides  conveying  these 
powers,  conveys  also  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
impresses  upon  the  soul  an  indelible  char- 
acter by  which  the  priest  is  a  priest.  A 
priest  must  be  baptized,  of  the  male  sex, 
not  less  than  2.5  years  of  age,  unmarried, 
free,  sound  in  body,  and  of  legitimate 
birth.  F.  H.  F. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  LL.D.  (Edinburgh, 
1766),  F.R.S.  (17—),  Unitarian;  b.  at  Field- 
head,  Yorkshire,  England,  Mar.  18,  1733; 
d.  at  Northumberland,  Pa.,  Feb.  6,  1804; 
He  was  graduated  at  the  dissenting 
academy  of  Daventry,  and  became  succes- 
sively pastor  of  a  dissenting  congregation 
at  Needham  Market,  1755,   and  Nantwich, 


PRIMACY 


(767) 


PRINCE 


1758;  professor  of  belles-letters  in  the  dis- 
senting academy  of  Warrin<;;ton,17t)l;  pas- 
tor of  Mill  Hill  Chapel,  Leeds,  17t57;  libra- 
rian to  the  earl  of  Shelburne,  with  whom 
he  travelled  on  the  continent,  1773;  pastor 
at  Birmingham,  17S0,  and  at  Hackney,  1790, 
but  left  England  in  171U,  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica, and  settled  at  Northumberland,  Pa., 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  as  a  private 
citizen.  As  a  pastor  he  was  never  popular. 
He  represented  the  deistical  standpoint  of 
his  time,  and  pursued  it  into  its  most 
extreme  consequences,  though  he  never 
touched  at  materialism.  His  History  of  the 
Corruptions  of  Christianitij,  Birmingham, 
1782,  2  vols.,  and  his  llistori/  of  the  Early 
Opinions  Concerning  Jrsns  Christ,  1786,  4 
vols.,  attracted  great  attention  in  the  liter- 
ary and  theological  world,  and  caused  con- 
siderable scandal  by  their  outspokenness, 
though  they  were  entirely  free  from  irrev- 
erence and  blasphemy.  lie  was,  however, 
at  the  same  time,  a  zealous  adherent  of  the 
French  revolution,  and  wrote  very  sharply 
on  that  and  other  crabbed  subjects,  as  for 
instance,  on  the  social  and  political  condi- 
tions of  dissentei's  in  England.  The  com- 
motion he  thereby  produced,  finally  resulted 
in  a  mob-riot  at  Birmingham,  July  14,  1791. 
His  house  was  burnt  down,  his  books, 
papers,  scientific  ai)paratus,  etc.,  were  de- 
stroyed or  scattered  to  the  winds,  and  he 
had  to  flee  for  his  life.  The  government 
afterwards  paid  him  £2,.502  in  damages,  but 
he  felt  unsafe  in  the  country  and  witlidrew. 
In  America,  he  was  received  with  the  great- 
est courtesy,  not  on  account  of  his  theolog- 
ical exploits,  but  because  of  his  great 
merits  as  a  scientist.  His  pneumatic  in- 
quiries, his  inventions,  both  of  methods 
and  apparatus  of  research,  his  discoveries 
both  of  facts  and  principles,  etc.,  were  rec- 
ognized and  admired  throughout  the  whole 
civilized  world.  From  various  sides  in 
America  he  was  offered  scientific  positions 
of  power  and  emolument.  These  he  de- 
clined, however,  and  as  his  attempts  to 
continue  his  theological  warfare  were  un- 
successful, he  lived  in  retirement.  At  pres- 
ent his  theological  works  are  probably 
noticed  only  as  of  interest  for  his  personal 
life,  while  his  scientific  works  still  remain 
of  fundamental  importance  to  modern 
science.  A  list  of  his  publications  comjnis- 
ing  more  than  300  titles  was  compiled  in 
1870,  and  is  found  in  the  library  of  Con- 
gress. His  biography  he  wrote  himself  up 
to  the  j'ear  1795,  from  which  time  it  was 
continued  by  his  sons  until  his  death. 
Memoirs  of  Dr.  Joxeph  Priestley,  London, 
1800-7,  2  vols.  His  Thenloriical  find  Misrella- 
neoiis  Works,  appeared  at  Hackney,  Eng., 
1817-32,  in  26  vols.  His  scientific  corre- 
spondence is  announced,  edited  by  Dr.  H. 
C.  Bolton.  C.  P. 

Primacy  of  the  bi.shop  of  Rome  consists 
in  primacy  (1)  of  jurisdiction  and  (2)  of 
lionor.  By  the  first  he  lias  the  supreme 
government,  of  the  IJoman  Catholic  Cluirch, 
in  which  he  is  bound  only  by  the  divine 
law  and  by  luunun  laws,  wliich  are  subject 
to  alteration  by  iiim,  so  b>ng  as  tliey  exist. 
Thus  his  rights  are  those  of  supreme  legis- 


lation; of  the  decision  of  affairs  pertaining 
to  the  offices  of  the  church,  such  as  the 
confirmation,  etc.,  of  bishops;  of  jurisdic- 
tion in  matters  of  discipline;  of  the  regula- 
tion of  religious  institutions,  such  as  mo- 
nastic orders;  of  control  of  the  financial 
affairs  of  tlie  church;  of  the  administration 
and  conduct  of  the  sacraments  and  worship 
of  the  church,  including  canonization,  and 
the  forgiveness  of  sins.'  The  pope  is  also 
the  supreme  teaching  authority  of  the 
church  (see  Ixfallibility).  Thus  he  is 
universal  bishop,  or  has  direct,  ordinary 
episcopal  jurisdiction  over  all  single 
churches,  dioceses,  and  individual  believ- 
ers. He  represents  the  church  also  in  its 
dealings  with  the  civil  power.  His  primacy 
of  honor  gives  him  the  highest  titles,  of 
which  the  most  common  is  Your  Holiness, 
or  Most  Holy  Father;  the  tiara  as  distin- 
guishing mark;  and  the  right  of  adoratio,  or 
of  demanding  expression  of  reverence  from 
all  believers  by  kneeling,  F.  H.  F. 

Prime,  Samuel  Irenaeus,  D.D.  (Hampden 
Sidney  College,  Va.,  1854),  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Ballston,  Saratoga  County,  N.  Y.,  Nov. 
4,  1812;  d.  at  Manchester,  Vt.,  July  18,  1885. 
He  studied  theology  in  Princeton  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  and  became  in  1840  editor  of 
The  New  York  Observer,  in  which  position 
he  remained  till  his  death,  taking  an  active 
and  leading  ])art  in  all  the  affairs  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  Among  his  publica- 
tions the  principal  are:  Power  of  Prayer, 
New  York,  1859;  Five  Years  of  Prayer  with 
the  Ansioers,  18()4;  Fifteen  Years  of  Prayer 
in  the  Fulton-street  Prayer-meetim/,  1873; 
Iremeiis  Letters,  3  series,  1882,  1885,  and 
1886,  the  last  containing  his  autobiography, 
etc. 

Primicerius,  "the  first  on  the  list,"  from 
the  Latin pri»u(s;  "  first"  and  cera:  "wax." 
because,  in  ancient  times,  the  tablet  on 
which  a  list  was  inscribed,  was  made  of  a 
board  covered  by  wax.  At  the  papal  court 
there  were  in  early  days  several  officers 
who  held  the  title  of  printicervs  as  the  head 
of  a  certain  department.  Later  on  it  was 
only  applied  to  the  heads  of  the  lower 
clergy,  ranking  next  to  the  arch-presbyter 
and  arch-deacon,  and  at  present  it  has 
nearly  gone  out  of  use.  Le  primicier  of  St. 
Denis  is  one  of  the  few  instances  in  which 
it  has  been  retained.  It  there  means  simply 
the  precentor  of  the  choir. 

Primitive,  Methodist  Connection.  See 
Methodism,   p.  507. 

Prince,  Thomas,  Congregationalist;  b.  at 
Sandwich.  Mass..  Mav  15.  10S7;  d.  in  Bos- 
ton. Oct.  22,  1758.  lie  graduated  at  Har- 
vard, 1707.  went  abroad,  and  remained  in 
England  eight  years.  Returning  he  liecame 
colleague  to  Dr.  J.  Sewall  at  the  Old  South 
Church  in  Boston,  171S.  His  f'hriniolo(/ical 
History  of  New  En;/l<ind  [1002-3;!]  a]ii)eared 
Boston,  1730-.55,  and  was  reprinted  there, 
1820  and  1852.  Failing  to  meet  due  encour- 
agement, he  did  not  complete  the  work,  and 
much  of  his  valuable  material  was  after- 
wards lost.  He  also  j)ublished  sundry  tracts 
and  sernums  and  revised  the  New  England 
or  Bay  Psalm  Book,  1758.  F.  M.  B. 


PRIOR 


(768) 


PROBATION 


Prior,  as  the  title  of  a  monastic  official 
dates  back  to  the  13th  century,  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Coelestine  V.  Before  that  time  the 
term  was  prirpotiitas:  provost,  and  when- 
ever prior  occurs  in  relation  to  monks,  it 
means  simply  superiority  of  age  or  some- 
thing similar.  After  its  general  adoption  a 
distinction  was  made  between  a  prior  con- 
ventualis  and  a  prior  claustralis.  The  for- 
mer was  the  actual  head  of  the  monastery 
and  had  charge  of  the  discipline  of  the 
monks,  the  management  of  the  estates,  the 
conduct  of  the  lawsuits,  the  cultivation  of 
the  fields,  the  erection  of  buildings,  etc. 
The  latter  stood  under  an  abbot  and  had 
charge  only  of  the  discipline. 

Priscillianists.  A  sect  existing  in  Spain 
and  France  from  the  4th  to  the  5th  cen- 
tury. It  api^eared  about  379,  and  a  certain 
Priscillian  was  its  leader.  Like  Augustine 
he  fell  under  the  influence  of  the  Manichae- 
ans,  but  unlike  him  he  was  largely  con- 
trolled in  his  thinking  by  them.  His 
learning  was  considerable,  and  he  pos- 
sessed in  large  degree  the  power  of  leader- 
ship. Proceedings  were  begun  against  the 
Priscillianists  as  soon  as  they  appeared 
upon  the  scene,  a  synod  being  lield  at  Sara- 
gossa  in  380.  Priscillian  himself  visited 
Uaul  and  Rome.  Damasus  was  then  at 
Rome,  Ambrose  at  Milan;  but  neither  would 
have  anything  to  do  with  him.  Certain 
bishops  having  been  gained  to  the  cause, 
they  were  deposed,  Instantius  at  Bordeaux 
in  384,  Priscillian  appealed  to  the  emperor 
at  Treves,  where  he  was  tried,  and  in  38.5 
executed,  the  first  instance  of  execution 
by  Christians  for  heresy.  Measures  were 
now  taken  against  his  followers,  many  coun- 
cils held,  but  they  maintained  themselves 
until  the  Council  at  Braga  in  .563. 

Their  doctrine  was  as  follows.  God  is 
strictly  one.  The  Trinity  is  one  of  revela- 
tion, not  of  essence.  From  the  one  God 
spirits  have  descended  by  emanation.  The 
creator  of  the  world  was  not  God,  but  an 
imperfect  divine  being,  perhaps  the  "  God 
of  the  ancient  law"  who  is  represented  as 
opposed  to  the  God  of  the  gospel.  Souls 
have  pre-existed  and  in  their  former  state 
fallen  into  sin,  whence  their  reappearance 
in  bodies,  which  are  a  means  of  punish- 
ment. The  devil  is  an  independent  spirit, 
not  created  by  God,  the  soui'ce  of  all  evil. 
The  propagation  of  the  race  is  a  work  of  the 
devil.  Christ  was  born  of  the  Virgin,  and 
this  is  the  appearance  in  history,  and  also 
the  real  beginning,  of  the  second  person  of 
the  Trinity.  The  Priscillianists  laid  great 
emphasis  upon  asceticism.  F.  H.  F. 

Probabilism  iprohabilis,  probable),  the 
doctrine  that  it  is  lawful  to  use  probable 
opinions  in  guiding  the  conscience  and  the 
life.  The  term  came  into  use  in  the  discus- 
sions of  the  17th  century,  but  the  doctrine 
itself  is  as  old  as  ethical  science,  having 
been  broached  by  the  Greek  Sophists.  It 
afterwards  appeared  in  the  Talmudists,  in 
some  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  in  the  Domin- 
ican theologians  and  finally,  reduced  to  a 
system,  in  the  .Jesuit  moralists.  There  are 
4  schools — probabilism  pure  and  simple; 
sequi-probabilism ;  probabiliorisra ;  and  tuti- 


orism.  A  sound  ethics  rejects  them  all  as- 
snares  to  the  conscience  and  excuses  for 
sin.  The  only  rule  of  scriptural  morality 
is  that  a  man  is  on  no  account  whatever  to 
do  anything  of  which  he  doubts  whether  it 
is  agreeable  to  the  law  of  God,  unless  he  to 
the  same  degree  doubts  the  lawfulness  of 
omitting  it.  No  authority  of  theologians  or 
casuists  can  justify  any  one  in  disregarding 
his  own  convictions  of  truth  and  duty. 
[Pascal's  treatment  of  the  subject  in  his 
Provincial  Letters,  should  be  read  for  fur- 
ther information.]  T.  W.  C. 

Probation,  Ecclesiastical,  denotes  in  Meth- 
odism the  period,  generally  six  months, 
during  which  a  candidate  for  membership 
must  decide  whether  or  not  he  will  enter 
the  church,  and  the  church  whether  or  not 
it  will  admit  him  as  a  member. 

Probation,  Ministerial,  denotes  among 
some  bodies  of  English  dissenters  the  pe- 
riod dui-ing  which  a  candidate  for  election 
supplies  a  vacant  church  in  order  to  arrive 
at  definite  agreement  with  the  congregation. 

Probation,  Monastic,  denotes  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  the  year  which  a 
novice  must  spend  in  a  convent  in  order  to 
prove  himself  competent  of  the  monastic 
rule. 

Probationer  means  in  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land a  student  of  divinity  who  with  a  cer- 
tificate from  the  professors  of  the  univer- 
sity'as  to  learning  and  morals  comes  before 
the  presbytery  to  undergo  examination 
before  he  is  licensed  to  preach. 

Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  See  Fil- 
lOQUE  Controversy,  p.  292. 

Probation,  Futiare,  the  doctrine  that  the 
offer  of  the  gospel  will  be  made  in  the  next 
life  to  those  who  never  had  a  probation 
here.  It  is  applied  to  the  heathen,  to  in- 
fants dying  in  infancy,  and  to  such  adults 
as  never  heard  the  gospel  while  living.  It 
is  often  said  that  the  heathen  should  not  be 
condemned  for  not  believing  what  they 
never  knew,  but  the  Scripture  expressly 
declares  (Rom.  ii.  12)  that  they  are  con- 
demned for  their  sins,  not  for  rejecting 
Christ.  The  famous  text  in  1  Peter 
(iii.  19)  is  variously  interpreted,  but  even  if 
it  were  understood  to  mean  that  Christ  did 
offer  the  gospel  to  the  antediluvians,  it 
does  not  follow  he  does  this  continuously 
to  all.  The  principle  upon  which  this  doc- 
trine is  really,  although  not  ostensibly 
based  is  the  thoroughly  unscriptural  as- 
sumption that  God  owes  to  all  men  a  favor- 
able opportunity  of  knowing  and  receiving 
Christ.  But  if  this  were  true  the  Gospel 
would  be  of  debt  and  not  of  grace.  All  the 
teaching  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  imislies 
that  in  this  life  only  can  salvation  be  se- 
cured. In  Hades  "there  is  a  great  gulf 
fixed  "  between  the  penitent  and  impeni- 
tent (Luke  xvi.  26).  Men  who  die  unbeliev- 
ing "die  in  their  sins"  (John  viii.  21).  "It 
is  appointed  unto  men  to  die,  and  after  this 
Cometh  judgment"  (Heb.  ix.  27).  Men  are 
to  stand  "  before  the  judgment  seat  of 
Christ,  that  each  one  may  receive  the 
things  done  in  the  body"  (2  Cor.  v.  10). 


PROCESSIONS 


(769) 


PROPHECY 


This  life  is  constantly  represented  in  an- 
tithesis to  the  life  to  come.  Here  is  the 
sowing;,  there  is  the  reaping. 

See  C.  Hodge,  Theolo<ji/,  New  York;  Cor- 
ner, System  of  Christian  Doctrine,  Edin- 
bui'gh;  Farrar,  Eternal  Hope,  New  York, 
1878;  Reimensnyder,  Doom  Eternal,  Phila- 
delphia, 18S0.  T.  W.  C. 

Processions  were  common  both  among 
the  Greeks  and  the  Komans  as  a  solemn 
though  not  strictly  religious  rite.  In  the 
Christian  Church  they  seem  to  have  been 
introduced  quite  incidentally  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury. As  the  Arians  were  not  allowed  to 
worship  in  Constantinople  within  the  walls, 
they  used  to  assemble  morning  and  evening 
at  the  porches  of  the  orthodox  church,  and 
then  march  in  processions  and  singing 
hymns  through  the  streets  to  their  meeting- 
houses outside  the  walls.  Chrysostom, 
347-407,  became  afraid  of  the  impression 
those  processions  made  on  the  people,  and 
in  order  to  counteract  the  effect  he  insti- 
tuted processions  of  the  orthodox  with 
chants  of  anthems  and  lit  tapers.  Ambvo- 
sius,  however,  340-39.5,  speaks  of  proces- 
sions of  monks  in  the  West  without 
mentioning  anything  about  their  origin. 
During  the  middle  ages  these  processions 
became  one  of  the  most  minutely  and  mag- 
nificently elaborated  rites  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Churcli,  but  after  the  Reformation 
they  lost  their  prestige  and  they  were  not 
adopted  among  the  ceremonies  of  the  Prot- 
estant churches.  C.  P. 

Procopius  the  Great,  a  leader  of  the  Hus- 
sites selected  to  succeed  Ziska  when  the 
latter  died  in  1424.  When  the  "  Calixtines  " 
acquiesced  in  the  proposition  of  the  Council 
of  Basel  and  reunited  with  the  Catholic 
Church,  the  "  Taborites  "  under  Procopius 
continued  their  armed  resistance.  Proco- 
pius had  travelled  extensively  in  Europe  and 
had  gone  as  far  as  Jerusalem,  before  he 
received  priestly  orders.  He  gained  many 
battles  while  the  Calixtines  continued  with 
the  remaining  Hussites,  but  after  their  sub- 
mission in  1433  the  fatal  1)attle  of  Br)hmisch- 
Brod  soon  followed  (1434)  in  which  he  was 
killed.  F.  H.  F. 

Proctor,  a  contraction  of  the  Latin  pro- 
curator, means  in  general  a  person  who  is 
legally  commissioned  to  take  cai'e  ol 
another  person's  cause  in  an  ecclesiastical 
court.  In  the  Roman  ('atholic  Church  proc- 
tors may  act  both  for  tlie  bride  and  the 
bridegroom,  not  only  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  betrothal  but  alsl)  at  the  very  marriage 
act;  further  for  godfathers  and  godmothers 
in  haptism  and  confirmation  and  without 
contracting  the  comnvitio  spirit iialiH  which 
prohibits  marriage  between  them.  In  the 
Church  of  England  proctor  means  a  clergy- 
man who  has  been  elected  to  represent  his 
brethren  of  the  diocese  in  convocation.  In 
the  English  universities  i)roctors  arc  simply 
the  representatives  of  the  whole  body  of 
masters  of  arts  charged  with  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  discipline  of  the  university, 

Procuratioa  means  in  canonical  laws 
simply  the  entertainment  wliicli  sliould  be 
given   a    papal   legate,    an    archbishop,    a 


bishop,  etc.,  when  on  visitation  or  travelling 
in  the  service  of  the  church.  Since  1336  it 
was  allowed  to  commute  it  into  a  sum  of 
money. 

Prodicians,  a  Gnostic  sect  founded  in  the 
2d  century  by  Prodicus  and  generally  iden- 
tified with  the  Adamites,  which  see.  They 
used  certain  apocryphal  writings  of  Zoroas- 
ter as  their  authorities. 

Professio,Fidei  Tridentinae.     See  Tkiuen- 

TINE  PkOKESSION  OF  FaITH. 

Pronier,  Caesar  Louis,  b.  at  Geneva,  Switz- 
erland, Oct.  1S»,  1831;  d.  at  sea,  Nov.  22, 
1873;  studied  theology  in  his  native  city  and 
in  Berlin,  and  was  in  18(i3  appointed  profes- 
sor in  the  Free  Church  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  Geneva.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Sixth  General  Conference  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance  held  in  New  York,  October,  1873, 
and  perished  on  his  return  home  by  the 
collision  of  the  "  Ville  de  Havre"  with 
"Loch  Earn."  (See  EvajKjelical  Alliancey 
New  York,  1874,  pp.  763-7()5). 

Propagamda,  The,  comprises  the  Congre- 
gatio  (le  Propaganda  Fide,  founded  in  1622 
by  Gregory  XV.  and  consisting  of  all  the 
cardinals;  the  very  complete  and  excellently 
equipped  institute  for  the  education  of 
missionaries,  and  the  administration  of  the 
entire  missionary  work  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  Its  seat  is  Rome,  its  field  is 
the  whole  world,  not  only  the  heathens  but 
also  the  Protestants.  (See  Meier,  Die  Prop- 
aqanda,  Gottingen,  1852,  and  art.  Missions, 
p.  587.) 

Prophecy,  Prophet  (speaker  for  another), 
A  prophet  is  one  who  speaks  for  God.  i.e., 
utters  his  message,  as  Aaron  was  the  pro- 
phet of  Moses  (Ex.  vii.  1).  The  prophets  of 
the  Old  Testament  were  inspired  teachers 
of  the  people.  Scattered  prophecies  occur 
before  Moses  who  himself  bore  the  title 
(Deut.  xviii.  15,  18),  but  it  was  not  till  the 
time  of  Samuel  that  the  prophets  became  a 
regular  order  like  the  priests,  and  after- 
wards the  kings.  Under  the  Judges,  the 
priesthood  degenerated  and  Samuel  was 
raised  up  to  devek>p  a  new  moral  force 
which  he  did  so  successfully  as  to  be 
ranked  with  Moses  as  a  pillar  of  the  people 
(Ps.  xcvii.  6,  Jer.  xv.  1,  Acts  iii.  21). 
Schools  of  the  prophets  were  established  at 
Ramah  (1  Sam.  xix.  20),  Bethel.  Jericho, 
Gilgal  (2  Ki.  ii.  3,  5,  iv.  38)  and  in  other  places 
(vi.  1).  Under  the  leadership  of  an  older 
prophet  styled  "father"  or  "master" 
(1  Sam.  X.  12,  2  Ki.  ii.  3)  young  men  were 
instructed  in  the  interpretation  of  the  law. 
and  in  music  and  poetry,  both  of  which 
were  associated  with  prophecy  (Ex.  xv.  20 
Jud.  iv.  4,  V.  1,  1  Sam.  x.  5,  Chron.  xxv.  1-6,  2 
Ki.  ii.  3,  15).  Though  this  training  fitted 
men  to  become  instruments  of  (iod,  the 
gift  of  inspiration  was  something  quite  out- 
side of  it,  and  at  times  was  conferred  upon 
those  wlio  had  received  no  prophetic  educa- 
tion (Amos.  vii.  14). 

After  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  the 
prophets  wlio  were  active  in  Israel  preserved 
to  some  extent  the  pure  worship  of  Jehovah 
tbeif.  The  most  illustrious  of  these  were 
Elijah  and  Elisha,  Jonal),  Amos  and  Hosea. 


i 


PROPHECY 


(770) 


PROSELYTES 


In  Judah  a  long  series  declared  the  will  of 
God  to  kings  and  people.  Some  prophets 
were  also  historians  (2  Chron.  ix.  29,  xxvi. 
22.  xxxii.  32).  Most  of  those  whose  writ- 
ings have  been  preserved  belonged  to  the 
southern  kingdom.  There  were  false  pro- 
phets (Jer.  xxiii.  25-27),  and  some  who 
though  true  interpreters  of  God's  will  were 
disobedient  in  life  {Xum.  xxii.-xxiv.);  but 
most  of  the  genuine  prophets  were  faith- 
ful, self-denying  men  (2  Ki.  v.  15,  10), 
often  persecuted  and  slain  (Acts  vii.  52, 
Jas.  V.  10),  but  exerting  a  powerful  influence 
as  witnesses  for  God  and  forming  a  link 
between  the  Old  Dispensation  and  the  New. 

They  received  their  messages  through 
dreams  (Dan.  ii.  vii.),  in  visions  (Is.  v. 
Ezek.  i.),  or  by  direct  communication  (1  Ki. 
xiii.  20-22,  1  Sam.  iii.).  Vision  was  the 
most  common  method.  Men  saw  the  future 
but  rather  in  space  than  in  time,  and  they 
described  events  remote  from  each  other 
side  by  side,  just  as  near  and  remote 
©bjects  are  put  in  a  landscape  painting. 
Thus  Isaiah  (x.  and  xi. )  connects  the  deliver- 
ance of  Judah  from  the  Assyrians  with  the 
deliverance  by  the  Messiah,  and  Zechariah 
(ix. )  connects  the  triumphs  of  Alexander 
with  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  .Joel  (ii.  28-31) 
connects  the  effusion  of  the  Spirit  on  Pente- 
cost with  the  last  day,  just  as  our  Lord 
(Matt,  xxiv.)  joins  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem with  the  end  of  the  world. 

Beside  scattered  prophetic  utterances,  16 
of  the  Hebrew  prophets  have  left  us  writ- 
ings which  now  form  part  of  the  Canon. 
Four  of  these  (Is.,  Jer.,  Ezek.,  and  Dan.) 
are  called  the  greater,  and  the  remaining  12 
the  minor  prophets.  They  cover  a  period 
of  about  430  years,  from  B.C.  850  to  420,  in 
the  order  given  in  the  table. 

I.    Prophets  before  the   Babylonian  Captivitt. 


APPROXI- 

PROPHET 

MATE   DATE 
BETWEEN 

KINGS  OF  JUDAH 

OP  ISRAEL 

Jonah 

856  and  784 

Jeroboam  II. 

Joel 

About  800 

Uzziah. 

Amos 

810  and  78.5 

Uzziah. 

Jeroboam  II. 

Hosea 

790  and  725 

Jeroboam  II. 

Isaiah    ... 

760  and  698 

Uzziah,  Jotham, 
Aliaz,  Hezekiah. 

Micah 

750  and  698 

Jotham,     Ahaz, 
Hezekiah. 

Nahum.... 

720  and  698 

Latter    part    of 
Hezekiah. 

Zephaniah 

630  and  609 

Beginning  of  Jo- 
siah's  reign. 

Jeremiah. 

628  and  588 

Josiah,  Shallum, 
Jehoiakim,  Jere- 
miah, Zedekiah, 

Habakkuk 

612  and  598 

Jehoiakim. 

II.    Prophets  during  the  Babylonian  CAPTmTY. 

APPROXI- 

PROPHET 

MATE  DATE 
BETWEEN 

Daniel .... 

606  and  534 

Taken      captive 
in    4th   year    of 
Jehoiakim,  King 
of  Judah. 

Obadiah... 

588  and  582 

Ezekiel. . . . 

598  and  586 

III.    Prophets  after  the  Return  from  Captivity. 


Haggai.... 
Zachariah 
Malachi  . . 


approxi- 
mate date 

BETWEEN 


.520  and  518 
.520  and  518 
436  and  420 


Nehemiah,  Gov- 
ernor. 


In  the  New  Testament  prophetic  inspira- 
tion was  conferred  ui^on  Zacharias  and 
Simeon  (Luke  i.  67-79,  ii.  28-32)  and  the 
order  was  signally  represented  by  John  the 
Baptist,  of  whom  Christ  said  (Matt.  xi.  9) 
that  he  was  "  much  more  than  a  prophet." 
Our  Lord  himself  was  the  great  prophet  of 
his  church  (Deut.  xviii.  15,  Acts  iii.  22), 
and  his  apostles  exercised  a  prophetic  ac- 
tivity as  inspired  teachers  bearing  the  testi- 
mony of  Jesus  (Rev.  xix.  10),  and  were 
superior  to  the  Old  Testament  prophets  in 
that  they  saw  the  Messiah  in  person  (Matt, 
xiii.  16,  17).  Besides,  there  was  in  the 
apostolic  church  an  order  of  men  called 
"  prophets,"  who  stood  next  to  the  apos- 
tles (1  Cor.  xii.  28,  Eph.  iv.  11).  They  spoke 
by  immediate  inspiration,  at  times  in  refer- 
ence to  the  future  as  Agabus  (Acts  xi.  28, 
xxi.  10,  11),  or  to  the  present  as  in  the 
mission  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts  xiii. 
1-3),  or  in  general  exposition  of  the  mind 
of  the  Spirit  (Acts  xv.  32,  1  Cor.  xii.  10, 
xiv). 

The  Greeks  gave  this  name  to  a  poet  as  an 
interpreter  of  the  Muses,  and  in  this  sense 
the  apostle  Paul  applies  the  term  to  the 
heathen  poet  Aratus  (Titus  i.  12). 

For  radical  treatment  of  the  subject  see 
Kuenen,  The  Prophets  and  Proxjhecy  in 
Israel,  London,  1877;  W.  Robertson  Smith, 
The  Prophets  of  Israel,  Edinburgh  and  New 
York,  1882;  for  conservative  treatment  see 
Oehler,  Old  Testament  Theology,  ed.  Day, 
New  York,  1883;  for  Messianic  prophecy  see 
Orelli,  Old  Testament  Prophecy  of  the  Con- 
summation of  God'' 8  Kingdom  Traced  in  its 
Historical  Development,  Edinburgh,  1885; 
Edersheim,  Prophecy  and  History  in  Relation 
to  the  Messiah,  London,  1885;  Briggs,  Mes- 
sianic Prophecy,  New  York  and  Edinburgh, 
1886.  T.  W.  C. 

Propitiation,  the  offering  which  appeases 
the  wrath  of  one  against  whom  an  offence 
has  been  committed.  Christ  is  called  "  the 
propitiation  for  our  sins"  (Rom.  iii.  25,1 
John  ii.  2,  iv.  10).  The  same  Greek  word  is 
used  in  the  Septuagint  to  denote  an  atone- 
ment (Num.  V.  8),  a  sin-offering  (Ezek.  xliv. 
27),  and  the  covering  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  or  mercy-seat  (Lev.  xvi.  14,  Heb. 
ix.  5).  T.  W.  C. 

Proselytes,  (nexo  comer),  the  name  given  to 
Jewish  converts  from  heathenism.  An 
alien  resident  in  Palestine  was  entitled  to 
kind  treatment  (Deut.  x.  18)  and  the  use  of 
the  cities  of  refuge  (Num.  xxxiii.  15)  on 
condition  of  keeping  the  Sabbath  and  ab- 
staining from  blasphemy  and  idolatry 
(Ex.  XX.  10,  Lev.  xx.  2,  xxiv.  16).  He  could 
celebrate  the  day  of  atonement  (Lev.  xvi. 
29)  and  the  feasts  of  weeks  and  tabernacles 
(Deut.    xvi.  11,   14)   but   not    the  Passover 


PROSPER 


(771) 


PROVERBS 


unless  he  were  circumcised  (Ex.  xii.  48), 
and  thus  became  a  Jew.  The  dispersion 
after  the  captivity  made  their  faith  known 
and  won  many  converts  especially  amont; 
women.  The  Jews  at  times  used  wron<; 
means  to  this  end,  as  when  John  Hyrcanus 
forcibly  proselyted  the  Idumeans  h.c.  180, 
and  our  Lord  rebuked  the  Pharisees  for 
their  blind  zeal  in  the  matter  (Matt,  xxiii. 
15). 

The  late  Rabbins,  2d  century  a.d.  and  on- 
ward, classified  the  converts  as,  1.  "Pros- 
elytes of  the  sjate  "  (Ex.  xx.  10)  who  without 
bein<ij  circumcised  or  adopting  all  the  Jewish 
ritual,  yet  accepted  the  monotheism  and 
Messianic  hoj)es  of  the  Jews  and  observed 
tlie  7  Xoachian  precepts.  To  this  class 
belon<;\'d  probably  the  centurion  (Luke  vii. ), 
the  *•  (ireeks "  of  John  xii.  20,  Cornelius 
(Acts  X.).  and  the  other  persons  called 
"devout,"  "God-fearing,"  (Acts  xiii.  43, 
50,  xvi.  14,  xvii.  4,  17,  xviii.  7).  2. 
"  Proselytes  of  righteousness,"  who  were 
circumcised  and  in  full  communion  with 
the  synagogue.  They  were  usually  more 
fanatical  than  the  native  Jews.  (Matt. 
xxiii.  15,  cf.  Acts  xiii.   50).  T.  W.  C. 

Prosper  of  Aquitania,  a  follower  of  Aug- 
ustine's, who  was  born  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  4th,  or  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century, 
but  whose  death  cannot  be  determined. 
About  429,  he  communicated  to  Augustine 
the  existence  of  Semi-Pelagian  opinions  in 
Gaul,  to  which  Augustine  responded  by  the 
treatises  on  the  Pretle-sti)iatlo)i  <\t'  the  Saints 
and  the  Gift  of  Persi'verance.  Prosper,  who 
had  received' the  usual  rhetorical  training 
of  the  times,  and  wiio  had  been  intimately 
associated  with  the  monastic  circles  in 
which  the  Semi-Pelagianism  had  arisen  in 
Marseilles,  joined  in  the  controversy.  But 
he  soon  removed  (433 )  to  Rome,  where  he 
engaged  in  the  composition  of  a  chronicle, 
the  independent  portion  of  which  reaches 
from  433  to  445  or  455.  His  work  written  in 
Gaul,  On  the  Grace  of  God  and  Free  Will, 
was  the  last  controversial  work  he  wrote, 
but  in  Rome  he  continued  to  show  his  in- 
terest in  Augustine.  His  works  are  in 
Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  LL  F.  H.  F. 

Protestanten-Verein  (fer-ine),  Deutscher, 
is  the  German  name  of  a  union  among  all 
the  various  Protestant  bodies  in  Germany. 
It  originated  at  the  conference  of  Uurlach, 
Aug.,  isf.3,  and  was  tinally  constituted  at  the 
assembly  of  Eisenach,  June,  1805.  Its  object 
is  to  labor  fortlie  development  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal constitution  and  congregational  life  in 
(Jermany,  and  for  the  furtherance  of  all 
practical,  religious  purposes.  Its  adminis- 
tration is  in  the  hands  of  a  committee, 
Bureiui,  which,  since  1874,  has  its  seat  in 
Berlin,  and  it  assembles,  as  far  as  possible, 
once  every  year.  After  !>*"(),  however,  it 
a.ss\imed  a  decidedly  national  character, 
and  became  the  bearer  of  those  ideas  wliich 
broke  forth  in  the  so-called  Kultnrkampf 
(q.v.).  Hut  this  attitude  brought  it  in  op- 
position to  the  higher  ecclesiastical  officials 
everywhere  in  the  country,  and  it  soon  be- 
came apparent  that  a]>pointment  and  pro- 
motion were  rather  difficult  to  members  of 
the  union.     Finally,  the  catastrophe  of  the 


Kultnrkampf,  in  the  summer  of  1877,  alsa 
involved  the  union,  at  least  to  some  extent, 
and  threw  it  into  the  shade.  Its  organs 
were:  Protentantixche  FIiK/hldtter,  Elber- 
feld;  Deutsche  Protrstantenhlatt,  Bremen; 
Protestautisc/ie  Kirchcitzcituui/,  Berlin ; 
Jahrhurh  des  Dcxtsc/icu  Protestanten-Ver- 
eins,  edited  by  Hosbach  and  Thomas.  (See 
also  Schmidt,  Dcr  I'mtenianten-Verein,  fiir 
iind  wider,  Leipzig,  1873.)  C.  P. 

Protestantism  is  the  general  name  for 
that  division  of  the  Christian  Church, 
which,  by  the  Reformation  in  the  lOth  cent- 
ury, separated  from  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Its  name  originated  from  the  "protest" 
with  which  the  resolutions  of  the  Diet  of 
Spires  (1526)  were  met  by  a  number  of  sover- 
eign princes  and  free  imperial  cities  in  Ger- 
many, but  it  was  soon  adopted  by  or  a])plied 
to  the  whole  body  of  scceders  from  Rome. 
There  was,  however,  from  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  Reformation,  a  difference  of 
opinion  Avithin  Protestantism  itself,  con- 
cerning the  doctrines  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
predestination,  etc.,  and  this  difference  of 
doctiine  caused  the  establishment  of  two 
different  Protestant  churches,  the  Lutheran 
and  the  Reformed.  Each  of  these  two 
churches  has  again  developed  a  consider- 
able number  of  sub-divisions,  but  the  whole 
body  of  Protestantism  rests  united  upon 
the  two  great,  fundamenal  tenets  of  the 
Reformation,  its  formal  principle:  the  sole 
authority  of  Holy  Scripture;  and  its  ma- 
terial principle:  justification  by  faith.  As 
the  names,  Protestantism  and  Protestant 
Church  refer  only  to  the  negative  side  of 
the  Reformation,  the  protest  against  popery, 
and  as  this  side  of  the  case  has  no  longer 
any  vital  interest,  many  think  the  more  ap- 
propriate designations  would  be:  Evangeli- 
calism and  Evangelical  Church. 

Protevangelium.     See  Pskudepigrapha 

AND   ApOCUYPIIA. 

Protonotarius  Apostolicus  is  the  title  of  a 
high  officer  in  the  administration  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  the  15th  cen- 
tury they  demanded  to  take  precedence  of 
bishops,  but  it  was  denied.  They  form, 
however,  a  college  of  their  own ;  in  the  con- 
sistories where  four  of  them  shall  be  pres- 
ent, they  sit  beside  the  pope:  their 
signature  is  necessary  to  the  validity  of 
any  document  concerning  the  church  as  a 
totality.  Their  number  is  now  12,  but  was 
originally  only  7,  one  for  each  ward  of  the 
city  of  Rome.  Their  original  office  con- 
sisted in  drawing  up  reports  of  the  deeds 
and  sufferings  of  martyrs.  (See  Bangen, 
Die  romische  Curie,  Miinster,  1854). 

Proto-presbyter  or  Proto-pope  is  an  offi- 
cer of  the  (Jrieco-Russian  church  corre- 
sponding to  the  arch-i)resbyter  or  arch-dea- 
con of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

Proverbs  of  Solomon,  a  collection  of  sen- 
tentious maxims,  suggested  by  human 
sagacity  and  experience,  under  the  sanction 
of  inspiration.  Solomon,  who  spake  30O0 
l>roverbs  (1  Ki.  iv.  32)  is  the  chief,  about 
1()0<)  n.c,  but  the  book  confessedly  contains 
much  that  is  of  later  date  and  other  au- 
thorship.    Its  principal  parts  are: 


PROVIDENCE 


(772) 


PRYNNE 


I.  A  connected  series  of  utterances  in 
3)raise  of  wisdom  with  warnings  against 
folly  (i.-ix.). 

II.  A  collection  of  separate  ethical  and 
practical  maxims  (x.-xxii.  16),  noted  as 
■*'The  Proverbs  of  Solomon." 

III.  A  connected  series  commending 
justice  and  prudence  (xxii.  17-xxiv.  22). 

IV.  A  short  series  of  the  sayings  of  sev- 
eral sages  (xxiv.  2;j-34). 

V.  Another  collection  copied  out  by  the 
men  of  Hezekiah  (xxv.-xxix.). 

VI.  The  words  of  Agur  (xxx.). 

VII.  King  Lemuel's  exhortation  to  tem- 
perance and  justice  (xxxi.  1-9). 

VIII.  An  alphabetical  poem  in  praise  of 
a  virtuous  (or  rather,  capable)  woman 
(xxxi.  10-31). 

The  whole  book  is  a  mine  of  practical 
wisdom,  giving  sound  advice  for  all  the  re- 
lations of  human  life,  and  always  invoking 
a  religious  sanction.  Few  questions  can 
arise  in  the  intercourse  of  men  upon  which 
this  book  does  not  throw  light.  It  far  ex- 
ceeds all  similar  collections  of  merely 
human  origin,  such  as  the  sayings  of  the 
Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  or  the  Aurea 
Carmina  attributed  to  Pythagoras.  They 
trace  wisdom  to  its  true  source  and  teach 
men  the  fear  of  God  as  the  fountain  of  life. 
Their  prudential  character  has  sometimes 
been  objected  to  as  an  appeal  to  a  low  class 
of  motives,  but  a  similar  appeal  runs 
through  the  Old  Testament  and  was  often 
made  by  the  blessed  Saviour  (Matt.  x.  28, 
Mark  xvi.  16).  And  it  is  just  such  short, 
shai'p,  pointed  sayings  that  lodge  in  the 
memory  and  can  be  recalled  at  will,  that 
help  a  man  when  resisting  the  fierce  onset 
of  temptation.  All  races  have  their  store- 
house of  proverbial  utterances,  but  none  of 
these  are  so  pure,  wholesome  and  kindly  as 
the  .31  chaptei-s  first  recorded  by  Solomon 
and  his  successors.  An  imitation  is  found 
in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Ecclesiasticus, 
containing  the  wisdom  of  the  Son  of  Sirach, 
but  it  is  easy  for  a  careful  reader  to  mark 
the  difference  between  the  copy  and  the 
original. 

There  is  no  book  of  the  Old  Testament 
whose  canonical  authority  is  better  attested. 
It  is  often  quoted  or  alluded  to  in  the  New 
Testament  (Rom.  xii.  20,  1  Thess.  v.  15, 
Heb.  xii.  5,  6,  Jas.  iv.  6,  1  Pet.  iv.  8,  2  Pet. 
ii.  22). 

Among  the  Commentaries  worthy  of  com- 
mendation are  those  by  Bridges  (London 
1850),  Arnot  (Edinburgh,  1869),  Delitzsch 
(Edinburgh,  1875,  2  vols.),  [John  Miller, 
(New  York,  1872,  2d  ed.,  Princeton,  N. 
J.,  1887,  very  eccentric  in  translation,  but 
original  and  stimulating)].  T.  W.  C. 

Providence.  The  word  occurs  but  once 
in  Scripture,  viz.,  in  the  speech  of  the 
orator  Tertullus  (Acts  xxiv.  2),  but  the 
thing  it  signifies  when  applied  to  God,  runs 
through  all  human  history.  God's  provi- 
dence is  the  continuance  of  creation.  It  is 
co-extensive  with  the  universe  and  lasts 
through  all  time.  Nothing  is  too  high  or 
too  low  for  His  superintending  care.  All 
nature  depends  upon  Him.  There  is  no 
such  thing  as  chance;  the  lot  is  cast  into 


the  lap,  but  the  whole  disposing  thereof  is 
of  the  Lord  (Prov.  xvi.  33).  Not  a  sparrow, 
not  a  hair  of  the  head  falls  to  the  ground 
without  His  knowledge.  We  cannot  ex- 
plain why  sin  was  permitted  to  exist,  but 
we  know  that  God  overrules  it  to  wise  and 
holy  ends. 

The  universe  is  not  a  machine  which  hav- 
ing been  wound  up  and  set  in  motion  is 
henceforth  left  to  itself,  nor  on  the  other 
hand  is  it  so  related  to  its  maker  that  He  is 
only  efficient  agent,  renewing  his  creative 
work  from  moment  to  moment.  But  sec- 
ond causes  really  exist  and  man  is  a  free 
and  responsible  being,  yet  God  exercises  a 
particular  and  efficacious  control,  in  accord- 
ance with  his  own  perfections  and  the  na- 
ture of  his  creatures,  which  secures  the  ac- 
complishment of  his  eternal  purpose. 

The  doctrine  of  providence  is  the  basis  of 
religion  in  theory  and  in  practice.  The  ex- 
perience of  each  individual  believer  and 
that  of  the  whole  cljurch  illustrates  at  every 
step  the  hand  of  Him  "who  worketh  all 
things  after  the  counsel  of  His  own  will." 
T.  W.  C. 

Province,  in  the  terminology  of  the  Ro- 
man Church,  means  the  territory  in  which 
an  archbishop  exercises  jurisdiction,  and 
whose  boundaries  are  generally  traced  in 
confoimity  with  certain  geographical  and 
historical  features. 

Provincial  is  the  title  of  a  monastic  offi- 
cial, the  superintendent-general  of  a  num- 
ber of  monasteries  which  together  form  a 
province,  the  circumscription  of  a  monastic 
province  depending  on  the  number  of 
monasteries  and  not  on  the  geographical 
extension.  The  provincial  ranks  next  to 
the  genei'al  of  an  order. 

Provost,  from  the  Latin  prcepositus, 
"  placed  before,"  means  in  ecclesiastical 
terminology  the  chief  of  a  body  of 
canons,  or  the  second  in  authority  under  an 
abbot  or  that  member  of  a  chapter  who 
manages  the  estates. 

Prudentius,  Aurelius  Clemens,  b.  in  Spain, 
in  348,  of  a  prominent  family;  date  of  death 
unknown;  is  famous  for  his  poetic  effusions. 
He  began  with  hymns,  evidently  upon  the 
basis  of  the  work  of  Ambrose,  but  in  his 
earliest  productions,  the  hymns  of  the 
Liber  Cathemerinon,  he  emancipates  himself 
from  every  trammel,  and  gives  utterance  to 
what  may  serve  not  only  his  religious  edifi- 
cation, but  the  gratification  of  his  taste. 
This  independent  character  increases  in  his 
later  works,  liis  Peristephanon,  in  which  he 
weaves  a  garland  for  the  Christian  martyrs, 
and  his  didactic  works.  Thus  he  is  a  pro- 
tagonist of  modei-n  poetry.  His  works 
are  in  Migne,  Put.  Lat.  LIX.  LX. ;  cf. 
Brockhaus,  A.  Prudentius  in  seiner  Bedeiit- 
tinq  fur  die  Kirche  seiner  Zeit,  Leipzig, 
1872.  F.  H.  F. 

Prynne,  William  (Presbyterian)  Puritan; 
b.  at  Swainswick  near  Bath,  1600;  d.  in 
London,  Oct.  24,  1669.  He  entered  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  1616,  and  Lincoln's  Inn, 
1621.  His  learning  w^as  matched  by  his 
strength  of  will   and   bitter  opposition   to 


PSAIiMANAZAR 


73) 


PSALMS 


prelacy  and  tyranny.  By  several  publica- 
tions beginninjf  1(527,  he  roused  the  auoer 
of  Laud  and  the  Star  Chaml)er.  For  his 
Ulstrio-maKtix,  1033,  he  was  fined,  impris- 
oned, degraded,  pilloried,  and  lost  his  ears 
(May  7,  1U34).  For  News  from  Ipswich,  he 
was  again  cropped  (June  30,  1()37),  and  con- 
fined at  Lancaster  and  in  Jersey,  till  re- 
leased by  the  Long  Parliament,  1(540.  He 
was  received  with  honors  in  London,  and 
reparation  ordered  for  his  sufferings.  He 
plunged  again  into  polemics,  and  helped 
bring  Laud  to  the  block,  but  later  defended 
the  king,  and  was  embroiled  with  the  Inde- 
pendents. He  was  in  Parliament  1(548-50, 
and  again  from  1().J9.  He  favored  the 
Restoration,  and  was  made  chief  keeper  of 
the  records  in  the  Tower.  F.  M.  B. 

Psalmanazar,  George,  a  pretended  For- 
mosan;  li.  probably  in  Languedoc  about 
1G7'.>;  d.  in  Londt)n,  May  3,  17(53.  As  a  con- 
vert from  Paganism,  he  was  brought  from 
Flanders  to  London,  where  he  published  a 
Description  of  Formosa,  1704;  this  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  alphabet,  specimens  of  the 
language,  and  other  works.  He  was  sent 
to  Oxford  by  Bishop  Compton,  and  for 
some  years  his  strange  story  was  believed ; 
about  1710,  he  confessed  his  imposture  un- 
der pressure,  and  thereafter  lived  correctly, 
writing  F.isays  on  Scriptural  Sithjects,  1753, 
and  other  honest  books.  His  Memoirs  ap- 
peared London,  1764,  but  his  real  name  and 
birthplace  were  never  disclosed. 

F.  M.  B. 

Psalmody,  tlie  singing  of  psalms,  formed 
part  of  the  service  in  the  synagogue,  and 
was  thence  transferred  to  the  Christian 
Church,  probably  from  its  very  origin. 
Justin  Martyr,  100-1(55,  speaks  of  the 
Christians  as  singing  hymns.  The  first 
council  of  Braga  353,  forbade  to  use  any 
compositions  but  "  the  psalms  and  hymns 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments "  in  wor- 
ship. Everything  goes  to  show  that  the 
singing  of  psalms  is  a  very  old  element  in 
the  Christian  service.  It  was  done  in  vari- 
ous ways.  Either  the  psalm  was  chanted 
by  a  single  person  while  the  rest  of  the  con- 
gregation was  listening,  or  it  was  sung  by 
the  whole  congregation  in  unison;  or  the 
congregation  was  divided  into  two  parts  or 
choirs,  which  sang  alternate  verses;  or  the 
first  part  of  the  verse  was  sung  by  a  single 
person,  and  the  last  by  the  whole  congrega- 
tion. There  is  an  elaborate  article  on  the 
subject  in  Smith  and  Cheetham,  Diet. 
Christ.  Antiq.  C.  P. 

Psalms,  The  Book  of.  The  Hebrew  name 
of  this  liook  is  tiJiiUiin.  praises,  this  being 
the  predominant  character  even  of  the  pen- 
itential songs.  The  Greek  name,  from 
which  the  English  is  derived,  comes  from  a 
word  signifying  to  pUvj  on  a  strini/ed  instru- 
luj'nt.  and  'denotes  a  pious  song.  The 
Psalms  form  one  book  and  are  so  referred  to 
by  our  Lord  (Luke  xx.  42)  and  his  apostles 
(Acts  i.  2(t).  but  from  a  very  early  period 
were  divided  into  5  distinct  collections, 
each  of  which  is  closed  by  a  doxology  and 
a  double  amen.  The  jirim-iple  which  under- 
lies this  division   is   not  certainly  known. 


Delitzsch  says  that  "  the  Psalter  is  the  con- 
gregation's fivefold  word  to  the  Lord  even 
as   the    Thora    (Pentateuch)  is  the    Lord's 
fivefold  word  to  the  congregation." 
Book    I.  comprises  Psalms     i.-xli. 

"      II.  "  "       xlii.-lxxii. 

"    III.  "  "       Ixxiii.-lxxxix. 

"    IV.  "  "       xc.-cvi. 

"      V.  "  "       cvii.-cl. 

A  few  Pss.  are  repeated  with  some  varia- 
tions in  different  books,  viz.,  xiv.  and  liii. ; 
the  latter  part  of  xl.  and  Ixx. ;  Ix.  and  cviii ; 
showing  that  the  5  books  were  originally 
separate  collections.  The  final  compilation 
of  the  Psalter  as  it  stands  is  generally  re- 
ferred to  Ezra,  about 450  B.C. 

The  best  classification  of  the  Psalms  is 
based  on  their  contents. 

I.  Songs  of  Praise  to  Jehovah,  as  the  God 
of  nature  viii..  xxix.,  civ.;  Jis  protector  of 
Israel  XX.,  xlvi.,  xlviii.,  Ixv. ;  as  having  in- 
finite perfections,  xc,  exxxix.,  and  the 
Hallelujah  Psalms  cxlv.-cl. 

II.  Songs  of  Thanksgiving,  as,  Ixvi., 
Ixxvi.,  ciii. 

III.  The  Penitential  Psalms:  vi.,  xxxviii., 
li.,  cii.,  cxxx.,  cxliii. 

IV.  The  Pilgrim  Psalms  or  "  Songs  of 
Degrees,"  *  cxx.-cxxxiv. 

V.  Historical  Psalms;  poetic  narrative  of 
God's  ancient  dealings  with  his  people: 
Ixxviii.,  tv.,  cvi.,  cxiv. 

VI.  Messianic  Songs:  ii.,  viii.,  xvi.,  xxii., 
xl.,  xlv.,  Ixix.,  Ixxii.,  xcvii.,  ex.,  cxviii. 

VII.  Didactic  Poems,  on  the  fate  of  the 
righteous  and  the  wicked,  as  i.,  ix.-xii., 
xxxiv. ;  on  the  excellence  of  God's  law,  xix., 
cxix. ;  on  the  vanity  of  human  life,  xxxix., 
xlix.,  xc. ;  on  the  duty  of  rulers,  Ixxxii.,  ci. 

VIII.  Imprecatory  Psalms,  of  which 
there  are  25,  but  the  chief  are  xxxv.,  lii., 
Iviii.,  lix.,  Ixix.,  cix.,  cxxxvii. 

No  arrangement  of  this  kind  can  be  per- 
fect because  some  of  the  Pss.  belong  in  part 
to  2  or  more  classes,  but  it  serves  to  indi- 
cate the  wide  sweep  of  these  ancient  sing- 
ers and  the  rich  variety  of  their  utterances. 
A  peculiar  feature  of  the  collection  is  the 
ali)habetical  Pss.  (xxv.,  xxxiv.,  xxxvii., 
cxii.,  cxix.,  cxlv. ),  each  ver.se  or  pair  of 
verses  beginning  with  a  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet  in  order.  This  acrostic 
way  of  writing  is  used  also  in  the  last  chap- 
ter of  Proverbs,  and  the  first  3  chai)ters  of 
Lamentations.  No  way  of  reproducing  it 
in  a  translation  has  yet  been  found,  save  in 
Ps.  cxix.,  where  the  Hebrew  letter  is  pre- 
fixed to  each  strophe. 

With  the  exception  of  34,  called  in  the 
Talmud  Orphan  Psalms,  all  these  songs 
have  titles  or  inscriptions  of  various  kinds. 
They  refer  to  the  author,  tlie  occasion,  the 
nature  of  the  song,  the  melody  or  rhythm, 
or  the  choir  who  are  to  perform.  They  are 
very  obscure,  because  the  music  and  musi- 
cal instruments  of  the  Hebrews  are  mostly 
unknown  to  us.  They  are  of  very  high 
antiquity,  if  not  as  old  as  tlie  Pss.  them- 
selves. They  are  found  in  all  the  Hebrew 
MSS.  and  ai)i)ear  with  numerous  variations 
in  the  ancient  versions.     In  some  instances 


♦III  the  Rev.  Ver.  this  title  is  given  as  "a  sonp:  of 
ascents,"'  i.  e..  of  going  up  to  Jerusalem  on  occasion 
uf  the  annual  festivals. 


PSALMS 


(774) 


PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 


their  meaning  has  been  lost,  and  the  Septu- 
agint  does  not  even  attempt  a  translation, 
but  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  interpret  them 
they  give  valuable  information.  If  they 
were,  as  many  contend,  a  spurious  addition 
to  the  text,  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  such  an 
addition  should  not  have  been  made  to 
each  member  of  the  collection. 

The  authors  of  the  Psalter  are  very  vari- 
ous, since  its  composition  or  growth  covers 
a  period  of  a  thousand  years  from  Moses  to 
Ezra,  but  most  of  the  contents  belong  to 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  About 
two-thirds  are  ascribed  in  the  titles  to  spe- 
cific authors.  To  David  are  given  80,  viz. 
i.-xli.  (including  i.  and  ii.,  which  are  anony- 
mous), li.-lxx.,  ci.-ciii.,  cviii.-cx.,  cxxii., 
cxxiv.,  cxxxi.-cxxxiv.,  cxxxviii.-cxlv.  He 
is  the  largest  contributor  and  gave  the  tone 
to  all  the  rest,  and  hence  the  whole  collec- 
tion often  takes  his  name.  To  Asaph,  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi,  the  leader  of  David's 
choirs,  are  assigned  12  ]Pss.,  1.,  Ixxiii.- 
Ixxxiii.,  which  are  for  the  most  part  of  a 
didactic  character.  To  the  sons  of  Korah,  a 
family  of  poetical  priests  of  the  age  of 
David,  13  Pss.,  xlii.,  xlix.,  Ixxxiv.,  Ixxxv.. 
Ixxxvii.  It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the 
Korahites  were  the  authors  of  these  Pss., 
they  may  have  been  only  the  performers  of 
the  musical  rendering.  These  Pss.  are  dis- 
tinguished for  poetic  vivacity  and  bold 
flights  of  imagination.  To  Solomon  are 
given  2  Pss.,  Ixxii.,  and  cxxvii.,  and  to 
Moses  one,  the  lofty  and  melancholy  Ps. 
xc. 

The  Psalter  is  a  wonderful  collection  of 
lyrics.  It  is  religious  throughout,  no  secu- 
lar or  profane  song  being  admitted.  It  is 
cheerful  and  animating,  even  the  elegiac  or 
penitential  all  (with  one  exception,  the 
Ixxxviii. )  closing  in  a  hopeful  strain. 
As  a  book  of  devotion  it  has  proved 
itself  suited  to  all  ages  and  lands,  be- 
cause it  springs  from  the  heart  and  ex- 
presses every  phase  of  a  genuine  relig- 
ious experience.  Hence  it  has  been 
just  as  acceptable  in  western  climes  as 
in  the  East  where  it  originated.  It  has 
always  been  dear  to  pious  Jews,  and  all 
branches  of  the  Christian  Church;  the 
Greek,  the  Roman  and  the  Protestant, 
have  an  equal  regard  for  the  praise-songs  of 
ancient  Israel.  No  believer  has  a  single 
feeling  that  is  not  reflected  in  this  mirror. 
All  the  griefs,  fears,  doubts,  cares,  hopes 
and  joys,  all  the  tumultuous  agitations  of 
the  soul  as  well  as  its  calmer  moments  are 
here  represented  to  the  life. 

The  literature  of  the  Psalms  is  very  rich, 
as  would  be  expected,  but  the  following 
are  the  chief  writers  for  English  readers: 
Home  (London,  1776,  2  vols.,  many  subse- 
quent editions  and  reprints,  e.g.  New  York, 
1865);  J.  A.  Alexander  (New  York,  18.50,  3 
vols.);  Neale  and  Littledale  (London,  1860- 
74,  4  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1884,  from  patristic  and 
mediaeval  sources);  Perowne  (London,  1864- 
68,  2  vols.,  6th  ed.,  1886,  abridged  ed.,  1  vol., 
1880,  3d  ed.,  1883— the  best  English  com- 
mentator); Spurgeon  {The  Treasury  of  David, 
London  and  New  York,  1870-84,  7  vols., 
rich  in  extracts  from  the  Puritan  divines,  a 
compilation,  but  full  of  original  and  strik- 


ing remarks  by  Spurgeon  himself).  (See 
also  C.  Bridges,  TJie  119i/t  Psalm,  London, 
1827,  many  later  edd.  rep.  New  York,  1867, 
a  famous  exposition;  S.  Cox,  The  Pilgrim 
Psalms,  London  and  New  York,  1874;  suc- 
cessful translations  by  Cheyne,  London, 
1884,  2d  ed.  1888,  and  by  De  Witt,  New 
York,  188.5,  2d  ed.  1886.)  T.  W.  C. 

Psalter,  P^alteriam,  Psaltery,  means  the 
Book  of  Psalms  arranged  for  use  in  wor- 
ship. To  learn  the  psalter  by  heart  was  in 
olden  times  part  of  the  training  of  priests^ 
monks,  and  nuns.  Gregory  the  Great,  590- 
604,  refused  in  several  known  instances  to 
consecrate  an  otherwise  worthy  candidate, 
because  he  knew  not  the  psalter  by  heart, 
and  the  second  council  of  Nicea,  787,  or- 
dered that  no  one  should  be  consecrated 
bishop  unless  he  had  mastered  his  psalter. 
Benedict,  483-543,  made  it  a  rule  for  his 
monks  to  go  through  the  whole  psalter 
every  week.  In  the  Psalter  of  the  Pvoman 
Catholic  Churcli  the  psalms  are  distributed 
so  as  to  suit  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
service;  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
they  are  arranged  in  sections  for  the  daily 
morning  and  evening  service. 

Psellus,  Michael,  1.  Flourished  about  870, 
and  kept  Greek  science  from  disappearing 
from  the  world.  2.  More  famous  still,  b. 
about  1020  in  Constantinople,  performed  a 
like  work  with  the  above,  was  famous  as  a 
teacher  of  all  branches  of  learning,  and  was 
still  living  in  1105.  His  writings  were 
numerous,  and  are  reprinted  in  Migne,  Pat. 
Gr.,  CXXII.  F.  H.F. 

Fseudepigrapha  and  Apocrypha.  The 
class  of  literature  included  under  the  word 
Pseudepigrapha,  is  most  various,  but 
broadly  speaking  the  word  means  writings 
whose  composition  is  falsely  ascribed  to 
Scripture  characters  or  times. 

The  word  apocrypha  (hidden  or  secret) 
means  substantially  the  same  thing  as 
pseudepigrapha,  but  has  come  to  be  spe- 
cially applied  to  two  distinct  groups  of  writ- 
ings— the  "Old  Testament  Apocrypha" 
and  the  "New  Testament  Apocrypha." 
The  former  of  these  is  partly  historical  and 
only  semi-pseudepigraphic  in  character, 
while  the  latter  is  purely  pseudepigraphic. 

The  various  classes  may  be  conveniently 
grouped  for  survey  under 

1.  Old  Testament  Apocrypha. 

2.  Old  Testament  Pseudepigrapha. 

3.  New  Testament  Pseudepigrapha. 

1)  The  Apostolical  Fathers. 

2)  The  New  Testament  Apocrypha. 

3)  Apostolical  Liturgies. 

4)  Apostolical    Canons    and    Constitu- 
tions. 

5)  Clementine  literature. 

6)  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles. 

4.  Mediaeval  and  modern  pseudepigraphic 
literature. 

1.  The  Old  Testament  Apocrypha. 

The  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  stand  first 
in  value  as  well  as  place.  They  are  histori- 
cal in  character  and  form  the  link  between 
the  period  of  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  those  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. They  are  included  in  the  Greek 
Bible  and  various  ancient  versions.     They 


PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 


(775) 


PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 


are  with  three  exceptions  (I.  and  II.  Esdias 
and  the  Prayer  of  Manasses)  set  on  a  level 
with  the  canonical  books  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  (  Wace)  and  were  in  former 
times  generally  printed  with  the  canonical 
books  in  the  Authorized  English  Version  of 
which  they  formed  a  legitimate  part.  They 
are  now  often  put  almost  on  a  level  with  the 
canonical  books. 

Still  used  more  or  less  in  the  liturgy  of 
the  Church  of  England  and  somewhat  in 
that  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  America, 
a  reading  or  a  sermon 'from  a  text  of  the 
Apocrypha  is  now  and  then  heard  in  a 
Congi-egational  or  other  non-liturgical 
church  as  well.  They  are,  however,  since 
the  Keformation,  regarded  as  for  instruc- 
tion only  and  not  as  if  the  books  had 
inspired  authority.  Of  late  their  value  has 
been  reasserted  on  the  one  hand  by  those 
who  try  to  minimize  the  canonical  writings 
through  the  elevation  of  these,  and  on  the 
other  hand  by  scientific  scholarship  trying 
to  redeem  them  from  unjust  obscurity. 

They  are  very  unequal  in  character  and 
worth  and  most  of  them  being  anonymous 
or  pseudonymous  are  properly  apocryphal. 

The  list  of  those  included  in  tlie  Author- 
ized English  Version  is  as  follows: 

(1)  I.  Esdras;  (2)  II.  Esdras;  (;5)  Tobit;  (4) 
Judith;  (5)  II.  Esther;  (6)  Wisdom  of  Sol- 
omon; (7)  Ecclesiasticus;  (8)  Baruch;  (9) 
The  Epistle  of  Jeremiah;  (10)  The  Song  of 
the  Three  Holy  Children;  (11)  The  History 
of  Susanna;  (12)  Bel  and  the  Dragon;  (13) 
The  Prayer  of  Manasses;  (14)  I.  Maccabees; 
(15)  II.  Maccabees. 

In  the  early  editions  the  Epistle  of  Jere- 
miah is  included  as  the  final  chapter  of 
Baruch  and  the  total  number  reckoned  as 
fourteen. 

These  are  conveniently  classified,  by  Bis- 
sell  (p.  43)  "into  historical  works,  as  the 
books  of  the  Maccabees  and  the  larger  por- 
tion of  I.  Esdras;  moral  fictions,  as  Tobit, 
Judith,  the  Additions  to  Esther  and  Daniel; 
poetic  and  quasi-prophetic  works  as  Baruch, 
the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  Prayer  of 
Manasses;  and  finally  i)hilosophical  and 
didactic  compositions  as  Ecclesiasticus  and 
Wisdom."' 

Following  is  a  brief  account  of  the  works 
in  detail: 

(1)1.  Esdras.     (1st  or  2d  century,  B.C.) 

In  the  Vulgate  this  is  known  as  III.  Edras, 
Ezra  and  Xehemiah  being  received  as  I.  and 
II. 

It  is  compiled  mainly  from  2  Chronicles 
and  Ezra  and  has  as  theme  the  rebuilding 
of  the  Temple. 

(2)  II.  Esdras  ( A. D.  89-96)  known  also  as 
IV.  Esdras  is  a  sort  of  outlaw  among  out- 
laws: its  seven  visions  being  disfellowship- 
ped  by  many  from  the  Apocrypha. 

(;])  Tobit.  (1st  century  u.c,  perhaps 
earlier). 

A  curious  work  having  its  main  value 
rather  in  the  history  of  fiction  than  in  his- 
tory or  theology.  It  is  an  historical  novel 
teeming  with  anachronisms  and  histoi-ical 
blunders  like  a  veritable  modern  one.  It 
has  an  incidental  historical  value  and  as 
illustrating  the  theological  belief  of  the 
time  has  a  certain  worth,  especially  for  the 


history  of  demonology.     It  is  at  least  an  in- 
teresting bit  of  literature. 

(4)  Judith.     (Early  in  2d  century). 

The  story  of  Judith  who  slays  Holof ernes 
and  delivers  her  people  is  one  famous  in 
literature  and  art.  It  also  is  probably  an 
historical  novel. 

(5)  Additions     to     Esther.     (2d     century 

B.C.) 

These  include:  (1)  A  dream  of  Mordecai, 
(2)  The  decree  of  Haman,  (:>)  The  entrea- 
ties of  Esther  and  Mordecai,  (4)  How  Esther 
managed  to  appear  before  the  king,  (5)  The 
edict  of  the  king  by  Mordecai,  ((5)  Another 
dream  by  Mordecai,  and  various  minor 
statements. 

(6)  The  Book  of  Wisdom.     (2d  century 

B.C.) 

This  work,  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  is  to 
be  distinguished  from  Ecclesiasticus  or  the 
Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  -^vriters  to  be  the  work  of 
one  person,  and  by  others  to  be  by  any 
number  up  to  as  many  as  seventy-nine,  and 
as  many  or  more  dates  are  assigned.  It  is 
a  characteristic  specimen  of  the  ancient 
Wisdom  literature  and  valuable  for  edifica- 
tion. 

(7)  Ecclesiasticus,  or  the  Wisdom  of  Jesus 
the  Son  of  Sirach.     (3d-2d  century). 

The  same  may  be  said  as  of  the  preced- 
ing. The  sum  of  it  is  "  Wisdom  is  the 
principal  thing,  therefore  get  wisdom." 

(8)  Baruch. 

This  contains,  following  the  analysis  of 
Bissell:  1.  Introduction.  2.  Letter  to  Jesus 
in  Palestine.  3.  A  prayer.  4.  A  panegyric 
on  Wisdom.  5.  Lament  of  Jerusalem.  6. 
An  address  to  Jerusalem  and  prophecy  of 
the  return  of  the  exiles.  It  is  famous  for 
its  lack  of  originality. 

(9)  Epistle  of  Jeremiah. 

This  was  formerly  printed  as  part  of 
Baruch.  It  pretends  to  be  a  letter  of  Jere- 
miah to  "  them  who  were  to  be  led  captives 
unto  Babylon." 

(10)  Song  of  the  Three  Children— by  some 
supposed  to  be  semi-genuine — when  they 
were  thrown  into  the  furnace.  This  is  pre- 
ceded by  the  "prayer  of  Azarias"  that  the 
Lord  might  deliver. 

(11)  History  of  Susanna. 

This  story  has  been  regarded  as  a  sort  of 
fable  or  a  "novel  with  a  purpose,"  but  as 
to  what  the  purpose  was,  it  is  not  at  all 
agreed.  It  is  a  tale  of  false  accusation 
where  the  false  witnesses  are  put  to  confu- 
sion by  the  wit  of  Daniel. 

(12)  Bel  and  the  Dragon.     (Late.) 

A  tale  of  how  Daniel  exposed  the  hypoc- 
risy of  the  priests  of  Bel  and  put  a  dragon 
to  death  with  thirty  pounds  of  pitch  and 
fat  and  hair. 

(13)  Prayer  of  Manasses. 

Supposed  to  be  the  "  prayer  of  Manasses, 
king  of  Judah,  when  he  was  holden  captive 
in  Babylon."  Spurious,  but  of  literary 
quality  and  interest. 

(14)  1.  Maccabees. 

This  is  a  valuable  and  on  the  whole  trust- 
worthv  history  of  the  Jews  from  about 
175-13.5  B.C.  It  contains:  Ch.  1.  Introduc- 
tion and  accession  of  Antiochus  Epipbanes 
(iv.);  Ch.  2.    The  revolt  of  the  priest  Matta- 


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(T76) 


PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 


thias  and  his  five  sons,  to  the  death  of 
Mattathias;  Ch.  3.  Of  the  deeds  of  Judas 
Maccabseus;  Ch.  9-12,  Those  of  Jonathan; 
Ch.  13-16.  Those  of  Simon  and  at  the  end  a 
mention  of  John  Hyrcanus. 

(15)  2.  Maccabees. 

Contains:  (1)  Two  spurious  letters  pre- 
tending to  be  from  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem 
to  those  in  Egypt.  (2)  A  history  of  the 
Jews  from  176  (5)  to  161  B.C.  It  is  of  less 
value  than  the  preceding  but  much  greater 
than  the  following. 

[(16)  3.  Maccabees. 

Treats  the  period  just  before  the  Macca- 
bseans  (221-204)]. 

[(17)  4.  Maccabees. 

Is  "really  a  philosophical  treatise  on  the 
supremacy  of  reason."] 

[(IS)  5.  'Maccabees. 

The  text  is  only  extant  in  Arabic  transla- 
tion; translated  by  Cotton,  The  Five  Books 
of  Maccabees  in  English,  Jjondon,  1832,  pre- 
tends to  give  the  history  of  the  Jews  from 
186  to  6  B.C.] 

LiTERATUKE  of  the  Old  Testament  Apoc- 
rypha. 

The  first  and  best  sources  for  the  English 
reader  are  the  recent  edition  with  revised 
translation  and  an  introduction  by  Wace  in 
the*  Speakers  Commentary  (London,  1888, 
2  vol.),  and  even  more  convenient  and 
adapted  to  the  general  reacler  though  older 
and  perhaps  less  authoritative,  Bissell  in  the 
Schaff-Lange  (N.  Y.,  1880).  A  capital  resume 
with  references  to  literature  is  the  abridg- 
ment of  Schiirer  in  the  Schatt'-Herzog  En- 
cyclopaedia (N.  Y.,  revised  ed.,  1887).  The 
general  articles  of  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary 
and  M'Clintock  and  Strong's  Cyclopaedia 
ai-e  less  satisfactoi'y,  but  the  various  books 
are  treated  in  individual  articles.  For 
farther  and  foreign  literature  compare  the 
above  articles  and  the  exhaustive  list  in 
Bissell. 

2.  Old  Testament  Pseudepigrapha. 

Passing  from  the  Apocryi)ha  one  comes 
to  a  class  of  works  which  can  make  little 
pretention  to  direct  value,  but  which  fur- 
nishes a  literature  abundant,  amusing  and 
of  indirect  evidential  value  respecting  the 
times  in  which  the  works  were  composed; 
none  whatever  on  the  times  when  they  pre- 
tend to  have  been  composed.  The  works 
are  comprised  under  the  head  of  pseude- 
pigi'apha  and  the  best  general  collection  of 
such  is  still  that  of  Fabricius,  Codex  pse«- 
depif/raphus  Veteris  Testamenti,  Hamb.,  1722. 
In  this  may  be  found  pretended  works  by 
Adam,  Eve,  Cain,  Abel,  Seth,  Enoch,  Methu- 
selah, Noah,  Shem,  Ham,  Japheth,  Melchis- 
edech,  Abraham  and  pretty  much  all  the 
Old  Testament  worthies.  "  Song  of  Adam 
on  the  Creation  of  Eve,"  "  Book  of  Seth 
concerning  the  star  which  should  appear  at 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah,"  a  dialogue 
between  Cain  and  Abel,  an  autobiography 
of  Eve,  are  types  of  the  less  important  of 
these. 
Among  the  more  important  are, 

1)  The  Sibylline  Oracles. 

2)  The  Book  of  Jubilees. 

3)  The  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patri- 
archs. 

4)  The  Book  of  Enoch. 


5)  The  Apocalypse  of  Baruch. 

6)  The  Psalms  of  Solomon. 

7)  The  Assumption  of  Moses. 

8)  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah. 

(1)  The  Sibylline  Oracles.  (See  art.  and 
Eng.  trans,  by  M.  S.  Terry,  New  York,  1890.) 

This  work  is  composite,  by  various  wri- 
ters. It  has  a  special  interest  on  account  of 
certain  supposed  predictions  of  Our  Lord's 
advent  which  are  frequently  quoted  in 
Christian  literature,  e.g.,  by  Lactantius  and 
Constantine.  It  is  not  usually  classified  in 
this  group  but  belongs  as  much  here  as  any- 
where. 

(2)  The  Book  of  Jubilees.  (Eng.  trans, 
by  G.  H.  Schodde,  Oberlin,  O.,  1888.) 

Also  called  "  Little  Genesis."  Pretends 
to  be  revelation  to  Moses  on  Sinai,  mainly 
compiled  from  the  Pentateuch  but  with 
much  curious  fiction  included. 

(3)  The  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patri- 
archs. (Eng.  trans,  by  R.  Sinker,  in  The 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Christian  Literature 
Co.,  New  York,  vol.  viii.  1-38.) 

The  lives  and  prophesies  of  the  sons  of 
Jacob. 

(4)  The  Book  of  Enoch.  (Eng.  trans,  by 
G.  H.  Schodde,  Andover,  Mass.,  1882.) 

This  is  of  special  interest  because  cited  in 
the  Epistle  of  Jude  and  frequently  in  the 
Church  Fathers.  It  is  a  composite  work  by 
various  writers  at  various  times  and  it  is 
uncertain  even  whether  these  authors  are 
Jewish  or  Christian.  It  is  a  series  of  reve- 
lations concerning  heaven  and  hell,  natural 
philosophy,  astronomy,  the  history  of  men 
and  of  the  earth  until  its  end,  and  various 
moral  questions.  It  dates  probably  not 
before  the  Christian  Era. 

(5)  Apocalypse  of  Baruch.  (Cf.  Kneuck- 
er.  Das  Buch  Baruch,  Leipzig,  1879.) 

Not  the  same  with  the  book  of  Baruch. 
It  is  a  long  series  of  revelations  pretending 
to  have  been  written  by  Baruch. 

(6)  Psalms  of  Solomon.  (Eng.  trans,  by 
B.  Pick,  in  Presbijterian  Review,  Oct.,  1883.) 

There  are  18  in  number,  written  in  Pales- 
tine about  63  B.C.  They  are  Messianic  in 
character. 

(7)  The  Assumption  of  Moses.  (Latin 
trans,  ed.  Hilgenfeld,  in  his  N.  T.  extra  Can., 
Leipzig,  1866.) 

Pretends  to  be  a  sort  of  abdication  address 
of  Moses  to  Joshua.  It  is  of  interest  as 
being  reputed  to  be  the  source  of  Jude's 
account  of  the  contest  between  Michael 
and  Satan  over  the  body  of  Moses. 

(8)  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  a  double 
work  partly  Christian  and  partly  Jewish. 
(Eng.  trans,  by  G.  H.  Schodde,  in  the 
Lutheran  Quarterly,  Oct.,  1878.) 

In  addition  to  these  the  Apocalypse  of 
Elias  and  the  Books  of  Adam  (one  is  trans, 
by  S.  C.  Malan,  The  Book  of  Adam  and  Eve, 
London,  1882),  might  be  mentioned. 

LiTEKATiiRE  of  the  Old  Testament  Pseu- 
depigrapha. 

There  is  no  general  full  collection  of 
these  works  in  English.  The  standard  gen- 
eral gathering  is  that  of  Fabricius  cited 
above. 

The  best  brief  survey  for  general  refer- 
ence is  again  the  abridgment  of  Dillmann 
(Schodde)    in    the    Schaff-Herzog,    though 


PSEUDBPIGRAPHA 


(777) 


PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 


the  translated  abrid^nient  of  the  same  ar- 
ticle by  Pick  in  tiie  supi)lement  to  McClin- 
tock  and  Stronu,'  is  valuable.  To  this  latter 
the  reader  is  referred  for  further  literature 
in  English,  and  literature  in  English  on  the 
various  books  as  well  as  for  translations 
into  English.  Bissell  also  gives  survey  of 
literature.  ('onipare  also  the  article 
"  Pseudepigraphain  the  Fathers"  by  Scuda- 
niore  and  Stokes  in  Smith  and  Wace,  Dic- 
tionary. 
o.  New  Testament  Pseudepigrapha. 

1)  The  Apostolic  Fathers  (({.v.). 

Few  if  any  of  the  writings  which  go  under 
this  name  are  the  work  of  their  reputed 
authors,  and  the  majority  thus  belong  to 
the  pseudepigrapha  or  apocrypha  e.;/.,  of 
15  Ignatian  epistles  certainly  not  more 
than  seven,  probably  not  more  than  three, 
possibly  none  were  the  work  of  Ignatius. 

2)  The  New  Testament  Apocrypha. 
(1)  Apocryphal  Gospels. 

These  include  a  considerable  number  of 
works  which  pretend  to  give  details  of  the 
life  of  Our  Lord,  esi)ecially  concerning  the 
perioil  covered  by  the  evangelists.  There 
were  a  great  many  of  such  works  written 
during  the  2d  and  3d  centuries  but  most  of 
them  are  lost. 

The  list  of  the  chief  of  these  following 
the  classification  of  Lipsius  is: 

a.  The  Gospels  of  the  Infancy  still  exist- 
ing. 

(1)  History  of  James  concerning  the  birth 
of  Mary  (Protevangelium  of  James). 

(2)  The  Gospel  of  Pseudo-Matthew  con- 
cerning the  childhood  of  Mary  and  of  Christ 
our  Saviour. 

(3)  Tiie  Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary. 

(4)  The  Gospel  of  St.  Thomas  or  the  Acts 
of  the  Lord's  Boyhood. 

(5)  The  Arabic'Gospel  of  the  Infancy. 

(0)  The  Arabic  History  of  Joseph  the 
Carpenter. 

(7)  The  Departure  of  Mary. 
h.  Narratives  of  the  passion  and  resurrec- 
tion of  Our  Lord. 

(1)  The  Epistle  of  Pontius  Pilate. 

(2)  The  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  or  Acts  of 
Pilate. 

c.  Apocryphal  Gospels  now  lost  or  frag- 
ments, but  formerly  valued; 

(1 )  Tlie  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews. 

(2)  The  Gospel  of  Peter. 

(3)  The  Gospel  of  the  Egyptians. 

(4)  Tlie  Diatessaron  of  Tatian.  (See  S. 
Hemphill,  The  Diatessaron  of  Tatian,  Lon- 
don. ISSS.) 

il.  Gnostic  corruptions  of  canonical  gos- 
pels; 

(1)  The  Gospel  of  Marcion. 
12)     *•  '•  Ai)elles. 

(3)  "  "  Basilides. 

(4)  "  "  Andrew. 

(5)  "  "  Barnabas. 

(6)  *'  "         Bartholomew, 

etc.     Eighteen  of   these  are  enumerated 
bv  Lipsius. 
'(2)  Ajx.cryphal  Acts. 

Following  again  the  classification  and 
order  of  Lipsius,  the  following  are  the 
most  important  classes  and  works: 

(I.  Ebioniti'  Acts  of  Apostles. 

For  the  most   part  only   fragments  pre- 


served in  other  works  or  incorporated  in 
recensions,  e.g.  in  the  Clementine  Recogni- 
tion. 

b.  Catholic  adaptations  of  Ebionite  Acts, 

(1)  Acts  of  Peter  and  Paul. 

(2)  Martyrdom  of  Bartholomew. 

c.  Gnostic  or  Manichajan  Acts; 

(1)  Acts  of  Peter, 

(2)  Acts  of  Paul, 

(3)  Acts  of  John, 

(4)  Acts  of  Andrew, 

(5)  Acts  and  Martyrdom  of  Matthew, 

(0)  Acts  of  Thomas, 

(7)  Acts  of  Phillip, 

(8)  Acts  of  Bartholomew, 
(U)  Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla, 

(10)  Acts  of  Barnabas. 

d.  Catholic  reconstructions  of  Gnostic 
Acts; 

Apostolical  Histories  of  Abdias, 

e.  Acts  originally  Catholic; 

(1)  Teaching  of  Thaddajus  (Doctrina 
Addaei), 

(2)  Acts  of  Simon  and  Judas, 
(:;)  Acts  of  Matthew,  in  Abdias. 

(3)  Apocryphal  Epistles. 

Following  the  analysis  of  K.  Travers 
Smith  in  Smith  and  Wace: 

a.  The  epistles  of  Abgarus,  King  of 
Edessa,  to  Christ,  and  the  answer  of  our 
Lord.  (Containing  the  famous  tale  of  the 
portrait  of  Jesus.) 

b.  Epistles  of  the  Blessed  Virgin; 

(1)  To  Ignatius, 

(2)  Ad  Messanenses, 

(3)  Ad  Florentinos. 

c.  Epistles  of  St.  Paul ; 

(1)  To  the  Laodiceans, 

(2)  A  3d  ei)istle  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthi- 
ans, 

(3)  Letters  of  Paul  and  Seneca, 
rt.  Epistles  of  other  apostles. 

(1)  Epistle  of  Peter  to  James. 

(2)  Epistle  of  J<dni  to  a  dropsical  man. 

(4)  Ai>ocryi)hal  Apocalypses. 

With  certain  Books  of  Revelation  be- 
longing) properly  to  the  Old  Testament 
Pseudepigrapha  and  other  works  not 
strictly  apocalyptic,  there  are  edited  by 
Tischendorf  and  translated  in  the  Ante- 
Nicene  Lihrary  (ed.  Coxe,  New  York. 
The  Christian  Literature  Co.  vol.  viii.  3G1- 
598): 

(1)  The  Apocalypse  of  Paul, 

(2)  The  Apocaly]»se  of  John. 
There  may  be  mentioned  also 
(;!)  The  Apocalyi)se  of  Peter, 

(4)  The  Apocalyi).se  of  Bartholomew. 

LiTKiiATiKF;. — The  general  reader  will 
find  the  best  s<uuce  for  further  information 
respecting  these  works  in  the  works  them- 
selves, and  in  the  prefaces  to  the  translations 
of  the  Christian  Literature  Co.  mentioned 
above;  and  in  the  exhaustive  monographs 
of  Prof.  K.  A.  Lipsius  in  the  .Smith  and 
Wace,  Dirtionary  of  Christian  Biography: 
Gospels  (Apocryphal).  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles (Apocry])hal).  Epistles  (A])ocryphal). 
Apocaly])ses  I  Apocryphal),  and  in  his  Ajiok- 
ryphcn  Aiioslilijesrltii-hte  vnd  Aiinntillvijen- 
din,  Braunschweig,  iss.''j-'.i(i,  4  parts  (vols,  i., 
ii.  1  and  2,  and  Ergiiiizungsheft). 

Hones  Apocryphal  Gcspils  are  easily  ac- 
cessible in  various  editions;  also  Cowper's 


PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 


(778) 


PTOLEMY 


Apocryphal  Gospels  and  the  article  "  Pseude- 
pigrapha,"  in  the  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclop(B- 
dia.  For  older  and  foreign  literature  in 
which  are  the  names  of  Fabricius  and  Tisch- 
endorf  among  the  earlier,  and  the  very  ex- 
haustive work  of  Lipsius  among  the 
later,  the  reader  will  consult  the  above 
mentioned  literature  and  the  SuppAement 
to  the  Ante-Nlcene  Fathers.     Pp.  95-104. 

3)  Apostolical  Liturgies. 

These  form  a  most  interesting  class.  The 
best  known  of  them  edited  by  Neale 
(Primitive  Liturgies  3d  ed.,  London,  1875) 
and  also  published  in  translation  and  trans- 
lated in  Ante-Nlcene  Fathers  (ed.  Coxe,  New 
York.  The  Christian  Literatui'e  Co.  vol. 
vii.  529-572)  are: 

(1)  The  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark  the  evange- 
list, or  according  to  the  use  of  the  Alexan- 
drian ChuBch. 

(2)  The  Liturgy  of  St.  James,  the  brother 
©f  the  Lord ;  or  according  to  the  use  of  the 
Jerusalem. 

Under  the  name  of  James  are  two;  one 
in  Greek  and  one  in  Syriac. 

(3)  The  Clementine  Liturgy. 

Found  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions. 
Compare  in  Ante-Nlcene  Fathers  vol.  cited 
above. 

(4)  The  Liturgy  of  the  Blessed  Apostles 
composed  by  St.  Adasus  and  St.  Maris, 
teachers  of  the  Easterns. 

Literature  of  the  Apostolical  Liturgies. 

The  best  ajjparatus  for  these  is  the  trans- 
lations in  the  Ante-Nicene  Father's  vol.  cited 
above,  with  the  introduction  of  Hammond 
in  his  classic  edition  of  the  texts  {Liturgies 
Eastern  and  Western,  Oxford,  1878). 

(4)  Apostolical  Canons  and  Constitutions 
and  the  Apostolical  Church  Directory. 

Compare  articles  above  in  this  Dictionary, 
pp.  38-9;  also  articles  by  Shaw  in  Smith 
and  Cheetham,  vol.  1,  pp.  110-126  and  the 
various  encyclopaedias. 

5)  Clementine  Literature. 

This  comes  very  nearly  under  the  class  of 
Apocryphal  Acts.  It  consists  of  I.  The 
Homilies.  II.  The  Recognitions.  III.  The 
Epitome.  It  is  occupied  mainly  with  the 
travels  and  preachings  of  Peter  against 
Simon  Magus  by  whom  a  modern  tendency 
school  improbably  consider  Paul  to  be 
meant.  Cf.  article  in  this  Dictionary  p.  175, 
and  article  of  Salmon  in  Smith  and  Wace, 
trans,  in  Ante-Nlcene  Fathers,  vol.  viii. 
Suppl.  pp.  92-95. 

6)  Teaching  of  the  Twelve.     (Didache.) 
One   of  the  earliest  of   the   class,  being 

composed  early  in  the  2d  century.  Recently 
discovered  it  has  been  veiy  fully  discussed. 
A  translation  with  very  satisfactory  resume 
of  the  literature  can  be  found  in  the  edition 
of  Schaff,  and  a  list  of  literature  also  in  the 
Ante-Nlcene  Fathers,  Suppl. ,  pp.  83-86. 
Compare  article.  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles. 

4.  Mediaeval  and  Modern  Pseudepigraphic 
Literature. 

(1)  Lives  of  the  Saints. 

During  the  medifeval  period  imagination 
ran  wild  on  inventions  of  legends  of  the 
saints.  They  were  multiplied  by  thousands 
and  many  contain  stories  of  Scripture  char- 
acters.    Among  the  most  famous  origina- 


tors, or  compilers  of  such  tales  were 
Gregory  of  Tours,  Simeon  Meta^jhrastes 
and  Jacobus  de  Voragine. 

(2)  Modern. 

Under  this  class  come  such  works  as  Gen- 
eral Lew  Wallace's  "Ben  Hur,"  various  of 
Browning's  poems,  the  Phelps-Ward 
"  Master  of  the  Magicians,"  and  "  Come 
Forth,"  and  a  thousand  others  of  the  same 
sort — a  numerous  and  now  increasing 
class,  especially  instructive  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  motive  and  value  of  the  ancient 
pure  pseudepigraphic  literature. 

The  same  pious  purpose  and  the  same 
human  nature  dictated  ancient  and  modern, 
w'ith  the  same  variety  of  good,  bad  and  in- 
difEerent  result,  the  percentage  of  profit 
being  about  that  of  Gratiano's  reasons, 
"  two  grains  of  wheat  in  two  bushels  of 
chaff." 

The  whole  may  be  roughly  classed 
into:  prevailingly  valueless — Old  Testa- 
ment Pseudepigrapha,  New  Testament 
Apocrypha,  Lives  of  the  Saints;  more  or 
less  valuable — the  remainder. 

Ernest  C.  Richardson. 

Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals.  See  Canon 
Law,  p.  137. 

Ptolemy,  the  common  name  of  the  Greek 
Kings  of  Egypt. 

1.  Ptolemy  I.,  Soter,  founder  of  the  dy- 
nasty, probably  a  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon, 
a  general  in  Alexander's  army.  In  B.C. 
323  he  seized  Egypt  and  held  it.  About  320 
in  invading  Syria  he  took  Jerusalem,  and 
carried  captive  many  Jews  to  Egypt,  but 
treated  them  well,  and  founded  a  flourishing 
Jewish  colony.  He  is  supposed  to  be  meant 
in  Dan.  xi.  5  by  "  the  king  of  the  South." 

2.  Ptolemy  II.,  Philadelphus,  285-247, 
son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  a  lover  of 
learning,  founded  the  great  library  and 
museum  at  Alexandria,  and  is  said  to  have 
occasioned  the  Septuagint  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament.  He  tried  to  find  a  common 
ground  on  which  Hebrew  religion  and 
Greek  philosophy  could  stand  together. 

3.  Ptolemy  III.,  Euergetes,  247-222,  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  invaded  Syria;  ex- 
tended his  conquests  to  Antioch  and  Baby- 
lon; offered  sacrifices  in  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem ;  and  brought  back  to  Egypt  the 
idols  which  Cambyses  had  carried  to  Baby- 
lon. 

4.  Ptolemy  IV.,  Philopator,  222-205,  son 
of  the  preceding.  He  defeated  at  Raphia 
near  Gaza  the  army  of  Antiochus  the  Great, 
215  (Dan.  xi.  10-12),  and  offered  sacrifices 
of  thanksgiving  at  Jerusalem,  but  attempt- 
ing to  enter  the  sanctuary  was  suddenly 
paralyzed. 

5.  Ptolemy  V.,  Epiphanes,  205-181,  was 
only  5  years  old  when  his  father  Ptolemy 
IV.  died.  During  his  minority,  Antiochus 
conquered  Coele-Syria  and  Judea,  and  very 
many  Jews  fled  to  Egypt  where  the  high 
priest  Onias  laid  the  foundations  of  the  tem- 
ple at  Leontopolis.  Afterwards  by  the 
mediation  of  Rome  Ptolemy  and  Antiochus 
were  reconciled,  but  the  power  of  Egypt 
was  now  rapidly  declining  (Dan.  xi.  13-17). 

6.  Ptolemy  VI.,  Philometor,  181-146,  was 
but  6  years  old  when  his  father,  Ptolemy 


PUBLICAN 


(779) 


PUNISHMENTS 


v.,  died.  Under  the  regency  of  his  mother 
there  was  peace  witli  Syria,  but  after  her 
death,  173,  Aiitiochus,  171,  invaded  Efj^ypt, 
and  took  the  kinjj  prisoner,  and  put  his 
brother  P.  Physcon  on  the  throne,  with 
whom  Ptolemy  Vl.,  after  his  release  shared 
the  kingdom.  Another  invasion  by  Anti- 
ochus,  1(58,  was  cheeked  by  the  Romans 
who  Ecradually  brought  the  country  into  a 
Koman  province  (Dan.  xi.  2.")-oO).  During 
this  reign  the  Jewish  temple  at  Leontopolis 
was  completed.  T.  W.  C. 

Publican,  an  inferior  collector  of  the 
Eoman  tribute.  This  class  of  men  was 
especially  odious  to  the  Jews  who  would 
not  allow  tliem  to  enter  the  temple  or  the 
synagogues  or  give  testimony  in  a  court 
of  justice.  There  were  many  publicans  in 
Judea  in  Christ's  time;  among  them,  Zac- 
ch;eus,  one  of  the  principal  receivers  (Luke 
xix.  2),  and  Mattliew,  an  inferior  officer 
(v.  27).  The  Jews  reproached  Jesus  as  a 
friend  of  publicans  and  for  eating  wnth  them 
(vii.  34),  but  he  said,  "the  publicans  go 
into  the  kingdom  of  God  before  you" 
(Matt.  xxi.  ol),  and  set  forth  one  of  them 
as  an  example  of  penitent  humility  (Luke 
xviii.  10-14).  T.  W.  C. 

Publicani  is  a  name  often  given  to  the 
Cathari  in  Northern  France  and  England  in 
the  12th  century.  It  is  a  pi'obable  corrup- 
tion of  "  Pauliciani "  and  sprang  from  a 
confusion  of  the  Cathari  with  the  Paulicians 
whom  the  crusaders  had  learnt  to  know  in 
the  East. 

Pufendorf,  Samuel,  b.  at  Chemnitz,  Sax- 
ony, 1632;  d.  in  Berlin,  16'J4;  was  historio- 
grapher to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg.  His 
Dejure  nature  et  (jentium,  Lund,  1(372.  which 
was  translated  into  German,  French,  and 
English,  is  the  fcmndation  of  the  modern 
conceptions  of  natural  and  international 
right,  which  previously  were  based  on  the 
decalogue  and  the  idea  of  the  justice  of 
God,  wliile  Pufendorf  derives  the  former 
from  a  natural  instinct  of  sociability  in  the 
human  race  and  represents  the  latter  as  a 
necessary  conclusion  of  the  human  reason. 

Pul.  I.  An  Assyrian  King  who  invaded 
Israel  during  the  reign  of  Menahem  (2  Ki. 
XV.  10),  but  was  induced  to  withdraw 
bv  a  present  of  1()00  talents  of  silver 
(=  .«;l..5(X),000).  This  is  the  lirst  mention  of 
Assyria,  in  sacred  history  after  the  time  of 
Nimrod. 

II.  A  name  given  (Is.  Ixvi.  19)  to  a  region 
mintioned  with  Tarshish  and  Lud.  Bo- 
cliart  and  others  suppose  it  to  be  the  island 
Pliila'  in  the  Nile;  otliers  put  it  in  some 
remote  region  of  Africa:  by  the  Septuagint 
it  is  identified  with  Phut  which  is  joined 
with  Lud  (F^zek.  xxvii.  10,  xxx.  5),  and 
may  therefore  dcHote  Lybia. 

Pulcheria,  a  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Arcadius,  b.  3'.>.S  d.  4.">3,  was  in  414  made 
Amjusfa  by  the  senate  and  guardian  of  her 
younger  brother,  Tlieodosius  II.,  who  was 
weak-minded.  In  424  Theodosius  married 
Eudoxia,  the  daughter  of  an  .Vthenian  phi- 
losoplier  and  the  rivalry  l)ctween  the  si.s- 
ter  and   wife    furnished    the   fuel    for   tlie 


Nestorian  controversy.  Pulcheria  sided 
with  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Eudoxia  with 
Nestorius.  Pulcheria  was  consequently 
banished  from  the  court  and  Nestorianism 
came  out  triumphant  from  the  robber  synod 
of  Ephesus  440.  But  Pulcheria  succeeded 
in  returning  and  regaining  her  power  over 
her  brother  and  then  Eudoxia  was  banished 
from  the  court  and  orthodoxy  was  rein- 
stalled in  its  rights  by  the  Synod  of  Chalce- 
don,  4.51. 

PuUeyn,  Robert,  b.  in  England  towards 
the  close  of  the  11th  century;  d.  in  Kome  in 
the  middle  of  the  12th;  studied  in  Paris, 
returned  to  England  in  1130,  was  made  arch- 
deacon of  Koohester,  and  founded  a  theo- 
logical school  at  Oxford,  but  went  again  to 
Paris  in  llS.j,  taught  theology  there  with 
great  success,  and  settled  tin'ally  in  Kome 
where  he  became  chancellor  of  the  apostolic 
see  and  was  created  a  cardinal.  His  .SVn- 
tentiarum  Llhri  VIII.,  edited  by  Hugo 
Mathoud  of  St.  Maur,  Paris,  16-"),  and  re- 
printed by  Migne :  Patrol.  Latin.  CLXXXVI., 
is  a  kind  of  reconciliation  between  Abelard 
and  Bernard,  and  forms  tlie  foundation  of 
Peter  Lombard's  Sententia. 

FvUpit  (Latin  jynljntuin),  originally  the  fore- 
most, projecting  part  of  the  Roman  stage, 
from  which  the  actor  recited  his  part;  later 
on  a  piece  of  church  furniture  from  which 
the  minister  delivers  his  sermon.  In  the 
oldest  times  the  bishop  preached  from  his 
throne  and  the  deacon  from  the  ambo.  The 
lirst  pulpits  used  were  movable  and  placed 
where  most  convenient.  The  stationary 
pulpit  stood  first  between  two  pillars  in 
front  of  a  screen,  afterwards  it  was  fastened 
to  a  pillar.  In  the  middle  ages,  however, 
pulpits  were  also  erected  in  cemeteries  or 
even  in  public  thoroughfares.  Their  form 
was  generally  hexagonal  or  octoganal,  and 
the  materials  from  which  they  were  made, 
were  either  stone  or  wood;  in  the  latter 
case  they  were  often  beautifully  carved. 

Punishment,  Future,    See  Hell. 

Punishments.  The  penalties  of  the 
Mosaic  law  were  designed  not  only  to  pro- 
tect society  but  to  vindicate  justice. 

Capital  punishment  for  murder  was  insti- 
tuted after  the  deluge  (Gen.  ix.  o.  H),  and 
was  early  and  widely  recognized  among 
mankind."  It  was  inflicted  for  blasphemy 
(Lev.  xxiv.  14),  idolatry  (Lev.  xx,  2),  dis- 
honoring a  parent  (Ex.  xxi.  1.5),  adultery 
(Lev.  XX.  10).  man-stealing  (Ex.  xxi.  16), 
false  witness  in  capital  cases  (Deut.  xix.  16, 
10);  but  only  on  the  testimony  of  two  wit- 
nesses (Deiit.  xvii.  6),  It  was  inflicted  in 
various  ways,  stoning  (Ex.  xix.  13,  Acts 
vii.  .58),  sword-thrust  (Ex.  xxxii.  27),  hang- 
ing (Num.  XXV.  4),  burning  (Lev.  xx.  14). 
Of  these  stoning  was  the  most  common, 
and  in  this  the  witnesses  were  required  to 
begin  the  execution  (Deut.  xvii.  7).  Other 
modes  of  inflicting  death  became  known  to 
the  Jews  by  intercourse  with  foreign  na- 
tions, as  decapitation  (2  Ki.  vi.  8),  precipita- 
tion (2  Chron.  xxv.  12),  cutting  asunder 
(Dan.  ii.  5)  and  CKrciFixiox,  which  see. 

Secondary  punishments  were  usually  gov- 
erned by  the  lex  talionis,  "  eye  for  eye,  tooth 


PUNSHON 


(780) 


PURIM 


for  tooth"  (Ex.  xxi.  23-25),  but  unlike  the 
usage  of  other  peoples,  this  was  not  given 
into  the  hands  of  the  party  offended,  but 
took  effect  only  after  judicial  procedure. 
In  case  of  theft  from  double  to  five-fold 
restitution  was  required  (Ex.  xxii. ) ;  in  other 
cases  compensation  for  loss  of  time,  power 
or  honor  (Ex.  xxi.  18-36,  Lev.  xxiv.  18-21, 
Deut.  xix.  21).  When  neither  restitution 
nor  compensation  had  place,  as  in  case  of 
slandei',  scourging  was  employed  (Deut. 
xxii.  IS),  but  the  law  forbade  more  than 
40  stripes  (Deut.  xxv.  3),  and  the  Jews  usu- 
ally gave  only  39  (2  Cor.  xi.  24).  Imprison- 
ment was  not  prescribed  by  law,  but  was  in 
use  under  the  Kings  (2  Chron.  xvi.  10,  Jer. 
xxxvii.  15),  who  also  employed  stocks  (Jer. 
XX.  2),  as  did  the  Komans  (Acts  xvi.  24). 

In  some  35  cases  the  penalty  is  that  of 
being  "  cut  off  from  the  congregation  "  or 
"the  people,"  which  some  hold  to  mean 
death,  while  others  explain  it  as  excommu- 
nication. T.  W.  C. 

Punshon,  William  Morley,  LL.D.  (Vic- 
toria University,  Coburg,  Canada,  1873), 
Wesleyan;  b.  at  Doncaster,  37  m.  s.  of  York 
May  29,  1824;  d.  in  London,  April  14,  1881. 
He  began  to  preach  1842,  was  stationed  at 
Marden,  Kent,  1844,  and  ordained  1849.  He 
was  in  Canada  1868-73,  and  there  and  in 
England  attained  the  highest  honors  of  his 
donomination,  being  president  of  Confer- 
ence 1874.  He  was  eminent  as  a  preacher 
and  lecturer.  His  works  include  Sabbath 
Chimes,  London,  1867,  and  in  prose  TJie  Prod- 
igal Son,  1868,  Life  Thoughts,  1863,  and  three 
more  volumes  of  sermons,  1860,  1881-82. 
His  Life,  by  F.  W.  MacDonald,  appeared 
London,  1887.  F.  M.  B. 

Purcell,  Henry,  b.  in  London,  1658;  d. 
there,  Nov.  21, 1695,  was  appointed  organist 
of  Westminster  Abbey  in  1676  and  of 
Chapel  Royal  in  1682.  His  Sacred  Music, 
Te  Deum,  Jubilate,  etc.  were  edited  with  a 
memoir  on  his  life  and  works  by  Vincent 
Novello,  London,  1826-36. 

Purcell,  John  Baptist,  Archbishop;  b.  at 
Mallow.  County  Cork,  Ireland,  Feb.  26, 
1800;  d.  in  Brown  County,  Ohio,  July  4,  1883. 
He  emigrated  to  America  in  1818,  studied 
theology  in  Mount  St.  Mary's,  Emmettsburg, 
Md.,  and  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  where  he  was 
ordained  priest  in  1826.  In  1827  he  was 
appointed  professor  in  St.  Mary's  and  in 
1828  president  of  the  college.  In  1833  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Cincinnati  and  in 
1850  archbishop.  At  the  council  of  the  Vat- 
ican he  spoke  and  voted  against  the  dogma 
of  infallibility  but  accepted  it,  when  pro- 
mulgated. The  growth  of  the  Roman 
Church  in  Ohio  was  due  to  his  energy,  but 
his  methods  finally  involved  him  in  finan- 
cial disaster.  For  many  years  he  received 
the  savings  of  his  parishioners  and  spent 
them  on  church-buildings  and  charitable 
institutions.  Of  course,  when  there  was  an 
attempt  to  draw  the  money,  the  state  of 
affairs  was  discovered,  and  the  result  was  a 
failure  in  1879  of  $4,000,000,  after  which  he 
retired  into  a  monastery,  and  a  coadjutor 
was  appointed.  The  debt  has  never  been 
paid,  and  is  not  likely  to  be.     Purcell  pub- 


lished Lectures  and  Pastoral  Letters,  a  Life 
of  McLeod,  New  York,  1866,  The  Boman 
Clergy  and  Free  Thought,  1870,  etc. 

Purgatory  according  to  the  Greek  and 
Roman  churches  is  a  place  in  the  interme- 
diate state  where  those  who  though  par- 
doned as  to  the  eternal  penalty  of  sin  are 
still  burdened  with  venial  sins,  are  purified 
by  suffering  and  fitted  for  heaven.  The 
doctrine  is  not  only  without  support  in 
Scripture  but  opposed  to  the  whole  tenor 
of  its  teachings,  and  very  derogatory  to  the 
fulness  of  Christ's  atoning  work.  And  it 
must  necessarily  weaken  the  motives  which 
urge  the  believer  to  holy  living  in  this 
world,  while  at  the  same  time  it  opens 
a  dismal  prospect  to  the  dying  Christian 
who  according  to  it  goes  not  to  Paradise 
but  to  penal  suffering.  T.  W.  C. 

Purifications  formed  a  conspicuous  fea- 
ture in  the  Jewish  ritual,  and  performed  an 
important  office  in  the  education  of  the 
covenant  people,  especially  in  awakening  a 
consciousness  of  sin  and  preparing  for  the 
revelation  of  the  one  great  sacrifice  for  sin. 
Ceremonial  cleanness  and  uncleanness  were 
not  the  same  as  holiness  and  sin,  but  merely 
symbolized  them.  To  be  clean  in  a  ceremo- 
nial sense  meant  only  to  be  fit  to  share  in 
certain  privileges,  i.e.,  to  be  in  good  stand- 
ing in  the  Jewish  communion. 

Three  kinds  of  defilement  required,  be- 
side bathing  the  person  and  washing  the 
garments,  animal  sacrifices  as  a  means  of 
removal.  One  was  contact  with  the  dead 
of  men  or  animals,  even  touching  a  bone  or 
a  grave,  death  being  regarded  as  the  wages 
of  sin  and  a  token  of  corruption.  Purifiica- 
tion  was  effected  by  sprinkling  with  water 
which  had  been  mingled  with  the  ashes  of 
a  red  heifer  burned  as  a  sin-offering  with- 
out the  camp.  Cf.  Heb.  ix.  13,  14.  A  sec- 
ond kind  was  that  which  arose  from  leprosy 
in  men,  houses  or  clothing,  a  disease  which 
was  a  living  parable  of  death,  and  as  such 
is  minutely  described.  Purification  from 
this  was  a  process  extending  over  a  week 
and  involving  various  bathings,  offerings 
and  anointings.  A  third  class  was  that 
arising  from  morbid  fluxes  of  the  sexual 
organs,  which  were  regarded  as  disturb- 
ances of  natural  functions,  and  hence  as 
the  consequence  of  sin  came  to  have  a 
moral  as  well  as  a  physical  quality.  Hence 
involuntary  nocturnal  emissions,  a  woman's 
monthly  courses,  issues  of  blood  and  the 
concomitants  of  childbirth  worked  a  pol- 
lution which  could  be  removed  only  by 
ablutions  and  sacrifices. 

After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  exile 
purifications  were  multiplied  beyond  the 
requirements  of  the  law  especially  by  the 
Pharisees,  and  were  regarded  as  having  in 
themselves  a  saving  efficacy,  their  spiritual 
meaning  being  overlooked.  How  our  Lord 
regarded  such  works  of  supererogation  may 
be  seen  from  his  answer  to  some  carping 
critics  (Mark  vii.  1-8,  18-23).         T.  W,  C. 

Pu'-rim  [lots),  a  Jewish  festival,  celebrated 
on  the  14th  and  15th  of  Adar,  instituted  in 
memory  of  the  preservation  of  the  people 
from    the    massacre    ordered    by    Haman. 


PURITANISM 


(781) 


PYNCHON 


(Esther  ix.  20-82).  It  takes  its  name  from 
the  casting  of  lots  by  Hainan  to  ascertain 
the  best  days  for  destroying  the  Jews.  It 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
iniless  it  be  as  some  think,  the  feast  referred 
to  by  John  (v.  1).  It  is  still  celebrated  by 
the  Jews  in  the  month  of  March,  and  they 
have  a  proverb  "The  temple  may  fall  but 
Purim  never."  T.  W.  C. 

Puritanism  designates  a  movement  in  the 
church-history  of  England  which  may  be 
referred  back  to  a  direct  inrtuence  from 
(Geneva  as  it  arose  among  those  who  had 
fled  to  Holland  and  Uermany  during  the 
reign  of  Queen  Mary  and  returned  lionie 
with  their  new  ideas  at  the  accession  of 
Queen  Elizabeth.  They  demanded  the 
restoration  of  the  Christian  Church  to  its 
original  "purity,"  the  elimination  of  all 
Komish  elements  both  in  doctrine  and  con- 
stitution, perfect  independence  in  the 
relation  between  church  and  state,  the 
establishment  of  the  Reformed  Church  con- 
stitution with  its  Presbyterian  government, 
its  strong  church  discipline,  etc.  A  just 
idea  of  the  difference  between  Puritanism 
and  Anglicanism  may  be  obtained  by  com- 
paring the  Book  of  Discipline,  drawn  up  by 
Cartwright  and  Travers,  with  Hooker's 
Ecclesiastical  Polity.  For  the  further 
course  of  the  movement  see  Exglaxd, 
Chckch  of.  p.  257.  After  the  restoration 
the  name  Puritan  gradually  gave  way  to 
that  of  Xon-conformist,  as  comprehending 
the  two  parties  into  which  they  had  split, 
the  Independents  and  the  Presbyterians. 

Purple,  tlie  famous  Oriental  dye  pro- 
duced from  a  species  of  shell-fish  caught  in 
the  Mediterranean,  was  highly  esteemed 
among  the  Hebrews,  and  used  by  them  not 
only  for  the  hangings  of  the  temple,  and 
some  of  the  priest's  garments  (Ex.  xxv.  4; 
XXXV.  6;  xxxix.  29;  2  Chron.  iii.  14),  but 
also  for  the  royal  robes  (Judg.  viii.  26). 

Purvey,  John ;  d.  after  1427.  He  helped  in 
making  Wiclif's  version  of  the  Bible,  and  re- 
vised it,  188S,  contributing  a  long  prologue; 
became  a  leader  of  the  Lollards,  was  silenced 
lo8T,  imprisoned  i:}'.>0,  and  again  1421.  He 
recanted  in  1400,  and  was  vicar  of  West- 
hithe,  Kent,  till  1408.  F.  M.  B. 

Pusey,  Edward  Bouverie,  D.D.  (Oxford. 
18—1.  Cliurch  of  England;  b.  near  Oxford 
in  IS(M);  d.  tiiere  Sept.  H\,  1882.  He  entered 
Clirist  Church  College,  1818;  became  a 
fellow  of  Oriel  1824,  and  in  1828  regius 
professor  of  Hebrew,  and  canon  of  Christ 
Church:  these  posts  he  held  through  life. 
His  first  book.  An  Historical  Empiirt/,  in  2 
parts.  London.  182S-:^0.  defended  the  ra- 
tional theology  of  Germany  against  the 
attacks  of  H.  J.  Rose.  But  his  ]iosition 
changed  liy  association  with  Newman  and 
Keblc;  he  wrote  3  of  the  Tracts  for  tin-  Times 
(tlie  18th.  40th,  and  ()7tli).  and  with  Keble 
and  C.  Marriott,  began  the  Lihrnnj  of  the 
Fathers.  His  sermon  on  the  Eucharist, 
184.8,  caused  his  suspension  from  the  univer- 
sity pulpit  for  8  years,  and  made  him  a 
leader  of  the  new  party;  after  Newman's 
secession  in  184.">,  he  was  looked  to  as  its 
head.     He  earnestly  protested  against  the 


giving  of  his  name  to  a  movement  which 
he  had  not  started,  and  he  had  little  sympa- 
thy with  its  most  obvious  result,  the  devel- 
opment of  ceremonial  or  "ritualism."  His 
immense  influence  was  exerted  by  no  social 
magnetism,  for  his  manners  were  retiring, 
and  his  life  secluded,  but  by  the  pen, 
through  constant  publications  and  an  ex- 
tensive correspondence.  His  piety  was 
deep  and  stolid,  his  industi'y  immense;  but 
he  was  far  more  notable  for  theological  and 
antiquarian  learning  than  as  an  original 
thinker;  he  dwelt  more  in  the  past  than  in 
the  present,  and  his  fame  rose  on  accidental 
rather  than  on  intrinsic  grounds.  Yet,  for 
40  years  his  name  was  a  word  to  conjure 
by;  and  some  of  his  sermons  (as  those  on 
Absolution,  1840;  The  liule  of  Faith,  1851; 
The  Eucharist,  1858;  and  Unsclence,  1878)  af- 
fected the  opinions  and  the  practice  of 
thousands.  Chief  among  his  larger  writ- 
ings are  2  books  on  The  Real  Presence, 
Oxford,  185.5-57;  The  Minor  Prophets,  1860- 
77;  Daniel,  1864,  and  An  Eirenicon,  1865. 
See  sketches  of  him  by  B.  W.  Savile  and 
J.  H.  Rigg,  London,  1888,  both  unfriendly. 
F.  M.  B. 

Pu-te'-o-li  (sulphurous  wells),  on  the  north- 
ern shore  of  a  small  bay  running  northward 
from  the  Bay  of  Naples,  was  the  great  port 
of  Rome,  although  141  miles  southeast  from 
it.  Here  the  Alexandrian  corn  ships  un- 
loaded, and  had  the  peculiar  ])rivilege  of 
entering  the  harbor  under  full  sail.  It  was  , 
a  favorite  watering-place  of  the  Romans 
and  associated  with  many  historical  person- 
ages. The  Twin  Brothers  landed  the  apos- 
tle there,  and  he  found  Christians  with 
whom  he  spent  a  week  before  setting  out 
for  Rome  (Acts  xxviii.  18,  14).  The  mod- 
ern name  of  the  place  is  Pozzuoli,  and  there 
are  considerable  remains  of  the  ancient  city. 
T.  W.  C. 

Pym,  John,  b.  at  Brymon,  Somei'setshire, 
1.584;  d.  in  London  Dec.  8,  1648.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  entered  parliament 
1621,  attacked  the  Romanists  at  once,  was 
active  in  Buckingham's  impeachment,  1626, 
urged  the  Petition  of  Right,  1028,  became 
leader  of  the  Commons  1640,  and  risked 
everything  in  the  attack  on  Strafford.  Dy- 
ing in  the  midst  of  success,  he  had  secured 
the  triumph  of  his  cause.  Though  no  re- 
publican, his  services  were  equally  great  to 
political  and  to  religious  liberty, 

Pynchon,  William,  Puritan;  b.  in  Essex 
about  1500;  d.  at  Wraisburg,  Buckingham- 
shire, Oct.  22,  1662.  He  came  to  Massachu- 
setts with  Winthrop  in  1630,  and  founded 
Springfield  l(i86.  His  Meritorious  Price  of 
our  liedeniption,  London,  1650,  denied 
Christ's  bearing  our  sins  by  literal  imputa- 
tion, and  consequent  penalty;  the  General 
Court  condemned  it,  whereupon  he  returned 
to  ?:ngland  1()52.  Norton  answered  his 
book  (16.58),  and  he  answered  Norton  (1655). 

Pyx,  the  box  in  wliich  the  liost  is  kept  in 
the  Roman  Church,  for  temporary  preser- 
vation. Its  use  goes  back  to  the  4th  cen- 
tury; the  name  to  the  12th.  Its  use  was 
enjoined  by  Innocent  III.  in  1215.  Its  form 
has  varied,  but  now  is  generally  made  of 
the  precious  metals,  and  lined  with  gold. 


QUADRAGESIMA 


(782) 


QUESNEL 


Q. 


Quadragesima  {the  fortieth  day).  See 
Lent,  page  497. 

Quadratus,  one  of  the  earliest  apologists, 
presented  his  defence  of  the  Christian  faith 
to  the  Emperor  Hadrian  in  125.  Of  the 
author,  who  is  often  confounded  with  two 
other  persons  of  the  same  name,  nothing  f  ur- 
tlier  is  known,  and  of  his  work  only  a  frag- 
ment— in  which  he  speaks  of  persons  who 
were  healed  by  Christ  as  still  living — has  come 
down  to  us,  preserved  in  Eusebius,  Hist. 
Eccl.  iv.,  3,  trans,  in  McGiffert's  ed.  Chris- 
tian Literature  Company,  New  York,  1890, 
p.  175  ;  also  in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  same 
Company,  vol.  viii.,  p.  749.  C.  P. 

Quakers.     See  Friends,  page  306. 

Quarantania,  a  mountain  7  m.  n.w.  of 
Jericho,  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  but  said 
"by  tradition  to  have  been  the  scene  of  our 
Lord's  temptation.  It  rises  abruptly  from 
the  plain  to  the  height  of  1200  to  1500  feet, 
and  its  rocky  precipitous  sides  contain  many 
caves  where  hermits  once  dwelt  and  which 
were  also  the  retreat  of  robbers.  There  was 
a  monastery  on  the  mountain  in  the  time  of 
the  Crusades.  T.  W.  C. 

Quarles,  Francis,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Romford  (or  Stewards),  Essex,  1592  ;  d.  in 
London,  Sept.  8,  1644.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Lincoln's  Inn  ;  was  cupbearer  to 
the  queen  of  Bohemia,  secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Ussher(1621),  and  chronologer  of  Lon- 
don (1639)  ;  but  suffered  in  purse  and  person 
f  ir  the  king.  As  a  sacred  poet  he  preceded 
George  Herbert  in  time,  and  ranks  next  him 
among  the  singers  of  that  period.  His  Feast 
of  Wormes  appeared,  London,  1620  ;  his 
bivine  Poems,  collected  1630,  made  a  thick 
volume.  Better  known  and  more  readable 
are  his  Emblems,  1635,  School  of  the  Heart, 
and  Hieroglyphics  of  the  Life  of  Man,  1638. 
These  have  been  often  reprinted  {e.g.,  Lon- 
don. 1887)  with  the  curious  cuts  borrowed 
from  Hermannus  Hugo's  Pia  Hesideria, 
Antwerp,  1624,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1686. 
Quarles'  wit  was  equal  to  his  piety,  but  his 
fame  has  suffered  cruel  injustice  from  the 
critics.  His  favorite  theme  is  the  vanity  of 
earthly  things,  and  almost  his  only  admirers 
for  a  long  time  were  dissenters  of  humble  po- 
sition, whence  he  has  been  called  a  "  Puritan" 
poet.  His  chief  prose  work  is  the  Enchyrid- 
ion,  1640.  His  son,  John  Quarles  (1624-65), 
was  also  a  meritorious  poet.  F.  M.  B. 

Quartodecimani.  See  Paschal  Contro- 
versies. 

Quaternion,  a  detachment  consisting  of 
four  men  (Acts  xii.  4).  When  Peter  was  de- 
livered to  four  quaternions  of  soldiers  the 
meaning  is  that  he  was  guarded  by  four  men 
at  a  time,  two  with  him  in  the  prison  and  two 
before  the  doors,  and  that  they  were  relieved 
every  three  hours  by  four  others,  thus  mak- 
ing in  all  sixteen  men.  T.  W.  C. 

Queen  is  the  rendering  of  three  different 
Hebrew  words,  of  which  the  first  is  applied 
to  a  queen-regnant,  as,  e.g.,  the  queen  of  She- 
ba  (1  Kings  x.  1)  and  Athaliah,  who  usurped 


the  throne  (2  Kings  xi.)  ;  the  second  is  queen- 
consort,  a  wife  of  the  first  rank  in  the  royal 
harem  as  distinguished  from  secondary  wives 
or  concubines  (Esther  i.  9,  vii.  1)  ;  and  the 
third  a  queen-mother,  as  Bathsheba  (1  Kings 
ii.  19).  Owing  to  polygamy,  the  queen- 
mother  came  to  occupy  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful and  dignified  positions  in  the  state.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  queen-mothers  in 
Judah,  save  those  of  Jehoram  and  Ahaz, 
which  are  not  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

Kims.  Qiieen-Mothera, 

Solomon.  Bathsheba. 

Rehoboam.  Naamah. 

Abijah.  I  ,,,,,,,,. 

Jehonhaphat.  Azubah. 

Ahaziah.  Athaliah. 

Joash.  Ziblah. 

Amaziah.  Je  oaddan. 

Uzziah.  Jecoliah. 

Jotham.  Jerusha. 

Hezekiah.  Abi  or  Abijah. 

Manasseh.  Hephzibah. 

Amon.  Meshullenieth. 

Josiah.  Jedidah. 

Jehoahaz.  Hamutal. 

Jehoiakini.  Zebudah. 

Jehoiachin.  Nehushta. 

Zedekiah.  Hamutal. 

T.  W.  C. 

Queen  Anne's  Bounty.  By  an  act  of  Par- 
liament. 1533.  the  aunats  which  had  hitherto 
been  paid  to  the  pope  were  appropriated  by 
the  crown,  and  at  the  same  time  the  payment 
of  the  tax  was  arranged  in  a  more  just  and 
less  onerous  way.  By  another  act  of  Parlia- 
ment, 1704,  this  portion  of  the  revenue  of  the 
crown  was  transformed  into  a  fund  or  bounty 
for  the  amelioration  of  the  conditions  of  those 
ministers  whose  livings  were  really  too  small 
to  support  them. 

Quenstedt  (quen-stet),  Johannes  Andreas, 
b.  at  Quedlinburg,  Prussian  Saxony,  Aug. 
13,  1617  ;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  May  22,  1688  ; 
became  professor  of  theology  in  the  latter 
place  in  1649,  and  published,  in  1685-86,  at 
Wittenberg,  his  Theologia  Didactico-'polemica , 
4  parts  in  2  vols.,  3ded.,  Leipzig,  1715,  which 
is  the  last  and  not  the  worst  of  those  huge, 
ponderous,  systematic  expositions  of  the  old 
Lutheran  orthodoxy,  arranging  the  doctrines 
under  the  rubrics  of  causa,  effecttis,  attributa, 
etc.,  and  treating  the  rubrics  as  tliesis,  anti- 
thesis, etc. 

Quercum,  Concilium  ad,  thus  called  after 
the  place  et^I  6pvi>,  ad  quercum,  "  at  the  oak," 
near  Chalcedon,  where  it  assembled,  403.  It 
was  under  the  influence  of  the  Empress 
Eudoxia,  and  condemned  and  deposed 
Chrysostom,  who  was  banished  to  Bithynia. 

Quesnel  (ka-nel),  Pasquier,  b.  in  Paris, 
July  14,  1634 ;  d.  in  Am.sterdam,  Dec.  2, 
1719  ;  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory 
in  1657  ;^  published,  in  1663.  the  first  volume 
of  his  Reflections  morales  sur  le  Nouveau  Testa- 
ment, which  is  thoroughly  Jansenistic,  and 
in  1675  his  edition  of  "the  works  of  Leo  the 
Great,  which  is  decidedly  Galilean.  Then 
followed  the  attack  by  the  Jesuits,  his  flight 
to  Brussels,  his  incarceration  there  in  the 
dungeon  of  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  and 
his  escape  to  Holland.  Of  his  Reflections 
morcdes,  collected  edition,  Amsterdam,  1695- 


QUETIF 


(783) 


RABANUS 


99,  8  vols.,  there  are  two  English  translations, 
one  complete,  The  New  Testament,  etc. ,  Lon- 
don, 1719-25,  4  vols.,  and  the  other  of  The 
Four  Gospels,  etc.,  Bath,  1790,  2  vols.,  revised 
by  H.  A.  Boardmann.  New  York,  1867.  His 
letter.'^  were  edited  by  Le  Courayer,  Paris, 
1731-23,  3  vols. 

Quetif  (keh-tef),  Jacques,  b.  in  Paris,  Aug. 
6,  Uil8  ;  d.  there,  March  2,  1698  ;  entered 
the  Dominican  order  ;  became,  in  1603,  libra- 
rian in  the  Jacobin  convent,  and  published 
Concilii  Trid.  Ca  nones,  Paris,  1666  ;  Vita 
Sdvonarolm  (based  on  Piciis  de  Mirandola), 
1674,  3  vols.;  ScHptores  Orel.  Pntdict,  1719,  2 
vols.  fol. 

Quietism  is  a  reduction  of  Christianity  to 
a  merely  passive  and  tlioroughly  mystical 
contemplation  of  God,  not  unlike  certain 
Hindu  phenomena.  Its  founder  wii.s  Molinos 
(q.v.)  ;  one  of  its  most  noted  expounders, 
Madame  Guyon  (q.v.). 

Quinisextum  Concilium,  thus  called  from 
quinqiie,  "  live,"  and  sixtus,  "  the  sixth,"  be- 
cause it  forms  a  supplement  to  the  tifth  and 
sixth  councils  of  555  and  680,  assembled  in 
Constantinople,  693.    See  Tuull.vn  Council. 

Qui'-ri-ni-us,  a  governor  of  Syria,  whose 
name  takes  this  its  Roman  form  in  the  Revised 
Version  (Luke  ii.  2),  while  in  the  Authorized 
it  has  the  Greek  form,  Cyrenius.  According 
to  secular  history  he  did  not  become  governor 
until  .\.D.  6,  and  the  only  census  mentioned 
was  made  when  Christ  was  eight  or  ten  years 
old.  But  the  researches  of  Zunipt  render  it 
probable  that  Quirinius  was  twice  governor, 
the  tirst  time  from  B.C.  4  to  B.C.  1,  and  the 
second  from  a.d.  6  to  11.  The  census  of 
Luke  ii.  3  may  have  been  less  known  and 
memorable  than  the  second  (mentioned  by 
Luke  [Acts  v.  37]  and  by  Jo.sephus),  which 
seems  to  have  been  a  resuhipliou  and  comple- 
tion of  the  first.  It  was  a  Roman  census, 
but  made  according  to  the  Jewish  methods. 
The  governor's  full  name  was  Publius  Sulpi- 
cius  Quirinius.  (See  A.  W.  Zumpt,  Das 
fhhnrtxjiilir  Christ i,  Leii)/.i-,  1869  ;  cf.  Schaff, 
Chnrrji  History,  i.,  121-2.-,.)  T.  W.  C. 

Quotations  in  the  Bible  are  of  three  classes  : 
1.  Those  made  by  the  later  Old  Testament 
writers  from  the  earlier.  Among  parallel 
passages  of  this  kind  are  Num.  xxvi.  with 
Gen.  xlvi. ;  Deut.  v.  with  Ex.  xx.;  1  Chron. 
xvii.  with  3  Sam.  vii. ;  Neh.  vii.  with  Ezra 
ii.;  Ps.  xviii.  with  3  Sam.  xxii.;  Isa.  ii.  1-4 
Avith  Micah  iv.  1-3  ;  Obad.  i.  8  with  Jer.  iv. 
9  ;  Jon.  ii.  3  with  Ps.  xlii.  7  ;  Ilab.  ii.  14  with 
Isa.  xi.  9. 

2.  Quotations  from  heathen  writers  :  Acts 
xvii.  28  from  Aratus  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  33  from 
Meuander  ;  Titus  i.  22  from  Callimachus  or 
Epimenides. 

3.  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
Xew.  The.se  are  numerous,  and  were  xisualLy 
taken  from  the  Greek  version,  the  Sejituagint, 
which  was  widely  dilTu.-ed  and  much  u.sed  by 
the  Jews,  especially  by  those  out  of  Palestine. 
This  even  when  incorrect  was  (juoted  in  cases 
in  which  no  error  of  meaning  was  involved, 
as  Matt.  XV.  9,  Luke  iv.  18,  Acts  xiii.  41,  xv. 


16-18,  Rom.  XV.  10,  etc.  But  whenever  the 
error  involved  a  discrepancy  of  meaning,  the 
New  Testament  writers  correct  the  Septuagint 
by  the  Hebrew,  as  in  Matt.  xxi.  5,  1  Peter 
iv.  8,  etc.  Often  the  quotations  are  made  di- 
rectly from  the  Hebrew  without  reference 
to  the  Septuagint,  as  Matt.  iv.  5,  16,  John 
xix.  37,  1  Cor.  xv.  54.  In  some  instances,  as 
Mark  xii.  30,  Luke  x.  37,  Rom.  xii.  19,  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Septuagint  are  combined. 
Besides  the.se  direct  (juotations  the  New  Testa- 
ment writers  abound  in  references  and  allu- 
sions to  the  Old  Testament,  both  conscious, 
with  appropriate  adjustment,  and  uncon- 
scious. To  this  difference  in  the  method  of 
(juoting  corresponds  a  dift'ereuce  in  the  mode 
of  application.  When  a  passage  is  quoted  as 
having  something  typical  or  prophetical  in 
it,  the  writer  introduces  it  with  the  phrase 
"  that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  as  in  ]\latt.  ii. 
15,  17,  23,  etc.  Here  the  application  is  im- 
mediate and  authoritative.  But  in  other 
cases  the  application  is  deduced,  and  correctly- 
enough,  from  the  general  prophetic  and  typi- 
cal character  of  tlie  Old  Testament  in  its  re- 
lation to  the  New,  as  being  full  of  germs  of 
truth  which  were  to  be  suhsequently  unfolded. 
And  sometimes,  as  in  2  Cor.  vi.  2  and  Rom. 
X.  18,  the  later  writer  uses  the  words  of  the 
old  dispensation  to  express  his  own  ideas 
without  regard  to  their  original  application, 
just  as  devout  men  now,  without  hesitation 
and  almost  unconsciously,  make  a  similar  u.se 
of  scriptural  language. 

Literature.— D.  C.  Turpie,  The  Old  Tes- 
tament in  the  New,  Loudon,  1868  ;  Bohl,  Die 
alttest  Citate  im  N.  T.,  Wien,  1878;  C.  H. 
Toy,  Quotations  in  the  New  Testament,  New 
York,  1884.  T.  W.  C. 


R. 


Rabanus  Maurus  (or,  as  written  by  him- 
self, Magnentius  Hrabanus  Maurus  |  3Iag- 
nentias  from  Mageuze  or  Mainz  ;  Hrabanus 
or  Rabanus,  "  raven  ;"  Maurus,  an  epithet 
given  him  by  Alcuin  because  he  had  the  vir- 
tues of  ]Maurus,  the  favorite  of  St.  Benedict), 
b.  in  Mainz  about  776  ;  d.  there,  Feb.  4,  856. 
He  was  educated  in  the  famous  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Fulda,  in  Hesse-Nassau,  Prus- 
sia, 54  m.  s.e.  of  Cassel  ;  took  the  monastic 
vows  ;  was  ordained  deacon,  801  ;  studied 
under  Alcuin  at  Tours,  802-4  ;  was  principal 
of  the  Fulda  monastery  school,  804-22  ;  or- 
dained priest,  814  ;  abbot,  823-42  ;  lived  in 
literary  retirement,  842-47  ;  then  became 
archbi.shop  of  ^lainz.  He  was  one  of  the 
greatest  scholars  of  the  Carolingian  age.  As 
a  teacher  he  was  most  successful,  and  won  for 
himself  the  proud  epithet  of  the"  Instructor  of 
Germany. ' '  He  belongs  to  the  illustrious  line 
whose  predecessors  were  Isidore,  Bede,  and 
Alcuin.  In  a  dark  and  troubled  time  lie 
stands  forth  as  a  righteous  man,  independent, 
couraircous,  and  singularly  clear  headed.  If 
he  condemned  Gottschalk"  (84S),  he  did  only 
what  might  be  expected  of  a  conservative 
theologian,  but  his  opposition  to  astrology 
and  trial  by  ordeal  marks  liim  as  greatly  in 
advance  of  his  dav.     His  writings  arc  numer- 


RABAUT 


(784) 


RADBERTUS 


ous,  but  are  mostly  compilations  from  the  Fa- 
thers and  later  church  writers.  They  em- 
brace commentaries  on  nearly  the  entire 
Bible  ;  educational  treatises,  especially  one 
on  the  Institutes  of  the  Clergy,  and  a  repro- 
duction of  Isidore's  Etymologies,  which  was 
an  encyclopfedia,  now  very  curious  reading  ; 
homilies  and  poems,  much  more  ingenious 
than  poetical.  His  works  are  in  M'gne,  Pat. 
Lat.  CVII.-CXII. ;  his  poems  in  DUmmler's 
Poetm  Latini  (evi  Carolini,  ii.,  159-258.  (See 
his  life  by  Spengler,  Regensburg,  1856  ;  cf. 
J.  Bass  Mullinger,  The  Schools  of  Charles  the 
Great,  London,  1877,  pp.  138-57;  Schaff, 
Church  History,  vol.  iv.,  713-28.) 

Rabaut  (ra-bo),  Paul,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated among  the  pastors  of  the  Desert  ;  b. 
at  Bedarieux,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cevennes, 
France,  Jan.  9,  1718  ;  d.  at  JSTimes,  Sept.  25, 
1794  ;  studied  theology  at  Lausanne,  and  was, 
in  1744,  made  pastor  of  the  Reformed  congre- 
gation in  Nimes,  but  in  1752  a  price  of  a  thou- 
sand livres  was  put  on  his  head,  and  he  lived 
in  perpetual  danger  of  his  life  until  the  ac- 
cession of  Louis  XVI.  in  1774,  when  the  rig- 
orous measures  against  the  Huguenots  were 
left  unenforced.  His  life  has  been  written 
by  one  of  his  successors,  Borrel,  Nimes,  1854. 
(Cf .  MacCracken,  Lives  of  the  Leaders  of  our 
Church  Universal,  pp.  486-92.) 

Rab'-bah  {greatness),  the  chief  city  of  the 
Ammonites  (Josh.  xiii.  25),  situated  in  a  small 
valley  about  22  m.  e.  of  the  Jordan.  It  was 
captured  by  Joab  after  a  long  siege  (2  Sam. 
xi.),  but  afterward  regained  its  independence. 
Severe  judgments  were  denounced  against  it 
(Amos  i.  13-15,  Jer.  xlix.  23,  Ezek.  xxv.  5) 
and  were  fulfilled  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezek. 
xxi.  20,  Jer.  xxv.  21).  By  the  Ptolemies  it 
was  rebuilt  and  was  a  city  of  importance,  and 
so  continued  until  it  was  finally  overthrown 
by  the  Saracens.  Its  site  is  now  known  as 
Amman,  and  is  covered  with  extensive  ruins. 
T.  W.  C. 

Rabbi,  a  title  of  dignity.  The  Jews  used  it 
to  distinguish  teachers  of  the  law,  and  it  was 
often  given  to  our  Saviour  by  his  disciples 
(Mark  ix.  5,  xi.  21)  and  by  the  people  (John 
iii.  2,  vi.  25).  The  Jews  distinguished  be- 
tween Rab,  "  master,"  Rabbi,  "  my  master," 
and  Rabboni,  "  my  great  master."  This  last 
was  regarded  as  the  highest  title  of  honor, 
and  was  given  by  Mary  to  our  Lord  (John 
XX.  16).  T.  W.  C. 

Rabbinism,  the  general  term  for  the  phases 
of  Jewish  intellectual  life  since  the  Babylonish 
Exile  as  controlled  by  the  rabbis.  It  is 
commonly  divided  into  the  periods  of  {a)  the 
Sopherim,  Ezra  to  Simeon  the  Just  ;  (b)  the 
Chachamim,  Simeon  the  Just  to  Hillel  I. ;  (c) 
the  Tanaim,  Hillel  I.  to  Jehudah  the  Saint ; 
{d)  the  Amoraim,  Jehudah  the  Saint  to  Ashe  ; 
{e)  completion  of  Babylonian  Talmud  to  Mo- 
hammedan successes  ;  (/)  to  suppression  of 
rabbinical  schools,  in  the  East  11th  century,  in 
the  West  13th  century  ;  {g)  and  finally  thence  to 
present  time.  Through  all  these  periods  the 
rabbins  were  the  great  leaders  in  religious  and 
political  life.     See  art.  Jews. 

Rab'-mag  {chief  magician)  signified  an  oflBcer 


of  great  power  and  dignity  at  the  Babylonian 
court  (Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13).  T.  W.  C. 

Rab'-sar-is  {chief  eurmch),  the  title  of  a 
high  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  olRcer  (2  Kings 
xviii.  17,'  Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13).  T.  W.  C. 

Rab'-sha-keh,  the  name  not  of  a  person, 
but  of  an  officer  (chief  butler  or  cupbearer), 
who  was  sent  by  Sennacherib,  king  of  As- 
syria, to  summon  Hezekiah  to  surrender, 
which  he  did  in  a  most  insolent  and  indecent 
manner  (2  Kings  xviii.  17-37).         T.  W.  C. 

Ra-bu'-las  or  Rabbula,  d.  Aug.  8,  435  ; 
was  bishop  of  Edessa  and  the  predecessor  of 
Ibas.  Some  of  his  hymns  and  letters,  a  ser- 
mon, and  a  monastic  rule  have  come  down  to 
us  and  have  been  edited  by  J.  J.  Overbeck, 
Oxford,  1865.  His  prose  works  were  trans- 
lated into  German  for  the  Kempten  Bibliothek, 
1874. 

Raca,  a  strongly  contemptuous  expression 
derived  from  the  Chaldee  reka,  emptv,  worth- 
less (Matt.  V.  22).  T.'W.  C. 

Rachel  {a  ewe),  the  daughter  of  Laban,  wife 
of  Jacob,  and  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benja- 
min. Her  history  (Gen.  xxix.-xxxv.)  shows 
her  to  have  been  beautiful  and  passionately 
loved  by  her  husband,  but  tinged  with  the 
idolatrous  superstition  and  cunning  of  her 
family.  Jeremiah  (xxxi.  15-17)  represents  her 
as  weeping  in  her  grave  when  her  children 
pass  by  on  their  way  to  Babylon,  and  Matthew 
(ii.  17,  18)  applies  this  to  Herod's  massacre  of 
the  innocents.  T.  W.  C. 

Rachel's  Tomb.  The  traditional  site  of 
this  place  is  about  a  half  a  mile  north  of  Beth- 
lehem, and  is  revered  by  Jews,  Christians, 
and  Mohammedans.  It  is  a  stone  enclosure, 
with  a  dome  in  Moslem  style.  The  building 
has  been  often  restored,  and  is  not  older  than 
the  15th  century.  T.  W.  C. 

Racovian  Catechism,  thus  called  because 
it  was  first  printed  in  Rakow,  Racovia,  Poland, 
in  1605,  is  a  compendium  of  Socinian  theol- 
ogy, drawn  up  by  Statorius,  Schmalz,  Mosco- 
rovius,  and  Yolkel,  on  the  basis  of  Socinius' 
preparations  and  from  his  writings.  There 
is  an  English  translation  of  it  by  Rees,  Lon- 
don, 1818. 

Radbertus,  St.,  Paschasius  (from  Pascha, 
probably  in  allusion  to  his  views  on  the  Lord's 
Supper),  one  of  the  first  to  clearly  state  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  ;  b.  in  or  near 
Soissons,  60  m.  n.e.  of  Paris,  about  790  ;  d. 
in  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Corbie,  70  m. 
n.  of  Paris,  April  26,  865.  He  was  educated 
first  at  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St. 
Peter,  Soissons,  then  at  that  of  Corbie.  In 
the  latter  he  became  a  monk  and  teacher, 
later  principal  of  the  school ;  was  abbot,  844- 
51,  but  ended  his  days  there  as  a  simple  monk. 
He  was  canonized,  1073.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  treatise  on  Tlie  Body  and  Blood  of  the 
Lord,  in  which  he  taught  that  ' '  the  substance 
of  the  bread  and  wine  is  effectually  changed 
into  the  fiesh  and  blood  of  Christ,"  which  is 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  although 
the  term  is  not  used,  and  was  not  till  200  years 
later.  The  doctrine  was  not  original  with 
him,  but  he  did  much  to  establish  it.  Ra- 
tramuus  (q.v.),  one  of  his  own  monks,  op- 


RAFFLES 


(785) 


RAMMOHUN 


posed  it.  His  works  are  iu  Migne,  Pat. 
Lat.  CXX.  (Cf.  SchafE,  C hurch  History ,  iv., 
54&-49,  741-45.) 

Raffles,     Thomas,     D.D.    ( ,    ), 

LL.D.   ( , ),    Congregationalist  ;  b. 

in  London,  May  17,  1788  ;  d.  at  Liverpool, 
Aug.  18,  1863.  He  was  pastor  at  Liverpool, 
1811-61,  and  published  several  volumes  of 
poems,  lectures,  etc.  Several  of  his  hymns 
have  been  much  used.  His  memoir  by  his 
son  appeared,  London,  1864.  F.  M.  B. 

Ragged  Schools,  for  vagrant  or  neglected 
children,  begun  at  Portsmouth,  England,  by 
John  Pounds,  a  cobbler,  1819.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  anticipated  at  Rome  by  a  ])oor  ma- 
son, G.  Borgia,  about  1790.  A  Ragged  Sun- 
day-school was  opened  in  London,  18;!S. 
Thomas  Guthrie,  of  Edinburgh,  was  the  chief 
worker  in  this  field  from  1847.  The  Ragged 
Scliool  Union  of  London  had,  in  1864,  301  day 
schools  with  17.98:5  jnipils;,  180  Sunday-schools 
with  28,360,  and  20.'5  nigiit  schools  with  8325. 
F.  M.  B. 

Ra'-hab  {wide),  a  woman  of  Jericho,  who 
sheltered  the  spies  sent  by  Joshua  (Josh.  ii. 
8-11),  and  in  consequence  was  spared  with  all 
her  kindred  when  the  city  was  destroyed. 
She  was  a  "  harlot,"  but  repented,  and  mar- 
ried into  a  noble  family  of  Juduh,  and  becan\e 
an  ancestor  (;f  our  Lord  (.Matt.  i.  5).  Her 
faith  and  works  are  commended  in  Heb.  .\i. 
31  and  James  ii.  25.  T.  W.  C. 

B.a'-hab(pridt),  a  symbolical  name  for  Egypt 
(Isa.  x.\.\.  7,  R.  v.,  Ii.  9,  Ps.  Ixxxvii.  4, 
Ixxxix.  10).  T.  W.  C. 

Raikes  (rakes),  Robert,  the  founder  of  Sun- 
daj'-schools  ;  b.  at  Gloucester,  104  m.  w.  b}^ 
n.  of  London,  Sept.  14,  1735  ;  d.  there,  April 
5,  1811.  In  youth  he  made  charitable  visits 
to  the  city  prison.  In  1757  he  succeeded  to 
liis  father's  business  as  a  i)rinter,  and  con- 
ducted it  till  1802.  In  1780  he  employed 
' '  four  decent,  well-disposed  women, "  at  a  sidl- 
ing each,  to  collect  poor  children  on  Sunday 
and  teacli  them  their  A  B  C  and  the  church 
catechism.  He  g-.ive  an  account  of  the  un- 
dertaking in  a  small  newspaper  which  he 
owned  ;  this,  as  copied  or  noticed  by  the  Lon- 
don papers,  attracted  much  attention  ;  and 
from  this  humble  beginning  grew  the  vast 
system  of  modern  Sunday-schools.  Raikes 
gave  a  further  account  of  his  efforts  in  the 
Gentleman's  Magazine,  London,  1784,  and 
hved  to  see  his  sapling  become  a  forest.  His 
life  has  been  written  by  W.  >I.  Cornell,  Bos- 
ton, I860,  n.e.,  1871  ;  A.  Greirorv,  London, 
1877,  2d  ed.,  1880,  and  others.         F.  M.  B. 

Rainerio  (rl-ne-ri-o),  Sacchoni,  a  native  of 
Piaccnza  ;  d.  in  1259  ;  was  for  seventeen  years 
a  preacher  among  the  Cathari  in  Lombardy, 
but  turned  sudclenly  against  them,  entered 
the  Dominican  order,  and  was  msule  inquisitor 
of  Lombardy.  He  wrote  a  Sittnma  de  Cath- 
ari^ ft  lAOhistts  for  the  use  of  tlie  Inciuisitiou, 
which  has  been  printed  in  Mart^ne  and 
Durand,  Thes.  Non.  Anecd.  and  in  d'Argente, 
Collect.  Jndir. 

Rainolds.     See  Reynolds. 

Rainy,  Robert,  D.D.  (Glasgow,  18—  ;  Ed- 
inburgh, 18—),  Free  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b. 


at  Glasgow,  Jan.  1,  1826  ;  graduated  at  its 
university,  1843  ;  studied  theology  in  New 
College,  Edinburgh,  and  was,  after  holding 
various  pastoral  charges  in  the  Free  Church, 
appointed  professor  of  churcli  history  there  in 
1862,  and  principal  in  1874.  He  published 
Three  Lectures  on  the  Church  of  Scotland,  Ed- 
inburgh, 1872,  5th  ed.,  1884;  Tlu  Delivery 
and  Development  of  Christian  Doctrine,  Cun- 
ningham Lectures,  1874  ;  Tlie  Bible  and 
Criticism,  London,  1878. 

Raleigh,  Alexander,  D.D.  (Glasgow,  1865), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Kirkcudbright,  28 
m.  s.w.  of  Dumfries,  Jan.  3,  1817  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, April  19,  1880.  He  studied  at  Black- 
burn College,  and  was  pastor  at  Greenock, 
1844-48  ;  Rotherham,  1850-55  ;  Glasgow, 
1855-59,  and  London,  1S5»-,S().  He  wrote 
Quiet  Besting- Places,  Edinburgh,  1863,  10th 
ed.,  1880;  Story  of  Jonah,  1866;  The  Little 
Sanctuary,  1872  ;  Sermons,  1876  ;  Book  of 
Esther,  1880  ;  Way  to  the  City,  1880  ;  'ihonghti 
for  the  Weary,  1883.  (See  liis  life  by  his 
widow,  1881.)  F.  M.  B. 

B.&'-ma.h  (high  place).  1.  A  city  of  Benja- 
min, 5  m.  n.  of  Jerusalem,  fortified  by  Baasha, 
but  retaken  by  Asa  (1  Kings  xv.  17,  22),  the 
place  where  Nebuchadnezzar  gathered  the 
captive  Jews  (Jer.  xl.  1),  reoccupied  after  the 
captivity  (Ezra  ii.  26),  and  now  identified  with 
er-Ram,  a  mean  village  of  fifteen  families. 

2.  A  contraction  of  Ramathaim-zophim  (1 
Sam.  i.  1),  the  birth-place,  home,  and  burial- 
place  of  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Sam.  ii.  11, 
vii.  17,  XXV.  1).  It  was  in  "  the  hill  country 
of  Ephraim,"  but  cannot  be  further  defined. 
T.  W.  C. 

Ramadan  is  the  name  of  the  ninth  month 
of  the  ^lohammedan  year  and  is  observed  as  a 
fast,  every  day  fronu  daybreak  till  night,  in 
celebration  of  the  giving  of  the  Koran.  As 
the  3Iohammedan  year  is  lunar,  the  months 
change  place  in  the  solar  year,  and  when 
Ramadan  falls  in  the  hot  term,  the  fast  is  very 
severe.  The  Mohammedans  then  .sleep  dur- 
ing daytime  and  revel  during  night. 

Ram'-e-ses  (son  of  the  sun),  called  also 
Raamscs  (Ex.  i.  11),  a  city  and  province  in 
Egypt,  apparently  the  same  as  Goshen  (Gen. 
xlVii.  11),  and  the  starting-point  of  Israel  at 
the  Exodus  (Ex.  xii.  37).  Its  site  as  a  treasure 
city  has  recently  been  identified  at  the  west 
end  of  Wady-et-Tumcilat.  T.  W.  C. 

Rammohun  Roy,  rajah,  a  Hindu  religious 
reformer  ;  b.  in  Burdwan,  Bengal,  Hither 
India,  1772  ;  d.  at  Stapletou  Park,  near  Bris- 
tol. England,  Sept.  27,  1833  ;  was  by  the 
study  of  the  Koran  led  from  polythfism  to 
monotheism,  and  came  to  believe  in  the  di- 
vine mission  of  Jesus.  He  la])ored  to  form  a 
combination  between  Brahmanism  and  Chris- 
tianity, and  founded  the  theistic  church  of 
India,  Brahmo  Somaj  (((.v.,  page  117).  He 
translated  tlie  Vedanta  from  Sanscrit  into 
Bengalee,  Hindosfanec,  and  English,  1816, 
and  parts  of  the  New  Testament ;  The  Precepts 
if  .Jesus  in  English,  Sanscrit,  and  Bengalee, 
London  and  Calcutta,  1820.  which  occasioned 
a  controversy  between  liim  and  Rev.  Dr. 
Joshua  Marshman.     He  also  published  other 


RAMOTH-GILEAD 


(786) 


RASIiE 


works  in  Euglish,  among  which  are  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Judicial  and  Revenue  System  of 
India,  Calcutta,  1832.  There  is  a  life  of  him 
by  Carpenter,  London,  1866. 

Ram'-oth-Gil'-e-ad  {height  of  Oilead),  an 
Amorite  city  east  of  the  Jordan,  given  to  the 
Levites  and  made  a  city  of  refuge  (Josli.  xxi. 
38),  also  the  headquarters  of  one  of  Solomon's 
commissariat  officers  (1  Kings  iv.  13).  Ahab 
was  mortally  wounded  there  (1  Kings  xxii. 
34),  and  John  anointed  as  Jehoram's  successor 
(2  Kings  viii.  28).  It  is  usually  identified  with 
Es-Salt,  a  populous  place,  25  m.  e.  of  the 
Jordan.  T.  W.  C. 

Ramus,  Petrus  (Pierre  de  la  Ramee),  b. 
at  Cuth,  Picardy,  France,  1515  ;  killed  iu 
Paris  during  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
Aug.  26,1573;  began  to  lecture  on  philosophy 
in  the  Sorbonne  about  1536,  and  made  a  great 
sensation  by  his  relentless  attacks  on  scholas- 
ticism and  the  Aristotelian  logic  ;  published 
in  1543  his  Animadversiones  Diulectict'B  and 
Institution's  Dialecticm,  but  was  immediately 
silenced  under  pain  of  bodily  punishment. 
After  the  accession  of  Henry  "II.,  in  1547,  he 
was  again  allowed  to  teach,  and  though  he 
did  not  succeed  in  supplanting  the  logic  of 
Aristotle  with  his  own  system,  he  contributed 
very  much  to  the  overthrow  of  scholasticism, 
and'  stands  in  the  history  of  philosophy  as  a 
precursor  of  Cartesius.  After  the  colloquy 
of  Poissy,  1562,  he  embraced  Protestantism, 
but  retained  his  chair  in  the  Sorbonne.  He 
was  a  very  prolific  writer,  but  there  is  no  col- 
lected edition  of  his  works.  His  life  was 
written  by  three  of  his  disciples  :  Freigius, 
Basel,  1574  ;  Theoph.  Banosius,  Frankfort, 
1576,  and  Nic.  de  Nascel,  Paris,  1599. 

Ranee  (ran-sa),  Armand  Louis  le  Bouthil- 
lier  de,  b.  in  Paris,  Jan.  9,  1626  ;  d.  at  Soligny- 
la-Trappe,  Normandy,  Oct.  12,  1700  ;  was 
known  as  one  of  the  gayest  and  most  elegant 
of  the  debauchees  of  the  court  circles  of  Paris, 
when  he  suddenly,  in  his  thirty-first  year, 
threw  himself  into  the  opposite  extreme,  re- 
tired to  the  monastery  at  La  Trappe,  of  which 
he  was  abbot,  compelled  the  monks  never  to 
eat  or  drink  anything  but  herbs  and  water, 
never  to  speak  one  word  to  anybody  but  the 
salutation.  Memento  inori,  "  remember  that 
thou  shalt  die,"  and  when  he  lay  dying  him- 
self on  the  floor,  in  the  ashes,  the  ifionks  swore 
that  they  would  continue  his  rule,  wliich  they 
did.  See  Trappists.  He  wrote  much,  be- 
ginning with  a  critical  edition  of  Anacreon, 

"Vn  be  was  thirteen  years  old,  and  ending 
with  a  ^raite  de  la  Saintete,  1683.  His  life 
was  written  by  Tillemont,  Paris,  1719,  and 
Chateaubriano ,  1 844. 

Ranfaing,  Mane  Elizabeth  de,  better 
^nown  under  the  nane  of  Elizabeth  of  the 
Cross  of  Jesus  ;  b.  at  Reniremont.  Lorraine, 
Nov.  30,  1592  ;  d.  at  Toul,  Ian.  14,  1649  ;  re- 
tired after  the  death  of  her  hu.swind  and  found- 
ed, in  1631,  together  with  her  thiee  daughters, 
an  order  of  Our  Lady  of  Refuge  consisting  of 
women  reclaimed  from  a  life  of  .shame,  and 
confirmed  in  1634  by  Urban  VIII-  It  had 
branches  m  Avignon,  Toulouse  Moatpellier, 
and  Rouen,  and  lived  througli'  the  Pevolu- 


Ranke  (rank-eh),  Leopold  von,  b.  at  Wiehe, 
Thuringia,  Dec.  21,  1795  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  May 
23,  1886  ;  was  appointed  professor  of  history 
at  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1825  ;  sent  to 
Vienna,  Venice,  and  Rome  in  1827  to  make 
researches  in  the  archives  ;  made  historiog- 
rapher of  Prussia  in  1841,  and  ennobled  iu 
1866.  Among  his  works,  all  of  which  are 
characterized  by  an  extraordinary  power  to 
unravel  even  the  most  tangled  skein,  to  find 
out  what  actually  took  place,  to  establish  the 
fact,  there  are  several  very  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  church  history.  Popes  of  Borne,  their 
Church  and  State  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Sev- 
enteenth Centuries,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1834, 
3  vols. ;  German  History  during  the  Beforma- 
tion,  1839-43,  5  vols.,  etc.  He  endeavored  to 
sum  up  the  results  of  a  long  life  given  to  his- 
toric research  iu  his  Weltgeschichte ,  Leipzig, 
1881,  9th  part  (ed.  by  several  scholars),  1888, 
the  third  edition  of  his  collected  works, 
Sdmmtliche  Wcrke,  was  issued  at  Leipzig, 
1881-88,  52  vols. 

Ranters,  an  antinomian  sect  of  Anabaptist 
coloring,  which  first  appeared  in  England 
about  1645.  They  declared  themselves  to  be 
in  the  condition  of  Adam  in  Paradise  and  in- 
capable of  sin,  and  they  acted  accordingly. 
But  their  excesses  were  speedily  suppressed, 
and  with  its  exce.sses  disappeared  also"  the  sect. 
The  name  was  afterward  applied  to  the  Prim- 
itive Methodists  on  account  of  their  violent 
gesticulations. 

Raphael  {the  divine  healer),  according  to 
Jewish  tradition  one  of  the  four  archangels 
who  stand  around  the  throne  of  God,  the  other 
three  being  Michael,  Uriel,  and  Gabriel.  The 
name  is  not  in  the  Bible,  but  in  Tobit  xii.  15. 
T.  W.  C. 

Rappists.     See  Harmonists,  page  354. 

Ra»hi,  often  called  Yarchi,  the  greatest 
Jewish  exegete  ;  b.  about  1040  in  Troyes, 
France  ;  d.  there,  July  13, 1105.  A  man  of  ex- 
traordinary learning,  he  wrote  a  commentary 
on  the  whole  Bible,  and  the  part  on  the  Pen- 
tateuch was  the  first  book  ever  printed  in  He- 
brew (Reggio,  1474).  The  whole  commentary 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  Breithaupt 
(Gotha,  1710-14,  3  vols.),  and  the  Pentateuch 
into  German  (Bonn,  1833-38).  Rashi  is  no 
proper  name,  but  the  combination  of  the  ini- 
tials of  i?abbi  Melomoh  ben  Titz'haki. 

T.  W.  C. 

Raskolniks.     See  Russian  Sects. 

Rasle  (ral),  Sebastien,  b.  at  Dole,  Franche- 
Comte,  1657  ;  d.  at  Norridgewock,  Me.,  Aug. 
23,  1724  ;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  and 
went,  in  1689,  to  Canada  as  a  missionary, 
laboring  among  the  Illinois,  the  Algonquins, 
and  the  Abenaki.  He  was  said  to  have  insti- 
gated hostility  among  the  Abenakis  against 
the  Protestant  settlers  within  the  English 
boundary.  At  all  events,  the  Abenakis  de- 
stroyed several  New  England  settlements,  and 
then  retaliations  were  begun.  In  1705  the 
New  Englanders  burnt  down  Rasle 's  church 
at  Norridgewock,  in  1722  they  pillaged  his 
house  and  carried  away  his  papers — among 
which  was  a  manuscript  dictionary  of  the 
Abenaki  language,  now  in  Harvard  College 


RATHERIUS 


(787) 


RATJCH 


library,  printed  1833  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
Cambridge,  Mass.— and  finally  in  1724  they 
shot  him  dead.  A  memoir  of  him  by  Convers 
Francis  is  found  in  Bpar'k.'s  A7nerica7i  Biogr  a - 
phy. 

Ratherius,  b.  at  or  near  Liege,  54  m.  e.  by 
s.  of  Brussels,  890  or  891  ;  d.  at  the  court  of 
the  count  of  Namur,  36  m.  s.e.  of  Brussels, 
April  25,  974.  He  was  educated  at  the  con- 
vent of  Lobbes,  30  m.  s.  of  Brussels  ;  became 
monk  there  ;  bishop  of  Verona,  Italy,  931-34, 
■when  lie  was  deposed  by  Arnold  of  Bavaria 
and  imprisoned  at  Pavia,  935-37.  lie  was 
then  transferred  to  the  care  of  the  bishop  of 
Como.  Having  managed  to  escape,  he  was 
tutor  in  Provence,  941,  till  in  944  he  re-entered 
Lobbes  ;  in  946  he  was  restored  to  his  bishop- 
ric, but  driven  away  again  in  948.  He  was 
bishop  of  Liege,  953-55  ;  abbot  of  Alna,  near 
Lobbes  ;  bishop  of  Verona  again,  961  ;  again 
driven  away,  968  ;  bacli  at  Liege  ;  again  al)b()t 
of  Alna,  and  even  for  a  year  (971)  abbot  of 
Lobbes.  Hewasevidcntly  a  man  of  greatforce 
of  character,  and  that  the  clergy  should  have 
so  often  risen  against  him  may  show  oulj'  tluit 
he  was  too  rigorous  in  his  demands.  Ills 
works  are  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lut.  CXXXIX. 
(See  his  life  by  A.  Vogel,  Jena,  1854,  2  vols.) 

Ratf onalism (Latin,  rrt^i'o,  "reasou")denotes 
a  method  of  tliought  in  religion  and  ethics  in 
which  reason  is  the  sole  arbiter.  What  reason 
cannot  comprehend  and  acc^ept  is  denied  by 
the  rationalist.  To  him  Scripture  is  just  like 
any  other  book.  He  accepts  it  only  when  it 
agrees  with  his  opinions,  and  then  only  as  an 
illustration  or  contirmation,  not  as  an  author- 
ity. To  the  supernaturalist,  on  the  contrary. 
Scripture  is  what  reason  is  to  tlie  rationalist. 
He  indeed  employs  reason,  but  only  to  search 
and  judge  those  claims  to  a  divine  origin 
which  it  puts  forth  ;  and  as  soon  as  that  point 
has  been  decided  and  he  feels  convinced  that 
Scripture  contains  the  direct  teachings  of  God, 
it  becomes  his  highest,  his  sole  authority.  The 
only  office  of  reason  is  to  search  and  "explain 
the  true  meaning  of  the  divine  word.  The 
doctrines  themselves,  even  though  they  may 
seem  strange  and  hard,  are  to  be  recognized 
and  accepted  unconditionally. 

Tiie  term  rationalism  was  li'rst  used  by  J.  A. 
('omonius  in  his  edition  of  Kaymond  of  Sa- 
buiide's  77r'o/'^,7A«A''^^//'(/?m,  Amsterdam,  1661, 
and  applied  to  deists  and  Socinians.  But  in  the 
next  century  it  came  to  denote  the  course  of 
thought  produced  in  Germany  by  the  industri- 
ous propagation  of  the  writing.s  of  Herbert, 
Hobbcs.  Tindal,  Woolston,  and  other  advo- 
cati's  of  English  dei.sm,  and  in  the  Netherlands 
by  the  works  of  Spinoza,  and  in  France  by 
the  Encvdopa^dists.  Its  acme  was  reached 
by  the  issue  of  the  Wolfenhilttd  Fra;/m,  uis  of 
Keimarus  which  began  in  1774,  wlncli  repre- 
sented Christ  as  merely  a  reformer  of 
Judaism,  a  visionary  enthusiast  wliose 
schemes  of  establishing  a  kingdon\  of  Pales- 
tine were  miserably  wrecked.  Rationalism 
was  in  the  ascendant  in  Germany  during  the 
second  half  of  the  IStli  century,  biit  then  un- 
der the  lead  of  Jacohi  and  Sddeiermacher  u 
new  impulse  set  in,  which  again  was  opposed 


by  Strauss  (1835),  who  advocated  the  mythical 
origin  of  the  Gospels,  but  was  so  successfully 
answered  tliat  later  in  life  he  shifted  his 
ground  complet(!ly.  The  most  recent  phase  of 
rationalistic  thought  is  a  revival  of  ancient 
materialism  by  Buchner,  Moleschott,  and 
others. 

Literature. — Lecky,  History  of  Rational- 
ism, in  Europe,  London,  1865  ;  Hurst,  IIistoi-y 
of  Bationalisin,  New  York,  1865  ;  Cairns,  Un- 
belief in  the  Kighteenth  Century,  Edinburgh, 
1881.  T.  W.  C. 

Ratisbon,  The  Conference  of,  took  place 
April  27-]May  25,  1541,  between  Grojjper, 
Ptlug,  and  Eck,  on  the  one  side,  and  Butzer, 
Pistorius,  and  ]\Ielanchthon  on  the  other,  un- 
dtr  the  presidency  of  the  Count-palatine 
Friedrich  and  Cardinal  Granvella.  An  agree- 
ment was  arrived  at  concerning  tlie  article  on 
justification  by  faith,  the  Roman  Catholics  de- 
claring themselves  satisfied  with  the  addition 
of  the  word  efficax  ;  but  when  the  articles  on 
the  sacraments,  the  discipline,  the  hierarchy, 
etc.,  came  under  discussion,  an  agreement 
proved  utterly  impossible,  and  tlie  conference 
was  broken  off.  Reports  in  Latin  and  Ger- 
man were  published  by  Butzer  and  Melanch- 
tlion  and  in  Latin  by  Eck.  They  are  found 
in  the  Corpus  Reformatorum,  iv. 

Ratramnus,  dates  of  birth  and  death  un- 
known, living  as  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of 
Corbie,  70  m.  n.  of  Paris,  in  868.  He  was 
famous  for  learning  and  ability  ;  the  chosen 
adviser  of  King  Cliarles  the  Bald,  and  en- 
trusted by  Hincmar,  archl)isliop  of  Rheims, 
with  the  reply  to  the  circular  letter  of  Pliotius. 
But  it  is  upon  his  treatise,  on  The  Body  and 
Blood  of  the  Lord  that  his  fame  rests.  This 
is  a  reply  to  the  identically  named  treatise  of 
his  abbot  Radbertus,  although  he  does  not 
name  him.  It  takes  the  position  that  the' 
eucharistic  body  is  not  identical  with  the  his- 
torical body  ;  the  elements  remain  as  they 
were  before  consecration,  although  in  a  spirit- 
ual sense  they  become  to  the  believing  recipi- 
ent the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  He  re- 
garded the  mass  as  only  a  commemorative 
celebration  of  Christ's  sacrifice.  Naturally 
the  book  was  seized  upon  by  the  Reformed 
theologians  ;  this  led  to  its  condemnation  by 
the  Council  of  Trent  as  a  Protestant  forgery, 
but  its  Catholic  origin  is  now  lUKiuestioned. 
There  are  several  editions  of  the  Euglish.trans- 
lation— «'..7.,  London,  1832.  It  is  called  The 
Book  of  Bertram  the  Priest  by  a  scribe's  error. 
It  and  liis  other  writings  in  Latin  are  in 
IMiirne,  Pat.  Lat.  CXXT.  (Cf.  Schaff,  Church 
llisfory,  vol.  iv.,  .540-58  ;  746-50.) 

Ratzeberger,  Matthaus,  b.  at  Wangen, 
Wiirtemberg,  1501  ;  d.  at  Erfurt.  Jan.  3, 
1559  ;  w;is  successively  body-piiysician  to  the 
elector  of  Brandenl)iirg,  the  count  of  Mans- 
field, and  the  elector  of  Saxonv.  He  was  a 
relative  and  intimate  friend  of  Luther  and 
wrote  a  life  of  him,  edited  by  Neudecker, 
Jena,  1S50. 

Rauch  (rowk),  Frederick  Augustus,  Ph. I). 
(Marliurg  I?],  1827),  German  Reformed;  b. 
at  Kirchbracht,  Hesse-Darm.stadt,  Julv  27, 
1H06  :  d.  at  Mercersburg.  Pa.,  March  2, "1841. 
He  studied  at  Marburg,  Giessen,  and  Heidel- 


RAUHE 


(788) 


berg,  and  held  professorships  at  the  two  lat- 
ter ;  leaving  home  in  1831  to  escape  prosecu- 
tion for  his  liberal  opinions,  he  taught  at 
-Easton,  York,  and  Mercersburg,  and  became 
•the  first  president  of  Marshall  College,  1835, 
and  professor  of  biblical  literature  in  the  sem- 
inary. He  wrote  Psychology,  New  York, 
1840,  and  The  Inner  Life,  1842.  (See  his 
JEulogj.  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Nevin,  in  Mercersburg 
Heview,  xi.,  456,  1859.)  F.  M.  B. 

Rauhe  Haus.     See  Wichern. 

Ravenna,  a  city  of  Italy  near  the  Adriatic, 
43  m.  e.s.e.  from  Bologna.  It  was  the  seat  of 
the  Exarch  of  Ravenna  in  the  later  days  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  and  so  came  in  frequent 
connection  with  the  affairs  of  the  church. 
'This  quasi- imperial  position  gave  it  a  certain 
independence  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and 
there  were  several  disputes  with  the  popes 
upon  matters  of  government.  Ravenna  was 
also  the  seat  of  several  councils  of  local  im- 
portance. The  one  held  July  23,  877,  by  Pope 
John  VIII.  enjoined  that  metropolitans  should 
send  to  Rome  for  their  palliums  within  three 
months  after  consecration,  and  should  not  per- 
form any  of  the  functions  of  their  office  till 
they  were  received.  Elected  bishops  must  be 
consecrated  within  three  months  after  election 
by  their  metropolitans.  That  held  in  1311 
ordered  that  the  sacraments  should  be  admin- 
istered fasting.  That  of  1314  sets  the  age  for 
•ordination  to  the  priesthood  at  twenty-five,  to 
the  diaconate  at  twenty.  (See  Hefele,  Con- 
ciliengeschichte,  vol.  v.)  F.  H.  F. 

Ravignan  (ra-ven-yon),  Gustave  Francois 
Xavier  de  la  Croix  de,  b.  at  Bayonne,  South- 
-western  France,  Dec.  2,  1795  ;  d.  in  Paris, 
Peb.  26,  1858  ;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
and  succeeded  Lacordaire  in  1837  as  preacher 
of  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  where  he  achieved  a 
great  success,  but  was  by  ill-health  compelled 
to  retire  to  his  convent  in  1848.  He  published 
De  V existence  et  de  l' institute  desjesuites,  Paris, 
1844,  7th  ed.,  1855  ;  Clement  XIIL  et  XIV., 
1854,  2  vols.  His  autobiography  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  De  Poulevoy,  New 
York,  1869. 

Rawlinson,  George,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Chadlington,  Oxfordshire,  England, 
Nov.  23,  1815  ;  was  educated  at  Oxford  and 
ordained  priest  in  1842  ;  and  was  appointed 
Camden  professor  of  ancient  history  to  the 
university  in  1861,  and  canon  of  Canterbury 
in  1872.  Besides  an  Eng.  trans,  of  Herodotus, 
annotated,  London,  1858-60,  4  vols.,  5th  ed., 
1881,  several  works  on  ancient  history  of  great 
merit,  including  T?ie  Five  Oreat  Monarchies  of 
the  Ancient  Eastern  World,  1862-67,  4  vols., 
2d,  ed.,  1870  ;  Ihe  Sixth,  1873  ;  The  Seventh, 

1876  ;  numerous  articles  to  reviews  and  dic- 
tionaries, and  commentaries  on  various  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  he  has  published  The 
Historical  Evidences  of  the  Truth  of  the  Scrip- 
ture Records,  Bampton  Lectures,  1859,  2d  ed., 
1860  ;  Historical  Illustrations  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 1871  ;  St.  Paul  in  Damascus  and  Arabia, 

1877  ;  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World, 
1882  ;  Egypt  and  Babylon  from  Scripture  and 
Profane  Sources,  1884 ;  Bible  Topography, 
1886  ;  Moses,  his  Life  and  Times,  1887  ;  Kings 


of  Israel  and  Judah,  1889  ;  Isaac  and  Jacob 
(the  last  three  in  Men  of  the  Bible  series),  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1890. 

Raymond   of  Pennaforte.       See    Penna- 

FORTE. 

Raymond  of  Sabunde  (Sebonde,  Seleyde, 

etc.)  was  a  Spanish  physician  and  theologian, 
who  died  at  Toulouse,  1437.  But  little  is 
known  of  his  private  life.  As  a  philosopher 
he  was  a  scholastic  and  mystic,  but  his  career 
falls  in  the  period  of  the  decline  of  Scholas- 
ticism, and  his  mysticism  had  no  imitators. 
He  was  professor  of  theology,  philosophy,  and 
medicine  at  Toulouse  about  1430-32,  and  pub- 
lished here,  in  1436,  his  main  work,  Theologia 
Naturalis,  sive  Liber  Crentvrarum.  It  was 
written  in  poor  Spanish,  with  copious  Latin 
notes.  A  Latin  translation  of  it  was  published 
in  Deventer,  1487  ;  in  Strassburg,  1496  ;  and 
in  Nlirnberg,  1502  ;  a  French  translation  was 
issued  in  Paris  in  1569  by  Montaigne,  who 
also  wrote  a  long  essay  or  apology  for  the 
work.  The  original  introduction  to  the  book 
was  put  on  the  Index  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
in  1595,  and  does  not  appear  in  Seidel's  ed., 
Sulzbach,  1852,  which  is  the  last.  Raymond 
made  extracts  from  his  own  book,  which  were 
published  after  his  death,  in  1501,  under  the 
title  of  Dialogi  de  Natura  et  Obligatione 
Hominis. 

In  Raymond  the  nominalistic  separation  of 
theology  and  philosophy  comes  most  deci- 
dedly to  expression .  He  puts  natural  theology 
by  the  side  of  revealed  theology.  The  Book 
of  Nature  and  the  Book  of  Revelation  are  par- 
allel revelations.  The  latter  Is  the  more 
sacred,  but  cannot  be  understood  save  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  former.  Man  is  the  climax 
of  Nature  ;  therefore,  by  studj'ing  him,  we 
study  Nature,  and  from  Man  we  naturally 
rise  to  God,  who  is  Man  unlimited  and  self- 
existing,  without  sin.  Ascending  through  the 
four  stages  of  esse,  mvere,  sentire,  intelligere, 
or  the  facts  of  our  own  consciousness,  we 
prove,  according  to  Raymond,  easily  the  ex- 
istence and  triunity  of  God,  as  well  as  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  From  this  it  will  be 
seen  that  Raymond  holds,  with  the  Nom- 
inalists, that  self-knowledge  is  the  most  certain 
kind  of  knowledge.  His  work  culminates  in 
a  desire  for  the  complete  union  of  the  loving 
soul  with  God.  The  means  for  this  mystical 
conception  is  such  a  kind  of  love  to  God, 
which  enables  the  Divine  to  permeate  the 
soul.  M.  Montaigne,  Apologie  de  Raimond 
Sebond  (inhis Essais,  ii.,  12)  ;  D.  Matzke,  Die 
naturliche  Theologie  des  R.  v.  S.,  Breslau, 
1846  ;  M.  Huttler,  Die  ReligionsphilosopJiie  des 
R.  V.  S.,  Augsburg,  1841. 

C.  H.  A.  Bjerregaard. 

Raymundus  Lullus.  See  LuLLUS,  page  518. 

Real  Presence.     See  Lord's  Supper,  page 

513. 

Realism.    See  Nominalism. 

Re-bek'-ah  (a  noosed  cord),  the  daughter  of 
Bethuel  and  sister  of  Laban,  w^ho  became  the 
wife  of  Isaac  and  twenty  years  after  the 
mother  of  Jacob  and  Esau.  Her  deceit  in  fa- 
vor of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxv.)  led  to  disastrous 


REOHAB 


(789) 


REDEMPTORISTS 


consequences.     She   died   before   Isaac,    and 
was  buried  in  Abraham's  tomb  (Gen.  xlix.  31). 
T.  W.  C. 

Rech'-ab  {horseman),  the  father  of  Jehon- 
adab  (2  Kings  x.  15,  1  Chrou.  ii.  55). 

Rech'-ab-ites,  a  tribe  of  Kenites  or  Mid- 
ianites  (1  Chron.  ii.  55),  descended  from  Jona- 
than, the  son  of  Rechab  (2  Kings  x.  15),  from 
whom  their  name  is  derived.  They  worship- 
ped the  true  God,  but  were  not  reckoned  as 
Israelites.  Jeremiah  (xxxv.  2-19)  used  their 
obedience  to  an  earthly  father  to  rebuke  his 
countrymen's  disobedience  to  Jehovah. 

T.  W.  C. 

Recluse  meant  originally,  in  the  11th  and 
12th  centuries,  monks  and  nuns  who,  on  ac- 
count of  their  great  virtue,  but  at  their  own 
request,  were  actually  sealed  up  in  their  cells, 
which  they  never  afterward  were  allowed  to 
leave  except  on  the  express  order  of  the 
bishop. 

Recollect  (from  re-collegere,  "to  gather 
again")  means  the  return,  within  a  monastic 
order,  of  a  number  of  its  members  to  the 
original  rule,  as,  for  instance,  the  recollects 
of  the  Augustincs  in  the  17th  ceuturj'. 

Reconciliation  is  the  reciprocal  change  of 
two  estranged  ]iarties  from  enmity  to  peace. 
In  theology  God  is  reconciled  to  man  and  man 
is  reconciled  to  God,  but  the  former  is  the 
basis  and  the  origin  of  the  latter.  Hence 
Paul  says  of  Christ  (Rom.  v.  11),  "through 
whom  we  have  now  received  the  reconcilia- 
tion '  (R.  v.),  i.e.,  the  removal  of  the  obstacles 
which  hindered  peace.  This  is  effected  by 
the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  which  satisfies  God's 
justice  and  takes  away  his  merited  wrath  ;  and 
when  the  sinner  is  led  by  the  Spirit  to  see  and 
feel  this,  his  enmitv  is  overcome,  and  he  gives 
his  whole  heart  to  God.  T.  W.  C. 

Rector,  in  the  Church  of  England,  is  the 
clergyman  who  has  charge  and  care  of  a  par- 
ish, and  enjoys  the  whole  revenue  of  it  if  there 
be  no  vicar  ;  if  there  be,  a  portion  of  the  rev- 
enue must  be  applied  to  his  support. 

Recusant,  in  English  law,  means  a  person 
who  refuses  or  neglects  to  attend  the  service 
of  the  Established  Church  on  Sundays  and 
other  days  appointed  for  the  purpose.  The 
term  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  Her 
laws  against  recusants  were  principally  di- 
rected against  the  papists. 

Redemption,  a  figurative  term  denoting  the 
work  performed  Ijy  Christ  in  securing  the  sal- 
vation of  his  people.  Sometimes  it  implies 
the  payment  of  a  debt,  as  when  redemption  is 
identified  with  the  remission  of  sins  (Col.  i. 
14).  At  others  it  means  the  liberation  of  a 
slave  or  captive,  as  when  Christ  is  said  to  have 
given  himself  a  ransom  for  all  (1  Tim.  ii.  5, 
6).  Again,  it  contemplates  not  .so  nmch  the 
restored  liberties  of  the  redeemed  as  the  re- 
covered riglit  of  the  person  who  redeems,  as 
when  wc  are  said  to  be  redeemed  unto  God 
(Rev.  V.  9),  and  to  be  not  our  own,  l)eing  bought 
with  a  price  (1  Cor.  vi.  19).  But  in  all  tliese 
cases  a  payment  is  made.     The  debt  is  not 


simply  cancelled  but  liquidated  ;  the  bondman 
is  not  liberated  either  by  conquest  or  gratui- 
tously, but  in  view  of  a  ransom  ;  and  the 
alienated  possession  is  not  freely  restored,  but 
bought  back  for  a  consideration.  This  is  the 
essential  point.  Some  of  the  Fathers  pressed 
the  figure  to  an  extreme,  holding  not  only 
that  a  price  was  paid,  but  that  it  was  received 
by  men's  great  enemy,  the  Evil  One,  who  had 
a  right  to  control  them  as  his  lawful  captives. 
But  our  captivity  to  Satan  was  only  a  second- 
ary conseciuence  of  our  subjection  to  God's 
wrath.  Satan  was  merely  a  subordinate  in- 
strument of  God's  righteous  judgment. 
What  we  needed  was  that  the  Sovereign 
Judge  should  revoke  our  sentence,  and  there- 
fore to  him  and  not  to  Satan  the  ransom  was 
due. 

It  has  l)een  .said  that  the  term  redemption  is 
often  used  in  a  general  sense  as  simply  equiv- 
alent to  deliverance.  This  is  true,  bilt  not  to 
the  purpose  ;  for,  as  has  been  .seen,  the  term  is 
over  and  over  employed  not  onl}'  to  express 
our  deliverance  from  the  evils  of  sin,  but  also 
with  a  distinct  reference  to  the  means  l)y 
which  that  deliverance  is  secured — viz.,  the 
payment  of  "a  price."  The  redemption, 
therefore,  is  not  gratuitous,  but  the  satisfac- 
tion to  public  law  and  justice  upon  which  the 
Sovereign  Lawgiver  consents  to  remit  the 
sentence. 

The  evils  from  which  believers  are  redeemed 
are  the  curse  of  the  law,  the  wrath  of  God, 
the  dominion  of  sin,  and  the  death  eternal. 
The  original  cause  of  redemption  is  the  love 
of  God,  wiio  spared  not  his  own  Son  for  the 
purpose  (John  iii.  10,  Rom.  viii.  32).  Its  pro- 
curing cause  was  the  mediation  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  (John  x.  15,  1  Peter  i.  19).  The 
ends  it  accomplishes  are  the  satisfaction  of 
God's  justice  (Rom.  iii.  25-26),  the  salvation 
of  a  countless  multitude  (Hcb.  ii.  10),  and  the 
display  of  the  divine  glory  (Rom.  xi.  33-36). 

The'church  doctrine  on  the  siibject  was  first 
formulated  by  Anselm  in  his  famous  treatise. 
Cur  Deus  Ilomo  (1098,  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1889),  and  was  afterward  fully  worked  out  in 
the  writings  of  the  Reformers.  (See  R.  S. 
Candlish,  The  Afnnement,  London,  1861  ; 
Lewis  Edwards,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Atone- 
ment, London,  1886  ;  D.  W.  Simon,  The  Re- 
demption of  Man  Edinburgh,  1889,  and  art. 
Atonement.)  "  T.  W  C. 

Redemptorists,  or  the  Congregation  of  our 
Most  Blessed  Redeemer,  was  founded  in 
1742  by  Liguori  ((j.v.),  and  confirmed  in 
1749  by  Benedict  XIV.  The  order  has  some 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  Jesuits.  To  the 
common  vows  of  poverty,  chastitj',  and  obedi- 
ence are  added  one  vow  which  binds  the  mem- 
bers to  labor  diligently  and  unremittingly  for 
the  education  and  conversion  of  the  poor  and 
miserable,  and  another  which  prevents  them 
from  accepting  any  honor  or  benefice  outside 
the  order.  'The"  rules  arc  very  severe. 
Studies  are  recommended,  though  only  so  far 
as  they  may  be  of  some  practical  value  to  the 
church.  The  order  spread  graflually  to  all 
countries  of  Europe.  Under  Hoffbauer's  ad- 
ministration it  became  very  powerful  in  Po- 
land and  Austria.     To  England  it  was  intro- 


(790) 


REFORMATION 


duced  in  1843  ;  it  has  now  six  houses  there. 
In  the  United  States  it  has  houses  in  New 
York,  Baltimore,  Pittsburg,  and  Albany.  But, 
along  with  the  other  monastic  orders,  in 
1872  it  was  expelled  from  Germany,  and  in 
1880  from  France. 

Red  Sea,  a  long,  narrow  arm  of  the  ocean, 
separating  Asia  from  Africa,  called  by  the  He- 
brews "the  sea"  (Ex.  xiv.),  "the  Egyptian 
Sea"  (Isa.  xi.  15),  but  chiefly  "  the  sea  of 
Suph"  (or  Reeds,  apparently  from  the  wool- 
like weeds  growing  in  it),  in  our  versions,  the 
Red  Sea.  It  is  1450  miles  long,  with  an  aver- 
age width  of  150  miles  and  a  depth  of  1800 
feet.  Its  navigation  is  difficult,  owins  to  sub- 
merged reefs.  It  receives  no  rivers,  but  many 
rain  torrents,  and  its  coasts  are  rocky  and  bar- 
ren. Its  northern  end  is  divided  into  the  Gulf 
of  Suez  and  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  between 
which  lies  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula.  It"is  now 
admitted  that  the  land  has  risen  at  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  and  the  sea  once  extended 
as  far  as  the  present  Bitter  Lakes.  As  far 
bark  as  the  Pharaohs  a  canal  connected  this 
arm  of  the  sea  with  the  Nile.  The  place 
where  Israel  crossed  it  and  the  Egyptians 
perished  is  still  disputed,  some  (Lesseps)  put- 
ting it  near  the  Crocodile  Lake,  but  the 
greater  number  (Robinson,  Bartlett,  etc.)  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Suez.  After  crossing 
Israel  journeyed  to  Ezion-geber  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Akaba.  '  At  this  place  and  Elath 
were  ports  used  bv  Solomon  for  "  a  navy  of 
ships"  (1  Kings  ix.'  26,  x.  22).        T.  W.  C. 

Reed,  Andre'w,  D.D.  ( ,  ),  Con- 

gregationalist  ;  b.  in  London,  Nov.  27,  1788  ; 
d.  there,  Feb.  25,  1862.  He  worked  his  way 
up  from  humble  circumstances  to  the  minis- 
try, and  after  studying  at  Hackney  Seminary, 
in  the  New  Road.  East  London,  w'as,  in  1811, 
ordained  pastor  of  the  congregation  to  which 
he  originally  belonged,  and  with  which  he 
remained  tiil  Nov.  27,  1861.  He  published 
No  Fiction,  London,  1819.  a  kind  of  religious 
novel  ;  Visit  to  the  American  Churches,  1836, 
2  vols.;  Revival  of  Religion  in  WycUffe  Chapel. 
1843  ;  Sermons,  1861,  and  a  supplement  to 
Watts,  1817,  enlarged,  1825,  which  became 
The  Hymn-Book,  1842,  and  contains  several 
extensively  used  hymns  by  himself.  But  his 
true  life  work  was  practical  philanthropy,  and 
not  literature.  By  his  untiring  energy  and 
great  sagacity,  but  more  especially  by  his  sure 
conviction  that  the  love  which  impelled  him 
could  not  be  in  vain,  he  succeeded  in  found- 
ing the  London  Orphan  Asylum,  1812  ;  Infant 
Orphan  Asylum,  1827  ;  Asylum  for  Father- 
less Children  (Reedham),  1844  ;  Asylum  for 
Idiots  (Earlswood),  1847  ;  Royal  Hospital  for 
Incurables,  1854 ;  Eastern  Counties  Idiot 
Asylum  (Essex  Hall),  1859  ;  which  institu- 
tions, models  by  themselves,  can  shelter  2100 
inmates.  His  life  w^as  written  by  his  two 
sons,  London,  1863. 

Reformation,  The  Protestant,  of  the  16th 
century,  was  an  event  produced  by  many  and 
diverse  causes  operating  over  a  long  period  of 
time.  Ever  since  the  establishment  of  the 
Roman  Church  as  such  there  had  been 
symptoms  of  discontent,  which  had  grown 


more  marked  with  the  lapse  of  time.  The  re- 
ligious destitution  of  the  people  led  in  South- 
ern France,  at  the  close  of  the  12th  century, 
to  the  rise  of  the  Albigenses,  whose  doctrine 
was  tinctured  with  Manichseism,  and  of  the 
Waldenses,  who  represent  the  reaction  from 
religious  formalism  to  spiritual  Christianity. 
The  rise  of  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans 
was  in  itself  a  reformation  in  response  to  these 
demands,  though  not  radical.  In  the  follow- 
ing century  the  corruptions  incident  upon  the 
residence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon,  where  they 
became  the  tools  of  the  court  of  France  and 
thus  lost  their  hold  upon  Europe  in  general, 
not  only  promoted  efforts  like  the  Waldenses, 
but  called  the  learned  into  the  field.  Wiclif 
appeared  with  his  protests  against  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  monks,  and  the  assumption  by  the 
clergy  of  power  in  secular  matters,  and  with 
his  efforts  to  remedy  the  general  neglect  of  the 
people.  The  influence  of  Wiclif's  writings 
led  the  preacher  Hus  in  Bohemia  to  his 
peculiar  views,  though  he  was  less  radical 
than  Wiclif  himself  in  his  departure  from  the 
received  doctrines  of  the  church.  In  both  of 
these  men  the  supreme  appeal  for  doctrine  and 
practice  is  to  the  Scriptures.  Meantime  the 
schism  in  the  papacy  (1378-1449),  also  a  re- 
sult of  the  Avignon  residence,  had  magni- 
fied in  the  eyes  of  Europe  the  various  evils 
afflicting  the  church,  and  led  to  the  cry  for  a 
reformation  in  head  and  members,  and  to  the 
"  reforming  councils"  of  Pisa,  Constance,  and 
Basel.  Pisa  (1409)  had  only  made  three  popes 
instead  of  two  ;  at  Constance  Hus  had  been 
burnt  (1415),  and  at  neither  Constance  nor 
Basel  (1431-39)  was  anything  accomplished  of 
importance.  The  Hussites  in  Bohemia  and 
the  Lollards  in  England  had  maintained  the 
cry  for  reform  by  their  continued  existence. 
Many  events  in  the  15th  century  lent  force  to 
the  increasing  tendency  to  reform.  The 
Renaissance  (q.v.)  brought  new  intellectual 
forces  into  operation,  and  an  increase  of  light 
made  existing  abuses  clearer.  The  invention 
of  printing  (about  1450)  rendered  the  new 
learning  accessible  to  all.  The  discovery  of 
America  enlarged  the  mental  horizon  of  men. 
Reuchlin  soon  introduced  the  Hebrew- 
language  and  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and 
Erasmus  the  Greek  Scriptures  (1516),  which 
made  the  contrast  between  papal  and  primi- 
tive Christianity  more  glaring.  The  universi- 
ties became  seats  of  the  new  scholarship,  and 
among  them  Erfurt,  where  Luther  was  to 
study,  became  honorably  distinguished  by  the 
labors  of  Mutianus.  Wittenberg  was  founded 
(1502)  for  the  culture  of  the  new  learning.  In 
Germany  in  particular  there  had  been  rising  a 
spirit  of  nationalism,  which  powerfully 
assisted  the  Reformation  when  once  begun. 
The  struggles  of  emperors  and  popes  for  many 
ages  had  left  the  total  impression  upon  the 
nation  that  the  popes  were  indifferent,  if  not 
hostile  to  the  true  interests  of  Germany,  and 
separation  from  a  thoroughly  foreign  church 
became  easy.  The  precise  hour  when  the 
Reformation  begun  was  also  favorable  to  it, 
since  pope  and  emperor  were  so  estranged  in 
all  their  interests  that  common  action  to  crush 
such  a  force  as  the  Protestant  was  impracti- 
cable till  time  had  been  given  it  to  develop 


REFORMATION 


(791) 


REFORMATION 


beyond  the  point  where  annihilation  was  pos- 
sible. 

The  prime  cause  of  the  Reformation  was, 
however,  spiritual,  and  is  an  example  of  tlm 
providential  guidance  of  the  church  by  its  di- 
vine Author.  Martin  Luther  had  been  led  by 
profound  religious  experiences,  while  iu  search 
of  peace  with  God,  to  a  spiritual  apprehension 
of  Christianity,  and  to  a  living  conception  of 
the  frecness  of  the  divine  forgiveness  for 
Christ's  sake.  Oifcnded  by  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences iu  the  boldest  defiance  of  propriety  and 
truth,  he  posted  upon  the  doors  of  the  castle 
church  at  Wittenberg,  on  Oct.  31,  1517,  his 
ninety-tive  theses  against  the  abuse.  In 
essence  these  theses  were  a  break  with  the 
papal  system  ;  but  in  his  own  conception  Lu- 
ther was  still  an  obedient  child  of  the  church. 
But  step  by  step  he  was  led  to  perceive  one 
error  of  Jtome  after  another,  till  finally  by  her 
act,  not  his,  he  was  separated  from  her,  and 
thus  left  to  go  freely  on  the  way  of  progres- 
sive understanding  and  exposition  of  the 
truth.  In  1518  at  Augsburg  he  refused  to  re- 
cant till  convinced  from  tlie  Scriptm-es  ;  at 
Leipzig,  in  1519,  he  rejected  the  infallibility 
even  of  councils  ;  at  Wittenberg,  in  1520,  he 
burnt  the  pope's  bidl,  and  when  laid  under 
the  ban  after  the  Diet  of  Worms,  in  1521,  lie 
made  answer  by  publishing  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  Crerman.  Wlien  nine  more  j'cars  had 
jtassed  by,  the  Protestants  were  not  only  able 
to  present  to  the  emperor  and  estates  at  Augs- 
burg their  confession  of  faith  (15:)(»),  but  the 
quiet  labors  of  Luther  and  his  associates  had 
developed  a  form  of  worship,  begun  the  organ- 
ization of  a  church,  spread  their  writings  all 
over  Europe  and  gained  adherents  in  almost 
every  land,  survived  the  dangers  of  the  Peas- 
ants' War,  and  also  imfortunately  laid  at  3Iar- 
burg  (1529)  the  foundation  of  their  futute  sep- 
aration from  the  Reformed  brethren. 

Meantime  au  indepen<lent  movement  had 
begun  in  Switzerland  under  the  lead  of  Ulrich 
Zwingli.  His  training  had  been  more  thor- 
oiiglily  humanistic  than  TiUtlier's,  he  had  come 
more  gradually  and  (piietly  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  truth,  and  the  freer  air  of  Switzerland 
favored  a  break  with  any  power  once  seen  to 
be  in  the  wrong.  Zwingli 's  work  at  Zurich 
was  no  sooner  begun  (1519)  than  the  influence 
of  his  knowledge  of  the  truth  began  to  be  felt. 
Under  his  guidance  Zurich,  as  a  free  city,  took 
the  matter  up,  and  by  successive  "  Disputa- 
tions" the  principle  was  established  that  in 
preaching  the  appeal  should  be  to  the  author- 
ity of  the  Scriptures  alone,  and  the  abuses  of 
the  Roman  ritual  and  practice  were  removed. 
In  substance  the  reforms  at  Zurich  and  those 
at  Wittenberg  were  the  same,  except  that  at 
Wittenberg  the  principle  held  that  all  of  the 
ancient  system  which  should  not  be  found  re- 
pugnant to  the  Word  of  God  .should  be  re- 
tained, wliileat  Zurich,  all  was  to  be  removed 
which  w;is  not  found  commanded  by  the  Word 
of  God.  The  reforms  at  Zurich  rested  also 
upon  a  distinct  and  new  theory  of  the  consti- 
tution of  tlie  church.  The  church  was  the 
congregation  of  believers,  represented  bv  the 
city  council,  and  as  such  it  possessed  all  the 
authority  and  marks  of  the  church,  including 
infallibiiity.     The  work  spread  rapidly  from 


town  to  town.  By  1525  Basel,  Bern,  Muhl- 
hausen,  etc.,  by  1528  Bern,  by  1531  almost 
all  the  present  Protestant  Sw'itzerland,  had 
been  gained.  But  the  course  of  political  events 
was  unfavorable  to  the  cause.  Zwingli  was 
a  political  reformer  as  well  as  a  religious,  and 
opposed  those  entangling  foreign  alliances  in 
which  Switzerland  liad  bartered  away  the 
blood  of  so  many  of  her  sons.  The  balance 
of  power  in  the  Swiss  Confederacy  was  also 
originally  with  the  "  forest"  cantons.  These 
in  particular  were  filled  with  pensioners  of 
the  papacy  and  France,  and  were  jealous  of 
tlie  increasing  inlluence  of  Zurich  and  of 
Zwingli.  Five  of  these  cantons  began  to  per- 
secute the  Protestants,  to  hinder  the  Reforma- 
tion in  certain  districts  over  which  they  had 
power,  and  to  make  a  league  with  Austria. 
They  also  caught  and  burnt  alive  a  preacher 
from  Zurich.  War  was  the  result,  which  at 
first  went  in  favor  of  the  reforming  cantons, 
but  broke  out  again,  and  at  Cappel,  in  1531, 
Zurich  was  defeated  by  the  forest  cantons,  and 
Zwingli  himself,  who  was  present  as  chaplain, 
killed. 

Troubles  also  thickened  about  the  cause  in 
Germany.  At  successive  imperial  diets  the 
Catholic  party  had  tried  to  secure  hostile 
measures  against  the  innovators,  but  at  Nu- 
remberg (1522-23)  the  answer  had  been  a  rec- 
ommendation of  a  general  council  to  be  called 
within  a  year,  and  the  direction  that  mean- 
time the  gosjicl  should  be  preached  "in  its 
purity  ;"  at  Nuremberg  again  (1524),  that  the 
Edict  of  AVorms  should  i)e  executed  '*  as  far 
as  possible  ;"  while  at  Spires  (1526),  the  fail- 
ure of  the  peace  of  Madrid,  which  had  led 
Charles  to  give  a  harsh  instruction  to  the  diet, 
and  the  necessity  of  his  gaining  the  help  of 
the  Reformed  party,  made  the  ultimate  result 
of  the  diet  that  "  every  government  should  so 
live,  rule,  and  conduct  itself  in  reference  to 
the  Edict  of  Worms  as  it  believed  it  could  best 
answer  to  God  and  the  imperial  majesty." 
Thus  the  Reformation  was  sheltered  under  the 
civil  power  for  a  time.  But  at  Spires,  in  1529, 
the  measures  taken  were  so  fatal  to  the  pros- 
pects of  the  reform  that  the  princes  handed  in 
a  formal  protest,  whence  the  name  Protes- 
tants. And  now  the  alliance  which  was  be- 
gun in  1526atTorgau,  was  enlirgcd  after  the 
diet  at  Augsburg  in  1530,  which  had  directed 
the  execution  of  the  Edict  of  Worms,  and  the 
Schmalkaldic  League  was  formed  of  the 
principal  Lutheran  princes  and  cities,  the 
elector  of  Saxony  and  Landgrave  of  Hesse  at 
the  head.  For  a  time  the  threat  contained  in 
these  results  was  not  carried  out.  The  coming 
of  the  Turk  led  to  the  Peace  of  Nuremberg 
(1532),  by  which  free  exercise  of  their  re- 
ligion was  permitted  to  the  Protestants  for  a 
time.  Charles  had  also  not  yet  got  hi.s  hands 
free  from  the  struggle  with  Francis.  But  in 
1544,  after  the  final  defeat  of  the  French,  he 
turned  his  attention  to  Protestant  affairs,  and 
with  such  success  that  in  1546  he  reduced 
Southern  Germany  and  put  it  under  the 
"  Augsburg  Interim,"  which  practically  re- 
store<l  Catholicism,  in  1547  defeated  and  took 
prisoner  the  leaders  of  the  Protestants,  and 
would  soon  have  made  an  end  of  their  politi- 
cal power  and  wiped  them  out  of  existence, 


REFORMATION 


(792) 


REFORMATION 


had  not  his  ally,  Maurice  of  Saxony,  after  hav- 
ing gained  all  he  wished  from  the  emperor, 
turned  against  him,  reversed  the  decisions  of 
the  war,  and  almost  seized  the  emperor  him- 
self in  his  bed  (1552).  The  Peace  of  Augsburg 
(1555),  which  secured  the  Protestant  powers 
the  right  of  Reformation  in  their  own  territo- 
ries, made  them  equal  with  the  Catholic  es- 
tates, but  gave  no  such  privileges  to  the 
"  Reformed  "  portion  of  their  number,  brings 
the  epoch  of  the  Reformation  to  an  end. 

The  Reformation  in  England  was  twofold — 
religious  and  political.  As  a  religious  move- 
ment, it  was  effected  in  a  remarkable  degree 
by  the  Word  of  God,  no  one  individual  taking 
the  lead  as  in  other  reformed  countries.  The 
Greek  Testament  of  Erasmus  enlightens  a 
Bilney  and  a  Tyndale.  Bilney  converts  Lati- 
mer ;  Cranmer'is  found  laying  stress  upon  the 
Scriptures  in  clerical  examinations  about  1525. 
Tyndale's  translation  is  produced  by  his  sense 
of  the  necessity  of  having  the  Bible  as  the  sure 
foundation  upon  which  to  build  up  Christian 
work.  It  is  succeeded  by  Coverdale's,  the 
"  Bishops',"  the  Genevan,  and  King  James' 
within  a  century.  It  wrought  a  silent,  but 
pervasive  work  throughout  the  whole  realm, 
and  finally  made  England  Protestant.  On 
the  political  side  it  was  Henry  VIII. 's  desire 
to  procure  a  divorce  from  Catherine,  embroil- 
ing him  with  the  papacy,  which  brought 
about  the  separation  of  the  kingdom  from  the 
obedience  of  Rome.  In  the  interval  before 
this  was  effected  and  Henry  married  to  Anne 
Boleyn  (1533),  Cardinal  Wolsey,  who  had 
accustomed  the  king  to  see  the  supreme 
spiritual  power  exercised  within  his  own 
realm,  fell  into  disgrace.  It  was  natural  that 
Heniy  himself  should  now  become  head  of 
the  English  Church,  an  arrangement  which 
was  hinted  at  in  1531,  but  not  accomplished 
till  Henry  had  been  excommunicated  (1534) 
and  then  deposed  (1538).  Henry  remained 
Roman  in  his  theology,  and  so  persecuted  both 
parties,  Catholic  and  Protestant,  impartially, 
and  caused  the  "  Ten  Articles"  (1536)  to  be 
followed  by  the  "  Six  Articles"  (1539),  which 
decreed  not  only  transubstantiation,  but  also 
the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  Thus  Henry  did 
not  get  beyond  eertatn  outward  reforms,  such 
as  the  suppression  of  many  monasteries,  and 
left  the  more  radical  reformation  for  his  son 
and  successor,  Edward  VI.,  who  by  1552  had 
issued  a  revised  Prayer-Book  and  the  Forty- 
two  Articles  of  Religion,  which  were  dis- 
tinctly Protestant,  and  even  preferred,  upon 
the  Lord's  Supper,  the  position  of  the  Swiss 
to  that  of  the  Germans.  Under  "  Bloody" 
Mary  (1553-58)  came  a  complete  Catholic  re- 
action involving  the  martyrdom  of  Cranmer, 
Latimer,  and  others.  But  the  English  people 
were  only  the  more  deeply  stirred  against 
Rome,  and  although  Elizabeth  (1558-1603)  felt 
herself  called  upon  to  pursue  at  first  an  am- 
biguous policy,  and  to  insist  upon  the  preser- 
vation of  the  "system  of  Henry  VIIL," 
whereby  for  a  long  time  Protestants  and  Cath- 
olics worshipped  side  l)y  side  at  the  same  altar, 
and  there  was  nothing  very  markedly  Protes- 
tant about  the  management  of  the  church  ex- 
cept its  separation  from  the  papacy,  the  na- 
tion advanced  steadily  toward  a  Protestantism 


of  the  most  extreme  type— Puritanism.  The 
treatment  of  Elizabeth  by  the  papacy  helped 
in  this  course.  In  1569  she  had  been  declared 
a  heretic  and  her  subjects  absolved  from  their 
allegiance  ;  in  1570  she  had  been  "  deposed  ;" 
the  Catholic  party  had  been  stirred  up  to  re- 
bellion, and  in  1588  the  Spanish  Armada  had 
threatened  the  existence  of  her  reign.  But 
when  James  ascended  the  throne,  it  was  to 
find  the  nation  thoroughly  reformed  in  senti- 
ment, and  already  largely  tilled  with  that 
Puritan  spirit  which  in  conflict  with  Stuart 
absolutism  was  to  prove  so  fatal  to  his  son. 

In  France  the  Reformation  began  with  the 
work  of  Jacques  Lefevre,  who  published  in 
1512  a  commentary  upon  the  Epistles  of  Paul 
in  which  he  taught  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith.  With  others,  when  later  con- 
demned, he  found  an  asylum  at  Meaux  with 
Bishop  Bri9onnet.  The  reformed  opinions 
spread  from  person  to  person,  and  gained  here 
and  there  such  as  Calvin,  who  no  sooner  be- 
came a  living  Christian  than  a  theological 
leader.  The  attitude  of  Francis  I.  (king  1515- 
47)  was  for  a  long  time  undecided.  As  late 
as  1534  it  seemed  possible  that  he  might  take 
the  side  of  Protestantism,  but  after  the  placards 
denouncing  the  mass  in  that  year,  in  spite  of 
the  issue  of  Calvin's  apology  for  the  Protes- 
tants, the  Institutes,  his  policy  was  repressive. 
In  Geneva  after  1541,  the  Reformation  was 
supreme.  From  this  source  pamphlets  were 
scattered  all  over  France,  and  the  Protestant 
party  steadily  grew.  By  1558  they  had  2000 
places  of  worship.  The  following  year  they 
could  hold  a  general  synod  at  Paris,  when  they 
adopted  a  Calvinistic  confession,  and  the  Pres- 
byterian form  of  government.  After  the  ac- 
cession of  Francis  II.  (1559)  the  Protestants 
became  a  political  party  under  the  lead  of 
princes,  and  from  1562  to  1598  there  was  a 
constant  succession  of  wars  which  resulted  in 
armed  truces  from  time  to  time,  and  terminated 
in  the  war  of  the  three  Henrys,  upon  the  close 
of  which  (1589)  Henry  IV'.,  the  king  of 
Navarre,  became  king  of  France.  He  was 
the  sou  of  the  Protestant  Margaret  of  Navarre, 
and  had  fought  as  a  Protestant,  but  to  secure 
his  throne  he  abjured  his  faith.  Still  he  in- 
sisted upon  issuing  (1598)  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
which  gave  the  Huguenots  equal  political 
rights  with  Catholics,  and  a  limited  toleration. 
The  course  of  these  wars  had  been  marked  by 
such  atrocious  events  as  the  Massacre  of  St. 
Bartliolemew  (1572),  and  the  assassinations  of 
Henry  of  Guise  (1588)  and  Henry  III.  (1589). 

Such  was  the  course  of  the  Reformation  in 
the  principal  countries  in  which  it  found  a 
welcome,  till  it  had  attained  a  relative  perma- 
nence. In  the  Netherlands  it  was  early  intro- 
duced, and  in  Holland  it  led  to  the  Eighty 
Years'  War  (1568-1648),  resulting  in  separa- 
tion from  Spain  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Protestant  religion.  In  Italy  and  _  Spain, 
though  there  were  movements  in  the  direction 
of  reform,  the  papal  power  was  too  strong  for 
success.  The  Jesuits  (sanctioned  1540)  worked 
powerfully  against  it,  and  the  Council  of  Trent 
(1545-63)  pronounced  the  refusal  of  Rome  to 
modify  the  mediaeval  system.  In  the  north 
the  Reformation  was  introduced  into  Denmark 
in  1526,  and  in  1527  under  Gustavus  Vasa  into 


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(793) 


REFORMED 


Sweden.  But  Protestantism  spread,  often  in 
secret,  in  succeeding  years,  till  it  was,  in  1618, 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
upon  the  eve  of  largely  supplanting  Roman- 
ism. (See  the  churcii  histories,  especially 
SchalT,  with  Merle  D'Auljignc,  llanke,  Fisher 
[good  literary  appendi.\J,  and  numerous  other 
monographs,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
for  its  emphasis  upon  the  secular  environment, 
too  often  forgotten,  Seebohm,  The  Em  of  the 
Protestant  Remlntioit ,  London  and  New  York, 
1874  ;  L.  Hausser,  Period  of  the  Reformation, 
Eng.  trans.,  New  York,  1874  ;  very  sugges- 
tive is  Beard,  The  Refornmtion  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century  in  its  Relation  to  Modern  ThougJd  and 
Knowledge,  London  and  New  York,  1883  ; 
G.  Egelhaaf,  Deutsche  Oeschichte  im  Jahrh., 
Stuttgart,  1890  sq.)  For  the  Reformation  in 
England,  see  the  popular  works  of  J.  H. 
Blunt,  London,  1868-83,  2  vols.;  G.  G.  Perry, 
18S6,  and  W.  H.  Beckett,  1890 ;  for  that  in 
Spain,  John  Stoughton,  Spanish  Reformers, 
1883  ;  for  that  in  ""France,  H.  ^l.  Baird,  Rise 
of  the  Huguenots,  New  York,  1879,  3  vols.,  2d 
ed.,  1883  ;  The  Huguenots  and  Henry  of 
Navarre,  1886,2  vols.;  R.  Heath,  Reforma- 
tion in  France,  London,  1888.  F.  H.  F. 

Reformed  Church.— 1.  In  Europe.  The 
Reformed  Church  is  the  technical  name  of  that 
brancii  of  Protestantism  which  arose  in  Switz- 
erland in  I'AQ  under  Zwingli.  It  was  con- 
temporary with  but  independent  of  the  Lu- 
theran Reformation.  It  was  subsequently 
more  fully  developed  and  organized  under 
Calvin,  with  a  distinct  type  of  doctrine  and 
the  Presbyterian  polity.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  Calvinism,  in  its  polity  and  doc- 
trine has  done  more  for  the  development  of 
modern  civilization  than  any  other  system, 
for  its  fundamental  thought  is  the  divine 
sovereignty  to  which  even  the  proud  human 
will  is  necessarily  subordinate.  See  Calvin- 
ism. In  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
Calvin  somewhat  modified  Zwingli's  views. 
The  great  colloquy  at  Marburg,  1529,  left  its 
pernxiinent  impress  upon  Protestantism. 
Then  really  began  the  separation  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church  and  the  Reformed.  Luther 
held  to  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  words, 
"This  is  my  body;"  Carlstadt  held  to  the 
mystical  view,  while  Zwingli  held  to  what 
seemed  to  liim  the  only  rational  and  necessary 
meaning  of  the  words — viz.,  that  the  *:le- 
ments  represented  the  bodv  and  blood  of 
Christ.  But  Calvin  added  to  tiie  "  memorial 
view"  of  Zwingli  the  doctrine  that  the  sacra- 
ments are  also  signs  and  seals  of  divine  grace 
to  the  believer.  SeeLouD'sSuppKH.  Zwin- 
gli was  soon  cut  off  by  deatli  in  battle,  1531, 
but  not  before  a  large  portion  of  Um  German 
cantons  had  embraced  the  Reformed  faith. 
Tlie  Reformation  was  further  carried  on 
in  Switzerland  after  Zwingli's  death  by 
(Eoolampadius,  Farel,  and.  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  by  Calvin,  wlio  came  as  a  refugee 
from  France  in  1536.  Bullinger  and  Beza 
were  also  most  efficient  f.ictors  in  the  work. 
From  Switzerland  tlu*  new  faith  passed  over 
into  the  Palatinate  in  the  days  of  Frederic 
III.,  and  it  was  there  tliat  "the  Iteformcd 
Church  of  Germanv  had  its  birth.     Here  the 


Heidelberg  Catechism  was  written  by  Ursinus 
and  Olevianus  in  1563,  which  has  been  a  sym- 
bolical book  in  the  Reformed  Church  ever 
since.  From  the  Palatinate  the  new  faith 
passed  northward,  finding  a  congenial  soil  in 
several  of  tlie  German  states,  and  penetrated 
as  far  as  Bremen.  It  also  spread  into  Bo- 
hemia, Poland,  Spain,  and  Italy,  but  in  these 
countries  it  was  soon  suppressed  by  persecu- 
tion. In  France  also  it  met  with  great  oppo- 
sition, and  its  earliest  adherents  were  forced 
to  tlee  the  country  ;  yet  the  success  of  the 
Reformation  was  so  great  in  France  that  a 
Protestant  synod  was  lield  in  1559,  represent- 
ing about  2000  congregations.  Beza  earnestly- 
pleaded  for  the  truth  at  Poissy  in  1561,  and  it 
was  here  that  the  name  Reformed  originated. 
In  1571  the  Gallicau  Confession  was  adopted, 
and  a  church  polity  similar  to  that  of  Geneva. 
See  France,  Reformku  Ciiuucn  of.  In 
Holland,  however,  the  Reformed  Church  met 
with  better  success.  Entering  from  Germany, 
it  ultimately  received  its  chief  impetus  from 
Switzerland  and  France.  Charles  V.  and 
Philip  II.  were  determined  to  destroy  it,  and 
the  duke  of  Alva  is  said  to  have  slain  100,000 
Dutch  Protestants  between  1567-73,  but  the 
nortliern  provinces  then  fell  into  the  liands  of 
the  patriots,  and  "  the  union  of  the  .seven 
provinces"  l)eeame  the  foundation  of  the 
Dutch  Reimblic.  The  Reformed  Church  of 
Holland  was  soon  organized  according  to  the 
polity  of  Geneva,  and  the  Belgic  Confession 
and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  were  adopted 
as  its  standards  of  doctrine.  The  liturgy  of 
Calvin  was  more  or  less  modified  and  adopted 
with  considerable  additions.  In  1609  began 
the  Arminian  controversy,  which  led  to  the 
call  of  the  famous  Synod  of  Dort,  1618-19,  at 
which  certain  doctrines  were  more  elaborately 
defined  and  formulated.  The  Peace  of  West- 
phalia, 1648,  established  the  political  rights  of 
ail  the  Reformed  churches  and  princes  of  the 
continent.  Since  the  Synod  of  Dort,  although 
the  standards  have  remained  the  same,  the 
Church  of  Holland  has  i)assed  through  vari- 
ous vicissitudes  both  in  doctrine  and  polity  ; 
in  doctrine,  owing  to  the  spread  of  Rational- 
ism, and  in  polity,  owing  to  political  revolu- 
tions. Especially  in  the  Napoleonic  wars  did 
this  cliurch  suffer  in  her  external  organiza- 
tion, but  in  1816  certain  new  regulations  were 
adopted  which  i)artly  restored  her  former  sys- 
tem. About  1830  a  number  of  ministers  and 
congregations  separated  from  tlie  EstabHshed 
Church  to  promote  purity  of  doctrine  and  life. 
They  are  known  as  the  Christian  Reformed 
Church  of  Holland,  and  are  an  earnest  and 
growing  body. 

2.  Rp:formkd  Churches  in  America. 
1.  General:  Many adlierents  of  the  Reformed 
faith  in  p]urope,  Ld  by  divers  causes,  early 
emigrated  to  America.  Tlie  dis.senting  ele- 
I  merits  from  Great  Britain  have  been  gener- 
ally described  by  names  derived  frf)m  tiieir 
forms  of  church  government,  as  Presby- 
terian, Congregational,  in  contrast  with  Epis- 
copacy ;  but  tho.se  from  the  Continent  of 
Europe,  while  retaining  tlu^  general  epithet 
of  Reformed,  came  to  be  described  in  America 
as  Reformed  Dutch,  l?eformeil  German,  or 
French  Reformed.     But  these  old  national 


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(794) 


REFORMED 


distinctions  gradually  lost  much  of  their  pecul- 
iar significance  in  the  general  Americaniza- 
tion and  intermixture  of  all  the  Reformed  ele- 
ments in  this  country.  The  French  Reformed 
were  soon  absorbed  in  other  communions, 
while  the  Dutch,  the  Swiss,  the  German,  and 
the  English  have  attached  themselves  to  either 
one  of  the  Reformed  churches  as  location  or 
preference  determined.  Even  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  New  York  City  and  along  the  Hud- 
son has  been  largely  recruited  from  Dutch 
families.  Now  all  these  elements  from  the 
Reformed  Churches  of  the  continent  were  at 
first  under  the  ecclesiastical  care  of  the  Classis 
of  Amsterdam,  a  special  history  of  whose 
wonderful  missionary  operations  ought  to  be 
written.  French,  German,  and  Swiss,  as  well 
as  Dutch,  from  all  parts  of  the  New  World— 
from  New  Netherlands,  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia  ;  from  the  West  Indies, 
Guiana,  and  Brazil  ;  from  many  parts  of  the 
Old  World,  as  Cape  Colony,  Hindoostan,  and 
Ceylon  ;  from  the  East  India  Islands,  from 
Formosa,  and  Japan — turned  to  Amsterdam 
for  men  and  money. 

2.  Ill  Particular  :  First,  Refokmed  Church 
IN  America  (known  until  1867  as  the  Re- 
formed Protestant  Dutch  Church).  First 
Period,  Colonization,  1613-64.  The  Dutch 
first  came  to  America  for  purposes  of  trade. 
The  West  India  Company  was  chartered  in 
1621,  and  settled  many  thousands  of  Holland- 
ers in  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  The  first 
church  was  organized  in  1628,  with  Rev. 
Jonas  Michaelius  for  its  pastor.  The  Company 
formally  established  the  Church  of  Holland, 
and  promised  to  maintain  ministers,  school- 
masters, and  comforters  of  the  sick.  Calls 
upon  ministers  were  not  valid  unless  endorsed 
by  the  company.  As  it  was  the  Amsterdam 
Chamber  of  this  great  commercial  corporation 
to  which  was  committed  the  religious  interests 
of  New  Netherland,  it  naturally  operated 
through  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam.  Thirteen 
ministers  were  sent  over  before  the  surrender 
of  the  Dutch  colony  to  the  English  in  1664, 
at  which  time  eleven  churches  were  in  exist- 
ence, and  which  were  then  served  by  seven 
ministers. 

Second  Period,  Struggle  to  Maintain  Ecclesi- 
astical Independence  under  English  Riole,  1664- 
1705.  Emigration  from  Holland  had  entirely 
ceased.  There  were  about  10,000  Hollanders 
in  this  country.  The  relation  of  the  Dutch 
churches  to  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  were 
somewhat  modified  by  the  destruction  of  their 
relations  to  the  West  India  Company.  The 
Dutch  secured,  at  the  surrender,  liberty  to 
worship  according  to  their  own  customs  and 
usages.  But  while  they  were  still  under  the 
care  of  the  Classis  they  were  subjects  of  the 
British  Empire,  yet  they  did  not  legally  come 
under  the  class  of  dissenters.  During  the 
first  decade  under  English  rule,  the  English 
population  being  yet  very  small,  there  was  no 
friction  with  the  English  governors.  But 
after  the  revolt  of  the  Dutch  in  1673,  and  their 
reconquest  a  year  later,  some  .doubt  was 
thrown  upon  the  validity  of  the  original 
articles  of  surrender,  and  now  began  deter- 
mined efforts  to  establish  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land by  law.     In  1675  Governor  Andros  at- 


tempted to  settle  an  Episcopal  minister  over 
the  Dutch  church  of  Albany,  but  he  was  un- 
successful until  the  minister  promised  to  sub- 
mit to  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam.  In  1679  the 
Dutch  ministers  then  in  the  country,  at  the 
call  of  the  governor,  ventured  to  organize 
themselves  into  a  classis,  and  ordain  a  certaia 
licentiate  who  was  in  the  country,  and  this  act 
was  subsequently  ratified  by  the  Classis  of 
Amsterdam  ;  but  a  similar  order  of  Governor 
Nicholson,  in  1709,  they  refused  to  obey.  In 
1682  Dominie  Selyns,  who  had  left  the  coun- 
try at  the  surrenc^er,  returned,  and  exerted 
great  influence  in  securing  the  church  from 
governmental  interference.  The  unfortunate 
complications  brought  about  by  Leisler's  usur- 
pation, 1689-91,  put  the  Dutch  ministers  for 
a  time  in  a  false  position,  as  if  they  opposed  the 
accession  of  William  and  Mary,  which  was 
not  by  any  means  the  case.  The  public  com- 
missions of  the  governors  were  liberal  in  spirit 
respecting  religion,  but  they  had  secret  instruc- 
tions of  a  different  import.  Hence  the  Minis- 
try Act  of  1693.  This,  however,  was  made  to 
assume  a  far  more  liberal  character  in  its  pas- 
sage through  the  Assembly  than  was  originally 
intended,  and  it  was,  moreover,  limited  in  its 
application  to  only  four  counties— viz..  New 
York,  Westchester,  Queens,  and  Richmond. 
But  this  act  opened  the  eyes  of  Selyns  and  of 
the  Dutch  Church  generally.  Hence  in  1696, 
not  without  very  great  difficulty,  the  Dutch 
church  of  the  city  of  New  York  extorted  a 
charter  from  the  governor,  giving  them  cer- 
tain rights  and  privileges  besides  the  right  to 
hold  property.  Other  Dutch  churches 
throughout  New  York  and  New  Jersey  grad- 
ually followed  aud  obtained  charters,  but 
these  were  denied  to  Presbyterians  aud  all 
others,  except  Episcopalians,  down  to  the 
Revolution.  Trinity  church  obtained  its  char- 
ter in  1697,  in  which  it  is  declared  that  the 
Church  of  England  is  established  by  law,  by 
the  Act  of  1693,  although  the  act  became  so 
indefinite  in  its  passage  that  there  is  nothing 
in  it  to  warrant  the  statement.  In  1705,  there- 
fore, the  Dutch  element  in  the  community 
compelled  the  passage  of  a  supplementary  acty 
explaining  that  the  Ministry  Act  did  not  apply 
exclusively  to  the  Church  of  England,  but 
that  dissenters  also  could  be  called  and  sup- 
ported under  its  provisions.  This,  however, 
was  never  done.  The'  Society  for  Propagat- 
ing the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  (organized  in 
1701)  sent  over  several  English  clergymen  to 
provide  for  the  services  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land in  the  colonies  and  to  teach  the  Indians. 
These  missionaries  expected  to  be  supported 
by  the  provisions  of  the  Ministry  Act,  but  law- 
suits followed  instead,  and  no  help  was  derived 
from  the  act  for  nine  years.  Meantime  the 
oppressions  of  Governor  Cornbury  drove  a 
large  number  of  Dutch  families  into  New 
Jersey,  1702-10,  where  they  settled  on  the 
banks  of  the  Raritan  and  its  tributaries,  and 
this  territory  has  long  been  the  gai'den  of  the 
Dutch  Church.  During  this  period,  notwith- 
standing this  struggle  and  without  immigra- 
tion, the  Dutch  churches  doubled  in  number. 
Third  Period,  Spiritual  Awakening  and 
Efforts  for  American  Ecclesiastical  Organiza- 
tions, 1705-47.     This  was  a  period  of  compar- 


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ative  peace.  It  was  the  time  of  the  Great 
Awakening,  as  it  was  called.  Whitefield 
aroused  the  people  throughout  the  land,  while 
Frelinghuysen  was  the  evangelist  of  the  Dutch 
Church,  especially  in  New  Jersey.  The  ne- 
cessity of  more  ministers  was  deeply  felt. 
Few  were  willing  to  leave  the  Fatherland  to 
come  to  America.  The  expense  and  danger 
of  sending  American  youth  to  Holland  for  ed- 
ucation and  ordination  were  very  great.  Mor- 
gan, a  Presbyterian,  served  also  the  Dutch 
churches  of  Monmouth  County,  N.  J.,  1709- 
31.  Van  Driessen  went  to  Yale  College  for 
ordination,  1727.  The  Classis  of  Amsterdam 
permitted  the  ministers  in  New  York  City,  in 
their  imme,  1729,  to  ordain  Boehme  for  ser- 
vice among  the  Germans  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
others  were  permitted  to  ordain  Schuyler, 
1736,  for  service  in  Schoharie.  Several  irreg- 
ular ordinations  also  occurred  to  satisfy  the 
great  demand  for  ministers.  Frelinghuysen 
proposed  that  some  sort  of  ecclesiastical  assem- 
bly for  government  and  ordination  should  be 
established  in  America,  and  also  urged  the 
necessity  of  a  college  in  wliich  to  prepare 
young  men  for  the  ministry.  In  1737,  accord- 
ingly, the  first  formal  move  was  made  to  or- 
ganize an  assembly  or  cactus.  There  were 
three  times  as  man}-  churches  as  ministers. 
Tliree  fourths  of  a  century  had  passed  since 
the  English  conquest,  and  the  ties  which 
bound  to  the  Fatherland  were  becoming  weak- 
ened. In  1738  the  plan  of  a  cci'tus  was  sent  to 
Holland  for  approval.  A  long  delay  ensued. 
Meantime  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  was  en- 
gaged in  seeking  to  bind  together  the  Dutch, 
the  Germans,  and  the  Presbyterians,  1743,  in 
one  ecclesiastical  assembly,  but  the  effort  was 
not  successful.  At  lengtli,  when  the  appeal 
of  the  German  churches  was  answered  by  the 
Classis  in  the  commission  of  Rev.  Michael 
Schlatter,  1746,  with  the  several  ministers  who 
accompanied  him,  and  Schlatter  was  author- 
ized to  organize  the  Germans  into  a  cactus,  the 
same  privilege  was  granted  to  the  Dutch,  and 
a  cretus  for  each  body  was  formed  in  Sept., 
1747. 

Fourth  Period,  1747-92.  This  was  the 
period  of  orgnization  proper.  The  desired 
results,  however,  were  only  attained  after 
considerable  strife  and  dilticulty,  being  also 
nioditied  during  their  development  by  the  en- 
tire change  in  civil  all'airs  jirniluced  by  the 
Revolutionary  War.  During  the  seven  years 
of  the  C(etus,  1747-."J4,  efforts  were  made  to 
supply  the  people  with  ministers.  But  it  was 
soon  discovered  that  the  coHns  was  an  inelli- 
cient  body.  It  could  not  license  or  ordain 
witiiDut  special  permission  in  each  case,  and 
it  could  not  finally  settle  cases  of  discipline. 
Appeals  could  be  carried  to  Holland.  This 
caused  endless  delay  and  vexation.  The  ca>tus 
in  its  original  form  only  inducted  four  men 
into  the  mini.stry,  while'  six  pas.sed  by  it  and 
went  to  Holland  for  ordination.  Hence  in 
1753  it  proposed,  on  its  own  responsibility,  to 
transform  itself  into  a  classis,  which  was  ac- 
complished the  following  year.  But  with 
this  event  a  secession  of  .some  of  the  more  con- 
servative members  took  place,  who  styled 
tliemselves  a  c-mf,reutie,  claiming  to  be  the 
true  coetus.     They  also  had  possession  of  the 


records  of  the  Cd'tus.  Ten  years  later,  1764, 
they  formally  organized  themselves  into  an 
"  Assembly  Subordinate  to  the  Classis  of 
Amsterdam,"  standing  in  opposition  to  the 
American  Classis.  The  contest  between  these 
rival  bodies  was  often  lacking  in  Christian 
courtesy.  The  principal  points  of  discussion 
were  the  propriety  of  independent  American 
ecclcsiaslieal  bodies  and  institutions  of  learn- 
ing. The  coitfcn  utic  wcvti  in  favor  of  unit- 
ing with  King's  (Columbia)  College,  and  .secur- 
ing educational  advantages  therefrom  ;  but  the 
American  Classis  feared  the  influence  of  an 
Ei)iscopal  v'ollege,  and  moreover  could  not 
approve  the  means  by  which  that  institution 
had  obtained  its  charter  in  1754.  (See  Ap- 
pendix of  Centeniual  History  of  New  Bruns- 
wick Seminary,  where  original  documents  are 
given.)  Accordingly  the  American  Classis, 
after  .several  ineffectual  attempts,  finally 
secured  a  charter  from  the  governor  of  New 
Jer.sey,  1766,  for  Queen's  College,  to  be  located 
in  that  state.  But  as  this  charter  had  some 
illiberal  features  it  was  thrown  aside  and  a 
more  liberal  one  obtained  in  1770.  This,  with 
amendments,  is  the  present  charter  of  Rutgers 
College  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  In  this 
same  year  the  tv\o  parties  reunited  on  certain 
Articles  of  Union,  which  granted  substan- 
tially, although  in  somewhat  obscure  terms, 
all  that  the  American  Classis  had  contended 
for,  including  the  organization  of  a  provi- 
sional General  Body  (etiuivalent  to  a  Particu- 
lar Synod  in  most  respects)  and  five  Special 
Bodies  (equivalent  to  classes  in  most  respects). 
The  power  of  licensing  and  ordaining  was 
limited  to  the  General  Body.  Everything  be- 
tokened a  happy  and  speedy  consummation, 
as  bretliren  gave  up  many  cherished  convic- 
tions for  the  sake  of  peace,  and  a  theological 
profe-ssor  would  quickly  have  been  appointed, 
when  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  de- 
layed everything  for  a  decade.  The  Church 
suffered  very  much  during  the  war,  but  with 
peace  and  civil  liberty  came  to  all  denomina- 
tions ecclesiastical  autonomy,  with  all  that  is 
involved  therein— independent  organizations, 
a  sense  of  responsibility,  literary  and  theolog- 
ical institutions  and  benevolent  boards  for  the 
increase  of  Christ's  kingdom  at  home  and  its 
dissemination  to  the  ends  of  the  earth.  In 
1784  the  names  of  synod  and  cla-sses  were  as- 
sumed by  the  bodies  constituted  in  1771  with- 
out further  ceremony.  In  17S8,  at  a  conven- 
tion, it  was  declared  that  the  constitution  of  a 
church  must  contain  itsstandardsof  doctrine, 
its  modes  of  worshi]*,  and  its  form  of  govern- 
ment. A  committee  was  accordingly  a])- 
pointcd  to  translate  into  English  tlie  Stand- 
ards of  Doctrine,  the  Liturgy,  and  the  Rules 
of  Cliurch  Order  of  the  Cliurch  of  Holland, 
and  to  add  Explanatory  Articles  to  ada])t  the 
church  government  to  the  circumstances  of 
America.  Accordingly  to  the  eighty-four 
Articles  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  on  government 
were  added  seventy-three  Exjila'natory  Ar- 
ticles, and  the  Standards  of  Doctrine,  and 
the  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  Holland,  with 
these  two  sets  of  Articles,  were  declared  to  be; 
the  "  Constitution  of  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Cliurch  in  the  United  States  of  America." 
This  was  in  1792,  and  in  1793  a  volume  was 


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printed  containing  the  above-mentioned  ma- 
terial. Thus  was  the  organization  of  the 
church  completed. 

Fifth  Period,  Active  Work,  1792,  to  the 
Present  Time.  1.  History  of  the  Constitution. 
The  Standards  of  Doctrine  have  remained  un- 
altered. Additional  offices  have  during  the 
last  generation  been  added  to  the  Liturgy,  but 
these  are  optional  as  to  use.  The  two  sets  of 
Rules  of  Church  Government  wert  thoroughly 
fused  together  in  1833,  incorporating  such  ad- 
ditions as  experience  had  suggested,  and  this 
part  of  the  constitution  was  again  revised  in 
1874.  In  1867,  after  a  prolonged  discussion, 
the  word  "  Dutch"  was  dropped  from  the 
name  of  the  church,  and  the  title,  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  America,  was  adopted. 

2.  Hi'<tory  of  Ecclesiastical  Bodies.  The  con- 
stitution of  1792  provided  for  a  General 
Synod.  This  held  its  first  session  in  June, 
1794,  and  thenceforward  triennially  until 
1812,  since  which  time  its  sessions  have  been 
annual.  At  first  all  ministers  and  an  elder 
from  each  church  formed  its  constituency, 
but  in  1812  it  became  a  representative  body. 
In  1819  the  General  Synod  was  incorporated 
under  the  laws  of  New  York,  and  is  the  legal 
trustee  of  all  endowments  for  theological  pro- 
fessorships and  the  real  estate  pertaining  to  its 
seminaries  ;  for  some  of  the  scholarships  ;  for 
some  of  the  mission  money  of  the  church,  as 
well  as  for  the  Ministers'  and  Disabled  Minis- 
ters' Fund.  These  funds  and  other  property 
are  managed  by  a  Board  of  Direction,  whose 
members  are  oppointed  by  the  General  Synod. 
The  income  of  the  Synod  was  limited  in  1819 
to  $10,000  ;  in  1869  an  act  was  passed  allow- 
ing $15,000  more,  and  in  1889,  by  a  general 
act,  all  corporations  organized  for  benevolent 
purposes  are  permitted  to  hold  property  to  the 
aniDuut  of  $2,000,000.  The  old  Provisional 
Body  of  1771,  which  assumed  the  name  of 
Synod  in  1784,  became  a  Particular  Synod  in 
1793  under  the  provisions  of  the  new  constitu- 
tion. This  bodv  was  divided  into  the  Partic- 
ular Synods  of  New  York  and  Albany  in  1800, 
to  whicli  were  added  the  Particular  Synod  of 
Chicago  in  1856,  and  the  Particular  Synod  of 
New  Brunswick  in  1869.  The  Classes  have 
increased  from  5  in  1792  to  34  in  1890  ;  the 
churches  from  about  75  to  551,  and  the  minis- 
ters from  50  to  560.  The  total  membership  of 
the  cluirch  is  now  about  90,000. 

3,  Eliicational  Institutions.  Rutgers  Col- 
lege. The  history  of  this  institution  lias 
been  frequently  written.  It  was  chartered  in 
1770  under  the  name  of  Queens.  It  is  sup- 
ported in  part  by  tuition  fees,  and  endowments 
now  exceeding  half  a  million.  The  value  of 
its  real  estate  approximates  a  million.  Its 
library  contains  about  30,000  recently  selected 
volumes,  and  its  cabinets  and  apparatus  are 
extensive.  It  has  two  departments,  a  classi- 
cal and  a  scientific.  The  latter  includes  the 
State  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic 
Arts,  and  has  been  liberally  endowed  by  Con- 
gress. The  faculty  numbers  25,  and  the  stu- 
dents are  reported  as  187  in  1890.  Hope  Col- 
lege is  situated  at  Holland,  Mich.  It  was 
chartered  in  1866.  It  embraces  a  preparatory 
school,  collegiate,  scientific,  and  theological 
departments.     The  course  of  instruction  is 


thorough.  The  faculty  numbers  7,  and  the 
students  in  1890  are  reported  as  100.  The 
New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  dates 
back,  in  its  first  professorship,  to  1784.  Its 
history  was  fully  written  in  1884-85  on  occa- 
sion of  its  centennial.  It  now  has  a  corps  of 
five  professors  and  is  well  equipped  in  all  de- 
partments. Its  grounds  are  spacious  and  are 
adorned  with  eight  buildings.  The  Sage 
library  contains  more  than  40,000  volumes, 
and  is  one  of  the  best  theological  libraries  in 
the  country.  A  Board  of  Education  dis- 
tributes about  $20,000  annually  among  needy 
students  preparing  for  the  ministry. 

4.  Missions.  This  church  now  supports  three 
missions — one  in  Arcot,  India  ;  one  in  Amoy, 
China  ;  and  one  in  Japan.  About  $100,000 
are  raised  annually  for  foreign  missions  and 
al)out  $30,000  for  home  missions.  For  all  be- 
nevolent purposes  about  a  third  of  a  million  is 
now  annuallv  raised,  and  for  congregational 
purposes  more  than  a  million. 

True  Reformed  Dutch  Church.  In  182^ 
Rev.  Solomon  Froeligh,  with  four  other  minis- 
ters (who  were  under  suspension),  seceded  from 
the  church  and  organized  the  True  Reformed 
Dutch  Church.  Thev  declared  that  the  sep- 
aration was  on  account  of  errors  of  doctrine 
and  looseness  of  discipline.  It  was  in  reality 
the  culmination  of  an  old  feud  that  had  started 
two  or  three  generations  before.  In  1830  they 
had  about  30  congregations  and  10  ministers. 
In  1860  the  congregations  numbered  16  and 
the  ministers  10.  They  have  recently  received 
some  additions  to  their  numbers  from  certain 
Holland-speaking  congregations  in  the  West. 

Literature,  Ilistoricnl :  The  Amsterdam 
Correspondence  (about  1200  letters  and  docu- 
ments in  Mss.  Dutch  and  English),  1628-1776  ; 
Minutes  of  the  Ccetus,  Provisional  Si/nod  and 
General  Synod,  New  York,  1738-1890  ;  Con- 
stitution  of  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch 
Church  {Doctrines,  Liturgy,  and  Oovernment), 
1793,  2d  ed.,  1815  ;  many  partial  editions  of 
either  Doctrine,  Liturgy,  or  Government 
since  ;  Documentary  History  of  JVew  York, 
Albany,  4  vols.,  1850-51  ;  Colonial  History  of 
New  York,  Albany,  1856-83, 14  vols.  ;  Memoir 
of  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  H.  Livingston,  New  York, 
1829,  2d  ed.,  1856  ;  Magazine  of  the  Reformed 
Protestant  Dutch  Church,  1827-30,  4  vols.; 
Uunshee,  History  of  the  School  of  the  Reform- 
ed Protestant  Dutch  Church  in  New  York 
City,  1853,  2ded.,  1886  ;  Memoir  of  Abed,  1848 ; 
Brodhead.  History  of  New  York,  vol.  1.,  1853, 
vol.  ii.,  1876  ;  Demarest,  History  and  Char- 
acteristics of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church, 
1856.  2d  ed.,  1889;  Sprague,  Annals  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church,  vol.  ix.;  Corwin, 
Manual,  1859,  2d  ed.,  1869,  3d  ed.,  1879  ;  Life 
of  Rev.  Dr.  John  Scudder,  1870  ;  Centennial 
Celebration  of  Rutgers  College,  Albany,  1870  ; 
Brinckerhoff,  History  of  the  True  Reformed 
Dutch  Church,  New  York,  1873  ;  Centennial 
Discourses,  New  York.  1876,  2d  ed.,  1877  ; 
Hansen,  Reformed  Church  in  the  Netlierlands, 
1884  ;  Centennial  of  the  Theological  Seminary 
at  New  Brunsicick,  N.  J.,  New  York,  1885. 

Secondly,  Reformed  Church  op  the 
United  States,  known  until  1869  as  the 
German  Reformed  Church. 

First  Period,  Settle?ne7its,  1684-1747.      As 


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early  as  1684  tlie  Frankfort  Land  Company 
had  begun  to  send  settlers  to  Pennsylvania. 
In  1705  German  Valley,  and  soon  after  Leba- 
non and  Amwell,  all  'in  West  Jersey,  were 
settled  by  Germans.  Tlie  full  tide  of  German 
iraraigrauon,  however,  did  u.)t  begin  until 
1709.  In  that  year  4000  Palatines,  under  the 
patronage  of  Queen  Anne  of  England,  em- 
barked fjr  America,  but  1700  died  on  the  pas- 
sage. They  settled  on  the  ui)])er  waters  of  tlie 
Hudson  (Schoharie)  and  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Moliawk.  The  Reformed  Church  of  Switzer- 
land was  also  well  represented  among  these 
and  later  German  settlers.  It  was  on  the 
Hudson  that  the  tirst  German  minister  began 
to  olHciate,  John  Jaciob  Ehle  (Oehl),  who  la- 
bored in  this  rield  for  about  seventy  years, 
1710-80.  From  these  Gerniiin  immigrants, 
with  some  later  accessions,  about  twenty  Ger- 
man churches  before  the  Revolution  sprung 
up  in  New  York,  which  naturally  fell  into  the 
foLl  of  the  Dutch  Church.  But  the  Germans 
generally,  both  in  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
and  Pennsylvania,  found  it  difficult  to  obtain 
ministers  from  tlic  Palatinate.  Observing  the 
care  of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  over  the 
Dutch  churches  they  also  sought  help  from 
the  same.  In  1727  Rev.  George  Michael 
Weiss  passed  through  Holland  on  his  way  to 
America  with  OJO  atUlitional  i^ilatine  emi- 
grants. He  accompanied  them  at  the  request 
of  the  Palatine  Classis,  that  they  might  not 
be  without  religious  instruction.  That  Classis 
at  the  same  time  requested  the  Synod  of  North 
and  South  Holland  to  extend  to  the  Germans 
in  America  such  help  as  the}'  coidd.  Weiss 
and  his  company  settled  near  Philadelphia. 
A  couple  of  years  later  he  revisited  Holland 
in  order  to  secure  help  for  the  Germans  gen- 
erally. Upon  his  statements,  in  connection 
with  letters  received  at  the  same  time  from 
the  Palatinate,  the  Synod  of  North  and  South 
Holland  drew  up  an  elaborate  report  upon  the 
condition  of  the  Germans  in  America,  partly 
to  secure  help  for  them  and  jiartlj-  to  indicate 
th3  conditions  on  which  they  would  take 
tham  under  their  care.  The  conditions  were 
as  follows  :  "All  ministers,  elders,  deacons, 
and  schoolmasters  shall,  upon  entering  upon 
their  respective  otlices,  subscribe  to  the 
Formulas  which  have  been  received  in  the 
Palatinate— namely  :  1.  Tiie  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism ;  2.  The  Palatine  Confession  of  Faith  ; 
3.  The  Synod  of  Dort,  as  approved  by  the 
Palatine  divines  as  well  as  by  those  of  other 
nations  ;  4.  The  Post- Acta  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort  ;  and  5.  The  Formula  Consensus  ;  to  the 
end  that  there  may  be  harmony  with  our  doc- 
trine, and  that  your  churches  may  the  better 
be  able  to  correspond  with  those  of  the  Neth- 
erlands." Original  mss.  in  the  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  Arcliives.  In  the  .same  year  the 
Classis  of  .Vmsterdam  directed  their  ministers 
in  New  York  and  vicinity  (Boel,  Du  Bois, 
Antonides)  to  ordain  in  their  name  JoIki  Philip 
Boehme  to  the  ministry  for  service  among  the 
Germans  in  Pennsylvania.  In  17:^1,  while  the 
Synod  of  North  and  South  Holland  was  in 
session  at  Dordrecht,  8(M)  exiled  Palatines 
passed  through  tlie  place  to  take  ships  at  Rot- 
terdam for  Americji.  The  Syno<l  visited  them 
in  a  body,  religious  exercises  were  observed, 


and  help  was  given  them  for  their  immediate 
necessities,  with  the  promise  that  they  should 
not  be  forgotten. 

Second  Period,  Organization  1746-93.  In 
1746  the  Classis  sent  over  the  Rev.  Michael 
Schlatter  as  general  superintendent  lo  organ- 
ize and  consolidate  the  scattered  clui  relies  be- 
tween the  Delaware  and  tlie  Sus(pichanna, 
and  those  also  south  of  tlie  Potomac.  He  held 
this  otlice  for  eleven  years.  He  found  forty- 
six  congregations,  but  only  four  or  live  reg- 
ular! v  ordained  ministers,  and  a  German  pop- 
ulation of  aliout  30,000,  half  of  whom  were  of 
the  Piefornied  faith.  He  organized  these  min- 
isters with  twenty-tive  elders  into  a  cietus  on 
Sept.  29,  1747.  Additional  vigor  was  im- 
parted to  the  German  churches  by  Schlatter's 
vi.sit  to  Europe  in  1751.  His  report  and  ap- 
peal secured  on  the  continent  about  £12,000, 
with  the  addition  of  700  Bibles  ;  £20,000  ad- 
ditional were  subscribed  by  George  II.  and  the 
nobility  of  Great  Britain,  chiefly  for  political 
reasons,  as  a  fund  for  the  support  of  German 
ministers  and  schools.  Six  ministers  returned 
with  Schlatti'r  to  America.  The  free  school 
scheme,  however,  did  not  work  well.  The 
Germans  resisted  the  attempt  to  Anglicize 
them  too  rapidly.  The  help  from  this  fund 
ceased  after  1762,  a  part  of  the  money  having 
gone,  as  it  is  said,  into  the  endowments  of  the 
Univer.sitj'  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1793  the  Ger- 
man Church  declared  itself  indejiendent. 
About  100  ministers  in  all  had  labored  in  this 
church  up  to  this  time,  most  of  whom  had 
been  under  the  care  of  the  Classis  of  Amster- 
dam. There  were  at  this  time  about  150 
churches,  but  only  22  ministers.  The  old 
coitus  became  now  a  synod. 

Third  Period,  Actite  Work,  1793,  to  the 
Present  Time.  A  constitution  was  adopted 
embracing  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  as  their 
only  standard  of  doctrine,  a  liturgy  and  a 
form  of  church  government.  The  Church 
increased  rapidly  liy  immigration.  Congrega- 
tions were  soon  formed  in  Ohio.  The  num- 
ber of  ministers  did  not  keep  pace  with  the 
congregations.  The  standard  of  ministerial 
qualification  was  also  lowered.  Candidates 
were  obliged  to  study  with  pastors  already 
overtaxed  by  the  care  of  several  churches. 
Not  a  few  irregularities  in  ordination  and  ad- 
ministration occurred.  The  rationalism  of 
Europe  also  made  its  intluence  felt,  but  about 
1815  a  change  for  the  better  took  place.  The 
organization  of  the  church  was  somewhat  im- 
proved and  greater  doctrinal  circumspection 
was  required.  The  necessity  of  institutions 
of  learning  began  to  be  keenly  felt.  In  1819, 
by  a  letter  of  Dr.  Livingston,  thev  were  in- 
vited to  share  the  benefit  of  the  New  Bruns- 
wick in.stitutions.  The  Synod  was  now 
changed  from  a  convention  to  a  delegated 
body,  classes  having  now,  for  the  tirst,  been 
formed.  But  in  1824  the  Ohio  Synod  sepa- 
rated and  became  independent.  In  1825  a 
theological  seminary  was  established  at  Car- 
lisle, Pa.  Rev.  Dr.  Lewis  Mayer  was  chosen 
professor.  This  institution  was  suliscquently 
removed  to  York  and  then  to  Mercersl)erg  and 
finally  to  Lancaster.  In  1H.')1  another  sem- 
inary was  opened  at  Tittin,  O..  in  connection 
with  Heidelberg  College.      There   is  also  a 


REFORMED 


(798) 


REGENERATION 


theological  department  at  Ursinus  College, 
CoUegeville,  Pa.,  and  another  at  the  Mission 
House,  at  Franklin,  "Wis.  These  theological 
seminaries  have  already  (1890)  sent  out  more 
than  1300  ministers.  In  1836  Marshall  Col- 
lege was  founded  at  Lancaster,  Pa. ;  Heidel- 
berg College  at  Tiffin,  O.,  1850  ;  Mercersburg 
College  at  Mercersburg,  Pa.,  1865  ;  Palatinate 
Collegiate  Institute  at  Myerstown,  Pa.,  1868  ; 
Juniata  Collegiate  Institute  at  Martinsburg, 
Pa.,  1869  ;  Greensburg  Collegiate  Institute  at 
Greensburg,  Pa.,  1869.  and  Ursinus  College 
at  CoUegeville,  Pa.,  1870.  There  are  also 
similar  institutions  at  Catawba,  N.  C,  Rimers- 
burg,  Pa.,  at  Cleveland,  O.,  at  Dakota,  111.,  at 
Pleasantville,  O.,  at  Portland,  Ore.,  and  at 
Wichita,  Kan.  In  1825  the  English  language 
began  to  be  used  in  some  localities,  which  led 
to  closer  relations  with  other  bodies,  and  a 
modification  of  some  peculiar  usages.  Peri- 
odicals were  soon  established  both  in  English 
and  German,  and  boards  of  missions  and  edu- 
cation were  organized.  Drs.  Ranch  and 
Nevin  endeavored  to  counteract  the  changes 
which  were  beglnniui;-,  and  tlieir  efforts  proved 
•successful.  The  snuggle  lasted  for  a  gen- 
eration, and  the  school  of  the  so  called  Mer- 
cersburg Philosophy  and  Theology  became 
widely  known  and 'provoked  no  little  criti- 
cism from  the  evangelical  denominations.  In 
1863  a  General  Synod  was  organized,  embrac- 
ing the  district  synods  of  both  the  East  and 
the  West.  In  the  same  year  the  three  hun- 
dredth anniversary  of  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism was  celebrated,  and  the  tercentenary 
edition  of  the  Catechism  in  old  German,  Latin, 
new  German,  and  English  was  pubhshed. 
Also  in  the  same  year  the  Tercentenary  Monu- 
ment was  published,  a  volume  embracing 
many  able  essays  on  this  venerable  symbol. 
In  1869  the  word  "German"  was  dropped 
from  the  title  of  the  church. 

Statistics,  1890. — District  synods,  8  ;  classes, 
56  ;  ministers,  835  ;  congregations,  1554  ; 
members,  200,498  ;  Sunday-schools,  1513  ; 
officers  and  teachers,  3967  ;  scholars,  138,616  ; 
students  for  the  ministry,  285  ;  moneys  for  be- 
nevolent objects,  $161, ()78  ;  for  congregational 
purposes,  $874,053. 

Literature,  Historical. — The  Mercersburg 
Review,  1849-61,  new  series,  1867-78.  This 
is  the  great  storehouse  of  material  relating  to 
the  German  Church  in  its  history,  liturgy, 
etc.  Indeed  this  Revieio  represents  a  large 
part  of  the  literature  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  in  this  country.  Mayer,  History  of  the 
Reformed  Oerman  Church,  Philadelphia,  1851. 
vol.  i.  only  has  been  published,  and  this  relates 
to  the  church  in  Europe  ;  Harbaugh's  Life  of 
Schlatter,  Philadelphia,  1857  ;  also.  Fathers  of 
the  Reformed  Church,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1857,  2 
vols.;  Gerhart.  German  Reformed  Church, 
1863  ;  Bomberger,  History  and  Criticism  of 
the  Ritualistic  Movement  in  the  German  Re- 
formed Church,  1866  ;  Appel,  Recollections  of 
College  Life,  Reading,  Pa.,  1886  ;  Dubbs, 
Historic  Manual,  Lancaster,  1885  ;  Swander, 
The  Reformed  Church,  Dayton,  O.,  1889  ; 
Theodore  Appel,  ii/e  o/ iV"m?i,  Philadelphia, 
1890.  E.  T.  CoRWiN. 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church.  See  Epis- 
copal CHUBcn,  Reformed,  p.  268. 


Reformed  Presbyterian  Church.  See 
Presbyterian  Church,  p.  — . 

Refugee  (French,  refugie),  a  name  first  ap- 
plied to  those  Protestants  who  fled  from  Flan- 
ders to  England  from  the  persecutions  of  the 
duke  of  Alva,  1567  and  afterward  ;  then  to  the 
Huguenots,  who  fled  from  France  to  England 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1685  ;  Anally  to  those  wdio 
were  driven  away  from  France  by  the  hor- 
rors of  the  Revolution,  and  now  generally  giv- 
en to  any  one  who  for  religious  or  political 
reasons  leaves  his  native  country  and  seeks 
refuge  in  a  foreign  land. 

Regalia,  jus  regalia,  jus  regale  ("royal 
right").  The  Council  of  Chalcedon,  451,  re- 
solved that  the  savings  left  by  a  bishop  or  other 
member  of  the  clergy  deceased,  and  the  reve- 
nues of  an  episcopal  see  or  other  beneflce  col- 
lected during  a  vacancy,  should  be  held  in  the 
name  of  the  church  and  to  its  benefit.  But 
when  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  church  received 
fiefs  from  the  state,  it  seemed  quite  natural 
that  such  ecclesiastical  fiefs  should  be  subject 
to  the  same  rules  as  the  secular,  and  that,  con- 
sequently, the  revenues  accruing  from  them 
during  vacancies  should  fall  to  the  king, 
as  his  royal  right,  jus  regalia.  The  church, 
hoAvever,  or  rather  the  Roman  curia  want- 
ed the  money,  and  fought  for  it  in  England, 
Germany,  France,  everywhere.  In  England 
the  contest  was  brought  to  a  close  under 
Henry  II.,  1133-89,  who  was  finally  compelled 
to  give  up  \\\%jus  regalia.  The  concordat  of 
Worms,  1122,  gave  the  German  emperor  full 
jus  regalia,  but  no  pope  had  the  will  to  adhere 
to  the  concordat  and  no  emperor  had  the 
power  to  enforce  it.  In  the  13th  century  the 
emperor,  too,  had  to  yield.  In  France,  on  the 
contrary,  the  curia  experienced  one  humilia- 
tion after  the  other  on  this  question.  Boni- 
face VIII.,  1294-1303,  believed  that  he  could 
simply  order  the  French  king'sj»s  regalia  out 
of  existence,  but  he  found  in  Philip  the  Fair 
and  the  French  Parliament  a  power  of  resist- 
ance he  had  never  dreamed  of,  and  the  popes 
of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  from  Clement  V., 
1305-14,  to  Gregory  XI.',  1370-78,  formally 
recognized  the  right.  There  were,  however, 
some  few  bishoprics  in  Bordeaux,  Provence, 
and  Dauphine,  which  were  exempted  from 
the  royal  rule,  but  in  1682  Louis  XIV.  can- 
celled the  exemptions  simply  because  he  could 
brook  no  such  irregularities  in  his  administra- 
tion, and  all  the  protests  of  Innocent  XL 
were  unavailing.  (See  Phillips,  Das  Regalien- 
recht  in  Frankreich,  Regensburg,  1873.) 

Regeneration,  the  new  birth,  that  work  of 
the  Spirit  by  which  the  soul  previously  dead 
in  sins  is  created  anew  in  Christ  unto  right- 
eousness. It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  bap- 
tism, which  is  an  external  rite,  from  reforma- 
tion of  the  outward  conduct,  from  conversion 
from  one  creed  to  another.  Nor  does  it  con- 
sist in  new  revelations  or  imply  the  gift  of 
new  faculties.  But  it  is  a  mighty  spiritual 
change,  likened  in  Scripture  to  a  new  creation 
(2  Cor.  v.  17)  or  a  resurrection  from  the  dead 
(Eph.  ii.  6),  a  total  transformation  of  the  in- 
ner man  so  that  there  is  a  new  centre  of  his 
personal  life.     Its  author  is  the  Holy  Ghost 


REGENSBXJRG 


7'J'J  ) 


REIMENSNYDER 


(John  iii.  5),  and  lie  effects  it  ordinarily  by 
the  use  of  the  word  of  truth  as  the  instrument 
(1  Cor.  iv.  15,  James  i.  18,  1  Peter  i.  23).  His 
almighty  energy  imparts  to  the  soul  a  new 
principle  of  spiritual  life  which  makes  old 
things  pass  awaj'  and  all  things  become  new 
(2  Cor.  V.  17).  How  thi.s  is  done,  how  the  di- 
vine Spirit  operates  on  the  human  spirit,  no 
one  knows,  but  we  are  sure  of  the  fact  from 
Scripture,  observation,  and  experience,  and 
also  of  its  perfect  consistency  with  the  free- 
dom of  man  as  a  moral  agent.  This  great 
change  on  its  divine  side  is  called  regenera- 
tion, and  on  its  human  side  conversion,  or  the 
turning  from  sin  to  holiness.  It  is  an  instan- 
taneous act,  for  there  can  be  no  medium  be- 
tween life  and  death,  and  herein  it  dilfers 
from  sanctiti cation,  which  is  progressive.  Its 
evidences  are  an  increasing  sense  of  the  evil 
of  sin,  deepening  humility,  absolute  reliance 
on  Ciirist  for  acceptance  M'ith  God,  endeavors 
after  new  obedience,  joy  in  God,  and  zeal  for 
his  glory. 

The  term  "  regeneration"  as  used  in  Mat- 
thew (xix.  28)  refers  to  the  restoration  of  all 
things  at  Christ's  second  adv^ent,  when  there 
siiaU  be  "  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth,"  a 
complete  outward  physical  renovation  of  the 
world,  corresponding  to  that  which  takes 
place  on  the  persons  of  believers. 

T.  W.  C. 

Regensburg.     See  Ratisbon. 

Regino,  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Priim, 
Rhenish  Prussia  ;  b.  at  Altrip  on" the  Rhine, 
near  Spires ;  d.  at  Treves,  915  ;  wrote  a 
CitroiHcon,  found  in  Mon.  Germ.,  i.,  the  first 
attempt  in  Germany  to  write  a  world's  chron- 
icle, but  not  very  reliable  even  in  those  parts 
which  may  have  been  based  on  personal  ob- 
servation ;  also  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical 
laws,  De  synodal  cmtHis,  edited  by  Wasser- 
schleben,  Leipzig,  1840. 

Regius,  Urbanus.     See  RuEGius. 

Reg^la  Fidel  {rule  of  faith),  a  term  used 
by  tlie  early  Fathers  to  designate  the  sum  of 
Christian  doctrine  as  based  upon  the  baptismal 
formula.  But  it  has  come  in  modern  times  to 
denote  the  criterion  of  doctrine.  Three  views 
prevail  :  1.  The  Protestant.  All  the  histori- 
cal chur(;hes,  whether  Lutheran  or  Reformed, 
agree  in  holding  the  sole  suHiciency  of  holy 
Scripture  for  faith  and  salvation.  2.  The 
Romanist.  This  accepts  the  written  word, 
but  adds  to  it  unwritten  traditions,  which 
"  whether  received  from  Christ  liimself  or  dic- 
tated by  the  Holy  Spirit  are  preserved  in  the 
Catholic  Church  by  continual  succession" 
(Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  iv..  On  the  Canon). 
3.  The  'Sow  Anglican.  This  was  announced 
in  Tracts  for  the  Times.  No.  70,  in  this  way. 
"  Catholic  tradition  teaches  revealed  truth. 
Scripture  proves  it  :  Scripture  is  the  docu- 
ment of  faith,  tradition  the  witness  of  it  : 
Scripture  and  tradition,  taken  together,  are 
the  joint  rule  of  faith."  It  is  liard  to  see  any 
difference  between  this  view  and  that  of  Rome. 

The  question  is  a  vital  oni".  It  involves  a 
choice  between  the  Word  of  God  and  tlie  wis- 
dom of  men,  between  tlu-  unchaniriiig  rock  of 
di^•ine  inspiration  and  the  shifting  .sands  of 
human  opinion.  T.  \V.  C. 


Regular  and  Secular  are  two  ecclesiastical 
terms  belonging  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  of 
which  the  former  applies  to  that  part  of  the 
clerical  body  whose  members  have  taken  the 
vows  of  some  monastic  order  or  congrega- 
tion, and  are  obliged  to  live  in  it  and  accord- 
ing to  its  rules,  while  the  other  part,  which 
lives  in  the  world,  is  called  secular.  A  priest 
may  be  either  regular  or  secular,  according 
to  whether  he  is  a  monk  and  lives  in  a  convent, 
or  has  a  parish  to  take  care  of. 

Re-ho-bo'-am  {enlarger  of  the  people),  a  son 
of  Solomon,  who  at  his  father's  death  ascended 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  forty-one,  and  reigned 
seventeen  years.  The  taxes  which  Solomon 
had  laid  to  sustain  his  splendid  court  being 
oppressive,  the  peoi)l(;  asked  for  relief,  but 
were  met  with  an  insulting  reply  from  the 
foolish  monarch  (1  Kings  xii.),  the  conse- 
quence of  which  was  the  permanent  revolt  of 
ten  tribes.  Afterward  an  invasion  of  Shishak, 
king  of  Egypt,  conunemorated  on  the  walls 
of  the  temple  of  Karnak,  despoiled  the  temple 
of  Jerusalem  of  its  treasures.         T.  W.  C. 

Reid,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Aberdeen,  1764),  b. 
at  Strachau,  Kincardineshire,  Scotland.  April 
20,  1710  ;  d.  at  Glasgow,  Oct.  7, 1796  ;  studied 
theology  at  Aberdeen  ;  was  ordained  pastor 
of  New  Machar,  Aberdeenshire,  in  1737,  and 
appointed  professor  of  philo.sophy  at  Aberdeen 
in  1752  and  at  Glasgow  in  1763.  His  lirst 
philosophical  publication  was  an  Inquiry  into 
tlie  Origin  of  our  Ideas  of  Beauty  ((nd  Virtue, 
London,  1748,  directed  against  Ilutcheson's 
application  of  mathematics  to  morals.  But  his 
principal  works  are  Inquiry  into  the  Human 
Mindon  the  Prineiplrs  ofConuuon  tyense,  1764  ; 
Essays  on  the  Intellertual  Poirtrs,  1785,  and  Es- 
says on  the  Active  Fo/rers  of  the  Human  Mind, 
1788,  which  may  be  characterized  as  an  oi)pc- 
sition  to  the  scepticism  of  Hume,  more  es- 
pecially to  its  anti-theological  con.sequences. 
As  a  system  the  ]ihilosophy  of  Reid  is  weak  ; 
his  ideas  are  vague  and  unstable.  But  as  crit 
icism  his  analy.ses  are  often  very  acute,  and 
gave  rise  to  a  series  of  researches  and  sjx'cu- 
iations  which,  under  the  name  of  Scotch  ])hi. 
losophy,  has  exercised  a  considerable  influence 
not  only  in  their  home,  but  also  in  France  and 
America.  Reid's  works  were  edited  by  Ham- 
ilton, London,  1847,  1  vol. 

Reimarus,  Hermann  Samuel,  b.  in  Ham- 
burg, Dec.  22,  1094  ;  d.  there,  March  1,  1768  ; 
was"a]ii)ointcd  director  of  the  gvmnasium  in 
Weimar,  1723,  and  in  Hamburg,  1729.  He 
was  a  strongly  pronounced  rationalist,  but  is 
now  mentioned  only   as   the   author   of  the 

Wolf  nhi'itttl  Erayi/ii'ntsUi.\.),Eng.  unfinished 

trans..  London, 'l879. 

Reimensnyder,   Junius    Benjamin,    D.D. 

(Xewl)erry  College,  South  Carolina,  1880), 
Lutheran  "(General  Svnod)  ;  b.  at  Staunton, 
Va.,  Feb.  24,  1842  ;  graduted  at  Pennsvlvania 
College.  Gettyslairg,'  Pa'.,  1861,  and  "Gettys- 
burg Tlieological  Seminary.  1865  ;  held  vari- 
ous pastoral  charges,  that  of  St.  James.  New 
York,  since  1881,  and  has  pul)lished  llearen- 
irard.  Philadelphia,  1874,  4th  ed.,  1H77  :  Doom 
Eternal,  1880  ;  Lutheran  Literaf'/rr,  Distinc- 
tive Traits  and  Excellencies,  New  York,  1883  ; 


RELAND 


(800) 


RELIGION 


Luther,  Biographical  Sketch,  1883  ;  Six  Days 
of  Creation,  Philadelphia,  1886. 

Reland(ra-lant),  Hadrian,  b.  atRyp,  North 
Holland,  July  17,  1676  ;  d.  at  Utrecht,  Feb. 
5,  1718,  where  he  had  been  since  1699  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  and  biblical  an- 
tiquities. He  wrote  several  learned  works, 
among  which  the  principal  one  is,  Palmstina 
ex  monumentis  vetei'ibus  illustrata,  Utrecht, 
1714,  which  is  still  the  best  book  on  ancient 
Palestine. 

Relics  (Latin,  reliquice,,  "remains")  meant 
originally  the  actual  remains  of  a  saint  or 
martyr,  but  was  afterward  used  in  a  wider 
sense,  signifying  everything  which  had  be- 
longed to  him.  It  was  quite  natural  that  rel- 
ics should  be  reverenced  by  the  church,  but 
as  the  worship  of  saints  and  martyrs  grew  up, 
this  reverence  became  adoration,  and  gave  rise 
to  much  superstition.  In  the  9th  century  it 
was  decided  that  no  church  building  should 
be  consecrated  unless  it  confciined  relics,  and 
miraculous  powers  were  often  ascribed  to 
them.  The  consequence  was  that  up  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation  the  whole  of  Christen- 
dom was  filled  Avith  spurious  relics. 

Relief      Church.        See     Presbyterian 

Churches,  p.  746. 

Religion  is  derived  by  Cicero  from  relegere, 
"  to  reconsider,"  and  by  Lactantius  from  rel- 
igare,  "  to  bind  back,"  but  on  either  deriva- 
tion the  word  means  the  conscious  relation 
between  man  and  God  and  the  expression  of 
that  relation  in  human  conduct.  Tliere  is  a 
wide  difference  among  investigators  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  religious  sentiment.  Some  place 
it  in  fear  arising  from  the  overwhelming  power 
which  man  sees  around  him,  and  which  he 
naturally  dreads.  Others  resolve  it  into  the 
feeling  of  absolute  dependence.  But  accord- 
ing to  the  Scripture  God  revealed  himself  to 
the  first  pair  in  Eden,  and  some  remains  of 
that  primitive  disclosure  must  have  accompa- 
nied their  descendants  in  all  their  wanderings. 
Besides,  the  constitution  of  nature  is  such  as 
to  lead  men  to  the  acknowledgment  of  God 
(Rom.  i.  20),  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  deal- 
ings of  Providence  (Acts  xiv.  17).  This  nat- 
ural religion  is  the  basis  of  that  which  is  re- 
vealed, for  we  could  not  accept  a  revelation 
unless  we  were  convinced  of  the  existence  of 
Him  from  whom  it  professes  to  come,  and  be- 
lieved that  he  was  a  being  of  goodness  and 
justice  and  power.  The  need  of  a  revelation 
is  manifest  ;  for  the  light  of  nature  falls 
short  in  many  respects.  It  does  not  tell  how 
we  are  to  worship  the  Being  it  makes  known. 
It  gives  no  information  respecting  the  dark 
mystery  of  sin,  either  how  it  originated  or, 
what  is  far  more  important,  how  itls  to  be  re- 
moved. It  affords  no  intelligence  as  to  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  the  resurrection  of 
the  body,  and  a  future  state  in  which  destiny 
is  made  to  conform  to  character.  It  satisfies 
none  of  the  questionings  that  come  incessantly 
from  the  reason,  the  heart,  and  the  conscience 
of  man.  _  Its  tendency  at  best  is  to  excite  a 
spirit  of  inquiry  and  longing. 

This  spirit  finds  its  full  satisfaction  in  the 
religion  contained  in  the  Old  Testament  and 


the  New,  a  supernatural  revelation  made  in  a 
course  of  historic  events,  which  can  be  traced 
from  age  to  age  through  the  long  tract  of 
time.  Its  adherents  now  number  less  than  a 
quarter  of  the  earth's  population,  yet  there  is 
no  other  religion  which  can  compare  with  it 
in  origin  or  character  or  effects  ;  and  it  ex- 
pects one  day  to  conquer  and  absorb  all  other 
faiths.  Nor  is  this  unreasonable,  even  if  we 
leave  out  of  view  the  supernatural  assistance 
on  which  it  relies.  The  humane  and  practical 
character  of  Christianity  ;  its  singular  inde- 
pendence of  race,  place,  and  time  ;  its  power 
to  assimilate  social  and  political  experiences  ; 
its  hold  on  the  past  and  its  grasp  on  the 
future  ;  the  beauty  and  eloquence  and  histor- 
ical value  of  its  records  ;  its  survival  of  the 
strifes  it  has  engendered,  and  its  exceptional 
power  to  profit  even  by  its  losses  ;  the  key  it 
offers  to  the  significance  of  other  religions  ; 
its  identification  with  a  civilization  that  is 
steadily  advancing  over  the  whole  world — 
these  things  show  that  this  religion  alone  has 
a  fair  chance  of  becoming  the  religion  of  uni- 
versal humanity.  If  to  these  are  added  the 
voice  of  prophecy  and  promise  and  the  dem- 
onstration of  a  divine  spirit,  a  Christianized 
world  is  no  longer  a  dream  or  a  vision,  but  a 
calm  and  assured  result  in  the  eye  of  reason  as 
well  as  of  faith. 

Population  of  the  globe 1,350,200,000 

Greek  Church 69,692,700 

Six  other  Oriental  churches 6,500,000 

Roman  Catholics 195,000,000 

Protestants 97,139,000 

Mohammedans 160,0(X),000 

Buddhists 340,000,000 

Other  Asiatic  religionists 260,000,000 

Pagans 200,000,000 

Jews  6,000,000 

T.  W.  C. 

Religion,  Philosophy  of,  as  a  special  phil- 
osophical discipline,  was  established  by 
Hegel.  All  the  greatest  thinkers  among  the 
earlier  philosophers  had,  indeed,  made  the  re- 
lation between  religion  and  pliilosophy  the 
subject  of  more  or  less  penetrating  researches, 
but  it  was  Hegel  who  first  made  tha  philoso- 
phy of  religion  an  integral  part  of  the  philo- 
sophical system.  His  principle  was  purely 
psychological.  He  recognized  religion  as  one 
of  the  forms  of  the  absolute,  but  only  as  the 
lowest.  He  placed  it  below  the  sphere  of 
poesy,  just  as  he  placed  poesy  below  the 
sphere  of  philosophy  ;  only  iu  philosophy  the 
human  spirit  meets,  according  to  him,  face  to 
face  with  the  divine  spirit.  Where  he  first 
brings  in  religion  among  the  spiritual  phe- 
nomena, in  Phdrwmenologie  des  Geistes,  his 
conception  as  well  as  its  unfolding  is  of  ex- 
ceeding grandeur.  But  when  later  on.  in  his 
lieligionsphilosophie,  he  came  to  apply  the 
principle  to  the  actual  facts,  to  the  historical 
religions,  he  seems  to  have  satisfied  nobody. 
His  principle  was,  nevertheless,  widelv  adopt- 
ed, and  the  various  demonstrations  of  it  range 
from  L.  Feuerbach's  Wcendes  ChnxtentJmms, 
which  defines  religion  as  a  blending  of  the 
delusions  of  fear  with  the  illusions  of  hope,  to 
Immanuel  Hermann  Fichte's  Speculative 
Theologie,  which  centres  the  philosophical  sys- 
tem in  a  religious  intuition. 

In    a    quite    different    way,    though    not 


RELIGIOUS 


(fiOl) 


RENAISSANCE 


altogether  without  influence  from  Hegel,  the 
subject  was  taken  up  by  Auguste  Comte.  His 
principle  is  purel}'  historical.  Personally  he 
recognized  religion  as  a  psychological  phe- 
n.jinenon,  as  a  spiritual  power,  but  only  in  a 
deplorable  form,  only  as  a  mental  disease. 
Nor  was  his  practical  application  of  the  prin- 
ciple adopted  so  very  successful.  lie  demon- 
strated religion  as  a  stage  of  civilization,  but 
as  the  lowest  one,  tliat  in  which  man  explains 
everything  outside  of  him  by  supposing  be- 
hind it  the  same  motive  power  as  Jie  feels  with- 
in himself —that  is,  by  creating  a  god  in  his 
own  image.  The  religious  stage  of  civilization 
is  followed  by  the  philosopliical,  in  which 
man  substitutes  the  idea  for  the  god,  in  the 
explanation  of  the  world,  and  the  philosoph- 
ical again  by  the  positive,  in  which  the  phe- 
nomenon is  accepted  and  explained  simply  as 
phenomenon,  and  no  question  raised  with  re- 
spect toils  "  behind."  This  brilliant  scheme 
for  a  history  of  civilization  exercised  a  great 
fascination  o^r  many  minds,  and  has  proved 
a  powerful  tool  in  working  out  truth.  But  it 
soon  became  eddent  that  Comte 's  conception 
of  religion  is  merely  an  abstraction,  made 
from  very  slender  and  not  altogetlier  faultless 
materials,  and  his  pliilosophy  of  religion  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  found  any  followers. 

It  had,  nes-ertheless,  a  great  influence,  and 
became  of  paramount  importance  by  starting 
a  comprehensive,  exhaustive  study  of  all  re- 
liaiions  existing  or  having  existed,  the  result 
of  which— not  so  very  far  off— will  be  a  com- 
plete history  of  religion,  which  again,  it  may 
be  hoped,  will  result  in  a  true  philosophy  of 
religion.  (See  J.  Caird,  Introduction  to  the 
PhUosophy  of  Religion,  Glasgow,  1880,  n.e., 
Loudon,  1889  ;  O.  Pfleiderer,  Philosophy  of 
Religion,  on  the  Bdsis  of  its  History,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1886-88,  4  vols.;  Stirling,  Philosophy 
and  Theology,  Edinburgh,  1890  ;  Martineau, 
The  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion,  London, 
1891.)    See  arts,  on  Comte,  Fichte,  Hegel. 

C.  P. 

Religious  Dramas.     See  Mysteries. 

Religious  Liberty.     See  Tolek.vtion. 

Relly,  James,  b.  at  Jefferson,  North  Wales. 
England,  in  17'29  ;  d.  in  London  about  1780. 
He  was  originally  a  Unitarian  preacher,  but 
became  the  founder  of  the  Universalist  So- 
ciety in  London,  which  after  his  deatli  was 
ministered  to  by  laymen  until  its  dissolution 
in  1830.  That' conversion  nuist  liave  taken 
place  about  IToO,  but  otherwise  very  little  is 
known  of  his  personal  life  ;  even  Murray,  his 
first  convert  and  the  founder  of  Universalismin 
America,  gives  no  particulars.  He  was,  liow- 
ever,  a  voluminous  writer.  His  principal 
work  is  Union  ;  or,  a  Treatise  of  the  Consan- 
guinity and  Affinity  hetimen  vhrist  and  His 
'Cfnirrh,  London.  17")9,  rep.  in  Philadelphia, 
1843.  in  which  he  .sets  fortli  his  ideas  of  the 
mystical  relation  between  Christ  and  the 
human  race.  Among  his  other  works  are 
The  Sadducee  Detected  and  Rtfuted.  1764,  in 
which  he  teaches  the  resurrection  of  the  body 
in  the  most  literal  sense  of  the  words  ;  Salta- 
tion Completed,  1779,  etc. 

Remigius,  St.,  bishop   of    Kheims  ;    b.  nt 


Cerny,  near  Laon,  86  m.  n.e.  of  Paris,  about 
435  ;  d.  at  Kheims,  Jan.  13,  533,  where.he  had 
been  bishop  since  457.  He  was  successful  ia 
converting  tlie  Franks,  and  baptized  Clovis, 
Dec.  24,  496.  One  of  his  successors,  Hincmar, 
845-82,  has  adorned  his  life  witli  a  number  of 
fictions  of  a  rather  transparent  description — 
the  angels  bringing  down  from  heaven  the 
ampulla  with  the  chrism  for  tlu;  consecration 
of  Clovis  ;  the  bull  of  Hormisdas  recognizing 
him  as  the  primate  of  Gaul,  etc.  Four  letters 
and  a  few  verses  ascribed  to  him  have  come 
down  and  are  reprinted  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
LXV.  (See  his  life  by  A.  Aubert,  Paris, 
1849.) 

Remonstrants  is  the  name  given  to  the  fol- 
lowers of  Arminius  (q.v.,  p.  46),  because  they, 
in  1610,  presented  to  the  States  of  Holland  a 
"remonstrance"  against  the  sentence  of  the 
Synod  of  Dort  condemning  them  as  heretics. 

Rem'-phan  or  Re'-phan  (K.  V.).  Found 
only  in  Acts  vii.  43,  which  is  a  quotation 
from  Amos  v.  26  in  almost  the  exact  words 
of  the  Septuagint,  the  corresponding  Hebrew 
being  Chiun.  They  are  doubtless  inter- 
changeable names  for  a  god  secretly  worship- 
ped by  Israel  in  the  wilderness.     T.  W.  C. 

Renaissance  (English,  Renascence),  a  term 
applied  to  the  revival  of  learning  in  the  15lh 
century.  The  decline  of  literary  power  ia 
Greece  and  Rome  was  manifest  long  before 
the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  in  476.  But 
the  general  confusion,  the  supremacy  of  un- 
educated barbarian  princes  in  the  lands  where 
learning  had  once  flourished,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  the  centres  of  civilization  in  distant 
portions  of  Europe,  had  produced  a  long 
period  when  the  means  of  education  were 
scanty,  and  the  literary  productions  of  the 
best  minds  characterized  by  sameness  and  by 
great  limitations.  But  with  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century  a  new  era  began.  Petrarch 
opened  the  ej'es  of  Italians  to  the  treasures  of 
the  ancient  tongue  of  Italy,  which  they  had 
so  long  forgotten.  3Ianuscripts  were  brought 
out  from  their  long  concealment,  and  poets 
and  orators  of  the  ancient  time  diligently 
studied.  Atteution  was  also  turned  to  the 
Greek  classics,  and  with  the  beginning  of  the 
next  century,  as  the  Turk  began  to  threaten 
the  exi.stence  of  the  empire,  Greek  scholars 
came  in  greater  and  greater  numbers  to  the 
West,  bringing  the  writings  of  antiquity  with 
them.  And  when  Constantipople  fell  (1453), 
still  greater  numbers  came.  And  now  arose 
a  great  ])assion  for  the  cultivation  of  litera- 
ture. The  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing 
(about  1450),  whicli  sprung  full-fledged  into 
existence,  enabled  great  numbers  to  liavc  ac- 
cess to  the  stimulating  products  of  the  past 
at  prices  marvellously  low.  The  collection  of 
manuscripts  and  their  printing  became  the 
favorite  ]iursuitof  tlie  wealthy  and  the  great. 

All  this  was  of  the  greatest  inqtortance  in 
the  merely  literary  aspect  ;  but  in  the  material 
of  learning  the  revolution  wrought  was  of 
greater  promise  to  the  essential  jirogress  of 
the  race.  In  medicine  and  the  natural  sci- 
ences, the  methods  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
which  were  those  of  discoverv,  observation. 


i 


REN  AN 


(802) 


REPENTANCE 


and  classification,  were  reintroduced  into  the 
world.  ,  In  philosophy  Aristotle,  the  favorite 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  could  be  fully  studied  and 
in  his  own  words.  Plato  also  became  known. 
Theology  could  not  fail  to  join  in  the  uni- 
versal gain,  and  so,  as  attention  was  drawn 
to  the  Greek  language,  it  was  natural  that  the 
New  Testament  should  be  pul)lished  and 
made  accessible  to  all,  and  then  that  attention 
should  be  drawn  also  to  the  ancient  Hebrew 
language  and  Scriptures.  The  old  universities 
gave  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  the  new 
learning,  and  new  ones,  like  Wittenberg,  were 
expressly  designed  for  its  pursuit.  It  was 
but  the  natural  result  when  Erfurt,  the  great 
humanistic  university  of  Germany,  produced 
Luther,  that  when  he  was  called  to  labor  in 
Wittenberg  he  found  his  chief  support  in 
the  person  of  Melanchthon,  who  was  himself 
a  product  of  humanistic  education. 

In  Italy  the  Renaissance  took  largely  a 
sceptical  turn,  and  furnished  an  example  of 
perverted  ethics  in  Machiavelli's  Tlie  Prince, 
which  defended  any  means  necessary  to  at- 
tain a  good  end.  But  in  Germany  the  spirit 
of  the  new  learning  was  from  the  beginning 
religious.  Reuchliu  (1455-1522)  was  the  rec- 
ognized leader,  and  his  chief  work  was  to 
introduce  Hebrew  learning  by  means  of  his 
Hebrew  grammar.  That  so  much  attention 
was  paid  to  the  follies  of  the  monks  {EpistoUe 
Obscurorum  Virorum,  q.\.)  was  an  incident, 
not  the  main  line  of  the  development.  In 
England  the  same  religious  spirit  was  found. 
Erasmus  had  been  there,  and  when  he  turned 
lo  theology  and  published  the  Fathers  and  the 
New  Testament,  these  had  attentive  readers 
in  the  English  universities.  Henry  VIII.  did 
not  fai^-or  the  movement,  and  yet  it  was  in  his 
reign  that  two  books  embodying  the  spirit  of 
the  new  learning  were  written  in  England, 
Erasmus'  Praise  of  Folly  and  More's  Ltopia. 
In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  new  learning 
took  root,  and  by  developing  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures  gradually  made  England,  though 
under  the  ambiguous  system  of  Elizabeth,  not 
only  a  Protestant,  but  a  Puritan  country. 

The  work  of  the  new  learning  after  the  first 
period  of  the  Reformation  had  come  to  an  end 
was  very  great.  The  foundation  of  new  uni- 
versities and  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences 
went  hand  in  hand  (Kepler).  The  spirit  of 
modern  times  and  the  method,  suggested  by 
the  two  Bacons,  of  inductive  inquiry,  have  in 
the  process  of  time  given  us  all  that  is  charac- 
teristic of  modern  civilization.  The  Renais- 
sance was  the  fruitful  beginning  of  the  mod- 
ern age. 

The  latest  and  in  many  respects  the  best 
l)ooks  on  the  period  are  Symonds,  Renaissance 
in  Italy,  London,  1875-86,  7  vols.;  Geiger, 
Renaissance  unci  Humanismus  in  Italic n  and 
Deutschland,  Berlin,  1883  ;  Burckhardt,  Re- 
naissance in  Italy ,  new  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1890.  F.  H.  F. 

Renan    (reh-non),    Joseph   Ernest,   b.    at 

Treguier,  Bretagne,  France,  Fel).  27,  1823  ; 
educated  at  the  St.  Sulpice  (Jesuit)  Seminary, 
Paris  ;  studied  Orientalia  ;  visited  Syria  and 
Palestine,  on  a  government  expedition,  1860  ; 
was  appointed    professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 


College  of  France,  Paris,  1SG2,  but  dismissed 
immediately  after  the  publication  of  his  noto- 
rious Life  of  Jesus,  1863,  and  was  not  permitted 
to  resume  his  chair  till  1870.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  1878.  His 
principal  works  on  biblical  and  religious  sub- 
jects are,  Histoires  generale  et  systemes  com- 
pares cles  Inngues  Semitiqiies,  Paris,  1855,  2d 
ed.,  1858,  2  vols.;  translations  of  Job  (1859, 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1889),  Song  of  Songs 
(1860,  Eng.  trans.,  1864),  Ecclesiastes  (1882)  ; 
Studies  of  Religions  History  and  Criticism, 
Eng.  trans.,  New  York,  1864  ;  The  Injfvence 
of  Rome  on  Christianity,  London,  1880  ;  and 
especially  Histoire  des  orirjines  du  Christian- 
isme,  1863-81,  7  vols.  (Eng.  trans..  Life  of 
Jesus,  1867  ;  The  A^wstles,  1869  ;  St.  Paul, 
1887;  'Ihe  Anti-Chnst,  1889;  The  Gospels, 
1888;  Hadrian,  1888;  Marcus  Aurelius, 
1888)  ;  and  Histoire  du  pevple  d'Israel,  1887 
sqq.(Eng.  trans.^  History  of  the  People  of  Israel 
till  the  Time  of  David,  1888  ;  History  of  the 
People  of  Israel  to  the  Capture  of  Samaria, 
1889);  Studies  in  Religious  History,  1887  ; 
Tlie  Future  of  Science,  1891.  (See  his  Recollec- 
tions of  my  Youth,  Eng.  trans.,  1888.) 

Renata,  duchess  of  Ferrara  ;  b.  at  Blois, 
Oct.  25,1511  ;  d.  at  Montargis,  June  12,  1575  ; 
was  a  daughter  of  Louis  XII.  of  France,  and 
married  in  1528  to  Hercules  of  Este.  From 
her  early  youth  she  felt  drawn  toward  Prot- 
estantism, and  she  made  her  court  at  Ferrara 
the  rendezvous  of  the  Italian  and  French  re- 
formers. Calvin  visited  her  and  became  one 
of  her  most  intimate  friends  and  correspond- 
ents. But  in  1542  the  popish  reaction  began  ; 
in  1550  the  Inquisition  was  installed  at 
Ferrara,  and  in  1554  Renata  was  imprisoned 
and  forced  to  recant.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband,  1559,  she  returned  to  France  and 
openly  embraced  the  Reformation.  Her  life 
has  been  written  bv  E.  Masi,  Bologna,  1876, 
and  Sophia  W.  We'itzel,  New  York,  1883. 

Renaudot  (reh-no-dO'),  Eusebe,  b.  in  Paris, 
July  20,  1646  ;  d.  there,  Sept.  1,  1720  ;  was 
educated  by  the  Jesuits,  but  entered  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Oratory,  and  published 
several  works  on  the  history  of  the  Eastern 
Church  and  its  relation  to  the  Western,  His- 
toria  p)atriarcharum  Alexandrinorum,  Paris, 
1713  ;  Collectioliturgiarum  Orientalium,  1716, 
etc. 

Repentance,  a  change  of  mind  accompanied 
with  regret  and  sorrow  for  something  done, 
and  an  earnest  wish  that  it  were  undone  (2 
Cor.  vii.  8,  R.  V.).  Such  was  the  repentance 
of  Judas  (Matt,  xxvii.  3),  which,  however, 
had  no  spiritual  character,  and  in  view  of  its 
end  was  simplj^  natural,  but  intense  remorse. 
It  was  the  sorrow  that  worketh  death. 

The  term  is  used  in  reference  to  God  i,Gen. 
vi.  6,  Jonah  iii.  9,  10),  but,  of  course,  only  by 
vvay  of  accommodation.  God  cannot  repent 
or  wish  any  of  his  actions  undone,  and  the 
words  simply  mean  that  in  his  dealing  such  a 
change  took  place  as  among  men  would  be 
ascribed  to  a  change  of  mind. 

True  evangelical  penitence  or  the  "'  repent- 
ance unto  salvation,  a  repentance  that  bring- 
eth  no  regret"  (2  Cor.  vii.  10,  R.  V.),  is  a  heart- 
felt sorrow  for  sin  and  a  turning  away  from 


REPHAIM 


( H03  ) 


RESIGNATION 


it  with  abhorrence,  accompanied  with  an  ear- 
nest endeavor  to  live  in  holy  obedience  to  all 
the  commands  of  him  who  promises  mercy  to 
the  penitent.  It  always  implies  or  contains  a 
greater  or  less  conviction  of  the  divine  com- 
passion, and  hence  is  specitically  ditferent 
from  the  harsh,  cruel,  criisliing  spirit  of  re- 
morse. "  The  tears  of  repentance  are  not 
bitter  ;  they  do  not  burn  where  they  fall  ; 
they  are  sweetened  by  meekness,  humility, 
and  love."  Law  awakens  the  sense  of  sin, 
but  it  is  the  discovery  of  the  forgiving  love  of 
God,  as  it  is  revealed  in  the  cross  of  Christ, 
that  melts  the  heart. 

The  call  to  this  exercise  is  not  an  arbitrary 
command  of  God,  but  one  that  is  in  the  nature 
of  things  essential.  The  way  of  holiness  is 
the  only  way  of  peace  and  safety,  and  it  can- 
not be  well  with  one  who  has  strayed  away 
until  he  returns  to  it.  The  tirst  duty  of  him 
who  is  in  the  wrong  road  is  to  turn.  Hence  the 
call  of  John  the  Baptist,  wiiich  was  taken  up 
in  the  same  words  by  our  Lord  when  he  be- 
gan his  ministry,  was  (Matt.  iii.  1,  iv.  17), 
"  Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at 
hand."  And  so  Paul  to  the  polished  Athe- 
nians declared  that  God  "  now  commandeth 
men  that  they  should  all  everywhere  repent." 
It  is  a  universal  and  imperative  duty,  from 
which  there  is  no  escape.  "  Repentance 
toward  God  and  faith  toward  our  Lord  Jesus 
Ciirist"  (Acts  x.\.  21)  lie  at  the  verv  founda- 
tion of  the  spiritual  life.  T.  AV.  C. 

Reph'-aim,  sometimes  transferred  from  the 
Hebrew  (2  Sum.  v.  18,  xxiii.  V3),  at  others 
translated  "giants"  (Deut.  iii.  11),  denotes 
either  a  tribe  of  uncommon  stature  who  lived 
east  of  the  Jordan  (Gen.  xiv.  5),  or  the  spirits 
of  the  departed  (Ps.  Ixxxviii.  10,  R.  V.  mar- 
gin). The  valley  of  Rephaim  was  near  and 
to  the  southwest  of  Jerusalem.  There  David 
dL'ftated  tlie  Philistines  twice  (2  Sam.  v.  17- 
2.J,  1  Chrou.  xiv.  9-16).  T.  W.  C. 

Reph'-i-dim  {restinrj-places),  the  last  station 
of  Israel  before  reaching  Sinai,  where  the 
people  murmured,  and  ^lo.ses  brought  water 
by  smiting  the  rock.  (Ex.  xvii.,  1,  8-16.) 
It  is  now  generally  identified  with  the  Wady 
Feiran,  a  broad  and  cultivated  valley. 

T.  W.  C. 

Reprobation  is  a  technical  theological  term 
occurring  in  the  controversies  concerning 
predestination  as  the  antithesis  to  election. 

Requiem  is  a  ma.ss  for  the  dead,  and  thus 
callfd  from  the  tirst  words  of  the  text,  liequiein 
(Tterrxini  dona  iis,  Domine,  "  Give  them,  O 
Lord,  eternal  rest."  The  most  excellent 
musical  compositions  of  the  kind  are  those  by 
Mozart  and  Cherubini. 

Reredos  (French,  arrieredos,  "  back  wall") 
is  the  screen  behind  the  altar,  forming,  in 
cathedrals  and  other  large  churches,  the  par- 
tition between  the  .sacrarium  and  the  apse. 
In  minor  churches,  where  there  is  no  space 
bo'hincl  the  altar,  reredos  are  erected  only  for 
the  sake  of  ornament. 

Reservation,  Mental,  a  trick  by  which,  as 
the  Jesuit  Sanchez  taught,  a  man  could  lie  by 
adding  a  secret  qualification  to  his  utterance. 


Thus  the  witness  of  a  crime  might  say,  "I 
know  nothing  of  it, ' '  by  adding  mentally,  "  as 
a  public  fact. "  This  horrible  evasion  of  truth 
was  developed  by  Escobar  and  other  Jesuit 
authorities,  and  even  by  some,  as  Antoninus 
Diana  (d.  1663),  who  were  not  Jesuits. 

T.  W.  C. 

Reservations,  Papal.  At  an  early  period 
and  in  a  quite  natural  way  the  pope  began  to 
exercise  influence  on  the  appointment  to  the 
episcopal  sees  and  other  large  ecclesiastical 
benefices.  But  the  lust  of  power  and,  still 
worse,  the  lust  of  gain  gradually  transformed 
this  natural  and  probably  beneUcial  influence 
into  an  arbitrary  and  mean  interference,  and 
manifold  were  the  tricks  which  the  popes  in- 
vented in  order  to  reserve  to  themselves  the 
appointment  to  the  greatest  possible  number 
of  benefices.  Tims  in  1265  Clement  IV. 
claimed  the  right  of  appointment  when  tJie 
inctimbent  died  in  Rome,  (tpud  sidem  Ajioxtol- 
icnm,  and  in  12S6  Honor! us  IV.,  when  the 
incumbent  resigned  to  the  pope  ;  after  which 
malicious  people  ol)served  a  steadily  growing 
tendency  among  the  prelates  to  die  on  visits  to 
Rome  or  to  resign  to  the  pope.  The  councils 
tried  in  vain  to  bring  some  order  into  these 
scandalous  matters,  but  the  concordats  suc- 
ceeded. Mathias  Hausmann,  Geschichte  der 
j/i'ipstUcJie/i  Ileserrntfullc,  Regensburg,  New 
York  and  Cincinnati,  1868. 

Reserved  Oases  is  a  technical  term  belong- 
ing to  Roman  Catliolic  casuistry,  and  denot- 
ing certain  sins — heresy,  simony,  sacrilege, 
etc. — for  which  a  priest  cannot  give  absolu- 
tion, but  which  must  be  referred  to  some 
higher  ecclesiastic. 

Residence,  or  the  duty  to  personally  per- 
form the  duties  of  a  benefice  enjoyed,  seems 
to  have  relaxed  very  early  in  the  Christian 
Church.  As  early  as  the  Council  of  NiCiTa, 
325,  it  was  found  necessary  to  enjoin  it,  and 
at  the  Council  of  Antiocli,  341,  to  repeat  the 
injunction.  On  account  of  plurality  and  other 
causes  non-residence  became  one  of  the  most 
glaring  scandals  of  th<^  lioman  Catholic 
Church  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  and 
the  Council  of  Trent  could  do  nothing  in  the 
matter  ;  it  became  only  worse  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury, and  it  was  the  spirit  of  the  Revolution 
which  finally  brought  tiie  remedy.  It  is  often 
said  that  absence  immediately  disappeared  in 
the  Protestant  churches,  but  that  is  a  mis- 
take. In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
more  than  one  half  of  the  rectors  of  the 
Church  of  England  had  never  seen  their  jiar- 
ishes  nor  their  parislies  them,  and  tiie  case  was 
not  better  in  Sweden.  Here,  too,  the  Revolu- 
tion had  some  work  to  do. 

Resignation,  the  submission  of  the  soul  to 
the  will  of  God.  It  is  entirely  different  from 
Stoic  and  Mohammeilan  fatalism,  in  that  so 
far  from  being  a  compulsory  yielding  to  the 
inevitable,  it  is  a  voluntary  actiuie.sceuce  in  the 
dealings  of  the  Most  High  as  of  One  who  is 
infinitely  wise  and  good.  It  is  therefore  a 
mixture"  of  obedience,  humility,  and  trust. 
The  Christian  glorifies  God  by  his  unshaken 
assurance  that  he  numbers  the  very  hairs  of 
our  head  and  will  make  all  things  work   to- 


RESTORATION 


(804) 


RESURRECTION 


gether  for  good  to  them  that  love  him.  True 
resignation  is  a  peculiarly  Christian  grace, 
and  the  highest  manifestation  of  it  was  made 
in  Gethsemane  by  our  Lord  when  he  said, 
"  Not  my  will,  but  thine,  be  done." 

T.  W.  C. 

Restoration.  The  term  is  derived  from  the 
passage  in  Acts  (iii.  21)  in  which  it  is  said  of 
Jesus,  "  whom  the  heaven  must  receive  until 
the  times  of  restoration  of  all  things"  (R.  V.), 
and  which  is  supposed  to  teach  that  all  sinful 
and  condemned  creatures  will  one  day  return 
to  the  favor  of  God  and  the  enjoyment  of 
heavenly  felicity.  But  all  that  the  words 
require  or  even  suggest  is  the  winding  up  of 
the  stupendous  plan  God  is  carrying  into 
effect  for  his  own  glory  and  the  salvation  of 
his  chosen  people  (compare  Matt.  xvii.  11). 
The  former  view  was  tirst  held  by  Origen, 
who  based  it  upon  the  biblical  statements  that 
Christ's  rule  must  be  universal  and  God  must 
be  all  in  all  (Ps.  ex.  1,  1  Cor.  xv.  27  sq.). 
Similar  ideas  in  regard  to  God's  goodness  and 
man's  freedom  led  to  the  advocacy  of  restora- 
tion in  a  private  way  by  Gregory  Nazianzen 
(328-89),  and  publicly  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
(332-98) ;  audby  theologians  of  the  Antiochian 
School,  as  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (350-429)  ; 
and  even  Chrysostora  is  so  reported,  but  with- 
out reason.  But  these  views  never  obtained 
conciliar  sanction  ;  nay,  Origen 's  doctrines 
were  condemned  b}^  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople (543).  In  the  West  the  opinion  had  no 
prominent  advocates,  and  was  declared 
against  by  Augustin  (353-430). 

In  the  9th  century  it  was  adopted  by  Scotus 
Erigena,  who  taught  that  God  is  the  sub- 
stance of  all  things,  and  all  things  at  last  re- 
turn to  him  ;  accordingly,  the  restoration  was 
only  a  part  of  the  process  by  which  all  indi- 
viduality is  extinguished.  But  the  theory  did 
not  prevail.  The  mystics,  Eckart  and  Suso, 
did  not  adopt  it,  though  the  "  Brethren  and 
Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit"  did. 

At  the  Reformation  John  Denk  (d.  1527) 
taught  that  even  the  devil  would  be  saved, 
and  spread  the  notion  among  the  Anabaptists, 
but  the  chief  reformers  agreed  in  holding  the 
church  view.  Toward  the  end  of  the  17th 
century  new  advocates  of  restorationism  ap- 
peared, Jane  Leade(q.v.),  of  London,  and  the 
"  Philadelphian  Society"  (q.v.),  which  she 
founded.  The  authors  of  the  "  Berleburg 
Bible"  agreed  with  them,  as  did  F.  C.  Oelin- 
ger,  the  theosophist.  Since  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  most  of  the  Rationalists  of  Ger- 
many, and  not  a  few  of  the  Supernaturalists, 
have  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  return  of  all 
souls  to  God.  But  among  recent  theologians 
Rothe  maintained  that  the  doctrine  contra- 
dicted the  self-determining  power  of  the  will  in 
reference  to  the  acceptance  of  salvation,  w;ith- 
out  which  the  process  has  no  ethical  value  ; 
for  if  man  is  free  to  accept,  he  is  equally 
free  to  refuse.  On  much  the  same  ground 
Martensen  felt  constrained  to  admit  the  possi- 
bility of  an  endless  damnation. 

A  large  portion  of  the  body  known  as  Uni- 
versalists  in  England  and  America  hold  the 
view  called  Apokatastasis  or  Restoration,  rest- 
ing it  upon  the  utterances  of  the  Apostle 


Paul  in  Rom.  v.  18,  xi.  32,  and  1  Cor.  xv.  22  ; 
but  the  general  conviction  of  sober  interpre- 
ters is  that  these  passages  interpreted  by  their 
connection  and  by  the  other  statements  of  the 
writer  elsewhere  do  not  justly  admit  of  such 
an  inference.  T.  W.  C. 

Resurrection.  The  term  denotes  the  re- 
vival of  the  human  body  from  the  grave,  and 
its  resumption  of  existence  in  a  future  state. 
The  conception  is  purely  scriptural,  there 
being  scarcely  a  trace  of  it  in  ethnic  religions. 
It  is  suggested  in  the  Old  Testament  by  the 
translation  of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  by  expres- 
sions in  the  Psalms  (xvi.  9,  10,  Ixxiii.  24-26), 
by  the  imagery  of  Isaiah  (xxvi.  19),  and  by 
Ezekiel  s  vision  of  the  dry  bones  (xxxvii.). 
In  Daniel  it  is  expressly  said  that  "  many  that 
sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake." 
In  the  later  Judaism  the  doctrine  became 
clearly  defined  and  was  held  by  the  great  body 
of  the  people,  the  Sadducees  being  only  an 
exception  to  the  prevailing  opinion.  In  the 
New  Testament  the  point  is  everywhere 
assumed  or  expressly  asserted,  our  Lord  call- 
ing himself  "the  resurrection  and  the  life," 
and  affirming  that  the  raising  of  the  dead 
shall  be  universal,  including  the  evil  and  the 
good.  His  apostles  reathrm  this  teaching, 
dwelling,  however,  with  special  emphasis 
upon  the  resurrection  of  believers,  which  they 
connect  with  the  resurrection  of  Christ  as  its 
evidence  and  earnest  and  pattern.  Paul  gives 
some  animating  particulars  concerning  the 
f  uiure  body  of  the  righteous,  in  what  is  the 
classic  passage  of  the  New  Testament  upon 
the  subject  ;  but  concerning  that  of  the  un- 
godly neither  he  nor  any  other  inspired  writer 
says  anything  beyond  the  fact  that  they  also 
shall  rise  after  death.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  (vi.  2)  mentions  the  tenet  as  one  of 
the  elementary  truths  of  Christianity,  and  so 
it  is,  being  distinctly  bound  up  with  the 
future  life  and  the  whole  purpose  of  God  re- 
specting his  redeemed  people.  Hence  its  gen- 
eral and  constant  reception.  The  earliest 
creed,  short  as  it  is,  makes  this  a  distinct 
article,  and  the  example  has  been  followed  in 
all  subsequent  ages.  Every  confession  of  the 
historic  church  contains  the  same,  and  at  this 
day  all  divisions  of  Christendom,  however 
differing  on  other  points,  are  at  one  as  to  the 
complete  victory  over  the  grave  at  the  last 
day. 

IIow  the  dead  are  raised  we  neither  know 
nor  can  know.  All  that  the  Scripture  tells 
us  is  the  fact,  and  that  is  very  important. 
Man  will  hereafter  consist  of  soul  and  body 
as  he  does  here.  The  complete  personality  is 
to  imdergo  the  judgment  and  receive  its  un- 
ending retributions.  To  make  this  possible 
the  dead  are  to  rise,  and  the  whole  historical 
person  that  lived  here  is  to  live  hereafter. 
This  takes  the  tenet  out  of  mere  sentiment,  and 
gives  it  a  place  among  the  most  important  fac- 
tors of  human  thought.  It  does  away  with 
the  undue  disparagement  of  the  body  which 
has  sometimes  appeared  in  the  church,  arising 
either  from  a  survival  of  the  old  heathen  no- 
tion that  matter  is  essentially  evil,  or  from  the 
ascetic  principle  that  the  body  is  an  incubus, 
whose  impulses  need  to  be  extirpated  rather 


RETREATS 


(805) 


REUTERDAHL 


thau  controlled.  On  the  contrary,  as  a  con- 
stituent of  man's  nature  it  is  to  be  neither 
abused  nor  pampered,  but  cherished  as  betits 
a  temple  of  the  H0I3'  Ghost. 

Many  objections  have  been  raised  against 
the  doctrine,  most  of  them  resting  upon  a 
misconceptiou  of  its  nature  and  grounds.  To 
them  all  is  appropriate  the  one  answer  of  our 
Lord  to  the  Sadducees  (Mark  xii.  24),  "  Is  it 
not  for  this  cause  that  ye  err,  that  ye  know 
not  the  Scriptures  nor  the  power  of  God  V" 
T.  W.  C. 

Retreats  have  a  specific  meaning  in  the  ter- 
minology of  the  Roman  and  Anglican 
churches,  denoting  a  time  of  temporary  retire- 
ment from  the  work  of  active  life  tor  the  sake 
of  prayer,  meditation,  and  spiritual  exercises. 
In  thelioman  Churclithe  custom  is  very  old, 
and  it  has  of  late  years  been  revived  in  the 
Anglican  Church  too. 

Rettberg,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  b.  at  Celle, 
ILuu)ver,  Aug.  21.  1805  ;  d.  at  Marburg, 
April  7,  1849  ;  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Grottingen  in  1834,  and  at  Mar- 
burg in  1838,  and  published  among  other 
works  Kirclien^eschichteDeutscJilands,  Gcittin- 
gen,  1845-48,  2  vols.,  reaching  to  the  death  of 
Charlemagne. 

Rettig,  Heinrich  Christian  Michael,  b.  at 
Giessen,  July  30,  1795  ;  d.  at  Zurich,  March 
24,  1836  ;  was  appointed  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Zurich,  1833,  and  published  Die  freie 
pr'otestantische  Kirdie,  oder  die  kirchlichen 
Verfdssungsgrundsdtze  des  Evaageliums, 
Giessen,  1832. 

Reuben.     See  Tribes. 

Reachlin  (rolk-leen),  Johann,  b.  at  Pforz- 
heim, Baden,  Feb.  22,  1155  ;  d.  at  Stuttgart, 
June  30,  1523  ;  led  like  most  Humanists  a 
strikingly  varied  and  extremely  busy  life,  be- 
ing a  veritable  knight-errant  of  knowledge. 
He  studied  rudinienta  at  Freiburg,  Greek  in 
Paris  under  Hieronymus  of  Sparta,  and  in 
Roma  under  Hermolaus  Barbarus,  who  Grai- 
cized  his  name  into  "  Capnio  ;"  jurisprudence 
at  Orleans  ;  philosopliy  in  Florence  in  steady 
intercourse  with  Ficinus,  ^lirandola,  Politian, 
and  others  ;  Hebrew  at  Liuz  under  the  body- 
pliysician  of  Friedrich  III.,  etc.  He  lectured 
at  Basel,  Paris,  and  Florence  ;  he  wrote  books  : 
a  Latin  dictionary,  which  ran  through  23  edi- 
tions; a  Latin  exercise  in  dramatic  form,  which 
ran  tiirough  29  editions  ;  a  Hebrew  grammar 
and  text-book,  which  first  made  a  systematic 
stuily  of  that  language  po.ssible  ;  something 
which  smacks  at  once  of  Plato  and  Cabbala, 
De  verho  nierifiM,  De  arte  cabbalutica  ;  some- 
thing which  points  toward  the  Reformation. 
De  arte  prcpdicandi,  etc.  ;  and  at  the  same 
time  he  held  all  kinds  of  position.s — court- 
singer,  tutor,  counsellor,  diplomate,  etc.  In 
1509  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Pfeffer- 
korn,  a  converted  Jew.  who  held  an  imperial 
commission  to  ransack  all  Jewish  books  and 
confiscate  those  which  contained  any  polemics 
against  Christianitv.  The  emperor  asked 
Reuchlin  whether  he  did  not  think  it  best  to 
have  all  Jewish  books  burned,  and  Reucldin 
declared  sucli  a  proposition  completely  non- 
sensical.    Pfotlerkoni  urow  furious  and  at- 


tackeil  him  in  Uandspiegel,  but  Reuchlin  an- 
swered him  victoriously  in  Augeitspiegel. 
Behind  Pfelferkorn,  however,  stood  the  Do- 
minicansof  Cologne,  and  the  grand  inquisitor, 
Hoogstraten,  declared  forty-three  jjropositions 
of  the  Augempiegel  heretical.  The  court  of 
Spires  acquitted  Reuchlin  and  sentenced 
Hoogstraten  to  pay  a  fine  of  111  gulden,  but 
Hoogstraten  appealed  to  the  pope.  The  court 
of  Rome  also  aciiuitted  Reuchlin,  but  Leo  X. 
had  not  tlie  courage  to  confirm  the  sentence 
of  the  court  in  the  face  of  the  liaughty,  hulf- 
rebellious  Dominicans,  and  the  life  of  the  timid 
Reuchlin  dragged  on  for  ten  years  in  trem- 
bling and  misery,  and  would  have  thus 
dragged  on  to  the  end,  if  Franz  von  Sickingen 
had  not  compelled  the  Dominicans,  by  a  threat 
of  visiting  them  in  Cologne,  to  i)ay  the  fine 
and  keep  silence.  Tliere  is  in  the  life  and 
labor  of  Reuchlin  many  i)reci()us  i)reparation3 
for  the  Reformation,  l)ut  wlicn  Luther  ap- 
peared Reuchlin  became  estranged  even  from 
Melanchtiion,  who  was  his  nephew,  and  whom 
he  loved  very  dearl}'.  His  life  has  often  been 
written  in  Germanv,  best  by  Geiger,  Leipzig, 
1871.  '  "  C.  P. 

Reuss  (roiss),  Eduard  (Wilhelm  Eugen), 
Lie.  Theol.  (Strassburg,  lS29n  D.D.  (Jena, 
1843),  Ph.D.  (Halle,  1875),  LL.D.  (George- 
town College,  Kentucky,  18—),  Protestant 
theologian  ;  b.  at  Strassburg,  July  8,  1804  ; 
studied  theology  in  his  native  city,  at  Gtittin- 
gen  and  Halle,  aud  Oriental  languages  in 
Paris,  and  was  appointed  i)rofessor  in  the 
Theological  Faculty  of  Strassl)urg  in  1834. 
His  principal  works  are  Oeschichte  der  heili- 
gen  Schriften,  N.  T.,  Halle,  1842,  6th  ed., 
Braunschweig,  1874,  Eng.  trans,  by  E.  L. 
Houghton,  Ilistory  of  the  t^acredScHptnres  of 
the  New  7\'sta»i.eiit,  lioston,  1884,  2  vols.; 
Oeschichte  der  Heiligen  Schriften,  A.  2\,  1881. 
2d  ed..  1890  ;  Histoirede  la  theologiechretienne 
au  sierle  apostoliqne,  1852,  2  vols..  3d  ed., 
1864,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1872  ;  Histoire  du 
canon  des  snintes  Ecritures  dans  V^glise 
chrefienne,  1862,  2ded.,  1863,  Eng.  trans.,  Jlis- 
tnryofthe  Canon,  Edinburgh,  1884,  etc.  He 
is  the  editor  of  the  monumental  edition  of 
Calvin's  Opera,  of  which  vol.  xli.  appeared  in 
1890. 

Renter  (roi-ter),  Hermann  Ferdinand,  Lie. 
Theol.  (Berlin,  1843),  D.D.  (Kiel,  1853),  Ph.D. 
(Greifswald.  1865),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Hildes- 
heim,  Hanover,  Aug.  30,  1817  ;  d.  at  Gottin- 
gen,  Sept.  18,  1889  ;  was  successively  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Breslau,  Greifswald, 
and  Gottingen,  and  published  Johannes  von 
Salisbury,  lierlin,  1842  ;  Geschichte  Alexanders 
III.,  1846,  2ded.,  1860-64,  3  vols.;  Oeschichte 
der  religidsen  Aufkliirung  im  Mittelalter, 
1875-77,  2  vols.;  Augustinische  Studien, 
Gotha,  1887. 

Reuterdahl  (roi-ter-dil),  Henrik,  b.  at 
Malnu'^,  Sweden,  Sept.  10,  1795  ;  d.  at  Upsala, 
June  28,  1870  ;  was  .successively  i)rofessor  of 
theology  at  Lund,  mini.ster  of  education  and 
public  worship,  bishop  of  Lund,  and,  since 
1856,  archbishop  of  Upsala.  He  published 
Srcnxka  Ki/rka>is  Hintoria,  Stockholm,  1838- 
63,    5   vols.,   reaching   to  the    Reformation. 

C.  P. 


REVELATION 


(806) 


REVELATION 


Revelation.    See  Inspiration. 

Revelation  of  St.  John.  1.  Authorship. 
Ecclesiastical  tradition  ascribes  it  to  the  be- 
loved disciple.  Tliisiscontirmedby  the  book 
itself  (i.  4,  9,  xxi.  2),  for  surely  no  obscure 
"Presbyter  John,"  whose  name  has  disap- 
peared from  history,  would  have  given  com- 
mands in  the  name  of  Christ  and  the  Spirit  to 
the  seven  cliurches  of  Asia.  The  writer  of 
these  sublime  and  important  visions  must  have 
been  the  apostle.  It  is  true  that  there  are 
differences  of  style  between  this  book  and  the 
fourth  gospel,  but  they  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  diiierence  of  subject.  The  gospel  is 
simply  a  narrative  mainly  historical  or  bio- 
graphical, while  the  Apocalypse  is  a  prophecy 
abounding  in  symbols  and  visions  after  the 
fashion  of  Ezekiel.  Daniel,  and  Zechariah, 
and  therefore  it  is  full  of  Hebraizing  forms  of 
speech.  There  is  no  difference  in  the  doc- 
trinal conceptions  of  the  two  books,  and  there 
are  marked  resemblances  in  style,  as  in  the 
name  Word  (Logos)  applied  to  our  Lord  (cf. 
John  i.  1,  14,  with  Rev.  xix.  13),  a  peculiarity 
which  is  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  New 
Testament. 

2.  Date.  This  is  much  disputed.  The  tes- 
timony of  the  early  church,  which  is  ancient 
and  credible  ana  uniform,  fixes  it  at  a.d.  94- 
95,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  who  banished 
several  Christians  to  inhospitable  climes,  and 
may  have  done  so  to  John.  The  author  seems 
to  be  familiar  with  the  churches  which  he  ad- 
dresses, a  familiarity  not  consonant  with  his 
early  life,  and  his  designation  of  the  day  of 
rest  and  worship  as  "the  Lord's  Day"  im- 
plies a  lapse  of  time  for  such  a  usage  to  orig- 
inate. Still  the  prevailing  opinion  of  critics 
now  is  in  favor  of  an  earlier  date — viz.,  the 
year  68  or  69  a.d.,  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  This  is  because  there  is  no  refer- 
ence to  the  overthrow  of  the  holy  city,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  spoken  of  as  still  stand- 
ing and  the  temple  as  undestroyed  (xi.  1,  2, 
3).  But  a  stronger  reason  is  the  wish  to  in- 
terpret the  peculiar  utterances  {xiii.  13,  xvii, 
7-12)  as  referring  to  the  reigning  emperor  of 
the  time  (Nero,  Galba  or  Vespasian),  and  to 
regard  the  book  as  a  prophetic  description  of 
the  approaching  downfall  of  ancient  Judaism 
(Jerusalem)  and  heathenism  (Rome),  and  the 
succeeding  reign  of  Christianity  on  the  earth. 
Perhaps  the  true  view  of  its  nature  and  de- 
sign would  render  it  a  matter  of  comparative 
indifference,  whether  one  accepts  the  early 
date  or  the  later. 

3.  Contents.  The  structure  of  the  book  is 
exceedingly  artistic,  and  involves  a  copious 
use  of  numerical  symbolism.  The  incessant 
repetition  of  the  number  seven  has  led  many 
to  view  the  whole  as  a  sevenfold  series  of 
sevens,  thus  symbolizing  the  perfection  and 
finality  of  its  revelation.  Five  of  these  seven 
sections  are  clearly  marked,  but  the  other  two 
are  not  so  easy  to  trace.  They  are  given  thus 
after  the  prologue  (i.  1-8) : 

1.  The  seven  churches  (i.  9-iii.  22). 

2.  The  seven  seals  (iv.  1-viii.  1). 

3.  The  seven  trumpets  (viii.  2-xi.  19). 

4.  The  seven  mystic  figures. 

(1)  The  sun-clothed  woman  (xii.  1-6), 


(2)  The  red  dragon  (xii.  7-12). 

(3)  The  Man-child  (xii.  13-17). 

(4)  The  first  beast  from  the  sea  (xiii.  1-10). 

(5)  The  second  beast  from  the  land  (xiii.  11- 
18). 

(6)  The  Lamb  on  Mt.  Zion  (xiv.  1-13). 

(7)  Tlie  Son  of  Man  on  the  cloud  (xiv. 
14-20). 

5.  The  seven  bowls  (xv.  1-xvi.  21). 

6.  The  sevenfold  judgment  on  the  whore 
(xvii.  1-xix.  10). 

7.  The  sevenfold  triumph  (xix.  11-xxii.  5). 
The  epilogue,  xxii.  6-21. 

The  sevenfold  subdivision  is  very  clear  in 
all  cases  save  sections  4,  6,  and  7,  where  it  is 
diflicult  and  somewhat  doubtful. 

4.  Schemes  of  Interpretation.  These  have 
been  roughly  divided  into  three  classes.  First, 
the  Pretcrist  holds  that  nearly  all  the  prophe- 
cies of  the  book  were  fulfilled  in  the  early 
Christian  ages,  either  in  the  history  of  the 
Jewish  race  up  to  70  a.d.  or  in  that  of  pagan 
Rome  up  to  the  4th  or  5th  century.  Second, 
the  Contimious  Historical  considers  the  whole 
book  a  prophetic  view  of  the  great  conflict 
between  Christ  and  the  enemy  from  the  First 
Advent  to  the  Second.  Third,  the  Futurist 
maintains  that  the  entire  book  (and  some  in- 
clude even  the  seven  churches)  refers  to  events 
in  the  future  that  will  accompany  or  follow 
the  Second  Advent.  This  second  view  is  as 
old  as  the  12tli  century,  and  unites  the  suf- 
frages of  most  expositors,  who,  however,  differ 
widely  in  details.  Tlie  objections  which  not 
a  few  cherish  against  it  may  be  thus  stated. 
Prophecy  is  not  history  written  in  advance, 
but  has  always  an  important  ethical  aim.  It 
deals  "  with  the  great  conflict  of  heaven  and 
earth  and  hell,  not  with  such  facts  as  the  ex- 
act time  when  the  Roman  emperors  began  to 
wear  diadems,  or  that  Turcomans  used  horse- 
tail standards,  or  that  the  arms  of  old  France 
were  three  frogs. ' '  Like  the  other  Scriptures, 
it  was  intended  to  be  a  plain  book  to  be  read 
and  understood  by  plain  men,  not  an  elaborate 
puzzle,  full  of  a  hidden  wisdom  which  onl}'  a 
hierophant  could  explain.  It  contained  in- 
deed brooding  shadows,  and  there  are  places 
that  seem  to  batfie  all  attempts  to  sound  the 
depths,  and  yet  as  a  whole  the  book  has  been 
of  essential  service  to  multitudes  of  the  un- 
lettered in  every  age.  Its  symbols  are  not 
arbitrary  or  unmeaning,  but  have  a  sense 
which  is  to  be  gathered  from  the  custom  of 
the  Hebrew  prophets,  especially  Daniel, 
Ezekiel,  and  Zechariah,  of  employing  the 
same  sort  of  imagery.  The  meaning  of  a 
symbol  and  its  fulfilment  are  distinct  things 
and  should  be  bept  separate,  the  latter  being 
quite  secondary  to  the  former.  Its  structure, 
as  stated  above,  forbids  us  to  regard  it  as  one 
continuously  progressive  vision.  Each  of  its 
seven  sections  tells  the  same  story,  but  with 
ever-increasing  clearness  of  development. 
The  design  is  to  trace  the  great  outlines  of  the 
struggles  of  the  church,  and  keep  steadily 
before  the  believer's  eye  the  issue  to  which 
all  tends,  and  so  comfort  and  encourage  and 
fortify  him.  It  has  always  been  the  recourse 
of  a  persecuted  church.  Among  the  best- 
known  commentaries  are  those  by  Moses 
Stuart  (n.e.,  Andover,  1864,  2  vols.)  ;  Elliott, 


REVISION 


(807) 


REVIVALS 


HoroB  Apocalypticm  (London,  5th  ed.,  1862,  4 
vols.)  ;  Milliffan  (in  Expositor's  Bihle,  1889). 
T.  W.  C. 

Revision  of  the  English  Bible.     Within 

llio  last  quarter  of  a  century  a  revision  of  the 
popular  version  of  the  Scriptures  has  been 
essayed  in  Holland.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, Gi'rmany,  French  Switzerland,  and 
Great  Britain.  In  the  last  mentioned  the 
■work  has  been  carried  through  with  the  aid 
of  America,  and  the  completed  work  has  been 
before  the  public  since  IHS.").  The  reasons  for 
this  undertaking  have  been  given  as  follows  : 
1.  The  progress  of  the  language.  As  in  the 
ca.se  of  all  living  languages  in  the  course  of 
two  and  one  half  centuries  many  words  have 
become  obsolete  and  others  have  undergone 
an  entire  change  of  meaning.  2.  Infelicities 
in  the  form  of  the  common  version,  such  as 
the  division  of  chapters,  the  breaking  up  of 
the  text  into  verses  like  apothegms,  the  need- 
less use  of  italic  letters,  and  the  printing  of 
poetry  like  prose.  8.  The  advance  of  sacred 
learning.  Since  the  version  of  1611  every 
department  of  biblical  literature  had  been 
almost  revolutionized  and  the  science  of  text- 
ual criticism  created.  It  was  right  that  the 
gains  in  versions,  philology,  gra'mmar,  lex- 
icography, archaeology,  etc.,  should  be  repre- 
sented. 4.  The  correction  of  acknowledged 
errors.  There  are  many  renderings  of  single 
words  and  uses  of  clauses  which  all  critics 
agree  in  pronouncing  incorrect,  and  surely 
these  required  to  be  changed.  It  is  evident 
that  the  idea  of  revision  sprang  from  a  real 
need,  and  not  from  fancy  or  caprice. 

For  more  than  a  century  there  had  been 
attempts  by  individuals  or  the  representatives 
of  a  sect  to  make  a  new  English  Bible,  but 
none  ever  attained  more  than  a  very  partial 
su(;cess.  About  the  middle  of  the  present 
century  the  matter  was  brought  forward  by  a 
number  of  scholars,  such  as  Dean  Alford, 
Dr.  Light  foot.  Bishop  Ellicott,  and  Arch- 
bishop Trench,  not  in  the  interest  of  any  par- 
ticular party,  but  simply  with  a  view  to  the 
advantage  of  :dl  lay  readers  of  the  Bible. 
Various  efforts  were  made  to  engage  some 
proper  authority  in  the  work,  but  they  all 
failed,  until  at  last,  in  1870.  the  Upper  House 
of  Canterbury  Convocation  undertook  the 
task.  They  appointed  a  large  committee 
which  w:is  authorized  to  "  invite  the  co-oper- 
ation of  any  eminent  for  scholarship,  to  what- 
ever nation  or  religious  body  they  may  be- 
long." This  liberty  was  u.sed,  and  in  con- 
sequence all  the  leading  denominations  of 
Pr.)testant  Ciiristendom  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  were  represented  on  the  revision. 
The  work  was  begun  in  IsTd.  but  the  next 
year  an  American  committee  similarly  repre- 
sentative was  organized,  and  from  1ST2  on- 
ward tile  two  committees  worked  together. 
No  arbitrary  restrictions  were  put  upon  them, 
but  it  was  required  that  the  common  version 
should  not  be  altered  save;  as  demanded  by 
faitlifulness  to  the  original,  and  that  as  de- 
cided by  a  two-thirds  vote,  and  that  the  alter- 
ation should  be  expressed,  if  possible,  in  the 
language  of  the  authorized  and  earlier  ver- 
sions.    The    committee    studied,    as    far    as 


possible,  to  preserve  uniformity  of  rendering. 
They  took  time  for  deliberation.  King 
James'  Bible  occupied  between  six  and  seven 
years  ;  the  revision  took  ten  years  for  the 
New  Testament  and  fifteen  for  the  Old.  The 
revisers  were  devout  men,  filled  with  rever- 
ence for  the  Word  of  God,  and  they  did  their 
best  to  be  faithfvd  to  the  original  and  to  ex- 
press its  sense  in  the  simplest,  clearest,  and 
best  English  at  their  command. 

The  New  Testament  was  published  in  1881, 
the  Old  in  1885.  The  book  met  with  some 
very  severe  criticism,  but  its  trustworthiness 
as  a  rendering  of  the  original  Greek  and  He- 
brew has  been  very  generally  acknowledged. 
It  has  corrected  many  errors,  elucidated  many 
obscurities,  and  wonderfully  improved  the 
form  of  the  sacred  volume.  An  appendix  to 
each  Testament  specifies  the  cases  in  which 
the  American  committee  preferred  a  render- 
ing different  from  that  adopted  by  the  British 
committee.  The  book  is  published  by  the 
Syndics  of  the  University  Presses  who  own 
the  copyright,  having  advanced  £20,000  to 
pay  the  expenses  of  the  British  committee  ; 
those  of  the  American  committee  were  met  l)y 
private  contributions.  (See  for  the  Old  Tes- 
tament revision,  T.  W.  Chambers,  A  Com- 
panion to  the  Revised  Old  Testament,  New 
York,  1885  ;  for  the  New^  Testament  revision, 
Philip  Schaff,  Companion  to  the  Greek  l^esta- 
ment  and  Enr/Ush  Version,  New  York,  3d  ed.. 
1889.)  T.  W.  C. 

Revivals  of  Religion.  This  phrase  denotes 
periods  when  the  spiritual  life  of  believers  is 
revived,  and  sinners  ant  awakened  and  con- 
verted. The  progress  of  religion  in  the  earth 
has  never  been  uniform,  but  always  subject 
to  fluctuation.  At  times  there  is  an  ebb  of 
effort  and  interest,  and  the  flesh  wars  success- 
fully against  the  sotd.  When  then  it  pleases 
God  to  break  up  lethargy  and  declension  and 
heal  the  backslidings  of  his  people,  there  is  a 
revival.  Instances  are  to  be  found  in  the  Old 
Testament,  at  Bochini  (.ludges  ii.  5),  in  the 
days  of  Hezekiah  and  Josiah  (2  Kings  xviii. 
3-7,  xxiii.  1-3),  and  precio\is  ])r()iniMS  Avcre 
made  of  copious  effusions  of  the  Spirit  in  tlie 
latter  days  (Joel  ii.  28,  Isa.  xliv.  3).  An  illus- 
trious fullilment  of  these  was  made  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost,  when  3000  souls  were  made 
subjects  of  grace.  This  was  repeated  after- 
ward in  Jerusalem,  in  Samaria,  and  far  off 
among  the  Gentiles,  so  that  in  the  Ixjgiuning 
of  the  3d  century  Tertulliau  could  say  to  the 
civil  authorities  "that  the  Chri.stians  had  filled 
all  places  in  the  empire— cities,  islands,  camps. 
co\irts,  councils,  tribes,  the  senate,  and  the 
]>alace.  A  similar  awakening  attended  the 
efforts  of  the  Reformers,  and  religion  was 
more  revived  than  it  had  been  since  the  days 
of  Con.stantine.  Extensive  outpourinjrs  of  liie 
Spirit  were  experienced  in  .Scot land  not  only  in 
the  Kitb  century,  bntalso  in  the  17th.  In  the 
l-Wth  century  occurred  the  Great  Awakening 
in  Britain  and  America  \inder  the  lead  of 
Wliitelield  and  the  Wesleys,  many  of  whose 
results  continue  to  this  day.  The  i)re.sent 
century  has  been  marked  by  a  .series  of  works 
of  grace  in  our  country,  alike  in  the  Eastern 
and  Middles  states  and  in  the  Western  and 


{ 


REYNOLDS 


(808) 


RICCI 


Southern  states  of  the  Union.  In  the  year 
1858,  shortly  after  a  season  of  financial  dis- 
tress, a  wave  of  spiritual  influence,  beginning 
in  New  York,  spread  from  city  to  city  till  it 
overran  the  entire  country,  touching  all  sec- 
tions and  denominations.  Its  fruits  within  a 
single  year  were  estimated  at  nearly  half  a 
million  of  souls.  Foreign  mission  fields  have 
been  visited  in  like  manner  in  almost  every 
quarter  of  the  globe,  and  the  records  of  many 
of  them  reveal  scenes  like  that  of  Pentecost. 

It  is,  of  course,  better  that  the  church 
should  always  be  in  such  a  state  of  spiritual 
activity  as  not  to  require  reviving  ;  but  seeing 
that  this  is  not  the  case,  every  true  disciple 
must  rejoice  in  any  real  revival  and  awaken- 
ing. Irregularities  may  and  do  occur  ;  but 
better  these,  painful  as  they  are,  than  spirit- 
ual torpor  and  death. 

Literature.  —  Jonathan  Edwards,  On 
Revivals,  n.e.  American  Tract  Society,  New 
York,  1845  ;  Joseph  Tracy,  The  Great  Awak- 
ening, Boston,  1842  ;  James  Potter,  Revivals  of 
Religion,  New  York,  1877.  T.  W.  C. 

Reynolds,  Edward,  D.D.  (Oxford,  16—), 
bishop  of  Norwich  ;  b.  at  Southampton,  Eng- 
land, 1599  ;  d.  at  Norwich,  Jan.  16,  1676. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  and  became  fellow  of 
Merton  College  (1620),  preacher  at  Lincoln's 
Inn,  rector  of  Brayuton,  Northamptonshire, 
member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  vice- 
chancellor  of  Oxford  (1646)  and  dean  of  Christ 
Church,  chaplain  to  Charles  II.  (1660),  war- 
den of  Merton  College,  and  bishop  of  Nor- 
wich (1660),  though  retaining  his  Presbyterian 
principles.  His  works,  1658-78,  were  re- 
printed in  6  vols.,  London,  1826,  with  a  life 
by  A.  Chalmers.  F.  M.  B. 

Reynolds,  Henry  Roberts,  D.D.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1869),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Rom- 
sey,  Hampshire,  England,  Feb.  26,  1825  ;  was 
graduated  at  London  University  in  1843  ;  be- 
came pastor  of  Halsted,  Essex,  1846,  and  pres- 
ident of  Countess  of  Huntingdon's  College, 
Chestnut,  Herts,  1860  ;  edited  the  British 
Quarterly  Review,  1866-74,  and  The  Evangel- 
ical Magazine  for  five  years,  and  published, 
besides  numerous  essays  and  articles  in  re- 
views and  dictionaries.  Beginnings  of  the 
Divine  Life,  London,  1858,  3d  ed.,  1860  ;  John 
the  Baptist,  1874,  3d  ed. ,  1889  ;  Athanasius, 
1889. 

Reynolds  or  Rainolds,  John,  D.D.  (Ox- 
ford. 15—),  Puritan  ;  b.  at  Pinho,  Devonshire, 
England,  1549  ;  d.  at  Oxford,  May  21,  1607. 
He  entered  Merton  College,  Oxford,  1562,  and 
became  fellow  of  Corpus  Christi,  1566,  and  its 
president,  1598  ;  was  dean  of  Lincoln,  1593- 
98.  At  the  Hampton  Court  Conference  be- 
tween the  Conformists  and  tlie  Puritans  (Jan. 
14,  16,  18,  1604)  he  was  the  spokesman  of  the 
latter,  and,  among  other  things,  proposed  a 
new  translation  of  the  Bible.  The  idea  pleased 
James  I.,  and  on  July  22d,  1604,  he  an- 
nounced the  revisers.  Reynolds  was  made 
one  of  the  committee  on  the  prophets.  Milton 
called  him  "  our  famous  Dr.  Rainolds, "and 
Hallam,  "  the  most  eminently  learned  man"  of 
his  time  ;  but  liis  works  have  not  been  re- 
printed, and  no  biographer  has  secured  his 


fame.  Cf.  Mombert,  Handbook  of  tlie  English 
Version,  pp.  338,  339,  345  ;  Schaflf,  Compan- 
ion  Greek  Testarnent  ami  English  Version,  pp. 
312  sqq.  F.  M.  B. 

Rhe'-gi-um  {fractiire),  a  city  at  the  south- 
western end  of  Italy,  opposite  Messina,  in 
Sicily,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait 
6  miles  wide.  Here  Paul  was  detained  one 
day  (Acts  xxviii.  13)  on  his  voyage  to  Rome. 
It  is  now  called  Rheggio,  and  is  a  flourishing 
commercial  town  of  10,000  inhabitants. 

T.  W.  C. 

Rhegius,  Urbanus,  b.  at  Langenargen,  on 
Lake  Constance,  May,  1489  ;  d.  at  Celle,  Han- 
over, May  27,  1541  ;  was  crowned  as  jweta 
laureatusmli'Alihj  the  Emperor  Maximilian  ; 
lived  intimately  with  Eck,  and  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1519,  when  he  suddenlj'  revealed 
himself  an  adherent  of  the  Reformation,  when 
in  1520  he  was  made  pastor  at  Augsburg.  He 
wrote  on  all  the  affairs  of  the  Reformation — 
the  split  between  Lutherans  and  Reformed, 
the  peasants'  war,  the  Anabaptists,  etc.,  but 
not  with  any  great  effect.  In  1530  he  left 
Augsburg  and  settled  in  Northern  Germany, 
where  he  was  very  successful  in  introducing 
tlie  reformation  in  Celle,  Hanover,  etc.  His 
collected  works  were  edited  by  his  son, 
Nuremberg,  1561-77,  12  vols.  fol.  (See  Uhl- 
horn,   Urbanus  Rhegius,  Elberfeld,  1861.) 

Rhetoric,  Sacred.  See  Homiletics,  page 
376. 

Rhodes  {rosy),  a  noted  island  in  the  Med- 
iterranean, 13  m.  from  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  which  Paul  visited  (Acts  xxi.  1)  on  re- 
turning from  his  third  missionary  tour.  It 
was  then  flourishing,  was  held  in  the  Middle 
Ages  by  the  Knights  of  St.  Jolm,  but  captured 
in  1522  by  the  Turks,  who  still  hold  it. 

T.  W.  C. 

Rib'-lah  {fertility),  a  city  on  the  north- 
eastern border  of  Israel  (Num.  xxxiv.  10,  11). 
It  was  on  the  great  road  between  Palestine 
and  Babylon,  and  naturally  used  bj^  invaders 
from  the'north  and  east.  Here  Pharaoh-necho 
deposed  Jehoahaz,  and  here  Nebuchadnezzar 
caused  Zedekiah's  eyes  to  be  put  out  and  his 
sons  killed  (2  Kings  xxiii.  33,  xxv.  6,  7).  Its 
site  is  not  yet  certainly  identified. 

T.  W.  C. 

Ricci  (ret'-chee),  Lorenzo,  Roman  Catho- 
lic ;  b.  in  Florence,  Aug.  2, 1709  ;  d.  in  Rome, 
Nov.  24,  1775  ;  entered  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits  in  1718,  and  became  its  general  in 
1758.  When  it  was  dissolved  in  1773  he  was 
shut  up  in  the  dungeon  of  St.  Angelo  and  died 
there. 

Ricci,  Scipione  de,  Roman  Catholic  ;  b. 
in  Florence,  Jan.  9,  1741  ;  became  a  priest, 
1766  ;  vicar-general  of  Florence,  1775  ;  bishop 
of  Pistoia  and  Prato,  1780  ;  labored  with 
the  Grand  Duke  Leopold  of  Tuscany  to 
effect  religious  reforms  (see  Pistoia),  but  ex- 
cited only  opposition,  so  that,  in  1791,  he  re- 
signed ;  was  in  1799  for  a  little  while  a  pris- 
oner in  Florence  ;  d.  at  Rignano,  11  m.  e.s.e. 
of  Florence,  Jan.  27,  1810.  (See  his  life  by 
L.  J.  A.  Potter  [Vie,  etc.],  Brussels,  1825,  8 
vols.,  and  his  autobiographic  Memorie,  Flor- 
ence, 1865,  2  vols.) 


RICE 


(809) 


RICHELIEU 


Rice,  Nathan  Lewis,  Presbyterian  ;  b.  in 
Garrard  Co.,  Ky.,  Dec.  29,  1807  ;  d.  in  Cliat- 
ham,  Ky.,  June  11,  1877.  He  studied  the- 
ology at  Princeton,  held  various  pastoral 
charges  in  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and 
New  York,  and  was  in  1874  appointed 
professor  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Danville,  Ky.  He  was  noted  as  a  preacher, 
but  more  especially  as  a  debater.  His 
public  (afterward  published)  disputations 
with  Alexander  Campbell  on  baptism,  Cincin- 
nati, 1843  ;  with  J.  A.  Blanchard  on  slavery, 
Cincinnati,  1845  ;  E.  M.  Pingree  on  universal 
salvation.  N.  Y. ,  1845,  and  with  J.  B.  Purcell  on 
Romanism,  Cincinnati,  1851,  attracted  great 
attention  and  were  published.  Among  his  other 
publications  were  Romaninrnvnt  Cliristianity, 
N.  Y.,  1847  ;  The  Signs  of  tlie  Times,  St.  Louis, 
1855,  etc. 

Rich,  Edmund.     See  Eadmund,  St. 

Richard,  Pitzralph  {ArmacJianns)  ap- 
pointed archbishop  of  Armagh  and  primate  of 
Ireland  in  1347,  and  well  known  on  account  of 
his  opposition  to  the  mendicant  orders,  for 
which  reason  he  was  summoned  to  appear 
before  the  pope,  then  residing  at  Avignon, 
where  he  died,  Dec,  1359.  Of  his  works  are 
printed  :  Defensio  curatorum  adversus  Fratres 
inemlicnntts,  Paris,  1496,  and  Sermonesad  Cm- 
cem,  London,  1612. 

Richard  of  St.  Victor,  d.  1178,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Scotland,  and  first  pupil,  then  successor, 
to  Hugo  of  St.  V.  The  celebrated  school  of  St. 
Victor,  so  called  from  an  ancient  Augustinian 
convent  in  the  suburbs  of  Paris,  was  founded 
by  William  of  Champeaux,  Bisliopof  Chalons- 
sur-Marue  (b.  1070  ;  d.  1121),  in  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century.  William  was  the 
special  champion  of  Realism  in  France, 
and  laid  the  foundations  to  that  ^Mysticism 
which  made  St.  Victor  so  famous.  This  mys- 
tical school,  particularly  under  the  three 
Victorines,  Hugo,  Richard,  and  Waller,  had  a 
wide  influence  in  awakening  popular  piety. 
The  various  works  published  by  their  autlior- 
ity  became  text-books  for  mystical  minds  and 
pious  hearts  for  many  centuries  afterward. 
It  was  St.  Benedict's  "Holy  Rule"  that  gov- 
erned this  place.  It  taught  that  "  love"  was 
the  only  and  true  power,  and  was  obtained 
by  contemplation  and  purity  of  heart.  The 
brethren  were  to  spend  their  time  in  con- 
templation and  mutual  labor  in  each  other's 
spiritual  and  material  interest.  When  Richard 
came  to  the  school  he  found  many  brethren 
relapsed  into  the  ways  of  the  flesh,  and 
the  abbot  Ervisius,  an  "Englishman  like  him- 
self, far  from  faithful  to  his  duties.  When 
he  became  subprior  in  1159,  and  particularly 
when  he  became  prior  in  1162,  he  set  himself 
to  reform  the  convent  and  fought  against 
Ervisius,  whom  he  finally  compelkd  to  resign. 
When  he  himself  came  in  full  control  of  the 
convent,  he  re-established  the  "  Holy  Rule  " 
and  all  the  severity  of  cloister  discipline.  Be- 
sides these  facts,  we  know  Ijut  little  of  his 
history.  He  was  a  friend  and  confidant  of  St. 
Bernard.  He  advanced  and  followed  up  the 
labors  of  Hugo  of  St.  V.,  those  of  Anselm,  and 
those  of  Bernard  iu  particular.     The  former 


was  scholastic,  the  latter  monastic,  practical, 
and  the  real  founder  of  medievid  Mysticism. 
Richard,  the  most  able  and  brilliant  of  all  the 
children  of  St.  Victor's,  completed  the  fabric 
of  the  monastic  system,  and  it  would  seem 
that  he  was  superior  to  his  predecessors  in  the 
mystic  spirit  and  vivid  appreciation  of  the 
actions  of  the  supernatural  life. 

Richard's  writings  abound  in  commentaries, 
and  moral,  dogmatic,  and  mystic  essays,  but 
his  exegesis  has  only  historical  value  now. 
Through  them  all  runs  a  strong  oi)i)osition  to 
those  pseudo-phil(jsophers  who  prefer  Aristotle 
to  Christ,  and  they  are  all  marked  by  acute 
dialectics  and  skillful  psychological  rea.sonings. 
In  his  mystical  essays  he  very  consistently 
stands  by  the  two  foundation  stones  of  all 
Mysticism  ;  the  first  of  which  is  contemplative 
life  and  practice  of  virtue  ;  only  the  pure  in 
heart  shall  see  God.  The  second  stone  is  self- 
knowledge  ;  the  soul  mirrors  God,  being 
created  in  His  likeness.  In  his  Terbo  incaniato 
he  speaks  in  the  Augustinian  style  of  sin  as  a 
fiiix  culpa.  His  most  important  works  are  De 
!  tri7utate  and  Be  gratia  omteuipldfionis.  His 
i  ideas  of  contemplation  have  influenced  Bona- 
i  Ventura  and  later  theologians.  Richard  was 
j  the  first  mystic  who  attempted  a  scholarly 
definition  of  contemplation,  and  the  secret  lies 
in  the  scholastic  bent  of  his  mind.  He  was 
as  much  of  a  scholastic  as  of  a  mystic  ;  the 
two  blended  in  him  better  than  in  any  other 
man  of  his  day  or  after.  He  is  usually  called 
Magnus  Contemplator,  a  title  that  mainly  ap- 
plies to  his  application  of  the  scholastic  method 
to  Mysticism. 

The  first  ed.  of  Richard's  works  was  printed 
in  Paris,  1528 ;  reprinted  in  Lyons,  1534 ; 
Cologne,  1621.  The  best  ed.  is,  Rouen,  1650. 
(See  Michaud,  Guillaume  de  Champeaux  et  les 
ecoles  de  Pans  en  xiie  siecle  d'ajrret  des  docu- 
ments inedits,  Paris,  1867,  2d  ed.  1868.  J.  G. 
Englehardt,  R.  a  St.  Victore  de  contemplatione 
doctrina,  Erlangen,  1838  ;  J.  A.  Liebner, 
Richard  St.  Victor  nnd  J.  Ruyshrotk,  GOttin- 
gen,  1837-89  ;  W.  Kaulich,  Die  Lehre  des 
Hugo  u.  Richard  St.  Victor,  reprinted  from 
Abhandl.  d.  Bohmischen  Geselhchaft  der  Wis- 
senschaften,  1864.     C.  H.  A.  Bjekkegaaud. 

Richards,  James,  D.D.  (Yale,  1815),  Pres- 
byterian ;  b.  at  New  Canaan,  Conn.,  Oct.  29, 
1767;  d.  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  20,  1848. 
He  was  pastor  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  1794- 
1809.  and  at  Newark  1809-28  ;  Professor  of 
Theology  at  Auburn,  1828-43.  His  lectures 
appeared.  New  York,  1846,  and  twenty  of  his 
sermons,  Albany,  1849,  each  with  some  bio- 
graphical matter.  F.  M.  B. 

Richards,  "William,  Congregationalist  ;  b. 
at  Plainfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  22,  1792;  d.  at  Hono- 
lulu, Dec.  7, 1847.  He  graduated  at  Williams 
College,  1819,  and  at  Andover,  1822;  went  to  the 
Sandwich  Islands  as  a  missionary,  and  labored 
at  Lahaina,  Island  of  Manui,  1822-87 ;  be- 
came counselor,  interpreter,  and  chaplain  to  the 
King,  1838  ;  ambassador  to  the  British  and  ^ 
other  courts,  1842,  and  minister  of  jniblic  in- 
struction, 1845.  F.  M.  B. 

Richelieu  (re.sh'le-u),  Armand  Duplessis 
de,  b.   in  Paris,  Sept.  5,  1585  ;  d.  there,  Dec, 


i 


RICHER 


(810) 


RIGDON 


4,  1642 ;  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Lu9on  in 
1607  ;  entered  the  States-general  as  deputy  of 
the  clergy  in  1614,  and  was  in  1622  made  min- 
ister of  state  and  created  a  cardinal,  after 
which  he  ruled  France  with  sovereign  power 
till  his  death.  He  was  a  political  genius,  and 
in  order  to  realize  his  great  political  ideas,  the 
consolidation  of  the  French  monarchy  and  the 
humiliation  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  ally  himself  with  the  Protes- 
tants of  Germany  and  subsidize  their  armies, 
while  he  utterly  destroyed  the  political  power 
of  the  French  Huguenots  by  taking  their 
fortified  places  and  keeping  their  synods  com- 
pletely at  his  mercy.  His  relation  to  religion 
was  probably  of  the  same  character  as  his  re- 
lation to  art  and  literature.  He  converted 
Protestants,  as  he  wrote  tragedies,  to  show  off 
a  talent,  and  his  idea  of  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  two  churches  was,  probably,  like 
his  academy  of  science  and  art,  some  sort  of  a 
governmental  device.  As  long,  however,  as 
he  held  the  reins,  the  Huguenots  enjoyed  free- 
dom of  worship,  civil  equality  with  Roman 
Catholics,  etc.  See  Wm.  Robson,  Life  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  London,  n.e.,  1854  ; 
Schybergson,  Le  due  de  Rohan  et  la  chute  du 
parti  protestant  en  Prance,  Paris,  1880  ;  Gus- 
tave  Masson,  Richelieu,  London,  1884.    C.  P. 

Richer  (re-sha),  Edmond,  b.  at  Chaource, 
a  village  in  Champagne,  France,  Sept.  30, 
1560 ;  d.  in  Paris,  Nov.  28,  1631  ;  studied 
theology,  was  made  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne 
in  1590,  and  became  the  syndic  of  the  theo- 
logical faculty  in  1608,  but  was  dismissed  from 
his  office  after  the  publication  of  his  De  eccle- 
siastica  et  politica  potestate,  Paris,  1611,  which 
is  an  able  and  outspoken  defense  of  Galilean- 
ism,  and  was  finally  compelled  to  recant.  His 
life,  by  Adrien  Baillet,  appeared  at  Liege, 
1714;  n.e.,  Amsterdam,  1715;  that  by  Perau, 
Paris,  1748. 

Richmond,  Legh,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Liverpool,  Jan.  29,  1772  ;  d.  at  Turvey,  Bed- 
fordshire, May  8,  1827.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  took  holy  orders,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  curate  on  the  Isle  of  Wight  in 
1797,  and  became  rector  of  Turvey  in  1805. 
He  published  The  Annals  of  the  Poor,  Lon- 
don, 1814,  2  vols.;  n.e.,  1840,  containing  The 
Dairyman's  Daughter,  of  which  four  millions 
of  copies  have  been  sold  in  19  different  lan- 
guages ;  also  A  Selection  from  the  Writings  of 
the  Reformers  and  Early  Protestant  Divines  of 
the  Church  of  England,  with  Memorials  of  their 
Lives  and  Writings,  1807-12,  8  vols.,  etc.  A 
memoir  of  him  by  T.  S.  Grimshaw,  London, 
1828,  was  re-edited  by  Bishop  Bedell,  Phila- 
delphia, 1846. 

Richter  (rik-ter),  Aemilius  Ludwig,  b.  at 
Stolpen,  near  Dresden,  Feb.  15,  1818  ;  d.  in 
Berlin,  May  8,  1861  ;  was  appointed  professor 
of  law  at  Leipzig,  1835  ;  Marburg,  1838  ;  and 
Berlin,  1846  ;  and  published,  Lehrhuch  der 
kath.  und  evangl.  Kirchenrechts,  Leipzig,  1842, 
4  7th  ed.  1874  :  Die  evangl.  Kirchenordnungen 
des  16.  Jahrhunderts,  Weimar,  1846  ;  Corpus 
juris  Canonicus,  1833-39  ;  Canones  et  Decreta 
Concilii  Tridentinii,  Leipzig,  1853. 

Richter    (rik-ter),    Christian    Friedrich 


Gottlieb,  M.D.,  b.  at  Sorau,  Silesia,  Oct.  5, 
1676  ;  d.  at  Halle,  Oct.  5,  1711  ;  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  Francke  academy  in  Halle  and 
physician  to  the  Orphan  House,  and  wrote  33 
hymns,  of  which  some  have  been  translated 
into  English:  "Jesus  my  king!  Thy  mild 
and  kind  control." — "O  watchman!  with 
the  night  of  sin." — "'Tis  not  too  hard,  too 
high  an  aim,"  etc.  See  C.  F.  Richter' s  Leben 
u.  Wirken  als  Arzt,  Theologe  und  Dichter,  Ber- 
lin, 1865. 

Ridgley,  Thomas,  Independent  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, about  1667  ;  d.  there  March  27,  1734  ; 
established  a  theological  school  in  1712,  and 
published  A  Body  of  Divinity,  London,  1731- 
33,  2  vols.;  revised  edition  by  J.  M.  Wilson, 
Edinburgh,  1844  ;  New  York,  1855. 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1540), 
bishop  and  martyr  ;  b.  at  Unthank,  Northum- 
berland, about  1500  ;  d.  at  Oxford,  Oct.  16, 
1555.  He  entered  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge, 
1518,  became  a  fellow,  studied  at  Paris  and 
Louvain,  1527-30,  was  made  sub-treasurer, 
proctor,  and  chaplain  of  the  university,  chap- 
lain to  Abp.  Cranmer  1537,  vicar  of  Heme, 
Kent,  1538,  chaplain  to  the  king  and  master  of 
Pembroke  Hall  1540  ;  canon  of  Canterbury 
soon  after,  and  of  Westminster,  1545  ;  bishop 
of  Rochester  1547,  after  Edward  VI's  accession. 
His  Protestant  principles  had  developed  gradu- 
ally :  he  renounced  transubstantiation  ]545  ; 
had  been  accused  by  Gardiner  of  preaching 
against  the  Six  Articles.  He  probably  assisted 
Cranmer  in  compiling  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  In  1550  he  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners to  examine  Gardiner  and  Bonner ; 
concurring  in  their  deprivation,  he  succeeded 
Bonner  as  Bishop  of  London.  Visiting  the 
Princess  Mary  in  1552,  and  finding  her  im- 
practicable, he  fell  into  the  plan  to  exclude  her 
from  the  throne,  and  on  the  King's  death 
denied  her  legitimacy  and  preached  at  St. 
Paul's  Cross,  July  16,  1553,  against  her  acces- 
sion ;  by  this  act  he  signed  his  own  death-war- 
rant. He  was  soon  committed  to  the  Tower, 
and  with  Cranmer  and  Latimer  tried  at  Ox- 
ford in  1554,  and  again  in  1555.  Twice  con- 
victed of  heresy,  and  refusing  to  recant,  he  was 
burned  at  the  stake  with  Latimer,  whose 
cheering  and  prophetic  words  to  him  are  justly 
famous.  His  writings,  which  are  not  numer- 
ous, were  collected  by  the  Parker  Society 
1841  ;  his  Life,  by  Dr.  G.  Ridley,  appeared 
London,  1763.  F.  M.  B. 

Riehm  (reem),  Edward  (Carl  August), 
Lie.  Theol.  (Heidelberg,  1853),  D.D.  (Halle, 
1864),  German  Protestant  theologian  ;  b.  at 
Diersburg,  Baden.  Dec.  20,  1830  ;  d.  at  Halle, 
April  5,  1888  ;  studied  theology  at  Heidel- 
berg and  Halle,  and  became  privat-docent  at 
Heidelberg,  1858,  professor  at  Halle,  1862. 
He  published  Der  Lehrbegriff  des  Hebrder- 
briefes,  Basel,  1859,  2d.  ed.  1867  ;  Die  Messia- 
niscJien  Weissagungen,  Gotha,  1875,  2d.  ed. 
1885  ;  Eirche  und  Theologie,  Halle,  1880 ; 
Ilandworterhuch  des  biblischen  Altertums.  Bie- 
lefeld, 1875-84,1  vol.  Posthumously  appeared 
Alttestamentliche  Theologie,  Halle,  1880  ;  Ein- 
leitung  in  d.  A.  T.,  1888-90. 

Rigdon,  Sidney,  Mormon  elder  ;  b.  in  St. 


RIOGS 


(811) 


RITUALISM 


fourth  council  of  Toledo,  633,  etc.  For  the 
pope's  ring,  aniiulus  piscatoriua,  see  art, 
Fisuek's  King,  p.  294. 

Ripley,  Henry  Jones,  D.D.  (Univ.  of 
Ala.,  1844;  Harvard,  1845),  Baptist  ;  b.  in 
Boston,  Jan.  28,  1798  ;  d.  at  Newton  Centre, 
Mass.,  May  21,  1875.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard 1816,  and  at  Andover  1819  ;  preaciied  for 
some  years  in  Georgia,  and  again  1860-65  ; 
veas  professor  of  biblical  literature  in  Newton 
Theological  Institution  1826-39  ;  also  of  pas- 
toral duties,  1826-32,  and  of  these  with  sacred 
rhetoric  1839-60  ;  librarian,  1865-72  ;  a.ssoci- 
ate  professor  of  biblical  literature,  1872-75. 
Among  his  works  are,  Aotes  on  the  Four  Gos- 
pels, Boston,  1837-8  ;  Acts,  1844  ;  Romans, 
1857  ;  and  llebreirs,  1868.  F.  M.  B. 

Ripon,  John,  D.D.  (- 


Clair  Township,  Alleghany  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb.  19, 
1793  ;  d.  at  Friendship,  N.  Y.,  July  14,  1876. 
He  became  a  Baptist  minister,  May,  1819  ;  a 
Disciple  minister,  1821  ;  was  at  Mentor,  O., 
editing  the  Book  of  Mormon,  1826,  and  was  as- 
sociated with  Joseph  Smith  in  the  establishment 
of  the  sect  and  in  liis  wild-cat  banking  scheme. 
After  Smith's  death  (1844),  he  aspired  to  be  the 
leader,  but  Brigham  Young  was  preferred. 
Rigdon  whereupon  refused  to  obey  Young 
and  in  consequence  was  excommunicated,  but 
remained  a  believer  in  the  doctrines  of  Mor- 
monism.  See  Mormonism  :  and  his  life  by 
W.  H.  Whitsitt,  1891. 

Riggs,  Elias,  D.D.  (Hanover  College, 
Ind.,  1853),  LL.D.  (Amherst  College,  Mass., 
1871),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  New  Providence, 
N.  J.,  Nov.  19,  1807;  was  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College,  1829,  and  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1832,  and  was  by  the  A.  B.  C.  F. 
M.  sent  as  missionary  to  Greece  in  1832,  to 
Smyrna  in  1838,  and  to  Constantinople  in 
1853,  where  he  still  remains.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  which  translated  the 
Bible  into  Turkish,  1873,  and  revised  the 
translation  in  1886.  With  the  collaboration  of 
native  scholars  he  also  translated  the  Bible 
into  Modern  Armenian,  and  into  Bulgarian  ; 
and  he  has  published  grammars  and  text-books 
in  Chaldee,  Modern  Armenian,  Bulsrarian,  and 
Turkish 

Righteousness,  an  essential  attribute  of 
the  divine  nature  and  administration  (Is.  xlv. 
23,  Ps.  cxlv.  17).  It  is  displayed  in  the  par- 
don of  penitent  sinners  because  they  are  ac- 
cepted in  view  of  the  perfect  obedience  of 
Christ  and  the  propitiation  made  through  his 
blood  (Rom.  iii.  24-26),  so  that  God  is  just, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  justitier  of  him  "that 
hath  ftiith  in  Jesus.  In  reference  to  personal 
character  righteousness  is  used  both  for  up- 
rightness between  man  and  man  (Gen.  xviii. 
23,  Lev.  xix.  15),  and  for  true  religion  or  holi- 
ness of  life  (Dan.  iv.  27,  Luke  i.  6,  Rom.  xiv. 
17.  Eph.  v.  9).  T.  W.  C. 

Rim'-mon  {pomegranate),  an  Assyrian  idol 
worshiped  in  Damascus  (2  Kin.  v.  18).  A 
town  in  Judah  bore  this  name  (Josh.  xv.  32), 
also  a  Levitical  city  in  Zebulon  (1  Chr.  vi.  77), 
and  a  rocky  height  to  which  600  Benjamites 
fled  after  the  slaughter  of  their  tribe  (Jud.  xx. 
45,  xxi.  13).  Its  site  is  the  modern  village 
Jiummon,  a  dozen  miles  north  of  Jerusalem. 
T.  W.  C. 

Rings.  The  use  of  rings  as  ornaments,  not 
only  for  the  fingers,  arms,  and  legs,  but  also 
forthe  ears  and  the  nose,  dates  back  into  the 
history  of  mankind  as  far  as  we  can  trace  it. 
The  use  of  finger-rings  as  token  of  authority 
or  pledge  is  also  very  old  ;  it  occurs  in  the  ear- 
liest limes  of  Egyptian  history  and  was  common  , --^  .1111  11 
among  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  11^42  ;  Esth.  iii.  10  ;  Catholic  church,  wa.s  suppressed,  anc  com 
1  Macc.vi.l5,)andtheRomans(UieEquestrian'Pl^'l«  un.formity  established,  was  publ.shec 
Order).  Thus  it  naturally  became  a  symbol 
among  the  Christians,  though  by  itself,  its 
form,  it  had  no  specifically  Christian  implica- 
tion. The  marriage  ring  is  first  spoken  of  in 
the  10th  century,  but  the  epi.scopal  ring  already 
in  the  6th  and  the  beginning  of  the  7th,  in  a 
letter  from  Boniface  IV.,  in" the  canons  of  the 


18—)  Bapti-st  ; 
b.  at  Tiverton,  Devon,  161  m.  w.  by  s.  of 
London,  April  29,  1751  ;  d.  in  London,  Dec. 
17,  1836.  From  1773  he  held  a  charge 
in  London.  He  edited  the  Baptist  Annual 
Regiiiter,  1790-1802  ;  An  Arrangement  of 
Watt's  Psalms  and  Ilymns,  and  a  Selection  of 
Ilymtis,  1787,  enlarged  (10th  edition)  1800. 
This  last  was  long  in  use,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  important  and  influential  of  English 
hymn  books.  F.  M.  B. 

Ritschl  (rich-el),  Albrecht,  Ph.D.  (Halle, 
1843),  Lie.  Theol.  (Bonn,  1846) ;  LL.D.  (Got- 
tingen,  1881),  b.  in  Berlin,  March  25,  1822  ;  d. 
at  Gottiugen,  March  29,  1889 ;  studied  at 
Bonn  and  Halle,  became  privat  docent  at 
Bonn,  1846,  professor  there  in  1852.  and  at 
GOttingen,  1864.  As  a  determined  opponent  of 
Protestant  scholasticism  he  formed  a  consider- 
able school  among  German  theologians.  His 
principal  works  are  :  Uie  Entsteknng  der  alt- 
katholischen  Kirche,  Bonn,  1850  ;  second  and 
completely  revised  edition,  1857 ;  and  in  the 
mean  time  he  had  abandoned  the  standpoint  of 
the  Tubingen  school ;  Die  christliche  Lehre 
von  der  Rechtfertignnq  imd  Versohnung,  1870- 
74,  3  vols.,  2nd  ed.  1882-83,  new  ed.  in  one 
vol.  1889  (English  translation  vol.  i.  A  critical 
History  of  the  Chrixtinn  Doctrine  of  J^stifirn- 
tion  and  Reconciliation,  Edin.  1872) ;  Geschichte 
des  Pie-tismas,  1880-86,  3  vols.  ;  posthu- 
mously appeared  Fides  implicita,  1890. 

Ritter,  Karl,  b.  at  Quedlinburg,  Prussian 
Saxony,  Aug.  7,  1779  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Sept.  25, 
1859  ;  was  appointed  professor  of  geography  in 
Berlin  1820,  and  published,  besides  numerous 
other  works  of  general  geographical  interest. 
The  Comparative  Geography  of  Palestine  and 
tJte  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  translated  by  Gage, 
Edinburgh,  1866,  4  vols. 

Rituale  Romanum,  The,  by  which  every 
i  local  difference,  which  in  the  course  of  time 
1  had  developed  in  the  ritual   of  the   Roman 

by  Paul  v..  1614,  and  made  obligatory  on  all 
the  otlicers  of  the  church. 


{ 


Ritualism,  the  excessive  devotion  to  rites 
and  forms  denoted  by  this  word,  was  the  suc- 
cessor of  Tractarianism.  The  authors  of  the 
Oxford  Tracts  confined  their  attention  to  doc- 
trine, but  tliey  gave  rise  to  others  who  cr.rried 


RITUALISM 


(812; 


ROBERTSON 


their  principles  out  into  an  ornate  series  of 
visible  and  impressive  symbols  which  ex- 
pressed the  sacerdotal  structure  of  the  church. 
Men  began  to  study  liturgical  correctness  in 
beautifying  the  chancel,  placing  the  altar  at 
its  proper  height,  arranging  the  screen  and 
stalls,  the  credence  table,  the  cross,  the  lights, 
the  colored  cloths,  etc.  Objection  was  made, 
and  the  matter  was  carried  into  the  ecclesias- 
tical courts.  In  the  case  of  St.  Barnabas, 
Pimlico,  certain  ritualistic  practices  which 
had  been  condemned  in  the  Consistory  Court 
of  London  and  in  the  Court  of  Arches,  were 
brought  before  the  Committee  of  Privy  Coun- 
cil, which  in  1857  decided  that  the  Rubric 
permitted  the  use  of  the  articles  which  were 
prescribed  in  the  first  Prayer-book  of  Edward 
VI.  From  this  time  an  elaborate  organiza- 
tion, the  English  Church  Union,  pressed 
steadily  forward  in  using  the  liberty  thus 
gained  to  the  fullest  possible  extent.  They 
did  this  against  serious  obstacles,  such  as  the 
unbroken  usage  of  previous  centuries,  the  op- 
position of  the  bishops,  who  sought  to  avoid 
any  sharp  conflict  with  common  custom,  and 
fierce  popular  suspicion,  which  dreaded  any- 
thing that  seemed  like  Romish  usages.  Legal 
opposition  was  renewed,  and  in  1877  the  high- 
est court  decided  that  the  old  Elizabethan  pre- 
cedent must  be  strictly  followed.  Turmoil 
and  confusion  followed,  until  in  1874  the 
famous  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act  was 
passed,  which  swept  away  all  the  process  in 
Diocesan  Courts,  and  allowed  any  aggrieved 
parishoners  to  lodge  a  complaint  which,  unless 
stayed  by  the  bishop's  veto,  was  carried  before 
the  dean  of  Arches,  from  whose  decision  an 
appeal  lay  to  the  Privy  Council.  The  attempt 
to  enforce  this  Act  was  met  by  absolute  resist- 
ance, and  at  one  time  led  to  the  imprisonment 
of  four  priests.  The  opposition  was  so  great 
that  in  1881  a  royal  commission  was  issued  to 
consider  the  whole  question  of  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction,  for  many  who  had  little  sympathy 
with  an  advanced  ritual  were  yet  greatly  dis- 
pleased with  the  abolition  of  all  church  courts. 
Time  has  considerably  allayed  the  excite- 
ment which  so  long  prevailed.  Other  ques- 
tions have  arisen  of  greater  practical  import- 
ance :  the  permanent  adjustment  of  the  rela- 
tions of  church  and  state,  the  evangelization 
of  the  neglected  classes,  the  wider  diffusion  of 
the  gospel  among  the  heathen,  etc.,  and  so  the 
tension  has  sensibly  slackened.  Yet  cases 
continually  occur  in  which  questions  of  usage 
come  up  before  the  highest  authorities,  and  in 
1890  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  gave  a  de- 
cision on  an  appeal  from  the  Bishop  of  Lin- 
coln. Difficulties  must  be  expected  to  occur 
so  long  as  the  church  is  so  closely  allied  with 
the  state.  The  general  opinion  of  other  bodies 
of  Christians  would  be  to  allow  large  liberty 
where  practices  do  not  involve  Romish  doc- 
trine, but  none  where  they  do,  because  the 
Church  of  England  is  a  Protestant  body,  and 
to  allow  such  observances  would  be  to  under- 
mine her  own  foundations.  But  of  course  it 
is  not  easy  always  to  discriminate  between 
cases  supported  only  by  aesthetic  considera- 
tions and  those  which  imply  a  doctrinal  con- 
viction, and  for  that  reason  are  pressed. 

T.  W.  C. 


River  of  Egypt  denotes,  in  Gen.  xv.  18,  the 
Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  but  in  the  other 
places  where  it  occurs  means  a  torrent  bed,  and 
is  supposed  to  be  the  Wady  el-Arish  through 
which  the  waters  of  the  central  desert  Et-Tih 
flow  into  the  Mediterranean  about  40  miles 
southwest  of  Gaza.  T.  W.  C. 

Rivet  (re-va),  Andre,  b.  at  Saint-Maixent, 
Poitou,  France,  Aug.  5,  1573 ;  d.  at  Breda, 
Holland,  Jan.  7,  1651  ;  was  appointed  pro-  . 
fessor  of  theology  at  Leyden  in  1620,  and 
director  of  the  College  of  Orange,  Breda,  in 
1632.  Of  his  numerous  works  the  Isagoge  and 
Script.  Sacr.,  I)ort.,  1616,  is  still  of  interest. 

Robber-Synod,  The.  See Ephesus, Coun- 
cils of,  7,  p.  262. 

Robertson,  Frederick  'William,  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  in  London,  Feb.  3,  1816  ;  d. 
at  Brighton,  Aug.  15,  1853.  His  early  years 
were  spent  at  Leith,  Beverley,  Tours,  and 
Edinburgh  ;  at  eighteen  he  was  articled  to  a 
solicitor,  but  his  health  gave  way  in  a  year. 
Anxious  to  enter  the  army,  he  retained  through 
life  a  martial  strain  ;  but  there  were  delays, 
and  he  yielded  to  his  father's  wish  that  he 
should  study  for  the  ministry.  A  few  days 
after  his  matriculation  at  Brazenose  College,. 
Oxford  (May,  1837),  his  commission  arrived  ;. 
but  the  die  was  cast.  Ordained  July,  1840,  he 
was  curate  a  year  at  Winchester,  and  at  Cliel- 
tenham,  1842-46,  retaining  the  views  of  a  Cal- 
vinistic  Evangelical.  In  the  Tyrol,  1846,  he 
passed  through  a  terrific  mental  revolution, 
afterward  described  with  unequaled  power 
in  his  famous  lecture  to  workiugmen  at 
Brighton.  Holding  fast  to  "  the  grand,  simple 
landmarks  of  morality,"  he  found  rest  in  the 
"  symmetry  and  loveliness  and  unequaled 
nobleness  of  the  humanity  of  the  Son  of  Man.'* 
After  two  months  duty  at  Oxford,  he  in 
August,  1847,  began  his  memorable  ministry  at 
Trinity  chapel,  Brighton.  Here  the  singular 
purity,  depth,  and  manliness  of  his  character 
were  felt,  and  his  devoted  earnestness  found 
abundant  work  to  do.  The  beauty  of  his  face 
and  voice  attracted  auditors,  his  impassioned 
eloquence  held  them,  the  originality  of  his 
thoughts  gave  them  mental  and  spiritual 
stimulus  not  easily  found  elsewhere.  He  had 
a  message  to  deliver,  not  traditional,  but  emi- 
nently his  own.  Though  popularly  classified 
as  "broad,"  he  stooped  neither  to  follow  nor  to 
lead  a  party,  and  was  solitary  ;  almost  witliout 
affiliations  even.  Views  now  familiar  if  not 
generally  received  (as  those  concerning  atone- 
ment and  the  Sabbath)  were  then  startlingly 
novel  ;  isolated  less  by  his  theological  opinions 
than  by  the  courage  a"nd  brilliancy  with  which 
he  proclaimed  them,  he  was  made  the  object 
of  frequent  and  virulent  attacks  in  publications 
like  the  Record.  To  a  message  that  he  might 
expect  preferment  if  he  would  be  more  con- 
servative or  less  outspoken,  he  replied  that  he 
could  not  turn  one  step  from  his  path  for 
royalty  itself,  and  that  the  world  had  nothing 
which  he  cared  for.  His  fastidious  sensitive- 
ness, always  inclining  to  the  morbid,  never 
checked  the  zeal  and  efficiency  of  his  labors, 
but  robbed  earth  of  all  charm,  and  he  thought 
it  unmanly  to  dwell  on  the  prospect  of  heaven. 


ROBERTSON 


(813) 


ROGERS 


A  torturing  brain  disease  afflicted  his  last  years, 
and  the  refusal  of  his  vicar  to  license  the  curate 
whom  he  had  chosen,  and  for  whose  support 
his  admirers  had  provided,  left  him  helpless 
before  enormous  and  increasing  tasks.  His 
standards  and  consolations  were  not  of  this 
world  ;  disdaining  the  idea  of  happiness,  he 
lived  and  died  in  the  spirit  of  the  cross. 

His  fame  and  general  influence  were  posthu- 
mous ;  his  sermons  and  expository  lectures 
(London  and  N.  Y.,  1861,  sqq)  were  greedily 
received,  and  the  admirable  Life,  by  Stopford 
A.  Brooke  (1865,  2  vols.),  presented  the  man  in 
his  habit  as  he  lived.  Few  books  have  had  so 
deep  and  wide  an  effect  on  religious  thought 
and  feeling.  The  strong  and  lovable  person- 
ality of  Robertson  has  carried  its  weight  with 
thousands,  and  the  convictions  which  were  part 
of  his  character  have  entered  into  the  life  of 
two  continents.  To  those  who  care  merely  for 
scholastic  and  systematic  thinking  he  is  a  minor 
figure  ;  to  those  who  regard  religion  as  a  life, 
he  is  one  of  its  most  powerful  and  precious 
exponents.  F.  M.  Bird. 

Robertson,  James  Craigie,  Church  of 
England  ;  b.  at  Aberdeen,  1813  ;  d.  at  Canter- 
bury, July  9,  1883.  He  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  1834  ;  was  vicar  of  Beck- 
esbourne,  1846-59  ;  then  ciinon  of  Canterbury 
and  professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  in 
King's  College,  London,  1864-74.  His  chief 
work  is  a  History  of  the  Christian  Church  to 
the  Reformation.  London,  1853-73,  4  vols.; 
new  edition,  1873-75,  8  vols.  F.  M.  B. 

Robinson,  Charles  Seymour,  D.D. (Ham- 
ilton College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1866),  LL.D. 
(Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Pa.,  1885),  Presby- 
terian :  b.  at  Bennington,  Vt.,  March  31, 
1829  ;  studied  in  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  and  at  Princeton  ;  was  elected 
pastor  of  Memorial  Church,  New  York,  in 
1870,  and  resigned  1887  ;  editor  of  Every  Sat- 
urday since  1890.  He  has  published  several 
collections  of  hymns  which  have  met  with  ex- 
traordinary success  ;  Songs  for  the  Sanctuary, 
Laudes  Domini,  etc.  ;  also  sermons  sMd  Short 
Studits  for  Sunday  School  Teachers,  New 
York,  1868  ;  Studies  of  Neglected  Texts,  1883  ; 
Studies  in  Mark's  Gospel,  1888  ;  Studies  in 
Luke's  Gospel,  1887-90;  2  series. 

Robinson,  Edw^ard,  D.D.  (Dartmouth, 
1831  ;  Halle,  1842),  LL.D.  (Yale,  1844),  Pres- 
byterian; b.  at  Southington,  Conn.,  April  10, 
r794  ;  d.  in  New  York.  Jan.  27,  1863.  He 
graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  1816  ;  taught 
there,  1817-18,  and  at  Andover,  1823-26,  and 
tlien  spent  four  years  at  Gottingcn,  Halle,  and 
Berlin.  Returning  with  an  accompii.shed 
German  wife,  he  was  professor  of  biblical 
Literature  at  Andover,  1830-33  ;  in  1837  he 
accepted  a  similar  chair  in  Union  Seminary, 
New  York,  which  he  hold  till  dcatli.  In 
1837-38  lie  was  in  Asia,  and  1838-40  in  Berlin, 
preparing  his  great  work,  Bihliral  Risearchts 
in  Palestine,  Mount  Sinai,  and  Arabia  Petren., 
which  appeared  in  3  vols.,  Boston,  1841.  The 
Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London  gave 
hirn  a  gold  medal  for  this,  and  Dean  Stanley 
.said  he  was  "  tlie  first  person  who  ever  saw 
Palestine  with  his  eyes  open  to  what  he  ought 


to  see."  A  later  visit  in  1852  led  to  a  supple- 
mental volume,  1856,  incorporated  with  the 
third  edition  of  the  others  in  1867,  and  to 
Physical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  1865, 
the  first  part  of  a  large  work  which  he  pro- 
jected but  could  not  carry  out.  He  also  ren- 
dered eminent  services  to  scholarship  in  his 
Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  JS'eio  2'esta- 
ment,  N.  Y.,  1836  ;  in  his  translation  of  Gese- 
nius'  Hebrew  Lexicon,  Boston,  1836 ;  in  the 
Biblical  liepository,  which  he  founded  1831 
(united  with  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1851),  and 
in  his  editions  of  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  1832  ;  Buttmanu's  Greek  Grammar,  N. 
Y.,  1833,  and  Newcome's  Greek  Harmony  of 
tlis  Gospels,  Boston,  1834,  superseded  by  his 
own  Harmonies  in  Greek  and  English,  1845-6. 
See  his  Life,  by  Drs.  Hitchcock  and  H.  B. 
Smith,  N.  Y.,  1863.  F.  M.  B. 

Robinson,  John,  Independent ;  b.  proba- 
bly near  Scrooby,  Nottinghamshire,  1575  ;  d. 
at  Leyden,  March  1,  1625.  He  entered  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge,  1592,  became  a  fel- 
low 1599.  held  a  charge  near  Norwich  1600-4, 
but  was  suspended  by  his  bishop  ;  joined  a 
separatist  society  at  Gainsborough,  became  its 
pastor  at  Scrooby  1606,  removed  to  Amster- 
dam 1608,  and  to  Leyden  1609.  Thence  part 
of  his  congregation  (the  "  Pilgrim  Fathers") 
sailed  1620  in  the  Speedwell,  and  came  to 
America  in  the  Mayflower  under  Brewster ; 
Robinson  intended  to  follow  later  with  the 
rest.  His  Works  were  reprinted  in  3  vols., 
London,  1851,  with  a  memoir  by  R.  Ash  ton. 
F.  M.  B. 


Robinson,  Stuart  (- 


-,   18—).  Presby- 


terian ;  b.  at  Strabane,  11  m.  s.  s.w.  of  London- 
derry, Ireland,  Nov.  26,  1816  ;  d.  at  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  Oct.  5,  1881.  He  graduated  at  Am- 
herst, 1836,  and  studied  diVinity  at  Prince 
Edward,  Va. ;  Avaspastctr  at  Kanawha  Salines, 
W.  Va.,  1841-47  ;  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  1847-52  ; 
at  Baltimore,  1852-56,  and  at  Louisville  from 
1858,  with  an  interval,  1856-58,  as  professor 
of  ecclesiology  at  Danville,  Ky.  He  was  a 
leader  among  the  Southern  Presbvterians  and 
publislied  The  Church  of  God,  Philadelphia, 
1858,  and  Discourses  of  Redemption,  New 
York,  1866.  F.  M.  B. 

Rodgers,  John,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1768), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  in  Boston,  Aug.  5,  1727  ;  d. 
in  New  York,  May  7,  1811.  He  was  taken  to 
Philadelphia  in  1728,  and  licensed  1747  ;  pas- 
tor at  St.  George's,  Newcastle  Co. ,  Del.,  1749- 
65,  and  thenceforth  in  Wall  St.,  New  York  ; 
army  chaplain  in  1776  ;  moderator  of  the  first 
General  Assembly,  1789.  His  Memoir  was 
written  by  S.  Miller,  New  York,  1809  ;  n.e., 
Phila.  (Pres.  Bd.)  F.  M.  B. 

Rogations,  religious  processions  with  pray- 
ers for  special  blessings ;  see  Litany,  p. 
505. 

Rogers,  Ebenezer  Piatt,  Reformed 
Dutch  ;  b.  in  New  York,  Dec.  18,  1817  ;  d. 
at  Montclair,  N.  J.,  Oct.  23,  1881  ;  he  was 
graduated  at  Yale,  1837,  studied  theology  in 
Princeton  and  Hartford,  held  various  pastoral 
charges,  liust  in  New  York,  and  published 
Earnest    Words  to    Young   Men,    Charleston, 


ROGERS 


(814)     ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


S.  C,  1837  ;  Historical  Discourse  on  tTie  Bef. 
Dutch  Church  of  Albany,  New  York,  1858 ; 
The  Precious  Things  of  Peter,  a  series  of 
sermons,  1863. 

Rogers,  Henry,  Congregationalist  ;  b. 
Oct.  18,  1806  ;  d.  at  Machyntleth,  Wales,  207 
m.  n.w.  of  London,  Aug.  20,  1877.  He  was 
educated  at  Highbury,  and  held  a  charge  for 
some  years  ;  was  professor  of  the  English 
language  and  literature  in  University  College, 
London,  1839  ;  professor  of  philosophy  in 
Spring  Hill  College,  Birmingham ;  princi- 
pal of  Lancashire  Independent  College,  Man- 
chester, 1858.  He  opposed  Tractarianism, 
satirized  Colenso  (1863),  and  published  ten  or 
twelve  volumns,  of  which  the  chief  is  the 
Eclipse  of  Faith,  London,  1852,  in  answer  to 
r.  W.  Newman's  Phases  of  Faith. 

F.  M.  B. 

Rogers,  John,  martyr  ;  b.  at  Birmingham 
about  1500  ;  d.  at  Smithfield,  Feb.  4,  1555. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  as  chap- 
lain at  Antwerp  imbibed  Protestant  principles. 
As  "  Thomas  Matthewe  "  he  published  in  1537 
an  English  Bible,  based  on  those  of  Tyndale 
and  Coverdale.  In  1547  he  returned  from 
"Wittenberg  to  England,  and  in  1551  received 
a  prebend  in  St.  Paul's.  On  Mary's  accession, 
1553,  he  was  imprisoned,  and  was  the  first  to 
be  burned  in  that  reign,  his  wife  and  eleven 
children  meeting  him  "  by  the  way."  His 
Life  was  written  by  J.  L.  Chester,  London, 
1861.  F.  M.  B. 

Rohr,  Johann  Friedrich,  b.  at  Rossbach, 
Prussian  Saxony,  July  30,  1777  ;  d.  at  Weimar, 
June  15,  1848  ;  was  in  1820  appointed  court- 
preacher  and  superintendent-general  at  Wei- 
mar, and  by  his  Predigerliteratur,  1810-14, 
Neue  und  Neueste  Predigerliteratur,  1815-19, 
Kritische  Prediger  Bibliothek,  he  took  rank  as 
one  of  the  leading  representatives  of  German 
rationalism. 

Romaine,  William,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Hartlepool,  Durham,  Sept.  25,  1*714  ;  d. 
in  London,  July  26,  1795.  He  was  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  in  1739  attacked 
Warburton's  Divine  Legation  from  the  univer-  | 
sity  pulpit.  From  1748  he  held  lectureships  [ 
in  London,  and  from  1764  was  rector  of  Black- 
friars.  In  1757  he  declined  a  call  to  Philadel- 
phia,_  and  was  excluded  from  the  university 
pulpit.  He  was  an  extreme  Calviuist  and  a 
leader  of  the  Evangelical  party.  His  chief 
books  are  The  Life,  Walk,  and  Triumph  of 
Faith,  London,  1763-71-94.  His  Works  were 
collected  in  8  vols.,  1796,  with  a  Life  by 
W.  B.  Cadogau.  F.  M.  B. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  name  given 
to  that  body  of  Christians  who  acknowledge 
the  bishop  of  Rome  as  the  Supreme  Head  of 
the  church  on  earth.  They  themselves  prefer 
the  title  of  Catholic,  or  Holy  Catholic  church. 

HisTOKY.  The  Roman  Catholic  church,  prop- 
erly so  speaking,  comes  into  existence  slowly 
within  the  period  from  the  toleration  of  Chris- 
tianity by  Coustantine  (313)  and  the  union  of 
the  papacy  with  the  new  German-Roman 
empire  at  the  crowning  of  Charlemagne  (800). 
Before  this  period  we  find  a  catholic  church 


existing  under  the  government  of  bishops,  and 
in  some  places  of  metropolitans,  who  exercise 
no  control  over  each  other,  but  live  in  liar- 
mony  and  ecclesiastical  fellowship.  The 
unity  of  the  church  consists  in  the  unity  of  the 
episcopate,  to  use  Cyprian's  term,  but  no  one 
bishop  towers  above  all  the  rest.  With  the 
alliance  made  between  the  civil  and  religious 
powers  in  313,  a  new  order  of  things  began  to 
arise.  The  council  of  Nice  (325)  made  certain 
disciplinary  regulations  which  were  to  affect 
particular  localities  or  the  whole  church.  The 
tendency  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  local 
churches,  once  introduced,  continually 
strengthened.  The  power  of  the  great  bishops 
grew,  and  that  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  was 
soon  acknowledged  throughout  the  entire 
Western  church  with  more  or  less  distinctness. 
Sai'dica  (344)  helped  him  to  make  Rome  an 
appellate  court  ;  Valentinian  contirmed  this 
right  (445).  In  the  confusion  into  which  the 
public  affairs  of  Italy  and  the  West  fell  upon 
the  coming  of  the  barbarian  invaders,  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  who  possessed  the  most  solid 
power  then  existing,  and  had  the  moral  worth 
and  courage  to  make  it  felt,  became  more  and 
more  the  principal  figure  in  the  minds  of  men. 
The  empire  felt  in  800  that  it  needed  the  help 
of  such  a  bishop,  and  the  bishop  needed  the 
protection  of  the  empire. 

To  this  time  the  pope  of  Rome,  though 
claiming  in  an  undefined  manner  jurisdiction 
over  the  whole  church,  had  never  proceeded 
to  such  interference  with  the  affairs  of  the 
Eastern  church  as  to  make  a  rupture  inevi- 
table. But  in  the  affair  of  Photius  (q.v.)  he 
made  such  claims  as  to  produce  a  formal 
separation  between  the  two  churches  (867). 
Though  various  unions  were  patched  up  after 
this,  Rome,  in  fact,  now  lost  her  Catholicity 
almost  contemporaneously  with  the  beginning 
of  the  development  of  her  highest  claims 
(Nicholas  I.,  858-867).  Thus  confined  to 
Western  Europe,  the  problem  of  Rome  was  to 
obtain  mastery  over  all  the  elements  of  power 
within  this  limited  sphere.  No  great  pope 
appeared  after  Nicholas  till  Gregory  (1073- 
1085),  who  advanced  the  papacy  by  wresting 
the  power  of  appointing  his  ecclesiastical  sub- 
ordinates from  the  emperor,  and  by  enforcing 
that  celibacy  which  was  to  make  the  clergy  of 
Rome  a  compact  body,  separated  from  all 
ordinary  human  ties  and  devoted  solely  to  the 
church.  From  this  time  to  Boniface  VIII. 
(1294-1303),  there  was  a  constant  struggle  for 
the  supremacy  between  the  pope  and  the 
states  of  Europe,  till  this  pope  declared  it  to 
be  necessary  to  salvation  to  be  subject  to  the 
Roman  pontiff.  From  the  summit  of  this 
arrogated  power,  rendered  partially  real  by  the 
results  of  the  crusades  (1089-1291),  the  papacy 
descended  to  the  depths  of  subjection  to  the 
French  throne  in  the  "Babylonish  Captivity," 
at  Avignon  (1305-1377),  and  emerged  from 
this  only  to  sink  still  lower  in  the  great  schism 
(1378-1449),  which  the  councils  of  Pisa,  Con- 
stance, and  Basel  sought  in  vain  to  heal. 

In  the  16th  century  occurred  the  great  dis- 
ruption wrought  by  the  Reformation  (q.v.). 
England,  Holland,  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  with  large  portions  of  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  were  permanently  separated  from 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH   (815)   ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


Rome.  The  order  of  the  Jesuits  (founded 
1540)  labored  diligently  to  repair  the  losses 
caused  by  the  Reformation,  with  partial  suc- 
cess. The  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-48) 
checked  the  progress  of  Protestantism,  but  at 
the  cost  of  desolating  almost  beyond  recovery 
some  of  the  fairest  portions  of  the  territory  of 
the  German  empire.  In  the  new  world  it  also 
seemed  probable  that  Catliolic  states  would  rise 
of  great  magnificence.  In  the  latter  half  of 
the  XVIII.  century,  a  shower  of  severe  blows 
seemed  to  fall  upon  the  church.  The  order  of 
Jesuits  had  to  be  suspended  (1773);  in  France 
free-thinking  was  permitted  undisturbed  cul- 
tivation ;  in  Austria  and  Germany  there  was  a 
proposition  to  establish  a  national  church  in- 
dependent to  the  pope  ;  the  French  Revolu- 
tion for  a  time  abolished  the  church.  Thus  it 
entered  upon  the  present  century  under  un- 
favorable auspices.  Napoleon,  though  pro- 
fessing to  be  a  son  of  the  church,  handled  it 
very  much  like  a  master.  The  temporal 
power  of  the  pope  was  taken  from  him,  and 
though  it  was  restored  in  1814,  and  the  Jesuits 
in  1816,  the  prevalence  of  the  revolutionary 
spirit  in  Europe  and  the  prouress  of  liberalism 
(188U,  1848)  moved  straight  on  to  the  final 
destruction  of  the  temporal  power  in  1870. 

But  while  thus  humbled  in  the  political 
sphere,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  under 
Pius  IX.  began  that  course  of  spiritual  effort 
in  all  lands  which  has  given  it  new  strength. 
The  hierarchy  was  re-established  in  Holland  in 
1853  by  the  erection  of  one  archbishopric  and 
four  bishoprics.  The  same  step  was  taken  in 
1850  in  England,  where  one  archbishopric  and 
twelve  bishoprics  were  established.  The  same 
provision  was  made  for  Scotland  by  Leo  XIII. 
in  1878.  The  movement,  led  by  J.  H.  New- 
man, who  went  over  to  the  Roman  church  in 
1845,  gave  a  large  number  of  accessions  to  the 
same  church  from  the  ranks  of  the  nobility 
and  the  educated,  among  whom  was  Manning, 
made  Cardinal  in  1875.  In  Germany,  the  re- 
sults of  the  Vatican  council  and  of  the  Franco- 
German  war  plunged  the  church  into  the 
■"  Kulturkampf "  (q.v.)  from  which  it  is 
slowly  emerging.  But  on  the  other  hand,  in 
tho.se  Catholic  countries  which  were  once  in 
closest  harmony  with  Rome,  the  progress  of 
freedom  has  produced  limitations  of  the 
former  power  of  the  chinch.  Thus  in  Austria 
the  constitution  of  1848  introduced  a  certain 
degree  of  toleration  which  has  proved  endur- 
ing, and  in  Italy  and  Spain  orders  have  been 
expelled  and  the  supremacy  of  the  state  in  the 
secular  sphere  maintained. 

Dogmatic  System.  This  has  two  ele- 
ments. One  common  to  all  Christian  churches 
and  the  other  distinctive  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the 
whole  range  of  natural  theology,  the  being  and 
attributes  of  God,  and  the  doctrines  embodied 
in  the  creeds  of  Nice  and  Chaleerlon.  are  the 
common  faith  of  Catholics  and  Protestants. 
We  pass  then  to  the  distinctive  elements  of 
the  Roman  system. 

The  fundamental  doctrine  of  the  system  is 
that  of  the  church.  TU\<  is  defined  so  as  to 
identify  it  with  tlie  visible  church,  which  is 
distinguished  by  the  government  of  the  hie- 
rarchy and  the  administration  of  tiie  sacra- 


ments. The  church  mus  the  visible,  in  the  Cath- 
olic conception,  or  else  it  is  not  knowable,  .since 
man  must  be  able  to  recognize  it  by  means  of 
his  senses.  Its  visibility  is  a  parallel  fact  with 
the  incarnation  by  which  God  made  himself 
manifest  to  man. 

The  marks  of  the  ideal  church  are,  now,  all 
ascribed  to  this  visible  church.  This  is  Apos- 
tolic and  Catholic.  It  is  also  one.  Its  unity 
consists  "  in  the  faithful  confession  of  the  en- 
tire moral  and  doctrinal  system  of  Christ, 
comprising  the  entire  range  of  such  truth,  and 
that  upon  the  basis  of  the  divine  authority  of 
1  Christ  represented  in  the  church."  So  llein- 
'  rich.  But  neither  he  nor  the  Catechismus  Ro- 
1  manus  claims  that  the  Church  of  Rome  has 
:  sought  to  embrace  within  her  fold  all  Chris- 
tians, and  thus  to  maintain  the  unity  of  the  body 
of  Christ  !  It  is  also  infallible,  "an  attribute 
which  is  now  taught  to  have  its  organ  in  the 
pope  (see  Infallibility).  Whether  the 
church  teaches  that  salvation  is  possible  only 
within  her  fold  is  a  disputed  point  ;  but  the 
utterances  of  popes,  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
I  and  even  of  such  liberal  C/'atholics  as  M5hler 
("  connection  with  Christ  is  also  always  at  the 
same  time  connection  with  His  church,")  as 
well  as  the  logic  of  the  system,  render  it  un- 
deniably a  part  of  the  official  teaching. 

With  this  doctrine  of  the  church,  it  is  easy 
to  see  what  Romanism  will  teach  as  to  the 
source  of  dogmatic  truth.  Scripture  and  tra- 
dition are  put  upon  the  same  level,  but  tradi- 
tion is  simply  another  name  for  the  utterances 
of  the  church  by  papal  decisions,  decrees  of 
councils,  etc.  As  we  need  a  church  to  bring 
us  into  connection  with  God,  so  we  need  that 
;  this  church  should  possess  an  infallible  teach- 
'  ing  authority.  Through  the  church  we  gain  a 
"sense "for  truth,  and  hence  in  the  cliurch 
'  men  understand  the  Scriptures  and  the  truth 
as  is  impossible  without.  The  Bible  thus  be- 
comes but  a  portion  of  the  complex  of  church 
teaching,  which  bears  with  it  the  authority  of 
God. 

As  the  external  church  is  necessary  to  re- 
ligion, so  the  clergy  is  necessary  to  the  church. 
This  exists  in  an  unbroken  succession  from  the 
apostles,  and  forms  a  hierarchy  with  the  pope 
at  the  apex.  The  priesthood  is  necessary  for 
the  governing  of  the  church,  but  particularly 
for  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  and 
for  mediation  between  the  believer  and  Gofl . 
Essentially,  the  neces.sity  of  the  priesthood 
rests  upon  the  necessity  of  a  sacrifice,  which 
is  afforded  in  the  mass.  The  clergy  is,  for 
disciplinary  reasons,  bound  to  a  celibate  life. 
(See  Papacy.) 

So  much  for  the  church.  When  we  come 
to  the  doctrines  that  pertain  to  salvation,  the 
Roman  church  teaches  that  justification  is 
mnkiiiri  righteous,  not  (h'cl<irinr/  righteous. 
Justification  by  faith  is  rejected,  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  good  works  to  salvation  is  empha- 
sized. These,  wrought  by  man  under  the  a.s- 
sistance  of  divine  grace,  are  said  to  produce 
true  merit,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  are  often 
'  supposed  to  be  the  means  of  earning  salva- 
;  tion.  (Certain  works  are  also  conceived  to  be 
beyond  the  requirements  of  the  law  of  God, 
and  so  supererogatory,  as  e.  g..  the  "  evangeli- 
cal counsels,"  celibacy,   poverty,  etc.     Hence 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH   (816)   ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


the  favor  shown  the  monastic  life.  With  this 
theory  is  also  intimately  associated  the  worship 
of  the  saints,  and  of  the  Virgin  in  particular. 
They  have  the  power  to  help  men  through  the 
transfer  of  the  merits  of  their  supererogatory 
good  works.  In  the  case  of  the  Virgin,  the 
process  of  time  has  led  to  her  exaltation  to  the 
position  of  a  mediator  ("  that  she  may  concili- 
ate God  for  us  sinners  by  her  intercession," 
Roman  Catechism),  the  ascription  to  her  of  sin- 
lessness,  and  finally  to  the  promulgation  (1854) 
of  her  immaculate  conception. 

As  the  external  church  is  the  true  church, 
so  the  sacraments  are  the  means  of  the  con- 
ferment of  grace,  and  work  ex  opere  operato, 
or  "  always  and  to  all  convey  the  grace  "  when 
they  are  administered.  To  the  validity  of  sac- 
raments administered  by  a  regularly  ordained 
priest  are  necessary  only  the  intention  to  ad- 
minister them,  the  "  form,"  or  the  word  of  in- 
stitution, and  the  matter,  as  bread  and  wine. 
The  doctrine  of  tlie  opus  operatmn  is  an  at- 
tempt to  secure  the  objectivity  of  grace,  inde- 
pendent of  the  changeable  moods  of  man  ;  but 
to  do  it  the  necessity  of  faith  in  the  recipient 
is  denied. 

Hence  baptism  is  the  sacrament  of  regenera- 
tion, by  which  the  guilt  of  original  and  actual 
sins  committed  before  Daptismis  washed  away. 
Hence  it  is  necessary  to  salvation.  Confirma- 
tion is  the  sacrament  of  strengthening.  The 
sacrament  of  penance  comprises  repentance 
(contrition,  attrition),  confession,  satisfaction 
(works  done  or  pains  suffered  as  punishments 
for  the  sins  confessed),  and  absolution.  The 
same  effort  to  obtain  objectivity  is  here  mani- 
fest. The  Catholic  is  to  feel  as  sure  of  his 
forgiveness  as  he  is  that  he  has  heard  the 
words,  "  I  absolve  thee."  The  great  confi- 
dence felt  in  the  operation  of  the  sacraments 
has  led  the  Roman  Church  to  accept  a  very 
low  degree  of  attrition  as  suflBcient  for  absolu- 
tion. The  chief  sacrament  is,  however,  that 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  has  two  parts, 
the  eucharist  or  communion,  and  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Mass.  When  the  words,  "  This  is 
my  body,  this  is  my  blood,"  are  spoken  over 
the  elements,  they  are  believed  to  be  miracu- 
lously changed  as  to  their  substance  into  the 
substance  (transubstantiation)  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  though  their  accidents  (taste, 
etc.)  remain  the  same.  The  Church  then 
offers  this  present  Christ  as  her  only  possible 
offering  of  thanksgiving  and  propitiation  to 
God.  The  sacrifice  of  Calvary  is  thus  re- 
peated, and  a  true  expiation  offered.  (See 
Mass,  p.  548).  In  the  subsequent  commun- 
ion, the  objectivity  of  the  sacrament  secures 
to  the  recipient  the  certainty  that  his  sins  are 
forgiven.  The  cup  is  denied  to  the  laity,  but 
merely  as  a  disciplinary  regulation.  Marriage 
is  also  a  sacrament,  and  indissoluble.  Orders 
and  Extreme  Unction  close  the  list. 

Purgatory  (q.  v.)  is  a  place  of  puni.shment 
in  the  future  world,  where  the  sins  not  satis- 
fied for  in  this  life  may  be  expiated. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES.— Tlie  explorers 
who  discovered  the  New  World  and  its  princi- 
pal portions  were  almost  all  Catholics.  What- 
ever attempts  were  made  by  Protestants,  it 


is  true  that  the  first  successful  settlements 
in  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States. 
were  made  by  Catholics,  as  for  example  :  at 
St.  Augustine  (1565),  at  Santa  Fe  (1582),  and  at 
San  Francisco  (1776).  The  French  entered  Can- 
ada under  Champlain  (1604),  before  the  English 
were  at  Jamestown  (1607),  and  from  their  chief 
centers  in  Canada,  explorers  and  missionaries 
penetrated  to  the  region  of  the  great  lakes  and 
the  Mississippi,  opening  these  territories  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  civilized  world. 

But  the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church 
properly  begins  in  the  United  States  with  the 
settlement  of  Maryland  by  a  colony  of  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants  under  the  auspices  of 
Lord  Baltimore,  who  settled  at  St.  Mary's  in 
1634.  The  original  charter  of  the  colony 
guaranteed  full  religious  liberty,  but  at  an 
early  period  the  Protestant  element  got  the 
upper  hand  in  the  colony,  and  in  1644  the 
Catholics  were  deprived  of  equal  rights. 
Though  legislation  swung  between  two  ex- 
tremes, on  the  whole  it  grew  more  and  more 
repressive.  In  1654  the  Toleration  Act  of 
1649  was  repealed,  and  in  1692,  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  James  II.  from  England,  the  favors 
granted  by  Charles  II.  were  taken  away.  At 
the  time  of  the  Revolution,  Catholics  were  not 
permitted  the  public  exercise  of  their  religion 
in  the  colony  which  had  been  founded  ex- 
pressly for  them.  And  in  general  it  may  be 
said  that,  though  here  and  there  Catholics  in 
small  numbers  were  to  be  found,  the  church 
had  hardly  an  existence  outside  of  Maryland, 
where  15,000  of  the  possible  25,000  Catholics 
in  the  country  were  living. 

The  era  of  the  Revolution  was  favorable  to 
the  Catholics.  Congress  declared  in  1774  for 
full  religious  toleration.  The  emancipation 
of  Catholics  in  Maryland  followed  in  1776, 
and,  under  the  influence  of  Catholics,  all  re- 
ligious tests  were  prohibited  in  the  bestowment 
of  public  oflSce  under  the  general  government. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  the  Catholics  felt  the 
need  of  a  more  perfect  organization,  and  Dr. 
John  Carroll,  S.J.,  was  appointed  first  pre- 
fect apostolic,  and  then  bishop,  being  conse- 
crated in  England  in  1790.  He  was  a  cousin 
of  Charles  Carroll,  of  CarrolUon,  and  had 
been  educated  in  France  by  the  Jesuits.  Four 
lines  of  effort  lay  before  him  :  the  education 
of  the  youth  ;  the  formation  of  a  national 
clergy  ;  the  erection  of  churches,  and  the 
foundation  of  female  communities.  George- 
town College  (1789),  put  under  the  care  of  ex- 
Jesuits,  and  a  theological  seminary  (1791)  were 
among  the  institutions  founded  by  him.  But 
a  clergy  was  wanting,  and  the  timely  arrival 
of  certain  French  priests  (23  between  1791  and 
1799)  was  a  help  in  this  direction  of  the  highest 
importance.  Several  of  them  afterward  be- 
came bishops.  Immigration  began  to  furnish 
a  Catholic  population  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  and  the  efforts  of  the 
priests  followed  close  in  the  wake  of  the  ad- 
vancing tide.  Thus,  in  1787  they  were  in 
Kentucky  ;  in  1789  they  had  commenced  a 
church  in  Gliarleston,  and  consecrated  one  in 
Boston  in  1803.  From  1787  to  1807  the  total 
population  had  increased  from  25,000  to 
150,000,  and  the  number  of  priests  from  25  to 
70.     Meantime,  the  progress  of  the  organiza- 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH     (817) 


ROMANS 


tion  of  the  church  had  been  equally  rapid. 
In  1808,  Baltimore  was  made  a  metropolitan 
see.  Keligious  orders  wore  introduced  which 
swelled  the  number  of  jiriests  and  established 
several  institutions  of  learning.  After  Dr. 
Whitfield  became  archbishop,  he  assembled 
the  first  provincial  Council  of  Baltimore  (1829). 
Among  the  new  bishops  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed was  Bishop  England  (1820),  of  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  who  was  a  brilliant  man,  of  inde- 
fatigable activity.  He  found  his  diocese  with 
but  2  churches  and  2  priests.  lie  raised  this 
number  to  16  churches  ;  organized  institutions 
of  piety  ;  established  the  Ursulinc  nuns  and 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  He  visited  Europe  three 
times  in  search  of  help,  and,  plunging  into 
severe  labors  after  his  last  return,  died  in 
1842.  Bishop  Hughes,  of  New  York  (q.v.), 
was  one  of  the  chief  agents  in  the  develop- 
ment of  this  organization.  In  1846,  Oregon 
City  was  made  a  metropolitan  see  ;  in  1847, 
St.  Louis  ;  in  1850,  New  York,  New  Orleans, 
and  Cincinnati.  Thus,  in  1850,  the  Catholic 
Church  had  6  archbishoprics,  27  bishoprics, 
1800  priests,  1073  churches,  etc.  In  1851,  the 
first  National,  or  Plenary  Council  was  held  ; 
in  1858,  Baltimore  was  made  the  primatial 
see  ;  in  1875,  Arciibishop  McCloskey,  of  New 
Y'ork,  was  made  cardinal  ;  which  honor  was 
conferred  upon  Archbishop  Gibbons,  of  Balti- 
more, June  7,  1886.  The  Church  is  under  the 
control  of  tlie  Civigrcfintio  de  PnqinfiiuKla 
FUk,  in  Rome,  and  the  following  statistics  are 
derived  from  the  Annual  of  that  congregation 
for  1889  : 


MISSIONS. 

i 

! 

i 

3 

u 

ii 
ii 

«2 

Baltimore  

Boston  

210,090 
450,000 
400,000 
185.000 
185,000 
250,000 
800,000 
25,000 
400,000 
196,000 
200.000 
125,000 

286 
330 
276 
251 
182 
162 
402 

37 
270 
254 
125 

39 

139 
158 
198 
166 
264 

89 
189 

29 
139 
193 
100 

45 

87 
76 

100 
81 

106 
53 

137 
31 
64 
88 
25 
18 

23 
21 

Chicago 

Cincinnati 

Milwaukee 

New  Orleans 

New  York 

Oregon 

Phil.vdelphia  . . . 

12 
14 
14 
16 
37 
3 
14 

San  Francisco.   . 
Santa  F6 

9 
4 

3,526,090 

2,614 

1,709 

866 

182 

F.  H.  F. 

A  complete  and  impartial  history  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  since  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance is  a  desideratum.  A  good  beginning 
has  been  made  in  >I.  Creighton's  IJikory  of 
the  Pnpitrij  during  the  Period  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, London  and  New  York,  i 882-87,  4  vols. 
Of  course,  this  history  is  part  of  the  general 
theme  in  the  manuals,  e.  fj.,  Kurtz'  new  Eng. 
trans..  New  York,  1890,  3  vols.  :  Fisher,  New 
York,  1887.  See  Lit.  under  Rkkohmation. 
For  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  see  Hefele,  Con- 
ciliengfdchichte,  n.  e.  continued,  Freiburg  in 
Br.,  1873  (sqq.);  MiJhler,  Sipnho! i-vn ,  Eng. 
trans.  ;  London,  1843  (but  Roman  Catholic 
works  prior  to  the  Vatican  Council  need  alter- 
ation) ;  Cardinal  Gibbon's,  T?m  Faith  of  Our 


Fathers,  New  York,  1874  ;  on  the  Protestant 
side,  Whately,  The  Errors  of  liomaidsm, 
London,  5th  ed.,  1856  ;  Littledale,  Poisons 
Against  Joining  tJie  Church  of  Rome,  1885  ; 
but  better,  Hase,  Handbuch  der  Protestan- 
tischen  Polemik,  4th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1878. 

Romana,  Epistle  to  the,  was  written  by 
Paul  at  Corintli.  A.  D.  53,  just  as  he  was  leav- 
ing that  city  for  Jerusalem  (Rom.  xv.  25,  xvi. 
23).  It  is  the  most  important,  systematic,  and 
argumentative  of  all  the  apostolic  epistles, 
being  a  profound  discussion  of  man's  fallen 
state  and  of  God's  provision  for  his  recovery. 
Ch.  i.  16,  17  contains  the  theme,  viz.,  the  gos- 
pel as  the  power  of  God  which  alone  can  save. 
Ch.  i.  18  to  iii.  20  constitute  the  negative  part 
of  the  argument  by  establishing  the  common 
depravity  of  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  and  their 
consequent  lost  condition.  Then  Ch.  iii.  21 — 
V.  21  establish  the  positive  side  of  the  question 
by  describing  salvation  as  the  gift  of  God 
secured  only  by  faith.  In  this  the  author  intro- 
duces the  famous  comparison  between  Adam, 
the  natural  head  of  the  human  race,  and  Christ, 
the  head  of  his  chosen  people,  as  tine  a  general- 
ization as  ever  was  made.  Ch.  vi.  shows  that 
this  doctrine  of  gratuitous  salvation  is  not  and 
cannot  be  ui, friendly  to  morals.  Ch.  vii.  sets 
forth  the  excellence  of  the  law  in  itself  but  its 
inability  to  sanctify,  and  describes  with  great 
vigor  the  inward  conflict  between  conscience 
and  passion  in  the  natural  man  as  some  say,  or 
between  the  new  nature  and  the  old  as  others 
say.  Ch.  viii.  exhibits  the  work  of  the  spirit 
over  against  the  work  of  the  law,  and  concludes 
with  a  wondrous  burst  of  eloquence  over  the 
safety  of  the  believer  despite  all  foes  and 
obstacles. 

Here  the  apostle  turns  to  consider  the  uni- 
versality of  the  salvation.  It  is  offered  to  the 
Jew  first  and  also  to  the  Gentile.  The  failure 
to  save  the  former  is  only  apparent.  Ch.  ix. 
treats  of  God's  sovereignty  and  shows  that  his 
promise  is  not  void,  to  which  Ch.  x.  furnishes 
the  due  counterpoise  in  urging  man's  responsi- 
bility and  insisting  that  the  Jews  are  excluded 
by  their  own  unbelief.  Ch.  xi.  completes  the 
solution  of  the  problem  by  declaring  that  God 
has  not  cast olT  ins  jicoplc,  but  overruled  their 
unbelief  for  tiie  salvation  of  the  Gentiles,  after 
which  all  Israel  sliall  be  saved  ;  and  in  view 
of  this  result  the  apostle  bursts  out  into  what 
has  justly  been  called  "the  sublimest  apos- 
trophe existing  even  in  the  pages  of  inspiration 
itself." 

The  rest  of  the  Epistle  is  occupied  with 
practical  exhortations  showing  how  man  is  to 
show  his  gratitude  for  the  free  salvation  of  the 
Gospel.  Ch.  xii.  gives  general  directions  of 
great  spiritual  power  and  unction.  After  this 
come  special  discussions  in  regard  to  obedience 
to  rulers  (Cli.  xiii.)  and  the  exercise  of  for- 
bearance and  charity  in  differences  of  opinion 
in  unessential  matters(Cii.  xiv. -XV.  14).  Then 
follow  jicrsoiial  explanations  (xv.  14-33),  mes- 
.sagcsand  greetings  to  different  persons,  a  warn- 
ing against  such  as  cause  divi.sion,  and  finally  a 
doxoiogy,  rich  in  contents  and  deej)  in  feeling. 

The  genuineness  of  the  Papistic  has  been 
established  beyond  reasonable  doubt,  and  of 
its  permanent  and  priceless  value  the  Reforma- 


ROME 


(818) 


ROSICRUCIANS 


tion  of  the  16th  century,  in  which  it  played 
such  an  important  part,  is  a  living  witness. 
Luther  considered  it  "the  chief  part  of  the 
New  Testament,"  and  Coleridge^  pronounced 
it  "  the  most  profound  work  in  existence." 

The  best  commentaries  are  those  by  Tlioluck, 
Philippi,  Hodge,  and  Shedd  ;  more  modern 
favorites  are  by  J.  A.  Beet  (London  5tli  ed. 
1885)  and  Sadler  (1888).  T.  W.  C. 

Rome,  the  capital  city  of  Italy,  founded 
753  B.  C,  grew  from  the  smallest  beginnings 
to  be  mistress  of  almost  all  the  known  world, 
and  then  itself  succumbed  to  the  government 
of  a  single  emperor,  till  it  lost  its  place,  even 
as  the  seat  of  government,  at  the  time  of  Con- 
stautiue.  The  bishopric  of  Rome  was  now 
rising,  and  for  centuries  it  continued  to  be  the 
imperial  center  of  the  church,  till  in  our  own 
day  it  has  become  the  capital  of  a  new  Italy. 

The  importance  of  Rome  for  the  history  of 
the  church  begins  with  the  settlement  there  of 
numbers  of  Jews  about  the  time  that  the 
Romans  first  came  into  connection  with  the 
Jews  (B.  C.  63),  at  the  capture  of  Aristobulus 
by  Pompey.  Tliey  were  allotted  a  portion  of 
the  city  by  themselves,  and  were  shown  vari- 
ous favors  by  some  of  the  emperors,  but  were 
commanded  by  Claudius  "  to  depart  froni 
Rome,"  possibly  for  commotions  occurring  in 
connection  witli  the  preaching  of  Christianity. 
They  seem  soon  to  have  returned,  and  formed, 
as  elsewhere,  a  natural  point  about  which  the 
early  preaching  and  the  gathering  of  the  first 
Christian  church  went  on. 

The  Christian  chuvch  at  Rome  owes  its 
origin  to  unknown  influences,  probably  to  the 
efforts  of  travelers  and  individuals  acting  under 
the  generous  impulses  of  Christian  zeal,  with- 
out especial  commission  from  any  one.  The 
Roman  Catholic  legend  that  Peter  founded  the 
church  at  Rome  has  no  evidence  in  its  behalf  ; 
the  tradition  that  he  was  bishop  there  25  years 
is  a  mere  impossibility.  When  Paul  wrote  his 
epistle,  the  church  seems  to  have  been  com- 
posed chiefly  of  Gentile  converts.  The  natural 
advantages  of  the  metropolis  built  up  the 
Christian  community,  and  we  soon  find  the 
church  of  Rome  enjoying  the  same  pre-emi- 
nence which  the  city  itself  possessed. 

The  interesting  spots  in  Rome  connected 
-with  the  Apostle  Paul  are  the  Appian  Way, 
and  the  "  palace,"  probably  upon  the  Palatine  ; 
but  the  Mamertine  Prison,  where  Peter  and 
Paul  are  said  to  have  been  prisoners,  and  the 
other  places  of  martyrdom  and  burial,  are  all 
entirely  the  product  of  the  myth-building 
tendency  of  the  human  mind.  F.  H.  F. 

Rome  and  Christianity.  See  Persecu- 
tions. 

Ronge,  Johannes,  b.  at  Bischofswalde, 
Silesia,  Oct.  16,  1813  ;  was  educated  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  ordained  a  priest 
and  appointed  chaplain  at  Grottkau,  in  1840, 
but  was  excommunicated  and  degraded  in 
1844  because  he  was  the  leader  of  the  German- 
Catholics  (see  p.  323).  In  1848  he  devoted 
himself  to  politics  and  had  to  flee  to  London. 
After  the  publication  in  1861  of  the  edict  of 
amnesty  he  returned  to  Germany,  settled  at 


Frankfort,  and  tried  to  form  some  kind  of  a 
religious  reform  party. 

Ransdorfers  or  Zionites,  a  sect  formed 
in  1741,  at  Elberfeld,  Rhenish  Prussia,  by  one 
Elias  EUer,  who  called  himself  Zion-Father ; 
and  Anna  von  Buchel,  who  called  herself 
Zion-Mother,  with  Schleiermacher,  the  grand- 
father of  the  theologian,  for  their  aid-de-camp. 
Eller  died  in  1750,  and  thus  his  stepson, 
Bolckhaus,  became  Zion-Father,  but  in  1765 
the  sect  was  dispersed  on  account  of  immoral- 
ity ;  Schleiermacher  had  left  it  long  before. 
See  Ki'ug,  Schwarmerei  im  Orossherzogthum 
Berg.  1851. 

Rood,  in  Old  English,  from  the  Saxon, 
means  "  cross  "  or  "  crucifix." 

Rosary,  Latin  Tosarium,  "  a  garden  of 
roses,"  is  a  string  of  beads  used  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  to  keep  account  of  their  prayers. 
The  origin  of  the  device  is  unknown.  It 
is  used  also  by  Mohammedans  and  Hindoos, 
and  was  probably  brought  to  Europe  by  the 
Crusaders.  The  number  of  beads  is  generally 
fifty-five,  namely  five  decades  of  smaller  beads 
fo/Ave  Marias,  and  five  larger  ones  for  Pater 
Nosters.  Both  to  the  name  and  the  number 
of  beads  there  has  been  invented  some  sym- 
bolism of  a  rather  indiiferent  description. 

Roscelin.or  Rozelin,or  Rucelin, was  born 
in  the  diocese  of  Soissons,  educated  at  Rheims, 
and  a  canon  of  Compiegue,  when  iu  1093  he 
was  condemned  by  the  synod  of  Soissons  and 
compelled  to  retract  certain  philosophical  views 
which  threatened  to  transform  the  orthodox 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  into  Tri-theism.  An- 
selm  wrote  a  refutation,  De  fide  trinitatis. 
Abelard  had  been  a  disciple  of  his,  but  dis- 
avowed  the  discipleship  and  even  wrote  an 
attack  upon  him,  Ep.  21. 

Rose,  The  Golden.  See  Golden  Rose, 
The,  p.  331. 

Rose,  Hugh  James,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Uckfield,  Surrey,  England.  1795  ;  d.  at 
Florence,  Italy,  Dec.  22,  1838.  He  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1817,  and  was 
vicar  of  Horsham,  Surrey,  1822-30  ;  preben- 
dary of  Chichester.  1827-33  ;  Christian  Advo- 
cate at  Cambridge,  1829-33  ;  rector  of  Had- 
leigh,  Suffolk,  1830,  which  he  exchanged  for 
Fairstead,  Essex,  and  St.  Thomas,  Southwark, 
1833  ;  principal  of  Kings  College,  London, 
1836.  He  edited  the  Encydoimdia  3Ietropoli- 
tana,  1836-38,  was  an  extremely  active  and 
advanced  Churchman  (though  not  of  Oxford) ; 
had  much  to  do  with  starting  the  Tractarian 
movement.  F.  M.  B. 

Rosenmuller,  Ernst  Friedrich  Carl,  b.  at 
Hessberg,  Saxe-]\Ieiningen,  Dec.  10,  1768  ;  d. 
at  Leipzig,  Sept.  17,  1835  ;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  and  archaeology  at 
Leipzig,  in  1796,  and  published  Scholia  in  V.  T. , 
Leipzig,  1788-1817,  16  vols.,  abridged  into  5 
vols.,  1828-35,  besides  many  other  works. 

Rosicrucians.  In  1614  appeared  Fama 
Fraternitatis  des  lohlichen  Ordens  des  Rosen- 
kreuzes,  probably  written  by  Joh.  Val.  Andrea, 
and  probably  meant  as  a  satire  upon  the  alche- 
mists and  astrologers  of  that  time.     People 


ROSMINI-SERBATI 


(819) 


ROSWITHA 


misunderstood  it,  however,  and  took  it  for  the 
real  history  of  an  actually  existing  secret  so- 
ciety. In  a  short  time  all  Germany  was 
divided  into  two  camps,  of  which  the  one 
hoped  that  the  world  should  be  saved  by  the 
Rosicrucians,  while  the  other  feared  that  it 
might  be  destroyed  by  them  ;  and  it  took  a 
long  time  before  it  dawned  upon  the  public 
that  the  whole  depended  upon  a  mystification. 
But  the  worst  was  that  people  were  found  who 
understood  how  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
commotions,  and  fraudulent  orders  of  Ro.sicru- 
ciaus  were  formed  which  ext'rciscd  their  power 
for  evil  far  into  the  IHtli  century.  See  Har- 
grave  Jennings,  l^he  lidxicrdcidiis,  London, 
1871,  3d.  ed.,  1887  ;  Waite,  Real  history  of  R., 
1887  ;  F.  Hartmann,  In  the  Pronaos  .  .  .  His- 
tory of  R.,  1890. 

Rosmini-Serbati,  Antonio  the  foun- 
der of  modern  Idealism  in  Italy,  b.  at 
Kovereto,  Italian  Tyrol,  13  m.  s.w.  of  Trent, 
in  a  noble  and  wealthy  Catholic  family,  March 
25,  1797  ;  d.  at  Stresa,  on  the  Lago  Maggiore, 
Northern  Italy,  in  the  year  1855.  "  And  what 
stirring  memories,"  says  one  of  his  biographers, 
"  does'that  date  call  up  !  It  was  a  terrible 
epoch.  All  Europe  was  just  then  convulsed 
by  the  horrible  triumphs  of  a  pernicious  philos- 
ophy, which  found  its  practical  embodiment  in 
the  frightful  atrocities  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion." It  would  .seem  that  there  is  a  connec- 
tion between  the  date  of  birth  of  this  man  and 
his  declared  purpose  in  life,  for  this  has  been 
"  to  restore  the  principles  of  truth  trampled  on 
by  the  revolutionary  innovators,  and  to  give 
back  to  Christian  philosophy  its  unity,  honor, 
and  prestige."  Whatever  can  be  said  against 
the  arrogance  of  this  declaration  and  its  non- 
fulfillment, it  can  be  asserted  for  Rosmini,  that 
he  has  worked  honestly  for  it  and  has  done 
much  good  for  liis  Church.  Were  it  not  for 
the  opposition  of  the  Jesuits,  he  would  have 
been  canonized  by  this  time,  so  high  is  the 
veneration  for  him  among  his  own  fellow- 
believers.  Though  an  eldest  son,  he  was  early 
devoted  to  the  Church  and  took  holy  orders  in 
1819.  In  1823  lie  visited  Rome  and  was  kindly 
received  by  Pius  VII.,  and  later  by  Gregor 
XVI.,  who  offered  him  the  high  post  of  IJdt- 
tore  di  Rota,  but  Rosmini  declined  it.  Leo 
XII.  and  Pius  VIII.  were  also  friendly  toward 
him,  and  so  was  Pius  IX. 

When  30  years  of  age,  he  drafted  his  plan 
for  a  new  holy  order  and  began  to  realize  it  in 
1827.  This,  the  most  recent  order  of  the 
Church,  is  octice  rather  than  c<>ntemplatire, 
and  supplements  the  ordinary  duties  of  the 
parochial  priesthood.  The  "  Institute  of 
Charily "  or,  as  the  Italians  say,  the  Ro.s- 
miuians,  may  be  priests  or  laymen,  and  bind 
themselves  to  any  work  of  charity,  be  it  cor- 
poreal, intellectual,  or  spiritiial, 'directed  by 
bishop  or  superior  or  pope.  The  order  is 
spread  all  over  the  world,  having  branches  in 
all  prominent  cities. 

Rosmini's  Si»tema  floMofifo  is  an  encyclo- 
pedic arrangement  of' all  human  knowledge. 
The  conception  is  developed  by  him  in  40  vols. 
His  desire  is  to  restore  philosophy  to  love  and 
respect.  He  proposes  to  return  to  the  teacli- 
ings  of  the  ancients,  byt  to  give  these  teachings 


the  benefit  of  modern  methods.  A  complete 
and  exhaustive  treatment  of  Rosmini's  ideas 
will  be  found  in  his  "  New  essay  on  the  origin 
of  ideas,"  translated  into  English  in  1883-84 
(London).  Another  presentation  will  be  found 
in  Thomas  Davidson's  book,  "  Rosmini's  pliilo- 
sophical  system,"  London,  1882,  which  also 
contains  a  sketch  of  his  life  and  a  full  bibliog- 
raphy of  his  works  and  the  literature  relat- 
ing to  him.  Rosmini  is  an  important  element- 
in  the  re-awakening  of  political,  moral,  and 
intellectual  life  of  modern  Italy,  a  movement 
represented  among  others  by  such  nanus  as 
those  of  Manzoni,  G.  Conour,  Mamiani.  Tom- 
maseo  ;  a  movement  wliich  brings  ancient 
and  modern  thought  to  bear  upon  each  other, 
trying  to  correct  the  primary  assumptions  of 
both  and  ffndeavoring  to  find  a  way  out  to  a 
new  and  better  order  of  things.  In  1848,  Ros- 
mini was  sent  on  a  mission  by  Charles  Albert 
to  Rome  to  induce  Pius  IX.  to  join  the  Italian 
Confederation,  and  to  allow  the  citizens  of  the 
pontifical  states  to  participate  in  the  war  of 
national  independence.  At  first  his  efforts 
were  successful  ;  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  papal  cabinet  and  the  pope  formally  inti- 
mated to  him  his  promulgation  to  the  cardi- 
nalate  and  ordered  him  to  prepare  for  the  formal 
ceremony  of  elevation  to  become  a  prince  of 
the  Church.  All  this  happened  while  Pius  IX. 
was  dominated  by  liberal  ideas.  But  the 
Jesuits  got  Ihe  upper  hand,  forced  a  reaction- 
ary policy  upon  the  pope,  and  defeated  Ros- 
mini's nomination.  From  this  time  they  began 
a  series  of  persecutions  against  him  and  .siic- 
ceeded,  "for  prudential  reasons,"  in  placing 
two  of  his  books  on  the  Index.  They  still 
oppose  the  canonization  of  this  "  most  saintly 
and  most  illustrious  son  of  the  Church." 
After  this  political  venture  he  returned  in  dis- 
grace to  his  retreat  at  Stresa  on  the  Lago 
Maggiore,  where  he  again  devoted  himself  to 
the  work  of  the  restoration  of  philosophy  and 
the  labors  of  his  order. 

Besides  the  books  already  given  above  see 
Eng.  trans,  of  The  Five  Wounds  of  Holy 
Church,  London,  1883  ;  also  Prof.  Botta's  es.say 
on  Italian  Philosophy  in  the  American  ed. 
of  Ueberweg's  Hidory  if  Philosophy,  N.  Y., 
1872-74.  2  vols.  (II.  90-96);  «md  G.  S.  JNLac- 
Walter's  (London,  1883.  2  vols.);  and  Lock- 
hart's  (2d.  ed.  188G,  2  vols.)  lives  of  him. 

C.  II.  A.  BjEKREOAARD. 

Roswitha.  (Hrotsuit),  or  Claxisorvalidus, 
as  she  herself  translated  her  name,  was  a  nun 
at  Gandersheim,  and  lived  in  the  last  half  of 
the  10th  cent.  She  is  the  first  German  poetess 
and  the  first  dramatist  .since  the  Roman  epoch. 
Besides  her  Carinende  ge^tis  Oddonis  I.  iinperd- 
toris,  and  the  history  of  her  own  monastery, 
which  both  have  historical  value  and  are 
found  translated  into  German  in  Gixchirht- 
schrciher  der  dentHchcn  V<>rzeit,\o\.  v.  (Berlin, 
1860),  she  wrote  six  spiritual-moral  pieces  in 
the  style  of  the  then  popular  Terence.  Her 
object  was  largely  to  counteract  the  infiuence 
of  classical  coarseness,  but  she  touches  tliemes 
of  very  doubtful  propriety.  She  is  anything 
but  prudish,  yet  never  coarse.  Roswitha 
dramatized  legends  in  the  same  manner  as 
ShakesiJeare  dramatized  tales.     Her  collected 


{ 


ROTA  ROMANA 


(820) 


ROUSSEL 


works  were  first  published  by  K.  Celtis, 
Nilrnberg,  1501,  after  a  copy,  he  found  in 
the  monastery  of  St.  Emmerau  in  Regensburg. 
He  adorned  his  edition  with  a  Durer  wood-cut 
representing  Roswitha  handing  a  copy  of  her 
works  to  Otto  tlie  Great  and  Archbishop 
William  of  Mayence.  At  the  time  of  Celtiss 
publication,  the  learned  of  the  day  called  her 
"the  German  Muse,"  and  her  fame  spread 
rapidly  throughout  JEurope.  The  edition  by 
K.  A.  Barack  {Hrotsi-itha,  Werke,  Niirnberg, 
1858),  gives  a  full  bibliography  of  Roswitha 
literature.  J.  Bendix'en  published  her 
comedies  at  Lilbeck  in  1857,  and  a  German 
translation,  Altona,  1850-53.  (See  Aschbach, 
Roswitha  und  Conr.  Celtis,  Wien,  1867  ;  2d. 
ed.,  1868.  R.  Kopke,  Hrotsuit  wn  Ganders- 
heim,  Berlin,  1869.) 

C.  H.  A.  Bjerregaard. 

Rota  Romana,  with  its  twelve  auditores, 
claims  to  be  the  highest  Court  of  Justice  in 
Christendom,  and  was  in  the  Middle  Ages 
often  recognized  and  appealed  to  as  such.  It 
still  exists,  though  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope 
does  not  extend  beyond  the  walls  of  the  Vati- 
can. The  origin  of  the  name  "  rota  "  is  un- 
known. C.  P. 

Rothe  (ro-teh)  Richard,  b.  at  Posen,  Jan. 
28,  1799  ;  d.  at  Heidelberg,  Aug.  20,  1867 ; 
studied  theology  at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin, 
and  was  in  1839  appointed  professor  in  Heidel- 
berg. His  principal  work  is  Theologische 
Ethik,  1845-48,  3  vol.,  2d.  revised  edition, 
1867-72,  5  vols.,  which  is  generally  recognized 
as  one  of  the  finest  fruits  ever  produced  by 
speculative  theology.  The  standpoint  is  very 
simple :  absolute  identity  of  religion  and 
morals,  so  that  no  act  by  man  can  be  truly  moral 
unless  its  roots  reach  the  Christian  dogma  ; 
and  the  unfolding  of  that  standpoint  is  as 
noble  in  its  totality  as  novel  and  surprising  in 
its  details.  He  also  published  Anfdnge  der 
christlichen  Kirche,  1837,  and  after  his  death 
many  of  his  lectures  and  sermons  were  edited 
by  his  friends  and  disciples  from  his  notes. 
There  is  an  English  translation  of  his  sermons, 
Edinburgh,  1877.  His  life  was  written  by 
Nippold,  Wittenberg,  1873-75,  2  vols. 

Rous,  Francis,  Puritan  layman,  b.  at 
Halton,  Cornwall,  1579;  d.  1658.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  studied  law,  sat  in  parlia- 
ment under  Charles  I.,  as  afterward  under 
Cromwell  ;  was  provost  of  Exton  1643,  and  a 
lay  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly. 
To  this  body  his  Psalms  translated  into  Eng- 
lisJi  meter  were  recommended  by  the  Com- 
mons, Nov.  20,  1643,  and  by  it  revised  after 
publication  in  London,  1646.  Again  revised 
by  a  Scottish  Committee,  the  version  was 
"allowed "by  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Kirk  of  Scotland,  1649,  and  "  appointed  "  to  be 
sung  in  congregations  and  families.  For  over 
two  centuries  it  was  in  almost  exclusive  use. 
and  considered  superior  to  all  other  versions, 
Rous's  prose  works  were  collected  in  one  vol., 
folio,  1657.  F.  M.  B. 

Rousseau   (roo-so),  Jean   Jacques,  b.  at 

Geneva,  June  28,  1712  ;  d.  at  Ermenonville, 
near  Paris,  June  3,  1778.  His  life  is  not  edi- 
fying to  read.     In  its  first  half, — the  appren- 


tice-boy running  away  on  account  of  laziness  ; 
the  Roman  Catholic  convert  who  dissembles  ; 
the  valet  who  steals  ;  the  paramour  of  Madame 
de  Warens, — there  is  nothing  which  awakens 
sympathy.  In  the  latter  half, — the  slave  of 
Therese  Levasseur,  copying  music,  and  bring- 
ing their  children  to  the  foundling  hospital  ; 
the  brilliant  writer,  flattered,  petted,  cajoled 
by  everybody,  yet  stooping  to  the  meanest 
tricks  in  order  to  gratify  his  coarse  egotism 
and  abnormal  vanity  ;  the  shattered  mind  pur- 
sued by  specters  and  ghosts  which  his  own 
imagination  creates, — there  is  nothing  which 
commands  respect.  But,  as  a  commentary  to 
his  works,  the  study  of  his  life  is  quite  indis- 
pensable. For  those  works,  La  nouvelle 
Heloise,  Le  contrat  social,  Emile,  and  Confes- 
sions, which  exercised  the  deepest  and  most 
decisive  influence  on  their  time,  and  which 
have  contributed  a  large  share  to  the  formation 
of  what  is  called  the  spirit  of  the  19th  century, 
cannot  be  understood  ;  nay,  they  cannot  fail 
to  be  misunderstood  unless  collated,  chapter 
for  chapter,  with  what  their  author  really  was 
and  actually  did.  Now,  it  may  be  laid  down 
as  a  sure  rule  that  no  verdict  on  the  merits  or 
demerits  of  an  author  should  be  accepted  as 
final  until  his  works  have  been  read  twice  by 
mankind,  with  a  century  or  two  between  the 
first  and  the  second  time  ;  and  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  when  our  time  is  done,  having 
given  Rousseau  his  second  reading,  the  ver- 
dict, not  on  the  talent  of  his  works,  but  on  the 
truth  they  contain,  will  read  quite  different 
from  what  it  read  a  century  ago.  Some  of  his 
fundamental  ideas,  the  social  contract,  for  in- 
stance, are  now  recognized  as  futile  mistakes  ; 
they  were  very  brilliant,  they  have  done  their 
mischief,  they  are  spent.  Others,  his  nature- 
worship,  for  instance,  such  as  he  places  it  in 
direct  antagonism  to  civilization,  are  looked 
upon  with  great  suspicion  ;  and  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  this  very  idea  will  one  day  be  found 
out  to  represent  a  very  ingenious  form  of 
atheism.  At  all  events,  it  is  an  experience 
that  wherever  Rousseau,  with  his  nature-sen- 
timentality, comes  in,  Christianity  goes  out. 
There  is  an  excellent  life  of  Rousseau,  by  John 
Morley,  London,  1873,  2  vols.,  about  which, 
however,  it  should  be  noticed  that  in  historical 
criticism  just  the  very  strong  feeling  of  the 
duty  of  justice  and  fairness  must  be  willing  to 
take  a  certain  amount  of  risk  in  order  not  to 
fall  into  the  error  of  palliating  what  ought 
only  to  be  pitied.  C.  P^ 

Roussel  (roo-sel),  Gerard,  b.  about  1480, 
at  Vacquerie,  France,  about  80  miles  north 
of  Paris  ;  d.  about  15.50,  at  Oleron,  France,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees  ;  studied  humaniora 
and  theology,  associated  intimately  with 
Lefevres  d'Etaples  in  Paris  and  Capito  in 
Strassburg,  corresponded  with  Calvin  and  the 
other  reformers,  and  was  in  1526  appointed 
confessor  to  the  queen  of  Navarra,  who  in  1536 
made  him  bishop  of  Oleron.  As  bishop,  he 
introduced  the  French  language  in  the  service, 
administered  the  Lord's  Supper  sub  tttraque 
specie,  celebrated  mass  in  plain  citizen's  dress, 
and  wrote  an  exposition  for  his  clergy  of  the 
Decalogue,  the  Creed,  etc.,  which  contained 
all  the  essential  doctrines  of  Protestantism. 


ROUTH 


(821) 


RULMAN  MERSVTIN 


But  he  never  left  the  Church  of  liome.  He 
believed  a  reform  possible  without  a  breach. 
See  his  life  by  C.  Schmidt,  Strassburg,  1845. 

Routh,  Martin  Joseph,  D.D.  (Oxford, 
18—),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  South  Elm- 
ham,  noarBcccles,  Sutl'oik,  England,  Sept.  15, 
1755  ;  d.  at  Oxford,  Dec.  22.  1854.  He  en- 
tered Queen's  College,  O.xford,  17T0,  became  a 
fellow  of  Magdalen,  1776,  and  was  it.s  presi- 
dent from  1791  till  his  death  in  his  hundredth 
year  ;  rector  of  Tylehurst,  near  Reading,  from 
1810.  His  chief  work  is  Ihliqniie  Same,  Ox-  j 
ford,  4  vols.,  1814-18.  a  valuable  collection  of 
the  fragments  of  lost  Christian  writers,  A.D. 
100-300,  reprinted  1846,  with  a  fifth  volume, 
1848.  lie  also  edited  Scriptornm  KcdcKiasti- 
wruiu  opuscula,  1832,  2  vols.,  and  Burnet's 
History,  1823.  F.  M.  B. 

Rovrlands,  Daniel,  Welsh  Evangelist  ;  b. 
at  Pant-y-beudy,  Wales,  about  1713  ;  d.  at 
Llangeitho,  Oct.  16,  1790.  He  was  ordained 
1733,  and  was  curate  at  Llangeitho  till  1760. 
Silenced  by  the  Bishop  of  St.  David's  1763.  he 
preached  to  crowds  in  the  fields  ;  Lady  Hun- 
tingdon placed  him  next  to  Whitefield,  and 
Bp.  Ryle  calls  him  "  oneof  tlje  spiritual  giants 
of  the  last  century."  Eight  of  his  sermons 
were  published  in  an  English  version  1774, 
and  three  more  1778.  His  life  was  written  by 
J.  Owen,  London  1840,  and  by  E.  :\Iorgaa. 
F.  M.  B. 

Rubrics,  Lininrubrmi,  from  ruber,  "  red," 
meant  originally  the  heads  and  titles  of  the 
various  chapters  of  the  law  books,  thus  called 
because  they  were  written  in  red  ink. 
Thence  the  name  was  transferred  to  the  service 
books  of  the  Christian  church,  in  which  the 
directions  how  the  various  parts  of  the  liturgy 
should  be  performed  were  also  written  in  red 
ink. 

Ruchat  (ru-cha),  Abraham,  b.  at  Grand- 
■cour,  Vaud,  Switzerland,  Sept.  15,  1678  ;  d.  at 
Lausanne,  Sept.  29,  1750  ;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Lausanne  in  1733,  and 
published  Histoire  de  la  reformation  de  la 
Suisse,  Geneva,  1727-28,  6  vols.,  new  edition 
by  Vulliemin,  Nyon,  1835-38,  7  vols. 

Ruet  (ru-a),  Francisco  de  Paula,  b.  in 
Barcelona,  Oct.  28,  1826  ;  d.  in  Madrid,  Nov. 
18. 1878  ;  was  a  singer  on  the  stage,  when  in 
Turin  he  was  converted  and  entered  the 
church  of  the  Waldenses.  On  his  return  home 
he  began  to  preach  in  his  native  city,  but  was 
several  times  imprisoned  and  finally  by  the 
Episcopal  court  convicted  of  heresy  and  sen- 
tenced to  death  at  the  stake.  The  sentence 
was  commuted  into  exile  for  life,  and  he  then 
preached  with  great  success  at  Gibraltar  and 
in  Algeria,  until,  after  the  revolution  of  1868, 
he  went  to  Madrid  and  began  an  evangelical 
mission  there. 

Rufinus,  Tyrannius.  b.  at  Concordia, 
Northern  Italy,  about  345  ;  d.  in  Sicily,  410. 
He  lived  much  at  Aquileia,  hence  his  designa- 
tion of  ••  Rufinus  of  Aquileia."  He  is  famou.s 
for  the  services  he  renflered  the  Church  by 
translatinsr  and  commenting  ujion  (ireek  the- 
ology, principally  that  of  Origen.     He  traveled 


much  in  the  East,  was  a  friend  of  Jerome, 
who,  however,  fell  out  with  him  and  ordained 
by  Bishop  John  of  Jerusalem  in  390,  where, 
although  a  monk,  he  dispensed  a  generous 
hospitality,  since  he  was  rich.  His  works 
were  edited  by  de  la  Barre,  Paris,  1580,  and 
by  Vallarsi,  Verona,  1775  ;  rep.  Migne,  Pat. 
Lat.  XXI.,  with  Foutanini's  life  of  Rufinus. 

Ruinart  (ru-e-narr),  Thierry,  b.  at  Rheims, 
June  10,  1657  ;  d.  at  Hautvillers,  Sept.  27, 1709; 
entered  the  congregation  at  St.  Maur  in  1674, 
settled  in  1682  at  St.  Germain  des  Tres,  and 
published  Acta  primorum  Mnrtyri/rn,  Paris, 
1689;  Ilistoria  persecutionis  Viindalinp,  1694, 
etc.  In  connection  with  i\Iabillon,  he  edited 
the  8th  and  9th  volumes  of  the  Act.  Saact. 

Rule  of  Faith.     See  Regula  Fidis. 

Rulman  Merswin,  b.  at  Strassburg  1307  ; 
d.  on  the  Island  Der  grune  Wort,  in  the  111, 
near  Strassburg,  which  he  purchased  in  1366, 
July  18,  1382.  He  was  a  prominent  and  rich 
Strassburg  merchant  and  banker,  who  sud- 
denly, in  1347,  withdrew  from  the  world  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  contemplative 
life.  He  had  indulged  in  the  pleasure  of  the 
senses,  but  one  evening,  after  his  conversion, 
while  walking  in  his  garden,  thinking  about 
his  lost  life,  he  was  suddenly  "  carried  off  in 
ecstacy."  From  that  time  lie  "  devoted  him- 
self to  God  "  with  his  wife's  consent.  As  he 
had  no  children  by  either  of  his  two  wives,  he 
did  not  find  it  difficult  to  leave  his  house, 
though  the  marriage  to  his  second  wife,  Mar- 
garetha  von  Bietenheim  (d.  1370),  was  a  happy 
one.  His  austerities  proved  almost  fatal,  but 
Tauler  rescued  him  by  timely  advice.  Rul- 
man plays  an  important  role  in  that  part  of 
European  history,  which  is  enacted  in  the 
^  Rhine  valley  and  adjoining  states  in  those 
I  days.  He  enters  upon  the  stage  at  a  time  when 
I  distress  and  misery  reigns  all  around.  The 
I  Pope's  interdict  lies  heavily  upon  most  of 
J  Germany  ;  the  conflicts  of  pope  and  emperor 
i  have  corrupted  public  and  private  morals  ;  for 
five  and  twenty  years  the  "  Vicar  of  Christ  " 
prohibited  all  priestly  functions  and  closed  all 
churches.  To  the  distress  and  despair  came, 
in  1348,  the  Black  Death.  Twenty-five 
millions  of  people,  or  one  fourth  of  all  Eu- 
rope's population  died.  In  Strassburg  alone 
sixteen  thousand  went  down  in  the  i)iague. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  country  remained  un- 
tilleii  and  pcoi)le  feared  to  touch  each  otiier's 
property.  It  is  even  rejiorted  of  several  mon- 
asteries that  tliey  would  not  receive  the,  be- 
quests cf  the  rich  dying  ones  for  fear  of  con- 
tamination. For  two  years  the  plague  ravaged 
the  land.  Many  thought  it  .sent  from  heaven 
on  account  of  men's  sin.  Such  fanatics  as  the 
Flagellants  confirmed  people  in  this  belief  and 
urged  other  means  of  salvation  tlian  the  ec- 
clesiastical ones ;  the  scourge,  for  instance. 
Hence,  where  dismay  had  >)egun  to  unbalance 
people's  minds,  these  visionary  enthusisists 
created  a  perfect  frenzy.  Upon  the  plague 
followed  the  persecution  of  tlie  Jews,  who 
were  accu.sed  of  bi-ing  tlie  cause  of  tlie  dire 
calamities  of  the  age.  In  this  part  of  the  land, 
in  Mayence,  twelve  thousand  of  theni  were 
tortured  to  death.     It  has  been  observed  that 


RUPERT 


(822) 


RUSSIAN  SECTS 


profound  calamities  are  always  attended  by 
deterioration  of  public  and  private  morals. 
But  what  must  have  been  the  state  of  things, 
when  in  addition  to  these  terrible  disasters 
came  the  results  of  the  entire  neglect  of  all 
public  service  during  the  long  interdict !  Chaos 
seems  to  be  the  term  that  expresses  the  life  and 
death  of  the  age. 

When  Europe,  more  particularly  the  Rhine 
valley,  recovered  itself,  a  new  day  had  dawned, 
and  much  of  the  Old  had  disappeared,  never 
to  be  resurrected.  Among  the  bearers  of  the 
new  times,  religiously  considered,  two  names 
stand  forth  prominently ;  that  of  Rulman 
Merswin  and  John  Tauler.  The  teachings  of 
the  latter  directly  helped  to  propagate  Rul- 
man's  democratic  ideas  and  organizations. 
To  the  pope-defying  words  of  his  former  spir- 
itual adviser,  Rulman  added  the  teachings  of 
the  Mystics  about  the  direct  way  to  God,  and 
used  them  both  valiantly  against  the  sacer- 
dotalism of  the  Church.  He  exalted  the  God- 
favored  laity,  the  true  "friends  of  God," 
whom  he  recommended  the  people  as  pastors 
and  spiritual  fathers  instead  of  the  priests. 
Proceeding  on  the  idea  of  the  "  universal 
priesthood,"  he,  under  the  direction  of  a  mys- 
terious master  and  guide,  "  the  friend  of  God 
in  the  Oberland,"  built  a  convent  near  Strass- 
burg,  which  he  organized  upon  democratic 
principles.  The  government  rested  with  a  lay 
triumvirate ;  the  two  survivors  always  to 
choose  a  third,  and  brethren  were  freely  ad- 
mitted. The  "  Friends  of  God  "  arose  at  this 
time,  and  Rulman's  influence  in  their  behalf, 
besides  that  of  Tauler's,  is  an  important  factor 
in  their  history  and  the  history  of  Mysticism 
inthese  regions.  The  friends  were,  as  Tauler 
said,  "  pillars  of  Christendom,  and  holders  off 
for  awhile  of  the  gathered  cloud  of  wrath"; 
their  organizations  and  doctrines  were  import- 
ant elements  in  the  molding  of  the  times  for 
the  coming  Reformation. 

Of  Rulman's  writings,  the  most  important 
one  is  his  book  entitled.  Book  of  the  Nine  Rocks. 
(ed.  C.  Schmidt,  Leipzig,  1859.)  He  com- 
menced it  in  1352. 

Another  book  of  his  is  Das  BanmrbiicMein. 
(ed.  Jundt,  Paris,  1879.) 

(C.  Schmidt.  "  R.  M.  la  fondateur  de  la 
maison  de  St.  Jean  de  Strassburg,"  in  Reuss  u. 
Cnnilz  Beitrage,  vol.  5,  1854.  "DieDichtun- 
gen  des  R.  M."  in  Zeitschrift  fur  d.  Alterth., 
vols.  13,  13, 1880-81.  A.  Jundt,  R.  M.,  Paris, 
1890.)  C.  H.  A.  Bjekregaard. 

Rupert  (Hrodbert),  commonly  called  the 
apo^le  of  Bavaria,  though  Bavaria  was  not 
heathen  altogether  before  his  labors.  He  was 
bishop  of  Worms  ;  he  was  invited  to  Regens- 
burg  by  Theodore  II.  of  Bavaria,  but  settled  in 
Salzburg  and  founded  its  bishopric,  and  there 
d.  718.  The  Oesta  Sancti  Urodherti  Confessori 
are  printed  in  the  ArcMv  fur  Osterreichische 
Qeschidite,  1882,  from  a  10th  cent.  MS.— 
(See  Friedrich,  Das  walire  Zeitalter  des  lieil. 
R.,  Niirnberg,  1866.) 

Rupert  of  Deutz  (Rupertus  Tuitiensis) 

was  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux  (q.  v.).  It  is  not  known  where  this 
mystical  theologian  hailed  from,  but  it  seems 
lie  lived  most  of  his  life  in  a  convent  in  the 


little  town  of  Deutz,  opposite  Cologne.  He  is 
supposd  to  have  been  a  German  and  to  have 
died  1135.  He  was  the  author  of  many  apolo- 
getical,  liturgical,  doctrinal,  and  exegetical 
works,  particularly  of  voluminous  commen- 
taries upon  the  various  books  of  the  Bible. 
His  ideas  are  usually  fanciful  and  his  pious 
sentiments  overlaid  with  allegorical  and  dog- 
matic expositions.  He  held  the  Bible  in  un- 
common high  esteem  for  his  day  and  referred 
all  questions  to  its  authority.  The  Scriptures 
were  to  him  the  sole  foundation  of  a  steadfast 
and  wholesome  faith  in  Christ.  In  one  of  his 
earlier  writings  he  candidly  says  that  even  after 
the  consecration,  the  substance  of  the  bread 
and  wine  is  not  changed  or  done  away  with 
(transubstantiated),  but  that  Christ  is,  after  a 
preternatural  manner,  united  with  it.  This 
appears  to  be  the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation. 
John  Wessel,  the  precursor  of  Luther,  was  a 
diligent  student  of  Rupert's  books.  It  seems, 
therefore,  that  we  may  call  Rupert  of  Deutz 
his  teacher  and  that  we  can  trace  his  influence 
upon  Luther  by  way  of  John  Wessel. 
Rupert's  works  were  published  at  Cologne 
1526-28,  2  vols,  fol.,  and  last  at  Venice,  1751, 
4  vols.  C.  H.  A.  Bjekregaard. 

Russell,  Charles  ■William,   D.D.  ( 

18 ),  Roman  Catholic  theologian  and  one  of 

the,  domestic  chaplains  to  the  pope  ;  b.  at 
Killough,  County  Down,  Ireland,  1802  ;  d.  at 
Maynooth,  Feb.  26,  1880  ;  was  educated  at 
Maynooth,  became  professor  there  in  1825, 
and  president  in  1857  ;  published  a  translation 
of  Leibnitz's  System  of  Theology,  London,  1859, 
and  a  Life  of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti,  1858,  and 
exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  the 
tractarian  movement  at  Oxford,  though  not 
in  personal  connection  with  any  of  the  leaders. 

Russian  Church.  See  Greek  Church, 
p.  338. 

Russian  Sects.  When  it  is  realized  that 
of  the  63,000,000  people  belonging  to  the 
Russian  church,  about  12,000,000  are  Raskol- 
niks,  which  is  the  general  designation  of  all 
dissenters  or  sects,  from  raskol,  a  breach,  a 
split,  it  will  easily  be  understood  that  sec- 
tarianism forms  a  very  conspicuous  feature  in 
the  national  life  of  the  Russian  people.  It 
dates  back  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
when  the  patriarch  Nikon  (q.  v.),  1652-59,  un- 
dertook a  revision  of  the  Slavonian  translation 
of  the  Bible.  Such  a  revision,  however,  would 
hardly  have  caused  any  stir  among  the  Rus- 
sian peasants,  but  it  was  accompanied  with, 
changes  in  the  ritual  which  touched  them  to 
the  quick,  and  with  changes  in  the  church, 
government  which  they  would  not  tolerate. 
They  were  used  to  elect  their  own  pope,  and 
Nikon  wanted  to  have  him  appointed  by  the 
government.  Generally  speaking,  he  repre- 
sented the  hated  influence  of  Poland,  tending 
toward  the  aggrandizement  of  the  bojars,  the 
enforcement  of  serfdom,  the  dissolution  of  the 
old  native  social  organization,  with  its  patri- 
archical  despotism  in  the  family,  and  its  com- 
munistic principles  in  the  municipality  ;  and 
thus  social,  political,  and  religious  elements 
became  inextricably  blended  together  in  the 
movement.     The  rising  of  the  peasants  was 


RUSSIAN  SECTS 


(823) 


RUYSBROEK 


fearful,  and  still  more  fearful  was  the  sup- 
pression by  tlie  government.  Thousands  of 
Ilaskolniks  were  burned,  and  other  thousuuds 
fled  to  the  forest  wildernesses  in  the  north  and 
the  east,  where  they  became  pioneers  of  colon- 
ization. But  from  that  time  onward  all  sect 
formation  in  Russia  has  had,  besides  its 
religious  current,  generally  fed  by  contact 
with  Protestaniism,  an  undercurrent  of  social 
or  political  discontent.  All  recent  sects  have 
tried,  in  one  form  or  the  other,  to  apply  com- 
munistic principles  to  practical  life,  and  all 
have  dealt,  in  one  way  or  the  other,  with 
the  questions  of  marriage  and  the  social  posi- 
tion of  woman.  Some  sects  prohibit  marriage 
altogether  ;  others  allow  absolutely  free  rela- 
tions between  the  sexes ;  some  will  have 
nothing  at  all  to  do  with  the  Czar  and  his 
government ;  others  will  not  serve  in  the 
army  or  pay  taxes  outside  of  the  community, 
etc.,  etc. 

Russian  sects  are  by  Russian  writers  gen- 
erally divided  into  three  groups :  1.  the 
Popovtsy,  who  have  popes  (priests) ;  2.  the 
Bezpopovtsy,  who  have  no  popes  ;  and  H.  the 
Duchowny  Christians,  who  are  spiritualists. 
The  lirst  group,  comprising  about  5,U00,U0U 
people  in  two  or  three  subdivisions,  lives  now 
generally  on  good  terms,  both  with  the  ortho- 
dox church  and  with  the  state.  They  have 
come  to  understand  that  the  doctrinal  differ- 
ences between  them  and  the  orthodox  party 
are  of  very  small  import,  and  the  government 
has  had  the  good  sense  to  recognize  their 
popes,  who  in  many  cases  are  nothing  more 
or  less  than  orthodox  priests,  willing  to  use 
the  unreviscd  books.  The  second  group,  the 
Bezpopovtsy,  comprising  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  members  as  the  first,  but  in  a  much 
greater  number  of  subdivisions,  show  a  very 
different  character  and  live  under  very  dif- 
ferent conditions.  They  are  strongly  tinted 
or  tainted  with  political  passion.  They  repu- 
diate not  only  the  sacraments,  the  ritual,  and 
the  priests  of  the  orthodox  church,  but  some 
of  them  repudiate  also  the  Bible.  Every 
Christian  is  his  own  priest,  they  say,  and  some 
add,  every  Christian  is  his  own  Bible.  The 
Czar  and  his  government  they  reject  alto- 
gether as  the  works  of  Anti-Christ  or  as  the 
embodiment  of  that  very  idea,  and  one  of  the 
smaller  sects,  the  Stranniki  (vagrants),  pre- 
fer to  be  hunted  from  place  to  place  like  wild 
beasts  rather  than  submitting  on  any  point  to 
any  official  authority.  The  third  group,  the 
Duchowny  Christians,  whose  membership  it 
is  impossible  to  estimate  witii  any  degree  of 
certainty  and  whose  subdivisions  vary  from 
day  to  day,  seem  to  be  most  numerous  in  the 
central  and  southeastern  parts  of  tiie  countr3^ 
There  is  one  sect  with  feasts  of  promiscuous 
love  to-day  and  flagellations  to-morrow  ;  an- 
other which  rejects  all  external  rites  except 
that  of  ca.stration  and  perhaps  still  more  .sin- 
gular monstrosities  of  logic.  But  the  two 
principal  sects  belonging  to  this  group  are  the 
Ihicholiort/.i  and  tlie  Molokanis.  The  Ducho- 
bortzi  deny  the  personality  of  God  and  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  'The  existence  of 
God  depends  upon  the  societj'  of  holy  men, 
and  from  that  point  of  mystic  spirit'uali.sm 
they  construct  their  moral,  .social  and  political 


views.  The  Molokanis  accept  many  of  the 
principal  doctrines  of  Christianity,  but  only 
after  a  peculiar  process  of  spiritualizatiou. 
Baptism  with  water  is  nothing  ;  but  baptism 
with  purification  from  sins  through  seventy 
years  of  strenuous  exertion  is  something.  ' 
Both  these  sects,  however,  are  highly  esteemed 
as  prudent,  industrious,  peaceable,  and  love- 
able  people,  open  to  instruction.  They  are 
renowned  as  gardeners  and  agriculturists,  and 
much  sought  for  everywhere  as  colonists. — 
See  A.  F.  Heard,  Tlie  Russian,  Church  and 
Russian  Dissent,  comprising  Orthodoxy,  Dis- 
sent, and  Erratic  Sects.    N.Y.,  1887.     C.  P. 

Ruth,  a  Moabitess,  who  married  a  son  of 
Naomi  (Ruth  i.  4),  and  after  his  death  accom- 
panied her  mother-in-law  to  Judea,  and  there 
married  Boaz,  a  kinsman  of  Naomi,  and 
became  the  ancestor  of  the  royal  family  of 
David. 

The  Book  of  Ruth,  written  after  the  time 
of  David,  tells  in  a  very  simple  and  effective 
manner  the  history  of  the  young  Moabitess 
who  showed  such  attachment  to  her  mother- 
in-law  and  to  the  true  religion.  She  lived 
probably  in  the  time  of  Gideon,  B.  C.  1241,  and 
her  story  forms  a  sharp  contrast  to  the  rude 
and  chaotic  state  of  society  at  that  period. 
The  narrative  has  always  been  admired  for  its 
simplicity  and  beauty,  its  practical  lessons  of 
faith  and  charity,  and  its  hint  of  the  future 
extension  of  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  For 
separate  commentaries  see  those  by  Thomas 
Fuller,  London,  1650,  rep.  1868  ;  A.  C.  Price, 
1869  ;  R.  W.  Bush,  1883  ;  R.  A.  Watson  (in 
Expositor's  Bible),  1890.  T.  W.  C. 

Rutherford,  Samuel,  Scotch  Presbyte- 
rian ;  b.  at  Nisbet,  Roxburghshire,  about 
1600  ;  d.  at  St.  Andrews,  -March  20,  1661. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
1621,  and  was  professor  of  humanitv  there, 
1623-25  ;  minister  of  Anworth,  1627-36  ;  de- 
prived and  imprisoned  for  his  book,  E-vcita- 
tionesde  Gratia,  London,  1636,  but  restored 
1638,  on  the  triumph  of  the  Covenant  ;  profes- 
sor of  divinity  at  St.  Andrews,  and  pastor, 
1639  ;  one  of  eight  Scotch  commissioners  to 
the  Westininster^Assembly,  1643-47  ;  princi- 
pal of  the  New  College  at  St.  Andrews,  1647  ; 
invited  to  two  theological  chairs  in  Holland, 
1648  and  1651 ;  deprived  and  accused  of  high 
treason,  1660,  and  his  Le.r,  Rex  (1644,  ed. 
Buchanan,  Edinburgh,  1843)  publicly  burned. 
He  also  wrote  The  Presbi/terian's  Armoury 
(n.  e.  Edinburgh,  1843).  Some  hitherto  un- 
published Sermons  were  issued  by  A.  A.  Boiiar, 
London,  1885.  But  better  known  and  more 
hisrhly  esteemed  than  his  books  are  his  Letters, 
published  first  in  1664,  of  which  there  are 
several  modern  editions,  e.  g.,  bv  A.  A.  Bonar, 
with  his  life,  Edinburgh.  1848,  n.  e.  1862,  2 
j  vols.  ;  best,  perhaps,  by  Thomas  Smith,  Edin- 
'  burgh,  18H1.  See  his  life  by  A.  Thomson, 
London,  1884,  4th  ed.,  1889. 

I  Ruysbroek  (rois-brook),  John,  named 
Ruysbroek,  after  his  native  village  on  tiie 
Senne,  3f  miles  s.s.w.  of  Brussels  ;  b.  1293  ; 
after  long  service  as  vicar  of  St.  Gudulas,  in 
Brussels,  entered  the  Augustinian  convent  of 
Groenendal,   in    the    forest    of    Sonjenbosch 


RUYSBROEK 


(824) 


RYERSON 


(Soignies),  20  miles  s.w.  of  Brussels,  became 
prior,  and  there  d.  on  the  day  of  his  own  pre- 
diction, Dec.  2,  1381.  He  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative of  Flemish  mysticism.  His  admirers 
called  him  Doctor  Ecstaticus,  on  account  of  his 
many  visions  and  ecstasies ;  but  he  was  no 
visionary.  He  was  an  active  preacher  against 
the  vices  of  his  day  and  his  people,  and  a  re- 
former of  his  Order,  himself  strict  in  his  obe- 
dience to  all  rules,  and  humble,  too,  being 
often  found  doing  the  meanest  work.  Though 
predominantly  contemplative  and  transcen- 
dental, he  was  decidedly  theistical  in  his  Mys- 
ticism. It  was  this  side  of  his  mind  and  heart 
which  caused  him  to  seek  the  religious,  moral, 
and  practical  elements  of  Mysticism,  and 
brings  him  iiito  the  company  of  the  Romanic 
mystics  rather  than  into  that  of  the  German. 
He  was  no  doubt  familiar  with  the  speculative 
writings  of  Eckart,  but  he  did  not  belong  to 
that  party,  which  took  an  interest  in  the  purely 
intellectual  efforts  of  the  German  master.  He 
was  personally  acquainted  with  John  Tauler, 
and  was  visited  by  most  mystics  of  his  day, 
who  all  were  edifled  by  his  conversation,  and 
inflamed  by  his  enthusiasm  as  much  as  by  his 
fine  personality.  After  his  death  many  le- 
gends were  circulated  about  him,  the  most 
beautiful  of  which,  perhaps,  is  the  one  which 
tells  how  the  brethren  once  found  him,  after  a 
long  absence  in  the  forest  where  he  used  to 


Reformation.  The  latter  was  the  full  bloom 
of  contemplative  Mysticism,  and  to  him  Luther 
owes  much,  according  to  his  own  words. 

It  must  be  said  that  Gerson's  charge  of 
pantheism  against  Ruysbroek,  made  long  after 
his  death,  was  unjust,  and  had  its  root  mainly 
in  the  author's  vague  expressions,  lack  of  a 
certain  theological  technical  language,  and  a 
liberal  culture  of  mind.  Ruysbroek  himself 
argues  time  and  again  against  pantheistic  and 
antinomian  notions. 

It  will  be  impossible  here  to  explain  the 
theological  principles  that  underlie  Ruys- 
broek's  IMysticism,  they  are  too  involved  to"^be 
stated  in  a  few  words,  and  are  the  result  of 
a  fantastic  plunging  into  yet  unexplored 
abysses  of  the  human  mind.  But  his  practical 
object  was  the  same  as  that  of  all  Mysticism, 
namely  union  with  God,  and  may  be  quoted 
in  brief.  Union  with  God  may  be  reached  in 
three  ways,  he  taught.  The  first  is  active 
life,  by  serving  God  in  abstinence,  penitence, 
good  morals,  etc.  ;  in  general,  by  bearing 
one's  cross  cheerfully  and  learning  the  inward 
lessons  it  teaches.  The  second  way  is  the 
cojitemplative  life.  True  contemplation  is  a 
measureless  knowledge,  in  which  all  action  of 
the  reason  ceases,  which,  although  not  without 
the  reason,  never  descends  to  the  reason.  To 
this  life,  unattainable  by  sense,  nature,  and 
reason,  appears  an  intellectual  light,  which 


walk  during  his  meditations,  sitting  under  a  gives  liberty  and  joy  in  God.  In  this  light 
tree,  wholly  absorbed  in  meditation,  "the tree  man  is  out  of  himself  and  communes  with 
apparently  enveloped  in  flames  "  from  the  in- '  God.  The  third  way  is  the  speculative,  that 
tense  glow  of  his  devotion.  I  of  vision  and   intuition.     In  it  man's  under- 

His  influence  seems  to  have  been  wholly  for  1  standing  becomes  a  living  mirror,  into  which 
the  aood.    He  wrote  in  his  native  Flemish,  and  \  the  Father  and  the  Son  pour  the  Spirit  of  truth 


forced  it  to  yield  to  many  theological  thoughts 
entirely  foreign  to  it.  He  is  usually  considered 
the  best  "  Dutch  "  prose  writer  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  "Ruysbroek,"  says  Ullmann,  "  is  a 
highly  influential  man  ;  from  his  day,  and  by 
his  means,  the  mystic  tendency  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  Germany  undei-went  a  revolution, 
and  purified  itself  in  higher  and  higher  degrees, 
until  it  produced  the  noblest  specimen  of 
Christian  character  and  life.     He  has  all  that  is 


and  love.  When  that  happens,  then  the  spirit 
of  man  is  changed,  and  after  a  manner  anni- 
hilated, so  that  it  knows  nothing  but  Love. 
This  stage  is  absorption  into  God. 

Ruysbroek's  life  has  been  written  by  Tri- 
themius,  De  script,  eccl.,  also  by  an  unknown 
canon  in  Surius's  ed.  of  his  works.  His  col- 
lected works  exist  only  in  Surius's  Latin  transl. , 
Cologne,  1552;  mostly  all  translated  into  German 
by  G.  Arnold,  Offenbach,  1701.     A  Flemish 


good  inthepioussocieties  of  the  preceding  ages,  j  ed.  in  5  vols.  Werken  van  Jan  van  Evys- 
without  their  defects  and  corruptions.  ...  I  broek,  Gent,  1858,  is  not  complete,  but  presents 
Yet  there  are  false  and  unsound  ingredients,  a  |  a  good  type  of  his  Mysticism.  C.  Schmidt 
taint  of  the  corporal  and  fanatical  in  this  i  has  also  published  a  few  of  the  minor  works 
Mysticism,  which  must  be,  and  is,  eradicated  of  R.  (See  J.  G.  V.  Engelhardt,  Richard  St. 
by  his  followers."  Ruysbroek  was  the  one'  Victor  iind  ^  J.  Ruyskroek,  ET]aingen,  1S8S  ;  C. 
among  the  Dutch  to  point  most  definitely  to  Schmidt.  Etude  sur  Jean  Ruysbroek,  Strass- 
the  real  elements  of  Christianity,  the  subjective  burg,  1859.  Ullmann's  Reformers  before  the 
relation  to  the  personal  Christ,  and  though  he  Reformation,  Eng.  trans. ,  has  a  good  summary 
was  always  an  obedientrson  of  the  Church,  he    of  his  ideas.  C.  H.  A.  Bjerregaard. 

was  opposed  to  its  medieval  Christianity,  which 

was  not  much  more  than  a  compendium  of  '  Ryerson,  Adolphus  Egerton,  D.D. 
statutes  and  scholastic  formulas,  representing  j  (Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn., 
God,  eternal  life,  etc.  He  exalted  the  spirit  1842),  LL.D.  (Victoria  College,  1866),  Metho- 
of  faith,  charity,  and  contemplation  as  more  j  dist ;  b.  at  Charlotteville,  Upper  Canada, 
excellent  than  works.  But  all  this  originality  1  March  24,  1803  ;  d.  in  Toronto,  Feb.  19, 1882  ; 
did  not  mature  in  Ruysbroek.  His  influence  j  founded  the  "Christian  Guardian"  in  1829, 
upon  history  becomes  therefore  not  apparent  1  was  chosen  the  first  president  of  Victoria  Col- 


till  we  meet  his  life  and  ideas  in  his  disciple 
Gerhard  Groot,  and  follower  John  Tauler. 
The  first  works  out  his  practical  ideas,  the  latter 
the  contemplative.  The  former  organized  a 
brotherhood,  in  principle  directly  opposed  to 
clerical  supremacy,  and  productive  of  good 


lege  in  1841,  and  in  1844  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  education  for  Upper  Canada,  in 
which  position  he  did  good  service.  He  has 
published  Letters  in  Defense  of  our  School 
System,  Toronto,  1859  ;  The  Loyalists  of 
America    (1620-1816),    1880;    2d    ed.     1884; 


results  directly  traceable  in  the  coming  day  of  |  Epochs  of  Canadian   Methodism,   1882  ;    The 


RYLAND 


(825) 


SABBATR 


Stori/  of  my  Life,  edited  by  J.  G.  Hodgins, 
1883,  etc. 

Ryland,  John,  D.D.  ( ,  18—),  Baptist  ; 

b.  at  Warwick,  92  m.  u.w.  of  Loudon,  Jan. 
29,  1753  ;  d.  at  Bristol,  :May  25,  1825.  lie 
was  pastor  at  Northampton  and  Bristol,  and 
pre.'iident  of  tlie  Baptist  College  at  Bristol  from 
1794  ;  one  of  the  founders  of  tlie  B:ii)tist  ]Mis- 
sionary  Society,  1792.  He  published  Vmittid- 
erations  on  Baptium,  London,  and  a  life  of 
Andrew  Fuller,  1816  ;  Pontoral  Memorinlx, 
with  a  memoir  by  his  son,  appeared  182&-28, 
2  vols.  Some  of  his  hymns  (collected  by  I). 
Sedgwick,  1862)  have  been  widely  used. 

F.  M.  B. 

Ryle,  John  Charles,  D.D.  (by  diploma, 
1880),  Church  of  England,  bishop  of  Liver- 
pool ;  b.  at  Macclestield,  Chester  County, 
England,  May  10,  1816  ;  was  educated  at  0.x- 
ford  ;  became  rector  of  St.  Thomas,  Win- 
chester, 1843,  canon  of  Norwich  Cathedral, 
1870,  bishop  of  Liverpool,  1880,  and  has  pub- 
lished about  one  hundred  theological  tracts 
on  doctrinal  and  practical  subjects,  which 
have  been  collected  into  six  volumes.  His 
best-known  works  are  :  E.vpofiit»ry  Thnir/hts 
on  the  Gospels,  London,  1856-69,  7  vols.,  i2th 
ed.,  1887,  4  vols.;  The  Christian  Leaders  of 
tlie  Last  Century  (in  England),  1869. 


S. 


Saadi  (Shaikh-Muslah-ud-Din  Saadi)  is  a 
representative  Suti,  both  as  a  theologian  and 
as  a  poet.  His  high  moral  tone  and  deep 
religious  feeling  gave  him  the  title  of  Shaikh. 
He  is  not  only  remarkable  among  his  own 
countrymen  and  native  poets,  but  stands  high 
at  a  period  of  human  history  when  Europe 
was  emerging  from  mediteval  darkness.  Ilis 
Divan  is  by  his  countrymen  reckoned  as  the 
true  salt-mine  of  poets.  Jami  calls  him 
"the  nightingale  of  the  groves  of  Shiraz. " 
He  was  born  at  Shiraz.  the  capital  of  Persia, 
1176,  and  died,  1291,  115  years  old.  He  was 
a  voluminous  writer.  The  most  important  of 
his  works  are  the  GulUtan  (tr.  by  E.  B.  East- 
wick,  Hertford,  3d  ed.,  1852)  and  the  Boostan, 
both  of  which  have  often  been  edited  and 
translated  into  most  languages  of  Europe  and 
many  of  Asia.     See  Svfism. 

C.   H.    A.   B.JEKKEGA.\KD. 

Saadia  (Saadja  ben  Joseph  al  Fajjumi),  b. 
in  the  Fayum.  Egypt,  892  ;  d.  at  Sura,  Bab- 
ylonia, 942.  He  was  a  learmd  and  accom- 
plished Rabbinist  and  head  of  the  Academy 
of  Sura,  in  Babylon.  He  defended  the  Tal- 
mud against  the  Karaites,  who  broke  with  the 
Tahnudic  tradition  and  treated  religious  dog- 
mas after  Mohammedan  fashion.  Against 
these  he  uutlcrtook  to  demonstrate  the  rea- 
sonableness of  Mosaic  and  post-3Iosaic  ar- 
ticles of  faith.  He  has  been  characterized 
as  "a  fruit  of  the  Jewisli  soil,  modified  by 
grafts  from  the  Arabian  jfardeu,"  and  his  nii- 
merous  philosophical  and  poetic  works  i)rove 
this  nature  and  endowment.  His  book  con- 
cernimr  R'fu/ions  and  Dopn^m  was  translated  in 
the  12th  century  from  Arabic  tn  Hebrew  and 
repeatedly  edited  ;  a  German  trans,  by  Julius 


Fiirst  was  issued  at  Leipzig,  1845.  A  me- 
morial edition  of  his  works  will  be  published  in 
1892.  (Sal.  Munk,  Notice  sur  Haadla,  Paris, 
1838  ;  Leopold  Dukes,  JAtt.  Mitthellunoenuber 
d.  hebr.  Exegeten,  etc.,  Stuttgart,  1844.) 

C.   H.  A.   B.JEUUEGAARD. 

Saalschvitz,  Joseph  Levin,  b.  at  Konigs- 
berg,  March  15,  1801  ;  d.  there,  Aug.  23, 
1863  ;  studied  in  the  university  of  his  native 
city  and  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in  1824  : 
was  teacher  in  Berlin,  1825-29  ;  rabbi  in 
Vienna,  1829-35,  and  from  1835  to  his  death 
rabbi  at  Konigsberg,  where  he  also  was  ap- 
pointed privat-docent  in  philosophy  in  1849. 
His  principal  works  are  Ban  Mosaische  Jiecht, 
Berlin,  1846-18,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1853,  and 
Archiioloyie  der  Ilebraer,  Konigsberg,  1855-56, 
2  vols. 

Sa-bach'-tha-ni,  a  Syro-Chaldaic  word,  a 
part  of  our  Saviour's  exclamation  on  the  cross 
(Matt,  xxvii.  46),  meaning,  "Hast  thou  for- 
saken me  ?"  T.  W.  C. 

Sab'-a-oth,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  hosts, 
found  in  Rom.  ix.  29  and  James  v.  4  as  a  part 
of  the  divine  title  often  occurring  in  the  Old 
Te.stament  and  rendered  "  Lord  of  ho^ts"  (1 
Sam.  xvii.  45,  Ps.  xxiv.  10,  Mai.  i.  4).  The 
term  sometimes  refers  to  the  planets  and  stars 
of  the  sky,  at  others  to  the  angels  and  minis- 
ters of  God  in  heaven,  again  to  his  covenant 
people  on  earth,  and  vet  again  to  all  taken 
together.  '  T.  W.  C. 

Sabas  (Sabbas,  Sabha)  is  the  name  of  sev- 
eral saints,  but  by  this  name  is  usually  desig- 
nated a  certain  hermit,  abbot,  and  founder  of 
an  order  that  bore  his  name  (Sabaites)  in 
Palestine.  Originally  his  convent  which  he 
founded,  now  called  after  him,  ]\Iar  Saba,  on 
tlie  Kidron,  near  Jerusalem,  was  a  "  laura" 
under  the  rule  of  St.  Basil.  He  was  a  defender 
of  the  decrees  of  Chalcedon  ;  b.  at  ]Mutalasca, 
or  Mutala,  near  C:esarea,  Cappadocia,  439  ; 
d.  near  Jerusalem,  531  or  532.  Another  dis- 
tinguished bearer  of  that  name  was  Sabas 
"  the  Goth,"  highly  venerated  in  the  East  as 
a  martyr.  He  suJGfered  under  Athanaricus, 
the  Visfgothic  king,  toward  the  end  of  the  4th 
century.     His  day  is  April  12. 

Sabbath  {rest).  The  word  first  occurs  in 
Ex.  xvi.  23,  Imt  the  institution  it  de.signates 
was  founded  in  Paradise  (Gen.  ii.  2,  3),  and, 
like  mtwriage,  was  given  for  the  race.  God 
ceased  on  the  seventh  day  from  his  work  of 
creation,  anil  therefore  "hallowed  it,"  i.e., 
set  it  ajiart  as  sacred.  And  so  it  seems  to 
have  been  observed  in  the  ages  l)efore  the  law 
was  given.  Thrice  Noah  sent  forth  the  raven 
or  the  dove  from  the  ark  at  intervals  of  seven 
days.  The  week,  which  is  not,  like  the  day 
or'month  or  year,  a  natural  division  of  time, 
was  established  in  Mesopotamia  (Gen.  xxix. 
27).  The  account  of  the  sending  of  manna 
in  the  desert  (Ex.  xvi.  5,  22-30)  indicates  that 
it  was  already  known  to  the  Israelites. 
Traces  of  the  institution  have  been  found  in 
many  ancient  nations,  so  remote  and  .so 
diverse  in  origin  as  to  forbid  the  idea  that 
they  received  it  from  the  Hebrews.  Early 
Ass}Tian  inscriptions  refer  to  a  week  of  .seveu 
days  and  the  seventh  day  as  a  day  of  rest. 


SABBATHARIANS 


(826) 


SABINIANUS 


The  re-enactment  of  the  Rest-Day  on  Sinai 
■was  not  designed  for  Israel  alone,  but  for  all 
men,  for  Christ  and  the  apostles  speak  of  the 
decalogue  as  of  permanent  and  universal 
obligation  (Luke  x.  26,  Rom.  xiii.  8-10,  Eph. 
vi.  2,  3),  and  we  are  told  (Mark  iii.  27)  that 
the  Sabbath  was  made  for  man.  Certain 
additions  with  specilications  and  penalties 
were  part  of  the  Mosaic  civ  il  and  ceremonial 
law  (Ex.  xxxi.  14,  Lev.  xxiv.  28,  Num. 
xxviii.  9,  10),  but  ceased  with  it.  The  day 
was  kept  as  one  of  rest,  worship,  and  sacred 
py  (2  Kings  iv.  23,  Hos.  ii.  11,  Ps.  xcii.  title, 
Neh.  viii.  9-12).  The  neglect  of  it  was  one 
reason  of  the  Captivity  (Lev.  xxvi.  35,  Jer. 
xxxvi.  21).  After  the  return  from  Babylon, 
the  Jews  renewed  the  covenant  to  observe  it 
(Neh.  X.  31).  In  the  time  of  our  Lord 
Pharisaic  legalism  had  made  it  a  burden  by 
minute  and  absurd  regulatibns,  e.g.,  forbid- 
din;5  to  walk  on  the  grass,  for  that  would  be 
a  kind  of  threshing.  These  and  other  like 
oppressive  precepts  our  Lord  set  aside,  insist- 
ing that  works  of  necessity  and  mercy  were 
lawful.  His  example  represents  the  day  one 
of  healthful  rest,  cheerful  religious  service 
and  active  benevolence.  Experience  and 
observation  have  established  the  fact  the  rest 
of  one  day  in  seven  is  needful  for  the  best 
interests  of  man,  physically,  mentally,  and 
socially. 

The  Christian  Church  celebrates  the  first 
day  of  the  week  as  the  completion  of  redemp- 
tion, just  as  the  ancient  church  celebrated 
the  seventh  as  the  completion  of  redemption. 
There  is  full  warrant  for  the  change.  Twice 
the  Lord  appeared  to  the  twelve  on  the  lirst 
day  of  the  week  (John  xx.  19,  26).  Paul 
preached  at  Troas  (Acts  xx.  7)  on  this  day, 
evidently  one  of  religious  observance.  On  it 
he  told  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  xvi.  2)  to  lay 
by  as  God  had  prospered  them.  And  it  was 
upon  "  the  Lord's  day"  that  John  (Rev.  i. 
10)  received  his  visions  in  Patmos.  "For  a 
time  Jewish  believers  observed  the  seventh 
day  also,  but  they  did  not  require  this  of  any 
(Col.  ii.  16).  The  early  Christian  fathers 
refer  to  the  first  day  of  the  week  as  the  time 
set  apart  for  worship,  and  this  usage  pre- 
vailed over  the  whole  church,  but  it  was  not 
till  the  time  of  Constantine,  a.d.  321,  that  an 
edict  was  issued  requiring  a  certain  degree  of 
abstinence  from  labor  on  the  Lord's  day  or 
Sunday.  No  one  now  desires  a  law  enforcing 
the  religious  observance  of  Sunday,  but 
nearly  all  friends  of  religion  and  morality 
seek  such  laws  as  will  restrain  the  open 
desecration  of  the  day,  and  enable  those  who 
wish  it  to  enjoy  a  peaceful  day  of  rest  and 
worship.  See  Hermann  Strack,  Ber  Miscli- 
natsaktat  ''Sabbath.'''  Leipzig,  1890;  Rabbi 
J.  Schwab,  TJie  Sabbath  in  History,  St.  Jo- 
seph, Mo.,  1890.     And  art.  Lord's  Day. 

T.  W.  C. 

Sabbatharians.     See  SouTHCOTT,  J. 

Sabbath  Day's  Journey,  the  distance, 
about  seven  eighth's  of  a  mile,  which  accord- 
ing to  a  Jewish  tradition  one  might  travel 
without  violating  the  law.  It  is  mentioned 
once  in  the  Bible  (Acts  i.  12).  T.  "W.  C. 

Sabbatical  Year.     Every  seventh  year  the 


land  was  to  rest  and  its  spontaneous  product 
be  left  to  the  poor  and  the  stranger,  and  debts 
were  to  be  remitted  to  Hebrew  boirowers 
(Lev.  XXV.  1-7.  Deut.  xv.  1-11).  A  long  dis- 
use of  this  law  has  been  inferred  from  2 
Chron.  xxxvi.  21.  But  it  seems  to  have  been 
observed  in  the  time  of  Judas  jMaccaba?us 
(1  Mace.  vi.  49,  53),  and  Josephus  implies  its 
observance.  Alexander  the  Great  and  Julius 
Caesar  are  said  to  have  excused  the  Jews 
from  tribute  in  the  Sabbatic  year. 

T.  W.  C. 

Sabbatius,  a  converted  Jew,  whose  in- 
trigues for  an  episcopal  see  were  baffled  by  his 
banishment  to  Rhodes,  where  he  died  scon 
after,  about  the  close  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury. He  had  accepted  the  decree  of  the 
Synod  of  Paz,  in  Phrygia,  according  to  which 
the  Christian  Easter  should  be  celebrated  at 
the  same  date  as  the  Jewish  Passover,  and  his 
followers,  the  Sabbatians,  considered  him  a 
martyr.  They  were  condemned  by  the  Synod 
of  Constantinople,  381. 

Sabellius,  founder  of  the  Sabellians,  b.  in 
Africa,  lived  for  some  time  in  Rome  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  3d  century.  He  was  an  anti- 
Trinitarian.  Not  that  he  rejected  the  idea  of 
the  Holy  Trinity,  but  he  explained  it  in  away 
altogether  different  from  the  orthodox  con- 
ception of  the  church,  representing  the  Father, 
the  Son,  and  the  Spirit  not  as  three  persons, 
but  merely  as  three  distinct  relations  in  which 
the  one  person,  the  God,  had  placed  himself 
to  the  world.  He  found  many  followers  both 
in  Rome  and  in  Egypt,  and  was  excomnmni- 
cated  by  Bishop  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  in 
260.  The  few  fragments  of  his  works  still 
extant  have  been  collected  by  Routh  in  his 
Iieliqui(B  Sacrm. 


,  a  very  ancient  sect,  whose  prin- 
cipal seat  was  Harran  and  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 
They  believed  in  one  God,  who  was  to  be  ad- 
dressed through  a  mediator,  consisting  in  one 
or  more  invisible  spirits.  An  undue  admira- 
tion for  the  heavenly  bodies  led  to  the  wor- 
ship of  the  stars,  conceived  as  the  abode  of 
heavenly  intelligences,  or  as  identical  with 
them.  The  Sabians  of  later  times  pray  at  sun- 
rise, noon,  and  sunset,  turning  toward  the 
north  ;  abstain  from  anj^  vegetables  ;  keep 
three  fasts  a  year  ;  preserve  the  ancient  belief 
about  the  stars,  and  make  pilgrimages  to 
Harran,  which  is  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the 
province  of  Diarbekir,  ancient  Armenia.  (See 
Sale,  The  Koran.)  F.  H.  F. 

Sabina,  saint  and  martyr  ;  d.  125,  and  is 
most  celebrated.  She  lived  as  a  widow  of  dis- 
tinguished social  position  in  the  house  of 
Serapia,  another  female  saint  and  martyr, 
who  converted  her.  There  is,  however,  much 
dispute  about  her  identity.  She  is  known 
mainly  in  connection  with  Serapia.  Her  sup- 
posed relics  were  transferred  in  430  to  a  new 
church  erected  to  her  honor  in  Rome. 

Sabinianus,  pope,  Sept.  13,  604-Feb.  22, 
606  ;  a  native  of  Volterra,  a  deacon  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  had  been  sent  as  nuncio  to 
Constantinople  byCrregorj-  I.,  but  became  the 
object  of  a  fearful  hatred  among  the  lower 
classes  in  Rome  because,  during  the  famine 


SACOATI 


(827) 


SACRISTY 


of  605-606,  he  refused  to  distribute  corn  from 
the  granaries  of  the  church  to  the  poor,  while 
he  sold  it  dearly  to  the  rich. 

Saccati.     See  Sack,  Bkethren  of. 

Sacheverell,  Henry,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1708), 
Church  of  Englaiul  ;  b.  at  Marlborough,  Wilt- 
shire, 74  m.  w.  of  London,  1H74  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, June  5,  1724.  He  entered  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  1689,  and  was  a  fellow, 
1701-18.  While  preacher  at  St.  Saviour's, 
South wark,  he  gained  great  notorietj'  1)y  two 
vehement  sermons  against  tlie  Whig  ministry, 
whom  he  accused  of  neglecting  the  church. 
He  was  impeached  for  libel  and  suspended, 
1710-13.  The  downfall  of  the  Whigs  fol- 
lowed, and  in  1713  the  Tories  made  him  rector 
of  St.  Andren''s,  Holborn.  His  life,  London, 
1711,  wiis  a  campaign  document. 

F.  M.  B. 

Sachs,  Hans,  1).  at  Nuremberg,  Nov.  5, 
1494  ;  d.  there,  Jan.  20,  1576  ;  was  the  son  of 
a  tailor  and  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker. 
After  tinisliing  his  education  by  vLsiting  all 
the  large  cities  of  the  country  and  studying  in 
their  guilds,  both  the  craft  of  his  profession 
aud  the  art  of  the  meistersingers,  he  settled  in 
his  native  city  and  .soon  became  an  honest  and 
well-to-do  shoemaker  and  "  the  prince  and 
patriarch  of  all  master-singers."  He  com- 
posed altogether  6636  pieces  which  till  34  big 
volumes  in  folio,  written  by  his  own  hand. 
They  consist  of  lyrics,  epics,  and  dramas  of 
all  kinds— tragedies,  comedies,  farces,  and 
serious  dialogues.  But  their  tone  is  as  con- 
stant as  their  form  is  various.  They  are  al- 
ways didactic,  even  his  Schici'iuke  and  Fast- 
nachtsspiele  have  a  moral  purpose.  And  the 
moral  is  seldom  abstract,  but  often  of  the 
most  pointed  concretion.  Die  Witteinhirglscli 
yachtigale,  Eyn  wuiideiiiche  iccyKmr/ung,  Ilac 
(licit  Dominus  Dens — Sic  (licit  Papn,  etc.,  are 
campaign  documents  in  the  full  sense  of  the 
word.  The  general  attitude  of  the  Nurem- 
berg master-singers  toward  the  Reformation 
is  marked  by  "this  one  rule  :  that  nothing 
should  be  written  which,  in  thought  or 
words,  was  against  Luther's  Bible,  and  the 
enormous  circulation  of  Hans  Sachs'  poems, 
printed  on  fly-leaves  and  scattered  all  over 
the  country,  made  them  a  power  in  the  strug- 
gles of  tlie  Reformation.  There  is  no  col- 
lected edition  of  his  works,  but  selections 
from  them  are  easily  accessible  in  Bibli»tltek  des 
littintrischen  Vereinszn  Stnttr/nrt;  yendrucke 
deutscher  Litteratunrerke  d.  16.  muJ  17.  Jaly- 
hund.,  Halle;  and  other  collections.  His  life 
was  written  bv  Ranisch,  Altenljursr,  1765,  and 
J.'L.  Hoirmafin,  Nuremberg,  1^^47.      C.  P. 

Sack,  Brethren  of  the  (Saccati,  Saccitae, 
Saccophori,  also  sometimes  called  Jhni  Horn- 
iim<),  was  the  name  of  a  monastic  order  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  founded  in  France 
about  1200  and  confirmed  in  1219.  It  was, 
however,  di.'isolved  in  1275  Ity  tlie  Council  of 
Leyden,  probably  on  account  of  lure.'jy.  The 
name  was  derived  from  their  garment,  which 
simply  consisted  in  a  sack. 

Sackcloth,  a  coarse  fabric,  usually  made  of 
black  go;vts'  liair.  and  worn  as  a  sign  of  re- 
pentance (Matt.  xi.  21)  or  of  mourning  (Gen. 


xxxvii.  34,  Esth.  iv.  1,  2).  The  prophets 
were  often  clothed  in  sackcloth  (Lsa.  xx.  2, 
Zech.  xiii.  4,  Rev.  xi.  3).  The  reception  of 
good  news  was  followed  by  the  removal  of 
sackcloth  (Ps.  XXX.  11).  T.  W.  C. 

Sacrament,  the  name  given  to  certain  rites 
of  the  Christian  Church.  Some  derive  it 
from  the  fact  that  sacramentum  denoted  the 
Roman  soldier's  oath  when  enli-sted,  others 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  the  Vulgate  render- 
ing of  the  Greek  vinsterioK.  It  is  an  outward 
visible  sign  divinely  aj)pointed  to  exhibit  and 
seal  the  benetits  of  the  covenant  of  grace. 
Protestants  recognize  oidy  two  such  institu- 
tions, viz.,  bapti.sm  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Romanists  add  five  others — viz.,  confirmation, 
penance,  extreme  unction,  orders,  and  mar- 
riage, but  the  first  three  of  these  iire  not  divine 
appointments,  .since  they  have  no  warrant  in 
Scripture,  and  the  last  two,  although  they 
owe  their  origin  to  God,  marriage  having  been 
instituted  in  Paradise  and  ordination  ap- 
pointed by  the  Saviour,  yet  are  not  and  can- 
not 1)e  sacraments  because  they  do  not  signify 
or  convey  any  spiritual  grace.  Romanists, 
again,  attach  an  inherent" power  to  a  sacra- 
ment duly  ministered,  whereas  Protestants 
hold  thatfaith  is  necessary  if  the  recipient  is 
to  obtain  anything  more  than  the  outward 
sign.  Further,  the  former  hold  baptism  to  l)e 
absolutely  necessary  to  salvation,  while  the 
latter  regard  the  sacraments  as  precious  and 
oblisatory,  yet  by  no  means  indispensable  to 
salvation!  T.  W.  C. 

Sacred  Heart   of  Jesus,  Society   of.     See 

Jesis,  Society,  etc.,  p.  445. 

Sacrificati.     See  Lapsed,  p.  488. 

Sacrifice.     See  OFFERrxGS. 

Sacrilege  (Latin,  sacrilegvim),  the  violation 
or  profanation  of  sacred  things  or  objects 
consecrated  to  God,  could  according  to  the 
Mosaic  law  only  be  committed  by  a  Jew,  and 
the  punishment  was  complete  restitution  or 
compensation,  a  fine  of  one  fifth  of  a  year's 
income,  and  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  while  ac- 
cording to  Roman  law  the  crime  was  very 
much  aggravated  by  being  committed  by  a 
foreigner,  and  was  always  punished  with 
death.  The  Christian  Church  adopted  the 
definition  of  the  Roman  law,  but  the  i)unish- 
ment  of  the  3Io.saic.  It  made  a  distinction 
between  sacred  things  in  sacred  places  and 
sacred  things  in  profane  places  and  profane 
things  in  sacred  places,  in  which  two  latter 
cases  the  crime  was  not  defined  as  sacrilege, 
and  sacrilege  it  pimished  only  with  compen- 
sation and  excommunication.  When,  how- 
ever, the  Germanic  element  became  the  pre- 
dominant in  the  church,  a  change  took  place 
in  this  sphere,  and  the  Germanic  feeling,  com- 
bining the  idea  of  sanctity  with  the  place 
rather  than  with  the  object,  liad  considerable 
influence  on  the  later  legislation.  (See  H. 
Spelman.  Jlistnnf  and  Fate  of  8<tcvik(je,  Lon- 
don. 16—,  n.e.,  1888.) 

Sacristy,  in  old  times  often  a  building  by 
its(  If.  but  now  always  a  part  only  of  tlie 
church  structure,  an  "apartment  in  which  the 
s;icred  vessels  are  kept  and  the  ofticiating  ec- 


SAOY 


(828) 


SAINT 


clesiastics  assemble.  The  person  who  has 
charge  of  this  apartment  is  called  the  sac- 
ristan. 

Sacy,  Louis  Isaac  Le  Maistre  de,  b.  in 
Paris,  Marcli  29,  1013  ;  d.  there.  Jan.  4,  1684  ; 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1648,  and  became,  in 
1650,  confessor  to  the  nuns  of  Port  Royal, 
but  was  several  times  driven  away  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  finally  compelled  to  leave  alto- 
gether. His  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, generally  called  JVoiiveau  Testament  de 
Mons,  1667,  though  it  was  printed  in  Amster- 
dam, was  condemned  by  Clement  IX.  and 
caused  a  long  and  bitter  controversy.  His 
translation  of  the  Vulgate  with  notes,  Paris, 
1672,  32  vols. ,  is  still  much  used  in  France. 

Sadducees,  a  sect  of  the  Jews  who  derived 
their  name  from  Zadok,  either  one  who  was 
prominent  in  the  3d  century  before  Christ,  or 
the  Zadok  who  was  high-priest  under  Solomon 
(1  Kings  ii.  35),  and  whose  descendants  are 
mentioned  (Ezek.  xl.  46)  as  the  sons  of  Zadok, 
and  seem  to  have  become  a  sort  of  "  sacer- 
dotal aristocracy."  The  Sadducees  were  a 
small  part3%  but  usually  men  of  wealth  and 
position,  and  worldly  minded.  They  stood 
in  direct  opposition  to  the  Pharisees.  They 
did  not  receive  only  the  Pentateuch  (as  has 
been  mistakenly  asserted),  but  accepting  all 
the  written  law,  denied  the  oral  law  Iianded 
down  by  tradition.  They  denied  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body  (Matt.  xxii.  23),  holding 
that  the  soul  died  with  the  body,  and  of 
course  admitted  no  future  state  of  rewards 
and  punishments.  They  denied  also  the  ex- 
istence of  angels  or  spirits  (Acts  xxiii.  8). 
They  maintained  that  good  and  evil  are  at 
man's  choice,  pushing  this  moral  freedom 
so  far  as  almost  to  exclude  the  divine  govern- 
ment of  the  world.  They  made  common 
cause  with  the  Pharisees  in  condemning 
Christ  and  bitterly  opposed  his  followers 
(Acts  iv.  1-7,  V.  17).  We  read  of  no  con- 
versions from  their  number,  while  there  were 
some  at  least  among  the  Pharisees.  With  the 
fall  of  the  Jewish  state  the  Sadducees  disap- 
pear from  history.  (See  Wellhausen,  Die 
Pharisaer  und  die  Sadducikr,  Greifswald, 
1874.)  T.  W.  C. 

Sa'-lim  {peaceful),  a  place  named  by  the 
evangelist  John  (iii.  23)  to  identify  ^Enon, 
where  John  the  Baptist  baptized.  Robinson 
considers  it  to  be  the  village  of  Salim,  3  m.  e. 
of  Nablus,  and  Conder  seems  to  approve  the 
suggestion.  T.  W  .C. 

Sailer,  Johann  Michael,  Roman  Catholic  ; 
b.  at  Aresing,  Upper  Bavaria,  Nov.  17,  1751  ; 
d.  at  Regensburg,  May  20,  1832.  He  studied 
theology  at  Ingolstadt,  and  was  in  1784  made 
professor  of  pastoral  theology  at  Dillingen, 
but  was  dismissed  in  1794,  suspected  of  con- 
nection with  the  Illuminati(q.v.).  Through  the 
Influence,  however,  of  the  crown  prince  of 
Bavaria,  who  was  an  enthusiastic  disciple  of 
his,  he  was  made  professor  at  Ingolstadt  in 
1799,  and  finally,  in  1829,  bishop  of  Regens- 
burg. His  works,  Der  triede,  Briefe  aus 
alien  Jahrlmnderten,  Moralphilosophie,  Die 
Wciasheit  auf  der  Oasse,  etc. ,  were  widely  read 
not  only  by  Roman  Catholics,  but  also  by  Prot- 
estants, and  exercised  considerable  influence  in 


arresting  the  extension  of  rationalism  and  in- 
difference. There  is  a  collected  edition  of 
them  in  40  vols.,  Sulzbach,  1830-42.  His  life 
was  written  by  Bodeman,  Gotha.  1856,  and 
Aichinger,  Freiburg,  1865. 

Saint  John,  The  Order  of  the  Knights  of 

{Johannittv,  Fratres  ILospitales,  Ilospitalarii) 
arose  out  of  a  charitable  institution,  a  chapel 
and  a  hospital,  founded  in  Jerusalem  in  1048 
by  .some  merchants  of  Amalfi,  with  the  author- 
ity of  the  caliph  of  Egypt  and  for  the  benefit 
of  visiting  pilgrims.  After  the  conquest  of 
Jerusalem  in  1099  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
the  institution  was  greatly  improved  and  ex- 
tended by  the  bequests  of  the  conquerors, 
and  a  few  years  later  on,  in  1118,  imdcr  the 
influence  of  Richard  Co?ur  'de  Lion,  but  in 
perfect  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  time 
and  the  necessity  of  the  circumstances,  it  was- 
transformed  into  a  religious  order,  of  whose 
members  one  part  was  destined  for  military 
purposes,  for  tlie  defence  of  the  Holy  Land, 
for  fighting  the  ]\Iohammedans,  while  the 
other  continued  to  discharge  the  duties  tow- 
ard the  pilgrims.  The  organization  was 
sovereign,  owmg  obedience  to  no  one  but  the 
pope,  and  richly  endowed  by  many  poten- 
tates, it  soon  became  possessed  of  immense 
wealth.  In  1189  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
Saladin,  and  the  knights  retired  to  Acre.  In 
1291  Acre  was  taken  by  the  Mamelukes,  and 
the  knights  retreated  to  Rhodes.  But  even 
Rhodes  they  were  compelled  to  give  up  in 
1523,  after  a  memorable  siege,  to  Solyman  II., 
and  Malta  now  became  their  last  halting- 
place.  The  whole  eastern  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean came  absolutely  under  the  sway  of  the 
Turks,  and  if  Malta  .should  fall  into  their 
hands,  the  entrance  to  the  western  part  was 
open  to  them  too.  In  1565  Solyman  com- 
menced the  siege  with  a  fleet  and  an  army 
which  seemed  sufficient  to  conquer  all  Eu- 
rope. But  Malta  was  not  conquered  ;  the 
proud  sultan  had  to  retire  utterly  discomfited, 
and  the  knight  of  Malta  stood  as  the  true 
mirror  of  military  valor  and  prowess.  But 
singularly  enough,  the  very  next  day  began 
the  decay  of  the  order.  In  1571  the  battle  of 
Lepanto  was  fought.  The  Turkish  fleet  was 
completely  destroyed  and  Turkish  authority 
in  the  Mediterranean  utterly  annihilated. 
For  the  knights  of  St.  John  there  was  con- 
sequently nothing  further  to  do.  Their  occu- 
pation was  gone  and  history  soon  treated 
tliem  as  she  generally  treats  that  which  is  su- 
perfluous. Henry  VIII.  confiscated  their 
possessions  in  England,  Sebastian  II.  their 
possessions  in  Portugal,  the  Revolution  their 
possessions  in  France,  and  when  Napoleon 
on  his  way  to  Egypt,  in  1798,  conquered 
Malta,  he  found  only  the  ghost  of  the  order. 
(See  C.  C.  von  Falkeustein,  GescMclite  des  Jo- 
hamnterordens,  Dresden,  1833  ;  Tlie  Ritntd  of 
Prof  (lesion,  of  tlie  Kniqhts  and  Religioi(s  Ladies 
and  the  Peeeption  of  'the  Donats  of  the  Order  of 
the  KniylitH  of  St.  John,  London,  1858  ;  F.  C. 
Woodhouse,  The  Military  Eeligiovs  Orders  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  London  and  New  York,  1879  ; 
W.  K.  R.  Bedford,  The  Eegvlations  of  the 
Old  Hospital  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  at 
Valetta,  London,  1882).  C.  P. 


SAINT  MARTIN 


(829) 


SALOME 


Saint-Martin,  Louis  Claude  de,  French 
theosophist  ;  b.  at  Amboise,  Iiulre-Loire, 
France.  Jan.  18,  1743  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Oct.  18, 
1803.  He  resigned  liis  j)ositi<)n  in  the  army 
in  order  to  devote  himself  to  iiiystiral  studies, 
and  travelled  much  in  England  and  Gennanj-. 
His  first  teacher  was  Martinez  Pastiualis  ; 
from  him  he  went  to  Cagliostro  ;  from  lam  to 
Swedeuborg,  and  others,  until  lie  found  rest 
■with  Jakob  Boehme,  whose  works  he  trans- 
lated into  French.  Among  his  original  works 
are  Des  erreurs  et  de  la  vcrite,  Paris,  1775  ; 
L'homine  de  desir,  1790  ;  Be  V esprit  des  chases, 
1800,  etc.,  all  translated  into  German.  A 
very  interesting  volume  is  his  Lett  re  a  un  ami, 
179o,  concerning  the  Revolution.  (See  his  life 
by  Caro,  Paris,  1852,  and  by  :\Iatter,  1862.) 

Saints,  the  name  given  by  the  sacred 
•writers  to  believers  in  Christ  or  the  people  of 
God  (Heb.  vi.  10.  Rom.  i.  7,  viii.  27).  The 
literal  import  of  the  term  is  holi/  one,  and  it 
should  be  so  rendered  in  Deut.  xx.xiii.  2  and 
Jude  14,  where  the  reference  is  to  angels.  As 
applied  to  men  it  does  not  imply  entire  holi- 
ness, but  that  believers  are  called  to  holiness 
and  incessantly  strive  after  it,  and  in  that 
sense  belongs  to  all  Christians.  The  special 
application  of  it  to  .some  eminent  persons  who 
are  canonized  and  made  objects  of  a  certain 
detrree  or  kind  of  worship  is  unscriptural  and 
dishonoring  to  Christ.  T.  W.  C. 

Saints,  The  Worship  of  the,  arose  and  de- 
veloped with  monasticism.  The  reports  of 
the  austere  piety  of  the  hermits  in  the  deserts 
or  the  recluses  in  the  caves  struck  the  public 
at  large  with  admiration  and  awe,  and  the 
necessary  reaction  of  these  feelings,  when 
once  they  had  become  general  and  popular, 
were  still  more  e.xalted  examples  of  austerity, 
or,  at  least,  still  more  exaggeratetl  accounts. 
Quite  naturally,  too,  such  .saints  came,  in 
men's  minds,  to  occupy  an  intermediate  posi- 
tion between  God  and  man.  It  might  be 
hoped — so  it  seemed — that  their  intercession 
with  God  in  Ix-half  of  sinful  and  suffering 
fellow-creatures  should  not  be  altogether  in 
vain,  and  to  ask  for  such  intervention  in  the 
most  insihuating  manner  possible  could,  at  all 
events,  do  no  "harm.  In  the  5th  and  6th 
centuries  the  movement  was  in  full  swing 
both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West.  In  the 
Eastern  Church  the  worship  of  the  saints  was 
finally  fixed  by  the  .second  Council  of  Nice, 
787.  In  the  Western  Church  there  is  no  such 
definite  point  of  decision,  but  the  All  Saints' 
Day  (see  p.  23)  was  instituted  in  610,  and 
the"  first  formal  canonization  (llrich  of  Augs- 
burg by  John  XV.)  took  place  in  993.  There 
was,  however,  from  a  very  early  dale  a  strong 
opposition  to  this  whole  development,  ami 
the  worship  of  the  saints  became  finally  the 
harbinger  of  .so  much  superstition  and  fraud 
that  the  reformers  rejected  it  altogether,  while 
the  Council  of  Trent  in  its  2oth  .session,  Dec. 
1563,  formally  confirmed  it  and  anathematized 
all  who  denied  it.  C.  P. 

Sakya  Muni,  name  commonly  given  to  the 
founder  of  Huddhism.     See  lNni.\,  p.  402. 

Sal'>a-mis,  a  seaport  town  with  a  good  har- 
bor on  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of  C3'prus. 
It  was  visited  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their 


first  missionary  journey,  a.d.  45,  when  the 
Jewish  residents  were  evidently  numerous, 
there  being  more  than  one  synagogue  (Acts 
xiii.  5).  The  city  was  partially  destroyed  by 
insurrections  under  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  and 
its  ruin  completed  by  an  earthquake.  Its 
ruins  are  known  as  Old  Famagusta. 

T.  W.  C. 

Salem  Witchcraft.     See  Witchckaft. 

Sales,  Francis  of.     See  Frakcis,  p.  304. 

Salisbury,  John  of.  See  John  of  Salts- 
ijunv,  11.  457. 

Salmasius,  Claudius,  b.  at  Semur-en-Auxois, 
44  m.  w.n.w.  of  I)ij(m,  Burgundy,  France, 
April  15,  1588  ;  d.  at  Spaa,  Belgium.  Sept  3. 
1653  ;  was  professor  at  Leyden,  1632  ;  called 
to  Stockholm  by  Queen  Christina.  1650,  but 
returned  to  Leyden,  1651.  He  was  a  famous 
cla.ssical  scholar,  but  .several  of  his  works 
have  theological  interest,  Be  prinuitu  pap<v, 
Leyden,  1645  ;  Super  He  rode  infanticida,  Ant- 
werp, 1648,  etc.  He  is  best  known,  however 
as  the  iiuXhor  of  Befiiisio  r(f/i<(  pro  dtrolo  /., 
Leyden,  1649,  against  which  ^Milton  wrote. 

Salmaticensis  Cursus  Theologicus,  pub- 
lished at  Salamanca,  Spain,  1631,  9  vols.,  is 
the  official  representation  of  the  theology  of 
the  Dominican  order,  whose  principal  seat 
was  the  University  of  Salamanca,  over  against 
the  outspoken  semi-Pelagianism  of  the 
Jesuits. 

Salmeron,  Alphonso,  b.  at  Toledo,  Oct.  8, 
1515  ;  d.  at  ■N"ai)les,  Feb.  13.  1585  ;  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  one 
of  the  most  fanatical  and  one  of  the  most 
active  opponents  of  the  Reformation,  papal 
theologian  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  etc. 

Salmon,  George,  D.D.  (Dublin,  1859  ;  Edin- 
burgh. 1884),  D.C.L.  (Oxford,  1868).  LL.D. 
(Cambridge,  1874),  Church  of  Ireland  ;  b.  in 
Dublin,  Sept.  25,  1819  ;  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  appointed  regius 
professor  of  "theology  tliere  in  1866.  He  has 
published  three  series  of  College  Str/uous, 
London,  ISGl.  1873.  1881  ;  Introduction  to  the 
y,  ,r  Ttstanu  nt,  1885,  3ded.,  1889  ;  Gnosticism 
and  Affnosticisiii  and  Other  Sermons,  1887. 

Salmond,  Stewart  Dingwale  Fordyce, 
D.D.  (Aberdeen  University,  1881),  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at  Aberdeen.  June 
22,  1838  ;  was  educated  in  the  King's  College 
and  university  of  his  native  city,  and  became, 
in  1876,  professor  of  systematic  theology  and 
New  Testament  exegesis  in  the  Free  Church 
College  of  Aberdeen.  He  made  several  trans- 
lations for  the  Ante-Nicene  Librarv.  Edin- 
burgh ;  wrote  Commentary  on  the  hpistles  of 
Peter  for  SchafUs  Popular  Commentary  ;  The 
Life  f>f  (he  AjMStle  Peter,  1884  ;  Commentary 
on  the  Ei>istle  of  Jude,  London,  1888  ;  Life 
of  Christ,  1889. 

Sa-lo'-me  ( peaceful).  1.  The  wife  of  Zebe- 
dee,  mother  of  James  and  John,  one  of  the 
women  of  Galilee  who  ministered  to  our 
Saviour  in  his  journeys  (Matt,  xxvii.  56,  ]Mark 
XV.  40),  though  she  mistook  the  nature  of  his 
kingdom  (Matt.  xx.  21). 

2.  "  The  daughter  of  Herodlas"  who  danced 


SALT 


(830) 


SALVATION 


before  Herod,  whose  name  is  given  by 
Josephus  {Antiq.  xviii.,  5,  §  4).  See  Matt, 
xvi.  1-12.  She  married  her  uncle  Philip, 
tetrarcli  of  Trachonitis,  and  after  his  deatli 
Aristobulus,  king  of  Chalcis.  T.  W.  C. 

Salt,  abundant  in  Palestine,  being  procured 
from  the  immense  ridge  of  rock-salt,  Jebel 
Usdum,  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea 
and  by  evaporation  from  the  waters  of  the 
sea.  Salt  as  a  preservative  from  corruption 
was  an  emblem  of  purity  and  perpetuity,  and 
as  such  was  used  in  sacrifices  (Lev.  ii.  13, 
Mark  ix.  14),  and  was  an  ingredient  of  the 
sacred  incense  (Ex.  xxx.  35).  It  symbolized 
the  durabilitj'  of  a  covenant  (Num.  xviii.  19, 
2  Cliron.  xiii.  5).  Good  men  are  "  the  salt  of 
the  earth"  (Matt.  v.  13),  and  divine  grace  is 
the  salt  of  human  speech  (Col.  iv.  6).  A 
"salt  land"  is  barren  (Jer.  xvii.  6),  and  to 
"  sow  with  salt"  any  place  (Judges  ix.  45)  is 
to  doom  it  to  desolation.  Oriental  salt  by  ex- 
posure loses  its  savor  and  becomes  worthless 
(Luke  xiv.  34,  35).  T.  W.  C. 

Salt  Sea,  the  sea  into  which  the  Jordan 
empties.  It  occupies  the  deepest  portion  of 
the  great  depression  which  extends  from  the 
range  of  Lebanon  to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  and 
is  46  miles  long  and  10  miles  wide,  and  covers 
nearly  300  square  miles.  It  is  16  miles  from 
Jerusalem  and  can  be  seen  from  the  Mt.  of 
Oli^^es.  On  the  east  side,  7  miles  from  the 
south  end,  a  low  promontory,  called  El-Lisan, 
the  tongue,  projects  westward  and  northward. 
North  of  this  the  sea  is  1300  feet  deep,  south 
of  it  11  feet.  The  water  of  the  sea  is  clear, 
but  intensely  salt  and  of  very  great  specific 
gravit}^  so  dense  that  one  can  float  on  it  with- 
out danger  of  sinking.  No  form  of  life  is 
found  in  it  ;  the  fish  brought  down  by  the 
Jordan  quickly  die.  The  general  aspect  of 
the  region  is  dreary  and  desolate,  especially 
at  the  southern  end.  The  earliest  mention  of 
it  is  in  Gen.  xiv.  3.  Near  it  were  the  cities  of 
the  plain  that  were  destroyed  by  fire  and 
brimstone  out  of  heaven  (Gen.  xix.  24),  but  it 
does  not  appear  whether  they  were  sub- 
merged in  the  great  catastrophe,  nor  is  it 
settled  whether  they  were  at  the  northern  or 
southern  extremity.  T.  W.  C. 

Salvation.     See  Redemption. 

Salvation  of  Infants.  See  Infant  Salva- 
tion. 

Salvation  Army,  The.  The  most  powerful 
evangelizing  agency  in  the  world  outside  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  According  to  the 
latest  available  figures  it  has  3795  corps  or 
stations  officered  by  9457  persons,  whose 
whole  time  is  given  to  evangelistic  work,  and 
42  weekly  and  montldy  journals  published  in 
15  different  languages  iu  34  countries  and 
colonies,  with  a  t'otal  circulation  of  33,000,000 
copies  per  annum.  These  figures  do  not  in- 
clude 23,069  "  local"  officers  and  bandsmen, 
471  soribes  and  office  employes,  330  officers 
and  employes  engaged  in  the  "'trade"  de- 
partments in  different  lands,  and  384  officers 
and  others  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  slum, 
prison  gate,  food  depot,  shelters  for  the  desti- 
tute, home  for  inebriates,  labor  bureau,  and 
factory  offshoots  of  the  movement.     Ere  these 


figures  are  piinted,  however,  tliey  will  be 
nearly  obsolete,  so  rapid  is  the  advance  of  the 
whole  organization.  At  the  time  of  writing 
there  are  in  the  United  States  445  corps  and 
outposts  situated  in  33  states,  officered  by 
1125  male  and  female  evangelists.  There  are 
rescue  homes  at  Grand  Rapids  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  training  garrisons  for  officers  in 
New  York,  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Cleveland, 
Englewood,  111.,  Des  Moines,  Omaha,  Oak- 
land, and  San  Francisco.  During  the  month 
of  Oct.  1,071,000  persons  attended  the  Army's 
indoor  meetings  alone  in  this  country. 

On  July  5,  1865,  William  Booth,  who  had 
recently  sacrificed  brilliant  prospects  in  the 
Methodist  New  Connection  in  order  to  gain 
greater  freedom  for  evangelistic  work,  con- 
ducted an  open-air  meeting  alone  on  Mile  End 
Waste,  situated  in  one  of  the  most  disrepu- 
table localities  of  London,  thereby  inaugu- 
rating the  Christian  Mission,  from  which  was 
evolved,  thirteen  years  later,  the  Salvation 
Army.  The  rate  of  progress  since  1878  has 
been  steadily  maintained,  the  increase  being 
about  one  third  in  corps  and  officers  every 
year. 

The  Army  has  altogether  33  rescue  homes, 
33  slum  posts,  10  prison-gate  brigades,  4  food 
depots,  5  shelters  for  the  destitute,  2  labor 
bureaus,  an  inebriate's  liome,  and  a  factory 
for  the  out-of-works. 

In  Oct.,  1890,  General  Booth  issued  a  book 
entitled  In  Darkest  England  and  the  Way  Out, 
in  which  he  propounded  a  gigantic  scheme 
for  dealing  with  the  whole  question  of  pau- 
perism and  crime  by  the  combined  powers  of 
religious  labor  and  social  effort.  He  asked 
for  $5,000,000  in  order  to  launch  his  scheme 
in  Great  Britain  alone,  and  if  he  gets  it, 
there  will  doubtless  be  an  enormous  exten- 
sion of  work  by  the  officers  and  soldiers  of 
the  Army  in  many  different  directions. 
Queen  Victoria  wrote  an  expression  of  sym- 
pathy, the  Prince  of  Wales  promised  a  con- 
tribution, and  the  plan  received  the  imme- 
diate endorsement  of  Cardinal  Manning,  the 
earls  of  Roseberry  and  Aberdeen,  Michael 
Davitt,  and  rehgious  and  political  leaders  of 
all  parties  and  creeds. 

From  the  very  commencement  of  their  ac- 
quaintance Mrs.  Booth  had  taken  an  active 
part  in  every  effort  put  forward  by  her  hus- 
band, and  siie  was  always  regarded  as  the 
mother  of  the  Salvation  Army.  She  was  an 
eloquent  preacher,  a  zealous  advocate,  and  an 
able  administrator.  Besides  all  her  public 
and  private  duties  connected  with  her  hus- 
band's enterprises  she  brought  up  eight  deli- 
cate children,  every  one  of  whom  is  complete- 
ly devoted  to  the  life  work  of  their  parents. 
She  d.  in  London,  Oct.  4,  1890.  At  her  fune- 
ral service  in  Olympia,  London,  26,000  persons 
were  present. 

The  theology  of  the  Army  is  identical  with 
that  of  the  Methodist  body. 

Among  the  more  prominent  of  the  prin- 
ciples by  which  it  works  are  : 

1.  Prompt,  unquestioning  obedience  to  su- 
periors in  rank.  The  organization  is  of  a 
military  character  throughout,  and  no  one 
incapable  of  implicit  obedience  is  considered 
fit  to  command  others. 


SALVATION 


(831) 


SAMARIA 


2.  Opea  and  even  ostentatious  confession  of 
personal  religion,  renunciation  of  the  world, 
and  membership  of  the  Army. 

3.  Self-denial.  No  effort  is  spared  to  avoid 
the  entrance  of  any  who  seek  temporal  ad- 
vantage. No  salary  is  guaranteed  to  any 
officer,  nor  can  he  or  she  draw  even  the  small 
sum  they  are  suppo.sed  to  receive  unless  all 
clainis  against  the  corps  are  provided  for. 
No  officer  receives  more  pay  than  is  sufficient 
for  the  supply  of  his  bare  needs,  nor  does  the 
Army  hold  out  any  promise  of  provision  for 
the  future.  Once  ev(!ry  year  the  whole  Armv 
and  its  friends  are  called  upon  to  deny  them- 
selves for  a  week  of  some  little  lu.xur^-  or  ex- 
penditure, and  send  the  proceeds  to  the  head- 
quarters of  the  countrv.  In  1890  this  pro- 
duced the  sum  of  $1'2.").000. 

4.  Local  self-support.  Every  corps,  every 
division,  and  every  country  is  expected  to 
raise  and  administer  all  the  funds  necessary 
for  the  purposes  of  its  own  effort. 

5.  Perpetual  extension  and  therefore  per- 
petual poverty. 

6.  Not  only  is  the  internal  economy  of  the 
Army  military,  but  its  external  array  is  of 
the  same  character.  While  condemning  any- 
thing like  finer}'  or  personal  adornment,  a 
neat  uniform  is  adopted  for  both  sexes.  Men 
wear  a  cap  with  a  red  band  round  it,  a  tunic 
coming  up  to  the  tlu'oat  with  the  letter  "  S  " 
on  each  side  of  the  collar,  and  a  red  jacket  or 
jersey.  Women  wear  plain  dark  blue  dresses, 
and  the  well-known  "hallelujah  bonnet," 
the  shape  of  which  recalls  ancient  feminine 
head-gear  of  the  "  coal-scuttle"  type. 

The  ■■  blood  and  lire  Hag"  of  the  Army  con- 
sists of  a  red  tield  within  a  blue  border,  bear- 
ing iu  the  centre  a  yellow  star.  The  colors 
are  emblematical,  the  red  being  intended  to 
represent  the  blood  of  Christ,  the  yellow  the 
lire  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  blue  holiness 
or  purity  of  heart  brought  about  by  the  com- 
bined action  of  the  agencies  just  mentioned. 
These  colors  usually  bear  the  national  Hag  of 
the  particular  country  in  which  the  corps  is 
situated  in  the  top  left-hand  corner.  A  motto 
of  the  Army  that  is  nearly  as  universally 
known  as  that  of  "  Blood  and  Fire"  is  "  The 
World  for  God." 

7.  An  important  principle  is  that  of  utilizing 
all  the  powers  and  abilities  of  every  individual 
member  to  the  utmost. 

8.  In  all  evangelistic  effort  it  is  assumed  that 
the  world  is  utterly  godless  and  indifferent, 
if  not  hostile  to  religion.  It  is  also  accepted 
that  a  large  proportion  of  sinners  have  given 
up  hope  of  any  deliverance  from  their  sins 
because  of  pa.s't  failure  on  the  parts  of  them- 
selves and  others.  The  Army  therefore  seeks 
(1)  to  attract  attention  ;  (2)  to  inspire  hope, 
and  (3)  to  bring  about  repentance,  abandon- 
ment of  sin,  and  faith  in  Christ.  The  objects 
achieved,  it  immediately  jiroceeds  to  make 
the  new  convert  into  a  witness  to  the  power 
of  God  for  tiie  bunctit  of  others  who  are  to- 
day where  he  was  last  week. 

The  Army  invad<d  this  country  in  1880, 
France  and" Switzerland  in  18.-<l,  India,  Can- 
ada, Australia,  Swe<len,  and  Ceylon  in  1882, 
Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa 
in  1883,  German V  iu  ls84,  St.  Helena  in  1886. 


Holland  and  Denmark  in  1887,  Norway  in 
1888,  and  Belgium,  Finland,  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  in  1889.  The  figures  for  differ- 
ent lanes  are  : 

L'uited  States  ..  445  Corps  and  Outposts,  1,125  Ofticcrs. 

(JioatBritaiii... 1,375  "  "  4,;m       " 

France      and  /  i~a  i;                     n             ok.i       u 

Switzerland  t'  ^'^                                         ■^''~ 

Swedun 144  "                    "            328       " 

Canada 395  "                     "          1,021       " 

Australia  (in-^ 

eluding  Vic-  f 

toi-ia.    South 

Austral  ia, 

N  e  w    South  'c  735 
Wales,     I 

Ciueensland  I 

and    T  a  8  - 1 

mania) j 

New  Zealand. . .  164  "                    "             186 

India  &  Ceylon.  131  "                    "            419 

Holland 48  "                    "             131 

Denmark SH  "                   "              87       " 

Norway 53  "                    "            132       " 

Germany 22  "                    "              75       " 

Belgium 4  "                    "              21       " 

Finland 3  "                    "              12 

Argentine  Re- 1  „  n                   „              ,-       .4 

public )■  "                                           ^'^ 

South    Africa  I  n  <i                    n             leo       >• 

&St.Heleua.  f  "^                                         ^^^ 

Among  the  principal  books  of  the  Army 
are  Salvntiou  ScAdiery  (1882),  The  Training  of 
Vhildren  (1884),  Orders  and  Eegvlations  for 
Field  Officers  (1883),  In  Darkest  England  and 
the  Way  Ont  (1890),  all  by  General  Booth. 

Popular  Christianity,  Godliness  {1882),  Ag- 
qressite  Christianity  (1881),  Life  and  Death 
(1883),  Practical  Religion  (1879),  and  T7ie  Sal- 
ration  Army  in  Relation  to  the  Chxirch  and 
the  State  (1883),  by  IVIrs.  Booth  ;  Twenty-one 
Years  Salvation  Anmy  and  Heathen  England, 
by  Commissioner  Railton  ;  Beneath  Two 
Flaqs,  by  Mrs.  Ballincton  Booth,  of  New 
York  City,  New  York  (1889)  ;  J.  Buikr,  The 
Salvation  Army  in  Switzerland,  London.  1884. 
Ballington  Booth. 

Salve  (Latin,  hail),  an  expression  of  solemn 
salutation,  often  occurring  as  the  opening 
word  in  Latin  hymns. 

Salvianus,  jnesbyter  in  Marseilles  ;  b.  prob- 
ably at  'I'reves,  ab'out  390  ;  resided  at  Co- 
logne ;  married,  but  after  the  birth  of  his 
daughter  took  up  the  monastic  life  ;  d.  in 
Marseilles  about  49o  ;  left  several  works,  Ad- 
versns  avaritunn,  De  guhernatione  Dei,  etc., 
of  which  the  two  named  above  are  still  ex- 
tant ;  rep.  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  LIIL,  edited 
bv  C.  Halm,  Berlin,  1878,  and  F.  Pauly, 
Vienna,  1883. 

Sa-ma'-ri-a,  the  country  between  Galilee  on 
the  nnrth  and  Judsea  on  the  south.     See  Sa- 

M.VIUTANS. 

Sa-ma'-ri-a,  a  noted  city  30  m.  n.  of  Jeru- 
.salem,  built  by  Omri  ai)out  920  is.c.  and 
called  after  Shemer,  tiie  former  owner  of  the 
site,  which  was  beautiful  for  situation  and 
strong  for  defence.  It  became  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  so  continued  for 
200  years.  It  was  a  seat  of  idolatry.  Ahab 
built  there  a  great  temple  to  Baal"  (1  Kings 
xvi.  32)  which  Jehu  destroyed  (2  Kings  x.  IH). 
It  was  twice  Insieged  by  the  Syrians,  in 
Ahab's  reign  (901)  and  in  Joram'.s  (892),  in 
the  latter  the  people  suffering  terriblv,  but 
wonderfully  delivered  in  accordance  with 
Elisha's  prediction  (2  Kings  vi.,  vii.).     About 


SAMARITAN 


(832) 


SAMUEL 


170  years  later  the  Assyrians  under  Sargou 
captured  the  city  after  a  three  years'  siege, 
and  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  into  captivily. 
They  were  replaced  by  Cuthite  colonists  and 
the  city  restored.  It  was  captured  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great  (333)  and  again  by  John 
Hyrcanus  (129),  who  demolished  it.  Herod 
tile  Great  rebuilt  it  and  named  it  Sebaste  in 
honor  of  Augustus.  He  enlarged  it  and  sur- 
rounded it  with  a  wall  and  colonnade,  of 
which  some  portions  still  remain. 

Philip  preached  the  gospel  in  iSamaria  (Acts 
viii.),  and  the  church  there  formed  was  repre- 
sented in  the  Council  of  Kicaja.  It  fell  under 
Moslem  power  (614),  but  tlie  Crusaders  estab- 
lished a  Latin  bishopric.  It  is  now  an  incon- 
siderable village,  Sebastiyeh.  Shattered  col 
umnsand  fragments  of  ancient  edifices  remind 
one  of  Micah's  prediction  (i.  6),  "I  will  make 
ISamaria  an  heap  of  the  field,  and  pour  down 
the  stones  thereof  into  the  valley." 

T.  W.  C. 

Samaritan  Pentateuch,  The,  the  text  used 
and  recognized  by  tlie  Samaritans  and  printed 
in  the  London  Polyglot,  differs  in  many  places 
from  that  used  and  recognized  by  the  Jews. 
A  long  controversy  has  been  carried  on  con- 
cerning the  respective  merits  of  the  two  texts, 
until  at  last  Hebrew  scholars  have  generally 
agreed  upon  the  latter. 

Samaritans.  The  name  is  applied  to  the 
people  of  mixed  Jewish  blood,  who  occupied 
central  Palestine  and  combined  some  forms  of 
Jehovah  worship  with  idolatrous  rites  (3 
Kings  xvii.  25-41).  When  the  Jews  were  re- 
stored to  their  own  land  and  began  to  rel)uild 
the  temple,  the  Samaritans  wished  to  join 
them,  but  were  rejected.  Hence  they  ca- 
lumniated them  and  hindered  them,  and  linall}' 
s^t  up  a  rival  temple  on  Mt.  Gerizim,  which 
stood  for  200  years  and  was  destroyed  by  John 
Hyrcanus.  Meanwhile  the  animosity  between 
the  two  races  was  constantly  increasing 
(Ecclxis.  1.  25,  26).  In  Christ's  time  "  Sa- 
maritan" was  a  term  of  contempt  (John  viii. 
48),  and  the  Jews  avoided  all  intercourse 
with  them  (John  iv.  9),  and  they  in  turn 
denied  hospitality  to  pilgrims  passing  through 
their  country  (Lulie  ix.  52).  Our  Lord,  while 
denying  their  claim  to  orthodoxy  (John  iv. 
20-22)  and  deferring  the  sending  of  the  gospel 
to  them  till  after  his  resurrection  (Matt.  x.  5, 
Acts  i.  8),  yet  showed  his  superiority  to  race- 
prejudice  by  his  conversation  with  the  Sa- 
maritan woman  (John  iv.),  his  praise  of  the 
grateful  laper  (Luke  xvii.  15),  and  his  exquis- 
ite parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan.  Consid- 
erable success  attended  the  first  preaching  of 
the  gospel  to  them  (Acts  viii.  4-17,  ix.  31), 
but  as  a  body  they  lield  off,  and  during  the 
ages  suffered  severely.  There  are  still  some 
families  left  who  live  at  Nablus,  and  offer  a 
yearly  sacrifice  on  Gerizim  and  keep  all  the 
Mosaic  festivals.  T.  W.  C. 

Sa'-mos  (a  height),  an  island  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  near  the  coast, 
27  miles  long  and  10  wide,  which  Paul 
touched  on  his  third  missionary  journey,  A.d. 
58  (Acts  XX.  15).  It  was  celebrated  as  the 
birthplace  of  Pythagoras  and  devoted  to  the 
worship  of  Juno.  T.  W.  C. 


Samosata,  Paul  of.     See  Monarchianism. 

Sam-o-thra'-ci-a,  a  mountainous  island  of 
the  jEgtinn  Sea  which  Paul  visited  on  his  tirst 
journey  (Acts  xvi.  11).  The  latter  half  of  its 
name  was  added  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other 
Samos.  It  is  still  called'Samothraki,  and  con- 
tains  from  one  to  two  thousand  inhabitants. 
T.  W.  C. 

Sam'-son  (sunlike),  son  of  Manoah,  a  Dan- 
ite,  and  for  twenty  years  a  judge  of  the  south- 
western tribes  of  Palestine,  and  partly  con- 
temporary with  Eli  and  Samuel.  His  birtli 
was  miraculously  foretold,  and  he  was  a  Naz. 
arite  from  infancy.  He  was  not  a  giant  in 
size,  but  wonderfully  strong  when  "  th<i 
spirit  of  Jehovah  came  mightily  upon  him" 
(Judges  xiv.  6,  19).  He  was  a  prey  to  sensual 
vices  which  often  brought  him  into  trouble, 
and  at  last  put  him  in  prison,  blinded  and  fet- 
tered ;  but  notwithi:  landing  his  errors  he  ia 
ranked  with  the  heroes  of  the  faithful  (Heb. 
xi.  82,  33),  and  we  must  infer  that  his  de- 
votion to  God,  though  very  imperfect  and  fit- 
ful, was  yet  sincere  and  sound  at  the  root. 
His  history  is  alike  interesting  and  instructive. 
T.  W.  C. 

Samson,  Bernhardin,  a  Franciscan  monk, 
a  native  of  Milan,  and  tlie  agent  of  Cardinal 
Forli  for  the  sale  of  indulgences  in  Switzer- 
land in  1518,  where  he  played  the  same  part 
as  Tetzel  in  Germany.  After  causing  consid- 
erable scandal,  he  was  recalled  by  Leo  X. 
Nothing  further  is  known  about  him. 

Sam'-u-el  {heard  of  God),  son  of  Elkanah 
and  Hannah,  the  last  of  the  judges  and  a  cele- 
brated prophet.  Of  Levitical  descent  (1 
Chron.  vi.  27),  he  was  born  at  Ramali,  and  at 
a  tender  age  taken  to  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh 
and  there  trained.  While  yet  a  child  he  be- 
gan to  receive  divine  communications,  and 
after  Eli's  death  was  publicly  recognized  as 
judge,  in  which  capacity  he  made  annual 
circuits  through  the  country  to  administer 
justice.  His  own  administration  was  pure 
and  successful,  but  his  sons  were  corrupt,  and 
this  led  the  people  to  demand  a  king,  which 
Samuel  by  divine  direction  yielded  to  and 
anointed  Saul,  and  afterward,  when  he  proved 
unworthy,  anointed  David  in  his  place.  He 
instituted  the  "schools  of  the  prophets," 
which  were  long  continued  and  very  useful. 
He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  Ramah,  about 
B.C.  1058,  honored  and  lamented  by  all. 

The  two  Books  of  Samuel  bear  his  name 
either  because  he  is  the  subject  of  the  first 
part,  or  because  he  wrote  it.  The  rest  is  at- 
tributed to  Gad  and  Nathan,  but  may  have 
been  an  inspired  compilation  of  a  later  writer. 
The  Hebrew  is  very  pure,  thus  indicating  its 
early  date.  In  Hebrew  the  work  is  one  ;  the 
division  into  two  books  was  made  by  the 
Septuagint  and  followed  in  the  Vulgate.  A 
rough  analysis  is,  1.  Samuel's  oflicial  life  and 
work  (1  Sam.  i.-vii.).  2.  Saul's  anointing 
and  founding  the  kingdom  (1  Sam.  viii.-xv.). 
3.  His  fall  (xvi.-xxxi.).  4.  David,  king  over 
Judah  only  (2  Sam.  i.-v.  5).  5.  David,  king 
over  all  Israel  (v.  6-xxiv.).  (See  W.  G.  Blai- 
kie  on  1  and  2  Samuel  in  the  Expositor's  Bible, 
London  and  New  York,  1888  ;  W.  J.  Deane, 


SANBALLAT 


(833) 


SANHEDRIN 


Lives  and  Times  of  Saiiuui  tind  Stail,  1888  ; 
S.   R.   Driver,   Notes  on    (he   J/t/uu/r    T(.vt  of 
Siiimiel,    London,    1890  ;    Karl    Biuldc,    Bie 
Bucher  Richter  uiul  Sdinuel,  Giesseu,  1890.) 
T.  W.  C. 

San-bal'-lat,  a  native  of  Horonaim,  in  Moab, 
wlio  apparently  held  some  oflice  under  the 
Persian  king.  He  in  union  with  Tobiah  and 
Gesheni  strove  hard  to  hinder  the  rebuilding 
of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  b.c.  445  (Neh.  iv. 
2).  under  Nehemiah.  After  Nehemiah's  de- 
parture he  married  his  daughter  to  the  high- 
priest's  grantlson,  but  Neiiemiah  on  his  return 
expelled  the  higlipriest  from  his  post  on  ac- 
count of  this  unlawful  alliance  (xiii.  28).  We 
have  no  further  information  concerning  San- 
ballat.  T.  W.  C. 

San  Benito,  a  shirt  without  sleeves,  gen- 
erally yellow,  with  a  red  St.  Andrew's  cross 
on  the  breast  and  on  the  back,  and  sometimes 
painted  along  the  lower  rim  in  imitation  of 
tlaines,  was  tlie  garment  worn  by  those  ac- 
cused of  heresy  from  their  entrance  into  the 
liouse  of  the  In(iuisition  till  their  exit  for  the 
stake. 

Sancroft,  William,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1662). 
archbisiiopof  Canterl)ary  ;  b.  at  Fre-ssiugtield. 
SulTolk.  Jan.  30,  1616  ;  d.  there.  Nov.  24, 
1608.  He  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1634,  and  was  a  fellow  1642,  till 
ej.'Cted,  1649.  Returning  from  the  continent, 
1660,  he  became  master  of  his  college,  1662  ; 
dean  of  York,  1663  ;  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  1664  ; 
archdeacon  of  Canterbury,  1668-70,  and  arch- 
bishop, 1677.  With  six  of  his  suffragans  he 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  in  1687  for  re- 
fusing to  read  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence. 
He  would  not  take  the  oath  to  William  and 
Mary,  and  was  deprived,  Feb.,  1691.  His 
life  was  written  bv  G.  D'Oyly.  London,  1821, 
2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1840.  F.  ^l.  B. 

Sanctification,  the  work  of  God's  grace  b}' 
whirli  the  soul  of  the  believer  is  more  and 
more  renewed  after  the  image  of  God  and 
made  meet  for  the  inheritance  of  the  saints  in 
light.  Inseparably  connected  with  justitica- 
tion.  it  is  yet  entirely  distinct  from  it.  Tlu; 
former  is  a  change  of  state  and  wrought  at 
once  ;  tlie  latter  is  an  inwaril  change  of  heart 
and  life,  wrought  gradually.  One  takes  away 
tlie  guilt  of  sin,  the  other  removes  its  pollu- 
tion and  power.  Sanctification  pro(-eeds  from 
union  to  Christ,  whicli  works  itself  out  in  the 
victory  over  sin  and  the  exercise  of  the  graces 
which  belong  to  the  Christian  character.  It 
is  the  work  of  the  Spirit,  who  leads  the  soul 
in  its  appropriation  of  divine  truth  and  en 
ables  it  to  die  unto  sin  and  live  unto  right- 
eousness. (See  J.  Wesley,  Plnii)  Amjunt  of 
Clirixtidn  P(  rfictiitn  (in  his  Worhx :  W.  E. 
Boardman.  T/it  Ilirjlter  Chrixtinn  Life.  New 
York.  I8r)9  :  G.  Junkin.  .'yinr(itir,ifio„,  Pliila- 
delphia.  1S64  ;  J.  :Morison.  St.  Pmil  s  Tfachino 
on  S,uirtif  ration,  I.ondon.  IKSIJ.)      T.  W.  C. ' 

Sanction,  Pragmatic.  A  term  applied  to 
laws  on  very  important  matters.  The  cliief  of 
these  in  cliurcli  affairs  are(l)  that  of  Louis 
IX..  of  France  (1268);  (2)  that  of  Charles 
VII.  (143S),  fnr  both  of  which  see  Gallican- 


ISM  ;  (3)  the  German  Pragmatic  Sanction  of 
the  Frankfort  Diet  (1439)  is  a  misnomer. 

Sanctuary,  Right  of.     See  Asylum,  p.  61. 

Sandeman,  Robert,  1).  at  Perth,  Scotland. 
1718  ;  (1.  at  DanbiuT.Conn.,  April  2,  1771.  He 
married  a  daugliter  of  John  Glas,  b.  at  Auch- 
termuchty.  Fife,  1695  ;  d.  at  Dundee.  1773. 
Glas  studied  at  St.  Andrew's  and  Edinburgh, 
and  became  minister  of  Tealing,  1719,  but 
was  deposed  1730,  and  founded  the  sect  which 
took  his  name  in  Scotland,  and  tiial  of  his 
son-in-law  in  England  and  America.  Reject- 
ing the  idea  of  a  .state;  church  and  many  of  the 
pevalent  theologic^al  tenets,  defined  fa'ith  a.s  a 
"mere  intellectual  belief,  a  bare  belief  of 
the  bare  truth,"  they  aimed  at  a  return  to 
primitive  Christianity  in  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice, celebrating  the  Lord's  Supper  every  Sun 
day  and  holding  weekly  love-feasts.  Their 
Christian  Songs  (Dundee,  17 — ,  reprinted  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  1787,  from  the  7th  Scotch 
edition),  written  by  Glas  and  others,  show 
earnest  piety  and  a  readiness  for  martyrdom, 
with  less  fanaticism  and  more  poetry  than  is 
apt  to  characterize  new,  small,  and  despised 
religious  bodies.  Glas  wrote  in  prose  The 
Testimony  of  the  King  (f  Martyrs,  Edinburgh, 
1727,  and  other  works,  collected  in  4  vols., 
Perth  and  Dundee,  1762,  and  in  5.  1782  ;  his 
Treatise  on  the  Lord's  Supper  was  reprinted, 
1883.  He  gathered  congregations  at  Dundee, 
Perth,  and  Edinburgh.  Sandtman  was  an 
elder  in  the  latter  ;  he  went,  in  1760,  to  Lon- 
don, and  founded  a  .society  wherein  the  emi- 
nent chemist  Faraday  was  afterward  a  mem- 
ber and  ollicer.  In  1764  he  emisrrated  to 
America,  and  strove  with  but  moderate  suc- 
cess to  propagate  his  opinions.  On  both  sides 
of  the  sea  the  connection  probably  never  num- 
bered more  than  a  dozen  small  societies,  and 
is  now  almost  extinct.  In  1888  it  numbered 
only  about  1500  persons.  Judged  by  its 
songs,  it  was  by  no  means  the  least  attractive 
or  conunendable  of  modern  sects.     F.  :M.  B. 

Sanhedrin,  an  Aramaic  form  of  the  Greek 
word  ai/zHdrion.  which  means  "  council."  It 
was  tlie  highest  autiiority  among  the  Jews. 
Some  trace  its  origin  lo  Moses,  others  to  Jehosh- 
aphat's  court  of  appeal  (2  Chron.  xix.  8-11), 
but  more  probably  it  dates  from  the  2d  cen- 
tury before  Chiist.  There  were  provincial 
assemblies  which  bore  this  name,  but  the 
Great  Sanhedrin,  whicii  was  composed  of  sev- 
enty-one meml)ers  and  met  in  a  room  adjoin- 
ing the  temple  while  Jerusalem  lasted,  and 
afterward  in  Til)erias,  where  it  became  extinct 
A.u.  425,  was  the  supreme  court  of  the  Jews, 
having  unlimited  power  in  matters  civil  and 
religious  and  authorized  to  inflict  capital  pun- 
ishment until  the  Romans  took  away  this 
right  about  three  years  l)efore  our  Lord's  cru- 
citixion.  If  con.sisted  of  the  three  classes,  the 
priests,  the  eldtrs,  and  the  scribes.  It  decided 
on  apjK'al.^  from  inferior  courts,  and  Jews  in 
foreign  lands  recognized  its  authoritv  (Acts 
ix.  2).  It  was  (hnibtiess  this  ])ody  tha"t  s(n{  a 
deputation  to  John  the  l?aptist  (John  i.  19- 
2K).  This  court  tried  and  condemned  our 
Loni.  liefore  it  Peter  and  John  were  twice 
examined  (Acts  iv.  5-22,  v.  21-41).  Stephen 
was  tried  anil  either  illegally  condemned  by 


SANEEY 


(834) 


SATAN 


it  or  executed  in  a  popular  tumult  (Acts  vi. 
12-vii.  60).  Paul 's  teacher  Gamaliel  belonged 
to  it  (Acts  V.  34-40),  and  the  apostle  himself 
before  his  conversion  occupied  some  position 
under  the  seventy-one  (Acts  vii.  58,  viii.  1.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Sankey,  Ira  David,  Methodist  lay  evan- 
gelist ;  b.  at  Edinburgh,  Lawrence  County, 
Pa.,  Aug.  28,  1840;  joined  Mr.  Moody  in 
evangelical  work  in  Chicago,  1871,  and  has 
accompanied  him  ever  since  as  leader  of  the 
singing  and  worker  in  the  inquiry-rooms,  he 
has  edited  several  collections  of  hymns  and 
written  or  adopted  many  tunes. 

Saphir,  Adolph,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1878), 
Presoyterian  ;  b.  at  Pesth,  Hungary,  ISept. 
26,  1881,  of  Jewish  parentage  ;  was  converted 
together  with  his  whole  family  in  1848  ;  at- 
tended the  gymnasium  of  the  Graue  Kioster, 
Berlin,  1844-48  ;  studied  in  Glasgow,  1848-51, 
and  in  the  Theological  College  of  the  Free 
Church,  Edinburgh,  1851-54  ;  became  mis- 
sionary to  tlie  Jews  in  Hamburg,  1854  ;  Ger- 
man preacher  in  Glasgow,  1855  ;  minister  of 
the  English  Presbyterian  Church,  South 
Shields,  1856  ;  Greenwich,  1861  ;  Notting 
Hill,  1872  ;  Belgrave  Presbyterian  Church, 
London,  1881,  and  published  a  great  num- 
ber of  expository  and  devotional  pamphlets 
which  have  run  through  many  editions 
and  been  translated  into  many  languages : 
Coiiverdaii,  Edinburgh.  1861,  10th  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1880  ;  Christ  and  the  Scriptures,  London, 
1864,  28th  thousand,  1884  ;  Lectures  on  the 
Lords  Prayer,  1869,  9th  ed.,  1884  ;  Our  Life- 
Day,  1878,  rep.  in  New  York,  1879  ;  All 
Israel  Shall  be  Saved,  1883  ;  The  Everlastimj 
Nation,  1885  ;  Christian  Perfection,  1885,  etc. 

Sapphire,  apparently  a  blue  stone  (Ex.  xxiv. 
10),  very  precious  (Job  xxviii.  6,  16),  set  in 
the  high-priest's  breastplate  (Ex.  xxviii.  18), 
one  of  the  ornaments  of  the  king  of  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxviii.  13),  and  one  of  the  foundations 
of  the  New  Jerusalem  (Rev.  xxi.  19,  Isa.  liv. 
11).  It  is  next  to  the  diamond  in  hardness, 
lustre,  and  value.  It  is  generally  identified 
by  scholars  with  the  modern  lapis-lazuli.  Its 
color  varies  from  a  deep  blue  through  lighter 
shades  even  to  pure  white.  T.  W.  C. 

Sa'-rah  (jmneess),  the  half-sister  and  wife 
of  Abraham,  called  Sarai,  "my  princess," 
until  (Gen.  xvii.  15)  God  changed  it  to  Sarah, 
■"  princess,"  meaning  that  she  should  be  such 
not  to  Abraham  only,  but  to  the  race.  Her 
conduct  toward  Hagar  (xvi.  6,  xxi.  10)  and 
when  Isaac  was  promised  (xviii.  15)  showed 
weakness,  yet  her  docility  is  praised  (1  Peter 
iii.  6)  and  also  her  faith  (Heb.  xi.  11).  She 
was  a  woman  of  uncommon  personal  beauty 
(xii.  14),  and  her  life  was  prolonged  to  127 
years  (xxiii.  1),  she  being  the  only  w^oman 
whose  age  at  death  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
T.  W.  C. 

Sar'-dis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor. 
It  lay  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Tmolus  on  the  river 
Pactolus,  celebrated  for  its  "golden  sands." 
Croesus,  its  last  king,  was  conquered  b^^ 
Cyrus.  Its  dyed  woollen  manufactures  and 
commerce  rendered  it  wealthy.  The  church 
there  was  rebuked  (Rev.  iii.  1-3)  for  its  pre- 


vailing worldliness.     The  ruins  of  Sardis  are 
now  called  Sert  Kalessi.  T.  W.  C. 


Sarepta.     See  Zarephath. 

Sar'-gon  (firm  king),  successor  of  Shal- 
maneser  and  father  of  Sennacherib,  Assyrian 
kings.  For  centuries  nothing  was  known  of 
him  save  the  one  fact  (Isa.  xx.  1)  that  Ashdod 
was  taken  by  his  command,  but  the  exhumed 
ruins  of  the  Khorsabad  palace  show  him  to 
have  been  a  great  warrior  with  able  generals, 
the  chief  of  whom  was  Tartan,  who  carried 
his  victorious  arms  in  every  direction,  and 
was  also  di.stinguished  for  the  advances  made 
under  him  in  various  useful  and  ornamental 
industries.  He  reigned  from  722  to  705  B.C., 
and  was  murdered  in  the  magnificent  palace 
he  had  built  near  Nineveh.  T.  W.  C. 

Sarpi,  Paolo  (generally  spoken  of  as  Fra 
Paolo),  b.  at  Venice,  Aug.  14,  1552  ;  d.  there, 
Jan.  15,  1623  ;  entered  tlie  order  of  the  Ser- 
vites  ;  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1574,  and  be- 
came the  principal  of  his  order  in  1579.  In 
the  political  contest  between  Venice  and  Paul 
V.  he  took  the  part  of  his  native  city.  (See 
his  History  of  the  Quarrels  of  Pope  Pius  V. 
with  the  State  of  Venice,  Eug.  trans.,  London, 
1626  ;  History  of  the  Inquisition,  1656  ;  His- 
tory of  Ecclesiastical  Benefices  and  Revenues, 
Westminster,  1727  ;  History  of  the  Interdict 
of  Venice,  trans,  b}'  Bedell,  1626.)  On  account 
of  this  audacity  he  was  summoned  before  the 
Inquisition  of  Rome,  but  declined  to  come, 
and  the  bull  of  excommunication  which  was 
read  against  him  the  pope  was  compelled  to 
cancel  by  the  peace  with  Venice,  1607.  But 
Fra  Paolo  was  ever  after  not  only  persecuted, 
but  pursued  by  assassins  into  his  own  mon- 
astery. His  most  celebrated  work,  and  that 
by  which  he  gave  the  Roman  curia  the  most 
deadly  offence,  w^as  his  IIistoi-y  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  Eng.  trans.,  1676,  which  is  an  open 
denunciation  and  condemnation  of  the  papal 
system.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works. 
Latin  and  Italian,  appeared  at  Venice,  1677, 
and  was  afterward  often  reprinted  His  life 
has  likewise  been  often  written,  e.g.,  by 
Arabella  Campbell,  in  English,  Florence, 
1875. 

Sarum  Use,  The,  or  the  book  of  oflices  used 
in  the  diocese  of  Sarum,  was  drawn  up  about 
1085  by  Osmund,  bishop  of  Sarum  or  Salis- 
bury, on  occasion  of  the  rebuilding  of  the 
cathedral.  Each  bishop  had  at  that  time  the 
power  to  improve  upon  the  ritual  if  he  could, 
and  thus  arose  different  customs  or  "uses," 
generally  designated  after  the  diocese  to  which 
they  belonged.  The  most  remarkable  and  the 
most  widely  used  of  those  different  books  of 
offices  was  that  of  Sarum,  combining  traits  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman  liturgies.  (See 
F.  Procter  and  Ch.  Wordsworth,  Sarum  Brev- 
iary, Cambridge,  1882.) 

Satan  (adversary),  a  fallen  spirit  of  evil  all 
compact.  In  the  Old  Testament  he  is  seen  as 
Eve's  tempter  in  Eden,  as  David's  in  Jeru- 
salem (1  Chron.  i.  21),  as  Israel's  accuser  in 
Zechariah  (iii.  1),  and  as  the  calumniator  of 
the  righteous  in  Job  (i.  6,  12,  ii.  1).  In  the 
New  Testament  he  appears  as  the  head  of  a 
hierarchy,   prince  of  the  power  of  the  air 


SATISFACTION 


(835) 


SAVONAROLA 


(Eph.  ii.  2),  the  god  of  this  world  (2  Cor.  iv. 
4),  sometimes  a  roaring  lion  (1  Peter  v.  8),  at 
others  transformed  as  an  angel  of  light  (2  Cor. 
xi.  14),  but  always  the  enemy  of  God  and 
man.  Believers  are  to  meet  him  with  inces- 
sant watchfulness,  courage,  and  prayer  (Eph. 
iv.  27,  vi.  10,  James  iv.  7,  2  Cor.  ii.  11).  (See 
R.  Brown,  Personality  and  History  of  Satan, 
London,  1887.)  T.  W.  C. 

Satisfaction.     See  Atonement. 

Said  (desired),  the  first  king  of  Israel,  the 
son  of  Kish,  a  Benjamite.  His  history  is 
given  in  First  Samuel  ix.-xxxi.  Commanding 
in  person  and  rich  in  popular  talents,  he  began 
his  reign  under  favorable  circumstances  and 
for  many  years  was  attended  with  the  divine 
blessing,  overcoming  all  his  foes  and  extend- 
ing the  borders  of  Israel.  But  he  began  to 
disobey  God  and  entered  upon  a  downward 
career.  His  presumptuous  olYering  of  sacri- 
fice in  the  absence  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xiii.), 
liis  rash  vow  in  battle  and  insistance  that 
Jonathan  should  die  (xiv.),  his  sparing  Agag 
and  the  spoil  of  the  Amalekites  (xv.),  liis  dis- 
regard of  Samuel's  rebukes,  liis  jealousy  and 
persecution  of  David,  his  cruel  massacre  of 
the  priests  at  Nob  (xxii.),  and  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1),  and  his  consulting  the 
witch  of  Endor,  were  tlie  steps  by  which  he 
was  led  to  his  ruin.  In  his  last  engagement 
Willi  the  Philistines  he  was  routed  witli  dread- 
ful slaughter,  his  three  sons  were  slain,  and 
he  threw  himself  upon  the  point  of  his  own 
sword. 

He  was  anointed  by  Samuel,  B.C.  1096,  and 
reigned  about  forty  years.  His  guilty  course 
and  awful  end  are  a  conspicuous  evidence  of 
what  may  befall  any  one  who  disobeys  God 
and  surrenders  himself  to  ambitious  and  en- 
vious pas.sions.  (See  W.  J.  Deane,  Lives  and 
Tinu's  of  Sttnitirl  and  Saul,  London  and  New 
York,  1888.)  T.  W.  C. 

Saurin,  Jacques,  b.  at  Nimes,  Jan.  6.  1677  ; 
d.  at  The  Hague,  Dec.  30,  1730  ;  studied  the- 
ology at  Geneva,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of 
the  French  Reformed  congregation  in  London, 
1700,  and  at  The  Hague,  1705,  where  he  soon 
was  recognized  as  the  greatest  orator  of  the 
French  Reformed  Church.  There  is  a  col- 
lected edition  of  his  discourse  and  sermons. 
The  Hague,  1749  ;  an  Eng.  trans,  of  the 
former,  London,  1728,  and  of  the  latter  by 
Burder,  Loudon,  1824,  6  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1836,  3 
vols.,  rep.  New  York,  1860,  2  vols.  His  life 
Jiiis  l)een  written  bv  Van  Oosterzee,  Bruxelles, 
18r)6;  E.  A.  B.Tthault,  Pari.s,  1875. 

Savage,  Minot  Judson,  Unitarian  ;  b.  at 
Norridgewock.  Me.,  JunelO,  1841  ;  graduated 
at  Bangor  Theological  Seminary,  1864  ;  be- 
came home  missionary  in  California  in  the 
same  year  ;  Unitarian  pastor  in  Chicago,  1873, 
and  pa.stor  of  the  Church  of  the  Unity,  Bos- 
ton, 1874.  He  published  Christianity  the  Sci- 
ence of  Manhood,  Boston,  1873,  2d  cd.,  1874  ; 
Tlte  Rtlif/ion  of  Erolutio)L,  1876  ;  iAfe  Ques- 
tions, 1879  :  Social  Problems,  1886  :  My  Creed, 
1887  ;  Bluffton,  1887  ;  Pehf/ious  lieconsti-^ic- 
tion,  1888  ;  Helps  for  Daily  Living,  1889  ; 
The  Signs  of  the  Tikes,  1890. 

Savonarola,  Jerome,  Italian  patriot  and  re- 


former ;  b.  at  Ferrara,  Sept.  21,  1452  ;  burnt 
at  Florence,  May  23,  1498.  He  was  intended 
Tor  the  i)rofession  of  medicine,  but  when 
twenty-three  his  religious  temperament,  un- 
der the  intluenee  of  the  increasing  Cdrruptioa 
of  the  times,  led  him  to  the  cloister,  and  he 
entered  a  Dominican  monastery  at  Bologna. 
His  gifts  were  soon  employed  in  giving  in- 
struction in  philosophy,  etc.  As  a  preaclier, 
lie  seemed  at  first  to  have  failed,  but  in  Brescia 
(1486)  he  began  the  public  interpretation  of 
the  Apocalypse  to  an  increasing  throng.  He 
began  also  to  prophesy  judgments  which  he 
declared  impending  over  the  state.  At  the 
age  of  thirty-eight  he  was  sent  to  the  Domini- 
can monastery  at  Florence  as  lector.  He  be- 
gan here  his  efforts  to  reform  the  church  and 
state.  It  was  tJie  period  of  the  supremacj'  of 
the  Medici,  who,  under  the  forms  of  the' an- 
cient republic,  were  ruling  Florence  with 
despotic  power.  After  some  time  spent  in 
more  private  instructions,  Savonarola  ap- 
peared in  the  pulpit  (Aug.  1,  1491)  and  began 
the  exposition  of  the  Book  of  Revelation.  By 
an  allegorical  interpretation  he  made  it  proph- 
esy a  speedy  reformation  of  the  church,  but 
previous  iudgments.  His  preaching  contained 
some  evangelical  elements,  particularly  the 
emphasis  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  repent- 
ance, and  upon  the  immediate  access  gained 
to  God  through  Christ.  The  same  year  he 
was  made  prior  of  his  monastery,  but  refused 
to  pay  ^the  customary  visit  to  Lorenzo  de 
^Medici.  Lorenzo  sought  in  vain  to  win  him 
over  by  flattery,  and  tliough  Savonarola  con- 
tinued hostile,  when  upon  his  death-bed  called 
him  to  administer  the  last  offices.  The  same 
year  (1492)  saw  the  death  of  Lorenzo  and  the 
accession  of  Alexander  VI.  to  the  jiapacy. 
Savonarola  had  already  attacked  the  jiapacy 
as  the  personification  of  the  corruptions  of 
the  times,  and  now  he  attacked  this  pope  with 
greater  violence  than  ever.  Alexander  sought 
to  win  him  at  first  by  flatteries,  but  when 
these  failed  he  resorted  to  excommunication. 
But,  in  the  mean  time,  the  people,  incensed  at 
Pietro  de  IMedici's  capitulation  to  Charles 
VIII.  of  France,  rose  a!z:ainst  him,  and  in- 
stalled Savonarola  as  chief  of  the  state  (1495). 
For  three  years  he  maintained  himself,  and  a 
deep  religious  disposition  seemed  to  have 
gained  the  control  over  the  city.  But  when 
the  papal  brief  came  (1496)  forb'idding  him  to 
preach,  and  lie  set  up  his  own  infallibility 
against  that  of  the  pope,  and  when  the  politi- 
cal conditions  had  dianged,  and  his  prophe- 
cies had  begun  to  fail,  Savonarola  saw  noth- 
ing to  do  but  to  demand  the  divine  adjudica- 
tion by  the  ordeal.  Arrangements  for  this 
were  made,  but  a  cfinttst  over  the  details  hin- 
dered the  completion  of  the  trial.  Savonarola 
now  became  as  unpopular  as  he  had  before 
been  popular,  was  tiirown  into  i>ri.son,  where 
he  wrote  the  interpretalion  of  tiie  fifty-fiist 
Psalm  which  Luliicr  afterward  reprinttd,  was 
tortured,  condemned,  Inirnt,  and  his  ashes 
thrown  into  the  river  Arno.  He  left  Inhind  a 
number  of  writings  upon  religioiis  and  politi- 
cal themes.  Without  liaving  come  fully  to 
the  evangelical  position,  and  without  perfect 
clearness  of  spiritual  vi.Mon,  he  nevertheless 
belongs  among  the  reformers  before  the  Rof- 


SAVOY 


(836) 


SCHAUFFLER 


'ormation.  There  is  a  modern  Eug.  traus.  of 
-Ms  Triumph  of  the  Cross,  Loudon,  1868.  (See 
Hase,  Neue  Prophefeu,  Leipzig,  2d  ed.,  vol.  ii., 
1861  ;  R.  R.  Madden,  Life  and  Martyrdom 
of  Savonarola,  London,  n.e.,  1854,  3  vols.; 
Villari,  Savonarola,  Eug.  trans.,  London, 
1863,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1888,  2  vols,  [the  chief 
work]  ;  Ranke,  Historische-biographische  Stu- 
dien,  Leipzig,  1877  ;  W.  R.  Clark,  Savonarola, 
his  Life  and  Times,  Loudon  and  New  York, 
1878 ;  2d  ed.,  Chicago,  1890.)  F.  H.  F. 

Savoy  Conference.  See  Conference, 
p.  186. 

Saybrook  Platform,  The,  was  adopted  hy 
the  Synod  of  Saybrook,  Middlesex  County, 
Conn.,  1708,  and  exercised  some  influence  on 
the  church  polity  of  the  Congregationalists, 
by  forming  unions  of  pastors  and  their 
churches  in  consociations,  of  ministers  in  as- 
sociations, and  also  standing  councils,  but  was 
later  on  superseded  by  the  conference  system. 

Sayce,  Archibald  Henry,  LL.D.  (Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  1881),  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Shirehampton,  near  Bristol,  Sept.  25, 
1846  ;  was  educated  at  Oxford  ;  ordained 
priest  in  1871  ;  appointed  professor  of  com- 
parative philology  at  Oxford,  1876,  and  made 
a  member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision 
Committee  in  1874.  He  has  published  ^l.s- 
syrian  Grammar,  London,  1872 ;  Principles 
of  Comparative  Philology,  187B,  3d  ed.,  1884; 
Babylonian  Tjiterature,  1877  ;  The  Cimeiform 
Inscriptions  of  Van,  1882  ;  The  Ancient  Em- 
pires of  the  East,  1884  ;  Introduction  to  the 
Books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther,  1885  ; 
Hittites  ;  or,  the  Story  of  a  Forgotten  People, 
1888  ;  The  Times  of  Isaiah,  1889. 

Scahger,  Joseph  Justus,  b.  at  Agen,  73  m. 
s.e.  of  Bordeaux,  France,  Aug.  4,  1540  ;  d. 
at  Leydeu,  Jan.  21,  1609  ;  was  appointed 
professor  at  Leyden  in  1592,  and  enjoyed  the 
fame  of  being  the  most  learned  man  of  his  age. 
His  Thesaurus  Temporum,  Amsterdam,  l658, 
and  Expositio  Numismatis  Constantini,  Ley- 
den, 1604,  have  interest  to  church  historians. 

Scapegoat.     See  Goat. 

Scapulary  (Latin,  scapula,  "  shoulder- 
blade")  is  a  string  with  a  picture  of  the  Vir- 
gin or  a  cross  worn  across  the  shoulder  by 
several  orders  of  the  Roman  Church  and  guar- 
anteeing its  wearer,  according  to  a  bull  by 
John  XXL,  1276-77,  that  his  soul  shall  be  de- 
livered from  purgatory  on  the  first  Saturday 
after  death. 

Schaeffer,  Charles  Frederick,  Lutheran  ; 
b.  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  Sept.  3,  1807  ;  d.  in 
Philadelphia,  Nov.  23,  1880.  He  studied 
theology  under  his  father,  and  was  ordained 
in  1829.  After  holding  various  pastoral 
charges  he  was,  in  1864,  appointed  professor 
of  dogmatics  in  the  Lutheran  theological  semi- 
nary in  Philadelphia.  Besides  many  articles 
in  the  Gettysburg  Evangelical  Review,  he 
translated  extensively  frorri  German. 

Schaflf,  Philip,  Lie.  Theol.  (Berlin,  1841). 
D.D.  (hon.,  Berlin,  1854  ;  St.  Andrew's,  1887), 
LL.D.  (Amherst  College,  Massachusetts, 
1876),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Coire,  Switzerland, 


Jan.  1,  1819  ;  studied  theology  at  Tiibingen, 
Halle,  and  Berlin  ;  began  to  lecture  as  xn-ivat- 
docent  in  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1842  ; 
was  in  1843  called  to  a  professorship  in  the 
theological  seminary  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  of  the  United  States  at  Mercersburg, 
Pa.;  removed  in  1863  to  New  York,  and  was 
in  1869  appointed  professor  in  the  Union  The- 
ological Seminary  of  that  city.  He  organized, 
in  1871,  the  Arnerican  Bible  Revision  Com- 
mittee at  the  request  of  the  British  Committee 
and  was  its  president.  His  principal  works  are 
History  of  the  Ajwstolic  Church  (in  German, 
Mercersburg,  1851,  in  Eng.  trans..  New  York, 
1853,  several  later  editions)  ;  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,  New  York,  1858  sqq.,  vol. 
vi.,  1888,  5th  ed.  of  the  whole,  revised  and  en- 
larged, 1090  ;  The  Person  of  Christ,  Boston, 
ISe';^,  12th  ed..  New  York  and  London,  1882  ; 
The  Creeds  of  Christendom,  with  a  History  and 
Critical  Notes,  New  York  and  Loudon,  1877, 

3  vols.,  6th  ed.,  1890  ;  Through  Bible  Lands, 
New  York  and  London,  1878,  n.e.  enlarged, 
1889;  A  Companion  to  the  Greek  Testament 
and  the  English  Version,  1883,  3d  ed.,  1889; 
Christ  and  Christianity,  1885  ;  Tlie  Oldest 
Church  Manual  (Didache),  1885,  3d  ed.,  1889  ; 
*SY.  Augustin,  Melanchthon,  and  Neander, 
1886  ;  Literature  and  Poetry,  1890.  In  co- 
operation with  many  scholars  from  various 
denominations  he  prepared  the  Anglo-Ameri- 
can edition  of  Lange's  Commentary  on  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  New  York  and  Edin- 
burgh, 1864-80,  25  vols.,  n.e.,  1886,  and  Po2m- 
lar  Illustrated  Commentary  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, New  York   and  Edinburgh,   1878-83, 

4  vols.,  reissued  in  revised  form  under  the 
title.  International  Revision  Commentary  on 
the  Neio[  Testament,  New  York,  1882  sqq.; 
in  1880  edited  a  Bible  Dictionary,  Philadel- 
phia, 4th  ed.,  1888  ;  in  connection  with  Pro- 
fessor Henry  B.  Smith  he  edited  The  Phil- 
osophical and  Theological  Library,  New  York 
and  London,  1872-79  ;  with  Drs.  Hitchcock 
and  Z.  Eddy,  Hymns  and  Songs  of  Praise, 
New  York,  1874  ;  with  Rev.  Samuel  M.  Jack- 
son and  Rev.  D.  S.  Schaff,  The  Religious  E7i- 
cyclopcedia.  New  York  and  Edinburgh,  1884, 
3  vols.,  rev.  ed.,  1887,  and  with  Mr.  Jackson, 
Encyclopadia,  of  lAtiny  Divines  and  Christian 
Workers,  New  York,  1887.  In  1886  he  as- 
sumed the  editorship  of  A  Select  Library  of 
the  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,  published 
by  the  Christian  Literature  Company,  New 
York.  In  1890  he  took  as  his  associate  on  the 
same  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Wace,  of  London. 

Schall,  Johann  Adam,  b.  at  Cologne,  1591  ; 
d.  iu  China,  Aug.  15, 1666  ;  entered  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits  ;  studied  iu  the  Collegium  Ger- 
manum  in  Rome  ;  went  in  1628  as  missionary 
to  China,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life, 
and  wrote  Historia  Missionis  S.  J.  apud  Chi- 
nenses.  Vienna,  1665,  and  Ratisbon,  1672. 

SchaufHer,  William  Gottlieb,  D.D.  (Halle, 
1867),  LL.D.  (Princeton,  1877),  missionary  ; 
b.  at  Stuttgart,  Germany,  Aug.  22,  1798  ;  d. 
in  New  York,  Jan.  26,  1883.  He  was  taken, 
1804,  to  Odessa,  and  had  few  early  advan- 
tages, but  came  to  America,  1826  ;  studied  at 
Andover,  and  was  sent,  1831,  by  the  A.  B.  C. 
F.   M.   to  Constantinople,   where  he  labored 


SCHEELE 


(837) 


SCHISM 


for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  rendered 
some  eminent  public  services.  He  knew  nine- 
teen languages,  and  could  preach  in  six.  lie 
wrote  Meditations  on  the  Laxt  Days  of  Christ, 
Boston,  1837,  n.e.,  1858,  revised  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  a  Hebrew  and  Spanish  edition,  Vienna, 
1839-42,  and  spent  eighteen  years  on  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  Osmanli-Turkish.  His 
AutohiograpJiy  appeared,  New  York,  1888. 
F.  M.  B. 

Scheele,  Knut  Henning  Gezelius  von, 
D.D.  (Upsula,  1877),  Lutheran  ;  h.  in  Stock- 
holm, i\Iay  31,  1838  ;  studied  theology  at 
Upsala  ;  was  appointed  professor  there  in 
1879,  and  bishop  of  Visby  in  1885.  He  pub- 
lished in  Swedish  llie  Ontological  Evidence  of 
tJie  Evinteiice  of  God,  Upsala,  1863  ;  Theolocj- 
ical  Bdtionalism,  1868,  2d  ed.,  Stockholm, 
1877  :  Theological  Symbolic,  1877-79.  German 
trans.,  Gotha.  1881  ;  Apologetic  Essays,  1879 
and  1881,  2  series,  etc. 

Scheffler,  Johann  (Angelug  Silesius),  b.  at 
Breslau,  l(i24  ;  d.  there,  July  9,  1(J77  ;  studied 
medicine,  but  after  his  conversion  to  Roman- 
ism he  was  ordained  priest  in  1661.  He  pub- 
lished thirty-nine  treatises  against  the  reform- 
ers, collected  in  one  vol.  fol.  under  the  name 
Eccledolofjia,  Glatz,  1677,  and  two  collections 
of  hymns  and  minor  poems,  CherubiniHcher 
Waiidersinann  and  Geistliche  Hirtenlieder. 
The  former  are  unsurpassed  in  coarseness  and 
malice  ;  the  latter  belong  among  the  sweetest 
and  loveliest  songs  in  the  German  language. 
(See  his  life  by  Kahlert,  Breslau,  1853.) 

Schelhorn,  Johann  Georg,  b.  at  ^Meiuingen, 
Bavaria,  Dec.  8,  1694  ;  d.  there,  March  31, 
1773  ;  was  preacher  and  librarian  in  his  na- 
tive city  and  published  Aimenitates  Hist. 
EccL,  Leipzig,  1737-46,  3  vols.;  Act.  Hist. 
Eccl.  Saec.  XV.-XVI.,  Ulm.  1762-64,  4  vols.; 
De  Vita  Camerarii,  1740,  etc. 

Schelling,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Joseph  von, 

an  illustrious  German  philosoplier,  was  born 
at  Leonberg,  near  Stuttgart,  Jan.  27,  1775  ; 
d.  at  Ragatz.  Switzerland,  Aug.  20, 1854.  Ho 
studied  at  Tubingen  and  Leipzig  ;  in  1798 
was  lecturer  at  Jena  ;  1806  professor  at  Wurz- 
burg  ;  1820  lecturer  at  Erlangen  ;  1827  in 
Munich,  and  1841  called  to  Berlin  to  lecture 
on  mythology  and  revelation.  Here  he  re- 
mained till  his  death.  He  be<,^an  his  course 
as  an  expounder  of  the  Kant-Fichte  idealism, 
according  to  which  we  never  know  "  things 
in  themselves  "  but  only  through  tlie  forms 
of  space  and  time  wliich  we  add  to  them  as 
the  medium  of  our  perception.  Schelling  car- 
ried this  to  its  furthest  consequences,  aflirm- 
iug  that  the  only  true  knowledge  was  that  of 
the  infinite  absolute,  in  which  subject  and  ob- 
ject, the  ideal  and  tlie  real,  nature  and  spirit, 
are  recognized  as  the  same,  and  that  this 
knowledge  can  be  attained  only  by  a  myste- 
rious process  called  "intellectual  intuition." 
This  philosophy  of  identity  was  made  known 
in  England  l)y  the  unconscious  plagiarisms  of 
Coleriilge,  and  was  attacked  by  Sir  William 
Hamilton.  It  was  devclope.I  and  applied  by 
its  author  in  various  publications,  many  o'f 
tlum  of  a  polemical  character  (in  reply  to 
Eschenmaycr,  Jacobi,  et  al.),  but  meanwhile 


a  formidable  adversary  appeared  in  his  former 
college  friend  Hegel,  who  at  first  was  an  ar- 
dent disciple  of  Schelling,  but  afterward  broke 
away  and  pursued  an  independent  and  antag- 
oni.stic  course  of  speculation.  For  years 
Schelling  was  silent,  but  afterward  set  forth 
tiie  final  phase  of  his  philo.sophj-,  which  was 
designed  to  interpret  the  liistory,  and  espe- 
cially the  religious  hi.story,  of  mankind.  Re- 
pudiating the  negative  philosophy  of  his 
earlier  years,  he  sought  to  develop  the  prin- 
ciples of  his  system  in  such  a  way  as  to  show 
that  the  most  transcendental  juetaphysician 
need  not  1)e  a  Pantheist,  but  might  consi.-,- 
tently  believe  in  a  personal  God  and  even  a 
Trinity.  The  r(!sult  was  not  satisfactory, 
though  manj'  of  his  contemporaries  thougiit 
it  would  be.  and  iS'cander  dedicated  to  him 
the  first  volume  of  his  churcii  history  in  very 
eulogistic  terms.  It  was  undoubtedly  a  great 
( ffort  of  the  speculative  reason  to  construct 
Christian  doctrine,  and  has  exerted  a  great 
influence  upon  modern  German  theology.  At 
the  close  of  his  philosophy  Schelling  glances 
at  church  history  and  distinguishes  three  great 
periods  which  he  names  after  the  three  apos- 
tles—The Petrine  Period,  or  Catholicism  ; 
Tlie  Pauline  Period,  or  Protestantism  ;  and 
The  Johannean  Period,  or  "  tlie  church  of  the 
future."  Schelling's  complete  works  ap- 
pearul  at  Stuttgart,  1856-61,  14  vols.  ;  Avs 
Sch,Uing!<  L.Snn,  Leipzig,  1870.      T.  W.  C. 

Schenkel,  Daniel,  D.D.  (Basel,  1838),  Ger- 
man Protestant  ;  b.  at  Dagerleii,  Canton  Zu- 
rich, Switzerland,  Dec.  21,  1813  ;  d.  at  Heidel- 
berg, May  19.  1885.  He  studied  theology  at 
Basel  and  Gottingen,  and  became  professor  at 
Basel  in  1838  and  at  Heidelberg  in  1851.  He 
was  the  head  of  the  Protestanienverein  (q.v.) 
and  edited  in  its  interest  Wig  AUgemtine  kirch- 
liche  Zeitschvift,  Eloerfeld,  1860-72.  Besides 
numerous  sermons  and  minor  es.says,  he  pub- 
lished Das  Wcsen  dcs  Protista  ittismus  a  us  den 
Qaellen  des  Refonnationszeitalters  hdi  uchtet , 
SchafFhau.sen,  1846-51,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1862  ; 
Character  of  Jesus  Portrayed,  Wiesliaden, 
1864,  4th  ed.,  1873.  Eug.  trans,  by  W.  H. 
Furness.  Boston,  1866,  2  vols.,  which  book 
produced  considerable  commotion  and  occa- 
sioned Strauss'  Die  (Janzi  )i  und  die  Ilalbi  n  ; 
Christenthinn  und  Kirche  ini  Einklange  mit 
der  Culturcnttcickluug,  1867,  2d  ed.,  1872  ; 
Der  deutsche  Protestanttncerdn,  1868.  2(1  ed.. 
1871  ;  Brennende  Fragen,  1869,  2d  od..  1871, 
etc. 

Schirmer,  Mattheeus,  b.  at  Miillibach,  Vaud, 
Switzerland,  in  1470  ;  d.  in  Rome,  Oct.  2, 
1522  ;  was  made  bisiiop  of  Sitten  in  1509, 
and  created  a  cardinal  in  1511.  Leo  X.  usee! 
him  in  many  important  dijjlomatical  affairs 
with  the  Swiss  Union.  England,  and  France, 
and  always  with  signal  success.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reformatory  movement  he  de 
clared  him.self  in  perfect  harmony  witii 
Zwingli,  and  in  1519  lie  evi-n  went  so  far  as 
to  oiler  Lutlier  a  ])lace  of  refuire.  Neverthe- 
less. b<-fore  he  ditii  he  had  found  it  expedient 
!  to  change  Ids  opinions  and  to  advocate  the 
suppression  of  (lie  Reformation  by  force. 

Schism  (Greek,  cxifiin,  "  a  cleft")  is  a  sepa- 
ration from  the  church  in  authorit}-.  whereby 


SCHLATTER 


SCHMOLEE 


the  body  -whiclJ  should  be  one  becomes 
divided. 

Schlatter,  Michael,  German  Reformed  ;  b. 

at  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  July  14,  1716  :  d. 
near  Philadelphia,  Oct.,  1790.  Ordained  in 
Holland,  he  was  sent  to  America,  1746,  on  a 
mission  similar  to  that  of  Muhlenberg  among 
the  Lutherans.  He  took  a  charge  in  Phila- 
delphia, organized  the  German  Reformed 
Synod,  Sept.  29,  1747,  and  in  four  years  trav- 
elled 8000  miles  and  preached  635  times. 
Going  to  Europe,  1751,  he  returned,  1752, 
with  six  ministers  and  700  Bibles.  Tlie  jour- 
nal of  his  labors  now  appeared  in  Dutch, 
German,  and  English,  and  funds  were  raised 
to  establish  schools,  of  which  he  was  super- 
intendent, 1755-57  ;  but  this  enterprise  pro- 
voked opposition  and  ended  in  failure.  He 
was  chaplain  of  the  American  regiment  in  the 
expedition  to  Nova  Scotia,  1757,  and  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  British  during  the  Revolution. 
(See  his  life  bv  Rev.  Dr.  H.  Harbaugli,  Phila- 
delphia, 1857.")  F.  M.  B. 

Schleiermacher,  Friedrich  Daniel  Ernst, 

b.  at  Breslau.  Nov.  21,  1768  ;  d.  in  Berlin, 
Feb.  12,  1834.  His  parents  belonged  to  the 
Reformed  Church  and  he  received  his  whole 
earlier  education,  1783-87,  in  the  Moravian 
Brethren  institutions  of  Niesky  and  Barby. 
He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  1787-90  ;  was 
tutor  in  the  family  of  Count  Dohna,  1790-94  ; 
assistant  pastor  of  Landsberg  on  the  Warta, 
1794-96  ;  chaplain  of  the  Charity  Hospital  in 
Berlin,  1796-1802,  and  court  preacher  at 
Stolpe,  Pomerania,  1802-4.  In  1804  he  was 
made  professor  extraordinary  in  Halle,  but 
when  the  university  was  dissolved,  in  1806, 
on  account  of  the  Napoleonic  war,  he  re- 
turned to  Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed  pas- 
tor of  Trinity  Church.  He  was  very  active 
in  the  organization  of  the  University  of  Ber- 
lin, and  was  in  1810  made  ordinary  professor 
tliere.  To  his  first  residence  in  Berlin  and  his 
close  connection  with  many  of  the  leading  rep- 
resentatives of  the  romantic  school  belong  his 
Reden  iiber  die  Religion,  Berlin,  1799,  and  Mo- 
nologen,  1800,  in  which  he  defines  and  demon- 
strates religion  as  contrary  in  the  feelings,  and 
by  which  he  gave  the  whole  educated  and 
refined  society  in  Germany  a  live,  religious 
impulse.  To  the  interval'  between  his  first 
and  second  residence  in  Berlin,  his  stay  at 
Stolpe  and  Halle,  belongs  his  translation  of 
Plato,  1801-10,  6  vols.,  which  is  still  reprinted, 
and  of  which  the  introductories  to  the  single 
dialogues  formed  a  decisive  turning-point  in 
the  study  of  Platonic  philosophy.  During 
his  second  residence  he  published  his  Der 
christUche  Glauhe,  1821-22,  2  vols.,  a  new 
departure  in  German  theology,  and  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  great  resting-places  in 
the  development  of  the  Christian  theology. 
To  this  dogmatical  work  corresponds  a  series 
of  essays  on  moral  or'  critico-exegetical  im- 
port. His  lectures,  which  encompassed  the 
whole  theological  system,  besides  various 
branches  of  philosophy,  attracted  students 
from  all  Germany,  and"  through  his  sermons 
lie  exercised  a  similar  influence  on  the  public 
at  large.  With  the  Prussian  Government  his 
relations  were  sometimes  rather  strained  on 


account  of  his  outspoken  liberalism  in  poli- 
tics. In  ecclesiastical  respects,  however,  he 
fully  agreed  with  the  king  in  his  desire  for  a 
union  between  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed 
churches.  The  collected  edition  of  his  works 
appeared,  1836-65,  in  three  divisions,  Zur 
Theologie,  11  vols.;  Prcdigten,  10  vols.,  and 
Zur  Philosophic,  9  vols.,  to  which  must  be 
added  Aus  SrJdeiennacJicrs  Lebcn,  in  Briefen, 
1858-61,  4  vols.,  parts  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  English  by  Frederica  Rowan, 
London,  1860,  2  vols.  (See  his  life  by  W. 
Dilthey,  Berlin,  1867 ;  see  also  E.  Schrecker. 
Der  Religionshegriff  bei  Schleiermacher,  Jena, 
1890;  and  27  Selected  Serrnons,  Eng.  trans., 
London  and  New  York,  1890.)  C.  P. 

Schmalkald,  The  League  of,  was  formed 
for  the  defence  of  Protestantism  in  Germany, 
on  Feb.  27,  1531,  by  nine  princes  and  eleven 
imperial  cities  under  the  leadership  of  the 
elector  of  Saxony  and  the  landgrave  of  Hesse, 
and  soon  after  joined  by  five  other  princes 
and  ten  imperial  cities,  so  that  it  came  to  en- 
compass the  whole  northern  and  large  parts 
of  central  and  southern  Germany.  The  alli- 
ance was  still  further  cemented  by  the  accept- 
ance, Feb.  15,  1537,  of  the  so-called  Schmal- 
kald Articles.  They  were  drawn  up  by  Lu- 
ther as  a  protest  against  the  papacy  and  its 
pretensions,  and  they  afterward  became  one 
of  the  symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  At  Muhlberg,  however,  April  24, 
1547,  the  army  of  the  league  was  completely 
routed  by  the  emperor  and  the  league  dis- 
solved. 

Schmid,  Christian  Friedrich,  b.  at  Bickels- 
berg,  Wiirtemberg,  1794  ;  d.  at  Tubingen, 
March  28,  1852  ;  studied  theology  there  "and 
was,  in  1821,  appointed  profes.sor  there,  form- 
ing a  quiet  but  effective  counterpoise  to  F.  C. 
Baur.  After  his  death  were  published  Bibli- 
cal Theolfjgy  of  the  J^eid  Testament,  Eng. 
trans.,  Edinburgh,  1870,  and  ChristUche 
Moral,  Stuttgart,"l861,  2d  ed.,  1867. 

Schmidt,  Charles  (Guillaume  Adclphe), 
Lie.  Theol.,  D.D.  (Strasshurg,  IK^r)  niid  1S36), 
Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Strassburg,  June  2U,  1812. 
He  studied  theologv  in  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  1828-33,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  practical  theology  there  in  1843  ;  of 
ecclesia.stical  hi.story,  1863,  emeritus,  1877. 
Besides  a  number  of  essays  on  the  mystics, 
e.g.,  Joh.  Tauler,  Hamburg,  1841,  etc.,  and  on 
characters  more  or  less  intimately  connected 
with  the  Protestant  Church  of  Strassburg, 
Jean  Sturm,  1855  ;  Pet.  Mart.  Vermigli,  1858  ; 
Farel  and  Viret,  1860,  etc.,  he  published  His- 
toire  et  doctrine  de  la  secte  des  Cathares,  Paris, 
1849,  2  vols.  ;  The  Social  Results  of  Early 
Christianity,  Strassburg,  1853,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1885,  etc. 

Schmolke,  Benjamin,  b.  at  Brauchitsch- 
dorf,  Prussian  Silesia,  Dec.  21,  1672  ;  d.  at 
Schw^eiduitz,  31  m.  s.w.  of  Breslau,  Feb.  12, 
1737  ;  studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  and  was 
appointed  pastor  of  Schweidnitz  in  1702.  He 
is  one  of  the  most  prolific  hymn-writers  of 
Germany.  A  collected  edition  of  his  hymns 
appeared  at  Tubingen,  1740-44,  2  vols  ;  a 
selection  with  a  good  memoir  was  published 
by  L.  Grote,  Leipzig,  1860.     His  "  My  Jesus, 


SCHMUOKER 


(839) 


SOHOLASTIOISM 


as  Thou  wilt"  aud  "  My  God,  I  know  that  I 
must  die"  were  translated  into  English  by 
Miss  Jane  Borthwick. 

Schmucker,    Beale     Melanchthon,    D.D. 

(University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia, 
1870),  Lutheran  (General  Council)  ;  b.  at 
Gettysburg,  Pa.,  Aug.  20,  1827  ;  graduated 
at  Pennsylvania  College  there,  1844,  and  at 
the  Theological  Seminary.  1847  ;  held  various 
pastoral  charges,  since  1881  at  Pottstown, 
Pa.,  where  he  died  Oct.  18,  1888.  He  was  u 
prominent  and  active  champion  of  the  High 
Church  wing  of  his  denomination,  thus  op- 
posing his  father  (si'e  next  art.).  He  published 
Liturgy  of  Fi/i/ixi/lnmia  Si/nod,  Philadelphia, 
1860;  Chuirh-Bo,'kfnrthe  ^»r  of  Erauqdieal 
Lutheran  Coitgr>qutii>i,,\  iSijS,  2d  ed.,  1880  ; 
Jlnlle  R'portK,  vol.  i.,  1886,  etc. 

Schmucker,  Samuel  Simon,  D.D.  (Rutgers, 
1830  ;  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1880), 
Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Hagerstown,  Md.,  Feb.  28, 
1799  ;  d.  at  Getty.sburg,  Pa..  July  26,  1873. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1817  ;  studied  divinity  at  Princeton, 
and  was  pastor  at  Newmarket,  V"a.,  1820-26. 
He  helped  organize  the  General  Synod  and  its 
seminary  at  "Gettysburg,  1826,  and  was  its 
president  and  professor  of  didactic  theology, 
1826-64.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  chietly 
on  denominational  topics,  and  a  leader  of  the 
American  Lutheran  or  Low  Church  wing  of 
his  communion.  F.  ]\I.  B. 

Schneckenburger,  Matthias,  b.  at  Thal- 
heim,  Wiirtemberg,  Jan.  17,  1804  ;  d.  at  Bern, 
Switzerland,  June  13,  1848  ;  studied  theology 
at  Tubingen,  aud  was  appointed  preacher  at 
Herrenberg,  1831,  and  professor  of  theology 
at  Bern,  1834.  His  principal  works  are  Ver- 
gleicheruie  Durstdlung  der  lutherittrhea  mid 
reformirten  Lehrbegriffe,  edited  by  Glider, 
Stuttgart,  1855,  2  vols.,  and  Die  Lehrbegriffe 
der  kleiaereii  protestdntiHclun  Kirrhenpdrteien, 
editerl  by  Hundeshagen,  Frankfort,  1863. 

Scholasticism,  the  orthodox  theology  of  the 
schools  in  the  Middle  Ages.  A  view  of  the 
circumstances  and  history  of  the  church  is 
necessar}-  to  understand  the  character  and  ser- 
vice of  scholiusticism.  The  Christian  Church 
entered,  as  soon  as  it  had  emerged  from  its 
early  ob.scurity  and  liad  become  a  great  com- 
munity, of  importance  in  the  world  of  thought 
and  conscious  of  the  great  forces  at  work 
within  itself,  upon  the  labor  of  developing  its 
doctrines  and  formulating  them  in  .scientific 
propositions.  The  ancient  Roman  Empire 
was  the  .'sphere  in  which  this  was  performed, 
and  so  long  as  it  endured  tiie  work  of  theo- 
logical construction  went  on  in  accordance 
with  those  Liws  of  thinking  which  liave  al- 
ways determined  such  movements.  But  with 
the  fall  of  the  empire  new  issues  were  thrust 
upon  the  church.  Augustine,  the  last  of  tiie 
great  constructive  teachers  of  the  earlv  period, 
died  while  the  Vandals  were  tliunJering  at 
the  gates  of  the  cit}-  where  he  labored.  The 
Ronian,  and  so  the  ecclesiastical  world,  was 
soon  full  of  the  alarms  and  confu'iion  of  bar- 
barian wars,  and  when  this  period  was  in  u 
measure  over  (800).  the  next  problem  was  tlie 
completion  of  the  conversion  of  these  heathen 


and  Arian  tribes,  and  their  instruction  in  the 
elements  of  Christianity.  Charlemagne  es- 
tablished schools,  within  whose  walls  the  de- 
velopment of  Christian  doctrine  might  have 
gone  on,  but  they  soon  fell  into  decay.  In 
tlie  middle  of  the  11th  century  scholasticism 
arose,  but  instead  of  the  great  original  ten- 
dency which  appears  amid  all  the  mental  ap- 
paratus and  under  the  stiinulus  of  the  ancient 
civilization  toward  the  investigation  of  new 
truth,  the  situation  diverted  effort,  or  else 
paralyzeil  it.  The  hierarchical  tendency  was 
already  predominant  in  the  church.  ])ro(hiced 
by  the  necessity  of  perfecting  its  organization, 
and  by  the  propagation  of  evil  intiuencis 
which  had  their  origin  in  the  earliest  p(  riod 
of  the  church.  All  living  contact  Avith  an- 
tiquity was  cut  off.  Of  Aristotle,  only  his 
logic  w\as  known,  and  that  in  an  imperfect 
form.  Plato  was  as  good  as  forgotten.  The 
church  Fathers  were  accessible  to  none  but 
the  few  who  lived  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
great  libraries.  And  hence  scholasticism  was 
compelled  to  busy  itself  with  the  church  doc- 
trines, handed  down  in  a  form  already  cor- 
rupted, with  but  few  helps  from  the  greater 
ages  of  the  past,  and  by  means  of  the  dialectic 
method  which  the  schools  had  developed  with 
their  scanty  knowledge  of  Aristotle. 

These  considerations  show  why  it  was  that 
the  activity  of  the  scholastics  was  chietly  a 
formal  one.  Their  material  they  took  from 
the  doctrines  of  the  church  as  they  already 
existed,  and  directi  d  their  own  elTorts  to  the 
logical  exhibition  and  proof  of  these  viewed 
as  truths  indisputable  because  deliveiedbya 
higher  authority  than  the  reason.  Yet  neces- 
sarily labor  upon  the  formal  side  of  the  .sys- 
tem led  to  some  nu)(liticati(m  of  the  material. 
The  omissions  of  ])revious  thinkers  were  dis- 
covered and  supplied.  Yet  in  general  the 
service  of  the  scholastics  remained  formal. 

There  was  one  other  style  of  considering 
theological  questions  then  somewhat  preva- 
lent, which  .should  not  be  omitted  in  this  re- 
view— that  of  mysticism.  The  mystics  of  all 
ages  have  had  the  same  desire  to  gain  a  knowl- 
edge of  God,  which  should  consist  in  no  mere 
coilection  of  propositions  about  him,  but  should 
come  into  contact  with  him  himself,  which 
slioidd  behold  him,  liave  intuitive  knowledge 
of  him,  and  become  one  with  him.  The  medi- 
tative ideals  of  monasticism  favored  this  ten- 
dency, and  it  was  of  great  inHuence  upon 
scholasticism. 

The  history  of  scholasticism  may  be  divided 
into  three  periods,  the  lirst  reaching  from  the 
middle  of  the  11th  to  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  century  ;  the  second  comprising  the  13th 
centtiry,  the  bloom  of  scholasticism  ;  and  the 
third  comprising  the  14th  and  IHtli  centuries. 

Lanfranc,  whose  controversy  with  Ben  iigar 
is  often  said  to  have  introduced  the  sciiolastic 
period,  was  not  a  real  scholastic,  for  he  re- 
gretted the  apjtlieation  of  the  forms  of  logic 
ito  the  mysteries  of  the  faith.  But  his  pupil 
Anselm  rejoiced  in  this  a]iplication.  and  is  to 
be  regarded  as  the  true  iiioincrin  srholasli- 
cism.  He  begins  with  failli,  because  Christi- 
anity is  a  revealed  religion,  but  he  seeks  tlien 
to  know,  and  believes  fliat  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion are  capable  of  demonstration  to  the  in- 


SCHOLASTICISM 


(8iO) 


SCHOPBNHAUER 


tellect.  Such  a  knowledge  is  a  middle  stage 
upon  the  way  to  immediate  intuition,  and 
might  seem  to  belong  to  believers  alone  ;  but 
Anselm  is  not  without  purposes  of  proving 
the  truth  to  unbelievers,  and  even  in  his  con- 
ception of  faith  shows  at  times  some  variation. 
Among  the  logical  canons  which  he  employs 
is  one  drawn  from  Boetius'  translation  of 
Porphyrius,  in  which  the  question  as  to  the 
universal  and  the  particular  is  raised,  but 
without  attempt  to  settle  it  ;  and  this  question 
passes  over  into  subsequent  scholastic  discus- 
sions. In  general  it  may  be  said  that  nomi- 
nalism had  its  chief  following  in  the  first 
period,  realism  prevailed  in  the  second,  and 
that  the  revival  of  nominalism  in  the  third 
had  much  to  do  with  the  decay  of  scholasti- 
cism. Roscellin,  the  opponent  of  Anselm, 
was  a  nominalist,  and  from  him  Abelard  de- 
rived his  general  tone.  But  Peter  Lombard 
<q.v.)  was  the  great  master  of  this  period. 
His  great  work  was  his  Sentences.  On  ac- 
count of  its  comprehensive  character  and  the 
fulness  of  its  quotations  from  the  Fathers  it 
formed  in  that  age  of  scanty  libraries  a  rep- 
ertory of  indispensable  material,  and  many 
scholastics  did  little  else  than  reproduce  its 
substance. 

The  second  period  of  scholasticism  was 
made  what  it  was  by  the  increa.se  of  learned 
apparatus  afforded  by  fuller  acquaintance 
with  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  Even  his  logic 
had  not  been  fully  known  before,  and  now  to 
this  were  added  his  physics,  psychology,  meta- 
physics, and  ethics.  In  spite  of  some  initial 
repugnance  to  him,  he  gained  more  and  more 
influence.  Acquaintance  with  him  was  first 
afforded  by  the  writings  of  Jewish  and  Ara- 
bian commentators  and  translators.  At  a 
later  date  the  scholastics  themselves  translated 
Aristotle,  and  in  part,  at  least,  directly  from 
the  Greek  text.  The  method  of  discussion 
from  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century  was 
twofold.  First,  the  Sentences  of  Peter  Lom- 
bard were  taken  as  a  text  upon  which  a  com- 
mentary was  prepared,  and  second,  a  distinct 
system  was  often  prepared  by  a  scholastic, 
under  the  title  of  Sumvui,  which  had  the  char- 
acter of  an  independent  work.  Alexander  of 
Hales  was  tbe  first  to  exploit  tlie  entire  phi 
losojjhy  of  Aristotle  for  the  composition  of  his 
Sainm<i.  He  also  occupies  the  position  that 
the  proof  of  the  Christian  doctrines  is  derived 
from  faith,  and  that  tliey  are  not  subjects  of 
rational  proof.  Albert  the  Great  (q.  v.)  taught 
that  all  knowledge  begins  in  experience,  and 
so  postulated  an  experience  in  religious  things 
— viz.,  a  supernatural  experience,  which  is 
"  faith  ;"  and  though  it  is  his  object  to  develop 
tlie  contents  of  this  faith,  he  does  not  exclude 
argumentative  proofs  of  Christianity.  Thomas 
Aquinas  represents  the  summit  of  Scholasti- 
cism. His  whole  attention  is  occupied  with 
theology,  and  yet  the  more  experiential  and 
mystic  elements  receive  less  attention  than  the 
speculative.  There  are  mysteries  which  reason 
cannot  discover,  but  which  are  not  contrary 
to  reason,  only  above  reason.  Such  is  the 
Trinity.  He  teaches  the  witness  of  the  spirit 
to  the  truth  of  revelation,  but  does  not  disdain 
probable  arguments  for  the  support  of  the 
truth.     At  the   close   of   this  period  stands 


Roger  Bacon,  a  man  of  universal  knowledge, 
who  but  slightly  veiled  his  scorn  of  the  scho- 
lastics, and  gave  his  influence  to  the  establish- 
ment of  sounder  methods. 

The  third  period  is  ushered  in  by  Duns 
Scotus,  who  emphasized  faith  as  the  proof  of 
religious  truth  in  a  way  calculated  to  lead  to 
the  surrender  of  the  fundamental  thought  of 
scholasticism,  that  faith  and  philosophy  are 
harmonious.  He  almost  declares  that  faith 
and  philosophy  must  contradict  one  another  ! 
He  attempted  no  independent  system  of  the- 
ology, perhaps  with  the  thought  that  no  sys- 
tem was  possible.  Durandus  of  St.  Pour(;ain 
criticises  realism  sharply,  and  William  of 
Occam  went  over  to  nominalism.  He  also 
taught  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  knowledge, 
intuitive,  which  has  to  do  with  the  existence 
of  an  object,  and  abstract,  which  has  to  do 
with  its  mode  of  existence.  Since  we  know 
God  by  neither  of  these  methods,  there  is  upon 
earth  no  true  knowledge  of  him.  Here  we 
are  at  the  limit  of  the  tendency  to  make  the- 
ology an  object  of  mere  faith,  or  to  view  it  as 
in  conflict  with  the  knowledge  of  the  reason. 
This  view  propagated  itself  in  two  forms,  pro- 
ducing the  scepticism  of  the  Renaissance, 
which  contented  itself  with  outward  conform- 
ity to  the  church,  and  the  spiritual  theology 
of  the  Reformation,  which  rejected  the  logical 
proofs  of  scholasticism  for  the  immediate  evi- 
dence of  Christian  experience. 

Thus  scholasticism  filled  out  the  period  be- 
tween the  ancient  productive  epoch  and  the 
new  epoch  which  began  with  the  Protestant 
Reformation.  In  this  period  the  Roman 
Catholic  system  w^as  produced,  which  was 
formulated  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  has 
remained  substantially  unchanged  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  The  two  sources  of  authority  in  this 
period  were  the  utterances  of  the  church  and 
the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  Personal  contact 
with  the  Bible  was  for  the  most  part  excluded, 
and  the  result  was  a  system  not  only  not  bibli- 
cal, but  at  many  points  anti-biblical. 

(See  A.  Stockl,  Oeschichte  der  PMlosoplde  des 
Mittelalters,  Mainz,  1864-66;  Karl  Werner, 
Die  Scholdstik  des  spdteren  Mittelalters,  Wien, 
1st  vol..  Buns  Scotus,  1881;  B.  Haureau,  De  la 
Philosophic  Scolastique,  Paris,  1850  ;  Maurice, 
Mediosml  Pldlosophy,  London,  1870  ;  T.  Har- 
per, The  Metaphysics  of  the  School,  London, 
1880.  Also  the  _  Histories  of  Philosophy  of 
Erdmanu  and  tJberweg.  Cf.  E.  Prantl,  Ge- 
schichte  der  Logik  im  Abendlande,  vols,  ii.-iv., 
Leipzig,  1861-70,  and  J.  H.  Lowe,  BerKampf 
zwischen  dem  Realismus  und  dem  Nmninalistmis 
im  Mittelalter,  Prag,  1876.)  F.  H.  F. 

Scholium,  The,  is  a  series  of  notes  or  glosses 
on  the  single  passages  of  the  text,  but  not  yet 
a  commentary  which  treats  the  whole  work 
as  a  totality. 

Schoolmen.     See  ScnoLASTiciSM. 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur,  Ph.D.  (Jena,  1813), 
philosopher,  b.  at  Dautzig,  Feb.  22,  1788  ;  d. 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Sept.  21,  1860.  He 
studied  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin  and  lectured 
on  philosophy  at  the  latter  university,  1820  to 
1831.  He  was  not  a  successful  teacher,  but 
it  was  the  fashion  for  a  time  in  some  German 
circles  to  believe  in  his  modification  of  Kant's 


SCHRADER 


(8-11) 


SCHWEINITZ 


philosophy  in  the  directiou  of  pessimism.  He 
maintained  that  the  true  end  of  spiritual  life 
is  Nirvana  !  (See  D.  Asher,  SchopciilKdwr,  Ber- 
lin, 1871  ;  T.  Bailey  Saunders,  The  Wisdom  of 
Life  [Schopenhauer's  Aphorisms],  New  York, 
1890.) 

Schrader,  Eberhard,  Ph.D.  (Gcittingen, 
1860),  D.l).  (hon.,  Zurich,  1870),  German 
Protestant  ;  b.  at  Brunswick,  Jan.  5,  1836  ; 
studied  theolo<?y  at  GOttingen,  and  became 
professor  at  Zurich,  1863  ;  Giessen,  1870  ; 
Jena,  1873,  and  Berlin,  1875.  lie  has  pub- 
lished De  lingua  ^■Ethioiiiro ,  Gottingeii,  1860  ; 
St'tdieii  der  biblisclien  Uryesr/iir/id ,  Zuricli, 
1863  ;  Eiideitung  in  die  k(in.  iind  iipok\  Burlier 
des  A.  7'.,  Berlin,  1869;  The  Cuneiform  In- 
scriptions and  the  Old  Testament,  Giessen, 
1873,  3d  ed.,  1883,  P^nsr.  trans.,  London,  1885- 
86.  3  vols.;  Die  UnUeifahrt  der  .1st, ir,  Giessen, 
1874  ;  luilinschrifthehe  Bibliothek,  vol.  i., 
Berlin.  1888. 

Schrockh,  Johann  Matthias,  b.  at  Vienna, 
July  -lio,  1733 ;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  Aug.  2, 
1808  ;  studied  theology  at  Guttingen,  and  was 
in  1761  appointed  professor  at  Wittenberg. 
His  Ausf'uhrliehe  Gesrhichte  der  christliche 
Kirche  appeared  at  Leipzig,  1768-1812,  4.1 
vols.;  his  Allgenicine  Bioejraphie,  1767-91, 
8  vols. 

Schuerer,  Emil,  Ph.D.  (Leipzig,  1868), 
D.D.  (Tubingen,  1877),  Lutheran  ;  b!  at  Augs- 
burr.  Mav  2,  1844  ;  studied  theologv  at  Er- 
];mg  -n,  Bi-rlin,  and  Heidelberg,  186:^66,  and 
beciuu"  ])rofessor  at  Leipzig,  1873  ;  Giessen, 
1878  :  Kiel,  1890.  He  has  edited  Theologische 
Literal urzeitunff  from  its  beginning  in  1876. 
and  published  Schleiermachers  Belir/ionK- 
ber/riff,  Leipzig,  1868  ;  Lehrbuch  der  X.  T. 
Zeitf/eschirbte.  1874,  2d  ed.,  under  title  Ge- 
srhichte des  judisrlu  n  Volkes,  1886-90,  3  parts 
in  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans.;  History  of  the  Jewish 
PeopU'.  Edinlmrgh,  188<)-90,  5  vols.;  IJeber 
den  gegeiimlrtigen  Stnnd  thr  Johin nisxrlieii 
/•V,//;'*', 'Giessen,'  1S89. 

Schultens,  Albert,  b.  at  Groningen  in  1686  ; 
d.  at  Leyden,  Jan.  26,  17.10  ;  studied  Oriental 
l;uignau'(js  and  was  appointed  professor  at 
Franccker  in  1711  and  at  Leyden  in  1729. 
By  his  Orif/ines  Heb)a>a,  Franecker,  1724-38, 
2  vols.,  Institntiones  LinguiT  Hehraiciv,  Ley- 
den, 1737,  etc.,  he  tinally  disposed  of  the  idea 
that  Hebrew  was  the  orii:in;d  laii'.niage  given 
to  man  by  God,  and  proved  that  it  is  a  brancii 
of  tlie  Shemitic  root,  and  caiuiot  be  rightly 
understood  unless  in  connection  with  Arabic. 

Schwartz,  Christian  Friedrich,  b.  at  Son- 
ncnburg,  Brandenburg,  I'russia,  Oct.  26, 
1726  ;  (I.  at  Tanjore,  Madras  Presidency, 
Brilisli  India,  Feb.  13,  1798  ;  studied  theology 
at  Halle  ;  entered  the  .service  of  the  Danish 
.AIis>ionary  Society  in  Copenhagen,  and  went, 
in  17.1t>,  as  a  mis.sionary  to  Traiujurbar,  where 
he  remained  till  1779.  Having,  in  1767,  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  English  Soc  iet}'  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  he  was  re- 
moved to  Tanjore,  1779,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death.  He  was  highly  esteemed  both 
by  the  natives  and  by  Europeans,  and  the 
only  mediator  Hvder  Ali  would  receive.  After 
bis  "death  the  rajah  of  Tanjore  and  the  East 


India  Company  each  erected  a  monument  for 
him.  (See  his  biography  by  H.  N.  Pearson, 
London,  1834.  n.e.,  185.5.) 

Schwegler,  Albert,  b.  at  Michelbach,  Wiir- 
temberg,  Feb.  10,  1H19  ;  d.  at  Tiibingen,  Jan. 
5,  1857  ;  studied  theology  at  Tubingen,  and 
was  appointed  professor  there  of  ancient  his- 
tory in  1849.  His  Der  Montanisnius  unddie 
christlirhe  Kirche  des  2.  Jnhrhunderts,  Das 
narhapostolixche  Zeitalter,  etc.,  proved  him  a 
very  outspoken  and  unhesitating  follower  of 
F.  C.  Baur,  and  in  the  history  of  the  Tubin- 
gen he  ranks  ne.xt  to  him,  but  he  is  best  known 
through  his  History  of  Philomphy,  Eng. 
trans,  by  J.  H.  Seelye.  New  York,  1872. 

Schweinitz,  Edmund  Alexander  de,  S.T.I). 
(Columbia,  1871),  Moravian  bishop,  son  of  the 
following;  b.  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  March  20. 
1825  ;  d.  there,  Dec.  18,  1887.  Educated  in 
the  Moravian  College  and  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  Bethlehem,"he  finished  his  studies  in 
the"  University  of  Berlin,  and  then  was  suc- 
cessively pastor  of  IVIoravian  churches  at 
Lebanon  (18.10),  Philadelphia  (1853).  Lititz 
(1861),  and  Bethlehem  (1864-80),  in  Penn.syl- 
vania,  being  consecrated  a  bishop  in  1870. 
In  1856  he  was  the  founder  of  The  Moravian, 
the  otlicial  organ  of  the  ^loravian  Church  in 
America,  and  edited  it  for  ten  years  altogether. 
From  1867  to  1884  he  was  president  of  the 
Moravian  College  and  Theological  iSeTuinary. 
In  1857  he  had  a  seat  in  the  General  Synod  of 
the  Moravian  Church,  meeting  at  Herndmt, 
in  Saxony,  taking  an  active  part  in  delibera- 
tions which  led  to  important  constitutional 
changes,  and  in  1879  was  chosen  i)resident  of 
this  the  highest  representative  assembly  of  his 
church.  Having  presided  over  the  Synod  of 
the  American  Moravian  Ciuirch  in  1876  and 
1878,  later  also  in  1881  and  1884.  he  was  in 
1878  elected  a  member  of  the  Provincial  El- 
ders' (Conference,  the  governing  board  in  tiie 
north,  and  served  as  its  president  imtil  his 
death.  Eminent  as  an  eloquent  preacher,  he 
was  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  meeting 
of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  at  New  York,  in 
1874.  Besides  numerous  encyc-lopanlia  arti- 
cles, he  was  the  author  of  TJa-  ^forarinn 
Minual,  Phihidelphia,  1«59,  Bethlehem,  1869  ; 
The  Moranan  Eimcopate,  Bethlehem.  1865. 
London,  1874  ;  The  Life  and  Times  of  David 
Znsberr/er,  Philadelphia,  1K70  ;  Some  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Amer/ran  Moravian  Church, 
Moravian' Historical  Society.  Bethlehem,  1881, 
and  The  History  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum,  Beth- 
lehem,  188.1. 

(See  The  Moravian,  1887,  p.  806.  and  Me- 
moir (f  Edmund  Alexander  de  Srhireinitz, 
Bethleiiem,  ISHS.)      J.  T.vylou  H.vmilton. 

Schweinitz,  Lewis  David  von,  Ph.D.  (Kiel, 
1812).  ^Moravian  cleru^vman  and  botanist  ;  b. 
at  Betlilrhcm.  Pa..  Feb.  13,  17S0  ;  d.  there. 
Feb.  8.  1834.  Educated  in  Germany.  1793- 
1812  ,  clergyman  at  Salem,  N.C.,  and  lin.mcial 
manager  of  Moravian  affairs  in  the  South  until 
1821,  when  he  removed  to  Bethlehem.  A  de- 
voted botanist,  lie  .ailded  more  than  1400  species 
to  tlio  catalogue  of  Anu'rican  llora,  the  greater 
]iart  being  fungi,  which  he  made  his  specialty. 
His  herbarium,  which  Wius  at  the  time  of  his 
death  the  largest  private  collection,  was  be- 


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SOHWENCEFELD 


(842 


SOHWENCEFELD 


queathed  to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences, 
Philadelphia.  His  chief  works  are  Conspectus 
Fungorum  Lusatim,  Leipzig.  1805  ;  Synopsis 
Fangorum  Carolina  Superioi'is,  edited  by  Dr. 
Schwaegricben,  1818  ;  Specimen  FlorcB  Ameri- 
cif  Septentrionalis  ijryptogamicce ,  Raleigh, 
1821  ;  Monograph  of  the  Linnean  Oenus  Viola, 
1821  ;  Catalogue  of  Plants  Collected  in  the 
N.  W.  Territory  by  Say,  Philadelphia,  1824  ; 
Monograph  of  the  American  Species  of  the 
Genus  Carejc,  New  York,  1825,  and  Synopsis 
Fungorum  in  America  Boreali  Media  Degen- 
tium,  Philadelphia,  1832.  (See  Memoir  of 
Lewis  David  von  Schweinitz,  Philadelphia, 
1835,  and  a  Sketch  of  the  Life  and  Scientific 
Work  of  Leiois  David  von  Schweinitz  in  the 
"Journal  of  the  Elisha  Mitchell  Scientific 
Society  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina. '") 
J.  Taylor  Hamilton. 

Schwenckfeld,  auf  Ossig,  Hans    Caspar. 

The  earliest  traces  of  the  Schwenckfeld  fam- 
ily in  Silesia  run  back  to  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  century.  The  old  Schloss  Freudenburg, 
on  one  of  the  spurs  of  the  Riesengebirge, 
marks  their  primitive  seat  in  that  country. 
A  branch  settled  in  Ossig  near  Liiben,  and  at 
Alt-Wohlau.  Hans  Caspar,  the  oldest  child 
in  a  family  of  four,  was  born  after  St.  Mar- 
tin's day,  1490  (not  1489),  at  Ossig  ;  d.  at  Ulm, 
Dec.  10,  1561.  He  was  educated  at  Liegnitz 
under  the  Probst  Bartholomeus  Ruersdorff. 
He  appears  to  have  spent  a  few  years  at  the 
University  of  Cologne,  and  possibly  at  Prague. 
He  then  served  at  the  court  of  the  duke  of 
Miinsterberg-Oels,  until  made  Hofrat  of  Duke 
Priedrich  II.  of  Liegnitz. 

His  career  as  courtier  was  not  without  the 
license  usual  to  that  station;  but  quickened  by 
the  spiritual  awakening  shaped  by  Luther, 
he  devoted  his  life  to  the  pursuit  of  the  new 
ideas.  His  hearing  had  been  affected  by  a 
severe  cold,  but  that  w^as  not  allowed  to  inter- 
fere witli  a  phenomenal  activity  in  deed, 
speech,  and  writing.  In  the  company  of  like- 
minded  friends,  he  studied  Greek  under  Bern- 
hard  Egetius,  pastor  at  Wohlau,  as  well  as 
making  it  a  rule  to  read  four  chapters  of  his 
Bibde  daily  with  a  view  of  becoming  a  thor- 
ough master  of  its  contents.  He  also  became 
proficient  in  patrislics.  He  made  an  early 
visit  to  Wittenberg  and  Aug.sburg  in  the  in- 
terests of  his  suzerain,  and  with  an  eye  open 
to  the  freer  movements  of  Melanchthon,  the 
new  prophets,  and  the  earnest  Anabaptists. 
He  was  a  warm  friend  of  Joliann-  Hess,  and 
urged  that,  young  humanist  and  tutor  to  be- 
come the  leader  of  the  Silesian  reformation. 
Largely  through  Schwenckfeld's  influence 
did  the  evangelical  cause,  in  its  earliest  Lu- 
theran form,  obtain  lodgment  in  Breslau, 
Liegnitz,  Wohlau,  Steinau,  and  other  centres. 
His  warmest  supporter  was  Valentin  Craut- 
wald,  formerly  a  prothonotary  in  the  cathe- 
drals of  Neisse  and  Breslau,  who  with  himself 
was  now  made  canon  of  the  Dom  at  Liegnitz. 
The  Duke  Friedrich  II.  liad  pleaded  for  church 
reformation  from  the  inside,  and  warmly 
espoused  the  new  doctrines.  Schwenckfeld 
sought  to  reconstruct  the  monastic  institu- 
tions. His  address  to  the  nuns  at  Queiss, 
which  became  the  basis  of  a  printed  appeal, 


is  a  specimen  of  this  endeavor.  In  1524,  in 
conjunction  with  Hans  Magnus  von  Langen- 
walde,  he  addressed  a  petition  to  the  well- 
disposed  bishop  of  Breslau,  Jacob  von  Salza, 
calling  for  a  full  readjustment  of  the  diocese. 
These  were  the  beginnings  of  his  vigorous 
and  unremitting  use  of  the  press. 

The  main  line  of  divergence  from  the  Lu- 
theran trend  of  the  Reformation  was  on  the 
point  that  it  should  be  first  one  of  the  inner 
life,  letting  all  forms  of  reorganization  grow 
out  oL  such  an  internal  change.  The  break 
was  accelerated  through  the  repressive  meas- 
ures adopted  by  Luther  after  his  return  from 
the  Warlburg.  The  cleavage  became  broader 
and  final  when  Schwenckfeld  announced  his 
views  of  the  Word,  emphasizing  the  spirit 
above  the  letter,  and  wiien  Crautwald  and 
Schwenckfeld  combined  in  expounding  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  a  sacrament  of  spiritual 
nourishment.  The  conciliatory  visit  of 
Schwenckfeld  to  the  reformers  at  Wittenberg 
was  only  a  momentary  arrest.  His  views  as 
to  the  Word  had  been  espoused  and  repro- 
duced by  Zwingli  and  fficolampadius.  No 
less  did  IBucer  and  Capito  at  Slrassburg  sym- 
pathize. Schwenckfeld  never  forgot  his  obli- 
gations to  Luther,  and  in  the  period  of  widest 
estrangement  he  adverted  tenderly  to  the 
spiritual  impulse  given  him  by  that  master 
mind. 

Hess,  Moiban,  and  most  of  the  men  educated 
at  Wittenberg,  who  occupied  Silesian  pulpits, 
opposed  this  reformation  by  the  Middle  Way, 
as  it  was  now  termed.  But  Schwenckfeld 
had  a  devoted  band  of  followers.  The  duke 
embraced  his  views.  Eckel,  Rosenhayu, 
Wcirner,  Crautwald  proved  faithful  evange- 
lists. A  project  to  establish  a  university  at 
Liegnitz  took  shape,  and  students  came  from 
all  quarters,  notably  from  Southern  Germany 
and  the  Upper  Rhine.  One  of  them  has  pre- 
served to  us  a  considerable  body  of  Craut- 
wald's  lectures.  Schwenckfeld,  although  un- 
ordained,  preached  with  wonderful  effect  in 
Liegnitz,  Steinau,  and  other  cities,  while  the 
press  began  to  disseminate  his  views  in  all 
directions,  and  a  correspondence  commenced 
by  Romanists,  Lutherans,  Anabaptists,  and 
representatives  of  every  shade  of  opinion  be- 
came singularly  voluminous.  Political  ne- 
cessity under  the  pressure  of  the  emperor, 
the  elector  of  Saxony  and  Georg  of  Jagern- 
dorf  compelled  Friedrich  II.  to  adopt  the 
Lutheran  form.  Schwenckfeld,  to  relieve  his 
suzerain  from  embarrassment,  voluntarily 
withdrew  from  his  native  land  never  to  visit 
it  again,  although  the  Middle  Way  was  domi- 
nant in  the  leading  churches,  and  in  the  in- 
dustrial and  agricultural  communities  for 
whose  elevation  Schwenckfeld  had  directly 
interested  himself.  On  Sunday  luvocavit, 
1529,  Schwenckfeld  left  Silesia.  His  first 
halting-place  was  Strassburg,  where  Capito 
and  Zell  gave  him  a  warm  welcome.  He 
gained  a  large  and  important  following. 
Zwingli,  on  his  w\ay  to  the  colloquy  at  Mar- 
burg, eagerly  met  Schwenckfeld  here,  but 
afterward  broke  with  him  on  the  question  of 
infant  baptism.  The  suspicions  of  Bucer  led 
the  Rat  to  try  Schwenckfeld  along  with  Mel- 
chior    Hoffmann  and    others,   the  result    of 


SCHWENCEFELDERS 


(8i;5) 


SCHWENCEFEIiDERS 


which  was  his  exile  in  1533.  lie  found  ji 
home  at  Augsburg  witli  his  devoted  friend 
Bonifacius  Wolfhart,  with  whom  he  studied 
Hebrew.  Lutheran  antagonism  followed  him 
here,  and  compelhid  his  withdrawal  in  in;]."), 
although  he  left  many  ardent  adherents  in 
the  city. 

He  next  found  refuge  in  Ulm.  Here  his 
])('rsonaI  iuTluenee,  gift  of  eloquence,  elegance 
of  manners,  as  well  as  speaking  Christian 
life,  won  for  him  a  host  of  disciples.  Corre- 
spondence and  publication  grew  apace.  A 
colloquy  ut  Tubingen  took  place  through  the 
mediation  of  his  brother-in-law  Thum  von 
Xeuburg.  Its  resvdt  was  a  nominal  peace. 
Blaurer,  however,  soon  opened  tire  upon  him. 
Georg  Ludwig,  Freiherr  von  Freiberg,  Hans 
"Wilhehn  von  Laubenberg,  and  Thum  von 
Xeuburg  were  his  intimate  friends.  Oep- 
lingen,  Justingen,  Esslingen,  and  Waldeck 
offered  him  secure  retreats  from  his  perse- 
cutors, for  many  decrees  were  issued  against 
liim  on  the  part  of  Lutheran  princes  and  con- 
vents held  by  Lutheran  ministers.  At  Oep- 
tingen  and  Justingen  he  preached  quite  stated- 
Iv.  He  visited  many  of  tlie  free  cities  of 
Soutli  Germany,  such  as  Kempten,  Kauf- 
beuren,  Memmingen,  Lindau,  Kaveusburg, 
LMitkirch,  Cannstatt,  Pforzheim,  Landau, 
"Worms,  Speyer,  Bamljerg,  and  many  others. 
Everywhere  he  gained  followers,  man}'  of 
notable  influence,  and  messengers  were  fre- 
([ueufly  sent  to  them  with  books  and  letters. 
"When  "the  use  of  the  press  was  forbidden  him, 
manuscripts  were  multiplied  and  circulated. 
Had  it  not  been  for  tin;  political  complications 
of  the  time  there  is  little  doubt  that  Albert  of 
Preussen,  Joachim  II.,  tlie  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, Philip  of  llessen,  and  Ernst  the 
Margraf  of  Baden  would  have  adopted  the 
3Iiddle  Way,  since  they  expressed  a  preference 
for  its  spiritual  elevation.  Schweuckfeld  was 
a  sufferer  from  gout  the  greater  part  of  his 
life.  In  1561  he  fell  seriously  ill  at  Mem- 
mingen, while  at  the  house  of  his  friend  Jacob 
Maretzke.  He  was  removed  to  Ulm,  and  was 
tenderly  cared  for  by  the  Streicher  family. 
His  linal  hours,  described  for  us  by  two  wit- 
nesses, were  full  of  forgiveness  and  heroic 
faith.  He  rests  in  the  Freiberg  crypt  at  Oep- 
lingen. 

The  principal  peculiar  theological  and  ethi- 
cal tenets  of  Schweuckfeld  were  :  1.  Theology 
should  be  constructed  froui  the  Bil)le  and  not 
from  the  substance  and  method  of  scholasti- 
cism. 2.  That  till'  Scriptures  are  dead  with- 
out the  indwelling  "Word.  3.  Tiie  humanity 
of  Christ,  through  its  union  witli  his  divine 
nature,  is  progressive,  so  that  it  partakes  more 
and  more  of  the  divine  nature  without  losing 
its  identity.  4.  The  absolute  change  through 
faith  and  regeneration,  together  with  progress 
in  tlie  spiritual  life,  are  primary  essentials.  5. 
Justilication  by  faith  should  not  obscure  the 
positive  righteousness  imparted  by  Christ. 
0.  The  fundamental  featuie  of  the  Christian 
life  is  the  imitation  of  Chri.st.  7.  The  chunh 
is  a  imity  and  should  be  made  up  of  those 
who  give  experiential  evidence  of  regenera- 
tion. 8.  Conscience  .should  not  be  forced  by 
the  state.  9.  Tlie  activity  of  the  laity  in  the 
church  fultils  tlu  doctrine  of  the  Christian 


priesthood.  10.  Discipline  should  be  rigor- 
ous. 1 1 .  The  mode  of  baptism  is  of  no  conse- 
quence. 13.  Infant  bapti.sm  is  not  apostolic. 
13.  The  Lord's  Supper  is  a  medium  of  spirit- 
ual nourishment  without  change  in  the  ele- 
ments, in  opposition  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  Lutheran,  and  also  to  the  Zwinglian  view. 

The  best  summary  of  his  belief  is  to  be 
found  in  the  work  popularly  called  Gronse 
CojifcK-sion,  in  three  parts,  the  first  published 
in  1540,  and  the  whole  of  it  in  1557. 

He  came  into  controversy  (1)  with  Bi.shop 
Faber,  of  A'ienna  and  a  few  less  i)rominent 
Romanists ;  (2)  with  Luther  on  all  points 
of  deviation  between  them,  until  the  for- 
mal inalcdiclion  by  the  latter  in  1543  ;  (3) 
witii  .Mclaiutiithon  and  his  different  schools  ; 
(4)  with  the  Gnesio-Lutlierans,  particularly 
with  3Iatthias  Flacins  Illyricus  ;  (5)  with  the 
Strassburg  mediating  theologians,  especially 
Butzer  ;  (6)  with  some  of  tlie  Swiss  theologi- 
ans, especially  Zwingli  and  Vadianus. 

The  waves  of  these  controversies  swept 
over  all  lands  ;  from  all  of  which  it  is  plain 
that  the  movement  was  one  of  great  signifi- 
cance for  theology,  for  the  church,  ancl  for 
practical  life.  He  found  good  in  the  evan- 
gelical mystics  or  brethren,  in  Lutheranism, 
in  the  Anabaptists,  in  the  Swiss  Reformation, 
even  in  Romanism,  and  was  ready  to  recog- 
nize as  Christians  all  who  loved  the  divine- 
human  Christ.  He  gave  the  impetus  to  pie- 
tism and  all  its  products. 

Sclnvenckfchl  prepared  a  catalogue  of  his 
works  published  from  1523-61.  Aclam  Reiss- 
ner  and  Jacob  Held  von  Tieffenau  superin- 
tended an  edition  from  Feierabend's  press  at 
Frankfort  in  four  folio  volumes  from  1564-70. 
Later  editions  of  single  works  were  published 
in  a  variety  of  forms  from  1589-93.  Masses 
of  manuscripts  remain  unprinted,  but  are  soon 
to  be  published  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Schwenckf elders  of  America. 

C.  D.  IIaktrankt. 

Schwenckfelders.  Schwenckf  eld  studi- 
ously and  persistently  refused  to  form  a  sect. 
Amid  conflicting  tendencies  in  the  church  he 
broached  the  tenet  of  Sttllxtand,  until  God 
should  raise  up  a  reorganizer  of  his  people. 
He  thus  originated  the  position  of  the  Seekers. 
But  since  his  followers  held  meetings,  at 
which  regular  worship  was  conducted,  sepa- 
ratism was  tlie  natural  result. 

Conununities  arose  1.  In  most  of  the  im- 
perial cities  and  in  many  of  the  villages  of 
South  Germany,  the  most  prominent  of  which 
were:  Strassburg  {Kntliann<i  Z'll),  Tubin- 
gen (Profe.ssnr  sinnucl  Emiimeinjcv),  Frank- 
fort-on-the-^Iain  {Adam  Iti'insiur),  Ulm  (Bern- 
Jutrt  IRrxheiiiur,  JlJrg  BtrckeiDiiayr,  and  the 
.*>treicher  family).  Landau  (Johann  Bader), 
Bamberg  (Dr.  '  Ge^'rg  Gdman),  Augsburg 
(Bonifiiri'in  Woljhart),  ^Memmingen  (Jacob 
Miiretzkt),  Kaufbeurcn  (Barghard  Schilling), 
Cannstatt  (Andreas  Xeff).  Communities  of 
more  or  les.s  prominence  existed  also  in 
Worms,  Speyer,  Es.slingen,  Leutkirch.  Ra- 
vensburg.  Con.stanz,  Lindau.  Isny.  Kempten, 
Niirnberg.  Regensburg,  Pforzheim,  etc. 

The  most  jirominent  and  longest  sustained 
churches   were   ut  Oeptiugeu  and  Justingen 


SCIENCE 


(844) 


SCIENCE 


•under  the  patronage  of  the  Freiherren  von 
Freiberg.  Here  Schwenckfeld  himself  offici- 
ated in  his  lifetime.  Martin  John,  Sr.,  and 
his  wife  were  prominent  members  at  a  later 
date.  These  churches  were  suppressed  by  the 
Austrian  visitation.  Jacob  Held  von  Tief- 
fenau,  Daniel  Sudermann,  and  Daniel  Fried- 
rich  kept  the  flame  alive  in  these  regions. 

2.  In  Silesia.  In  the  city  of  Liegnitz  all  but 
one  of  the  churches  remained  in  possession  of 
ihe  Schwenckfeld  clergy  until  1535.  Many 
adjacent  cities,  such  as  Jauer,  Brieg,  Goldberg, 
Liiben,  Steinau,  Lowenberg,  Greiffenberg, 
etc.,  had  communions  of  the  same  faith. 
After  their  repression  in  the  cities  the  villages 
remained  the  strongholds  for  over  two  cen- 
turies, such  as  Probsthayn,  Ober  and  Nieder 
Harpersdorf,  Armenruh,  etc.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  organizations  were  in  Zobten 
under  Michael  Ililler,  and  in  Langenbielau 
under  Erasmus  Wcichenhan.  They  were  all 
subject  to  persecution  by  the  Lutherans,  and 
after  these  duchies  and  counties  became  the 
property  of  the  House  of  Austria,  by  the 
Romanists  as  well.  Anton  Oelsner  was  their 
chief  preacher  in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th 
century,  who  with  many  others  was  contined 
in  the  prisons  of  the  duchy  of  Liegnitz  and 
subsequently  in  Vienna,  where  he  and  his  fel- 
low-prisoners also  served  in  the  galleys  and 
some  of  them  in  the  assault  on  the  fortress  of 
Gran.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  they 
were  subjected  to  less  severities  than  the  Lu- 
therans, but  at  its  close  the  former  violent 
measures  were  revived.  The  most  represent- 
ative men  of  this  period  were  Martin  John,  Sr. 
and  Jr.,  Georg  Heydrich,  Balthasar  Jackel, 
and  Melchior  Giinther. 

On  the  rise  of  pietism  a  movement  was 
made  at  Goldberg  through  Daniel  Schneider 
to  incorporate  them  into  the  Lutheran  Church, 
by  a  generous  interpretation  of  Lutheran  doc- 
trine, but  the  effort  was  rejected  by  both  de- 
nominations. 

About  1710,  under  the  Lutheran  jiastor 
Neander  at  HarpersJorf.  a  new  persecution 
was  instituted  which  led  to  the  interference 
of  the  emperor,  Charles  VI.,  and  the  rise  of 
the  Jesuit  mission  in  1719,  whose  chief  spirits 
were  P.  Johann  Milan  and  P.  Carolus  Regent. 
Christoph  and  Balthasar  Hoffmann,  Balthasar 
Hofrichter,  and  Georg  Hauptmann  were  their 
chief  representatives  at  this  time.  The 
Schwenckfelders  were  reduced  to  such  ex- 
tremity that  some  migrated  to  Greiifenberg, 
Hirschberg,  Goilitz,  Zwickau,  etc.;  others  by 
invitation  of  Zinzendorf  and  von  Gersdorf 
settled  among  the  Brethren  at  Berthelsdorf. 
After  negotiations  with  the  Mennonites  thirty- 
four  families  emigrated  by  way  of  Dresden, 
Altona,  and  Rotterdam,  to  Philadelphia  in 
1734,  landing  at  that  city,  Sept.  22  (O.  S.). 

On  the  conquest  of  Silesia  by  Frederick  the 
Great  the  Jesuit  mission  was  abolished,  and 
favorable  overtures  were  made  to  the  Ameri- 
can colonists  to  return,  which  they  declined 
to  do  in  a  cordial  letter  of  thanks. 

3.  la  Ober  Lausitz,  immediately  after  the 
Reformation,  especially  at  Gorlitz.  Sebastian 
Scliiltze,  a  landed  proprietor  and  a  man  of 
high  character  and  ability,  was  their  founder. 

4.  In  the  duchy  of  Prussia,  whither  Fried- 


rich  von  Heydeck  introduced  a  number  of 
Schwenckfelder  preachers  ;  here  they  held 
their  ground  until  the  repressive  measures  of 
the  Lutherans  began  under  Paulus  Sparatus. 

5.  In  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 

6.  In  Switzerland,  especially  at  Chur. 

7.  In  Italy,  especially  at  Venice,  where  there 
was  much  persecution.  , 

The  influence  of  Schwenckfeld's  wrhiugs 
pervaded  the  North  Rhine  country  and  Hol- 
land through  the  medium  of  Abada.  (Jbbo 
Philipps,  among  the  Mennonites,  declared  his 
indebtedness  to  Schwenckfeld.  In  North 
Germany,  Christian  Hoburg  propagated 
Schwenckfeldian  views.  The  last  professed 
Schwenckfelder  in  Europe  died  in  1826. 

In  all  these  communions  the  government 
was  congregational,  the  worship  non-liturgi- 
cal, the  hymnology  rich  and  catholic.  Where 
there  was  no  ordained  minister,  seniors  of  the 
congregation  read  the  postills  of  Schwenck- 
feld, Worner,  Hiller.  and  Weichenhan.  Dis- 
cipline was  vigorous,  the  sacraments  were 
usually  celebrated,  the  children  were  conse- 
crated by  prayer  at  least. 

8.  The  families  which  had  migrated  from 
Silesia  (1734)  purchased  ground  in  IMontgom- 
ery  and  Berks  counties.  Pa.,  which  they  soon 
reduced  to  cultivation.  A  few  households 
were  added  in  1736.  Under  the  leadership  of 
Georg  Weiss  and  Balthasar  Hoffmann  they 
conducted  religious  services.  They  organized 
a  school  system  in  1764,  copied  manuscripts, 
and  corresponded  with  their  relatives  and  co- 
religionists in  Silesia. 

Through  the  influence  of  Christopher 
Schultz  they  organized  as  a  denomination  in 
1782  under  a  constitution  compiled  by  him. 
A  number  of  doctrinal  and  institutional  bocks 
liave  been  published.  The  government  is 
mainly  congregational.  They  are  divided 
into  two  districts.  Upper  and  Lower,  and 
number  about  200  families.  A  great  many 
have  migrated  to  the  Western  states  and  have 
joined  other  denominations.  Their  service  is 
non-liturgical,  their  hymnology  is  rich  and  ex- 
ten.sive.  They  observe  the  greater  festivals 
of  the  Christian  year,  and  also  the  Gediicht- 
irinstag,  commemorating  their  landing  (Sept. 
24,  according  to  present  chronology).  Their 
discipline  is  rigorous;  the,y  are  non-com- 
bative, and  always  anti-slavery.  Help  to  un- 
fortunate brethren  is  freely  extended,  and 
the  common  fund  for  this  purpose  has-been  in 
existence  from  the  beginning  of  their  corpo- 
rate life.  C.  D.  Haktranft. 

Science,  Christian,  or ' '  the  science  of  meta- 
physical healing,"  which  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  The  Faith  cure,  was  "  discov- 
ered," or  better,  invented,  in  1866  by  Mary 
Baker  Glover,  now  Mrs.  Eddy.  Her  priority 
has  been  vigorousl^y  denied,  and  it  is  claimed 
by  her  opponents  "that  she  learned  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  so-called  science  from  Dr.  P.  P. 
Quimby  (d.  1865),  who  had  cured  her  in  1862 
and  in  good  faith  initiated  her  into  the  true 
principles  of  the  power  of  mind  over  body. 

Christian  Science  has  a  twofold  character. 
One  is  medical,  the  other  theological.  Its 
Materia  Medica  consists  of  but  two  reme- 
dies, Mind,  "which  reconstructs  the  body," 


SCORPION 


(845) 


SOOTT 


ami  "  the  great  curative  principle — Jehovah." 
It  would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  de- 
line  what  is  understood  by  Mind  (mind)  in 
this  Science.  In  her  autiioritative  book,  .SVi- 
eiice  and  Hedlth,  ]Mrs.  Eddy  devotes  a  long 
chapter  to  the  "  Science  of  Being,"  but  her 
thoughts  are  so  poorly  digested  and  so  i [logi- 
cally arranged,  that  it  is  impossible  to  detine 
her  ontological  ideas  ;  but  tlie  drift  of  the 
chapter  seems  to  be  tluit  Mind  and  Being  are 
identical,  and  that  nothing  exists  except  ]Mind. 
Neither  of  the  two  terms  is  defined.  ^Mind 
is  used  both  objectively  and  subjectively  and 
with  a  freedom  that  defies  all  system.  For 
instance,  she  writes  :  "All  sensation  is  ^lind, 
and  Mind  is  God  ;  hence  there  is  but  one 
Mind,  and  this  one  is  infinite,  supplying  all 
mind  by  the  rellection,  not  subdivision,  of 
Himself."  From  universals  she  turns  ab- 
ruptly to  the  individual  and  identities  the 
two.  She  also  says,  "  neither  ancient  nor 
modern  pliilosophy  furnishes  a  scientific  basis 
for  metapiiysical 'healing."  Her  individual- 
ism is  remarkai)le.  Tiiis  is  her  formula,  and 
it  stands  as  a  motto  in  front  of  her  book, 

I,  I,  I,  I  Itself,  I, 
The  iiitjide  and  outside,  the  what  and  the  why. 
The  wht'ii  and  the  where,  the  low  and  tlie  )iiC'h, 

All  I,  I,  I,  I  itself,  I. 

The  method  of  applying  ]Mind  to  ' '  recon- 
struct the  body"  is  this  :  "  Purity,  self-renun- 
ciation, faith,  and  understanding  must  reduce 
matter  to  (heir  own  deiioiniiiiition,  Mind,  to 
handle  it,  divide,  subdivide,  increase,  dimin- 
ish, constitute,  and  sustain,  according  to  the 
law  of  Mind."  "  The  use  of  drugs,  liygiene, 
manipulation,  alcohol,  tobacco,  or  anything 
but  Mind  to  make  or  keep  man  well  and 
happy,  are  .so  numy  conspiracies  against  his 
hoalth  and  happiness,  and  an  honest  meta- 
physical practice." 

The  other  side  of  Christian  Science  is  theo- 
bgical.  In  Mrs.  Eddy's  book  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  talk  about  "  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus." 
Iler  meaning  of  this  Scripture  text  may  be 
gathered,  if  at  all,  from  the  following  def- 
initions copied  from  a  glossary  appended  to 
her  book  as  a  "key  to  the  Scriptures." 
Atominent :  the  teachings,  demonstrations, 
and  sufferings  of  the  man  Jesus,  wiien  show- 
ing mortals  the  way  of  salvation  from  sin, 
sickness,  and  death";  Soul's  triumph  over 
material  sense.  Atonement  is  not  blood  flow- 
ing from  the  veins  of  Jesus,  but  His  outllowing 
sense  of  Life,  Truth,  and  Love— so  mucii 
higlier,  purer,  and  more  God-like  than  man- 
kind's. Ohiixt :  a  divine  principle,  not  per- 
son. Dnith :  an  iHusion,  for  tiiere  is  no 
death.  Matter  lias  no  life,  lience  it  cannot 
(lie,  and  Mind  is  immorttd.  Ihvil  :  a  lie  ; 
neither  a  person  nor  a  principle.  Jtsi/K:  the 
spiritual  idea  of  God  coming  to  material  be- 
liefs, rebuking  and  destroying  them,  and 
bringing  to  light  man's  iminortality.  What 
eril  and  nin  amoimt  to  in  tins  .system  may  ap- 
pear from  tlie  following  words  (of  Shake- 
speare) placed  as  a  motto  on  the  title-page, 
"  Tiicre  is  nothing  either  good  or  bjid.  but 
thinking  makes  it  so." 

In  tlie  IlUtoricnl  Sketdi  of  Mttnphytticnl 
Ilfilihfi.  aNo  by  Mr-;.  Eddy,  .she  claimed 
"  Josu^  tif  Nazaretli  w;is  ;i  natund  and  divine 


seientLst,"  but  "to  him,  born  of  the  fle.sh." 
"woman  must  give  it  birth."  This  last 
phrase  is  the  key  to  the  prevalence  of  the  Sci- 
ence. For  hundreds  of  ivonieu  pra(;tising 
metaphysical  healing  there  are  but  two  or 
tliree  men  teaching  it,  and  they  claim  to  be 
here  on  earth  on  Messianic  erninds.  There  is 
not  a  state  in  tiie  Union  which  has  not  one  or 
more  metiiphysical  institutes,  till  jnesided  over 
by  women,  and  but  few  of  them  are  phy- 
sicians. In  some  cases  whore  detitiis  have 
occurred  among  the  believers  in  Christian 
Science  legal  prosecutions  have  ttiken  ]<la<r  iu 
consL'([ueiice  of  the  neglect  to  summon  medi- 
cal ai(l  during  the  ilhiess. 

Christian  Science  literature,  aside  from  the 
two  works  already  mentioned,  consists  of  a 
large  numlier  of  pamphlets,  with  a  few  liooks 
among  them.  Almost  every  teacher  has 
written  something.  In  most  of  the  larger 
cities  in  the  Union — the  science  is  unknown 
outside  of  America— there  are  Metaphysical 
and  Mind  Cure  Publication  Societies  and 
booksellers.  C.  II.  A.  B.ikkkegaakd. 

Scorpion,  a  snudl  venomous  animal,  be- 
longing like  the  spider  to  the  class  Articliiiidn. 
It  is  found  in  all  warm  climates  and  abundant 
in  Palestine,  where  eight  species  are  known. 
The  malignity  of  the  venom  is  according  to 
the  age  and  size  and  species.  At  the  time  of 
the  Exodus  scorpions  abounded  in  the  Sintiitic 
desert  (Deut.  viii.  15),  and  they  gave  their 
name  to  a  point  called  "  the  ascent  of  Akrab- 
bim"  (Num.  xxxiv.  4).  The  "  scorpions  '  of 
Kehoboam's  threat  (1  Kings  xii.  11)  were 
doubtless  figurative,  as  were  tho.se  to  which 
Ezekiel  (ii.  6)  refers.  "A  .scorpion  for  an 
egg"  (Luke  xi.  12).  i.e.,  a  mischievous  insttad 
of  a  beneticitil  gift,  was  probably  :i  jiroverb 
among  the  Jews.  T.  W.  C. 

Scotch  Confe-ssiou  of  Faith,  The,  was 
drawn  up  by  John  Knox,  consists  of  twenty- 
five  articles  and  a  preface,  agrees  substantially 
with  the  other  confessions  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  the  Ifith  century,  though  it  issome- 
wliat  more  prommnced  in  its  oppo.sition  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  was  adopted 
by  tilt;  Scotch  Parliament  in  Aug.,  1560,  then 
asseml)led  in  P^dinburgli.  From  the  abdica- 
tion of  !Miiry,  queen  of  Scots,  in  1507,  and 
till  the  revofution  of  16S8  it  was  the  only  re- 
ligious standard  recognized  by  the  civil  gov- 
ernment, thougli  pnictically  "it  litid  become 
superseded  by  the  Westminster  Confession. 
(See  SchafT,  Creeds  of  ChriKtendom.  i.,  680-y6. 
iii.,  4:37-85.) 

Scotch  Paraphrases,  The,  are  translations 
in  ver.se  of  select  passiiges  of  Scripture,  orig- 
inally niiide  iuid  collected  by  a  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Church  ofScotliind  in  1742,  and  afterward  re 
vised  and  au^^mented  by  another  committee 
appointdl  in  1775. 

Scotists.     See  DiNsSions. 

Scotland,    Churches    of.      Sec    PuKSBTTE- 

KIAN  Cm  KCHKS,   .'>C(>TI,.\XD,  p.   740. 

Scott,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Dickinson,  1807).  the 
comiiu  ntator  ;  b.  tit  Braytoft.  Lincolnsliirc, 
Feb.   1(5,  1747;  d.  at  Astbn  Sanford,  Bucks, 


SOOTUS 


(846) 


SEABURY 


April  16,  1821.  Surmounting  early  disad- 
vantages, he  was  ordained,  1773.  His  Force 
of  Truth,  London,  1779,  tells  the  story  of  his 
conversion  to  Calvinism  by  John  Newton, 
whom  he  succeeded,  1781,  as  curate  of  Oluey. 
From  1785  he  held  the  chaplaincy  of  Lock 
Hospital  and  a  lectureship  in  London,  and 
from  1801  the  living  of  Aston  Sanford.  His 
fame  rests  upon  his  Family  Bible  with  Kates, 
1788-92,  5  vols.,  v/hich  won  immense  popu- 
larity and  went  through  numerous  editions. 
His  life,  London,  1822,  New  York,  1856,  was 
written  by  his  son,  John  Scott,  who  also  edited 
his  works,  1823,  10  vols.  He  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  Thomas  Scott,  the  hymn- 
writer,  who  was  of  Norfolk,  and  d.  1775. 
F.  M.  B. 

Scotus  Erigena,  John,  b.  probably  in  Ire- 
land, somewhere  between  800  and  815  ;  made 
his  appearance  at  the  court  of  Charles  the 
Bald  between  840  and  846,  and  for  a  number 
of  years  enjoyed  the  most  honorable  position 
there,  probably  leaving  upon  the  death  of 
Charles  (877)  and  going  to  England,  where  he 
died  at  Malmesbury  a  violent  death.  At  the 
court  of  Cliarles  he  engaged  in  the  controversy 
with  Gattschalk,  wrote  upon  predestination, 
and  translated  Dionysius.  His  works  have 
been  gathered  in  Migne.  Pat.  Lat.  CXXII. 
(See  Christlieb,  Leben  und  Lehre  d.  J.  S.  E., 
Gotha,  1860  ;  Stbckl,  OescMchte  der  Philoso- 
phie  des  Mittelalters,  Mainz,  vol.  i.,  1861  ; 
and  De  Joh.  Scoto  Frig.,  Miinster,  1867,  and 
Maurice,  Medimval  Philosophy,  London,  1870.) 

Erigena  was  a  man  of  large  learning  and 
of  wide  intellectual  interests.  In  theology, 
philosophy,  and  even  poetry,  he  exhibits 
everywhere  the  same  keen  analytical  powers, 
and  the  same  mastery  of  style.  His  starting- 
point  is  the  essential"  harmony  of  philosophy 
and  theology.  Both  come  from  the  same  God 
and  cannot  disagree  ;  but  he  himself  inclines 
to  the  speculative  consideration  of  things,  and 
is  thus  the  founder  of  speculative  theology. 
His  system  is  essentially  pantheism,  though 
he  often  seeks  to  avoid  pantheistic  conclu- 
sions. He  views  things  both  from  tlie  stand- 
point of  experience  and  from  that  of  tlie  in- 
tellectual intuition  also,  producing  thereby 
a  biplicity  which  reappears  continually 
throughout  the  system.  He  considers  succes- 
sively God,  or  tiie  nature  which  creates  and 
is  not  created  ;  the  procession  from  God,  or 
the  created  nature  ;  and  the  regression  to  God, 
or  the  nature  which  is  not  created  and  which 
does  not  create.  God  is  pure  being,  or  tiie 
absolute  nothing.  Personality,  in  the  proper 
sense  of  that  word,  cannot  be  ascribed  to  him. 
The  Trinity,  though  treated  with  constant 
reference  to  the  doctrine  of  the  church,  is 
simply  the  product  of  human  modes  of  con- 
templating God,  and  has  no  objective  exist- 
ence. The  creation  is  brought  about  through 
"  theophanies,"  which  are  immediate  contacts 
of  the  infinite  with  the  finite.  The  world  is 
thus  viewed  as  an  entirely  ideal  existence. 
Creation  also  takes  place  through  principles 
(ideas)  which  are  fiist  created  and  have  the 
power  of  creation.  Of  these,  the  first  and 
comprehensive  total  is  the  Logos.  The  re- 
sulting creation  is,  however,  a  necessary  proc- 


ess. Sin  is  in  the  world  from  the  beginning, 
but,  with  its  final  punishment,  is  only  some- 
thing negative.  The  incarnation  is  onlj^  an  ex- 
pression of  the  eteinal  unity  of  the  infinite 
and  finite.  The  recession  to  God  is  pretem- 
poral  in  the  predestination  of  God,  which  is 
only  to  good  (single  predestination),  there  is 
even  no  foreknowledge  of  evil  in  the  divine 
mind.  The  temporal  process  of  the  regres- 
sion is  the  redemption  through  Jesus  Christ, 
which  is  effected  not  by  what  he  does,  but  by 
what  he  is.  The  end  is  complete  absorption 
of  all  again  in  the  infinite  and  impersonal 
being  from  which  all  has  come.       F.  H.  F. 

Scribe  {writer),  in  the  Old  Testament  an 
ofticer  employed  to  record  the  king's  edicts 
(2  Sam.  XX.  25),  or  to  have  charge  of  the 
finances  (2  Kings  xii.  10),  or  to  muster  the 
host  (Jer.  lii.  25).  In  the  New  Testament  it 
denotes  a  class  of  men  who  originated  with 
Ezra  (Ezra  vii.  6)  and  were  copyists  of  the 
Law.  The  famiharity  with  the  'sacred  text 
thus  acquired  caused  them  to  be  considered 
expounders  of  its  meaning,  and  they  grad- 
ually became  an  organized  body  into  which 
members  were  admitted  by  examination. 
They  often  made  void  the  law  by  their  tradi- 
tions (Mark  vii.  1,  13).  In  common  with  the 
Pharisees  they  were  wily  and  bitter  foes  of 
Christ  (Luke  v.  30,  vi.  7),  but  there  were  ex- 
ceptions (Matt.  xiii.  52,  xxiii.  34,  Mark  xii. 
28).  T.  W.  C. 

Scrivener,    Frederick    Henry    Ambrose, 

LL.D.  (St.  Andrews,  1872),  D.C.L.  (Oxford, 
1876),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Bermondsey, 
Surrey,  England,  Sept.  29,  1813  ;  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge  ;  became  curate  of  Sand- 
ford  Orcas  in  1838,  rector  of  St.  Gerraus, 
1861,  and  vicar  of  Hendon,  1876.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  New  Testament  Revision  Com- 
pany, and  published  Notes  on  the  Authorized 
Version  of  the  New  Testament,  London,  1845  ; 
Plain  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New 
Testament,  1861,  3d  ed.,  1883  ;  Popular  Lec- 
tures on  the  Text  of  the  New  Testament,  1875  ; 
two  editions  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New 
Testament,  one  embodying  the  changes  of  the 
New  Testament  revisers  ( 1881)  ;  the  most  ac- 
curate reprint  of  the  Authorized  Version,  un- 
der title  The  Cambrid{/e  Paragraph  Bible  ;  a 
number  of  collations  of  manuscripts  and  other 
critical  researches  concerning  the  New  Testa- 
ment text,  etc. 

Scudder,  John,  M.D.  (College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  New  York,  1815),  Dutch  Re- 
formed missionary;  b.  at  Freehold,  N.  J., 
Sept.  13,  1793  ;  d.  at  Wynberg,  South  Africa, 
Jan.  13,  1855.  He  graduated  at  Princeton, 
1811  ;  practised  medicine,  1815-19,  and  in 
Feb.,  1820,  reached  Ceylon,  where  he  founded 
a  hospital  and  a  college.  Transferred,  1836, 
to  Madras,  he  established  the  Arcot  mission. 
From  1842-46  he  was  laboring  in  the  cause  at 
home.  He  died  on  a  voyage  undertaken  for 
the  restoration  of  health.  His  ten  children 
followed  him  in  the  missionary  field.  He 
published  sundry  appeals,  letters,  etc.  His 
memoir,  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Waterbury,  appeared, 
New  York,  1870.  F.  M.  B. 

Seabury,    Samuel,    D.D.    (Oxford,    1777), 


SEAGRAVE! 


(847) 


SEBA 


first  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  in  Ameri- 
ca ;  b.  at  Groton,  Conn.,  Nov.  80,  1739;  d. 
at  New  London,  Conn.,  Feb.  25,  1796.  He 
graduated  at  Yale,  1748  ;  completed  his  medi- 
cal studies  at  Edmburgh  ;  was  ordained  in 
London,  1758,  and  sent  as  missionary  to  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  He  officiated  at  Jamaica, 
L.  L,  1757-66,  and  at  Westchester,  N.  Y., 
1766-75,  where  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  loyal- 
ist and  the  supposed  autlior  of  LittcvH  of  a 
Westchester  Farmer.  Elected  bishop  b}'  the 
few  clergy  of  Connecticut  in  ^larcli,  17S8, 
and  unable  to  obtain  consecration  in  Eni^'iand, 
he  received  it  from  three  Scotch  bishops  at 
Aberdeen,  Nov.  14,  1784,  and  began  his  epis- 
copal labors  in  Connecticut,  June,  1785. 
White  and  Provoost  securing  consecration  in 
England,  Feb.  4,  1787,  he  joined  in  organ- 
i/iug  the  American  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  and  revising  the  Prayer-Book,  1789. 
His  sermons  appeared  in  two  vols..  1791,  and 
in  a  third,  1798.  (See  his  Life  and  Correspoiul- 
eni-e,  by  E.  E.  Beardslcy,  Boston,  1881,  2d  cd., 
1884.)  F.  M.  B. 

Seagrave,  Robert,  b.  at  Twyford,  Leices- 
tershire. England,  Nov.  22,  1698  ;  the  date  of 
his  death  is  not  known,  but  he  was  still  living 
in  IT.V.).  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  but 
left  the  Church  of  England  and  became  the 
earnest  co-worker  of  Whitefield.  In  1742  he 
published  fifty  hymns,  among  which  was 
"  Kise,  my  soul,  and  .stretch  thy  wings,"  and 
which  were  reprinted  by  D.  Sedgwick,  Lon- 
don, 1860. 

Seaman,  Lazarus,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  16 — ), 
b.  at  Leicester,  England  ;  d.  in  1675  :  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  ;  took  the  Parliament 
side  in  the  civil  war,  and  was  made  rector  of 
Allhailows,  London,  but  was  in  1622  ejected 
from  the  living.  In  1687  he  published  A  I  'in- 
diration  of  the  Judgment  of  tltr  llifirintd 
Churches  and  Protextant  Dioceses  from  Jfi.snp- 
rescntafion  Concerning  Ordination  cud  Layinfi 
on  of  Hands.  His  was  the  first  library  ever 
put  up  at  .sale  by  auction  in  England. 

Seamen,  Missions  to,  were  not  established 
until  the  second  decade  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, and  have  hitherto  been  undertaken  only 
by  Protestant  churches.  The  principal  so- 
cieties of  the  kind  are  : 

UNITED   STATES   OF   NORTH   AMERICA. 

The  Neto  York  Port  Societi/.  founded  in 
1818,  sustains  a  churcli  at  Madison  and  Catha- 
rine streets,  New  York,  with  a  reading-room 
for  sailors,  and  employs  9  missionaries. 

The  American  Seamen's  Fi~iend  Society, 
founded  in  New  Y'ork,  1828,  maintains  13 
domestic  and  20  foreign  stations,  and  42  mis- 
sionaries. 

The  Church  Missionary  S')cietyfor  Seamen 
in  the  City  of  Xew  York,  founded  in  1854, 
maintains  2  chapels.  8  mission  houses,  with 
reading  and  lecture-rooms,  etc. 

Local  societies  were  founded  at  Charleston, 
1819  ;  Philadelpliia.  ISIO  ;  Portland.  1S28  ; 
New  Orleans,  1828,  and  New  Bedford,  1^25. 

ENGLAND. 

The  British  and  Foreign  Siilors'  Society. 
founded  in  1818  bv  a  union  between  The  Port 


of  London  Society  and  The  Bethel  Union  So- 
ciety, maintains  4  domestic  and  6  foreign  sta- 
tions. 

The  London  Missions  to  Seamen,  maintains 
20  English  and  8  foreign  chaplains,  and  29 
English  and  4  foreign  Scripture  readers. 

Local  societies  were  founded  in  various 
places:  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  etc.,  also  soci- 
eties for  special  purposes,  as  the  Miss-ions  to 
Deep  Sea  Fishermen  in  Ijondon. 

THE   SCANDINAVIAN   KINGDOMS. 

The  jVoncegian  Society  for  the  Pi'eaching 
of  the  Gospel  to  Scandinavian  Seamen,  in  For- 
eign Harbors,  founded  at  Bergen,  1864,  main- 
tains 10  stations  in  foreign  countries. 

llie  Danish  Society,  etc.,  founded  in  Copen- 
hagen, 1864.  niaititains  9  stations. 

The  Swedish  Si>ri,tg,  otc.  founded  in  Stock- 
holm in  1869,  maintains  11  foreign  stations, 
with  8  ordained  pastors  at  London,  Hartle- 
pool, and  Kiel. 

Finally  must  be  mentioned  that  The  Fin- 
land Society,  founded  at  Hcl.siiigfors  in  1880, 
maintains  8  stations  in  England,  with  an  or- 
dained pastor  in  London  ;  that  The  Swedish 
Evangdical  Lutheran  Augustuna  Synod  in 
America  maintains  a  station  in  Philadelphia, 
?,nd  TJie  Norwegian  Evangelical  Lvtheran. 
Church  in  America  a  mission  in  Australia. 

Sears,  Bamas,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1841),  LL.D. 
(Y'ale,  1S62),  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Sandisfield,  Berk- 
shire County,  .Mass.,  Nov.  19,  1802  ;  d.  at 
Saratoga.  N.  Y.,  July  0,  1880.  He  graduated 
at  Brown  University,  1825,  and  at  Newton 
Theological  Institute,  1828  ;  was  pastor  at 
Hartford  and  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  and  pro- 
fessor of  classics  at  tlie  latter,  1829-86,  spend- 
ing 1833-85  in  Germany,  and  starting  the 
German  Baptists  ;  professor  of  theology  at 
Newton,  1886-48  ;  secretary  of  the  ^Ma.ssa- 
chusetts  Board  of  Education  (succeeding  Hor- 
ace IMann),  1848-55  ;  president  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity, 1S55-67  ;  from  1867  general  agent  of 
the  Peabody  Educational  Fund,  residing  at 
Staunton,  Va.  His  publications  are  mainly 
educational,  but  include  a  LJfe  of  Lvthtr,  An- 
dover,  3Iass.,  1850,  and  an  edition  of  Roget's 
Thesaurnx,  Bo.slon,  1,S54.  F.  M.  B. 

Sears,  Edmund  Hamilton,  D.D.  (Union, 
1871),  b.  at  Sandislield,  Ma.ss.,  1810;  d.  at 
Weston,  3Iass.,  Jan.  14,  1876.  He  graduated 
at  Union,  1834,  and  in  divinitv  at  Cambridge, 
1837;  was  pastor  at  Wavland,  :Mass.,  1838- 
40  ;  Lancaster,  :Mass.,  1840-47  ;  again  at  Way- 
land,  1847-65,  and  at  Weston,  1865-76.  Tliese 
charges  and  their  mini.ster  were  Unitarian  in 
name,  but  liis  opinions  were  Swedenborgian. 
Among  his  writings  are  Pugem  ration,  Boston, 
1854  ;  Athanasia,  1858  ;  The  Fourth  (Josjul, 
1872,  and  Sermons  and  Songs  of  the  Christia?i 
Life,  1875.  His  two  Christmas  hymns,  "  Calm 
on  tlie  li.stening  ear  of  night"  (\Ki4)  and  "  It 
came  upon  the  midnight  clear"  (1850),  are 
verv  widelv  known  and  highly  valued. 

F.  M.  B. 

Se'-ba,  a  wealthy  commercial  reirion  of 
Ethiopia  (Ps.  Ixxii.  10,  Isa.  xliii.  3.  .\!v.  14). 
Originally  it  was  at  Meroe,  but  afterwanl 
came  to  include  tlie  countrv  on  the  south- 
western coa-st  of  the  Red  Sea'.         T.  W.  C. 


i 


i 


SEB ALDUS 


(848) 


SEIiAH 


Sebaldus,  St.,  was  according  to  legend  a 
Danish  peasant  boy,  who  went  to  Paris  to 
study  theology,  married  the  king's  daughter, 
but  repudiated  her  the  day  after  the  wedding 
and  went  to  Germany,  where  he  preached  the 
gospel  and  worked  many  miracles.  Unfortu- 
nately nobody  knows— exactly — when  he  lived 
or  what  he  did,  the  only  tilings  sure  about 
him  are  that  Nuremberg  chose  him  for  her 
patron  saint,  that  Martin  V.  canonized  him 
in  1425,  and  that  Peter  Vischer  carved  a  mag- 
nificent monument  over  his— name  in  the  St. 
Sebaldus  Church  in  Nuremberg. 

Se  Baptist.     See  Smyth,  John. 

Sebastian,  St.,  b.  at  Narbonne  in  the  8d  cen- 
tury and  martyred  under  Diocletian.  He 
commanded  the  first  cohort  at  Milan.  He 
was  shot  by  arrows,  as  it  was  supposed  to 
death,  but  recovered,  and  was  finally  beaten 
to  death  by  clubs,  in  Rome,  and  buried  in  the 
Catacombs.  His  day  is  Jan.  20.  He  is  the 
favorite  saint  of  Italian  women,  and  very  fre- 
quently pictured  by  Italian  artists,  who  com- 
monly represent  him  almost  nude  fastened  to 
a  tree  and  fairly  riddled  by  arrows.  Upon 
his  upturned  face  there  is  a  look  of  ecstasy, 
and  it  is  manifest  that  he  feels  no  pain.  When 
a  church  in  Rome  was  dedicated  to  him  the 
plague  ceased,  and  thus  he  has  become  the 
patron  saint  against  the  plague. 

Secession  Church.  See  Presbyterian 
Churches,  p.  745. 

Second  Adventists.     See  Adventists. 

Second  Coming  of  Christ.  See  Adven- 
tists,  Millenarianism,  Premillenarian- 

ISM. 

Secret  Discipline  (Teaching).     See  Arcani 

DiSCIPLINA. 

Secular  clergy,  those  who  were  not  bound 
by  monastic  vows,  had  parochial  charges,  or 
otherwise  lived  in  society,  as  distinguished 
from  those  who  were  monks. 

Secundus,  a  Gnostic,  pupil  of  Valentinus, 
of  tlie  2d  century,  who  divided  the  primary 
Ogdoad  into  two  Tetrads,  light  and  darkness, 
and  denied  that  the  Sophia  was  one  of  the 
thirty  primary  ^ons.  See  Gnosticism,  p.  329. 

Sedes  Vacans,  a  canonical  legal  term  for  a 
vacancy  in  an  ecclesiastical  office. 

Sedgwick,  Daniel,  hymnologist  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, 1815  ;  d.  there,  March  10,  1879.  A  poor 
man  of  little  education,  originally  a  shoe- 
maker, he  became  a  bookseller  and  the  first 
authority,  both  in  time  and  rank,  as  to  au- 
thorship, dates,  and  texts  of  English  hymns. 
A  Calvinistic  dissenter,  he  began  his  collec- 
tions about  1840  as  a  labor  of  love,  through 
interest  in  the  hymns  sung  in  his  chapel.  His 
.shop  in  Sun  street,  Bishopsgate,  and  its  con- 
tents, became  the  resource  of  students  and 
compilers  throughout  England  and  America. 
Sir  R.  Palmer's  Book  of  Praise,  London,  1865. 
to  which  he  had  supplied  correct  texts,  etc. , 
brought  him  to  general  notice.  His  editions 
of  RyLand,  Topladv,  Anne  Steele,  and  others 
(1859-65)  with  liis  Index  (1863)  and  catalogues 
have  helped  many.  F.  M.  B. 


Seekers  is  the  name  of  a  small  Puritan  sect 
which  arose  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century 
and,  according  to  Baxter,  comprised  Roman. 
Catholics  and  infidels  as  well  as  Puritans. 
They  maintained  that  the  true  Scriptures,  or- 
dinances, church  and  ministry  were  lost,  and 
that  they  were  out  seeking  for  them. 

Segneri  (san-ya'-ree),  Paolo,  b.  at  Nettuno, 
in  the  Campagna,  March  21,  1624  ;  d.  in 
Rome,  Dec.  6,  1694  ;  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1638  ;  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1653  ; 
taught  in  the  Jesuit  school  of  Pestoia  till  1665, 
and  travelled  then  for  many  years  from  place 
to  place  in  Northern  Italy,  where  his  eminent 
powers  as  a  preacher  gathered  immense  audi- 
ences. In  1680  his  Concordia  tra  lafatica  e  la 
quiete,  against  Molinos,  was  put  upon  the  In- 
dex, but  in  1692  he  was,  nevertheless,  called 
to  Rome  and  made  theologian  of  the  peniten- 
tiary. His  collected  works  appeared  at  Ven- 
ice, 1712,  4  vols.,  best  ed.,  Milan,  1845-47,  4 
vols.  Translated  into  English  are  Lenten  Ser- 
mons, by  James  Ford,  London,  1857-61,  3 
vols.,  rep.  in  New  York,  1872,  2  vols.;  Pane- 
gyrics, London,  1877  ;  Manna  of  the  Soul, 
1879,  2  vols.;  Practice  of  Interior  Eecollection 
with  God,  1881.     (See  his  life,  London,  1851.) 

Seir  (liairy),  a  mountainous  region  extending 
from  the  Dead  Sea  to  tlie  Gulf  of  Akaba.  It 
was  ancientl.y  inhabited  by  the  Horites  (Gen. 
xiv.  6,  Deut.  ii.  12).  Afterward  it  was  occu- 
pied by  Esau  and  his  descendants  (Gen.  xxxii. 
3,  Deut.  iv.  22),  and  hence  took  the  name  of 
Edom.  Israel,  being  refused  a  passage 
through  the  country,  marched  down  the  Ara- 
bah  and  went  around  on  the  east  of  the  high- 
lands of  Edom  till  they  came  to  Moab. 

T.  W.  C. 

Seiss  (seess),  Joseph  Augustus,  D.D.  (Penn- 
sylvania College,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  1860), 
LL.D.  (Roanoke  College,  Salem,  Va.,  1874), 
Lutheran  (General  Council)  ;  b.  near  Grace- 
ham,  Md.,  March  18,  1823  ;  studied  in  Penn- 
sylvania College,  and  held  various  pastoral 
charges,  since  1874  that  of  Holy  Communion, 
Philadelphia.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  General  Council  and  one  of  the  committee 
which  made  its  Church  Book.  He  edited 
Prophetic  Times,  1868-75,  The  Lutheran,  1873- 
79,  and  published,  besides  mmierous  sermons, 
addresses,  pamphlets,  and  review  articles : 
Baptist  System  Examined,  Baltimore,  1854, 
3d  enlarged  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1882  ;  Last 
Times,  1856,  7th  ed.,  1880  ;  Evangelical  Psalm- 
ist, 1860,  2d  ed.,  1870  ;  Lectiires  on  the  Apoc- 
alypse, 1870-84,  3  vols. ;  Lectures  on  the  Gos- 
pels, 1876  ;  A  Miracle  in  Stone  (the  Great 
Pyramid),  1877,  n.e.,  1882  ;  Voices  from  Baby- 
lon (lectures  on  Daniel),  1879,  2d  ed.,  1881  ; 
Lectures  on  the  Epistles,  1885,  2  vols.;  Right 
Life,  1886  ;  The  children  of  Silence,  Philadel- 
phia, 1887. 

Se'-lah,  or  Se'-la  (rock),  a  remarkable  city 
in  a  deep  cleft  of  the  range  of  Mt.  Seir,  near 
the  foot  of  Mt.  Hor,  captured  by  Amaziah, 
about  B.C.  826  and  named  by  him  Joktheel, 
subdued  of  Ood  (2  Kings  xiv.  7).  A  century- 
later  it  is  mentioned  by  its  old  name  and  as  if 
belonging  to  the  Moabites  (Isa.  xvi.  1).  Un- 
der the  Greek  name  Petra  it  is  spoken  of  by 


SELAH 


(849) 


SEMI-PELAOIANISM 


heathen  writers,  and  was  an  important  station 
of  trade  between  Rome  and  the  East,  but 
afterward  disappeared  from  history.  After 
thirteen  centuries  it  was  visited  by  travellers 
(Seetzen.  1807,  was  the  tirst)  and  described. 
Hewn  out  of  the  rock  are  houses,  temples, 
theatres,  which  show  beautifully  variegated 
colors  and  arc  approached  by  a  narrow  detile, 
the  Sik,  a  mile  and  a  half  in  ienirth,  with  walls 
rising  perpendicularly  from  100  to  300  feet. 
It  is  now  utterly  desolate,  f ullilling  the  words 
of  Jeremiah  xlix.  16,  17.  T.  W.  C. 

Se'-Iah,  a  musical  term  which  occurs  sev- 
enty-one times  in  the  Psalms  and  thrice  in 
Habakkuk  (iii.  3,  9,  13).  It  usually  occurs 
at  the  end  of  a  period  or  strophe,  but  some- 
times at  the  end  of  a  clause.  This  ditticult 
word  is  best  explained  as  a  direction  for  a 
meditative  pause  in  the  singing  of  a  psalm, 
during  which  perhaps  there  was  an  instru- 
mental interlude.  But  opinions  differ  widely. 
T.  W.  C. 

Selborne,  The  Right  Hon.  Roundell  Pal- 
mer, Earl  of,  D.C.L.  ((Oxford,  1863).  b.  at 
Mixbury,  Xo^^.  27,  1812  ;  educated  at  Oxford  ; 
called  to  the  bar,  1837  ;  lord  chancellor  of 
England,  1872-74,  and  1880-85  ;  was  elected 
lord  rector  of  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's, 
1877,  and  president  of  the  first  IIou.se  of  Lay- 
men in  the  Church  of  England,  1886.  In 
1862  he  edited  the  extraordinarily  popular 
and  often  reprinted  Book  of  Pfaise,  from  the 
Best  English  Ht/nin-tcnters,  and  published 
Ancient  Facts  toul  Fictions  Coiwerninq 
Church's  and  Titles,  London,  1888  ;  Defence 
of  the  Church  of  England,  4th  ed.,  1888. 

Selden,  John,  antiquarian  ;  b.  at  Stlving- 
ton,  near  Worthing,  Sussex,  Dec.  16,  1584  ; 
d.  at  White  Friars,  near  London,  Nov.  30, 
1654.  He  entered  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  1598, 
and  the  Inner  Temple,  1604.  His  great  learn- 
ing appeared  in  sundry  Latin  and  English 
books,  especiall}"  Be  Diis  Si/ris,  1617.  His 
History  of  Tithes,  1618,  called'forth  the  king's 
wrath,  which  was  increased  by  his  advice  to 
the  Commons,  1021.  Imprisonini  nt  then  and 
in  1629-31,  <  hccked  his  zeal  for  liberal  reforms, 
and  tlieucefortii  he  stood  between  the  two 
parties,  respected  by  both  and  harmed  by 
neither.  He  was  long  in  Parliament,  a  lay 
memberof  the  Westminster  Asseml)ly,  and  in 
1645  master  of  Trinity  Hall,  Cainbridge. 
.Milton  called  him  "  the  chief  of  learned  men 
reputed  in  this  land."  His  works  were  col- 
lected in  3  vols.,  London,  1726,  the  contents 
of  vols.  i.  and  ii.  being  in  Latin.  His  Tahle- 
Talk,  publislied,  1689,  i-?  more  popular.  A 
part  of  his  Be  Biis  Syris  has  been  tran.slated. 
The  Fabulous  Gods,  etc.,  Phihuh-lphia,  1880. 
(See  his  life  by  Dr.  J.  Aikin,  London.  1811.) 
F.  M.  B. 

Se-Ieu'-cia,  a  fortified  citv  of  Syria  on  tlie 
Mediterranean,  16  m.  w.  of  Antioch,  whose 
seaport  it  was.  Here  Paul  and  Banuibas  em- 
barked on  their  first  missionary  jounRV(Acts 
xiii.  4),  and  probably  landed  on  tiieirreturn 
(Acts  xiv.  26).  Under  tiic  Seleucid.e  it  was  a 
beautiful  city  with  a  fine  liarbor.  The  Arabs 
called  it  Selukiyeh.  It  is  now  a  ruin  and  near 
its  site  is  a  small  village  adied  f^l-Kalusi. 
T.  W.  C. 


Selwyn,  George  Augustus,  D.D.  (Cam- 
bridge, 18 — ),  bishop  of  New  Zealand  and  of 
Lichfield  ;  b.  at  Uichmoud.  9  m.  w.s.w.  of 
J^ondon,  1809  ;  d.  at  Lichfield,  April  11,  1878. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge ;  became  curate  of  Windsor,  and  was 
consecrated  in  1841  first  bishop  of  New  Zea- 
land. He  did  much  adnurable  missionary 
work  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  till  J.  C.  Patte- 
son  was  made  bishop  of  Melanesia  in  1855. 
In  1857  his  diocese  was  divided,  and  in  1867 
he  was  translated  to  Lichfield,  where  he  won 
the  repute  of  a  model  i)relate.  (See  his  corre- 
spondence, London,  1889.)  His  memoir  was 
written  by  H.  W.  Tucker,  London,  1879, 
2  vols.  His  son  succeeded  Patteson  in  ]\Iel- 
anesia  ;  his  brother  William  was  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge,  an  old  Testament  re- 
viser, and  a  writer  on  prophecy.      F.  31.  B. 

Semi-Arians,  a  party  which  appeared  after 
the  repres.sion  of  Nicene  orthodoxy  (351  to 
355),  but  which  had  practically  existed  even 
at  the  Council  of  Nice  (325)  and  before,  being 
represented  there  by  Eusebius  of  Casarea. 
Eusebius  taught  that  God,  the  one,  supreme 
being,  had  begotten  by  his  will,  a  Son,  the 
Logos,  who  was  truly  God  of  God,  and  in  all 
respects  like  the  Father,  but  was  only  the 
image  of  the  Father  and  a  second  es.sence,  the 
Father  being  first  not  only  in  thought,  but 
also  in  time.  This  was  to  continue  the  old 
subordinationi.sm  of  Origen  without  fully 
adopting  his  idea  of  the  eternal  generation. 
At  the  Synod  of  Ancyra  (358)  the  party  sought 
to  avoid  the  extremes  of  both  parties,  the  or- 
thodox and  the  Arian.  They  rejected  the 
term  "  homo-ousios,"  taught 'that  the  Logos 
had  its  apx't  in  the  Father,  but  still  empha- 
sized his  divinity.  AVith  the  triiunph  of 
Arianism  at  court,  this  party  suffered  imdei 
the  imperial  displeasure,  approached  the> 
Nicene  party,  and  finally  united  with  it.  The 
principal  representatives  of  .semi-Arianism  are 
Macedonius.  Basil  of  Ancyra,  and  Eustathius 
of  Sebaste,  in  Armenia.  F.  H.  F. 

Semi-Pelagianism,  a  designation  given  to 
that  school  of  thought  which  attempted,  par- 
ticvdarly  in  tlie  5th  century  and  in  Gaul,  to 
hold  the  mean  between  the  extreme  conse- 
quences of  the  Augu.stinian  doctrines  of  grace 
and  predestination,  and  the  doctrines  of  Pela- 
.srius.  The  Augustinian  doctrine  of  grace 
had  carried  off  the  victory  in  the  Pelagian 
controversy,  not  without  the  interference  of 
the  .slate.  But  tlie  doctrine  of  predestination 
had  not  receiv( d  t(juid  acceptance.  It  was 
passed  over  in  the  final  synod  in  Africa  (418), 
and  it  now  roused  resistance  in  South  Gaul. 
Prosper  of  A(iuitania  (<|.v.)  informed  Augus- 
tine of  the  state  of  affairs,  and  Avigustine  re- 
plied in  further  defence  of  his  views.  The 
most  important  representative  of  the  semi- 
Pelagians  is  Cassian  (({.v.).  The  party  in  gen- 
eral held  that  we  have  all  sinned  in  Adam, 
that  none  can  Imj  saved  by  fheir  own  works, 
but  only  by  the  grace  of  God  ;  but  they  lield 
that  all  men  who  would  come  to  faith  and 
baptism  could  l)e  saved,  since  the  will  is  a 
power  to  Ix'lieve,  implanted  by  the  Creator  in 
the  verv  nature  of  man.  Predestination  is 
founded  upon  foreknowledge.     They  recog- 


SEMITIO 


(850) 


SEQUENCES 


nize,  however,  a  grace  which  operates  inter- 
nally upon  the  will,  but  it  rests  with  man  to 
receive  or  reject  this  grace,  which  he  does  by 
faith  or  unbelief.  The  principle  that  grace 
and  the  will  do  not  destroy  each  other,  Cas- 
sian  understands  in  such  a  way  as  to  teach 
that  the  decision  which  of  the  two  has  the 
priority  in  the  exercise  of  faith,  must  be  de- 
cided by  observation.  In  fact,  he  says,  some- 
times the  human  will  takes  the  priority,  some- 
times the  grace  of  God.  This  is  the  method  in 
which  it  is  attempted  to  supplant  the  Augus- 
tinian  theory  of  irresistible  grace.  Prosper 
continued  his  opposition  against  the  semi- 
Pelagians  with  general  success.  But  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  century,  Faustus,  bishop  of 
Reji,  reproduced  substantially  the  theories  of 
Cassian.  The  man  who  is  lost  is  such  because 
he  did  not  yield  his  will  to  grace  ;  and  he  who 
is  saved  by  grace  might  by  neglect  have  been 
lost.  Under  Faustus'  lead,  semi-Pelagianism 
seemed  for  a  time  to  have  the  predominance, 
but  gradually  the  inconsistency  of  a  theory 
which  put  the  initiative  now  in  the  grace  of 
God  and  now  in  the  human  ■will  was  generally 
perceived,  and  at  the  Synod  of  Orange  (529) 
the  Augustinian  doctrine  was  formally  set 
forth.  The  tendency  to  modify  the  sharp 
points  of  Augustinianism  still  remained,  how- 
ever, and  semi- Pelagian  views  reappear  in  the 
following  controversies,  that  of  Gottschalk, 
at  the  Reformation,  in  the  Arminian  contro- 
versy, etc.,  and  in  the  modern  Roman  theology, 
semi-Pelagianism  has  the  chief  following. 
(See  Thomasius  and  Harnack,  Dogmcn- 
geschichten.)  F.  H.  F. 

Semitic  Languages.  See  Shemitic  Lan- 
guages. 

Semler,  Johann  Salomo,  b.  at  Saalfeld. 
Saxe-Meiningen,  Dec.  18,  1725  ;  d.  at  Halle, 
March  14,  1791.  He  studied  theology  at 
Halle,  and  was  appointed  professor  there  in 
1751.  His  works  comprise  150  publications, 
many  of  which  are  in  several  volumes.  The 
best  and  best  known  of  them  all  is  perhaps  ^6- 
Jiandlunp  voiifreier  UntersucJtung  des  Kanons, 
Halle,  1771-75,  4  vols.  It  is  a  definite  and  de- 
cisive breach  with  the  traditional  theological 
views,  and  makes  him  one  of  the  leading  rep- 
resentatives of  the  reigning  rationalism  and 
the  precursor  of  the  historico-critical  school 
of  Tubingen.  His  AutoMograplni  appeared 
1781-82,  3  vols.  (See  Dorner,  GescJiichte  d. 
protest.  Theologie,  Berlin,  1867,  pp.  703  sqq.) 

.  Seneca,  the  Roman  philosopher  ;  b.  at 
Cordova,  Spain,  about  3  B.C.;  d.  in  Rome, 
65  A.D.  He  devoted  himself  to  rhetorical 
studies,  and  M^as  early  famous  at  the  bar.  His 
prospects  received  a  sudden  check  when  he 
was  banished  to  Corsica  by  Claudius,  whom 
he  vainly  tried  to  prevail  upon  to  recall  him. 
He  passed  away  the  eight  years  of  this  banish- 
ment in  the  pursuit  ofliterature.  Agrippina. 
the  empress,  was  finally  persuaded  to  take  his 
part,  and  he  was  recalled  and  given  the  post 
of  tutor  of  Nero.  During  the  better  part  of 
Nero's  reign  he  was  high  in  influence  at  court, 
and  is  entitled  to  much  of  the  credit  for  the 
measures  taken.  In  his  capacity  of  minister 
he  had  to  write  the  apology  for  matricide. 
He  fell  at  last  into  disfavor,  and  was  com- 


pelled to  commit  suicide.  His  works  com- 
prised tragedies,  orations  (now  lost).  Physical 
Investigations,  Satire  on  the  Deatli  of  Clau- 
dius, and  various  works  upon  morals,  for 
which  his  name  is  of  the  most  interest  in  theol- 
ogy. These  are  the  Dialogues  (Eng.  trans., 
London,  1889,  in  Bohn's  series).  On  Clemency, 
On  Benefits,  and  Letters  to  Lucilius.  They 
discuss  practical  ciuestions  of  morals  in  an 
earnest  and  personal  manner,  are,  in  fact.  Stoic 
sermons.  They  are  remarkable  for  their 
lofty  conceptions,  as,  for  example,  of  the  duty 
to  love  all  men,  and  to  forgive  injuries.  (See 
Zeller's  Greek  Philosophy.  Concerning  his 
relation  to  Christianity  and  pretended  corre- 
spondence with  Paul  [edited  by  Fabricius, 
Codex  Ajwcryphus  iV.  T.,  pp.  892-904,  and 
best  by  Westerburg,  see  below]  see  Lightfoot. 
Commentary  oil  Phili'p'pians,  and  Westerburg, 
Die  Sage  dass  S.  Christgewesen,  Berlin,  1881.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Sen-nach'-e-rib  (sin,  "the  moon,"  in- 
creases brothers),  the  king  of  Assyria  when 
Hezekiah  reigned  in  Judah  (b.c.  705-681). 
He  was  the  son  and  successor  of  Sargon. 
Judah  had  paid  tribute  to  Assyria  (2  Kings 
xvi.  7-9),  but  revolted  (2  Kings  xviii.  7).  In 
consequence  Sennacherib  invaded  Palestine 
twice.  The  first  time  he  was  pacified  bj"  a 
tribute  of  gold  and  silver.  But  the  king  hav- 
ing again  revolted  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  9),  Sen- 
nacherib came  with  a  large  force,  demanding 
submission,  and  sent  an  insulting  letter  which 
Hezekiah  spread  before  Jehovah.  The  an- 
swer was  the  perishing  of  185,000  Assyrians 
in  one  night,  and  in  consequence  the  king  re- 
treated to  Nineveh.  Manv  years  after  this  he 
was  murdered  by  two  of  his  sons,  while  wor- 
shipping in  a  temple  (2  Kings  xix.  37).  His 
reign  of  twenty-two  years  was  very  brilliant. 
He  crushed  the  revolt  of  Babylon,  laid  many 
cities  under  tribute,  and  adorned  Nineveh 
with  many  splendid  buildings,  especially  with 
a  magnificent  palace  covering  eight  acres, 
which  of  late  years  has  been  explored,  and 
bears  ample  testimony  to  his  prowess  and  suc- 
cess. An  inscription  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dog 
River  near  Beirut  records  his  arrival  there. 
T.  WC. 

Separates.    See  Baptists,  p.  82,  2d  col. 

Seph-ar-va'-im  (tJie  two  Sipparas),  a  place 
in  Assyria  whence  colonists  were  transferred 
to  Samaria  to  take  the  room  of  captive  Israel 
about  B.C.  721  (2  Kings  xvii.  24),  identified 
with  Sippara,  a  town  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates  (whence  its  dual  name  in  Hebrew) 
about  20  m.  n.  of  Babylon.  Sennacherib 
mentions  Sepharvaim  (2  Kings  xix.  11,  13)  as 
a  city  subdued  by  the  Assyrians  before  his 
time.  It  was  a  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of 
the  sun.  It  had  a  library  which  has  been  de- 
ciphered by  George  Smith  and  others. 

T.  W.  C. 

Septviagint.     See  Bible,  p.  104. 

Septuagesima  Sunday  is  the  third  Sunday 
before  Lent. 

Sepulchre,  The  Holy.  See  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, The,  p.  374. 

Sequences  (from  the  Latin,  sequi,  "  to  fol- 


SERAPHIM 


(851) 


SERVICE 


low")  were  a  string  of  rhythniically  composed 
sentences,  without  mt'trc'iuul  without  rhymes, 
which  were  sung  iniincdiiitcly  after,  i.e.,  "  fol- 
lowed," the  epistle,  in  order  to  give  the  dea- 
con, after  he  had  read  the  epistle  at  the  altar, 
time  to  reach  the  rood-loft  from  which  he 
was  to  read  the  gospel.  They  are  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Notker  of  St.  Gall  in 
the  10th  century,  and  disappeared  from  the 
liturgy  by  degrees  as  the  rood-lofts  were  em- 
ployed exclusively  as  organ-lofts.  The  w^ord 
is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with  hymns. 

Ser'-aph-im  {burning  ones),  the  name  given 
by  Isaiah  to  the  beings  beheld  in  his  vision  of 
God  enthroned  in  the  temple  (Isa.  vi.  1-7). 
They  had  six  wings,  two  pairs  of  which  cov- 
ered the  face  and  feet,  indicating  reverence 
and  humility,  while  the  other  pair  were  used 
to  execute  swiftly  God's  will.  They  seem 
distinct  from  Ezekiel's  cherubim  (Ezek.  i. 
5-25).  Gesenius  derives  the  name  from  an 
Arabic  word  =  "high,  exalted."  (See  Jo- 
hannes Nikel,  Cherubim  und  Seraphim,  Leip- 
zig, 1890.)  T.  W.  C. 

Sergius  is  the  name  of  four  popes.  Sergius 
L  was  elected  and  enthroned  (087)  to  ter- 
minate the  contlict  between  the  two  contend- 
ing popes.  Archdeacon  Pashcali  and  Arch- 
presbyter  Theodor.  An  Oriental  by  descent, 
he  was  born  in  Palermo  and  died  701.  He 
establirihod  the  church  on  a  tirm  basis  among 
the  Anglo- Saxons,  but  was  less  successful  in 
the  East.  He  signed  the  bull  introducing  the 
Agnus  Dei  in  the  mass.  Sergius  II.  was  a 
Roman  nobleman,  who  Avhile  archpresbyter, 
was  elected  and  enthroned  pope  (844)  bv  a 
certain  party,  which  hoped  thereby  to  give 
the  papacy  a  determined  and  independent 
position  toward  the  empire,  which,  however, 
failed.  During  his  pontificate  lionie,  includ- 
ing St.  Peter's  and  St.  PaiiTs.  was  sacked  and 
plundered  by  the  Saracens,  840.  He  died,  847. 
Sergius  III.,  d.  911.  He  rebuilt  the  Laterau, 
but  degraded  himself  and  tlie  papacy  by 
shameless  conduct.  During  his  reign  (904-11) 
the  "  pornocracy"  or  "  hetsrocracy"  of  Theo- 
dora and  her  daugliter  arose.  Sergius  IV. 
was  made  pope  1()09  and  died  1012.  He  is 
mentioned  as  the  first  pope  who  at  his  corona- 
tion changed  his  name,  which  originally  was 
Peter.  C  H.  A.  B. 

Sergius,  St.,  a  Roman  officer  and  martyr 
under  Maximian.  He  lived  a  retired  life  near 
Cicsarea,  in  Cappadocia.  When  he  heard  of 
the  breaking  out  of  persecution,  under  the 
Emperors  Diocletian  and  Maximian,  he  im- 
mediately appeared  before  the  governor,  Sa- 
pricius.  and  proclaimed  his  abhorrence  of  the. 
gods  of  Rome.  The  governor  had  him  exe- 
cuted at  once,  a.d.  304.  C.  H.  A.  B. 

Sergius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  ir^the 
reign  of  Heracleus  (610-41),  is  tiie  .supposed 
author  of  the  famous  and  favorite  hymn, 
"  Akathistos,"  in  praise  of  Mary,  who  was 
considered  to  have  delivered  Constantinople 
from  tiie  siege  of  the  Persians,  0:5().  He  took 
part  in  the  Monotheletic  controvcrsv. 

C.  H.  A.  B. 

Sergius,  Tychicns,  was  a  prominent  Pauli- 
cian,  who  atx)ut  801  and  for  tbirty-four  years 


thereafter  worked  zealously  for  his  sect.  He- 
is  really  its  second  founder.  His  more  indi- 
vidual followers  were  called  Sergistes.  His 
activity  caused  increased  persecutions,  par- 
ticularly under  Leo  the  Armenian.  He  died 
885.  C.  H.  A.  B, 

Sergius  Paulus,  the  "deputy"  or  "pro- 
consul" (H.  V.)  of  Cyprus  who  embraced  the 
gospel  as  preached  by  Paul  and  Barnabas 
(Acts  xiii.  7,  12).  The'i.sland  had  been  under 
a  proprietor  during  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
but  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  was  put  under  a 
proconsul,  as  coins  show.  Luke's  use  of  the 
proper  term  is  an  instance  of  his  minute  ac- 
curacy. T.  W.  C. 

Serpent,  Brazen.  In  the  desert  north  of 
Sinai  many  of  the  rebellious  Israelites  were 
killed  by  a  venomous  serpent  called  "  fiery," 
probably  from  the  burning  sensation  produced  , 
by  its  bite.  The  destruction  of  life  was  fear- 
ful, and  the  i)eople  confessed  their  sin  and 
entreated  Mo.ses  to  intercede  for  their  deliver- 
ance (Num.  xxi.  9).  He  complied  and  was 
directed  to  make  a  serpent  of  brass  and  put 
it  on  a  pole,  that  it  might  be  seen  from  all 
parts  of  the  camp,  and  whoever  looked  to  it 
should  be  healed.  Of  course  the  serpent  of 
brass  had  no  virtue  in  itself,  but  was  a  test  of 
the  penitence,  faith,  and  obedience  of  tlie 
people.  Our  Lord  uses  this  circumstance  as 
an  illustration  of  the  saving  work  he  came  to 
do  (John  iii.  14,  15).  (See  Serpent  Worship, 
London,  1889.)  T.  W.  C. 

Servetus,  Michael  (Miguel  Serveto),  b.  at 

Tudela,  in  tlie  donnnion  of  ><avarra,  1511  ; 
burned  at  the  stake  in  Geneva,  Oct.  27,  1558  ; 
studied  law  and  followed  Charles  V.  to  Ger- 
many, but  afterward  devoted  himself  to  mathe- 
matics and  medicine  ;  settled  first  in  Paris, 
then  at  Lyons,  and  acquired  great  fame  by 
his  edition  of  Ptolemy  and  his  researches  con- 
cerning the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Very- 
early  he  seems  to  have  developed  his  auti- 
trinitarian  views  ;  his  I)e  trinitatis  erroribus 
appeared  in  1531,  and  Diitlogi  ik  trinitnte  in 
1582.  In  15-58  he  publi-shed  anonymously  his 
Chris(i<ini.sini  restitutio  at  Lyons.  Calvin  de- 
nounced him  to  the  Roman  Cathohc  authori- 
ties and  he  was  imprisoned.  He  esc-aped, 
however,  but  on  his  way  through  Geneva  to 
Italv  he  was  recognized,  arrested,  formally 
accv'ised  of  heresy  before  the  city  magistrates 
by  Calvin,  and, "as  he  refu.sed  to  recant,  .sen- 
tenced to  be  burned.  (See  K.  Brunneniann, 
M.  S-rretus,  Kine  akti  nmiissige.  Jhirstilbnig 
lies  .  .  .  Criminal  procesms,  Berlin,  1865  ; 
ToUin,  Das  lA'hrst/stem  Sertet's,  Gutersloh, 
1876-78,  8  vols.;  Willis,  Sertetus  vnd  Cakin, 
London,  1H77.) 

Service,  Common,  of  the  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Church  in  the  United  Suites.  The  ap- 
pearance of  this  book  (1888)  marks  an  epoch 
in  the  English-siK'aking  Lutheran  Churcli. 
Heretofore  the  Lutheran  Inxlies  have  had  vari- 
ous orders  of  service.  <liffering  more  or  less 
according  to  the  liturgi.-s  of  the  national  Lu- 
theran churches  of  f'.urope  whence  they  came. 
Henceforth  the  American  Lutheran  Church 
will  have,  as  the  name  implies,  a  Conmion  Ser- 
vice.    The  three  great  Lutheran  bodies  (Gen- 


SERVITES 


(852; 


SEVERUS 


eral  Synod,  Council,  and  United  Synod)  have 
unanimously  agreed  upon  it.  It  is  constituted 
from  tlie  average  of  the  orders  of  service  in 
European  Lutheran  countries,  and  conse- 
quently is  a  distinctively  Lutheran  service. 
As  the'se  orders  were  based  by  Luther  and  his 
CO- reformers  upon  the  ancient  liturgies,  the 
Common  Service  is  also  a  continuation  of  the 
service  of  the  church  universal  puritied  from 
Roman  abuses.  This  service,  in  all  its  lead- 
ing features,  is  that  in  use  by  the  more  than 
40,000,000  of  Lutherans  throughout  the  world, 
and  accordingly  is  used  by  more  Christians 
"by  far  than  any  other,  excepting  that  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  The  order  of  morning  ser- 
vice is  as  follows  :  Invocation,  Confession, 
Introit  with  Gloria  Patri,  Kyrie,  Gloria  in 
Excelsis.  Salutation,  Collect,  Epistle,  Gospel, 
Creed,  Hymn,  Sermon,  Offertory,  General 
Prayer,  Lord's  Prayer,  Hymn,  Benediction. 

Full  as  this  liturgical  service  is,  yet  the 
brevity  of  the  several  parts  requires  for  the 
rendering  of  the  service  proper  not  half  the 
time  requisite  for  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer. 

With  the  various  tables  of  festivals.  Scrip- 
ture lessons,  introits,  and  collects  for  every 
Sunday  in  the  year,  psalms  and  prayers,  the 
Book  of  the  Common  Service  occupies  274 
pages.  J.  B.  Reimensnyder. 

Servites,  "  Servants  of  the  Virgin  Mary," 
a  monastic  order  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
founded  at  Florence  in  1333,  and  contirmed 
in  1255  by  Alexander  IV.  The  founders,  who 
were  mostly  rich  and  distinguished  merchants, 
who  wanted  to  devoted  their  lives  to  the  glory 
of  the  Virgin,  retired  first  to  Villa  Carmatia, 
removed  then,  in  1236,  to  Monte  Senario, 
adopted  in  1239  the  rules  of  Augustine,  and  in 
1424  the  order  obtained  all  the  privileges  of 
the  mendicant  orders  from  Martin  V.  It  had 
convents  in  Italy,  Poland,  Germany,  and 
France. 

Servus  Servorum  Dei,  "  the  servant  of  the 
servants  of  God,"  is  the  official  formula  with 
which  the  pope  signs  his  name.  It  was  adopt- 
ed by  Gregory  the  Great,  590-604,  with  a  side- 
glance  at  his  rival,  John  of  Constantinople, 
who  signed  himself  "  OEcumenicai  Patriarch. " 

Session  denotes  the  lowest  court  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  consisting  of  the  pastor 
and  his  elders,  and  transacting  all  business  re- 
ferring to  the  government  of  the  congrega- 
tion. 

Seton,  Elizabeth  Ann,  b.  in  New  York, 
Aug.  28, 1774  ;  d.  in  Emmettsburg,  Md.,  Jan. 
4,  1821  ;  was  a  daughter  of  Richard  Bayley  ; 
married  William  Seton  in  1794  ;  entered  after 
his  death  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  1805  ; 
founded  in  1809  a  conventual  institution  at 
Emmettsburg  under  the  name  of  Sisters  of 
Charity,  and  adopted,  in  1811,  the  rules  and 
constitution  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  for  her 
order,  which  at  the  time  of  her  death  num- 
bered fifty  members  having  charge  of  two 
orphans  asylums  and  several  boarding-schools 
for  girls  and  schools  for  poor  children.  (See 
Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Seton,  Written  by  Herself, 
EHzabethtown,  N.  J.,  1817;  her  life  by 
White,  New  York,  1853,  7th  ed.,  Baltimore, 


1872,  and  her  letters  and  other  papers  edited 
by  her  grandson,  Monsignor  Seton,  New 
York,  1869,  2  vols.) 

Seven.  This  number  throughout  Scripture 
has  a  peculiar  emphasis  and  frequency,  which 
has  caused  it  to  be  known  as  the  perfect  num- 
ber. Clean  beasts  went  into  the  ark  by  sevens 
(Gen.  vii.).  The  years  of  plenty  and  famine 
in  Egypt  came  by  sevens  (xli.).  The  Mosaic 
law  appointed  not  only  a  7th  day  Sabbath, 
but  special  services  on  the  7th  month,  every 
7th  year  a  Sabbatic  year,  and  every  7th  time 
7  years  a  jubilee.  The  feasts  of  Passover  and 
Tabernacles  continued  7  days  ;  the  animals  in 
many  sacrifices  were  7  ;  and  the  golden  lamp- 
stand  had  7  branches.  Seven  priests  with  7 
trumpets  went  around  Jericho  7  days,  and  7 
times  on  the  7th  day.  In  the  Apocalypse  we 
find  two  sevens  in  the  introduction,  viz.,  7 
churches  and  7  spirits,  and  in  the  body  of  the 
book,  two  sevens  of  7,  viz.,  first,  7  candle- 
sticks, stars,  seals,  horns,  eyes,  trumpets, 
thunders ;  and  secondly,  7  angels,  heads, 
crowns,  plagues,  vials,  mountains,  kings. 
Seven  is  often  put  for  any  round  number, 
just  as  we  use  "  ten"  or  "  a  dozen"  (1  Sam. 
ii.  5,  Job  V.  19,  Matt.  xii.  45,  etc.),  and  in  like 
manner  7  times  or  7-fold  means  abundantly 
(Gen.  iv.  15,  24,  Ps.  xii.  6,  etc.).  A  similar 
regard  to  this  number  prevailed  to  a  certain 
extent  in  Persia,  India,  and  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans. 

Various  theories  have  been  formed  to  ac- 
count for  the  prominence  of  this  number,  but 
none  is  so  satisfactory  as  that  which  traces  it 
to  its  original  association  with  the  times  of 
religious  worship.  (See  Hadley,  Essays,  PMl- 
oloqical  and  Critiml,  New  York,  1873.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesus.  See  Ephe- 
sus,  Seven  Sleepers  of. 

Seventh-Day  Baptists.     See  Baptists,  p. 

72,  2d  col.,  and  p.  82,  2d  col. 

Severinus,  St.,  b.  probably  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Carthage  ;  d.  near  Vienna,  482. 
He  is  patron  saint  for  most  of  Austria,  for 
Vienna,  and  Bavaria.  He  is  a  remarkable 
character  for  his  age  and  surroundings,  living 
as  he  did  on  the  very  highway  of  the  invading 
barbarians,  in  the  centre  of  the  maelstrom 
that  whirled  the  Huns,  Allemanni,  Rugi,  and 
other  wild  tribes  around  in  old  Norium,  on 
their  way  to  Italy  and  Southern  Europe. 
Celebrated  is  his  interview  with  Odoacer,  and 
through  his  friendship  with  other  chiefs  he 
both  influenced  the  heathen  and  averted  dis- 
asters for  the  peaceful  inhabitants.  His  life 
has  been  written  by  his  disciple  Eugippius, 
in  the  year  511,  in  a  letter  to  Paschasius,  the 
Deacon,  and  magnificently  retold  in  Charles 
Kiygsley's  Hermits.  C.  H.  A.  B. 

Severinus,  pope,  was  ordained  May  28,  640, 
as  successor  to  Honorius  I.,  but  he  ruled  the 
church  only  two  months  and  four  days,  long 
enough,  however,  to  condemn  the  Monothe- 
letic  doctrine,  which  his  predecessor  had 
espoused.  C.  H.  A.  B. 

Se-ve'-rus,  Aurelius  Alexander,  Roman 
emperor  ;  b.   at  Area  Gaerea,  Syria,  Oct.   1, 


SEVERUS 


(853) 


SHAKERS 


205  ;  became  emperor,  222  ;  killed  iu  his  tent 
near  Mayence,  235.  He  was  an  estimable 
character  and  not  destitute  of  religious  feeling, 
though  he  seems  to  have  preferred  "  all  the 
religions  of  the  world"  to  "  the  one  true  re- 
ligion ;"  in  his  sanctum  stood  an  image  of 
Christ  among  those  of  Orpheus,  Isis,  etc. 
Under  liis  reign  the  Christians  began  to  build 
churches  and  worsliip  in  public. 

Severus,  Septimius,  Roman  emperor  ;  b. 
at  Leptis,  Tripoli,  April,  146  ;  became  em- 
peror, 198  ;  d.  at  York,  England,  Feb.  4, 
211.  He  was  a  powerful  man,  but  proud  and 
sombre,  not  easily  led  into  anything  unjust, 
but  almost  indifferent  to  the  means  by  which 
the  end  was  reached.  In  the  beginning  of 
his  reign  lie  made  no  distinction  between 
Ciiristiaas  and  pagans.  He  h:id  Christian 
servants  iu  his  household,  and  allowed  his 
children  to  mix  with  children  of  Christian 
parents.  But  during  the  war  in  the  East 
something  must  have  liappened  which 
changed  Jiis  mind.  On  his  return  to  Rome, 
202,  he  forbade,  under  severe  penalties,  all 
conversions  to  Judaism  and  Christianity,  and 
with  this  strongly  pronounced  opinion  "of  the 
emperor  as  its  excuse  the  liatred  against  the 
Christians  broke  loose  iu  many  places  of  the 
empire,  and  severe  persecutions  were  the  re- 
sult. 

Severus,  Sulpicius.  Very  little  is  known 
about  his  private  life.  Our  only  source  is 
a  few  allusions  to  himself  in  letters.  He  was 
a  nativ3  of  Aquitania,  b.  about  853,  and  orig- 
inally a  lawyer,  but  bishop  St.  Miirtin,  of 
Tours,  caused  him  to  devote  his  wealth  to 
the  poor  and  his  life  to  good  woiks  and 
spirituality.  He  lived  near  Toulou.se,  and  d. 
after  406.  He  never  rose  higher  than  to 
become  a  presbyter.  His  chief  work  is  the 
ChroiiicH,  a  summary  of  sacred  history  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world  to  his  own  day. 
It  was  used  as  a  text-book  for  a  century  or 
more  in  Europe,  but  Severus  is  no  authority 
for  times  antecedent  to  his  own.  His  works 
were  edited  by  De  Prato,  Verona,  1741,  and 
Halm,  Vienna,  18G6,  and  translated  into 
French  by  Herbert.  Paris,  1»47.  (See  Ber- 
navs'  mo'noirraph  on  the  Chronim,  Berlin, 
1861.)  "  C.  H.  A.  B. 

Sewall,  Samuel,  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at 
Bisliopstoke,  Hampshire,  England,  March  28, 
1652  ;  d.  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1780.  He 
was  taken  to  America,  1661  ;  graduated  at 
Harvard.  1671  ;  preached  for  a  short  time, 
but  turned  to  the  law,  1676  ;  became  a  judge. 
1692,  and  chief  ju.stice.  1718  ;  commissiont^r 
of  the  S.  P.  G.,  1699.  He  wrote  a  tract 
against  slavery,  1760,  and  one  or  two  books 
on  prophecy.  His  Dinry,  1674-1729.  wa.s  pub- 
lished by  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society, 
Boston,"  1878,  3  vols.,  and  is  much  esteemed 
as  a  portraiture  of  early  Boston.      F.  M.  B. 

Sewell,  William,  Friend  ;  b.  iu  Amster- 
dam. 1<>")(I  :  d.  about  1725.  H(f  wrote  against 
Gerard  Croescs  Jfisturia  Quahruinn ;  his 
standard  IDiitory  of  thr  liixf.  Increase,  and 
ProgrntH  of  tlw  Chvistinn  Pioplf  CiiW'd  Qunkfrx 
first  appeared  in  Dutcli,  Amsterdam,  1717, 
and  then  in  Ensrlish.  translated  by  himself, 
London,  1722,  fol.,  rep.  in  Philadelphia,  1855. 


Sexagesima  means  the  second  Sunday  be- 
fore  Lent,    being    about    sixt}'  days   before 

Easter. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper, 
Earl  of,  b.  in  London,  Feb.  26,  1671  ;  d.  at 
Naples,  Feb.  4,  1718.  He  was  an  lulniired 
writer  of  his  day,  but  is  now  remembered  as 
a  deist,  whose  opposition  comes  most  j)lainly 
out  in  his  ('Juinirtcristirs  of  Mi  ii,  Mnnnan, 
Opinion.^,  and  Tinux,  Londoii,  1711. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper, 
Seventh  Earl  of,  K.G.,  D.C.L.  (Oxford, 
1S41),  Church  of  England  lavman  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, Ai)ril  28,  1801  ;  d.  at 'Folkestone,  Oct. 
1,  1885.  He  was  a  statesman  and  politician 
of  great  prominenee  and  influence,  but  will 
longest  be  remembered  as  the  leader  of  nu- 
merous philanthropic  undertakings  in  lujhalf 
of  the  working  classes,  and  of  the  evangelical 
party  in  the  Church  of  England.  His  name 
for  his  contemporaries  is  the  synonym  of 
Christian  excellence.  He  began  his  social  re- 
forms in  early  life  with  the  passing  of  the 
Factory  Ac't,  which  did  away  with  a  vast 
amount  of  misery  among  children  in  the 
mines,  and  with  the  establishment  of  Ragged 
Schools  for  the  degraded  poor  children"  of 
London.  (See  his  JJfe  and  Work  bv  Edwin 
Plodder,  London,  1886,  3  vols.,  1  vol",  1889.) 

Shakers,  The,  a  religious  sect  or  denondna- 
tion  found  oidy  in  the  United  States,  origi- 
nated in  England  in  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
century,  and  rose  from  an  obscure  religious 
commotion  dating  back  to  the  French  Proph- 
ets. Their  original  name  was  ' '  Believers  in 
Christ's  Second  Appearing."  "Shakers," 
like  "  Quakers,"  is  only  a  nickname,  referring 
to  certain  peculiar  motions  whicJi  form  part 
of  their  worship,  but,  like  the  Quakers,  the 
Shakers  have  deemed  the  ridicule  of  no  ac- 
count and  simply  adopted  the  name  when  it 
became  common.  Tiie  foiuider  of  the  sect 
was  Ann  J^ee  ((i.v.),  "  Ann  the  Word,"  "  the 
second  incarnation  of  the  C'hrist,  this  time  in 
the  female  line."  In  1774  she  led  her  fol- 
lowers across  the  ocean.  They  settled  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  in  the  wilderness  of 
Niskayuna,  northwest  of  Albany.  In  1785 
they  built  their  first  house  of  worship  at  New 
Lebanon,  N.  Y.  ;  in  1787  they  organized  their 
first  comnuuiity  or  family  or  household,  and 
in  1795  they  signed  their  first  written  cove- 
nant. Their  theology  with  its  "second  in- 
carnation of  the  Christ,  this  time  in  the  female 
line,"  is  not  so  very  interesting.  Nor  is  there 
anything  particularly  remarkable  in  their  wor- 
ship, except  that  they  accompany  their  sing- 
ing with  dancing.  But  in  their  social  organi- 
zation there  are  several  features  worth  notic- 
ing. A  Shaker  community  is  formed  on  the 
principle  of  complete  communism.  In  such 
a  family  every  member  owns  every  other 
member's  knife.  Nevertheless,  nobody  has 
ever  heard  about  any  fighting  among  them. 
Furthermore,  it  is  formed  on  the  printii)le  of 
strict  celibacy,  though  the  two  .'Jcxes  live  in 
the  same  house  and  converse  with  each  other 
with  perfect  freedom.  Nevertheless,  noliody 
has  ever  Iieard  of  any  scandal  among  them. 
They  reject  war  and  refuse  absolutely  to  take 
up  arms  under  any  circumstances.     They  keep 


SHALMANESER 


(854) 


aloof  from  politics  and  accept  no  government 
offices  except  those  of  road  commissioner, 
school  officer,  and  post-master.  They  are 
good  and  peaceable  neiglibors,  and  generally 
honest,  truth-telling,  reliable  people  to  deal 
with.  They  number  now  seventeen  families, 
some  consisting  only  of  a  few  persons,  others 
of  one  or  even  two  hundred.  They  are  mostly 
settled  in  the  States  of  New  York,  New 
Hampshire,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky.  New  Leb- 
anon is  one  of  their  principal  seats.  But  the 
exact  number  of  them  is  not  known,  though 
it  is  estimated  at  about  2000.  (See  F.  W. 
Ewans,  Shakers'  Compendium,  New  Lebanon, 
N.  Y..  1859;  Giles  B.  Avery,  Sketclies  of 
Shakers  and  87iakensm,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1883.) 

C.  P. 

Shal-ma-ne'-ser,  a  king  of  Assyria  whose 
reign  (b.c.  727-722)  came  between  those  of 
Tiglath-Pileser  and  Sargon.  The  King  Ho- 
shea,  whose  predecessor  Pekali  had  been  in- 
vaded and  distressed  by  Tiglath-Pileser  (2 
Kings  XV.  29),  reasserted  himself  against  As- 
syria, but  was  subdued  and  made  tributary 
by  Shalmaneser  (2  Kings  xvii.  3).  Again  he 
revolted  making  alliance  with  So,  king  of 
Egypt,  whereupon  Shalmaneser  returned  and 
took  him  prisoner,  and  soon  after  overran  the 
whole  kingdom,  laid  siege  to  the  capital, 
which  after  three  years  was  captured.  But 
during  this  time  a  rebellion  liad  broken  out 
in  Assyria,  and  Shalmaneser  was  deposed  and 
Sargon  put  in  his  place.  In  2  Kings  xvii.  6, 
it  is  said  that  "  the  king  of  Assyria"  took  Sa- 
maria, but  his  name  is  not  mentioned. 

T.  W.  C. 

Sham-ma'-i,  an  eminent  doctor  of  the  Jew- 
ish law  in  the  time  of  Herod,  who  in  oppo- 
sition to  Hillel  was  very  hard  and  rigid,  wliich 
gave  rise  to  the  proverb,  "  What  Hillel  looses 
Shammai  binds."  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
personal  history.  T.  W.  C. 

Sha'-ron  {a23lain),  a  level  tract  along  the 
Mediterranean  from  Carmel  to  Joppa,  called 
also  Saron  (Acts  ix.  35),  about  30  miles  long 
and  from  8  to  15  miles  in  width.  It  appears 
in  Joshua  (xii.  18)  as  Lassharon.  It  was 
famed  for  pasturage  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  29),  and 
flowers  (Song  ii.  1),  and  fertility  and  beauty 
(Isa.  XXXV.  2).  Its  desolation  in  war  is  noted 
as  a  calamity  (Isa.  xxxiii.  9)  and  its  recovery 
in  peace  as  a  blessing  (Ixv.  10).  Sharon  is 
still  very  fertile,  and  the  view  of  the  plain 
from  the  top  of  Carmel  is  one  of  surpassing 
richness  and  beauty.  The  hills  are  covered 
with  park-like  woods,  and  the  uncultivated 
parts  have  a  rich  profusion  of  flowers. 

T.  W.  C. 

Sharp,  Granville,  philanthropist  ;  b.  at 
Durham,  1734  ;  d.  in  London,  July  6,  1813. 
The  grandson  of  an  archbishop  and  son  of  an 
archdeacon,  he  gave  up  a  government  office 
from  love  of  liberty,  and  devoted  himself  to 
the  cause  of  the  oppressed,  and  especially  to 
warfare  against  the  slave  trade.  His  sixty- 
one  books  and  pamphlets  are  largely  in  this 
interest,  and  he  was  active  in  organizing  the 
Association  for  the  Abolition  of  Negro 
Slavery,  May  22,  1787.  His  memoirs  were 
Avritten  by  P.  Hoare,  London,  1820,  and 
C.  Stuart,  1836.  F.  M.  B. 


Sharp,  James,  Scotch  archbishop  ;  b.  at 
Banff,  Scotland,  May,  1618  ;  d.  near  St.  An- 
drew's, May  3,  1679.  Long  associated  with 
the  Presbyterians,  he  was  won  over  by  Charles 
II.  and  consecrated  archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drews, Dec.  12,  1661.  This  defection,  fol- 
lowed by  the  cruel  persecution  of  his  former 
friends,  caused  him  to  be  profoundly  hated, 
and  at  length  murdered  on  Magus  Moor  by  "  a 
band  of  nine  enthusiasts."  F.  M.  B. 

Sharpe,  Samuel,  Unitarian  layman  ;  b.  ia 
London,  March  8,  1799  ;  d.  there,  July  28, 
1881.  He  was  from  early  life  a  banker,  but 
spent  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  in 
learned  retirement,  and  published,  besides 
several  works  on  Egyptology,  a  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  with  notes,  London, 
1840,  5th  ed.,  1862  ;  a  revision  of  the  author- 
ized translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  1865, 
3  vols.;  History  of  the  Hebrew  Nation  and 
Literature,  1869,  4th  ed.,  1882.  (See  his  life 
by  P.  W.  Clayden,  London,  1883.) 

Shastra  (from  Sanscrit,  to  teach),  the  civil 
and  religious  law  books  of  the  Hindus. 

She'-ba  {seven,  or  an  oath),  a  wealthy  region 
in  Arabia  bordering  on  the  Red  Sea.  Its 
queen  visited  Solomon  "with  a  very  great 
train,  with  camels  that  bare  spices  and  very 
much  gold  and  precious  stones."  Yemen  or 
the  Sabaean  country  is  noted  among  ancient 
writers  (Herodotus,  Strabo,  Diodorus)  for  its 
perfumes  and  spices,  the  sale  of  wliich  made 
the  people  very  rich.  Precious  stones  also 
abounded  there.  T   W.  C. 

Shech'-em  {shoulder),  a  town  in  the  valley 
between  Gerizim  and  Ebal,  in  later  times, 
called  Neapolis  and  now  known  as  Nablus, 
30  m.  n.  of  Jerusalem.  Its  site  is  unrivalled 
for  beauty  in  Palestine.  It  is  mentioned  forty- 
eight  times  in  the  Bible,  the  first  being  when 
Abraham  came  to  "  the  place  of  Sichem  (Gen. 
xii.  6).  It  was  visited  by  Jacob  and  Joseph, 
and  in  time  became  a  gathering-place  of  all 
the  tribes  (Deut.  xi.  29,  Josh.  viii.  xxiv.).  It 
was  fortified  by  Jeroboam  who  made  it  the 
first  seat  of  the  northern  kingdom  (1  Kings 
xii.  25),  and  after  the  captivity  became  the 
centre  of  Samaritan  worship.  Near  it  was 
Jacob's  well  where  Jesus  talked  with  the 
woman  of  Samaria  (John  iv.).         T.  W.  C. 

Schech'-i-nah  {dwelling),  a  word  not  found 
in  the  Bible,  but  used  in  the  Targums  and  by 
Christian  writers  to  denote  the  visible  mani- 
festation of  Jehovah's  presence  in  the  pillar 
of  cloud  and  of  fire  that  guided  Israel  in  the 
desert  (Ex.  xiii.  21),  came  to  the  tabernacle 
(xl.  34),  and  filled  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kings 
viii.  10).  In  the  New  Testament  there  is  ref- 
erence to  this  glory  of  the  Lord  (Luke  ii.  9, 
John  i.  14,  Rom.  ix.  4).  T.  W.  C. 

Shedd,  William  Greenough  Thayer,  D.D. 

(University  of  Vermont,  Burlington,  1857), 
LL.D.  (University  of  New  York,  1876),  Pres- 
byterian ;  b.  at  Acton,  Mass.,  June  21,  1820  ; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont,  1839, 
and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1843  ; 
became  Congregational  pastor  at  Brandon, 
Vt.,  1844  ;  professor  in  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont, 1845  ;  Auburn  Presbyterian  theologi- 


(855) 


SHEMITIC 


cal  Seminarj",  1852  ;  Andover  Congregational 
Theological  Seminary,  1853  ;  Union  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  of  New  York,  1863  ;  resigned, 
1890,  but  lectured  during  the  vacancy.  I890- 
91.  He  has  published,  besides  sermons  and 
essays,  ^1  lliMorif  of  Cltristinn  Doctrine,  New 
York  and  Edinimrgh,  18G5,  3  vols.,  8th  ed.. 
1884  ;  Ilomilrtir.s  and  Pastoral  Tlwoloqy,  18G7. 
8th  ed.,  1884  ;  ^'^cr/nons  to  the  Natural  Man, 
1871,  3d  ed.,  1884  ;  Sermons  to  the  Spiritiud 
Man,  1884  ;  Conimentanf  on  Rotnans,  1879  ; 
The  Doctrine  of  Endless  Punishment,  188G  ; 
Dogmatic  Theolofiy,  1889.  2  vols.;  The  Pro- 
posed Revision  of  the  Westminster  Standards, 
1890. 

Sheep,  Shepherd.  The  sheep  is  mentioned 
above  500  times  in  the  Bible,  and  was  prob- 
ably the  tirst  animal  domesticated.  Sheep 
often  constituted  the  chief  wealth  of  a  man. 
Their  milk  was  in  conunon  use  for  food 
(Deut.  xxxii.  14)  and  also  their  liesh  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  18).  Their  wool  was  spun  into  cloth 
(Lev.  xiii.  4*),  and  their  skins  formed  one  of 
the  coverings  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  14). 
Tribute  was  paid  by  the  Moabite  king  in 
sheep  (2  Kings  iii.  4),  and  they  were  impor- 
tant articles  of  trade  (Ezek.  xxvii.  18).  The 
sheep  was  especially  the  animal  for  sacritice, 
for  which  it  was  well  litted  as  a  sjmbol  of 
innocence,  and  Christ  in  this  view  is  oft(  n 
called  "  the  Lamb"  (John  i.  29).  Its  liability 
to  wander  is  often  liguratively  employed  in 
Scripture  (Ps.  cxix.  176,  Isa.  liii.  6). 

The  shepherd's  duty  was  to  number,  gather, 
feed,  conduct,  and  guard  his  tlock.  His  care 
of  them  was  constant  and  tender,  and  his  con- 
trol over  them  very  great.  Closes  and  David 
were  shepherds.  The  title  is  given  to  God 
(Ps.  Ixxx.  1)  and  also  to  the  Messiah  (Zech. 
xiii.  7,  John  x.  11),  while  their  people  are 
called  a  flock  (John  x.  16,  K.  V.).  The  word 
"  feed  "  often  means  to  "be  a  shepherd  to" 
(Ps.  xxviii.  9,  1  Peter  v.  2,  Rev.  vii.  17). 

T.  W.  C. 

Shekel.     See  Weights. 

Shem  (name),  the  oldest  .son  of  Xoah.  His 
conduct  to  his  father  on  one  occasion  is  praised 
(Gen.  ix.  26).  The  .Jews,  and  also  the  Ara- 
m;x;ans,  Persians,  Assyrians,  and  Arabians  are 
his  descendants.  A  family  of  languages  is 
called  Shemitic  as  used  mainly  by  nations  that 
sprang  from  Shem.  (See  W.  R.  Smith,  The 
Religion  of  the  Semites,  Lon<lon,  1889  ;  P.  C. 
Friese,  Sl'ie.mitic  Philosophy,  1890.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Shemitic  Languages,  the  conventional  ap- 
pellation of  a  certain  immbcr  of  dialects  sup- 
posed at  one  time  to  have  been  spoken  by  tlu; 
descendants  of  Shem.  They  spread  over  the 
countries  from  the  Tigris  to  the  Mediterranean 
and  from  Armenia  to  the  Red  Sea.  They 
consisted  of  1.  The  Aramaic  or  northern,  in- 
cluding the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  ;  2.  The 
.southern,  comprising  the  Arabic  and  Ethioplc. 
and  3.  The  middle,  chiefly  the  Hebrew  and 
Phoenician. 

They  are  distinguished  from  the  Arj'an 
group  by  the  preponderance  given  to  the  con- 
sonants over  the  vowels,  the  former  being  tlie 
basis  and  the  body  of  the  words  ;  by  their 


roots  being  prevailingly  triliteral  ;  by  the 
rarity  of  compound  words  ;  by  forming  cases 
and  tenses  by  a  change  of  vowels,  leaving  the 
radical  consonants  intact  ;  by  having  only  two 
genders  and  two  ten.ses,  one  of  the  latter  de- 
noting completed  actions,  the  other  incom- 
pleted ;  by  forming  cases  either  by  the  juxta- 
position of  two  nouns  (the  genitive)  or  by 
prepositions,  and  by  a  synta.x  of  the  crudest 
and  simplest  description.  There  is  also  a 
lexical  diflcrence  shown  in  the  general  lack 
of  any  correspondence  or  identity  in  the  in- 
dividual words.  As  to  their  relative  age,  it 
cannot  now  from  existing  monuments  be  de- 
termined whether  the  Shcmitit;  languages 
were  developed  earlier  than  the  Intlo-Ger- 
manic  or  not. 

Although  these  languages  are  sister  dialects, 
their  relationship  is  by  no  means  so  close  as 
that  of  the  Greek  dialects.  It  is  more  like 
that  of  the  Germanic  (German,  Dutch,  Dan- 
ish, etc.)  or  the  Slavonic  (Lettish,  Russian, 
Polish,  etc.).  What  they  have  in  common 
beside  the  features  stated  above  is  the  root- 
words,  which  nearly  everywhere  have  the 
same  signification,  the  Arabic  showing  much 
the  largest  development  of  meanings  and  an 
amazing  wealth  of  derivatives.  As  to  the 
much-vexed  question  which  of  these  tongues 
is  the  oldest,  no  positive  result  has  yet  been 
reached. 

The  Arabic  is  the  most  copious.  It  has 
more  than  6000  word-roots  and  about  60.000 
words,  while  the  Hebrew  has  about  2000  of 
the  former  and  6000  of  the  latter.  The  Ara- 
mavins  have  22  consonants,  the  Hebrew  23, 
and  the  Arabic  28.  The  last-mentioned  has 
twice  as  many  conjugations  as  the  Ilcbiew. 
Its  wealth  appears  in  that  it  has  ;i  thou.sand 
difl'erent  terms  for  a  sword,  and  a  jiroportionate 
number  for  lion,  serpent,  and  the  like.  An- 
ciently it  had  two  chief  branches,  the  Him- 
yaritic,  in  the  south,  which  has  perished  al- 
most completely,  and  the  Koreishite,  which 
being  the  idiom  of  ^lohammed's  tribe  became 
the  paramount  Arabic  for  all  time.  The 
P^thiopic  is  thought  to  have  flowed  from  the 
Himyaritic,  but  from  the  14th  century  it  has 
been  superseded  by  the  Amharic. 

The  Aramaic  is  "poorer  than  the  Hebrew  in 
grammatical  forms,  vowels,  etc.,  blunts  its 
consonants,  and  forms  its  psussives  not  by  a 
change  of  vowels,  but  by  a  special  syllable 
prefixed  to  the  root.  The  first  distinct  trace 
of  a  dilYerence  between  the  two  is  seen  in 
Gen.  xxxi.  47,  where  Laban's  designation  of 
the  stone-heap  is  translated.  All  the  Aramaic 
literature  we  now  have  is  derived  from  the 
Jews.  After  the  exile  Aramaic  became  the 
language  of  tlu^  Jews,  and  it  was  si)oken  in 
Christ's  time  in  Palestine.  The  Shendtic 
words  in  tlie  New  Testament  (mammon,  etc.) 
and  in  Josephus  are  all  Aramaic.  The  oldest 
remains  of  the  idiom  are  certain  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  the  Targums. 

From  the  2d  century  a.v.  Christian  writers 
in  ^[e.sopotamia  began  to  use  this  language, 
yet  with  such  changes  that  it  became  a  dis- 
tinct dialect,  Svriac,  which  afterward  assumed 
an  alphabet  of  its  own  (Estrangelo).  Tliis 
had  a  larce  literature,  but  cea.scd  to  bespoken 
in  the  lOth  century.     The  modern  Syriac  is 


SHEIOL 


(856; 


SHILiOH 


still  used  from  Mosul  to  Oroomiah.     For  the 
Hebrew  dialect,  see  Hebrews. 

All  investigators  agree  that  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  cuneiform  languages  belong  to 
the  Shemitic  family.  T.  W.  C. 

She'ol,  a  Hebrew  word  transferred  in  the 
E.  V.  in  many  of  the  sixty-five  places  in  which 
the  A.  V.  gives  it  as  pit,  grave,  or  Jwll.  It  de- 
notes the  realm  of  departed  spirits,  both  the 
righteous  (Gen.  xxxvii.  35)  and  the  wicked 
(Ps.  ix.  17).  T.  W.  C. 

Shepard,  Thomas,  Puritan  ;  b.  at  Towces- 
ter,  60  m.  n.w.  of  London,  Nov.  5,  1605  ;  d. 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  25,  1649.  He 
studied  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge  ; 
was  silenced  by  Laud,  1630  ;  fled  to  America, 
1635,  and  succeeded  T.  Hooker  as  minister  at 
Newton  (now  Cambridge),  Feb.,  1636.  Of 
his  numerous  writings  The  Parable  of  the  Ten 
Virgins,  Boston,  1659,  rep.  Aberdeen,  1838 
and  1853,  with  biographical  preface  by  J. 
Foote,  is  most  valued.  His  Autobiography 
was  printed,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1833,  and  his 
collected  works,  Boston,  1853,  3  vols. 

F.  M.  B. 

Shepherd  of  Hermas.     See  Hermas. 

Sherlock,  the  name  of  four  divines  of  the 
Church  of  England.  Richard  Sherlock, 
D.D.  (Oxford,  i6— ),  b.  at  Oxton,  Cheshire, 
1613  ;  d.  1689.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford 
and  Dublin  ;  was  rector  of  Win  wick,  Lan- 
cashire, and  wrote  against  the  Quakers,  1656. 
The  6th  ed.,  1713,  of  his  Practical  Christian 
(London,  1673),  has  a  life  by  Bishop  T.  Wil- 
son. William  Sherlock,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
about  1680),  b.  in  London,  1641  ;  d.  at  Hamp- 
stead,  June  19,  1707.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Peterhouse,  Cambridge  ;  rector  of 
St.  George's,  Botolph  Lane,  London,  1669, 
and  of  Thutield,  Hertfordshire  ;  prebendary 
of  St.  Paul's,  1681,  and  dean,  1691  ;  master 
of  the  Temple,  1684.  He  wrote  on  Eesistance 
to  the  Supreme  Powers,  London,  1684,  and  on 
Allegiance,  1691,  the  latter  to  explain  his  tak- 
ing the  oath  to  William  and  Mary.  His  Doc- 
trine of  tlie  Trinity,  1690,  involved  him  in 
controversy  with  South,  who  called  him  a 
Tritheist.  While  under  suspension  for  at- 
tacking popery  he  wrote  the  most  popular  of 
his  books,  A  Practical  Discourse  Concerning 
Death,  1689.  It  was  followed  by  others  on 
Judgment,  1692,  and  Providence,  1694.  His 
son,  Thomas  Sherlock,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
1714),  b.  in  London,  1678  ;  d.  there,  July  18, 
1761.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Catharine  Hall, 
Cambridge,  and  its  master,  1714  ;  master  of 
the  Temple,  1704  ;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's, 
1713,  and  of  Norwich,  1719  ;  <lean  of  Chiches- 
ter, 1715  ;  bishop  of  Bangor,  1728  ;  translated 
to  Salisbury,  1734,  and  to  London,  1738.  Sat- 
isfied with  these  promotions,  he  declined  the 
see  of  Canterbury,  1747.  He  was  also  a  very 
successful  author.  He  wrote  against  Hoadly 
in  the  Bangorian  controversy,  against  Collins 
in  lite  Use  and  Intent  of  Propliecy,  London, 
1725,  and  against  Woolston  in  the  famous 
Trial  of  the  Witnesses,  1729,  besides  his  Pas- 
toral Letter  on  the  earthquakes,  1750,  and  4 
vols,  of  Sermons,  1754-58.  His  works  were 
reprinted  in  5  vols.,  1830.     Martin  Sherlock, 


an  Irishman,  wrote  in  French  and   Italian, 
1779,  and  in  English  (Letters),  1781. 

F.  M.  B. 

Sherwood,  James  Manning,  Presbyterian  ; 
b.  at  Fishkill,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  29,  1814;  d.  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  22,  1890.  He  studied 
theology,  held  several  pastoral  charges  ;  w^as 
editor  of  National  PreacJier  and  Biblical  Re- 
pository, 1846-51  ;  Eclectic  Magazine,  1864- 
71  ;  Hours  at  Home,  1865-69  ;  Presbyterian 
Eeview,  1863-71  ;  Presbyterian  Quarterly  and 
Princeton  Review,  1877-78  ;  Homiletic  Review 
since  1883,  and  the  Missionary  Review  of  the 
World  since  1888  ;  and  published  The  Lamb 
in  tlie  Midst  of  the  Throne,  or  The  History  of 
the  Cross,  1883,  2d  ed..  1884. 

Shewbread  was  unleavened  bread  offered 
every  Sabbath  on  the  golden  table  in  the  holy 
place,  made  into  twelve  cakes,  according  to 
the  twelre  tribes  of  Israel,  and  placed  in  tw^o 
piles  or  rows.  The  old  cakes  remained  till 
replaced  by  the  new,  and  hence  the  name 
"  continual  bread  "  (Num.  iv.  7).  As  a  gen- 
eral rule  the  old  could  be  eaten  by  the  priests 
alone,  and  by  them  only  in  the  court  of  the 
sanctuary  (1  Sam.  xxi.  1-6,  Matt.  xii.  3). 

T.  W.  C. 

Shib'-bo-leth  {an  ear  of  corn,  or  a  stream). 
In  a  war  between  the  Ephraimites  and  the 
Gileadites  the  former  were  routed  and  fled  to 
the  Jordan  ;  but  wiien  they  sought  to  cross 
were  asked  if  they  were  Ephraimites,  and  if 
they  denied  it.  were  required  to  pronounce 
"  Shibboleth  ;"  and  if  they  said  "  Sibboleth," 
were  discovered  and  killed  (Judges  xii.  6). 
The  incident  shows  that  variations  of  dialect 
existed  among  tribes  of  the  same  race  and 
speaking  the  same  language.  Shibboleth  is 
naturalized  in  English  in  the  sense  of  a  party 
test  or  watchword.  T.  W.  C. 

Shields,  Charles  Woodruff,  D.D.  (College 
of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1861),  LL.D.  (Co- 
lumbian University,  Washington,  D.  C,  1877), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  New  Albany,  Ind.,  April 
4,  1825  ;  graduated  at  the  College  of  New 
Jersey,  1844,  and  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  1847  ;  held  various  pastoral  charges, 
and  became,  in  1866,  professor  in  the  College 
of  New  Jersey.  He  has  published  Philosophia 
Ultima,  Philadelphia,  1861,  3d  ed..  New  York 
1888-89,  2  vols. ;  The  Bo„k  of  Common  Prayer 
as  Amended  by  the  Presbyterian  Divines,  1864, 
2d  ed..  New  York,  1883  ;  Liturgia  expurgata, 
Philadelphia,  1864,  3d  ed..  New  York,  1884  ; 
The  Final  Philosophy,  New  York,  1877,  2d 
ed.,  1879  ;  Order  of  the  Sciences,  1884. 

Shi'-loh.  This  term  in  Jacob's  blessing 
(Gen.  xlix.  10)  is  applied  by  some  to  the  towai 
of  that  name,  but  most  critics  accept  the  tra- 
ditional view  which  interprets  it  of  the  Mes- 
siah, either  as  showing  his  claims,  "  He  whoso 
right  it  is,"  or  as  meaning  peace,  "  the  peace- 
ful one."  (Cf.  Isa.  ix.  6,  "the  prince  of 
peace.")  T.  W.  C 

Shi'-loh  {place  of  rest),  a  city  north  oi 
Bethel,  now  called  Seilun,  whicli  Joshua  se- 
lected as  the  site  of  the  tabernacle,  which  re- 
mained there  for  three  centuries,  and  then 
was  removed  to  Nob  and  afterward  to  Gib- 


SHINAR 


(857) 


SIBYLLINE 


eon,  and  thence  to  Jerusalem.  In  the  time  of 
Jeremiah  it  was  a  forsaken  ruin  (Jer.  vii.  12). 
Its  central  position  fitted  it  for  the  principal 
sanctuary  of  the  Jews.  T.  W.  C. 

Shi'-nar,  The  Land  of,  contained  the  cities 
of  Babel,  Eroch,  Caluah,  and  Accad  (Gen.  .\. 
10),  and  in  it  occurred  the  confusion  of 
tongues.  It  was  probably  the  Hebrew  name 
for  Mesopotamia.  Originally  it  denoted  the 
northern  part  of  Babylonia  as  Chaldiea  did 
the  southern,  but  it  was  sometimes  used  for 
the  whole.  In  Josh.  vii.  21  it  is  rendered 
"Babylonish."  It  is  probably  to  be  identi- 
fied with  the  Sumer  or  Shumer  of  tlic  cunei- 
form iiiscripfions.  T.  \V.  C. 

Shin-Shin  (tnie  sect),  a  kind  of  reformed 
Buddhism  which  arose  in  China  381  a.d.,  and 
is  said  to  number  about  10,000,000  members 
in  Japan  alone. 

Shinto  or  Sintooism  is  the  name  of  the 
most  primitive  form  of  religion  among  the 
Japanese.  It  consists  chiefiy  in  ancestor-wor- 
ship and  is  still  the  national  religion  proper. 

Shi'-shak,  a  king  of  Egypt  who  received 
the  fugitive  Jeroboam  (1  Kings  xi.  40),  and 
in  the  fifth  year  of  Rehoboam  invaded  Judah 
and  despoiled  the  temple  and  the  palace  at 
Jerusalem  (.\iv.  25-26).  Shishak  is  identified 
with  the  Sheshonk  I.  of  the  monuments,  the 
first  king  of  the  twenty-second  or  Bubastite 
dynasty.  On  the  wall  of  the  great  temjilc  at 
Karnak  is  a  record  of  his  conquests,  in  wiiich 
a  group  of  captives  show  clearly  Hebrew 
physiognomy,  and  an  accompanying  inscrip- 
tion bears  the  characters  that  stand  for  Joudli- 
Malek,  signifying  the  "  kingdom  of  Judah." 
T.  W.  C. 

Shittim-wood,  from  the  shittah-tree  (Isa. 
xli.  19),  was  much  used  in  constructing  the 
tabernacle  and  its  furniture  (Ex.  xxv.- 
xxxviii.).  It  is  identified  with  the  seyal  or 
acacia,  which  is  still  found  in  the  Arabian 
desert.  Its  wood  is  close-grained,  hard,  and 
very  durable.  Its  use  by  Moses  was  doubt- 
less line  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  onh'  timber 
tree  of  any  considerable  size  growing  in  the 
Sinailic  peninsula.  T.  W.  C. 

Shore,    Thomas    Teignmouth,    F.R.G.S., 

Churrli  of  England  ;  It.  in  Dublin,  Dec.  28, 
1841  ;  studied  theology  in  Trinity  College 
there,  and  became  in  1873  incumbent  of 
Berkeley  Chapel,  Mayfair,  London,  and  in 
1881  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  queen,  in 
which  (piality  he  instructed  the  children  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  religion.  He  published 
S'Jtne  Difficulties  of  Rlief,  London,  1H78,  8th 
ed.,  1884  ;  The  Life  of  the  World  to  Come, 
1870,  4th  ed.,  1883  ;  Sennuni),  etc.  He  edited 
IHp.s  to  Briirf  1886,  sqq. 

Showbread.     See  Shew  bread. 

Shrine  (Latin,  serinimn,  "a  bookca.se"), 
mians  a  repository  for  relics,  whether  in  tlie 
form  of  a  movable  box,  kept  beiiind  or  above 
the  altar  and  carried  about  in  iiroces.sions,  or 
in  the  form  of  a  tomb  with  fixed  monumental 
adornments. 

Shrove  Tuesday,  the  day  before  Ash  Wed- 
nesday, thus  called  from  shrire,  "  to  confess 


sins,"  Iwcause  it  was  an  ancient  custom  to 
confess  on  that  day  and  receive  the  connnunion 
in  order  to  prepare  properly  for  Lent. 

Shuckford,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Cambridge. 
17—),  Church  of  England  ;  d.  iti  London, 
July  14,  17r>4.  He  graduated  at  Caius  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  1720,  and  became  king's 
chaplain,  prebendary  of  Canterbury  (1738), 
and  rector  of  All-hallows,  London.  His  Sinrd 
atid  Profnie  llixtory  of  the  World  Coinieeted, 
meant  to  supplement  Prideaux's  .similar  work, 
appeared  in  4  vols.,  London,  1727,  rev.  ed.  l)v 
Tall)()ys  Wheeler,  1858,  2  vols.  It  extcncls 
only  to  the  time  of  Joshua.  F.  M.  B. 

Shu'-nem  {tiro  resting  places),  a  citj'  in  Is- 
sachar  (Josh.  xix.  18),  where  the  Phili.stines 
encamped  before  the  battle  of  Gilljoa  (1  Sam. 
xxviii.  4).  AUishag,  King  David's  nurse, 
was  of  Shunem  (1  Kings  i.  3),  and  it  was  tlie 
residence  of  the  woman  who  entertained 
p]lisha  (2  Kings  iv.  8).  It  is  now  known  as 
Sulem,  on  the  southwestern  slope  of  Little 
llermon,  6  miles  from  Tabor.  It  is  in  full 
view  of  the  sacred  sites  of  Mt.  Carmel. 

T.  W.  C. 

Shu'-shan  (lili/),  a  celebrated  city  known  to 
the  Greeks  as  Susa,  the  capital  of  Elam.  It 
was  a  place  of  great  antitpiity,  being  men- 
tioned in  the  tablets  of  A.ssilrbanipal,  b.c. 
650,  as  captured  by  him.  By  the  conquest 
of  Babylon  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  ]*er- 
sians,  and  Darius  Hystaspes  founded  the 
grand  palace  described  in  Estli.  i.  4  6.  Here 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  i.  2)  sought  leave  from  Ar- 
taxerxes  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
and  here  Daniel  (viii.  2)  saw  his  striking  vi.sion 
of  the  ram  and  the  he-goat.  The  site  of  the 
city  has  been  identified  with  the  modern  Sus 
or  Shus,  where  very  extensive  ruins  are  found. 
T.  W.  C. 

Sibylline  Books.  It  was  an  ancient  and 
poi)ular  belief  that  the  sibyls  were  under  in- 
spiration and  that  they  had  uttered  true 
prophecies.  It  is  certain  that  collection  of 
oracles  were  early  made,  among  which  were 
the  Sibylline  Books  mentioned  in  the  history 
of  Rome.  It  is  now  generally  confessed  that 
in  this  ca.sc  there  were  no  oracles  which  had 
ever  been  uttered  by  any  historical  person- 
ages, but  tliat  they  were  .sayings  current 
among  the  people,  which  had  their  origin  in 
the  supposed  voices  of  streams,  etc. 

At  the  time  Av^ien  the  conquests  of  Rome  in 
the  I^ast  had  1)rought  about  the  first  contact 
of  the  dilTerent  religions  of  the  civilized  world, 
a  great  passion  for  oracles  prevailed.  He- 
brew, Chahhvan,  Egyptian,  and  other  sibyls 
arose,  whose  savings  were  collected  in  Sibyl- 
line books.  "NVhen  Christianity  apjuared, 
sil)yls  were  not  long  in  claiming  a'place  among 
its "  followers.  Some  of  the  first  apologi.sts 
maile  u.se  of  the  ostensible  prophecies  of  the 
sibyls  for  the  justitication  of  Christian  idea.s, 
for  which  they  are  sarca-stically  rebuked  by 
Celsus.  Lactiintius  was  particularly  free  in 
this  direction. 

During  the  Middle  Ages,  and  oven  in  our 
own  (lavs,  the  process  of  recovering  the.se  an- 
cient sibylline  books  hius  Iteeii  going  on  till 
we  now  liave  fourteen  more  or  ies.s  perfectly 


SICARn 


(858) 


SIGEBERT 


preserved  books  (editions  of  C.  Alexandre, 
Paris,  1869  ;  J.  H.  Friedlieb,  Leipzig,  1852). 
The  condition  of  Die  text  is  very  bad,  and  not 
susceptible  of  great  improvement.  Though 
much  remains  to  be  done  before  all  points  as 
to  their  interpretation  will  be  cleared  up,  the 
following  may  be  said  with  considerable  con- 
fidence. 

The  greater  part  of  the  third  book  comes 
from  the  pen  of  an  Egyptian  Jew.  It  dates 
itself  at  the  time  of  Ptolemy  VII.  (170-117 
B.C.).  The  object  of  the  poem  is  the  suppres 
sion  of  idolatry.  It  gives  an  account  of  the 
various  kingdoms  of  the  world,  ending  with 
the  coming  of  Messiah,  the  conversion  of  the 
heatlien,  and  the  restoration  of  Judaea.  The 
fourth  book  describes  the  course  of  history 
under  the  form  of  the  story  of  twelve  dynas- 
ties the  eleventli  of  which  ifi  the  Roman,  the 
twelfth  the  Messianic.  But  there  is  very  little 
religious  element  in  it.  The  fifth  book  is 
still  almost  entirely  a  riddle.  It  seems  to  have 
been  written  from  an  Egyptian  standpoint. 
The  remaining  books  have  a  positively  Chris- 
tian character.  The  sixth  book  is  a  short 
hymn  to  Jesus,  the  outlines  of  whose  life  are 
given.  It  may  form  with  the  seventh  a  single 
collection,  for  this  contains  prophecies  of  woe, 
and  touches  upon  the  life  of  Christ  again. 
The  eighth  book  is  occupied  with  a  prophecy 
of  the  last  judgment.  Into  the  description 
of  this  is  woven  an  account  of  some  of  the 
events  of  the  history  of  Jesus.  In  the  midst 
of  the  description  of  the  j  adgment  occurs  a 
famous  passage  of  thirty-four  lines,  forming 
an  acrostic  upon  the  Greek  words  for  "  Jesus 
Christ,  God's  Son,  the  Savior,  cross."  This 
is  evidently  patched  together  by  many  hands. 
Books  first  and  second  seem  to  be  the  latest 
portion  of  the  older  collection.  They  are  of 
Christian  origin,  and  contain  an  account  of 
history  beginning  with  Genesis.  Books  eleven 
to  fourteen,  the  last  found  (1817,  etc.),  are 
but  little  understood.  (See  Eng.  trans,  of  the 
Books,  by  M.  S.  Terry,  New  York,  1890,  and 
Ewald,  E/itstehurig,  Inludt,  iiml  Werth  cler 
SibylliniscJien,  Bucher,  Gottingen,  1858.) 

F.  H.  P. 

Sicarii  (assassins),  a  fanatical  Jewish  sect 
which  in  Jud«a,  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
and  later  in  Egypt  opposed  the  Romans. 

Sick-ing'-en,  Franz  von,  b.  in  the  castle 
of  Ebernburg,  May  1,  1481  ;  d.  in  the  castle 
of  Landstahl,  May  7,  1523  ;»a  feudal  lord 
whose  castles  in  the  Rhine  country  were  called 
the  "  asylums  of  righteousness,"  and  who  be- 
friended the  Reformation  by  defending  Reuch- 
lin,  Butzer,  CEcolampadius,  etc.,  and  in  many 
other  ways.  (See  his  life  by  P.  Munch,  Stutt- 
gart, 1827,  2  vols.) 

Sid'-dim,  The  Vale  of,  the  scene  of  the  bat- 
tle between  Chedorlaomer  and  the  five  kings 
of  Sodom,  etc.  (Gen.  xiv.  3-10) ;  it  abounded  in 
■wells  of  bitumen,  or  "  slime  pits."  In  Gen. 
xiv.  it  seems  to  be  identified  with  the  Salt  Sea. 
Hence  many  suppose  that  the  southern  part 
of  the  Dead  Sea  below  the  Lisan  peninsula 
was  the  site  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  and  was 
submerged  in  the  great  catastrophe.  Others 
say  that  this  portion  of  the  sea  is  not  of  recent 


origin,  and  seek  the  vale  of  Siddim  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  Sea.  T.  W.  C. 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  b.  at  Penshurst,  Kent, 
England,  Nov.  9,  1554  ;  d.  at  Arnheim,  in  the 
Netherlands,  Oct.  7,  1586  ;  the  model  cavalier 
of  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  whom  he 
served  both  as  a  diplomatist  and  a  soldier. 
Among  his  poems  (n.e.  b^  Grosart,  London, 
1873)  are  a  version  of  the  Psalms  and  many 
lyrics  of  a  fine  religious  strain.  He  also  wrote 
tlie  charming  Arcadia  (rep.  London,  1868)  and 
Dcfiiire  of  Poesie  (in  liis  Miscellaneous  Works, 
B)st<>n,  18G0).  (See  J.  A.  Symonds,  >sYr 
Philip  Sidney,  London,  1886,  2d  ed.,  1889.) 

Sidon.     See  Zidon. 

Sidonius,  Michael,  b.  at  Eslingen,  Baden, 
1506  ;  d.  in  Vienna,  Sept.  30,  1561.  His 
family  name  w^as  Helding,  but  having  been 
made  bishop  of  Sidon  in  jxtrtibus  injiddixia 
by  Paul  III.,  he  assumed  the  name  of  Sido- 
nius. In  1550  he  was  made  bishop  of  Merse- 
burg.  He  is  the  author  of  the  Catechismtis 
Moguntiniis  ("  Catechism  of  Mayence"),  and 
tried  to  hold  a  mediatory  position  between 
Rome  and  the  reformers. 

Siena,  Council  of.  The  Council  of  Pavia, 
called  in  1423  in  accordance  with  the  decree 
of  the  Council  of  Constance,  was  adjourned, 
June  22,  to  Siena.  It  was  divided,  like  that 
of  Constance,  into  "  nations,"  of  which  there 
were  five.  The  whole  summer  was  spent  in 
discussing  the  form  of  the  safe-conduct  which 
the  city  of  Siena  was  to  give.  Finally  at  the 
second  session,  Nov.  8,  1423,  the  condemna- 
tion of  Wiclif  and  Hus  was  repeated,  also 
that  of  Peter  of  Luna,  and  certain  dispositions 
made  concerning  heresy  and  the  union  with 
the  Greeks.  Then  a  good  deal  of  time  was 
spent  on  so-called  reforms,  the  only  practical 
point  proposed  being  that  the  cardinals  should 
not  number  more  than  twenty-four,  and 
should  be  nominated  by  the  nations  which 
they  were  to  represent.  This  disturbed  the 
pope  so  much  that  he  finally  got  the  council 
dissolved  against  the  protest  of  the  French, 
who  saw  it  break  up  without  accomplishing 
anything.  (See  Hefele's  ConciliengescMchte, 
I.e.)  F.  H.  F. 

Sieveking,  Amalie,  b.  in  Hamburg,  July 
25,  1794  ;  d.  there,  April  1,  1859  ;  volunteered 
her  services  in  the  hospitals  of  her  native  city 
when  the  cholera  broke  out  there  in  1831,  and 
formed  the  next  year  a  Protestant  sisterhood 
for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  poor,  which 
grew  rapidly  and  became  the  mother  institu- 
tion of  many  similar  organizations  in  other 
parts  of  Germany.  (See  Benkirurdigkeiten 
am  dein  Lcbeii  von  A.  S.,  Hamburg,  1860.) 

Sigebert  of  Gemblours,  b.  in  Belgium 
about  1030  ;  d.  Oct.  5,  1112,  as  a  monk  in  the 
convent  of  Gemblours,  20  ni.  s.e.  of  Brussels, 
now  called  Gembloux,  where  he  had  received 
his  education,  and  where  he  afterward  was  a 
teacher  for  many  years.  He  wrote  with  great 
courage  against  the  ultramontanist  tendencies 
of  the  time,  even  against  Hildebrand,  and  also 
a  world's  chronicle,  which  is  not  of  any  par- 
ticular merit,  but  was  used  as  text-book  in 
all  conventual  schools  in  France  for  centuries. 


SIGISMUND 


(859) 


SIMEON 


His   works   are   in   the  collections   of  Pert/., 
Wattenbacb,  etc. 

Sigismund,  Johann,  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, 1608-1!)  ;  was  educated  a  Jjutheran,  but 
embraced  the  Reformed  faith  in  1613.  As 
the  country  was  Lutheran,  the  event  was  not 
without  its  dangers,  and  to  this  circumstance 
are  due  the  religious  toleration  which  has  ever 
since  characterized  the  Prussian  Government, 
and  its  repeated  attempts  at  a  reconciliation 
between  the  two  forms  of  Protestantism.  (See 
Reiser,  licfonn.  d.  S.,  Leipzig,  1876.) 

Sign  of  the  Cross.  See  under  Cuoss,  p. 
207. 

Sigourney  (sig'-ur-ne),  Lydia  Howard 
Huntley,  b.  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Sept.  1, 
1791  ;  d.  at  Hartford,  June  10,  ISO.")  ;  married 
in  1819  a  merchant  of  Hartford,  and  published 
in  1815  her  tirst  volume,  wliicli  was  followed 
by  fifty-eight  others.  Among  her  poetical 
pieces  are  many  hymns,  quite  extensively 
used  in  various  collections.  Letters  of  Life, 
an  autobiography,  appeared  1865. 

Si'-hon  {sweeping  airai/),  a  king  of  the  Amor- 
ites  who,  refusing  the  Hebrews  passage 
through  his  territories,  was  slain  in  battle, 
his  army  routed,  Heshbon,  his  capital,  taken, 
and  his  dominions  divided  between  Reuben  and 
Gad  (Num.  x\i.,  Deut.  ii..  Josh.  xiii.). 

T.  ^Y.  C. 

Silver,  a  precious  metal  mentioned  in  the 
histor}'  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiii.  2),  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xxvi.  19) 
and  of  the  temple  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  14),  and 
for  trumpets,  ornaments,  and  vessels  of  vari- 
ous sorts.  It  was  abundant  in  the  days  of 
Solomon  (1  Kings  x.  27).  It  was  the  chief 
medium  of  trade,  thougli  not  coined,  l)ut  used 
by  weight.  The  mining  and  refining  of  silver 
are  referred  to  (Ps.  xii.  6,  Job  xxviii.  1,  Prov. 
XXV.  4),  and  filigree  work  (Prov.  xxv.  11). 
T.  W.  C. 

Si-Io'-am  {se?it),  in  the  Old  Testament  also 
Shiloah(Isa.viii.  6)and  Siloali(Xeh  iii.l5,  She- 
lah,  R.V.),  the  name  of  a  pool  near  Jerusalem, 
identified  with  one  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  Tyro- 
piKon  valley.  The  water  is  supplied  from  the 
Fountain  of  the  Virgin  through  a  zigzag  tun- 
nel cut  in  the  rook.  There  was  also  a  Tower 
of  Siloam  (Luke  xiii.  4),  now  the  village  called 
Silwan  on  Mt.  Olivet. 

See  TuiitKs. 


Simeon,  Charles,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Headini;.  37  m.  w.  of  London,  Sept.  24, 
1759  ;  d.  tliere,  Nov.  13,  1836.  He  wius  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge  ; 
became  a  fellow,  1782;  vicar  of  Trinity 
Church,  Cambridge,  1783-1836,  and  a  leader 
of  the  Evangelical  party.  His  cliief  publica- 
tions were  skeletons  of  sermons,  wiiidj  at 
length,  in  his  Jf»,;r  ll<>,„iletir.t',  lSl.-)-28,  17 
vols.,  covered  the  whole  13il)lc  and  numbered 
2536.  Tiiese  make  (lie  chief  part  of  liis  works, 
edited  bv  T.  H.  Home  in  21  vols.,  London. 
1832-33.'  His  memoir  bv  W.  Cams  appeared, 
London  ami  New  York."ls47.  F.  M.  B. 

Simeon  Stylites,  Simeon  tlie  Syrian  or 
Simeon  the  Elder,  was  born  at  Sisan,  iu  North- 


ern Syria,  390  or  391  ;  died  on  his  pillar  near 
Antioch,  Sept.  2,  459.  He  had  never  been 
inside  a  churdi  before  his  thirteentii  year. 
When  he,  at  that  age,  came  there,  he  was  so 
struck  with  the  surroundings  and  the  occasion 
that  he  ever  afterward  was  a  "religious." 
At  an  early  date  he  retired  to  the  desert  to 
practise  and  live  according  to  ascetic  rules. 
At  Telanessa,  near  Antiochia,  he  once  fasted 
forty  days  to  imitate  Moses  and  Elias,  but 
came  near  dying.  It  was  with  difiiculty  that 
he  was  brought  to  life  again.  He  was  very 
rigorous  in  his  fasts.  His  life  as  a  pillar  saint 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  his  yearly 
practice  of  being  tied  to  a  post  during  the 
Quadragesima  fast.  After  some  time  In;  had 
a  wall  l)uilt  around  that  post  to  keep  his  ad- 
mirers out,  and  later  on  he  got  uj)  on  the  post 
to  speak  to  them  and  to  be  out  of  tlieir  reach, 
for  he  had  already  accjuired  a  reputation  as  a 
.saint,  and  people  wanted  to  (ouch  him.  In 
423  he  tirst  got  up  on  a  i)illar,  which  was 
then  six  to  seven  feet  high  ;  tlie  height  was 
twice  increased,  and  finally,  in  430,  reached 
40  cubits,  but  was  never  more  tiian  two  cu- 
l)its  in  circumference.  It  had  a  railing  round 
its  top.  On  tiiis  pillar  lie  remained  dur- 
ing thirty  years,  exposed  to  every  cliange  of 
climate,  ceaselessh'  and  rapidly  bending  liis 
body  in  prayer  almost  to  (he  level  of  his  feet. 
A  spectator  attempted  once  to  count  these 
rapid  motions,  but  gave  it  up  in  weariness, 
after  having  counted  over  twelve  hundred. 
For  more  than  one  year  he  was  compelled  to 
stand  upon  one  foot,  because  the  otlier  was 
covH'red  by  hideous  ulcers  from  the  strain  put 
upon  it.  His  liiographer  tells  us  that  he  was 
commissioned  to  stand  liy  the  side  of  the  saint, 
to  pick  up  the  worms  that  fell  from  his  body, 
and  to  replace  them  in  the  sores,  the  saint 
saying  to  the  worm,  ' '  YaxX,  what  God  has  given 
to  you."  It  is  difficult  (o  conceive  a  more  hor- 
rible picture,  but  it  becomes  disgusting  when 
we  learn  from  the  same  biographer,  Then- 
doret,  that  he  bound  a  rojw  around  himself 
so  that  it  liecame  imbedded  in  his  flesh,  which 
putrefied  around  i(.  Before  he  ascenih-d  the 
pillar  it  is  written  of  him,  that  "  a  horrible 
stench,  intolerable  to  the  bystanders,  exhaled 
from  his  body,  and  worms  llropjud  from  him 
whenever  lienioved.  and  they  filled  his  bed." 
All  this  is  revolting  to  us,  vet  this  man  was 
the  admiration  of  many,  and  was  inii(a(ed  l»y 
others.  See  SrvirrKs.  From  every  ({uar- 
ter  pilgrims  thronged  to  do  him  lion()r.  He 
was  the  adviser  of  the  jx-a.sants  in  his  neigh- 
borhood, of  Arab  princes,  of  Persian  kings, 
and  even  of  Roman  emperors.  On  the  testi- 
mony of  Theodoret  we  know  that  he  exer- 
cised a  beneficent  influence  upon  the  sur- 
rounding  hordes  of  Saracens,  converting 
thousands  of  them  to  Christ.  The  Mono- 
l)hysites  claim  that  he  held  their  views.  When 
this  ■■  uncoiKiuered  adilete  of  Christ"  died, 
460,  his  liody  was  brought  with  mili(ary  i)omp 
to  Andoch  and  buried.  A  great  crowd  of 
prelates  followed  him  to  the  grave.  The  em- 
])eror  claimed  his  Ixulv,  but  (he  cili/iiis  kept 
him  as  a  "  pro(ec(or  of  their  <  i(y"  ami  buih  a 
splendid  church  to  his  memory.  The  general 
vni<c  of  mankind  in  (hose  days  i>rono»inced 
him  a  model  Christian  saint.     Yet  this  is  what 


SIMLER 


(860) 


SIN 


his  eulogist  aud  biographer  tells  us  :  He  be- 
gan his  saintly  career  by  breaking  the  heart 
of  his  father,  who  died  of  grief  at  his  flight 
from  home.  His  mother,  however,  lingered 
on.  Some  twenty  years  after  he  had  run  away 
and  had  become  famous  among  people,  who 
did  not  know  his  lack  of  parental  love  and 
respect,  she  heard  about  him  and  his  where- 
abouts. She  hastened  to  visit  him,  but  in 
vain,  for  no  woman,  not  even  his  mother, 
could  be  admitted  within  his  residence.  He 
even  refused  to  look  upon  her  or  allow  her 
to  see  him.  Then  the  poor  mother  gave  way 
to  tears  and  entreaties,  and  is  represented  to 
have  said:  "My  son,  why  hast  thou  done 
this  ?  I  bore  you  in  my  womb,  and  you  have 
wrung  my  soul  with  grief.  I  gave  you  suck 
from  my  breasts,  and  you  have  filled  my  eyes 
with  tears.  For  the  kisses  I  gave  you,  you 
have  returned  anguish  of  heart.  Oh,  most 
cruel  wrongs  have  I  suffered!"  At  last  he 
sent  her  a  message  that  he  would  come  out  to 
her.  She  waited  for  three  days  and  three 
nights,  still  he  did  not  come.  At  last,  old 
age,  sorrow,  and  privation  broke  her  heart, 
and  she  breathed  her  last  before  the  inhospit- 
able door  of  her  son.  Then  he  came  out,  shed 
a  few  pious  tears,  prayed,  consigning  the  soul 
of  his  murdered  mother  to  heaven  and — re- 
turned to  his  devotions.  (Asseman  in  Acta  s. 
mart.,  vol.  ii.,  published  a  very  old  manu- 
script life  of  the  saint,  full  of  absurd  stories. 
See  his  life  by  his  disciple  Antony,  in  Vitm 
Patrum,  Evagrius  1.,  13,  14,  and  ii.,  9,  10  ; 
Theodoret,  PhilotJieos.) 

C.  H.  A.  Bjekregaabd. 

Simler,  Josias,  b.  at  Cappel,  canton  of  Zu- 
rich, Switzerland,  1530  ;  d.  at  Zurich.  July  2, 
1576  ;  studied  at  Basel  and  Strassburg  ;  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Zurich  in 
1552,  and  published  De  Republka  Heli-etioru in, 
which  was  translated  into  several  foreign  lan- 
guages and  often  reprinted,  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  theological  treatises  against  the  Ana- 
baptists, the  Polish  freethinkers,  on  Chris- 
tology,  etc.  A  descendant  of  his,  Johann 
Jakob  Simler,  1716-88,  left  a  very  compre- 
hensive collection  of  documents  relating  to 
the  history  of  the  Reformation,  which  is  now 
in  the  public  library  of  the  city  of  Zurich. 

Simon,  1.  One  of  the  twelve  apostles.  See 
Peter.  2.  Another  apostle,  the  Canaanean 
(Matt.  X.  4,  R.  V.)  or  zealot  (Luke  vi.  15),  who 
had  been  of  the  faction  called  Zealots.  3. 
One  of  our  Lord's  brethren  (Matt.  xiii.  55,  Mark 
vi.  3).  4.  A  Pharisee  at  whose  house  Jesus 
was  anointed  (Luke  vii.  36).  5.  A  leper,  who 
had  been  healed  (Matt.  xxvi.  6).  6.  The  father 
of  Judas  Iscariot  (John  vi.  71,  R.  V.).  7.  A 
man  of  Gyrene  who  bore  Christ's  cross  (Mark 
xvi.  31).  8.  A  tanner  at  Joppa,  with  whom 
Peter  lodged  (Acts  ix.  43).  9.  A  Samaritan 
sorcerer,  called  Simon  Magus,  who  professed 
to  believe  and  was  baptized,  but  seeking  to 
buy  the  Holy  Ghost  was  rebuked  by  Peter 
(Acts  viii.).  Hence  the  sin  of  trading  in  eccle- 
siastical offices  is  called  ".simony,"  a  very 
grievous  offence.  T.  "W.  C. 

Simon  Maccabaeus.     See  Maccabees. 

Simon,  Richard,  b.  at  Dieppe,  France,  on 


the  English  Channel,  May  13,  1638  ;  d.  there, 
April  11,  1712.  He  maintained  for  many 
years  relations  with  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory,  more  or  less  close  and  more  or  less 
troubled,  and  was  for  some  time  employed  in 
the  library  of  the  order  in  Paris,  but  spent 
the  last  part  of  his  life  in  learned,  but  inde- 
pendent retirement.  His  Ilistoire  critique  du 
vieux  testament  appeared  in  Paris,  1678  ;  His- 
toii'6  critique  du  texte  dn  nom-enu  testament  in 
1689  ;  Histiiire  rriticpie  dis  principaux  commen- 
tateurs  du  n„nrniu  ti^iiiinnit  in  1693,  and 
Nourelles  ohsirntlioits  sur  li  tt.cfe  et  les  versions 
du  mtureau  testament  in  1695,  which  works 
formed  the  foundations  of  a  new  science— that 
of  Biblical  Isagogics,  or  the  treatment  of  the 
Bible  considered  simply  as  a  literary  product. 
They  bear  the  marks  of  their  time  and  of  their 
author,  but  they  nevertheless  denote  a  new, 
original,  and  fertile  departure.  Their  for- 
tunes were  very  checkered  :  they*  were  con- 
demned and  suppressed  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic authorities  and  suspected  and  attacked  by 
Protestant  theologians,  but  their  fame  did  not 
die.  Among  his  later  works  are^  Lett  res 
choisies,  1700-5,  3  vols. ,  and  Bibliotlieque  cri- 
tique, 1708,  3  vols.,  both  very  interesting  and 
full  of  valuable  information.  (See  his  biog- 
raph3'  by  Graf  in  Strassburger  theol.  Beitriige, 
1847  ;  G.  Masson,  London,  1867,  aud  A.  Ber- 
uus,  Lausanne,  1869.)  C.  P. 

Simony  meant  originally  a  buying  or  sell- 
ing of  spiritual  gifts,  the  name  being  derived 
from  Simon  Magus  (Acts  viii.  18) ;  it  was  con- 
sidered a  sin  against  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  con- 
sequently the  heaviest  ecclesiastical  crime  pos- 
sible. By  degrees,  however,  as  the  church 
extended  its  claims  upon  power,  the  definition 
of  simony  expanded  so  as  to  comprise  also  the 
buying  and  seUing  of  ecclesiastical  offices,  the 
buying  and  selling  of  ecclesiastical  patronage, 
etc.,  and  in  the  contest  between  the  church 
and  the  state  it  became  a  flaming  sword  in  the 
hand  of  the  pope.  But  then  it  was  discovered 
that  the  coarsest  and  most  flagrant  examples 
of  simonists  were  found  among  the  popes  and 
the  cardinals,  and  with  blunted  edge  the 
sword  fell  on  the  floor.  C.  P. 

Simplicius,  pope,  468-83,  condemned  sev- 
eral of  the  leaders  of  the  Monophysites. 

Simpson,  Matthew,   D.D.   ( ,    18—), 

LL.D.  ( ,  18—),  bishop  of  the  Methodist 

Episcopal  Church  ;  b.  at  Cadiz,  O.,  June  21, 
1811  ;  d.  in  Philadelphia,  June  17.  1884  ;  was 
ordained  in  1835  by  the  Pittsburg  Conference  ; 
elected  president  of  Indiana  Asbury  Univer- 
sity, at  Greencastle,  in  1839,  and  consecrated 
bifc'hop  in  1852.  He  was  a  man  of  extraor- 
dinary eloquence  and  a  true  champion  of  the 
Union  cause.  Among  his  publications  are 
Hundred  Years  of  Methodism,  New  York, 
1876  ;  Cyclopedia  of  Methodism,  1878,  5th  rev. 
ed. ,  1882  ;  Lectures  on  Preaching,  1879.  (See 
his  posthumous  Sermons  (1885),  and  his  life  by 
G.  R.  Crooks,  New  York,  1890.) 

Sin  {mire),  a  fortified  city  of  Northern 
Egypt,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Pelusiam 
(Ezek.  XXX.  15,  16).  Its  exact  site  is  not  yet 
determined.  T.  W.  C. 

Sin,  Wilderness  of,  a  region  between  Elim 


SIN 


(861) 


SIX 


and  Rephidim  (Ex.  xvi.  1,  Num.  xx.xiii.  11), 
■where  Israel  was  first  fed  with  the  quails  aiul 
manna.  It  is  thought  to  be  the  plain  El- 
,Markha,  running  2;>  miles  along  the  shore  of 
the  Red  Sea  from  Wadv  Taiyibeh  to  Wady 
Feiran.  '  T.  W.  C. 

Sin,  any  transgression  of  God's  law  or  want 
of  conformity  to  it  (1  John  iii.  4,  v.  17).  Its 
entrance  into  the  world  was  due  to  the  fall  of 
our  first  parents  (Rom.  v.  13),  and  it  takes  in 
the  whole  race  (Rom.  iii.  9).  The  depravity 
transmitted  from  Adam  to  all  his  posterity 
(John  iii.  6)  is  the  evil  and  bitter  root  of  all 
actual  transgression.  Its  righteous  penalty, 
the  wages  it  earns,  is  eternal  death  (Rom.  vi. 
23).  A  single  sin  unrepented  destroys  the 
soul,  just  as  a  single  break  renders  an  entire 
ocean  cable  useless.  The  guilt  and  evil  of  sin 
are  to  be  measured  by  the  holiness  of  the 
Being  it  offends,  the  excellence  of  the  law  it 
violates,  the  goodness  it  abuses,  the  misery  it 
causes,  and  the  greatness  of  the  .sacrifice  re- 
quired to  ex)iate  it.  T.  W.  C. 

Sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  is  said  to  be 
eternal  (.Mark  iii.  2!)),  and  never  to  have  for- 
giveness, because  it  blasphemes  the  Holy 
Being  whose  olfice  is  to  apply  the  benefits  of 
the  great  sacrifice,  and  if  He  is  alienated  there 
is  no  possibility  of  a  .sinner's  exercising  the 
repentance  which  is  unto  life.  Were  such  a 
sinner  to  repent,  the  blood  of  Christ  would 
wash  away  his  crim.son  stains,  but  he  cannot, 
or  at  least  will  not,  repent,  and  so  his  case  is 
hopeless.  T.  W.  C. 

Sin,  Forgiveness  of,  is  abundantly  pro- 
claimed in  the  Old  Testament  (Ex.  xxxiv.  7, 
Ps.  ciii.  10-13,  Micah  vii.  18-20),  and  is  set 
forth  in  the  New  as  the  result  of  Christ's 
death  (Rom.  iv.  25),  and  realized  by  the  indi- 
vidual as  soon  as  he  believes  (iii.  25,  Acts  xiii. 
38).  In  the  early  church  there  was  a  ten- 
dency to  condition  forgiveness  upon  good 
works,  but  Augustin  stoutly  maintained  that 
such  works  follow  and  do  nf)t  i)rcc'ede  justifi- 
Ciition,  but  Pelagian  tcarhingdicl  away  with  the 
effect  of  his  utterances  until  they  were  revived 
at  the  Reformation,  and  now  the  key-note  of 
all  evangelical  preaching  is  the  proclamation 
of  God's  free  and  sovereign  grace  in  the  par- 
don of  even  the  chief  of  .sinners.    T.  W.  C. 

Sin-Ofifering.     See  Ofkerinq. 

Sinai,  the  mount  in  Arabia  Petroea  where 
God  proclaimed  the  Ten  Words  to  Israel. 
The  peninsula  is  a  triangular  region  lying  be- 
tween the  two  arms  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  its  base 
from  Suez  to  Akaba  is  about  150  miles  long, 
the  eastern  side  130,  and  the  western  190  miles 
long.  It  consists  mainly  of  sterile  ranges  of 
mountains,  into  which  there  projects  from  the 
north  the  desert  of  Till  or  "wilderness  of 
wandering."  TJie  huge  hills  are  a  rugged, 
tumbled  (-haos,  the  hi;;hest  peaks  reaching  an 
elevation  of  from  HiM)  to  9000  feet.  They 
are  composed  of  gneiss  and  granite,  and  often 
assume  fanta-stic  shapes  and  take  on  gorgeous 
colors.  Parts  are  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  and 
copper  and  turquoise  were  mined  by  the  an- 
cient Esryptians. 

Ancientlv  the  peninsula  was  always  held 
by  the  rulers  of  Egypt,  but  it  was  annexed  to 


the  Roman  Empire,  a.d.  105.  In  the  4th 
century  it  was  i)eopled  by  anchorites  and  vari- 
ous brotherhoods  of  monks.  These  sulTered 
terribly  from  the  Saracens  from  a.v.  373  to 
411.  In  the  reign  of  Justinian  a  church  of 
the  Virgin  was  founded  at  Mt.  Sinai.  Later 
the  JNIohammedans  overran  the  peninsula,  and 
its  lonely  valleys  have  been  and  still  are  trav- 
ersed by  hosts  "of  pilgrims  to  Mecca. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  which 
of  the  numerous  peaks  in  this  extended  range 
was  the  scene  of  God's  giving  th«  law.  At 
least  five  mountains  have  been  at  dilfi-rent 
times  identified  with  the  mount  of  the  Eaw, 
but  now  opinion  has  pretty  much  settled  in 
favor  of  Jel)el  Musa,  including  its  peak  of  Ras 
Sufsafeh.  "^riie  members  of  tlie  English  Ordi- 
nance Survey,  after  a  careful  exanu'nation  of 
the  whole  region  in  1808-09,  unanimously' 
agreed  in  this  view.  The  mountain-mass  is 
two  miles  long.  Its  southern  extremity  is  a 
high  peak  which  Moses  ascended  to  meet 
with  God,  the  northern  extremity  is  a  lower 
point,  which  can  be  seen  from  every  part  of 
the  plain  below,  which  has  been  found  by 
actual  measurement  to  be  large  enough  to 
afford  am])le  room  for  the  whole  people  of 
Israel.  Every  traveller  who  visits  the  spot 
will  find  reason  to  believe  that  this  is  the  spot 
where  the  Lord  descended  in  fire  and  pro- 
claimed the  Law.  It  meets  all  the  requisitions 
of  the  case:  (1)  a  large  open  sjjace  in  front, 
(2)  the  hill  rising  sharply  from  the  plain  so 
that  the  people  could  draw  near,  and  (3)  a 
sufficient  supply  of  water  and  pasturage  for 
the  year  that  Israel  remained  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. [Dean  Stanley,  in  his  JSiiuii  (tnd  PdUx- 
tine,  advocated  the  claim  of  the  chief  rival  of 
Jebel  ilusa,  Jebel  Serbal,  which  is  nearer 
Egypt  and  answers  better  the  meaning  of 
Sinai,  which  is  "  sharp-pointed  "  or  "  tooth- 
ed."    It  has,  however,  few  advocates  now. 

The  Greek  convent  of  St.  Catharine  is  at 
Jebel  Musa.  There  Tischendorf  (q.v.)  found 
the  celebrated  Codex  Sinaiticus  in  1859. 

(See  E.    II.   Palmer,  JJiKcrt  of  the  Ktwhin, 
London  and  New  York,  1872,  2  vols.;  Bart- 
lett.    From   Efjtipt   to   Pnhstiue,   New    York, 
1879  :  H.  M.  Field,  O/i  the  Dixert,  1MS3.)] 
T.  W.  C. 

Sion.     See  ZioN. 

Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus.  See  PsKtnKPi- 
ORAPUA,  p.  775. 

Siricius,  pope,  384-98,  was  very  active  in 
suppressing  manichei.sm  and  priscillianism  in 
Rome.  I  lis  letter  to  Ilimerius,  bi.shop  of 
Tarragona,  in  Spain,  dated  Feb.  11,  385,  is 
the  first  pajial  decretal  which  has  any  claim 
to  genuineness,  and  is  also  important  as  the 
earliest  known  enforcement  of  clerical  celibacy 
bv  the  Roman  see.  His  letters  are  in  Migne, 
Pat.  hit..  XIII.,  111.5-96. 

Sisters  of  Charity.  See  Cn akitv.  Sistkrs 
OK,  p.  154. 

Sisters  of  Mercy.  See  Mkucy,  Sistkrb 
OF.   p.  5()0. 

Siva.     See  Inpiv,  Rkmgions  ok.  p.  -105. 

Six  Articles,  The,  reiiuiring  the  acceptance 
of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  the  use 


SIX-PRINOIPLE 


(862; 


SLAVERT 


of  private  masses,  auricular  confession,  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy,  vows  of  chastity,  and 
communion  in  one  kind  only,  were  passed  by 
the  English  Parliament  June  28,  1539.  Peo- 
ple called  them  the  "  Bloody  Statute"  or  the 
"  Whip  with  Six  Strings,"  and  they  denote 
one  of  those  sudden  vacillations  in  the  eccle 
siastical  policy  of  Henry  VIII. 

Six-Principle  Baptists.  See  Baptists, 
p.  83,  1st  col. 

Sixtus  is  the  name  of  five  popes.  1.  Was 
the  sixth  bishop  of  Rome  after  the  apostles, 
and  a  reign  of  ten  years  is  generally  ascribed 
to  him,  but  the  exact  dates— 116  or  119  and 
128  or  139 — have  not  been  ascertained.  In 
the  Roman  martyrologium  he  is  celebrated  as 
a  martyr,  but  as  Irenseus  designates  Teles- 
phorus  as  the  first  bishop  of  Rome  martyred, 
the  martyrdom  of  Sixtus  is  merely  a  pious 
fiction.  2.  Generally  called  Xystus,  succeeded 
Stephanas,  and  was  executed  under  Valerian 
after  tlie  reign  of  one  year,  Aug.  6,  258.  3. 
432-41,  was  the  immediate  predecessor  of 
Leo  tlie  Great,  and  much  occupied  with  the 
Pelagian  and  Nestorian  controversies,  though 
not  in  any  prominent  or  conspicuous  "way. 

4.  (FranQois  d'Albescola  della  Revere)  Aug. 
9,  1471-Aug.  14,  1484.  was  of  humble  descen- 
dance ;  entered  a  Franciscan  monastery  ;  be- 
came the  general  of  the  order,  and  was  made 
a  cardinal  by  Paul  III.  The  two  most  promi- 
nent features  of  his  personal  character  were 
vanity  and  lust,  but  both  were  tempered  by 
aesthetic  sense  and  artistic  taste.  He  built  the 
celebrated  chapel  which  bears  his  name,  the 
bridge  across  the  Tiber,  and  many  other  mag- 
nificent buildings  in  Rome.  As  a  sovereign 
prince  wielding  an  enormous  power,  he  knew 
no  other  purpose  than  the  elevation  and  en- 
richment of  his  own  family.  Five  of  his 
nephews  he  created  cardinals,  and  the  guiding 
star  in  all  his  policy  was  to  procure  princely 
inheritances  for  his  sons.  He  hated  the  Medi- 
ci s,  because  he  wanted  their  wealth.  An  ac- 
cessory to  the  conspiracy  of  the  Pazzi,  to 
murder  Julian  and  Lorenzo  Medici  in  the 
church  of  St.  Raparata  in  Florence,  he  openly 
defended  the  murderers  against  justice  and  laid 
an  interdict  on  the  country  in  order  to  force 
through  their  acquittal.  Exactly  the  same 
manff  uvre  he  carried  out  against  the  Estes  of 
Ferrara,  but  in  both  ca,ses  he  finally  failed. 

5.  (Felix  Peretti)  April  24,  1585-Aug.  24, 
1590,  descended  from  a  poor  Slavic  family 
which  had  emigrated  to  Italy  and  settled  at 
Montalto  ;  entered  the  Franciscan  order  ;  be- 
came noted  as  a  preacher  ;  undertook  success- 
fully several  diplomatic  missions  ;  was  made 
bishop  of  Agatha  de  Goti,  and,  in  1570,  a 
cardinal.  He  was  an  enereetic  and  resolute 
man,  frugal  in  his  habits,  and  with  developed 
taste  both  for  science  and  art.  Though  he 
built  the  dome  of  St.  Peter,  the  Lateran  pal- 
ace, etc.,  he  left  a  full  treasury.  In  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  papal  states  he  introduced 
many  reforms,  drained  the  Pontine  marshes, 
put  down  banditti  gangs,  encouraged  manu- 
facture and  commerce,  etc.  In  his  govern- 
ment of  the  church  he  generally  followed  the 
policy  of  Philip  II.,  though  not  slavi-shly. 
His  life  by  Hiibner,  Paris,  1871,  2  vols.,  has 


been  translated  into  English  by  Jermingham, 
London,  1872.  C  P. 

Skinner,   Thomas   Harvey,   D.D.,  LL.D. 

(Williams  College,  1826,  1855),  Presbyterian  ; 
b.  at  Harvey's  Neck,  N.  C,  March  7,  1791  ; 
d.  in  New  York,  Feb.  1,  1871.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Princeton  ;  licensed  to  preach  in 
1812,  and,  after  holding  various  pastoral 
charges,  appointed  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric 
and  pastoral  theology  in  Union  Theological 
Seminary  in  New  York,  1848.  He  published 
Aids  to  Preaching  and  Hearing,  New  York, 
1839  ;  Hints  to  Christians,  1841  ;  Discussions 
in  Theologii,  1868  ;  a  translation  of  Vinet's 
Pastoral  Thi'Dlogg  and  Homiletics  (1854),  etc. 
(See  the  memoir  of  him  by  G.  L.  Prentiss, 
New  York,  1871.) 

Slavery  among  the  Hebrews  was  a  mild 
form  of  involuntary  servitude.  A  man  might 
become  bound  to  this  service  through  poverty 
(Ex.  xxi.  2-11)  ;  to  acquit  himself  of  a  debt 
he  could  not  otherwise  pay  (2  Kings  iv.  1)  ; 
to  make  restitution  for  a  theft  (Ex.  xxii.  3). 
This  form  of  serv^ice  could  not  continue  longer 
than  six  years,  unless  when  the  seventh  year 
arrived  the  slave  did  not  wish  to  go,  in  which 
case  his  ear  was  bored  before  witnesses  (Ex. 
xxi.  6)  and  he  remained  till  the  Jubilee.  The 
owner  was  expressly  forbidden  to  "  rule  over 
him  with  rigor"  (Lev.  xxv.  43).  He  had  an 
appeal  to  the  tribunals,  a  right  to  all  religious 
privileges,  and  on  his  release  was  not  allowed 
to  go  out  empty  (Deut.  xv.  14).  That  these 
humane  regulations  were  sometimes  violated 
appears  from  Jer.  xxxiv.  (cf.  2  Chron.  xxviii.). 
The  attempt  to  hold  Hebrews  as  bond-servants 
on  the  return  from  exile  was  promptly  re- 
buked by  Nehemiah  (v.  1-13). 

Non-Hebrew  slaves  were  captives  made  in 
war  or  bought  from  dealers  (Lev.  xxv.  45). 
These  also  were  protected  by  law.  They 
might  become  proselytes  and  attend  the  festi- 
vals. If  they  were  mutilated,  they  got  their 
liberty  (Ex.  xxi.  26,  27),  and  to  kill  one  was 
murder  (Lev.  xxiv.  17).  Their  service  was 
menial,  yet  by  industry  and  ability  they  could 
rise  to  positions  of  trust,  and  become  stewards 
as  Eliezer  (Gen.  xv.  2),  or  independent  land- 
owners as  Ziba  (2  Sam.  ix.  2,  9). 

Roman  slavery  was  greatly  different.  The 
bondage  was  perpetual,  and  the  master  had 
absolute  control  of  the  person  and  life  of  his 
slaves.  He  might  treat  them  kindly,  but  no 
law  compelled  him  to  do  so.  This  was  the 
sort  of  slavery  mentioned  incidentally  in  the 
New  Testament.  Nothing  is  said  about  its 
abolition.  On  the  contrary,  it  seems  to  be 
recognized  and  tolerated.  Slaves  were  en- 
joined to  be  obedient  to  their  masters  and  to 
prove  their  Christian  character  by  patience 
under  suffering,  and  masters  were  enjoined  to 
render  unto  slaves  that  which  is  just  and 
equal.  Yet  Christianity  provided  for  the  ulti- 
mate extinction  of  slavery,  not  by  requiring 
emancipation  or  in  any  way  disturbing  the 
outward  legal  relation  between  the  two  par- 
ties, but  by  enforcing  the  rights  and  duties 
of  each.  Thus  it  accomplished  what  no  other 
religion  has  even  attempted  before  or  since, 
and  that  without  revolution  or  violence  or  dis- 
turbing the  peace   of  a  single  family.     To 


SLEIDAN 


(863) 


SMITH 


teach  the  common  origin  and  common  re- 
demption of  all  men  is  the  most  eifectual 
method  of  uprooting  all  class  distinctions  and 
civil  and  social  inequalities.  T.  W.  C. 

Sleidan  (sll-dan).  Johannes,  b.  at  Sleiden, 
near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  loOG  ;  d.  at  Strassburg, 
Oct.  31, 1556  ;  his  original  name  was  Philipp- 
sohn.  He  studied  jurisprudence  in  Paris, 
embraced  the  Reformation,  settled  at  Strass- 
burg,  and  was  often  used  by  the  Protestant 
princes  in  diplomatic  negotiations.  On  the 
instance  of  the  members  of  the  Schmalcaldian 
League  he  wrote  D«  utatu  rdifjii>nh  ft  rtipab- 
lioB  Carolo  Quiiito  Ccvsare  commcntarii,  Strass- 
burg,  1553-56,  which  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man, Dutch,  Swedish,  French,  Italian,  and 
English  (London,  1689),  and  answered  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  side  by  Fontaine,  Gennep, 
Surius,  and  Maimbourg.  (See  his  ]j:ben  by 
Baumgarten,  Strassburg,  1878,  and  Brief - 
wecJmi,  1881.) 

Smalcald.     See  Schmalcald. 

Smalley,  John,  D.D.  (Princeton,  1800), 
Congregalionali.st,  b.  at  Columbia  (then  Leb- 
anon), Conn.,  June 4, 1734  ;  d.  at  New  Britain, 
Conn.,  June  1,  1820  ;  studied  theology  under 
Joseph  Bellamy,  and  was  in  1758  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at  New 
Britain,  where  he  remained  for  over  lifty 
years.  His  success  as  a  preacher  and  as  a 
teacher  Avas  quite  remarkable,  and  by  Ins  two 
sermons  on  Katural  and  Moral  Inabiliti/,  Bos- 
ton, 1769  (rep.  in  London),  he  exercised  a 
definite  influence  on  the  formation  of  New 
England  theology.  He  also  published  3  vols, 
of  Dim'tims,  Boston,  1803  and  1814. 

Smectymnuus,  a  name  formed  out  of  the 
initials  of  jStepheu  J/arshall,  JE'dmund  Calamy, 
Thomas  Jbung,  il/athew  JN'ewcomen.  and 
irilliam  ^Spurstow,  the  joint  authors  of  An 
Answer  to  a  Booke  cntituled  "  An  Inimhle  lie- 
monstrance,"'  etc.,  1641,  in  reply  to  Bishop 
Joseph  Hall's  Humble  liemon  fit  ranee  to  t]ie 
High  Court  of  Parliament,  London,  1610. 

Smith,  EU,  D.D.  ( ,  18—),  Congre- 
gational missionary  ;  b.  at  Northford,  Conn., 
Sept.  15,  1801  ;  d.  at  Beirut,  Syria,  Jan.  11, 
1857.  After  graduating  at  Yale,  1821,  and 
at  Andover,  1826,  he  was  sent  bv  tiie  A.  B. 
C.  F.  M.  to  Beirut.  In  1830,  with  H.  G.  O. 
Dwight,  he  went  to  Persia  and  founded  a 
Nestorian  mission.  (See  liis  Mimonary  Re- 
searches ill  Armenia,  Boston,  1833,  3  vols., 
rep.  in  London,  1834.)  He  accompanied  and 
assisted  Dr.  £.  Robinson  in  his  explorations  of 
1838  and  1852.  He  began  translating  the  Bible 
into  Arabic,  1846,  and  completed  the  New 
Testament  and  considerable  portions  of  the 
Old.  F.  M.  B. 

Smith,  George,  Assvriologist  :  b.  in  Eng- 
land about  1825  ;  d.  at 'Aleppo,  Aug.  19.  1876. 
He  was  an  engraver,  but  learned  the  Oriental 
tongues ;  obtained  a  place  in  tlij  British 
Museum,  1867  ;  was  sent  to  Nineveh,  1873, 
by  the  Tehgraph  newspaper,  and  1874-75  by 
the  Museum.  He  made  many  valualdc  dis- 
coveries, including  the  ruins  of  Carchemish, 
and  wrote  several  books  about  them,  includ- 
ing a  CJiahhan  Account  of  Ocnesis,  London, 
1876,  n.e.  by  Sayce,  1880.  F.  M.  B. 


Smith,  Henry  Boynton,  D.D.  (University 
of  Vermont,  1850),  LL.D.  (Princeton.  1869), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Portland,  Me.,  Nov.  21, 
1815  ;  d.  in  New  York,  Feb.  7,  1877.  He 
graduated  at  J?owdoin,  1834  ;  studied  at  An- 
dover and  Bangor,  and  (1838-40)  at  Halle  and 
Berlin,  where  he  met  Tholuck,  Neander,  and 
other  eminent  scholars.  After  intervals  of 
teaching  at  Bowdoin  and  Andover,  he  was 
Congregational  pastor  at  "VVe.st  Ame.sbury, 
Mass.,  1842-47,  and  profe.s.sor  of  mental  and 
moral  jihilosophy  at  Amherst,  1847-50.  In 
1850  he  took  the  chair  of  church  history  iu 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  Y(jrk,  and 
in  1853  was  transferred  to  that  of  systematic 
theology.  The  duties  of  this  post  lie  di>;- 
charged  with  eminent  al)ility  till  his  hcaltli 
broke  down  in  1874  ;  his  influence  Avas  deep 
and  powerful  on  his  numerous  students,  audi 
on  the  New  School  Presbyterian  body  at  large. 
He  wrote  much  for  the  Evangelixt,  founded 
and  edited  for  a  time  The  American  Thco- 
hxjical  Ihriew,  1859-63,  and  was  a  co-editor  of 
The  Annriean  Presbyterian  and  Thcolixjical 
li,  ri,  ir,  l,si;2-71.  and  of  ThcPi-exbytcriaa  Quar- 
tvrli/  and  Princeton  Review,  1872-74.  He  vis- 
ited Evirope,  1859,  l8GG,  and  1869-70,  on  the 
latter  occasion  going  to  the  Orient.  He  was 
moderator  of  tiie  N.  S.  General  Assembly  at 
Philadelphia,  1863,  and  in  1864  preached  at 
Dayton,  ().,  a  memorable  sermon  on  Chris- 
tian Union  and  Ecclesiastical  Reunion.  This 
discourse,  with  his  labors  at  the  Convention 
of  1867,  earned  for  him  the  title,  "hero  of 
reimion."  He  wrote  much  on  behalf  of  the 
Union  during  the  Rebellion,  and  contributed 
to  Appleton's  Cyclopadia  articles  on  Calvin, 
Hegel,  Schelling,  Pantheism,  the  Reformed 
churches,  and  oilier  topics.  Of  liis  address  at 
Andover  on  The  Relations  of  Faith  and,  Plti- 
losophy,  1849,  and  that  on  Church  History,  in 
New  York,  1850,  Bancroft,  the  historian, 
testified,  "  I  know  no  one  in  the  country  but 
yourself  wlio  could  have  Avritten  them."  It 
is  matter  of  regret  that  he  failed  to  elaborate 
his  theological  system,  and  left  in  print  no 
monument  worthy  of  his  talents  and  learning. 
Except  his  valualile  Histm-yofthe  Church  of 
Christ   in  Chronological  Tables,    New   York, 

1859,  and  liis  Memorial  of  Anson  O.  Phelps, 

1860,  his  independent  publications  were  biief 
and  casual,  lie  edited  and  in  part  translated 
Gic.sseier's  Church  History,  1859-63,  4  vols., 
Ilageiibacirs  Hixt>a-y  <f  Christian  Doctrine, 
lS(il-f)3,  3  vols.,  and' Sti'er's  Words  of  the  Ijml 
Jesus,  1864-65.  He  aided  Rev.  Dr.  R.  D. 
Hitchcock  in  jirepariiig  tlie  Life,  Character, 
and  Writings  if  l-jlicard  Robinson,  1864  ;  but 
lie  was  ciiary  of  original  work.  His  friends 
and  colleagiies  have  to  some  extent  supplied 
this  deticieney  since  his  death  :  his  Faith  and 
Phihisophif,  Discourses  and  Essays,  was  edited 
bv  Rev.  "Dr.  G.  L.  PrentLss.  'l877,  and  his 
Ajyolor/ftics,  1882  ;  Introduction  to  Christian 
Theoiogi/,  18H3.  and  Si/stcuuitic  Theology,  by 
Rev.  Dr.  W.  S.  Karr.  1884. 4th  ed.,  1890.  (See 
his  Life  and  Work,  by  his  widow,  New  York, 
1881.)  F.  M.  B. 

Smith,  John  Cotton,  D.D.  (Columl)ia  Col- 
leire,  Nfw  York,  1h(52),  Protestant  Episcopal  ; 
b.  at  Andover,   Mass.,  Aug.   4.  1826;  d.  in 


SMITH 


SMITH 


New  York,  Jan.  9,  1883.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1847  ;  held  pastoral 
charges  at  Bangor  and  in  Boston  ;  was  rector 
of  the  Church  of  the  Ascension,  New  York, 
from  1860  till  his  death,  and  occupied  a 
prominent  position  as  a  leader  in  much  of  the 
evangelical  and  philanthropic  work  of  his 
time.  He  edited  Ghurch  and  State  and  pub- 
lished Miscellanies,  New  York,  1876  ;  Brier 
Jlill  Lectures  on  Present  Aspects  of  the  Ghurch, 
1881,  etc. 

Smith,    John    Pye,   D.D.    ( ,    18—), 

LL.D.  ( ,  18—),  F.Il.S.  (IS—),  Congre- 

gationalist  ;  b.  at  Sheffield,  England,  May  25, 
1774  ;  d.  at  Guildford,  Surrey,  29  m.  s.w.  of 
London,  Feb.  5, 1851.  He  studied  at  Rother- 
ham,  and  taught  divinity  and  classics  at  Ho- 
merton,  1800-50,  preaching  also  at  Gravel 
Pits  Chapel.  He  incurred  the  suspicion  of 
some  by  his  interest  in  German  theology,  and 
his  efforts  to  reconcile  faith  with  science.  He 
published  Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Messiah, 
London,  1818-21,  2  vols.  ;  Sacrifice  and  Priest- 
Tbood  of  Christ,  1828  ;  Principles  of  Intcrprreta- 
tion,  1829  ;  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Creation  and 
Deluge,  1837  ;  Scripture  and  Geology,  1839  ; 
First  Lines  of  Christian  Theology,  1854.  His 
memoirs,  by  J.  Medway,  appeared  in  London, 
1853.  F.  M.  B. 

Smith,  Joseph,  Jr.,  Mormon  prophet  ;  b. 
in  Sharon,  Windsor  County,  Vt.,  December 
23,  1805,  of  poor  and  thriftless  parents  ;  killed 
at  Carthage,  III.,  June  27,  1844.  His  family 
led  a  sort  of  gypsy  existence  from  1804  to 
1815,  changing  their  place  of  residence  seven 
times  in  that  period  ;  last  removal  to  Palmyra, 
"Wayne  County,  N.  Y.  In  1819  they  removed 
to  Manchester,  Ontario  County,  N.  Y.  In 
1820  Joseph  became  a  probationer  among  the 
Methodists  for  a  brief  season.  Ii  1822  he 
came  into  possession  of  the  seer  stone,  and 
left  off  the  use  of  the  divining  rod  and  of  for- 
tune-telling, to  which  he  had  been  hitherto 
addicted.  iSTewspapers  noticed  and  ridiculed 
his  feats  with  the  seer  stone.  Perhaps  by  that 
means  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Sidney 
Rigdon  (q.v.),  who  had  lately  obtained  the 
Book  of  Mormon.  First  interview  with  Rig- 
don took  place  Sept.  21,  1823.  Next  day 
a  spot  was  fixed  upon  where  Rigdon  should 
deliver  the  manuscript  to  bmith  at  the  time 
when  it  sliould  be  ready  for  publication.  Jo- 
seph speaks  of  this  as  the  visit  of  an  angel  ;  his 
mother,  who  got  a  good  view  of  the  pretended 
angel,  said,  "  He  must  be  a  Quaker,  as  he  was 
dressed  very  plainly."  Annual  demonstra- 
tions occurred  at  the  appointed  place— the  hill 
Cumorah — until  Sept.  22,  1827.  Joseph  hav- 
ing married  Miss  Emma  Hale  in  Jan.,  1827, 
Rigdon  concluded  to  entrust  the  Boole  of  Mor- 
mon to  his  keeping  on  the  last  appearance  at 
Cumorah.  Two  years  were  employed  in  get- 
ting a  fair  copy  of  the  volume,  in  which  time 
he  had  the  assistance  of  ]\Iartin  Harris  and 
Oliver  Cowdery.  While  the  work  was  going 
forward  Rigdon  came  to  Pennsylvania  and 
made  a  second  redaction  of  Wia  Book  of  Mor- 
mon, and  it  was  published  in  March,  1830, 
and  "the  Church  of  Christ"  organized  at 
Manchester,  Ontario  County,  N.  Y.,  April 
6,  1830.     Ri.i;don  was  expected  to  come  and 


carry  them  to  Kirtland,  O.,  where  he  had  been 
preparing  the  way  for  them,  but  his  courage 
failed.  He  sent  his  convert  and  protege,  P. 
P.  Pratt,  in  Aug.,  1830,  who  was  immersed 
into  the  new  church.  In  Oct.  Pratt  and 
Cowdery  came  to  Kirtland  and  went  through 
the  form  of  immersing  Rigdon.  This  immer- 
sion, which  took  place  Nov.  8,  1830,  was  a 
total  surrender  of  leadership  on  the  part  of 
Rigdon,  who  was  the  real  founder  of  Mor- 
monism.  Rigdon  went  to  New  York  and 
brought  Smith  and  "  the  Church  of  Christ" 
to  Kirtland  in  the  last  days  of  Jan., 1831.  It 
had  great  success  in  Ohio.  In  Aug.,  1831,  a 
new  centre  of  the  church  was  established  at 
Independence,  Mo.,  under  the  name  of  Zion. 
In  1834  a  military  expedition  was  led  by  Smith 
from  Kirtland  to  Independence  to  protect  the 
dwellers  in  Zion.  Theocratic  notions  now 
became  so  strongly  developed  that  there  were 
numerous  and  violent  conflicts  between  the 
people  of  Zion  and  the  people  of  Missouri 
Smith  kept  his  residence  at  Kirtland  till  Jan. 
12,  1838,  when  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge 
among  his  followers  in  Missouri.  A  war  of 
extermination  was  proclaimed  by  the  Mormons 
against  the  people  of  Missouri  on  July  4,  1838, 
which  broke  out  on  Aug.  6,  1838,  but  the 
Mormons  were  expelled  from  Missouri  in  the 
winter  of  1838-39.  They  took  refuge  in  Illi- 
nois, where  they  established  the  flourishing 
city  of  Nauvoo.  Smith  became  a  power  in 
.state  politics.  On  May  17,  1844,  he  caused 
himself  and  Rigdon  to  be  nominated  for  the 
oftice  of  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  and  vigorous  exertions  were 
made  to  procure  the  election,  electoral  tickets 
being  announced  in  nearly  every  state.  But 
the  people  of  Illinois,  unable  longer  to  endure 
the  theocracy,  rose  up  and  attacked  the  Mor- 
mons in  June,  1844,  and  Mr.  Smith  and  his 
brother  Hyrum  were  killed  at  Carthage,  a  few 
miles  from  Nauvoo,  on  June  27,  1844. 

Doctrines  of  the  Mormon  Church. — The  fol- 
lowing is  the  most  widely  recognized  creed  of 
the  church  ;  it  was  sent  forth  by  Joseph  Smith 
in  1844,  and  is  a  fair  statement  of  the  main 
tenets  of  the  system  he  proclaimed  : 

"  1.  We  believe  in  God,  the  Eternal  Father, 
and  in  his  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

"2.  We  believe  that  men  will  be  punished 
for  their  own  sins,  and  not  for  Adam's  trans- 
gression. 

"  3.  We  believe  that  through  the  atonement 
of  Christ  all  mankind  may  be  saved,  by  obe- 
dience to  the  laws  and  ordinances  of  the 
gospel. 

' '  4.  We  believe  that  these  ordinances  are  : 
first,  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  ;  second, 
repentance  ;  third,  baptism  by  immersion  for 
the  remission  of  sins  :  fourth,  laying  on  of 
hands  for  the  gift  of  the  Hoi}'  Ghost. 

"  5.  We  believe  that  a  man  must  be  called 
of  God,  by  prophecy  and  by  the  laying  on  of 
hands  by  those  who  are  in  authority,  to  preach 
the  gospel  and  administer  in  the  ordinances 
thereof. 

"6.  We  believe  in  the  same  organization 
that  existed  in  the  primitive  church,  viz., 
apostles,  prophets,  pastors,  teachers,  evangel- 
ists, Cl8. 


SMITH 


(865) 


SOCIALISM 


"  7.  We  believe  in  the  gift  of  tongues, 
prophecy,  revelation,  visions,  healing,  inter- 
pretation of  tongues,  etc. 

"8.  We  believe  the  Bible  to  be  the  Word 
of  God,  as  far  as  it  is  translated  correctly  ;  we 
also  believe  the  Book  of  Mormon  to  be  the 
Word  of  God. 

"9.  We  believe  all  that  God  has  revealed, 
all  that  he  does  now  reveal,  and  we  believe 
that  he  will  yet  reveal  manj^  great  and  impor- 
tant things  pertaining  to  the  kingdom  of  God. 

"  10.  We  believe  in  the  literal  gathering  of 
Israel  and  in  the  restoration  of  the  ten  tribes. 
That  Zion  will  be  built  upon  this  continent. 
That  Christ  will  reign  personally  upon  the 
earth,  and  that  the  earth  will  be  renewed  and 
receive  its  paradisiacal  glory. 

"  11.  We  claim  the  privilege  of  worshipping 
Almighty  God  according  to  the  dictates  of 
our  conscience,  and  allow  all  men  the  same 
privilege,  let  them  worship  how,  where,  or 
what  they  may. 

"12.  We  believe  in  being  subject  to  kings, 
presidents,  rulers,  and  magistrates,  in  obey- 
ing, honoring,  and  sustaining  the  law. 

"  13.  We  believe  in  being  honest,  true, 
chaste,  benevolent,  virtuous,  and  in  doing 
good  to  all  men  ;  indeed  we  may  say  that  we 
follow  the  admonition  of  Paul,  '  We  believe 
all  things,  we  hope  all  things,'  we  have  en- 
dured many  things,  and  hope  to  be  able  to 
endure  all  things.  If  there  is  anything  vir- 
tuous, lovely,  or  of  good  report,  or  praise- 
worthy, we  seek  after  these  things." 

William  II.  Wiiitsitt. 

Smith,  Sydney,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Woodford,  Essex,  June  3,  1771  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  22,  1845.  He  gained  a  fellowship 
in  New  College,  Oxford,  1790,  and  held  vari- 
ous preferments,  but  lived  chiefly  in  London, 
and  wrote  for  the  Edlnbur<ih  Ririar.  Famous 
chiefly  as  a  wit  and  critic,  he  was  also  an  effec- 
tive preacher,  and  publi.shed  manv  sermons. 
His  lAtters  of  Peter  Pli/mhij,  London,  1808. 
had  a  main  share  in  preparing  the  wav  for 
Catholic  emancipation.  His  SkctrJus  of  ^^or(d 
Philosophy  appeared  1850,  and  his  memoir  by 
his  daughter.  Lady  Holland,  London  and 
New  York,  1855.  F.  il.  B. 

Smith,    William    Andrew,    D.D.  ( , 

18—).  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South  ;  b. 
at  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Nov.  29,  1802  ;  d.  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  JVIarch  1,  1870.  After  pre- 
paring for  the  ministry  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Virginia  Conference  in  1S25,  and  chosen 
pr^'sidcnt  of  Randolph- iLicon  College  in  1846. 
and  of  Central  College,  Missouri,  in  1869. 
He  edited  for  several  years  the  Cfin'stian  Ad- 
vocate at  Richmond,  and  published  Philoxtfjihi/ 
and  Practice  of  !-il,nrry,  Nashville,  ls57,  a  de- 
fence of  that  institution.  There  is  a  memoir 
of  him  by  Bishop  J.  C.  Granbery  in  the  Ucn- 
ernl  Mimitis  of  1S70. 

Smith,  William  Robertson,  LL.D.  (Aber- 
deen, 1882),  Free  Ciiurch  of  Scotland  ;  b.  at 
Keig,  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  Nov.  8.  1840  ; 
studied  at  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  Bonn,  and 
Gtittingen.  and  was  in  1S70  appointed  profes- 
sor of  "Hebrew  in  the  Free  Cliurch  College, 
Aberdeen,  but  was  in  18^1  removed  by  the 
General  Assembly  on  account  of  his  alleged 


heretical  teaching.  In  1883  he  was  made  Lord 
xilmoner's  professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  ; 
in  1886  librarian  to  the  university  ;  in  1889 
professor  of  Arabic,  in  succession  to  Will- 
iam Wright.  He  has  published  The  Old 
TiKtiiinentiii  the  Jcirish  Church,  London.  1881  ; 
The  Prophtx  ,f  Ixnul,  1882;  Kinship  and 
Miirridne  in  Edrli/  Ara/iiii,  1885  ;  Lectures  on 
the  R*  liiiiow  of  the  tkmites,  London  and  New 
York,  18W9. 

Smyrna  {ntijrrh),  an  ancient  city  on  the  west 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
seven  churches  addressed  by  Christ  in  the 
Apocalypse  (Rev.  i.  11,  ii.  8-11).  It  was  at 
the  head  of  the  Hermtean  Gulf  and  40  m. 
n.  of  Ephesus.  It  was  famous  for  its  wealth 
and  beauty.  Christianity  was  early  planted 
there  and  furnished  many  martyrs  in  tlic 
persecution  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  among 
them  the  aged  Polycarp,  a  pupil  of  the  Apos- 
tle John.  The  modern  city  has  a  population 
of  190,000,  and  is  a  busy  centre  of  trade. 

T.  W.  C. 

Smyth,  Egbert  Coffin,  D.D.  (Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, Brunswick,  3Ie.,  1866),  Congregationaiist; 
b.  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  Aug.  24,  1829  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Bowdoin  College,  1848,  and  Bangor 
Theological  Seminary,  1853  ;  became  profes- 
sor at  Bowdoin  College  in  1856,  at  Andovtr 
Theological  Seminary  in  1863,  and  president 
in  1878.  He  has  edited  the  Andover  Jieriew 
since  its  start  in  1884. 

Smyth,  John,  founder  of  the  General  Bap- 
tists ;  d.  in  Hollaml,  1612.  He  entered  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  1571  ;  became  a  fellow, 
and  vicar  of  Gainsborough,  Lincolnshire  ; 
took  charge  of  a  Separatist  congregation. 
1602  ;  imbibed  Anabaptist  opinions,  and  tmi- 
grated  with  his  flock  to  Amsterdam.  With 
T.  Helwvs  (who  afterward  went  to  London 
and  organi/.ed  the  Baptist  denomination  tliere) 
he  put  forth  a  Confession  of  Faith.  He  also 
published  Principles  and  Jnferenas,  London, 
1607  ;  ParidUis,  Censures,  Obsermtions,  1609  ; 
Character  of  the  Beast,  1609  ;  BiffrrenciSofthr 
Churches  of  the  Stp<tration.  (See  his  True 
Story,  by  li.  M.  Dexter,  Boston,  issi.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Smyth  (Samuel  Phillips),  Newman,  D  D. 
(University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  18H1). 
Congregationaiist  ;  b.  at  Brunswick.  Me., 
June  25,  1843  ;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College, 
1863,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1867  ;  became  pastor  of  the  First  Churcli. 
Bangor,  >Ie.,  1870  ;  First  (Presbvterian) 
Churcli,  Quincv,  111..  1876  ;  Fir.^t  Cluircli. 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  1882.  He  is  the  autlior 
of  The  lieliyious  Feeling,  New  York.  1H77  ; 
Old  Faiths  i'n  New  La/ht,  1879,  rev.  ed.,  1H87  ; 
The  Orthodo.r  Th>ol„f/y  ofTo-dai/,  18H1  ;  The 
Reality  of  Faith,  1884  ;  Christian  Facts  and 
Forc<s,  18H7  ;  Personal  CreedJ>,  1890. 

Socialism,  the  name  given  to  a  rla^s  (if 
opinions  that  would  reconstruct  socii  ty,  in- 
troduce a  new  distribution  of  property,  ami 
make  co-operation  the  ruling  prin«iple  in  op- 
position tocomiM'tition.  Schomesof  this  kind 
have  been  broaclied  in  all  past  uge.s,  and  (sih-- 
ciallv  since  the  great  upturning  caused  by  thf 
French  Revolution,  a  century  ago.     The  jilana 


SOCINUS 


866) 


SOISSONS 


of  Owen,  Fourier,  St.  Simon,  and  others  have 
at  times  awakened  great  enthusiasm,  and 
though  they  all  failed,  yet  even  at  the  present 
there  is  a  vigorous  assertion  of  socialistic 
principles  alike  in  Europe  and  America.  That 
good  has  sprung  from  the  movement  is  not  to 
be  denied.  The  vital  interdependence  of  all 
classes,  the  faults  of  the  selfish  system  pushed 
to  excess,  and  the  many  evils  inherent  in  our 
present  civilization  have  been  carefully  dis- 
played ;  yet  the  world  at  large  has  refused  to 
accept  the  theory.  And  with  good  reason, 
for  it  makes  human  happiness  too  much  de- 
pendent upon  material  gratifications  ;  it  robs 
man  of  the  energy  that  springs  from  ambition  ; 
it  unwisely  ignores  the  claims  of  individual- 
ism ;  and  by  its  abolition  of  social  rewards 
and  punishments  it  fails  to  hold  out  hope  to 
the  industrious,  or  awaken  apprehension 
among  the  indolent. 

There  is  great  reason  to  think  that  no  new 
arrangement  of  government  or  law  would  do 
away  with  the  inequalities  of  condition  which 
are  such  a  painful  feature  of  the  existing  state 
of  things.  For  these  inequalities  arise  from 
natural  differences  of  capacity  among  men, 
from  periods  of  commercial  revulsion  and 
financial  distress,  from  providential  occur- 
rences such  as  floods,  fires,  accidents  to  life  or 
limb,  and  from  mpral  causes,  such  as  intem- 
perance, imprudence,  indolence,  and  the  like. 
These  are  causes  which  it  does  not  lie  in  the 
power  of  human  government  to  control.  With 
the  best  intentions  legislators  may  produce 
the  worst  results.  Nor  would  it  be  well  for 
society  to  be  on  a  dead  level  throughout,  for 
it  would  be  very  dull  and  stupid.  The  only 
effective  agent  in  subserving  the  aims  of  a 
true  social  science  is  the  gospel,  which  lays 
its  hand  upon  both  ends  of  the  scale,  speaks 
alike  to  the  rich  and  the  poor,  sweetly  soothes 
asperities,  enforces  righteously  the  great  bond 
of  human  brotherhood,  and  secures  its  observ- 
ance by  laying  under  it  the  great  primary 
obligation  to  the  one  God  who  is  over  all. 
(See  books  on  socialism  by  T.  D.  Woolsey 
[New  York,  1880],  Ely  [1883],  Rae  [London, 
1884],  Laveleye  [1885],  Bax  [1886],  Behrends 
[New  York,  1886],  A.  Bierbower  [Chicago, 
1890],  A.  Barry  [London,  1890],  P.  W. 
Sprague  [New  York,  1890],  William  Graham 
[London  and  New  York,  1891].)    T.  W.  C. 

Socinus,  liaelius  and  Faustus,  uncle  and 
nephew,  gave  to  the  anti-Trinitarians  who, 
after  being  expelled  from  Switzerland,  settled 
in  Poland,  the  name,  the  doctrinal  develop- 
ment, and  the  ecclesiastical  organization  which 
made  them  a  definite  sect — the  Socinians. 
Lselius  Socinus,  b.  at  Siena,  Italy,  31  m. 
s.e.  of  Florence,  1525  ;  d.  at  Zurich,  May  16, 
1562  ;  studied  first  jurisprudence,  but  became 
afterward  absorbed  by  theological  researches, 
which  finally  led  him  to  reject  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  In  1547  he  left  Italy  to  avoid 
the  Inquisition.  He  visited  France,  England, 
Holland,  Germany,  and  Switzerland,  and 
everywhere  he  conversed  with  the  reformers, 
but  he  spoke  so  guardedly  of  his  anti-Trini- 
tarian views  that  he  escaped  any  serious  sus- 
picion. Twice  he  visited  Poland,  in  1555  and 
1558.      Faustus   Socinus,  also  b.   at  Siena, 


1539  ;  d.  at  Luclawice,  Poland,  March  3, 
1604  ;  was  by  the  study  of  the  literary  re- 
mains of  his  uncle  led  to  adopt  his  views  and 
compelled  to  flee  from  the  Inquisition  in  1574. 
He  settled  at  Basel.  In  1578  he  went  to  Tran- 
sylvania to  act  as  umpire  in  the  controversy 
between  Davidis  and  Blandrata.  In  1587  he 
settled  at  Cracow,  but  was  in  1598  driven  out 
of  the  city  by  the  brutal  attacks  of  the  stu- 
dents. He  succeeded,  however,  in  having  the 
Anabaptists  excluded  from  the  other  Unitari- 
ans, who  now  became  known  as  Socinians. 
His  Opera  were  printed  in  the  first  two  volumes 
of  Biblioth.  fratr.  Polon.  The  first  part  of  tlie 
17th  century  was  a  period  of  great  prosperity 
to  the  Socinians,  though  the  Roman  Catholics 
persecuted  them  as  Arians,  and  the  religious 
liberty  of  Poland,  which  even  the  Jews  en- 
joyed, was  not  extended  to  them.  But  in 
1657,  during  the  war  between  Sweden  and 
Poland,  some  Socinians  happened  to  place 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  Swedes, 
and  in  1658  the  diet  of  Warsaw  marked  the 
whole  sect  as  traitors  to  Poland  and  con- 
demned them  to  death.  In  a  short  time  they 
were  scattered  ;  some  went  to  Transylvania, 
others  to  Holland,  etc.  (See  Fock,  Socinian- 
ismus,  Kiel,  1847,  and  the  art.  Unitarian- 
ism.)  C.  P. 

Socrates,  the  Greek  church  historian  ;  b. 
in  Constantinople  about  380  ;  studied  rhetoric 
and  jurisprudence  ;  lived  as  a  scJiolasticus,  "  a 
chamber-lawyer,"  in  his  native  city,  but  took 
a  vivid  interest  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  and 
wrote,  as  a  continuation  of  the  work  of  Euse- 
bius,  a  church  history,  comprising  the  period 
from  305-439,  and  characterized  by  amaz- 
ing credulity  concerning  all  tales  of  miracles, 
great  toleration  for  heterodox  tendencies,  and 
a  multitude  of  valuable  and  well  accredited 
details.  There  are  several  editions  of  his 
works  accompanied  with  Latin  translations, 
and  also  an  English  translation  revised  and 
annotated  by  A.  C.  Zenos,  New  York,  Chris- 
tian Literature  Company,  1891. 

Sod'-om,  the  chief  of  a  group  of  cities  in 
the  vale  of  Siddim  which  for  their  wickedness 
were  destroyed  by  fire  from  heaven.  It  was 
situated  in  a  well-watered  plain,  fertile  "as 
the  garden  of  the  Lord,"  and  therefore  chosen 
by  Lot  as  his  home  (Gen.  xiii.  10).  Its  terri- 
ble doom  (as  recounted  in  Gen.  xix.)  is  often 
in  Scripture  held  up  as  warning  to  sinners 
(Deut.  xxix.  23,  Isa.  i.  9,  xiii.  19,  etc.). 
Whether  it  was  at  the  northern  or  southern 
end  of  the  lake  is  still  undecided.  T.  W.  C. 


(swa-song),  (Latin,  Suessionum  or 
Noviodunum),  a  city  of  France,  in  the  De- 
partment of  Aisne,  has  been  the  seat  of  nine 
councils,  of  which  the  most  important  are  : 
I.,  743,  which  forbade  the  higher  clergy  to 
hunt,  fight,  marry,  etc.,  and  prohibited  un- 
known persons  to  perform  ecclesiastical 
duties  ;  VI.,  1092,  which  passed  judgment 
between  Anselm  and  Roscelin,  and  compelled 
the  latter  to  recant  ;  VII.,  1121,  which  com- 
pelled Abelard  to  throw  his  works  into  the 
fire  with  his  own  hands  ;  VIII.,  1201,  which 
gave  the  verdict  in  the  case  of  King  Philip 
August,  that  he  should  take  back  his  first 
wife,  the  Danish  princess  Ingeborg,  whom  he 


SOIiFIDIANS 


(867) 


SONG 


had  repudiated.  The  councils  II.,  III.,  IV., 
and  v..  853,  861,  863,  866,  all  convened  in  the 
case  of  Hiucmar  of  llheims,  were  rather  of 
political,  council  IX.  of  merely  liturgical  im- 
port. 

Solifidians  (frtmi  solux,  "  alone,"  ami  fdcs, 
"  faith"),  an  old  designation  of  those  who 
held  that  salvation  is  of  faitli  alone. 

Sol'-o-mon  {patccfitl),  the  son  and  successor 
of  Davul.  lie  was  a  child  of  special  promise 
(2  Sam.  vii.  13-15),  and  before  his  birth  was 
designated  by  God  for  the  tlirone  (1  Chron. 
xxii.  9).  His  kingly  prospects  were  endan- 
gered by  Adonijah's  cousjjiracy,  but  at  the 
instance  of  Nathan  and  Bathshcba  David  at 
once  invested  him  with  the  robes  of  royalty 
(1  Kings  i.  32-53).  He  was  not  more  than 
twenty  when  his  father's  death  made  him 
sole  ruler.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  offer 
sacrifice  at  Gibeon,  and  here  when  God  pro- 
posed to  grant  what  he  should  ask,  he  made 
choice  of  wisdom,  to  which  God  added  riches 
and  honor  (iii.  4-15). 

The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  very  pros- 
perous, lie  showed  great  sagacity,  and  his 
fame  for  wisdom  was  spread  all  over  the  East 
(1  Kings  iv.  29-34,  3  Chron.  ix.).  His  court 
was  distinguished  for  its  magnificence,  and  in 
his  reign  Israel  had  a  flourishing  connnerce 
(1  Kings  i.x.  26-28  ;  x.  22).  He  built  the 
stately  temple  designed  by  his  father,  and 
established  the  regular  services  according  to 
the  Mosaic  law,  and  the  courses  of  the  priests 
and  Levites.  He  built  a  splendid  palace  for 
himself  and  another  for  Pharaoh's  daughter. 
and  various  other  structures  in  Jerusalem  and 
elsewhere.  Scarcely  any  element  of  pros- 
perity seemed  wanting,  and  his  name  became 
a  .synonym  for  wealth  and  honor. 

But  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reipn  he  was 
drawn  aside  by  his  numerous  foreign  wives 
and  concubines  into  the  practice  of  abomi- 
nable idolatries,  which  drew  down  lieavy  judg- 
ments and  forfeited  the  favor  of  God.  He 
fell  from  the  height  of  wisdom  into  the  depth 
of  folly.  And  though  his  reign  was  prevail- 
ingly peaceful  there  were  serious  disturbances 
produced  by  Hadad,  llezon,  and  Jerolioam 
(1  Kings  xi.).  And  while  there  was  great 
outward  prosperity,  the  people  felt  the  weight 
of  forced  service  iuid  excessive  taxation,  as  the 
revolt  under  Rchoboam  shows. 

Solomon  had  a  wide  range  of  mental  capac- 
ity, was  a  profound  .student  of  nature,  a  poet 
whose  songs  were  1005,  a  philosopher  whose 
proverbs  were  3000  (1  Kings  iv.  33,  33).  The 
writings  which  bear  his  name  testify  to  liis 
great  and  varied  ability,  nor  does  his  degen- 
eracy in  his  later  years  detract  from  the  value 
of  the  inspired  writings  of  his  youth  and  man- 
hood. Tlie  Scripture  records  his  life,  con- 
cealing no  sin,  and  offering  no  excuse,  and  so 
furnislies  to  all  readers  an  illustrious  example 
of  the  weakness  of  human  nature  and  the 
perils  of  prosperity.  His  experience  enforces 
his  own  maxim  as  to  the  jiaramount  impor- 
tance of  "  fearing  God  and  keeping  his  com- 
mandments." (Sec  F.  W.  Farrar.  Soiomon, 
his  Life  and  Time«,  New  York.  1888.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Somaschians,  The,  a  monastic  order  of  the 


Roman  Catholic  Church,  an  effect  of  the  re- 
vival which  the  Reformation  caused  also 
within  the  pale  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  re- 
ceived their  name  from  Sonmsclio,  a  village 
between  Milan  and  Bergamo,  where  in  1533 
Girolamo  Miani  (Ilieronynms  /Emilianus) 
formed  an  association  which,  confirmed  by 
Paul  III.  in  1540,  adopted  the  rules  of  St. 
Augustine  and  soon  grew  into  a  regular  or- 
der. Though  at  one  time  it  had  three  prov- 
inces, it  never  achieved  any  noticeable  success 
and  died  at  last  from  inanition,  but  the  found- 
er's life  may  be  found  in  Ada  JSanctorum, 
vol.  ii. 

Song  of  Solomon,  called  "  The  Song  of 
Songs,"  i.e.,  the  most  excellent  of  .songs,  also 
"  Canticles,"  after  the  nainein  the  Latin  V'ul- 
gate.  It  has  always  formed  part  of  the  canon, 
and  been  held  in  high  esteem  by  Jews  and 
Christians.  There  seems  to  be  no  sufiicient 
reason  to  doubt  that  it  came  from  the  pen  of 
Solomon  in  the  former  part  of  his  reiirn. 
Very  various  opinions  prevail  as  to  its  sub- 
ject.    The  chief  may  be  thus  characterized  : 

1.  T/(t'  Litcnd. — As  early  as  the  5th  century 
Theodore  of  Mopsuesta  maintained  that  it  cele- 
brated the  earthly  love  and  marriage  of  Solo- 
mon and  his  bride,  Pharaoh's  daughter.  For 
a  longtime  this  literal  acceptation  of  the  song 
met  with  little  favor,  but  within  a  century 
or  two  it  has  been  revived,  the  bride  some- 
times being  regarded  as  an  Egyptian  princess, 
but  more  generally  as  an  Israelite  shepherdcj^s 
from  Sliimem.  But  on  this  view  it  is  hard 
to  see  the  need  of  the  song,  or  to  account  for 
the  place  it  has  held  in  the  hearts  of  God's 
people.  [A  modification  of  the  literal  view 
is  that  it  celebrates  the  intercourse  Ijetween 
Solomon  and  a  pe;isant  maiden,  who  is  proof 
against  all  his  blandishments  and  faithful  to 
her  shepherd  lover,  whom  she  prefers  to  the 
king.  This  is  the  view  advocated  by  Griflis 
(see  below),  and  turns  the  .song  into  a  praise  of 
pure  love  l)etween  the  sexes,  a  theme  every 
way  worthy  of  the  pen  of  inspiration.] 

2.  The  Alhrioriral.  —  Thxi^  maintains  tliat  the 
persons  and  objects  described  are  mere  ligures 
for  spiritual  persons  and  olnects,  and  the  lat- 
ter alone  are  contemplatetl  by  the  writer. 
The  .song  thus  sets  forth  the  love  of  Jehovah 
for  Israel,  or  of  Christ  for  his  church,  or  the 
loving  communion  between  the  Lord  and  the 
indi\idual  believer.  This  view  has  been  en- 
tertained b}'  the  Jewish  Church  in  general 
and  the  majority  of  Christian  expositors. 

3.  The  Ti/jdrol. —T\m  accepts  the  song  n.s 
.setting  forth  primarily  the  ioving  intercourse 
of  Solomon  and  his  bride,  but  this  as  .shadow- 
ing forth  the  graeioiis  affection  l)elween  (Jod 
and  his  chosen.  Nothing  is  more  common  in 
Scripture  than  the  representation  of  Jehovah ".s 
union  toliis  jwople  a.s  a  marriage  relation,  and 
the  sinfulness  of  the  latter  a.s  a  spiritual  a<lul- 
tery  (Ex.  xxxiv.  15,  Num.  xv.  39,  Isa.  liv.  5. 
Jer.  iii..  P^zek.  xvi.,  Hos.  i.-iii.  John  iii.  29, 
Matt.  xii.  39.  Eph.  v.  23.  Rev.  xix.  7-9,  etc.). 
This  is  the  way  in  which  the  book  f^trikes  an 
Oriental  mind  at  this  day.  Regarded  in  this 
light  the  song  hsus  fetl  the  faith  and  warmed 
till-  heart  of  earnest  believers  in  every  atsv. 

In  form  the  work  is  a  lyrical  dialogue,  the 


SORBONNE 


(868) 


SOUL-SLEEP 


speakers  being  Solomon,  the  bride,  and  a 
chorus  of  virgins,  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem. 
The  translation  of  the  Song  is  greatly  im- 
proved in  the  Revised  Version.  The  reader 
should  understand  that  in  such  passages  as 
V.  14  the  reference  is  to  a  clothed  body,  and 
not  the  contrary. 

[Literature. — L.  Withington,  Solomon's 
Song  Trandated  and  Explained,  Boston,  1861  ; 
Professor  J.  Strong,  Sacred  Idyls  :  A  Metrical 
Version,  New  York,  1889  ;  for  a  mystical  ex- 
planation, see  J.  Langer,  Freiburg-in-Br., 
1890 ;  Ch.  Trillan  de  la  Bigottiere,  Paris, 
1890  ;  for  a  presentation  of  a  modification  of 
the  literal  view,  see  W.  E.  Griffis,  The  Lily 
among  Thorns,  Boston,  1890  ;  for  Roman 
Catholic  commentaries  O.  S.  B.  Tiefenthal, 
Kempten,  1890  ;  P.  Brevet,  Mayenne,  1890  ; 
G.  Gielman,  Paris,  1890.]  T.  W.  C. 

Sorbonne,  The,  was  founded  in  1268  by  Rob- 
ert of  Sorbon  or  Sorbonne,  a  place  in  Cham- 
pagne, who  was  chaplain  to  Louis  IX.  It 
was  simply  a  charitable  institution  established 
for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  study  of 
theology,  by  providing  free  board  and  lodging 
for  the  "theological  students  in  the  University 
of  Paris.  Like  all  institutions  of  the  kind, 
like  the  university  itself,  it  was  organized  on 
a  monastic  plan.  It  bore  the  name  Congre- 
gatio  pauperum  magistrorum  student ium  in 
tlieologica  facultate,  and  its  rules  were  con- 
firmed by  Clement  IV.  The  theological  lee 
tures,  at  least  the  official  ones,  were  delivered 
in  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  but  the  college 
had,  of  course,  like  every  monastery,  a  teacher 
of  theology  wlio  was  charged  with  the  super- 
intendence and  direction  of  tlie  studies  of  the 
inmates.  As  it  generally  took  from  seven  to 
tea  years  to  go  through  a  full  course  of  theol- 
ogy, as  the  doctors  often  remained  for  several 
years  in  the  college  after  finishing  their  course, 
and  as  it  was  the  duty  of  the  older  students 
to  help  the  younger  ones,  the  college  was  from 
its  very  beginning  not  a  mere  boarding-house, 
but  also  a  school.  Thus  it  w-as  quite  natural 
that  the  theological  lectures,  when  rooms  had 
to  be  provided  for  them  outside  of  the  archi- 
episcopal palace,  should  be  transferred  to  the 
college,  and  this  circumstance  caused  the 
name  of  the  Sorbonne  to  be  applied  also  to 
the  tlieological  faculty,  though  in  reality  they 
were  two  different  things.  (See  Dubarle, 
Histoire  ch  i'  Universite  de  Paris,  Paris,  1844, 
2  vols.) 

Soter,  pope  from  168  to  176  (or  177).  He 
is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Campania  and  to  have 
written  against  the  Montanists.  His  work 
called  forth  a  reply  from  Tertullian.  A  let- 
ter to  the  Corinthians  and  some  decretals  are 
attributed  to  him.  The  latter  have  been  lost. 
C.  H.  A.  B. 

Soteriology  is  that  branch  of  dogmatics 
which  treats  of  the  work  of  salvation,  so  far 
as  it  has  been  wrought  out  by  the  second  per, 
sou  of  the  Trinity.  It  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  Christology,  which  treats  solely  of  the 
person  of  Christ,  his  divinity,  and  his  human- 
ity, and  the  combination  of  these  two  natures 
in  his  single  and  perfect  personality.  Yet 
soteriology  is  closely  connected  with  Chris- 
tology, for  the  performance  of  Christ's  medi- 


atorial work  rests  upon  his  divine-human  per- 
son. That  work  is  consummated  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  threefold  office  as  prophet,  priest, 
and  king.  See  the  art.  Jesus  Christ,  Of- 
fices OF.  It  therefore  does  not  include  those 
aspects  of  salvation  which  involve  on  one  side 
the  electing  love  and  purpose  of  the  Father, 
and  on  the  other,  the  efficiency  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  the  application  of  saving  grace.  Its 
sphere  lies  in  the  execution  of  God's  purpose 
by  testifying  to  its  nature  and  character,  by 
actually  offering  an  atoning  sacrifice  of  in- 
finite value,  and  thus  restoring  the  lost  har- 
mony between  God  and  man,  and  by  estab- 
lishing and  administering  a  kingdom  of  grace 
which  has  no  end. 

The  foregoing  is  objective  soteriology,  but 
there  is  also  a  subjective  side  of  the  doctrine, 
which  treats  of  the  work  in  the  soul  and  is 
expressed  in  the  terms  regeneration  and  sanc- 
tification.  T.  W.  C. 

Soul.  The  word  rendered  soul  in  the  Scrip- 
tures often  denotes  mere  animal  life,  the  seat 
of  sensations  and  appetites,  and  is  so  trans- 
lated (Gen.  i.  20,  ix.  4,  Matt.  ii.  20,  vi.  25), 
but  it  is  also  used  to  denote  the  spiritual  na- 
ture of  man,  tlie  seat  of  his  thoughts  and 
affections,  that  w'hich  distinguishes  him  from 
the  brute  creation  and  in  which  chiefiy  con- 
sists his  resemblance  to  God  (Gen.  i.  26).  To 
man  alone  does  the  Bible  ascribe  reason,  con- 
science, the  knowledge  of  God,  wisdom,  im- 
mortality, and  the  hope  of  future  everlasting 
happiness.  JMen  alone  are  threatened  with 
punishment  in  another  world.  (Ps.  xli.  4, 
xlii.  4,  ciii.  1,  Lam.  iii.  24.  25,  Matt.  x.  28,  xi. 
29;).. 

In  two  places  (1  Thess.  v.  23,  Heb.  iv.  12) 
the  Scripture  seems  to  distinguish  between 
soul  and  spirit,  and  hence  the  tripartite  theory 
of  man's  nature  was  derived,  a  theory  held 
in  the  Ante-Nicene  Church  and  adopted  by 
some  now.  But  it  is  disproved  by  the  orig- 
inal account  of  man's  creation,  and  by  the 
common  usage  of  Scripture,  which  again  and 
again  represents  soul  and  body  as  the  whole 
of  man  and  regards  soul  and  spirit  as  equiva- 
lent (Luke  i.  46,  47).  The  passages  above  re- 
ferred to  are  simply  rhetorical.  The  doctrinal 
uses  of  trichotomy  do  not  commend  it  to 
favor. 

The  immortality  of  the  soul  is  a  fundamen- 
tal doctrine  of  Christianity.  It  was  held  as  a 
conjecture  or  a  hope  by  the  ancient  heathen, 
but  with  no  conviction.  It  had  a  prominent 
place  in  the  religion  of  Egypt,  but  among  the 
Hebrews  was  only  partially  revealed.  Much 
more  is  said  about  the  sadness  of  the  grave 
than  of  the  life  beyond,  and  the  prevailing 
tone  in  speaking  of  sheol  or  the  place  of  de- 
parted spirits  is  sad.  But  it  is  quite  otherwise 
in  the  later  dispensation.  For  the  Christian 
death  is  robbed  of  his  sting,  and  to  die  is  gain, 
unspeakable  gain.  T.  W.  C. 

Soul-sleep,   or  Psychopannychism  (from 

sold  (dl  night),  denotes  that  view  of  the  soul 
between  death  and  the  resurrection  according 
to  which  the  soul  is  asleep.  The  ngtion  orig- 
inated among  the  Arabian  and  Armenian  sects, 
but  some  traces  of  it  are  seen  in  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers.     It  was  condemned  by  several 


SOUTH 


(869) 


SPANGBNBBRO 


councils,  but  revived  at  the  Reformation  by 
Sociniuns  and  Anabaptists.  Calvin  wrote 
against  it  in  his  I)e  Pxi/choj)anniiclii(i.  It  has 
been  ably  advocated  by  C.  F.  Hudson  in 
America,  and  was  regarded  by  the  late  Arch- 
bisliop  Whately  as  probable.  It  has  never 
been  lield  by  any  church  or  permanent  school 
of  theologians.  T.  W.  C. 

South,  Robert,  D.D.  (Oxford.  10G3),  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  at  Hackney,  now  a  part  of 
London,  1633  ;  d.  in  Loudon,  July  8,  1716. 
He  passed  from  AVestminster  to  Christ  Churcli, 
Oxford,  1651  ;  B.A.,  16.54  ;  M.A.,  1657.  Or- 
dained, 1658,  by  a  deprived  bishop,  hisclmrch 
principles  were  developed  at  the  Restoration. 
Chosen  public  orator  of  the  university,  1660, 
he  at  once  gained  high  rank  as  a  preacher,  aiul 
■was  made  prebendary  of  Westminster,  1663  ; 
cliaplain  successively  to  Clarendon  (1661),  to 
the  ilukc  of  York  (1667),  to  Hyde,  ambassador 
to  Poland  (1670),  and  to  the  king  ;  rector  of 
Islip,  Oxfordshire,  1678.  Having  inherited 
wealth,  he  could  afford  indilference  to  rev- 
enue, and  is  .said  to  have  declined  offers  of 
bishoprics  ;  others  claim  that  "  his  quarrel- 
some temperament  prevented  his  promotion." 
Different  accounts  of  his  character  agree  as 
to  his  wit,  learning,  and  elotiuencc.  Gener- 
ous with  money,  he  was  intolerant  in  theology 
and  politics  ;  a  Calvinist  in  opinion,  he  was 
' '  embittered  against  dissenters. ' '  He  opposed 
concessions  and  the  Act  of  Toleration,  and 
carried  on  (1693-94)  an  acrimonious  contro- 
versy wdth  Dr.  W.  Sherlock  (ii.v.).  As  a 
preacher  he  has  had  few  eijuals.  Lord 
Brougham  allows  him  "  ingenuity,  subtlety, 
brilliancy."  "  Wit  was  his  talent,  yet  he 
often  reaches  sublimity,"  says  Dr.  Knox  ; 
"  but  he  is  rather  to  be  admired  than  imitated. ' ' 
"  His  manner  was  at  that  time  original,"  says 
Hallam,  being  "  free  from  pedantry,  and 
abounding  with  collo(]uial  novelties  of  idiom. " 
His  sermons  were  gathered  in  6  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1693,  and  have  been  repeatedly  reprinted. 
His  Opcni,  P.ixtliHiim  Lutiiia  appeared  with  a 
memoir,  1717,  and  his  works,  Oxford,  1823, 
7  vols.;  Boston,  1867-71,  5  vols.;  London, 
1872,  2  vols.  F.  31.  B. 

South  America,  Presbyterian  Churches. 
See  PuKsiJYTEUi.vx  Cuuuciies,  South  Am- 
erica, p.  760. 

Southcott,  Joanna,  b.  at  Gittisham,  Devon- 
.'ihire,  EiiLrland,  about  1750  ;  d.  in  London. 
Dec.  27,  1814  ;  published  in  tiie  form  of  small 
pamphlets  two  volumes  of  "  projihecies,"  rep- 
resenting iierself  as  "  tlie  bride  of  tiie  Lamb," 
and  fiuaiiy,  in  her  sixty-fourtli  year,  announc- 
ing that  on  Oct.  19,  1814,  .siie  should  give 
birth  to  the  n(!vv  Messiah.  When  she  died, 
two  months  later,  she  still  believed  in  henself, 
and  had  about  100,000  followers,  and,  in  .spite 
of  the  failure  of  her  last  and  great -st  propli- 
ecy,  there  is  still  a  sect,  Sabbatarians,  or  New 
Israelites  or  Southcotlians.  wlio  expect  a  new 
Messiaii.  (See  Mattliias.  J.  S.'s  Prop/ucici 
aiid  Cum  Sfnt^ul,  Lomlon,  1832.) 

Sozomen,  Salaminius  Hermias,  b.  in  the 

4th  Ciiri-itian  century  ;  was  a  {'onlemporarv  of 
Socrates  ((j-v.),  and  lived,  like  him,  in  Con- 
stantinople 04  a  schoUsticus.  "  a  cliaml)er  law- 


yer," and  wrote  a  work  on  the  history  of  tho 
church  from  323  to  439,  which  follows  that 
of  Socrates  very  closely,  though  on  moniLstic 
matters  it  has  some  independent  and  original 
information.  It  was  edited  by  Valesius,  Paris, 
1668,  and  by  Hussey,  Oxford,  1860;  best 
Eng.  trans,  (in  same  vol.  with  Socrates)  by 
C.  D.  Hartranft,  New  York,  Christian  Liter- 
ature Comjiany,  1891. 

Spalding,  Martin  John,  D.D.  (Rome,  1883). 
Roman  Calliuli<;  bishop  ;  b.  in  Marion  County, 
Ky.,  May  23,  1810  ;  d.  in  Baltimore,  Feb.  7, 
1872.  lie  studied  tlieology  in  Rome  ;  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1834,  and  made  bishop  of 
Louisville,  1850,  and  arch1)ishopof  Baltimore, 
1864.  He  built  the  cathedral  of  Louisville, 
founded  Tho  CatJtoUc  Advorate,  recalled  the 
Jesuits  and  imported  the  Trappi.sts,  and  pub- 
lished HiHtory  of  the  Protcsftunt  lit  for  mat  ion, 
Louisville,  1860,  2  vols.,  8th  ed.,  Baltimore. 
1875  ;  Lectures  on  the  Gencrnl  EcidcnciH  of 
CathoUcity,  1847,  6th  ed.,  1866;  mmManca, 
1855,  6th  ed.,  1866  :  Papal  Lifallibility,  1870. 

Spangenberg,  Augustus  Gottlieb,  !Mora- 
vian  bishop  ;  b.  at  Kletteidjerg,  Prussia,  July 
15,  1704  ;  d.  at  Berthelsdorf,  near  Ilerrnhut. 
Saxony,  Sept.  18,  1792.  A  graduate  of  Jena, 
he  became  an  assistant  professor  there,  and 
later  obtained  a  professorship  at  Halle,  1732. 
His  connection  with  Ziuzendorf,  however, 
cost  him  his  seat.  From  Halle,  1733,  he  be- 
took himself  to  Ilerrnhut,  where  he  became 
an  assistant  minister.  In  1735  he  was  given 
the  leadership  of  a  colony  of  Moravians  who 
sought  to  establish  themselves  at  Savannah. 
Ga.,  and  his  influence  upon  John  Wesley  dur- 
ing this  period  was  of  profound  importance. 
Thence  he  proceeded  to  Pennsylvania  to  labor 
among  the  German  settlers  as  an  evangelist. 
This  work  was  interrupted  by  a  commission 
to  make  a  visitation  to  the  Moravian  mission 
on  the  island  of  St.  Thomas.  In  1741-42  he 
was  active  in  England.  On  June  15,  1744, 
having  been  api)ointcd  to  preside  over  tho 
affairs  of  the  ^Moravian  Church  in  America, 
he  was  consecrated  a  bishop  at  Ilerrnhaag. 
Arriving  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  in  the  latter  jiart 
of  the  same  year,  he  superintended  the  Mora- 
vian missions  among  tiie  Indians  and  their 
evangelistic  efforts  among  the  white  settlers 
with  signal  al)ility,  until  lfs61,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  brief  periods  from  1849  till  1851 
and  1853-54.  when  he  was  absent  in  Europe. 
As  apologist  of  his  Brethren  against  tho 
(•nntro%ersial  attacks  of  the  Lutherans  and 
Pietists,  and  a-;  administrator  of  affairs  during 
the  perilous  times  of  the  French  and  Indian 
war,  his  abilities  shone  forth  brightly.  In 
the  fall  and  winter  of  1752,  with  live  associ- 
ates, he  made  liis  way  to  the  primeval  wilder- 
ness of  western  North  Carolina,  to  survey  a 
tract  of  land  bought  by  the  church  from  Lord 
Granville.  Both  JM-fore  and  after  the  Indian 
war  he  made  extended  missionary  tours  into 
the  Indian  country,  and  wjus  adopted  into  the 
Iro(iuois  Confederacy,  receiving  tiie  name  of 
Tgirhifontie,  or  a  Row  of  Trees.  From  1762- 
92  he  was  mainly  engaged  in  the  work  which 
devolved  upon  the  chief  executive  Ixiard  of 
tiu!  Moravian  Ciuirch  in  German v,  being  its 
president  f  jr  twcnty-lhrcc  years. 


SPARROW 


(870) 


SPIERA 


He  was  pre-eminently  the  theologian  of  the 
Renewed  Moravian  Church,  drawing  up  in 
1777  his  Idea  Mdei  Fmtrum,  Barby,  1782, 
Eng.  trans,  by  La  Trobe,  under  the  title  Ex- 
position of  Ghristian  Doctrine,  Loudon,  1784, 
as  the  recognized  statement  of  Moravian  be- 
lief. His  other  works  were  Darlegung  richtiger 
Antwoi'ten,  Leipzig,  1751,  and  Sehluss-Schrift, 
1752,  apologetic  works  in  defence  of  Zinzen- 
dorf,  and  Lehen  des  Orafen  von  Zinzendorf, 
Barby,  1772-74,  3  vols.,  abridged  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1838.  (See  Risler,  Lehen  Spangen- 
hergs,  Barby,  1794  ;  Ledderhose,  Leben  A.  O. 
Spangenbergs,  Bisehofs  der  Br'Mergemeine, 
Heidelberg,  1846,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1855, 
and  Frick,  Beitrdge  zur  Lebensgesehiehte  A.  Q. 
Spangenbergs,  Halle,  1884.) 

J.  Taylor  Hamilton. 

Sparrow,  William,  Episcopalian  ;  b.  in 
Massachusetts,  March  12,  1801  ;  d.  at  Alex- 
andria, Va.,  Jan.  17,  1854.  He  was  in  Ire- 
land, 1805-17  ;  studied  at  Columbia  College, 
1819-21  ;  taught  at  Miami,  1824-25,  and  at 
Gambler,  1829-40 ;  professor  of  systematic 
divinity  and  Christian  evidences  at  Alexan- 
dria, 1840-74.  His  Sermons  appeared,  New 
York,  1876,  and  his  Life  and  Correspondence, 
by  C.  Walker,  the  same  year.        F.  M.  B. 

Spencer,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1665), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Bocton,  Kent, 
1630  ;  d.  at  Cambridge,  May  27,  1695.  He 
entered  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge, 
1645;  M.A.,  1652,  fellow,  1655,*  and  master, 
1667  ;  rector  of  Landbeach  and  archdeacon 
of  Sudbury,  1667  ;  prebendary  of  Ely,  1672, 
and  dean,  1677.  He  wrote  Concerning  Prod- 
igies, London,  1663-65,  De  JJrim  et  Tlmm- 
mini,  1669,  and  De  legibus  Hebraorum  rituali- 
bus,  Cambridge,  1685,  2  vols.;  in  completer 
form,  1727.  The  latter,  his  chief  work,  has 
been  vilified  by  Witsius,  Orme,  and  Arch- 
bishop Magee,  as  affirming  what  it  expressly 
denied,  that  the  Jewish  ritual  was  "  borrowed 
from  the  Egyptians."  Such  is  the  fate  of 
learning  when  buried  in  a  dead  language  ! 
F.  M.  B. 

Spener  (spa'-ner),  Philipp  Jakob,  the  father 
of  pietism  ;  b.  at  Rappoltsweiler,  Upper 
Alsace,  Jan.  13,  1635  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Feb.  5, 
1705  ;  studied  theology  at  Strassburg,  visited 
Basel,  Geneva,  and  Tubingen,  and  became 
preacher  at  Strassburg,  1663,  at  Frankfort, 
1666,  court  preacher  in  Dresden,  1686,  and 
pastor  of  St.  Nikolai  in  Berlin,  1691.  •  He  was 
pious  almost  by  nature,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
mildness  and  forbearance  of  his  character,  he 
very  early  came  into  direct  opposition  to  that 
kind  of  Christianity  which  is  only  a  name 
and  a  form.  He  began  his  reform  labors  in 
Frankfort,  improving  the  method  of  cate- 
chetical work,  instituting  the  collegia  pietatis, 
private  meetings  for  reciprocal  edification, 
etc. .  and  published  Pia  desideria  oder  hei'zliches 
Verlangen  ruich  gottgefdlUger  Besserung  der 
wahren  evangelischen  Kirche,  1675,  Allgemeine 
Oottesgeldhrtheit,  etc.,  in  which  his  ideas  stand 
out  clearly  as  well  as  in  those  of  his  llieo- 
logische  Bedenkcn,  1700-02,  4  vols.,  which  be- 
long to  that  time.  Soon  after  his  arrival  at 
Dresden  the  opposition  to  him  began.     The 


elector,  Johann  Georg  IIL,  a  noisy  soldier 
who  liked  to  feel  unembarrassed  on  all  sides, 
took  a  dislike  to  him  and  showed  it.  The 
professors  of  Leipzig,  representatives  of  the 
old,  stiff,  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  saw  that 
though  they  were  not  directly  attacked  by 
the  new  pastor,  they  were  openly  deserted  by 
their  old  students,  and  they  felt  jealous.  His 
followers  were  not  very  discreet  and  he  was 
himself  not  very  firm  in  face  of  fanati- 
cism. In  many  respects  his  position  became 
better  when  he  removed  to  Berlin,  though 
the  opposition  now  assumed  formidable  di- 
mensions. The  University  of  Halle,  just 
founded,  was  completely  under  his  control 
and  became  the  home  of  pietism.  All  the  more 
decidedly  the  University  of  Wittenberg  turned 
in  the  opposite  direction  and  published,  in 
1695,  a  manifesto  in  which  they  accused  him 
of  264  heresies.  He  answered  with  his  Auf- 
richtige  Uebereinstimmung  mit  der  Augsburg- 
ischen  Konfessio?i,  and  a  few  years  after  his 
death  collegia  pietatis  were  held  in  the  royal 
palace  of  Berlin.  There  is  no  collected  edi- 
tion of  his  works,  but  a  complete  list  of  them 
is  in  Canstein's  Lebensbeschreibung ,  1740.  Wil- 
denhahn's  popular  Life  of  Spener  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  G.  A.  Wenzel,  Philadel- 
phia, 1881.  C.  P. 

Speratus,  Paul,  b.  at  Rottweil  (hence  a 
Rubilis),  Franconia,  Dec.  13,  1484 ;  d.  at 
Marienwerder,  West  Prussia,  Aug.  12,  1551  ; 
studied  theology  in  Paris  and  Italy,  but  em- 
braced the  Reformation  ;  began  to  preach  in 
Austria,  but  had  to  flee  from  Vienna  in  1521  ; 
went  to  Ofen  (Buda)  and  thence  to  Iglau,  but 
was  again  compelled  to  flee  ;  settled  in  1523  at 
Wittenberg,  where  he  aided  Luther  in  the 
compilation  of  the  German  hymn-book,  and 
was  in  1525  made  court  preacher  to  the  elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg,  and  in  1529  bishop  of 
Pomerania.  He  wrote  sevei'al  hymns,  still  in 
use.  His  life  was  written  bv  Cosack,  Bruns- 
wick, 1861  ;  Pressel,  Elbeffeld,  1862,  and 
Trautenberger,  Iglau,  1868. 

Spices  is  the  rendering  of  four  Hebrew 
words,  and  includes  not  only  fragrant  gums 
such  as  myrrh,  and  roots  and  barks  such  as 
cassia,  cinnamon,  cane,  etc.,  but  also  fragrant 
seeds  and  the  perfumes  of  flowers  (Cant.  iv. 
14,  16).  Some  of  these  substances  were  used 
in  compounding  the  sacred  incense  and  anoint- 
ing oil  (Ex.  XXV.  6,  XXX.  23-25,  34,  35).  Some 
were  products  of  Palestine  ;  others  were  ob- 
tained from  Arabia,  Persia,  or  India.  The 
Greek  word  rendered  "  spices"  (Mark  xvi.  1, 
Luke  xxiii.  56)  denotes  aromatic  substances 
in  general.  The  two  specified  in  John  xix. 
39,  were  a  gum  and  a  fragrant  wood. 

T.  W.  C. 

Spiera(spe-a-ra),  Francesco,  b.  at  Citadella, 
near  Padua,  about  1498 ;  d.  there,  Dec, 
1548  ;  was  a  law5'er,  rich  and  trusted,  when 
he  embraced  the  Reformation  and  began  to 
preach  both  publicly  and  in  private.  But 
when  he  heard  that  he  was  about  to  be  sum- 
moned to  Rome  to  appear  before  the  inquisi- 
tion, he  hastened  to  Venice,  confessed  repent- 
ance to  the  Roman  legate  there,  subscribed  a 
recantation  drawn  up  by  him,  and  read  it 


SPINOLA 


(871) 


SPORTS 


aloud  in  tlie  church  of  Citadelhi  in  the  pres- 
ence of  2000  persons.  Immediatel}'  after  ar- 
riving lioine  from  that  act  he  was  seized  with 
unutterable  despair,  fully  convinced  that  he 
had  committed  the  unpardonable  sin,  and 
died  a  few  days  after.  The  event  made  a 
deep  impression  not  only  in  Italy  but  in  Eu- 
rope, and  w^as  described  by  four  of  his  inti- 
mate friends  in  a  Latin  work  with  a  preface 
by  Calvin.  (See  Nathaniel  Bacon,  Francis 
Spira.  "London,  1688,  frequently  reprinted, 
e.g.,  1845,  and  his  life  in  Italian  by  Comba, 
Rome,  1872.) 

Spinola,  Christoval  Rojas  de,  d.  March  12, 
1695  ;  was  a  native  of  Spain  and  a  member  of 
the  Franciscan  order  ;  came  to  Vienna  in  1685 
as  confessor  to  the  empress,  a  Spanish  prin- 
cess, and  was  in  1686  made  bishop  of  Wiener- 
Neustadt.  lie  was  enthusiastic  for  the  idea 
of  bringing  about  a  union  between  the  Prot- 
estant and  the  Roman  Catholic  churches,  and 
succeeded  in  making  the  Hanoverian  court 
interested  in  the  case,  and  negotiations  were 
opened  between  him  on  the  one  side,  and 
Leibnitz,  Molanus,  and  the  llelmstiidt  theo- 
logians on  the  other.  lie  made  his  proposi- 
tions in  R(gnhi'  circd,  Chrixtinnitriini  ontnium 
€cd('4<itit<tii'iiin.  !■(  iiiiiin}iiit,  and  they  answered 
witli  JLt/iodif.s  ndiiciuhv  i/itton/.i  etc.  The 
pope  seemed  not  unwilling  to  enter  into  the 
scheme,  when  Spinola  died.  See  Leibnitz, 
p.  495. 

Spinoza,  Baruch,  b.  in  Amsterdam,  Nov. 
24,  16;J2  ;  d.  at  Tiie  Hague,  Feb.  21.  1677. 
His  parents  were  Jews,  but  he  himself  was 
very  early  expelled  from  the  synagogue  by 
the  rabbis  on  account  of  heresy.  He  then  re- 
moved to  Rhymsburg,  where  he  spent  several 
years  polishing  lenses  for  telescopes,  but  soon 
after  the  publication  of  his  work  on  Descartes, 
1663,  he  settled  at  The  Hague  on  the  invita- 
tion of  Jan  de  Witt.  In  1670  appeared  his 
Tractntus  theologico-politicus ;  his  Ethiof  -was 
not  published  until  after  his  death.  In 
his  Tractntus  theohgico-politicus  he  sets  forth 
that  distinction,  now  so  widely  accepted, 
between  religion  and  science,  between  theol- 
ogy and  philosophy,  according  to  which  they 
represent — not,  indeed,  a  double  truth,  sucli 
as  the  mediiEval  philosophers  had  it — b»it  two 
different  spheres,  thought  and  action,  theorj' 
and  practice.  The  true  relation  of  these  two 
spheres  were  not  fully  developed  until  the 
appearance  of  the  Ktlnra,  but  already  in  the 
Tractntus  tlunloiiict-pnUtlcns  religion  had 
shrunk  into  a  merely  moral  function  and  the 
idea  of  revelation  has  been  corapletclv  dis- 
solved. C.  P. 

LiTER.VTURE. — Best  editions  of  Sjiinoza's 
works  by  J.  Vloten  and  J.  P.  N.  Land,  The 
Hague,  1882  sqci.,  Eng.  trans,  of  the  Trartn- 
tns'theologicit-jxiUticiis,  London,  lH(i2,  2d  ed., 
1868,  rev',  cd.,  1877  ;  of  the  Kthicx  ^bv  Daniel 
Drake  Smith],  New  York.  1876.  and  by  W.  II. 
White,  London,  18S3  ;  ('hi<f  Works  of  Spinoza 
Tranlntcd.  London,  1884,  2  vols.  Recent 
books  on  Spinoza  bv  R.  Willis  (London,  1870), 
Frederick  Pollock '(1880).  W.  Knight  (1882), 
James  Marlineau  (f^ondon  and  N«'W  York, 
I'^se,  2d  ed.,  1888).  H.  Smith  (Cincinnati,  O., 
1886),  J.  Caird  (Edinburgh,  1888). 


Spires,  a  city  of  Rhenish  Bavaria,  was  in 
the  ]\Iiddle  Ages  often  the  residence  of  the 
German  emperor  and  consequently  the  seat 
of  the  German  diet.  At  the  diet  of  March, 
1520,  the  Roman  Catholic  majority  decreed 
that  the  mass  should  be  restored  wherever  it 
hadbeen  abolished,  that  every  preacher  who 
denied  the  real  presence  in  the  eucliarist  should 
be  excluded  from  the  pulpit,  that  a  censorship 
on  all  books  issued  should  be  established,  etc. 
The  evangelical  minority  entered  a  formal 
protest  against  these  decrees  and  thence  were 
called  "  Protestants." 

Spirit,  Human.    Sec  Soul. 

Spirit,  Holy.    See  Holy  Spikit,  p.  375. 

Spiritualism  is  a  term  denoting  belief  in  a 
natural  conununication  between  this  and  the 
other  world.  It  dates  back  to  1848,  when 
certain  ra])pings  were  the  media  of  comnmni- 
cation.  It  has  succeeded  mainly  through  the 
desire  of  bereaved  persons  to  hear  from  de- 
parted friends,  but  never  has  withstood  sci- 
entific investigation.  It  is  really  nothing  but 
a  system  of  necromancy  over  and  over  con- 
denmed  in  the  Scriptures  (Isa.  viii.  19,  R.  V.), 
It  has  given  occasion  to  innumerable  frauds. 
Professed  spiritualists  reject  the  Trinity, 
atonement,  and  afiiliated  doctrines,  but  lay 
great  stress  on  the  future  life  as  a  continua- 
tion of  the  life  that  now  is.  T.  W.  C. 

Spitta,  Karl  Johann  Philipp,  D.I).  (Gcit- 
tingen,  1855)^  b.  in  Hanover,  Aug.  1,  1801  ; 
d.  at  Burgdorf,  Sept.  28.  1859  ;  studied  the- 
ology at  "Gottingen,  lield  various  pastoral 
charges,  and  achieved  great  celebrity  as  one 
of  the  best  German  hymn-writers  of  the  flay. 
He  published  three  collections,  Leipzig,  1833- 
43-61,  the  last  edited  hr  A.  Peters.  They  ran 
through  several  editions  and  .some  of  the 
hymns  have  been  translated  into  English  by 
Ma.ssie,  "  Our  lot  is  fallen  in  pleasant  places," 
"  O  blessed  Sou  whose  splendor,"  "  O  hajipy 
house  !  O  house  supremely  blest."  His  life 
was  written  by  Miinkel,  Leipzig,  1861. 

Sponsor  (Latin,  rcsponsibh',  guarantee  .surety , 
hondsinaii),  designated  in  the  ancient  church 
him  who  took  the  bajitized  person,  cate- 
chumen, or  infant,  out  of  the  baptismal  font, 
reached  him  tlie  mixture  of  lioncy  and  milk, 
and  generally  assumed  the  responsibility  be- 
fore the  bishop  tiiat  he,  if  a  catechunien, 
wimld  lead  a  Christian  life,  if  an  infant, 
would  be  duly  instructed  in  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. The  "origin  of  this  ollice  is  ob.scurc. 
Bv  some  it  has  been  a.scribed  to  Hyginus, 
bishop  of  Rome.  137-41,  but  it,  no  doubt, 
arose  sjiontaneously  out  of  the  general  social 
con<litions  of  the  church.  Later  on  it  became 
subject  to  a  very  fanciful  legislation  in  the 
Roman  Church,  spon.sors  could  not  marry 
each  other  nor  their  godciiildren,  etc.  The 
Church  of  England  orders  three  sponsors,  for 
a  male  infant  two  godfathers  and  one  god- 
mother, for  a  female  infant  two  godmothers 
and  one  godfather.  In  the  Roman  Cluirch 
one  sponsor  is  sufficient,  but  several  are  ad- 
missible. 

Sports,  The  Book  of,  or  the  "  Declaration  of 
Sjiorts,"  was  published  in  1618  by  James  I., 


SPOTSWOOD 


(872) 


STABAT  MATER 


and  republished  ia  1633  by  Charles  I.  In 
both  cases  it  was  aimed  as  a  blow  to  the  Puri- 
tans, allowing  people,  after  divine  service  in 
the  morning,  to  spend  the  rest  of  the  Sunday 
in  "  lawful  recreations,"  while  the  Puritans 
wanted  it  kept  like  the  Sabbath  by  the  Jews. 
The  indignation  was  so  great  in  1618  that 
James  I.  prudently  withdrew  the  declaration, 
and  it  became  only  still  more  Intense  in  1633. 

Spotswood,   or   Spotiswood,  John,  b.   at 

Mid-Calder,  near  Edinburgh,  1565 ;  d.  in 
London,  Dec.  26,  1639  ;  was  made  bishop  of 
Glasgow  in  1603,  and  archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drews, 1615,  and  was  very  active  in  the  in- 
troduction of  the  liturgy  into  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  But  when  the  rebellion  broke  out 
in  1637  and  the  Covenant  was  signed  in  1638, 
he  was  ejected  from  his  see  and  retired  to 
London.  He  published  a  History  of  the 
Church  and  State  of  Scotland,  London,  1655, 
rep.,  Edinburgh,  1847-51,  3  vols. 

Sprague,  William  Buell,  D.D.  (Columbia, 
1828;  Harvard.  1848),  LL.D.  (Princeton, 
1869),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Andover,  Conn., 
Oct.  16,  1795  ;  d.  at  Flushing,  L.  I.,  May  7, 
1876.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  1815,  and  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  1819,  and 
was  pastor  (Congregational)  at  West  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  1819-29.  and  at  Albany  (Second 
Presbyterian).  1829-69.  Besides  several  me- 
moirs. Lectures  on  Revivals  (New  York.  1832). 
etc.,  he  published  Annals  of  the  American 
Pulpit,  1856-69,  9  vols. — a  great  and  monu- 
mental work  in  a  field  otherwise  unattempted. 
Its  spirit  is  admirably  fair  and  catholic,  and  it 
collected  and  preserved  a  vast  range  of  mate- 
rial which  otherwise  would  have  perished,  or 
been  gathered  with  difficulty  from  innumer- 
able scattered  sources.  F.  M.  B. 

Spring,  Gardiner,  D.D.  (Hamilton,  1819), 
LL.D.  (Lafayette.  1853).  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Newbury  port,  Mass.,  Feb.  24,  1785  ;  d.  in 
New  York,  Aug.  18,  1873.  He  graduated  at 
Yale,  1805  ;  studied  law,  and  then  divinity  at 
Andover,  1809-10  ;  pastor  of  the  Brick  Pres- 
byterian Church,  New  York,  1810-73,  having 
a  colleague  after  1861.  He  was  a  founder  of 
the  Bible,  tract,  and  home  missionary  soci- 
eties, declined  the  presidencies  of  Hamilton 
and  Dartmouth,  and  published  sermons,  es- 
says, memoirs,  etc.,  which  were  gathered  in 
10  vols.,  1855  ;  besides  the  Brick  Church  Me- 
morial, New  York,  1861  ;  Pulpit  Ministra- 
tions, 1864,  2  vols.,  and  Personal  Beininis- 
cetices,  1866,  2  vols.  F.  M.  B. 

Spring,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Williams,  1806), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Northbridge,  Mass., 
Feb.  27,  1746  ;  d.  at  Newbury  port,  Mass., 
March  4,  1819.  He  graduated  at  Princeton, 
1771  ;  went  as  an  army  chaplain  to  Canada, 
1775-76,  and  was  pastor  at  Newburyport, 
1777-1819.  He  was  a  founder  of  Andover 
Seminary,  of  the  Massachusetts  Missionary 
Society  (1799),  and  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  He 
published  sundry  sermons  and  treatises,  and 
was  the  father  of  Dr.  Gardiner  Spring. 

F.  M.  B. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon,  Baptist  ;  b.  at 
Kelvedon,  Essex,  England.,  June  19,  1834. 


His  father  and  grandfather  were  Independent 
ministers,  and  he  himself  began  to  preach 
when  but  sixteen  years  of  age,  having  been 
converted  the  previous  year  and  immersed  on 
profession  of  his  faith,  May  3,  1851,  at  Isle- 
ham.  He  had  received  an  elementary  educa- 
tion only,  but  his  knowledge  of  the  English 
Scriptures,  earnest  piety,  and  remarkable  gifts 
of  speech  indicated  from  the  first  a  career  of 
exceptional  usefulness.  By  arduous  self-cul- 
ture he  repaired  the  lack  of  early  schooling, 
and  became  a  broad-minded  and  well-read 
man.  He  was  chosen  pastor  of  the  Baptist 
church  at  Waterbeach  in  1852,  but  was  never 
formally  ordained,  and  is  still  technically  a 
layman.  In  1854  he  received  a  unanimous 
call  to  the  pastorate  of  the  New  Park  street 
Baptist  church,  Southwark,  Loudon  —  a 
church  once  prosperous,  but  then  reduced  to 
a  congregation  of  100.  In  three  months  the 
chapel  (seating  1200)  was  crowded  ;  within  a 
j^ear  it  was  necessary  to  enlarge  it  ;  and  by 
1856  it  was  entirely  outgrown.  Services  were 
held  in  the  Royal  Surrey  Gardens  Music  Hall 
while  the  present  Metropolitan  Tabernacle 
was  building  in  Newington.  This  was  opened 
in  March,  1861,  with  a  seating  capacity  of 
5000,  and  has  been  continuously  filled  ever 
since.  The  church  has  grown  to  a  member- 
ship of  6000.  The  activities  of  the  church 
and  pastor  are  manifold.  The  Pastors'  Col- 
lege, established  in  1856,  has  educated  a  large 
part  of  the  younger  English  Baptist  ministry. 
The  Stockwell  Orphanage,  incorporated  in 
1867,  has  twelve  houses  and  cares  for  nearly 
500  children.  A  colportage  association  labors 
among  the  poor,  and  Mrs.  Spurgeon's  Book 
Fund  provides  books  for  poor  ministers. 
Since  1867  Mr.  Spurgeon's  brother,  Rev. 
James  A.  Spurgeon,  has  been  his  co-pastor, 
and  his  twin  sons,  Charles  and  James,  are 
preachers  of  the  gospel.  In  spite  of  these 
labors,  and  frequent  attacks  of  painful  and 
disabling  illness,  Mr.  Spurgeon  has  been  a 
voluminous  writer.  Not  to  mention  the  vol- 
umes of  his  sermons,  all  carefully  revised  by 
him  for  publication,  he  has  edited  a  monthly 
magazine  {Sword  and  IVotceT)  for  many  years, 
and  has  written  a  shelf-full  of  books  for  plain 
people,  besides  compiling  and  in  part  writing 
The  Treasury  of  David  (a  commentary  on  the 
Psalms,  London  and  New  York,  1870-85, 
7  vols.).  Lectures  to  My  Students,  1875-77, 
2  series,  etc.  Seventy-eight  volumes  in  all 
are  in  print  and  general  circulation  ;  of  one. 
John  Ploughman's  I'alk.  360,000  copies  have 
been  sold.  No  man  in  his  generation  has 
done  more  to  uphold  the  truth  ;  no  man  has 
preached  the  gospel  with  greater  fearlessness, 
sincerity,  and  power ;  no  man  has  had  a 
heartier  God-speed  for  every  good  work  ;  no 
man  better  deserves  the  confidence  oi  Chris- 
tians the  world  over.     Henry  C.  Vedder. 

Stabat  mater  {tlie  mother  teas  standing)  are 
the  opening  words  of  the  celebrated  hymn  by 
Jacopone  da  Todi  from  the  13th  century,  re- 
ferring to  John  xix.  25.  It  has  often  been 
composed,  by  Palestrlna,  Pergolese,  Haydn, 
and  Rossini,  and  often  translated  into  English, 
by  Lord  Lindsay,  Caswall,  Mant,  Coles,  etc. 
There  is  another  Stabat  mater  by  the  same 


STAOKHOUSE 


(873) 


STANLEY 


author,  but  referring  to  the  joy  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  at  the  birth  of  Clirist,  but  it  has  at- 
tracted very  little  attention. 

Stackhouse,  Thomas,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  1G80  ;  d.  at  Beenham,  Berkshire.  Oct.  11, 
1752.  He  was  minister  at  Amsterdam,  curate 
at  Richmond,  Ealing,  and  Fiuchlcy,  and  from 
1733  vicar  of  Beenham.  His  chief  works  are 
A  Complete  Body  of  Dicinitij,  London,  1729, 
and  A  New  History  of  the  Holy  Bible,  1732, 
2  vols.  The  latter  has  often  been  reprinted, 
as  by  Bishop  Gleig,  Loudon,  1817,  and  Dr. 
Dev\-ar,  1836.  F.  M.  B. 

Stahl,  Friedrich  Julius,  b.  at  ISIunich,  Jan. 
16.  1802  ;  d.  at  BrUckenau,  Bavaria.  Aug.  10, 
1861  ;  studied  jurisprudeuce  at  Wurzburg. 
Erlangen,  Heidelberg  :  was  appointed  profes- 
sor at  Erlangen  in  1832,  and  in  Berlin,  1840, 
and  published  Philosop/iie  des  Eechts,  1830, 
rev.  ed.,  1847  ;  Die  KircheitcerfuHsunfi  nncli 
Lehre  und  lit'c/it  dir  Protestanten,  1840  ;  Der 
christUche  Staat,  1847  ;  Protestantismns  als 
jiolitischts  Princip,  1856,  etc.  Although  a 
jurist  by  education  and  a  politician  by  pro- 
fession, all  this  thinking  and  doing  sprung 
from  very  decided  religious  views,  and  thus 
he  came  to  exercise,  in  connection  with  his 
friend,  Hengstenberg,  a  great  inlluence  not 
only  on  tiie  ecclesiastical,  but  also  on  the  re- 
ligious life  in  Prussia. 

Stalker,  James,  Free  Church  of  Scotland  ; 
b.  at  Crieff,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  Feb.  21. 
1848  ;  studied  at  Edinburgh  University  and 
New  Coll(>'j:e.  and  has  since  1874  been  minis- 
ter of  St.  Brycedale  Free  Church,  Kirkcaldy. 
He  published  The  Life  of  Jemis  Christ,  Edin- 
burgh, 1879.  3d  ed..  1884;  The  Life  of  St. 
Pavl,  1884,  2d  ed.,  same  year  ;  Lnngo  Chmti, 
1890. 

Stanislaus,  b.  July  26,  1030  ;  d.  i\Iay  8, 
1079  ;  was  bishop  of  Cracow,  at  that  time  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  de- 
nounced openly  the  scandalous  life  of  King 
Boleslas  II.  But  the  king  became  furious 
and  ordered  his  sers'ants  to  kill  the  bishop, 
which  they  did  while  he  was  celebrating.  In 
1254  Innocent  IV.  canonized  him,  and  he  be- 
came the  patron  saint  of  Poland. 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn,  D.  D.  (O.xford, 
18—),  LL.I).  ( .  IS-),  Cliurch  of  Eng- 
land, dean  of  "Westminster  ;  b.  at  Alderiey, 
Cheshire,  Dec.  13,  1815  ;  d.  in  London,  July 
18.  1881.  His  father  was  bisiiop  of  Norwich, 
1837-49  :  his  uncle  became  Baron  Stanley  of 
Alderiey,  1839.  At  Rugby.  1829-34,  he  was 
profoundly  influenced  by  Dr.  Arnold,  who.se 
life  (London.  1844)  was  his  lirst  book,  and  per- 
haps the  most  successful  of  clerical  biog- 
raphies, lie  entered  O.xford  as  a  scholar  of 
Balliol,  1834  ;  l>ecame  a  fellow  of  University 
College.  18.39;  tutor.  1841-51,  and  select 
preacher,  1^45.  His  S<riii'>nit  and  Esmyn  on 
the  Apostolic  Af/e  appeared,  London,  1847. 
During  that  troubled  period  he  did  liia  best 
for  the  wiliest  toleration  and  iii^ainst  the  op- 
pression of  any  (as  Dr.  Hamplen  on  one  side, 
and  the  Traclarians  on  tin-  rdlicr)  for  their 
opinions.  Defendin;r  tin-  Gorliam  jud^rment 
in  the  Edi/iburf/h  Ii>:cicw,   1S.50,  he   elaime  I 


"that  the  Church  of  EnglaTid,  by  the  very 
condition  of  its  being,  was  not  High  or  Low, 
but  Broad,  and  had  always  included,  and  been 
meant  to  include,  opposite  and  contradictory 
opinions."  This  was  the  key-note  of  his 
whole  life  and  work. 

He  was  secretary  of  the  Oxford  Commis- 
sion, 1850,  and  canon  of  Canterbury,  1851-56. 
Here  he  wrote  the  memoir  of  his  father,  1851  ; 
Commentary  on  Connthians,  1855,  and  Me- 
morials of  Canterbury,  1855.  His  tour  in 
Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land,  1852-53,  resulted 
in  "tlie  volume  on  Sinai  and  Palestine,  1856, 
and  one  in  Russia,  1857,  bore  fruit,  in  his 
I^ectures  on  the  Greek  Church,  1861.  "While 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  canon 
of  Christ  Church  at  Oxford,  1850-63,  he  be- 
gan his  Ijcctures  on  the  History  of  the  Jewish 
Church,  1863  ;  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  appeared  1865 
and  1879.  His  tour  to  the  East  with  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  1862,  was  commemorated  in 
the  Sermons  preachcil  during  their  travels. 
His  Letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Jjondon,  1863,  urged 
a  relaxation  of  the  terms  of  clerical  subset  ip- 
tion. 

In  1863  he  was  appointed  dean  of  West- 
minster, and  married  Lady  Augusta  Bruce, 
whose  sweetness  of  spirit,  large  sympathy, 
and  varied  accomplishments  helped  mightily 
in  his  multifarious  work  till  her  lamented 
death  in  1876.  His  wonderful  social  gifts, 
combined  as  they  were  with  unswereing 
fidelity  to  his  liberal  principles,  secured  the 
affection  of  all  classes,  and  he  stood  as  well 
with  workingmen  as  with  the  royal  family. 
His  way  to  the  episcopal  bench  was  barred 
only  by  his  supposed  extreme  opinions,  and 
the  dauntless  courage  with  which  he  pro- 
claimed them  on  all  occasions.  His  Erastian- 
ism  disgu.sted  High  Churchmen,  his  latitudi- 
narianism  offended  evangelicals.  Again  and 
again  he  fought  single-handed  for  Colen.so 
against  convocation.  He  aroused  much  wrath 
by  inviting  to  communion  Nonconformist  re- 
visers of  the  Bible,  among  them  a  Unitarian. 
Object  as  one  may  to  his  tenets,  the  beauty 
and  manliness  of  his  character,  its  total  lack 
of  bitterness,  his  chivalrous  generosity,  and 
tlie  perfect  consistency  with  which  he  main- 
tained the  position  chosen  in  youth,  call  for 
iiigh  admiration.  He  was  a  man  of  the  world, 
brilliantly  gifted  and  successful,  but  far  from 
a  worldly  man. 

Among  his  later  works  are  Historical  Me- 
morials of  Westminster  Abbey,  1867  ;  Essays 
on  Church  and  State,  1870.  which  gave  great 
offence  by  defending  the  famous  Essays  and 
lit ru res  ;' History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
1872  :  addresses  and  sermons  delivered  during 
an  American  tour.  1878  ;  Memorials  of  Ed- 
iriird  and  Catharine  Stanley  (his  parents). 
ISSO  :  Si  ruions  on  Public  Occasions,  1881  ; 
and  Christian  Institution.^,  linished  shortly 
l)efore  his  death.  1881.  His  literary  talents 
were  almost  of  the  highest  order,  as  shown 
by  ins  most  familiar  i>rose  works  and  his  too 
infrcfiucnt  verse.  One  or  two  of  his  hymns 
are  coming  into  u.se  ;  the  Westminntcr  Abbey 
IIymn-lio<}k.  1883.  contains  thirteen,  some  of 
lliem  of  very  great  .sjiiritual  and  poetic  beauty. 
(S  -o  Dean  Bradley's  Recollections  oi  him.  Lon- 
don. ]883.)  F.  M.  B. 


STARE 


(874) 


STEPHAN 


Stark  (Starck),  Johann August, b.  at  Scliwe- 
rin,  Mecklenburg,  Oct.  29,  1741  ;  d.  at  Darm- 
stadt, Hesse,  March  3,  1816 ;  was  in  1769  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Oriental  languages,  and  in 
1776  of  tlieology  at  Konigsberg,  and  became 
in  1781  court  preacher  at  Darmstadt.  He  was 
all  the  while  suspected  of  crypto-catholicism, 
and  when  openly  accused  thereof  he  defended 
himself,  though  not  quite  satisfactorily,  in 
his  Uebe}'  KryptokatJiolicismus,  etc. ,  Frankfort 
and  Leipzig,  1787.  The  accusations  were  re- 
newed when,  in  1809,  he  published  anony- 
mously Theoduls  OastmaJil,  oder  iiber  die 
Verein.  d.  mrscJi.  BeUgions-societdten,  7th  ed., 
1828,  which  is  an  attempt  to  reconcile  all 
Christian  denominations,  and  after  his  death 
it  was  discovered  that  there  was  in  his  housa 
a  room  arranged  for  the  celebration  of  mass, 
and  in  his  will  he  had  ordered  his  remains  to 
be  dressed  in  a  cowl  and  buried  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  churchyard. 

Stations  of  the  Cross,  The,  is  the  common 
name  of  a  series  of  pictures,  generally  four- 
teen, representing  the  scenes  of  the  passion, 
and  in  Koman  Catholic  churches  arranged  in 
a  semicircle  behind  the  altar,  so  that  the 
first,  the  sentence  of  Pilate,  opens  the  series 
on  the  right  side,  and  the  last,  the  burial  of 
Christ,  closes  it  on  the  left,  the  rest  following 
each  other  in  order  along  the  wall.  To  pray 
before  each  of  these  pictures  was  a  common 
form  of  devotion  in  the  Franciscan  order  in 
the  16th  century,  and  thence  it  sjDread  into 
the  community  at  large. 

Staupitz    (stow-pits),    Johann    von,  D.D. 

(University  of  Tiibingcn,  15 — ),  prior  of  an 
Augustinian  convent  there,  was  very  active  in 
the  organization  of  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, and  became  in  1502  the  first  dean  of  its 
theological  faculty.  In  1503  he  was  appointed 
vicar-general  of  the  Augustine  convents  in 
Saxony,  and  thus  he  became  acquainted  with 
Luther  at  Erfurt.  He  seems  to  have  exer- 
cised a  great  and  good  influence  on  the  young 
monk  from  their  very  first  meeting,  and  for 
a  long  time  he  was  in  more  than  one  way  his 
mainstay  and  support.  In  1508  he  called  him 
to  Wittenberg  as  professor  of  theology,  and 
it  was  on  his  advice  that  Luther  first  entered 
the  pulpit.  When  tiie  Reformation  became 
an  open  breach  with  Rome,  a  revolution 
against  the  pope,  Staupitz  retired  to  Salzburg, 
1519,  and  died  there,  Dec.  28,  1524,  as  vicar 
to  the  archbishop,  but,  unlike  the  Humanists, 
though  he  kept  aloof  from  the  Reformation 
and  the  reformers,  he  attacked  neither  the 
one  nor  the  other.  His  letters  and  tracts  have 
been  edited  by  Knaake,  Gotha,  1867.  (See 
Uhlmann,  Reformers  Before  the  Reformation  ; 
Keller,  Johann  von  Staupitz  und  die  Anfilnge 
der  Reformation,  Leipzig,  1888.) 

Stedingers,  The,  a  German  family  which, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  held 
large  possessions  and  exercised  considerable 
authority  in  the  region  along  the  middle 
course  of  the  Weser,  fell  into  a  deadly  feud 
with  the  archbishop  of  Bremen  on  account  of 
an  outrage  offered  one  of  their  members  by  a 
priest,  and  for  which  they  avenged  themselves 
by  killing  the  culprit.     The  feud  lasted  for 


nearly  thirty  years,  and  was  not  put  down 
until  a  formal  crusade  was  preached  against 
the  Stedingers,  and  their  army  of  11,000  men 
was  routed  in  the  battle  of  Altenesch,  1234  ; 
and  the  affray,  otherwise  of  no  consequence, 
has  a  thrilling  interest  as  a  picture  of  the 
times.  There  are  monographs  on  it  by 
Schminck,  Marburg,  1722  ;  Ritter,  Witten- 
berg, 1751  ;  and  Lappenberg,  Stadt,  1755  ; 
the  two  former  in  Latin,  the  latter  in  German. 

Steele,  Anne,  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Broughton, 
Hampshire,  1716  ;  d.  there,  Nov.,  1778.  An 
invalid,  she  sought  consolation  in  devout 
verse,  for  which  she  had  a  graceful,  though 
not  vigorous  talent.  Her  Poems  by  I'heodosia 
appeared  in  2  vols.,  London,  1760  ;  a  third. 
Miscellaneous  Pieces  in  Verse  and  Prose,  was 
added,  1780.  These  were  reprinted  at  Boston 
in  2  vols.,  1808,  and  most  of  them  by  D.  Sedg- 
wick, London,  1863.  Judged  by  the  number  of 
her  contributions  to  most  hymn-books  for  two 
generations,  she  ranked  next  after  Watts, 
C.  Wesley,  and  Doddridge.  Comparatively 
few  of  her  effusions  are  used  now.  The  best 
of  them  is  the  fragment  beginning.  "  Father, 
whate'er  of  earthly  bliss."  F.  M.  B. 

Stennett,  Joseph,  Baptist ;  b.  at  Abingdon, 
Berkshire,  6  m.  n.w.  of  Oxford,  1663  ;  d.  at 
Knaphill,  Bucks,  July  11,  1713.  He  was  a 
London  pastor  from  1690,  and  wrote  Hymns 
for  the  Lord's  Supper,  London,  1697-1700, 
and  for  Believers'  Baptistn,  1712.  His  works, 
1732,  4  vols.,  contain  "Another  six  days' 
work  is  done."  His  grandson,  Samuel  Sten- 
nett, D.D.  (Aberdeen,  1763),  Baptist,  was  b. 
at  Exeter,  1727,  and  d.  in  London,  Aug.  24, 
1795.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  pastor  in 
Little  Wild  street,  1758,  and  was  respected  by 
George  III.,  Howard  the  philanthropist,  and 
many  others.  His  works  were  collected  in  3 
vols. ,  1824,  with  a  memoir.  His  hymns  (about 
39)  appeared  mostly  in  Rippon's  Selections, 
1787.  F.  M.  B. 

Stephan  and  the  Stephanites.  Martin 
Stephan,  b.  at  Stramberg,  Moravia,  Aug.  13, 
1777  ;  d.  in  Randolph  County,  111.,  Feb.  21, 
1846  ;  studied  theology  at  Halle  and  Leipzig, 
and  was  in  1810  appointed  pastor  of  the  Bo- 
hemian congregation  in  Dresden.  He  was  a 
strict  Lutheran,  but  with  strong  tendencies 
of  separatism,  and  in  the  same  way  his  great 
talent  of  organization  was  marred  by  un- 
deniable traits  of  bad  conduct.  In  1838  he 
led  a  following  of  about  700  persons  to  Ameri- 
ca, and  in  1839  they  were  settled  on  land 
bought  in  Perry  County,  Mo.  Very  soon, 
however,  it  became  evident  that  certain  ru- 
mors from  his  Dresden  time  were  only  too 
true,  and  Martin  Stephan  retired  from  his 
leadership.  But  the  colony  has  prospered 
and  still  retains  its  character  of  strict  Luthtr- 
anism  represented  by  Concordia  College  in 
St.  Louis.  (See  Vehse,  Die  Step.  Auswander- 
ung,  Dresden,  1840.) 

Stephan,  St.,  the  first  king  and  the  patron 
saint  of  Hungary  ;  b.  977  ;  d.  1038.  His  true 
name  was  Voik,  but  when,  in  994,  he  was 
baptized  by  Adalbert  of  Prague,  he  assumed 
the  name  of  Stephanus.  From  that  time  he 
travelled  about  in  his  dominion,  preached. 


STEPHEN 


(875) 


STEVENS 


baptized,  built  churches,  established  bishop- 
rics, etc.  As  a  reward  Sylvester  II.  sent  liim 
a  goldeu  crown,  gave  him  the  title  of  Apos- 
tolic Kiuir.  and  commissioned  the  archbishop 
of  Grau  lo  crown  him  in  1000.  In  1687  In- 
nocent XI.  made  him  a  saint. 

Ste'-phen  {crown),  the  first  martyr,  was  one 
of  seven  men  chosen  by  the  churcli  at  Jerusa- 
lem to  minister  to  the  poor,  and  hence  called 
deacons,  though  that  name  is  not  given  to 
them  in  the  Bible  account  (Acts  vi.  1-7). 
Stephen  was  distingui.shed  as  "  full  of  faith 
and  of  the  Holy  Spirit."  He  spoke  with  so 
much  power  that  he  was  arrested,  tried,  and 
then  stoned  to  death  by  an  angr}"-  crowd  (Acts 
vii.).  T.  W.  C. 

Stephen  is  the  name  of  ten  popes.  1.  May 
12,  254-Aug.  2,  2r)7,  fell  out  with  Cyprian  on 
the  question  of  rebaptism  of  heretics.  The 
Roman  practice  of  recognizing  baptism  by 
heretics  as  valid,  and  admitting  the  person 
thus  baptized  into  the  church  without  repeat- 
ing the  rite,  was  condemned  by  the  councils 
of  Carthage,  255  and  256,  after  which  Pope 
Stephen  broiie  off  communion  with  the  Afri- 
can Church.  See  Cyprian's  Letters.  2.  3Iarch 
15,  752,  reigned  only  a  few  days  and  was  not 
ordained,  on  account  of  which  circumstance 
he  is  bv  some  not  reckoned  among  the  popes. 
3.  March  26,  752- April  26,  757,  was  the  im- 
mediate successor  of  the  preceding.  He 
crowned  Pepin  the  Small  king  of  France,  and 
received  in  reward  the  exarcliate  of  liavenna. 
His  letters  have  been  preserved  in  the  Codex 
Carolinus.  4.  Aug.  7,  768-Feb.,  772,  held  a 
council  in  the  Lateran,  769,  which  prohibited 
the  election  of  a  layman  to  the  papal  dignity. 
See  his  letters  in  Codex  Carolinus  and  Eiu- 
hard's  Vita  Carol.  M(t(].  5.  Reigned  only  a 
few  months,  816-17.  6.  885-91,  obtained 
from  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Leo,  that  all 
who  had  been  consecrated  by  Photius  shoidd 
be  deposed,  and  all  who  had'becn  deposed  by 
him  should  be  recalled.  7.  Reigned  only  for 
a  few  months,  896-97.  He  had  the  body  of 
his  predecessor,  Formosus,  dug  up  from  the 
grave  and  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  and  he  was 
himself  shut  up  in  a  dungeon  and  strangled 
by  his  enemies.  8.  929-31 .  a  creature  of  Theo- 
dora and  Marozla.  9.  939-42,  a  German  by 
birth  and  a  relative  of  Otto  the  Great.  10. 
1057-58,  was  originally  abbot  of  Monte  Ca.sino 
and  a  creature  of  Hildebrand.  C.  P. 

Stephens,  Robert,  b.  in  1503  ;  d.  at  Geneva, 
Sept.  7,  1559.  He  was  the  son  of  Henrv,  the 
founder  of  tlie  great  printing-house,  and  pub- 
lished in  Paris  three  editions  of  the  Greek 
New  Testament,  1546.  1549, 15.50  (the  so-called 
"royal  edition,"  which  is  {ha  textus  veceptiia 
for  English  scholars).  In  Geneva,  whither 
he  emigrated  in  1550,  he  published  his  last 
edilion.in  which  the  versicular  division  was 
first  adopted.  According  to  tradition  he  made 
the  division  wliile  travelling  on  horseback 
from  Paris  to  Geneva,  and  it  is  jocularly  said 
that  every  time  his  horse  stumbled  he  marked 
a  verse,  which  accounts  for  the  occasional 
divisions  in  the  middle  of  .sentences.  He  also 
publishid  the  Hebrew  Bible  entire  in  1539 
and  1543,  and  the  Vulgate,  1528,  and  often  ; 


the  French  Bible,  1553,  and  the  first  edition 
of  Beza's  Latin  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 1550. 

Sternhold,  Thomas,  b.  in  Gloucestershire 
or  Hampshire  about  1500  ;  d.  1549  ;  groom 
of  the  chambers  to  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward 
VI.  Nineteen  psalms  versified  by  him  ap- 
peared 1548,  and  32  more  (it  is  said)  1549. 
The  work  was  carried  on  by  John  Hopkins  of 
the  Woodend,  Aure,  Gloucestershire,  B.A. 
of  Oxford,  1544,  settled  perhaps  in  Suffolk. 
Tlie  Wliiile  Ihohcif  Pmbncs  Collected  into  Eng- 
lish Metre  appeared,  London,  1562,  and  was 
the  chief  metrical  provision  of  the  English 
Church  for  two  centuries,  being  bound  up 
with  many  editions  of  the  Prayer-Book  till 
1830  or  later.  After  1700  it  was  called  the 
"Old  Version,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
"  New  Version"  of  Tate  and  Brady,  1696, 
which  superseded  it  but  slowly.  In  this  about 
64  versions  bear  Hopkins'  initials,  and  41 
those  of  Sternhold,  who  did  nothing  of  any 
merit  (in  modern  eyes)  except  a  few  stanzas 
of  Psalm  xviii.  The  others  are  by  Tliomas 
Norton,  a  lawyer,  who  translated  Calvin's 
Institutes,  and  d.  about  1600  ;  William  Wit- 
tingham,  1524-89,  an  Oxford  man  who  mar- 
ried Calvin's  sister,  and  was  dean  of  Durham 
from  1563  ;  Wisdome,  archdeacon  of  Ely 
(doubtful),  and  William  Kethe.  who  was  at 
Geneva  with  Knox,  1555,  and  later  incumbent 
of  Okeford.  Dorset.  This  last  contributed 
the  only  version  now  valued,  that  of  Psalm 
c. ;  it  was  taken  into  the  Scotch  Psalms  and 
s  still  widely  used.  F.  M.  B. 

Sterry,  Peter,  Puritan  ;  b.  in  Surrey  ;  fel- 
low of  Emmanuel  College.  Cambridge,  1636  ; 
d.  in  London,  Nov.  19,  1672.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  one  of 
Cromwell's  chaplains,  and  author  of  sundry 
works  abused  in  their  day  as  mystical,  and 
now  nearly  forgotten — Parliament,  fast-day, 
and  thankivsging  sermons,  and  the  like. 

F.  M.  B. 

Steudel(stoi-del),  Johann  Christian  Fried- 
rich,  b.  at  Esslingen,  Wlirtemberg,  Oct.  25, 
1779  ;  d.  at  Tubingen,  Oct.  24,  1837,  where 
he  became  professor  of  theology  in  1815.  He 
was  the  last  representative  of  the  elder  Tubin- 
gen school ;  his  Lectures  on  the  Theoltigij  of  tha 
Old  Testament  was  edited  by  Oehler.  Berlin. 
1840.  The  story  is  told  that  lie  once  began  a 
prayer  in  this  fashion,  "  O  Du,  der  Du  den 
die  "das  menschliche  Geschlccht  begUlckende 
Religion  verkUndigenden  Jesum  in  die  Welt 
gcsandt  hast." 

Stevens,  Abel,  LL.D.  (Indiana  State  I'ni- 
versitv,  Bloomiiuxton.  1856),  Methodist  ;  b.  in 
Philadelphia.   Jan.    19,  1815  ;  studied  in  the 
Wesleyan    University.    >Iiddlctown,    Conn.; 
ioined'the  New  England  Conference  in  1834  ; 
I  held   various  pastoral  chartrcs,   and  became 
I  editor  of  Zion'a  Herald.   Boston.    1840;   The 
'  Xationeil   Magazine,   New   York.    1852  :   The 
I  Christian  Adwcate,  1856.  and  The  Methodist, 
'  1860.      After  1874  he  travelled   extensively 
I  and  settled  at  Geneva,  where  he  took  charge 
of  the  American  Union  Churrli.     He  has  pub- 
lished History  of  MethrnHsm,  N'w  York,  1858- 
'  61    3  vols. ;  history  of  the  Methodist  Epitcopal 


STEVENS 


(876) 


STODDARD 


Church,  1864-67,  4  vols. ;  Centenary  of  Ameri- 
can Methodism,  1866  ;  Madame  de  titael,  1881, 
2  vols.;  Christian  Work,  1883,  etc. 

Stevens,  William  Bacon,  D.D.  (University 
of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  1848),  LL.D. 
(Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1862), 
Episcopalian,  bishop  of  Pennsylvania  ;  b.  at 
Bath.  Me.,  July  13,  1815  ;  was  educated  at 
Philips  Academy,  Andover  ;  ordained  priest 
in  1844,  and  appointed  assistant  bishop  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1862,  and  bishop  in  1865  ;  d. 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  11,  1887.  He  has 
published,  besides  A  History  of  Georgia,  New 
York  and  Phila.,  1847-59,  3  vols.,  and  other 
historical  works,  Consolation,  Philadelphia, 
1855,  2d  ed.,  1871  ;  Sunday  at  Home,  1856  ; 
The  Lord's  Day,  1857  ;  Sabbaths  of  Our  Lord, 
1873  ;  The  Parables  of  t/ieMto  Testament,  1887, 
sermons,  addresses,  etc. 

Stichometry  {line-measuring)  is  the  name 
given  to  a  system  which  seeks  to  determine 
the  contents  and  text  of  ancient  manuscripts 
by  a  careful  measurement  of  the  sticlwi  or 
lines  employed,  the  data  being  furnished  by 
subscriptions  at  the  close  of  the  manuscripts, 
expressing  the  number  of  lines  contained  in 
the  book  that  has  been  copied  ;  by  marginal 
annotations  from  point  to  point,  stating  the 
extent  of  the  previous  text  ;  or  by  quotations 
and  allusions  in  various  writers  which  indi- 
cate either  the  locality  of  some  passage  in  the 
quoted  work  or  the  compass  of  the  whole  or 
part  of  the  works  of  a  given  author.  A  diffi- 
culty was  encountered  in  the  indefinite  sense 
of  the  word  stichos,  but  it  was  found,  on  ex- 
amination that  it  was  used  mainly  of  hex- 
ameter poetry.  And  an  actual  count  of  the 
number  of  letters  in  certain  works  showed 
that  a  stichos  represented  not  a  clause  nor  a 
number  of  words,  but  a  fixed  quantity  of 
writing. 

The  application  of  this  system  to  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  classic  authors  and  also  to  the 
codices  of  the  Greek  Testament,  so  far  as  it 
has  been  tried,  has  been  found  of  great  service 
in  determining  the  original  text.    T.  W.  C. 

Stiekna  (De  Steken),  Conrad,  also  called 
Conradus  ab  Austria,  d.  at  Prague,  1369.  He 
was  a  forerunner  to  John  Hus.  In  his  work 
Accusationcs  Mendicantium  he  unsparingly 
attacks  the  begging  orders  of  monks,  quite  in 
the  style  of  his  preaching,  which  was  against 
the  prevailing  vices  of  the  clergy  and  the  de- 
generation of  the  church.  (See  Zitte,  Lebens- 
beschreibungen  d.  drei  ausgezeichnesten  Vor- 
Idufer  d.  berumten  Mag.  J.  Hus,  Prag,  1786  ; 
Jordan,  Die  Vorlaufer  des  HussitentJiums, 
Leipzig,  1846.)  C.  H.  A.  B. 

Stier  (steer),  Rudolf  Ewald,  b.  at  Frau- 
stadt,  Posen,  March  17,  1800  ;  d.  at  Eisleben, 
Dec.  16,  1863  ;  studied  theology  at  Halle  and 
Berlin,  held  various  pastoral  charges,  and 
was  in  1859  appointed  superintendent  of  Eisle- 
ben. His  exegetical  works,  of  a  strongly 
pronounced  homiletical  character,  found  a 
very  wide  circulation.  The  Words  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,  Eng.  trans,  by  Pope,  Edinburgh,  10 
vols.,  rev.  by  Strong  and  H.  B.  Smith,  New 
York,  1869.  3  vols. ;  TJie  Words  of  the  Apos- 
tles, trans,  by  Venables,   Edinburgh,   1869  ; 


The  Words  of  Angels,  London,  1862.  n.e., 
1887,  etc.  His  life  was  written  by  his  sons, 
Wittenberg,  1868,  2d  ed.,  1871. 

Stigmatization  (f rom  the  Greek,  ariy/xa,  "  a 
mark")  means  the  spontaneous  formation  of 
the  same  wounds  as  Christ  received  by  being 
crowned  with  thorns,  crucified,  and  pierced 
with  a  spear.  The  first  instance  was  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  1224,  the  last  Louise  La- 
teau,  a  Belgian  girl,  1873. 

Stilling,    Johann    Heinrich    Jung-,   b.    at 

Grund,  Nassau,  Sept.  12,  1740  ;  d.  at  Carls- 
ruhe,  Baden,  April  2,  1817  ;  led  a  very  check- 
ered life,  divided  between  study,  practice 
as  an  eye-physician,  and  literary  work,  but 
though  struggling  against  poverty  more  than 
one  fourth  of  his  time,  he  managed  to  become 
one  of  the  most  widely  read  and  most  highly 
valued  devotional  writers  of  the  time  in  Ger- 
many. Translated  into  English  are  1  hcory 
of  Pneumatology ,  partially  based  on  Sweden- 
borg,  London,  1834  ;  Autobiograpliy ,  1835,  3 
vols,  (the  edition  of  1847  is  abridged) ;  Inter- 
esting Tales.  1837. 

Stillingfleet,  Edward,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
1668),  bishop  of  Worcester  ;  b.  at  Cranbourne, 
Dorsetshire.  93  m.  w.  of  London,  April  17, 
1635  ;  d.  at  Westminster,  March  28,  1699.  He 
entered  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  1648  ; 
became  a  fellow,  1653,  and  rector  of  Sutton, 
Bedfordshire,  1657.  His  Irenicvm,  London, 
1659,  maintained  that  the  church  ought  not 
to  add  to  the  Master's  conditions  of  fellow- 
ship ;  an  appendix,  1662,  claimed  its  indepen- 
dence of  the  state.  This  did  not  prevent  the 
Act  of  Conformity,  which  drove  out  Baxter, 
Howe,  Henry,  and  a  multitude  more.  His 
OriginesSacr(e,London,  1663,  gained  him  great 
reputation  and  rapid  preferment  ;  he  became 
preacher  at  the  Rolls.  1664  ;  rector  of  St.  An- 
drew's, Holborn,  1665 ;  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's,  1667  ;  chaplain  to  Charles  11. ,  1668  ; 
canon  of  St.  Paul's,  1670  ;  archdeacon  of  Lon- 
don and  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  1677,  and  bishop 
of  Worcester,  1689.  Though  engaged  in 
many  controversies,  he  maintained  (with  some 
lapses)  his  liberal  and  pacific  attitude,  and  en- 
joyed the  respect  of  all  parties.  His  learning, 
ability,  and  industry  were  great ;  witness  his 
Origines  Britannicce,  London,  1685,  and  other 
books  of  less  fame  than  those  above  men- 
tioned. His  Doctrines  and  Practices  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  1686,  was  reprinted,  1845. 
His  Sermons  were  collected  in  4  vols.,  1696- 
1701,  and  his  works,  with  a  memoir.  1710. 
F.  M.  B. 

Stoddard,  David  Tappan,  Congregational- 
ist  ;  b.  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  Dec.  3,  1818  ; 
d.  at  Tabriz,  Persia,  Jan.  22,  1857.  Gradu- 
ating at  Yale,  1838,  and  at  Andover,  1841,  he 
labored  as  a  missionary  to  the  Nestorians 
from  1843,  and  in  1844  founded  a  school  at 
Oroomiah.  He  was  at  home,  1848-51,  and 
wrote  a  Grammar  of  Modern  Syriac,  published 
in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  So- 
ciety, New  Haven,  Conn.,  1853.  His  memoir, 
by  J.  P.  Thompson,  appeared.  New  York, 
1858.  F.  M.  B. 

Stoddard,  Solomon,  Congregationalist ;  b. 
at  Boston,  Sept.  27,  1643  ;  d.  at  Northamp- 


STOBOKER 


(Sn) 


STRABO 


Ion,  Feb.  11,  1729.  He  j^raduated  at  Harvard, 
16G2  ;  preach(!(l  two  years  at  Barbadoes  ;  was 
the  first  librarian  at  Harvard,  and  was  settled 
iit  Northampton,  1669-1729,  and  succcediMl 
there  by  his  grandson,  Jonathan  Edwards. 
He  advocated  the  admission  of  unconverted 
persons  to  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  "  means  of 
regeneration,  "  had  a  controversy  with  In- 
crease Mather,  and  published  sundry  sermons. 
F.  M.  B. 

Stoecker,  Adolf,  United  Evangelical ;  b.  at 
Halberstadt,  Prussian  Saxony,  Dec.  11, 183") ; 
studied  theology  at  Halle  and  Berlin  ;  was 
chaplain  to  the  German  army  at  Metz,  1871, 
and  became  court  preacher  at  Berlin,  1874, 
but  resigned,  1890.  He  is  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  so-called  Christian  Socialist  movement 
and  of  the  anti-Semitic  parly,  and  has  pub- 
lished, besides  numerous  adciresses  and  pam- 
phlets, Chnstlich-Sozial,  Bielefeld,  1884  ;  two 
collections  of  Volkspredigteii,  Berlin,  1885  and 
1886.  etc. 

Stoicism,  the  doctrine  of  a  sect  of  ancient 
philosophers  founded  by  Zcno,  a  native  of 
Citium,  in  Cyprus,  who  taught  in  a  public 
porch  called  'Stod  Poikile,  "  Painted  Porch," 
whence  came  the  name  of  his  sect.  The 
stoics  hehi  that  the  deitj^  was  not  the  creator, 
but  the  soul  of  the  universe,  and  both  were 
alike  subject  to  inevitjible  destiny.  They  al- 
lowed poiylheism,  since  the  gods  of  mythology 
were  minor  developments  of  the  great  World- 
god.  Plan's  chief  good  was  in  living  accord- 
ing to  nature,  and  thus  living  he  was  self- 
sulficient  and  not  moved  by  either  joy  or 
grief.  They  alfected  austerity  and  apathy, 
and  were  of  strict  morals,  but  justified  suicide 
as  an  escape  from  the  ills  of  life.  Paul  en- 
countered them  at  Athens  (xVcts  xvii.  18). 

The  most  celebrated  members  of  the  school 
were  Cleanthes,  author  of  a  noted  hymn, 
Cato,  and  Brutus  ;  the  freedman  Epictetus, 
who  died  about  a.d.  115,  and  the  Emperor 
Marcus  Aurclius,  a.d.  121-80.  (See  Zeller, 
T/ie  Stoics,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1869;  W. 
W.  Capes,  Stoici.vn,  London,  1880  ;  T.  Jor- 
dan, The  Stoic  MoralintH  and  Christians  in 
the  First  Tiro  Centuries  [Douellan  Lectures], 
Dublin,  1880,  2ded.,  1884.)  T.  W.  C. 

Stoning,  the  punishment  prescribed  by  the 
Mosaic  law  for  such  offences  as  idolatry  (Lev. 
XX.  2),  blasphemy  (Lev.  xxiv.  16),  Sabbath- 
breaking  (Num.  XV.  35),  witchcraft  (Lev.  xx. 
27).  and  filial  disobedience  (Deut.  xxi.  21), 
was  inflicted  outside  the  camp  or  city,  and 
the  witnesses  were  required  to  commence  the 
work,  often  laying  off  their  outer  garments 
for  freer  action  (Acts  vii.  58).  Biblical  in- 
stances of  stoning  bv  a  mob  are,  Egyptian 
(Ex.  viii.  26).  Jewish  (I  Sam.  xx.v.  6,  2Chron. 
xxiv.  21,  Luke  xx.  6,  John  viii.  59,  x.  31), 
Liystran  (Acts  xiv.  5,  19).  Paul  says  (3  Cor. 
xi.  25),  "  Once  was  I  stoned."  Christ  would 
have  died  by  stoning  on  the  charge  of  bl.as- 
phemy  (Malt.  xxvi.'57),  but  as  a  capital  sen- 
tence "could  come  only  from  the  Roman  gov- 
ernor, another  charge  was  substituted,  and  for 
this  a  Hnman  penalty  was  infiicted.  T.  W.  C. 

StoTT,  Gottlob  Christian,  b.  at  Stuttgart, 
Sept.  10.  1746  ;  d.  there,  as  court  preacher 
since  1797.  Jan.  17,   1805  ;  was  professor  of 


theology  at  Tiibingen  1775-1797.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  Ueber  den  Zwcck  drr  evan- 
(/dischaa  Geschichte  iind  drr  Briife  Johannis, 
Tabingen.  178C,  2d  ed.,  1810,  and  Doctrium 
Uiristianm,  Stuttgart,  1793,  2d  ed.,  1807. 
Ger.  trans.,  1803. 

Storrs,  Richard  Salter,  D.D.  (Union  Col- 
lege, 1853;  Harvard  College,  1859),  LL.D. 
(Princeton,  1874),  L.H.D.  (Columbia  College, 
1887),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Braintree, 
Mass.,  Aug.  21.  1821  ;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College,  1839,  and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  1845  ;  became  pastor  at  Brookline, 
Mass.,  1845  ;  of  the  Church  of  the  Pilgrims, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1846.  He  has  been  since 
1887  president  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  Re- 
nowned as  an  orator,  his  publications  are 
mostly  lectures  and  discourses  ;  of  them  may 
be  named.  Preaching  without  yutis.  New  York, 
1 875  ;  Hecof/nitio  a  of  the  Suj)ern  ntu  ral  in  Letters 
and  Life,  18S1  ;  the  Didne  Origin  of  Christi- 
anity indicated  hi/  ita  Jlist/njrnl  Effects,  1884  ; 
The  Puritan  Spirit,  Boston,  1890. 

Stcughton  (stO-ton),  John,  D.D.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1869),  Congregationali.st  ;  b.  in  Nor- 
wich, England,  Nov.  15,  1807  ;  was  educated 
in  University  College,  London  ;  held  various 
pastoral  charges,  and  was  professor  of  his- 
torical theology  in  New  College,  St.  John's 
Woods,  London,  1872-84.  His  principal 
works  are  Ecclesiastical  History  of  England, 
London,  1867-74,  5  vols.,  2ded.,  1881,  6  vols.; 
Religion  in  England  during  the  Reign  of 
Queen  Anne  and  the  Georges,  1878  ;  Religionin 
England,  1800-1850,  1884  ;  Golden  Legends  of 
the  Olden  Time,  1885. 

Stowell,  Hugh,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Douglas,  Isle  of  Man,  Dec.  3.  1799  :  d.  at 
Salford,  near  Manchester,  Oct.  8,  1865.  He 
graduated  at  St.  Edmund's  Hall.  Oxford, 
1823,  and  was  at  Salford  from  1825,  mostly  in 
charge  of  Christ  Church,  which  was  built  for 
him  ;  canon  of  Chester,  1845,  and  rural  dean. 
He  was  a  prominent  evangelical,  and  wrote 
a  life  of  Bishop  Wilson,  London.  1819,  Trac- 
tarianism  Tested,  1843,  and  sundry  other  vol- 
umes in  pro.se  and  verse.  He  is  remembered 
chiefly  by  the  hymn,  "From  every  stormy 
wind  that  blows"  (1831),  one  of  46  published 
by  his  son  in  1868.  (See  his  memoir  bv  J.  B. 
Marsden.  1868.)  F.  M.  B. 

Strabo  (Strabus,  i.e.,  the  sqnintir),  properly 
Walfried  (Walafried,  Walaiifried.  Wnlafri- 
dus),  was  a  theological  writer  of  the  first 
half  of  the  9th  century  ;  b.  in  Alemannia 
about  809  ;  d.  near  Reichenau.  Aug.  17.  849. 
He  studied  under  Rabanus  Maurus  at  Fulda 
(q.  v.),  826-829.  Famous  for  scholarship,  in 
838  he  was  abbot  of  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery of  Reichenau,  on  Lake  Constance. 
He  is  profuse,  and  not  of  mudi  historical 
value.  Besides  historical  and  poetical  works, 
he  published  many  cxegetical  writings.  Fore- 
most ainoiur  these  is  his  Glossa  ordinaria,  com- 
monly called  merely  the  Glmn.  It  is  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Bible  and  on  some  of  the  Ajwc- 
rypha.  and  consists  mainly  of  extracts  from  the 
Fatliers.  It  was  for  almost  five  centuries  the 
main  source  of  information  in  thcWestonsuch 
subjects,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  printed 
works  (1475).     His  works  are  in  Migne,  Pat. 


STRAOK 


(878) 


STUART 


Lat.  CXIII.,  CXIV.,  and  his  poetry  in 
DUmmler,  Poetos  Latini  mvi  Carolini,  ii.  259- 
473.  C.  H.  A.  B. 

Strack,  Hermann  Lebrecht,  Ph.D.,  Lie. 
Theol..  D.D.  (Leipzig,  1872-77-84),  Protes- 
tant theologian  ;  b.  in  Berlin,  May  6,  1848  ; 
studied  theology  in  Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1865- 
70,  and  became  professor  extraordinary  of 
theology  in  Berlin,  1877.  He  has  edited,  since 
1885,  Nathanael,  issued  by  the  Berlin  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  Christianity  among 
the  Jews,  and  with  Zoeckler  the  Kurzgefasster 
Kommentar  on  the  whole  Bible  and  Apocrypha, 
Nordlingen,  1886  sqq.,  and  has  published 
Prolegomena  Critica  in  V.  T.  Ilebraicum,  Ber- 
lin, 1873  ;  Pi'oplietorum  posteriorum  codex 
Babylonicus  Petropolitanus,  at  the  expense  of 
Alexander  IT.  of  Russia  j  A.  Firkowitch  unci 
seine  Entdeckunqcn,  Leipzig,  1876  ;  Pirke 
Aboth,  1882 ;  Hebrew  Grammar,  1883,  Eng. 
trans.,  New  York  and  London,  1886  ;  Mnleii- 
ung  in  den  Thahntid,  Leipzig,  1887. 

Strauss  (strowss),   David  Friedrich,  b.  at 

Ludwigsburg,  Wurtemberg,  Jan.  27,  1808  ; 
d.  there,  Feb.  8,  1874  ;  studied  theology  at 
Tiibiagen  and  philosophy  in  Berlin,  and  en- 
tered upon  a  university  career  as  repetent  at 
Tubingen,  which,  however,  was  suddenly  and 
forever  broken  off  by  the  publication  of  his 
Leben  Jesu,  Tubingen,  1835-36,  2  vols.,  Ena:. 
trans.,  TheLifeofJesus,'B{n-mr\g\\&xn,  1842-44, 
4  vols.,  trans,  from  the  4th  ed.  by  George  Eliot, 
London,  1846,  3  vols.  The  book  is  a  direct  ap- 
plication to  the  gospel  narrative  of  the  .so-called 
mythical  principle,  which,  just  at  that  time, 
had  proved  itself  a  most  potent  instrument  of 
truth  in  the  study  of  profane  history,  and  the 
result  was  a  complete  dissolution  of  tlie  life  of 
Christ  into  myths  formed  around  or  upon  the 
Jewish  tradition  of  Messiah.  The  sensation 
which  it  produced  in  Germany  was  without 
any  parallel  in  the  past ;  every  pen  of  note 
was  arrayed  against  it,  and  a  special  Strauss 
literature  was  created.  In  the  2d  and  3d 
editions  the  author  seemed  to  yield  before  the 
storm,  but  with  the  4th  edition  he  again  ad- 
vanced, and  when,  in  later  years,  he  returned 
directly  to  the  subject.  Das  Leben  Jesu  fib-  das 
deutsche  Volk,  Leipzig,  1864,  Eng.  trans.,  A 
New  Life  of  Jesus,  icritten  for  the  Use  of  the 
German  People,  London,  1865,  2  vols.;  Die 
Halben  und  die  Oanzen,  Berlin,  1865  ;  Der  alte 
und  der  neue  Olazibe,  Leipzig,  1872,  Eng.  trans. , 
The  Old  Faith  and  the  New, '^bj  Mathilde  Blind, 
London  and  New  York,  1873,  3d  ed.  (with 
final  preface),  1874  ;  his  standpoint  fell  at  last 
outside  the  pale  of  Christianity.  His  second 
great  work  was  Die  christliche  Qlaubenslehre 
in  ihrer  geschichtlichen  Entwickelung.  Tubin- 
gen, 1840-41,  2  vols.,  in  which  he  gives  a  criti- 
cal representation  of  the  origin,  development, 
and  decay  of  the  various  Christian  dogmas. 
But  the  book  attracted  very  little  attention. 
Then  followed  a  number  of  monographs  or 
historical  sketches  of  a  more  general  literary 
character,  Schubarts  Leben,  Berlin,  1849,  2 
vols.;  Christiaji  Mdrklin,  Mannheim,  1851  ; 
Ulrichvon  Ilutten,  Leipzig,  1857,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1874  ;  Voltaire,  Leipzig,  1870,  5th 
ed.,  1878,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  characterized 
by  competency,  justness,  and  a  literary  form 


very  rare  in  Germany.  His  biography  was 
written  by  Zeller,  Bonn,  1874,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  same  year,  and  by  Hausrath,  Heidel- 
berg, 1876-78,  2  vols.  C.  P. 

Strong,  Augustus  Hopkins,  D.D.  (Brown 

University,  1870),  Baptist  ;  b.  at  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  3,  1836  ;  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege, 1857,  and  at  Rochester  Theological  Semi- 
nary, 1859  ;  became  pastor  at  Haverhill,  Mass., 
1861  ;  at  Cleveland,  O.,  1865  ;  president  and 
professor  of  theology  in  Rochester  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  1872.  He  is  the  author  of  Sys- 
tematic Theology,  Rochester,  1887,  3d  ed.. 
New  York,  1890 ;  Philosophy  and  Religion, 
1888. 

Strong,  James,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.  (Wesleyan 
University,  Middletown,  Conn.,  1856  and 
1881),  Methodist  layman  ;  b.  in  New  York, 
Aug.  14,  1822  ;  graduated  at  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, 1844 ;  became  professor  of  biblical 
literature  and  acting  president  of  Troy  Uni- 
versity in  1858,  and  professor  of  exegetical 
theology  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
Madison,  N.  J.,  in  1868.  He  published  Har- 
mony and  Exposition  of  the  Gospels,  New 
York,  1852;  Scripture  History,  Madison, 
N.  J.,  1878  ;  Lrenics,  New  York,  1883  ;  Sacred 
Ldyls.  A  Metrical  Version  of  Solomon's  Song. 
With  Appropriate  Explanations,  New  York, 
1890  ;  a  concordance  to  the  Bible,  1891,  and 
edited  a  Cyclopedia  of  Biblical,  Theological,  and 
Ecclesiastical  Literature,  1867-81,  10  vols., 
supplement,  1885-87,  2  vols. 

Strong,  Jnsiah,  D.D.  (Adelbert  College, 
Cleveland,  O.,  1886),  Congregationalist  :  b. 
at  Naperville,  Du  Page  County,  111.,  Jan.  19, 
1847  ;  graduated  at  Western  Reserve,  Hud- 
son, O.,  1869  ;  studied  in  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  Cincinnati,  O.,  1869-71  ;  became 
secretary  of  the  Ohio  Home  Missionary  So- 
ciety, 1881  ;  pastor  of  the  Central  Congrega- 
tional church,  Cincinnati,  O.,  1884  ;  general 
secretary  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  for  the 
United  States  of  America,  1886.  He  is  the 
author  of  Our  Country,  New  York,  1885  (over 
100,000  copies  sold). 

Strype,  John,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Stepney,  near  London,  Nov.  1,  1643  ;  d.  at 
Hackney,  Dec.  11,  1737.  He  was  educated 
at  Jesus  College  and  Catharine  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge ;  B.A.,  1665,  M.A.,  1669;  curate  of 
Low  Leyton,  Essex,  1669-1737  ;  lecturer  at 
Hackney  till  1724.  In  his  later  years  his  pov- 
erty was  relieved  by  the  sinecure  of  Tarring, 
Sussex.  He  was  no  original  writer,  but  ob- 
tained access  to  many  manuscripts,  whence 
he  industriously  compiled  Memorials  of  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer,  London,  1694  ;  lives  of  Sir 
Thomas  Smith,  1698  ;  Bishop  J.  Aylmer, 
1701  ;  Sir  John  Cheke,  1705  ;  Archbishops 
Grindal,  Parker,  and  Whitgift,  1710-11-18  ; 
Annals  of  the  Reformation  in  England,  1709- 
31,  4  vols.,  and  Ecclesiastical  Memorials,  1721, 
3  vols.  He  edited  Lightfoot's  works,  1684, 
2  vols.,  and  Stow's  History  of  T^ondon,  1720, 
2  vols.  His  Historical  and  Biographical 
Works  were  collected  in  27  vols.,  Oxford, 
1820-40.  F.  M.  B. 

Stuart,  Moses,  D.D.  ( ,  18—),  Con- 
gregationalist ;  b.   at  Wilton,   Conn.,  March 


STURM 


(879) 


SUFISM 


26,  1780  ;  d.  at  Andover,  Mass.,  Jau.  4,  1852. 
A  precocious  student,  he  read  Edwards  On  the 
Will  at  twelve,  and  at  fifteen  mastered  Latin 
grammar  in  three  days.  Graduating  at  Yale, 
1799,  he  taught  at  North  Fairfield,  Danbury, 
and  Yale  ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1802,  and 
ordained,  March  5,  1806,  as  pastor  at  New 
Haven  ;  here  he  won  eminence  as  a  preacher. 
But  his  life-work  was  as  professor  of  sacred 
literature  at  Andover,  Feb.  1810-48.  His 
learning,  ability,  and  zeal  made  their  impres- 
sion on  over  iSOO  ministers,  including  100 
foreign  missionaries,  70  college  professors, 
and  30  Bible  translators.  Albert  Barnes  called 
him  "  tlie  father  of  biblical  learning  in  this 
country."  Professor  E.  A.  Park  credited 
him  with  "  redeeming  theology  from  an  iron- 
handed  metaphysics,  disenthralling  the  free 
meaning  of  the  Bible  from  slavery  to  an  ar- 
tificial logic."  Professor  II.  B.  Smith  testi- 
fied that  he  "  became  a  rich  blessing  to  the 
churches,  by  training  their  preachers  to  the 
more  thorough  study  of  the  whole  truth." 
"  He  had  the  sagacity,"  said  Professor  C.  P. 
Krauth,  "to  discover  the  value  of  tlie  Ger- 
man as  the  source  of  the  best  weapons  for  the 
defence  of  the  faitli,"  and  "  the  moral  cour- 
age to  stand  up  in  defence  of  the  literature  he 
prized."  His  works  include  a  Hebrew  Gram- 
mar without  points,  Andover,  1813,  and  with 
points,  1821  ;  Ldtera  to  Dr.  Channing  on  the 
Divinity  of  Christ,  1819,  and  to  Dr.  S.  Miller 
on  his  Eternal  Generation,  1822  ;  translation 
of  Winer's  New  Testament  Grammar  (witli 
Dr.  Robinson),  1825,  of  Erncsti's  Elements 
of  Interpretation,  1825,  and  of  Roediirer's 
Gesenius,  1846  ;  Hebrew  Chrestomathi/,  1829  ; 
commentaries  on  Hebrews,  1827-28  ;  iiomans, 
1832  ;  Apocalypse,  1S45  ;  Daniel,  1850  ;  Eccle- 
siastes,  1851,  and  Proverbs,  1S52  ;  jS'ote.<>  on 
Ilufj's  Introduction  to  the  Xew  Tistament,  IXM  ; 
Hints  on  the  Interpretation  of  Pr'>/}her_i/,  1842  ; 
History  and  Defence  of  the  Old  2'estament 
Canon,  1845  ;  Conscience  and  the  Conntitiition, 
Boston,  1850,  besides  over  3000  pages  of  un- 
bound and  uncollected  matter,        F,  M.  B. 

Sturm,  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  ab- 
bot of  Fulda  ;  b.  in  Bavaria.  710  ;  d.  at  Fulda, 
Dec.  17,  779  ;  was  a  man  of  great  energy  and 
aiithority,  and  worked  with  eminent  success 
both  as  a  missionary  and  as  a  diplomatic 
agent.  His  life,  written  bv  Eigil,  abbot  of 
Fulda,  818-22,  is  found  in  Pertz,  Monmn. 
Script.  Germ.,  ii. 

Stubbs,  William,  D.D.  (by  decree  of  convo- 
cation, 1S79),  LL.D.  (Cambridge,  1879  ;  Edin- 
burgh, 1880).  Church  of  England,  l)ishop  of 
Oxford  ;  1).  at  Knaresborougli,  York,  Eng- 
land, June  21,  1825  ;  was  educated  at  (.).xford, 
and  liecame  regius  professor  of  modern  his- 
tory there,  180(5.  and  bisliop  of  Cliester.  1884, 
of  Oxford.  1888.  He  has  pul)lislied  Chroni- 
cks  of  the  Reign  of  Richard  I.,  London.  1864- 
65.  2  vols.;  Benedict  us  A}>f>as,  1867,  2  vols.: 
R}ger  Hoveden,  18«'^71.  4  vols.:  Constitu- 
tional History  of  England.  1874-78.  3  vols.; 
GrrrascofCante'rli'n;/.  1S»79.  2vols.:  Chronicles 
ifEdicardl.  and  II,  1882-83.  2  vols. 

Stylites  (<Trv?.Zra<  Kiov'imi ,  stationnrii),  orpil- 
Uir  saints,  were  such  anchorites  as  spent  more 


or  less  of  their  lives  on  tops  of  pillars.  They 
were  usually  supported  by  a  board  or  wall, 
so  as  not  to  fall  down,  and  to  prevent  theni 
from  sitting  or  lying  down.  They  stood  on 
tlieir  inllars  in  all  climates,  night  and  day, 
summer  and  winter.  It  was  particulaily  in 
the  Syrian  desert  that  they  abounded.  How- 
ever monstrous  this  form  of  asceticism  was. 
it  created  much  admiration  in  many  places. 
Rich  people  often  built  these  iiillars  for  saints  ; 
one  Daniel  had  his  adorned  with  inscriptions, 
magnifying  his  virtues,  Alypius  stood  .sev- 
enty years  on  a  pillar.  This  form  of  asceti- 
cism was  in  vogue  down  to  the  12th  century, 
but  was  almost  unknown  in  the  AVest.  It 
originated  with  Simeon,  surnanjed  the  Sty  lite 
(q.v.).  C.  H.  A.  Bjkukkgaakd. 

Suarez  (swa-reth),  Francis,  b.  at  Granada, 
Jan.  5,  1548  ;  d.  in  Lisbon,  Sept.  25,  1617  ; 
entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in  1565,  and 
tauglit  successively  philosophy  and  tiieology 
in  Valladolid,  Rome,  Salamanca,  and  Coim- 
bra.  His  works,  which  were  much  admired 
in  their  time,  were  printed  in  a  collected  edi- 
tion of  23  vols,  at  Lvons  and  Mayence,  1630, 
and  rep.  in  Venice,  1740,  24  vols.  His  Defen- 
sio  Fidei  Cath.  et  Apost.  adrersus  Angl.  tS/ctif 
Errores,  Coimbra,  1613,  was  enthusiastically 
applauded  in  Rome  and  burned  by  the  hang- 
man in  London.  A  digest  of  his  De  ,^tatu 
Religion  is  v>-ixs  givcnhy  Vv.  Humphrey,  Suarez 
on  the  Religious  State,  London,  18S7",  3  vols. 
His  life  was  written  byDeschamp,  Perpignan. 
1671  ;  Alegambe,  Antwerp,  1443  ;  AVerner, 
Regensburg,  1861  ;  the  two  foimer  in  Latin, 
tlie  latter  in  German. 

Subdeacons  bdonged  in  the  early  churdi  to 
tlie  minor  orders  and  were  ordained  without 
imposition  of  hands. 

Sublapsarianism   or  Infra-lapsarianism    is 

the  doctrine  tliat  the  decree  of  predestination 
regards  man  as  fallen,  and  chooses  sonic  to 
salvation,  leaving  others  to  the  just  conse- 
quences of  their  sins.  The  opposite  view, 
supralapsarianism,  holds  that  God  regarded 
man  simply  as  a  creature,  and  for  his  own 
glory,  antecedent  to  the  fall,  determined  to 
save  some  of  the  race  and  reject  others,  and 
thus  decreed  to  permit  the  fall  of  Adam. 

T.  W.  C. 

Succoth  {booths),  the  place  where  Jacob 
built  a  hou.se  for  him.self  and  booths  for  his 
cattle  after  leavimr  Esau  (Gen.  xxxiii.  17). 
It  was  given  to  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Jo.sli.  xiii. 
27).  Gideon  severely  punished  the  ]X'oj)le  of 
tiie  place  for  not  aidiiur  him  against  >Iidian 
(Judges  viii.  5-16).  It  lay  oast  of  Jordan  3 
miles  from  tlie  river,  and  is  identified  by  some 
witli  Tell  Daraka  north  of  tlie  Jabliok".  An- 
otlier  Succoth  w.is  the  first  campin'_'-i)lace  of 
Israel  on  the  wav  from  Egypt  (Ex.  xii.  '■M, 
Num.  xxxiii.  5,  6).  '         T.  W.  C. 

Succoth-Benoth  (tents  of  daughters),  an  ob- 
ject of  idolatrous  worsjiip  among  the  Baby- 
lonian-; (2  Kings  xvii.  30),  and  used  by  those 
wlio  were  transplanted  to  Samaria,  but  its 
precisi-  nature  is  unknown.  T.  "\V.  C 

Sufism,  more  correctly  Sufiism.  in  tlie  most 
general  wav,  may  be  defined  as  Mysticism  and 


SUFISM 


(880) 


SUFISM 


Theosophy  from  the  standpoint  of  Moham- 
medanism. There  is  much  in  favor  of 
Schmolder's  assertion  that  Sufism  is  neither  a 
philosophical  system  nor  the  creed  of  a  re- 
ligious sect,  but  simply  a  way  of  Hving. 
Graham  maintained  in  the  Transactions  of  tlie 
Bombay  Literary  Society,  vol.  i.,  1819,  that 
"any  person  or  a  person  of  any  religion  or 
sect  may  be  a  Sufi.  The  mystery  lies  in  this  : 
a  total  disengagement  of  the  mind  from  all 
temporal  concerns  and  worldly  pursuits  ;  an 
entire  throwing  off  not  only  of  every  super- 
stition, doubt,  or  the  like,  but  of  worship, 
ceremonies,  etc.,  laid  down  by  any  religion." 
Abu-Said- Abul-Chair,  the  reputed  founder  of 
Sufism,  said  when  asked  what  it  was  :  "  What 
you  have  in  the  head,  give  it  up  ;  what  j'ou 
have  in  the  hand,  throw  it  away  ;  whatever 
may  meet  you,  depart  not  from  it."  Sufism 
thus  seems  to  be  a  religion  of  the  heart  as  op- 
posed to  formalism  and  ritualism.  Dschuneid, 
a  Sufi  sheik,  defined  its  aim  to  be  "  to  liberate 
the  mind  from  the  violence  of  the  passions,  to 
put  off  nature's  claims,  to  extirpate  human 
nature,  to  repress  the  sensual  instinct,  to  ac- 
quire spiritual  qualities,  to  be  elevated 
through  an  understanding  of  wisdom,  and  to 
practise  that  which  is  good."  These  defi- 
nitions clearly  place  Sufism  among  the  mystic 
systems.  As  for  its  theosophic  character, 
that  will  appear  when  we  consider  its  sym- 
bolical language.  Theosophy,  according  to 
the  old  and  well-understood  sense  of  the  term, 
is  a  Wisdom  that  sees  God  in  Everything 
an;l  Everything  in  God.  Not  a  wisdom  about 
or  from  God,  but  in  God.  It  is  a  God-intoxi- 
cated state.  Such  is  theosophy  as  under- 
stood by  its  best  exponent  in  the  West,  Jacob 
B:)ehm8.  The  Sufis  as  theosophists  claim  to 
be  God-intoxicated,  though  it  has  always 
seemad  to  students  of  their  system  and  prac- 
tices that  they  were  sense-intoxicated  in  the 
most  emphatic  manner.  They  seek  God  and 
see  him  where  the  devotee  ordinarily  does  not 
look  for  him — ' '  in  the  red  cheeks  of  beautiful 
damsels,"  in  "sexual  love,"  "in  wine,"  in 
"taverns,"  etc.  They  explain,  however, 
these  terms  as  being  symbolical  only.  Hafiz 
declared  that  wine  invariably  means  devotion, 
and  the  Sufi  dictionary  explains  sleep  to  sym- 
bolize meditatiDn,  perfume  to  be  hope  of 
divine  favor,  while  kisses  and  embraces  sig- 
nify raptures  of  piety.  The  tavern  .stands  for 
the  cell  of  contemplation  ;  lips  for  the  in- 
scrutable mysteries  of  God's  essence.  Beauty 
is  his  perfection,  and  tresses  and  curls  his  ex- 
pansion and  infiniteness.  Thus  through  the 
lover's  and  wine-bibber's  dictionary  we  find 
spiritual  and  heavenly  meanings  added  oppo- 
site the  most  vulgar  and  sensuous  terms,  and 
they  are  the  real  and  true  senses  in  which  the 
words  are  to  l^e  used.  Why  such  low  and 
sensuous  symbols  are  persistently  used  no 
Sufi  has  explained.  Probably  Oriental  taste 
answers  the  question,  that  in  such  way  only 
can  the  Eastern  mind  and  heart  be  roused. 
However,  this  is  Sufi  theosophical  language, 
and  reveals  to  the  initiate  the  presence  of  the 
Divine  in  everything.  The  late  Professor 
E.  H.  Palmer  studied  and  defined  Sufism 
from  still  another  point  of  view.  He  found 
that  the  system  was  an  endeavor  to  reconcile 


philosophy  with  revealed  religion,  and  that  it 
was  done  by  assigning  a  mystical  and  alle- 
gorical interpretation  to  all  religious  doctrines 
and  precepts.  These  tenets  he  further  con- 
sidered as  forming  the  esoteric  doctrine  of  the 
Shiites  principally.  He  reserved  for  a  future 
work,  which  he  never  published,  to  prove 
that ' '  Sufism  is  really  the  development  of  the 
primeval  religion  of  the  Aryan  race." 

The  term  Sufi  is  derived  from  the  Arabic 
word  snf,  "wool,"  in  allusion  to  the  dress 
adopted  by  the  dervishes,  who  are  the  masters 
and  teachers  of  Sufism.  As  Sufism  is  a  sys- 
tem of  emanation,  some  have  thought  that 
"  wool  "  represented  rays  of  emanation,  and 
therefore  was  their  true  appellative.  Some 
think  that  the  similarity  to  the  Greek  coipoq  is 
merely  accidental,  but  many  scholars  have 
proved  the  closest  similarity  between  Platon- 
ism,  Neo-Platonism,  and  Sufism,  and  main- 
tain therefore  that  the  name  oi'iginates  in  the 
Greek,  though  they  allow  the  Sufi  claim,  that 
the  system  is  not  only  older  than  IMohammed, 
but  older  than  (Mohammedan-Persian)  his- 
tory. The  Dabistan  maintains  the  identity  of 
the  pure  Sufis  and  that  of  Platonism.  The 
following  is  a  resume  of  the  more  prominent 
Sufi  tenets.  The  Deity  alone  is  and  permeates 
all  things.  All  visible  and  invisible  things 
are  an  emanation  from  Deity,  and  are  not  ab- 
solutely distinct  from  it.  Those  Sufi  who 
believe  thus,  believe  also  that  "  God  "  is  one 
with  every  enlightened  being.  They  compare 
him  to  a  flame  and  their  souls  to  charcoal, 
and  say,  that  in  the  same  manner  which  char- 
coal when  it  meets  flame  becomes  flame,  the 
immortal  part,  from  its  union  with  God,  be- 
comes God.  Another  group  of  Sufis  are  theis- 
tical,  and  speak  about  God  in  the  well-known 
theistical  phraseology.  About  the  Good  and 
the  Evil  they  think  there  is  no  absolute  differ- 
ence ;  that  which  appears  evil  is  a  result  of 
ignorance.  The  soul  of  man  is  of  God,  not 
from  God.  It  lives  in  the  body  as  in  a  prison 
and  banishment  from  God.  Before  its  exile 
it  saw  Truth,  but  here  it  only  has  glimpses 
"  to  awaken  the  slumbering  memory  of  tlie 
past."  The  main  object  of  all  Sufi 'teaching 
is  to  lead  the  soul  onward  by  degrees  to  reach 
home  again.  The  Sufis  are  very  explicit  in 
their  teachings  as  to  how  to  reach  union  with 
God.  The  whole  process  they  compare  to  a 
journey  and  the  doctrines  which  describe  it 
are  called  the  road. 

Famous  among  the  Sufis  is  the  Zikr,  ecstatic 
exercises  belonging  to  the  training  on  this 
journey.  The  word  is  similar  in  its  mystical 
powers  to  the  Hindu  (Sanscrit)  AUM.  It  con- 
tains the  whole  philosophy  and  theosophy  of 
the  universe.  Z  is  creation,  K  is  conserva- 
tion, and  R  is  transformation.  When  recited 
aloud,  or  with  low  voice,  or  mentally,  it  has 
the  power  of  creating  ecstasy.  Upon  recita- 
tion follovi's  usually  dancing  and  howling,  on 
which  the  reader  is  referred  to  J.  P.  Brown's 
Dervishes,  London,  1867,  Philadelphia,  1868, 
and  E.  W.  Lane's  Arabian  Society  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  London,  1883,  two  books  easily  accessi- 
ble to  most  readers. 

The  fakirs  or  dervishes  are  the  practical 
expounders  of  the  Zikr.  Though  asceticism 
and  monastic  life  are  inconsistent  with  Mo- 


SUFFRAGAN 


(881) 


SUMMERS 


luimmedanism,  and  Mohammed  constantly 
preached  against  them,  advocating  an  active 
life  and  an  aggressive  religion,  they  neverthe- 
less took  root  even  in  his  own  lifetime  and  his 
own  family.  The  Suti  order,  "the  brethren 
of  sincerity,"  is  the  most  remarkable.  Its 
organization  is  purely  theosophical,  and  thus 
differs  radically  from  Christian  monkish  or- 
ders and  fraternities.  In  this  hierarchy  tlie 
supreme  dignity  is  vested  in  the  Khiilr.  He 
is  a  man,  but  so  far  elevated  above  human 
nature  that  he  is  admitted  to  the  Divine  Wis- 
dom, and  possesses  a  relative  omnipotence  and 
omniscience  on  account  of  his  mystical  secrets. 
He  is  not  bound  by  space  or  time,  and  can  be 
visible  or  invisible  at  pleasure.  He  has  been 
known  in  the  various  ages  as  Seth,  Enoch, 
Elias,  and  is  3'et  to  come  as  the  ^lahdi.  This 
being  is  the  centre,  the  prop,  the  ruler  and 
the  mediator  of  men  of  ascetic  habits  and 
practices.  As  such  his  title  is  Kothb,  axis, 
the  spiritual  jkjIc  round  Avhich  and  on  which 
all  moves.  Under  him  are  the  Aulia,  or  inti- 
mate friends,  seventy-two  in  number,  in  whom 
are  vested  all  doctrine,  authority,  and  sanc- 
tity. When  a  friend  is  gifted  with  inspiration 
and  the  power  of  working  miracles  he  is  called 
a  Xebi,  prophet  ;  and  when  entrusted  with 
the  delivery  of  God's  own  message,  he  is 
called  Rusiil,  apostle.  When  he  is  appointed 
to  abrogate  a  previous  dispensation  and  preach 
a  new  one,  he  is  called  "  L'lu  '1'  "  Azm,  "  one 
who  has  a  mission."  Among  the  friends  one 
is  the  most  prominent,  the  Kothb-ez-zaman, 
or  axis  of  his  age  ;  he  is  the  visible  depository 
of  the  knowledge  and  power  of  the  supreme 
Kothb.  None  of  these  men  has  any  outward 
or  distinctive  sign  of  dignity  and  authority  ; 
their  position  is  only  known  by  the  effects 
they  produce. 

The  influence  of  Sulism  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated. Its  retiniug  and  elevating  character 
is  the  inner  secret  of  the  hold  Mohammedan- 
ism lias  upon  the  learned  and  philosophical 
among  its  adherents.  All  the  prominent  poets 
of  Mohammeilanism  have  been  and  are  Sutis  ; 
for  instance,  Haliz,  Saadi,  Attar,  Katebi,  Jel- 
lalatldin  er  Rumi,  Nizami,  Omar  Khayam,  etc. 

The  literature  on  Sulism  is  voluminous. 
The  title  of  most  authors  and  their  works  will 
be  found  in  Hammcr-Purgstall,  Litirntiir-Ge- 
gchkhte  tier  A/riber,  t'tc. ,  Wien,  IS^O-oG,  7  vols. 
(See  also  Tholuck,  Ssii^fi/<mui<,  sive  theosophin 
persantia,  Berlin,  18'il  ;  lirntlieuMmmluug 
aus  (ler  vwrgenl.  Mystik,  Berlin,  182.")  ;  J.  von 
Hammer,  Gefichicltte  ikr  sclionea  liidckiiniite 
Pentieiin,  mit  eiiur  Blilt/uulcKe,  Wien,  1818  : 
Garcin  de  Tassy,  "  La  poesie  phil.  et  rel.  chez 
les  Persans,"  in  Rerne  cont.,  18.")G  ;  numerous 
trau'^.  in  Zeiturhnft  J'iir  d.  in»rf/e/il.  Goo  Inch; 
E.  II.  Palmer.  Ori>  ntul  Mi/sticixm ,  Cambridge, 
1S(]7  ;  Til.  P.  Hughes,  Dicfi"'i.in/  of  IkIhhi, 
New  York  and  London,  18S.")  ;  the  various 
journals  of  Oriental  learned  .societies,  etc.) 
C.  H.  A.  Bjekke<i.vakd. 

Suffragan  (Latin,  KnffntfjaiifuK,  "  a.ssistant") 
deiiotts  tlie  relation  iK-tween  the  diocesan 
bishop  .lud  his  metropolitan  whom  he  is  said 
to  sissist,  or  l)etween  a  bishop  in  purtibua  and 
the  regular  diocesan  bishop  whom  he  is  act- 
ually assisting.  C.  P. 


Suger,  abbot  of  St.  Denis,  was  a  leading 
man  in  the  church  and  prominent  in  the  alTairs 
of  .state  in  France  :  b.  near  St.  Omer,  lOSl  ;  d. 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Denis,  15^  m.  n.  of 
Paris,  Jan.  12,  1151.  He  was  educated  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Denis.  His  first  public 
ollice  "Was  the  administration  of  the  distant 
property  (  f  the  convent,  particularly  defend- 
ing it  against  predatory  knights.  He  was 
counsellor  to  Louis  VI.,  and  assisted  vigor- 
ously in  reducing  the  barons  and  establishing 
royalty.  His  disposition  and  ollice  made  him 
an  active  participant  in  the  controversy  about 
investiture (q. v.).  In  1118  he  met  the  fugitive 
pope,  Gelasius  II.,  and  placed  the  resources 
of  France  at  his  disposal.  In  1122  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  abbacy  of  St.  Denis,  and  1124 
he  took  part  in  the  great  Lateran  CDUiicil,  and 
Calixtus  II.  proposed  to  make  him  a  cardinal, 
but  died  before  lie  could  execute  his  offer. 
1127  saw  a  great  change  in  his  life.  He  be- 
came an  ascetic,  and  it  seemed  as  if  he  would 
retire  entirely  from  the  affairs  of  the  state, 
but  we  find  liim  in  li;^7,  when  Louis  VII. 
ascended  the  throne,  deeper  in  the  affairs  of 
the  world  than  before.  He  was  associated  in 
the  regency,  and  was  appointed  regent  during 
the  king's  absence  on  a  crusade.  He  admin- 
istered the  government  wisely,  subdued  the 
unruly  nobility,  and  replenished  the  treasury. 
He  also  built"  many  edifices  throughout  the 
land,  and  prevented  the  king's  brother  from 
seizing  the  throne.  Louis  publicly  thanked 
him  for  his  services  and  called  him  the  father 
of  his  country.  His  literary  remains  are 
scant,  and  are  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat. 
CLXXXVI.  (See  Bernardi,  Exi«ii  Ilixt.  nur 
I'/ibhe  SiKjer,  Paris,  1807  ;  Carnt'-Marcein, 
Etudes  8ur  les  foiuhtteurs  de  Viniite  mitlonale 
eti  France,  Paris,  1848,  2d  ed.,  lS.-,(i,  2  vols.; 
Fran9ois  Combes,  L'abbe  S'lger,  Paris,  18o3  ; 
A.  Vetault,  Suger,  Tours,  1S72.) 

C.   II.   A.   B.JKKUKGAAKD. 

Summerfield,  John,  Methodist  ;  b.  at  Pres- 
ton, Lanca><liire,  217  m.  n.n.w.  of  London, 
Jan.  31,  1798 ;  d.  in  New  York.  June  13, 
182o.  He  was  received  into  the  Irish  Wes- 
leyan  Conference,  1819,  and  in  1S21  came  to 
America,  where  he  gained  rapid  and  immense 
popularity,  preaching  to  crowds  in  New 
Y'ork,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  Washing- 
ton ;  but  his  health  failed  in  June.  1S22,  and 
efforts  to  restore  it  by  foreign  travel  were  in 
vain.  His  S<rmons  (unl  SbtrJits  of  Stvuioits 
appeared,  New  Y'ork,  1842  ;  his  life,  by  J. 
Holland,  New  Y'ork,  1829,  and  bv  W.  M. 
Willitt,  Philadelphia,  lx.-)7.  F.  M.  B. 

Summers,  Thomas  Osmond,  D.D.  ( , 

18—),  LL.J).  ( ,  IS-),  Mctiiodist  ;  b.  at 

Corfe  Castle,  Dorset,  116  m.  w.  by.s.  of  Lon- 
don. Oft.  11,  1S12  ;  d.  at  Nashville,  Tenn., 
May  5.  1882.  Coming  to  America,  1830.  he 
wa.s  admitte<l  to  the  Baltimore  Conference, 
\mry,  lab(Tred  in  Texas,  1S40-43,  and  then  in 
Alabama  ;  was  secretary  of  the  convention  at 
LouiMville.  1M4.1,  whiili'organized  the  Metho- 
dist Kpi>;coi)al  Church,  South,  and  general 
book  editor  of  that  body  at  Nashville,  Tenn., 
lK4.'i-H2  ;  assistant  etlitor  of  the  !<<i'itherii 
ChrMvin  Adrorate,  l^^(5,  e<litor  of  the  Sun- 
day-School Vmtor  and  of  the  Quart,  rly  lieviero 


SUN  WORSHIP 


(882) 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


of  his  denomination,  and  chief  compiler  of  its 
hymn-book.  From  1855  he  lived  in  Nash- 
ville, except  1862-66  in  Alabama.  He  edited 
hundreds  of  books  for  his  denomination,  and 
published  at  Nashville  commentaries  on  the 
gospels,  1868-73,  4  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1874-75; 
Acts  (1874,  2d  ed.,  1875)  ;  Refutation  of  Theo- 
logical Works  of  Thomas  Paine,  not  Noticed 
by  Bishop  Watson  in  his  Apology  for  the  Bible, 
1*855,  4th  ed.,  1874,  and  on  the  ritual  of  his 
church  (1873,  2d  ed.,  1874),  besides  sundry 
doctrinal  and  devotional  works  and  a  few 
hymns.  F.  M.  B. 

Sun-worship,  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
widespread  forms  of  idolatry.  It  existed  in  all 
the  nations  around  Palestine.  The  Assyrians 
worshipped  the  sun  directly  without  an  in- 
tervening idol  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27),  and  this  form 
was  introduced  into  Judah  by  Manasseh  (2 
Kings  xxi.  3,  5).  He  and  his  successor.  Anion, 
dedicated  horses  and  chariots  to  the  sun  and 
burned  incense  to  it  on  the  housetops  (xxiii.  5, 
11).  Sun  images  are  mentioned  in  Lev.  xxvi. 
30,  Isa.  xvii.  8,  xxvii.  9,  Ezek.  vi.  4,  6,  2 
Chron.  xiv.  3,  xxxiv.  4  (R.  V.).  Whatever  the 
name  of  the  worship  Israel  met  in  Egypt  or 
in  Palestine,  its  real  object  was  the  sun. 
Everywhere  on  earth  the  orb  of  day  was 
worshipped,  but  faithful  Hebrews  called  on 
it  (Ps.  cxlviii.  3)  to  praise  Jehovah,  the  Sun 
of  righteousness.  (See  A.  Hillebrand,  Die 
Sonnicendfeste  in  Alt-Indien,  Erlangen,  1890.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Sunday  is  the  heathen  name  of  the  first  day 
of  the  week  (as  is  the  case  with  the  names  of 
the  other  days),  and  means  "  the  day  of  the 
SWQ."  {dies  solis).  It  does  not  occur  in  Scrip- 
ture, but  is  now  in  common  use  for  the  Chris- 
tian's day  of  rest  and  worship,  properly  called 
"the  Lord's  day"  (Rev.  i.  6),  as  the  day 
which  commemorates  his  resurrection. 

T.  W.  C. 

Sunday  legislation  began  with  the  famous 
statute  of  Constantine(321)  ordering  all  work- 
shops to  be  closed.  Theodosius  the  Great 
(386)  forbade  the  doing  of  business  and  hold- 
ing spectacles  on  that  day,  and  (469)  the  laws 
put  an  arrest  on  all  legal  process.  In  Eng- 
land Sunday  laws  existed  from  an  early  date, 
beginning  with  Alfred  C876),  and  became 
stricter  as  time  passed.  The  statute  of  Charles 
II.  (1676)  is,  with  some  modifications,  still  the 
law  of  the  land.  It  prohibits  all  labor  save 
works  of  necessity  and  mercy,  public  sales, 
travelling,  etc.,  but  permits  meat  and  milk  to 
be  sold  before  9  a.m.  and  after  4  p.m.  The 
laws  of  our  states  resemble  the  English  statute. 
They  make  Sunday  a  non-legal  day.  Many 
of  them  make  exception  in  favor  of  those  who 
observe  the  seventh  day  of  the  week.  These 
laws  have  been  declared  constitutional,  as 
resting  on  the  right  of  all  classes  to  rest  one 
day  in  seven,  the  right  of  the  great  majority 
to  undisturbed  worship  on  this  day,  a  decent 
respect  to  the  religious  institutions  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  value  of  Sunday  observance  to 
the  state  itself  as  promoting  intelligence  and 
morality.  The  spirit  of  the  laws  is  protec- 
tion, not  coercion.  T.  W.  C. 

Sunday-schools.     The  Sunday-school,   as 


an  agency  of  popular  religious  instruction, 
had  its  modern  origin  in  the  work  of  Robert 
Raikes,  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  Gloucester 
Journal,  in  Gloucester,  England,  in  the  month 
of  July,  1780.  Impressed  by  the  need  of  the 
children  in  a  manufacturing  quarter  of  his 
city,  Mr.  Raikes  engaged  four  women,  at  the 
rate  of  a  shilling  a  day  each,  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  reading  and  in  the  Church  of  England 
Catechism  to  such  children  as  could  be  in- 
duced to  gather  for  the  purpose.  The  first 
Sunday-school  was  begun  at  the  house  of  Mr. 
King  in  St.  Catherine  street.  The  school  ses- 
sion was  from  10  to  12  in  the  forenoon.  After 
a  recess  of  an  hour  the  scholars  reassembled, 
and  after  reading  a  lesson  were  conducted  to 
church.  After  service  they  were  examined 
in  the  catechism  until  5.30,  when  they  were 
dismissed.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Stock,  a  pari.sh 
clergyman,  assisted  Mr.  Raikes  in  this  work, 
visited  the  schools,  examined  the  scholars,  and 
added  a  sixpence  a  day  to  the  stipend  of  the 
teachers. 

The  success  of  this  movement  was  so  grati- 
fying that,  in  Nov.,  1783,  Mr.  Raikes  called 
public  attention  to  it  in  the  columns  of  his 
paper.  Subsequently  his  descriptions  of  the 
work  v/ere  published  in  the  Leeds  and  Man- 
chester papers,  in  the  Oe7itleman's  Magazine, 
in  the  Arminian  Magazine,  edited  by  John 
Wesley,  and  in  other  periodicals.  Volunteers 
took  the  place  of  paid  teachers.  The  work 
became  widely  popular.  Church  dignitaries 
approved  it.  Ladies  of  fashion  undertook  the 
work  of  Sunday-school  teaching.  The  queen 
gave  to  the  movement  the  stamp  of  royal 
favor,  sending  for  Mr.  Raikes  to  bring  her  "the 
story  of  his  work,  and  assuring  him  that  she 
envied  him  his  privileges  and  power  of  doing 
good  in  this  way.  John  Wesley  incorporated 
the  plan  of  Robert  Raikes  into  his  new  move- 
ment for  religious  reform.  William  Fox  and 
Jonas  Hanway  secured  the  organization  of  a 
general  Sunday-school  society,  with  its  centre 
in  London.  From  this  beginning  the  Sunday- 
school  movement  extended  itself  throughout 
Great  Britain  and  beyond.  Its  progress  was, 
however,  not  without  opposition.  The  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  summoned  a  council  of 
bishops  to  consider  whether  something  could 
not  be  done  to  stop  this  movement.  The 
Presbyterians  of  Scotland  and  the  Congre- 
gationalists  of  New  England  were  disposed 
to  take  stand  against  it  because  of  its  supposed 
secularization  "of  the  Sabbath.  But  it  made 
progress  in  spite  of  opposition. 

While  this  was  the  beginning  of  the  Sun- 
day-school under  its  present  name,  it  was  by 
no  means  the  beginning  of  that  method  of 
popular  religious  instruction  which  it  has 
come  to  represent  in  the  plans  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  Before  Abraham  was  a  father, 
he  had  318  "instructed"  retainers  (Gen.  xiv. 
14).  Under  the  Mosaic  law  the  children  as 
well  as  the  parents  were  commanded  to  be 
gathered,  at  stated  seasons,  before  the  Lord, 
for  the  study  of  the  law,  in  order  to  supple- 
nient  any  lack  of  their  home  instruction  in  re- 
ligious knowledge  (Deut.  xxxi.  10-13).  A 
duty  of  the  Levites,  in  the  days  of  the  kings, 
was  to  go  about  and  teach  the  people  from 
the  book  of  the  law  (2  Chron.  xvii.  9).     A 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


(883) 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


prominent  feature  of  the  synagogue  service, 
lifter  the  return  of  tlie  Jews  from  their  cap- 
tivity, was  the  study  of  the  law  by  means  of 
free  ciuestioning  and  answering.  In  connec- 
tion witli  the  synagogues  a  system  of  religious 
schools  was  organized  in  the  first  century  be- 
fore Christ,  by  the  labors  of  Simon  ben  She- 
tach,  a  president  of  the  Sanhedrin,  and  Joshua 
ben  Gamla,  a  liighpriest,  as  would  appear 
from  the  testimony  of  Josephus  and  the  Tal- 
mud. At  from  live  to  seven  years  of  age  a 
Jewish  child  was  to  tind  his  place  iu  the  syna- 
gogue Bible-school  ;  and  he  was  to  pas's  on 
from  grade  to  grade  of  Bible  study  until  his 
full  manhood.  TJiese  catechetical  Bible- 
schools  were  deemed  an  essential  part  of  the 
Jewish  life  and  polity.  There  is  every  reason 
to  suppose  that  they  existed  throughout  Pales- 
tine in  the  days  of  Jesus  ;  that  he  was  a  scholar 
in  one  and  another  of  tliem  ;  that  he  taught 
in  them  as  he  went  from  place  to  place  ;  and 
that  he  had  them  in  miml  when  he  enjoined  it 
upon  his  disciples  to  make  scholars  of  all  the 
nations,  teaching  them  all  tliat  he  had  com- 
manded them  (.Slatt.  x.xviii.  19,  30). 

Early  Christianity  made  progress  in  new 
communities  through  its  free  use  of  the  school 
idea.  "  The  Apostolit;  Church,"  sa\'s  Bun- 
sen,  "  made  the  school  the  coimecting  link  be- 
tween herself  and  the  world."  ScliooJs  for 
the  teaching  of  religious  truth  were  established 
far  and  near.  When  St.  Gregory  the  Illu- 
minator, for  example,  entered  upon  the  work 
of  Christianizing  Armenia,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  4th  century,  he  adopted  a  compulsory 
system  of  Bible-schools  for  the  children  in 
every  city  there,  and  other  lands  were  simi- 
larly evangelized.  A  canon  attributed  to  the 
sixth  General  Council  of  Constantinople,  a.d. 
68l),  sanctioned  the  setting  up  of  charity 
schools  in  all  tiie  country  churches,  as  they 
were  already  to  be  found  In  the  cities.  It  was 
only  when  "  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  overcame 
the  evangelical"  that  the  teaching  of  tniih 
in  the  Bible-school  was  largely  done  away 
with,  and  that  a  showy  ritual  displaced  the 
interlocutory  study  of  the  Bible.  Even  iu  the 
Dark  Ages,'  however,  tiie  Christian  life  was 
purest  in  those  communities— like  the  Wal- 
deuses,  the  Lollards,  tiie  Bohemian  Brethren, 
and  the  Brothers  of  the  Conunon  Life — where 
the  Bible  was  still  taught  to  the  young  by 
means  of  church-schools. 

At  the  time  of  the  Protestant  Reformation, 
in  the  16th  century,  the  need  of  a  revival  of 
the  system  of  church-schools  for  the  religious 
training  of  the  young  was  recognized  by  all 
the  leading  reformers.  "  Young  children  and 
sciiolars  are  the  seed  and  the  source  of  the 
church,"  said  Luther.  "  For  the  church's 
sake.  Christian  schools  must  be  established  and 
maintained  ;  for  God  maintains  tlie  church 
througli  tiie  schools."  Luther  prepared  cate- 
chisms jvs  a  guide  to  the  religious  teaching  of 
the  young.  Calvin  did  a. similar  work.  Zwin- 
gli,  Beza,  Knox,  Cranmer,  liidley,  and  Usslier 
were  also  alive  to  the  importance  of  the 
church-school  as  a  means  of  training  the 
joung  in  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible.  The 
Church  of  England  and  tlic  G(  neral  Assem- 
bly of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  as  well  as  the 
Lutheran  Church  authorities,  made  provision 


for  the  interlocutorj"  teaching  of  the  children 
in  religious  things  iu  the  Lord's  house  on  the 
Lord's  day.  The  obvious  value  of  this  work 
aroused  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  corre- 
spondent elfort  in  behalf  of  the  young  ;  and 
the  organized  endeavors  of  Ignatius  Loyola 
and  his  associates,  iu  the  newly  founded  order 
of  the  Jesuits,  were  directed  primarily  to  the 
establishing  and  conducting  of  schools  for  the 
religious  instruction  of  children.  In  the  Prot- 
estant churciies,  however,  the  polemical  spirit 
of  the  day  led  to  the  overshadowing  of  teach- 
ing by  preaching  ;  and  the  religious  instruc- 
tion of  children  was  too  often  limited  to  the 
perfunctory  liearing  of  memorized  catechism 
answers.  "As  a  result  of  this  neglect  of  the 
primitive  church-school  idea,  there  was  a  sad 
religious  decline,  in  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies, in  both  Europe  and  America. 

There  was  a  new  revival  in  religious  life 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  of  the  Weslcys,  and 
Whitetield,  and  Zinzendorf,  and  Edwards. 
This  revival  also  quickened  an  interest  in  the 
religious  care  of  the  young,  and  it  prepared 
the  way  for  the  introduction  of  the  modern 
Sunday-school  movement,  and  for  its  accept- 
ance as  a  fresh  adaptation  of  the  primitive 
church-school  idea.  There  was  nothing  abso- 
lutely luw  in  the  plan  of  Robert  Raikes. 
There  had  never  been  a  time,  since  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity,  when  schools  similar 
in  character  to  his  were  not  doing  their  work 
in  one  field  or  another.  But  the  hour  was 
now  ripe,  in  the  providence  of  God,  for  the 
recognition  and  employment  of  this  agency 
of  Cliristian  evangelism  and  Christian  instruc- 
tion to  an  extent  before  unknown.  "Within 
four  years  from  the  public  announcement,  by 
Mr.  Raikes,  of  his  beginning  in  this  line  at 
Gloucester,  the  Sunday-schools  of  the  United 
Kingdom  had  a  ii.embership  of  aliout  a  (juar- 
ter  of  a  million  ;  and  the  progress  of  this  move- 
ment has  been  steadily  onward,  until  now 
I  (1890)  the  aggregate  ni'em])erphip  of  the  Sun- 
day-schools of  the  world  is  not  far  from 
20'000.000  of  scholars,  under  some  2.000,000 
of  teachers,  including  all  denominations  of 
Christians  and  extending  to  every  quarter  of 
the  globe. 

Sunday-schools  are  known,  or  are  claimed, 
to  have  been  started  at  an  earlier  date  than 
those  gathered  by  Robert  Raikes.  as  follows  : 
In  Bath.  Entrlaiid  (bv  Rev.  Joseph  Alleine), 
in  1605-68;  in  Roxbiiry.  Mass.,  in  1674  ;  in 
Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1676  ;  in  Plymouth.  ]Vlass., 
in  1680  :  in  Newtown,  L.  I.  (bv  Rev.  Morgan 
Jones),  in  168:1 ;  in  England  (by  "Bishop  Fr.imp- 
ton),  in  1698  ;  in  Berks  and  ^Montgomery 
Counties,  Pa.  (by  the  Schwenkftlders),  in 
1784  :  in  Ephratah.  Pa.  (by  Ludwig  IloCker), 
in  1740  ;  in  Belhleheni.  Co'nn.  (Itv  Rev.  Joseph 
Bellamy),  in  1740;  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  (by 
Mrs.  Greening),  in  1744  ;  in  Norhani,  Scotland 
(by  Rev.  Mr.  .>Iorrisoii),  in  17r»7  ;  in  Br.cliin, 
Scotland  (bv  Rev.  David  Blair),  in  1760;  in 
Catterick.  I'ngland  (by  Rev.  Theopliilus  Lind- 
sev).  in  1768:  in  Columbia,  Conn,  (bv  ]{ev. 
Eleazer  Wii<elock),  in  1768  ;  in  Bedal.",  Eng- 
land (by  Miss  Harrison),  in  176r(  :  in  IIi;:h 
Wycombe.  England  (by  .Miss  Ilannaii  Ball), 
in  1769;  in  Doagh.  County  Antrim,  Ireland 


SUNDAY-SOHOOIiS 


(884) 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


(by  "William  Gait),  in  1770  ;  in  Bright,  County 
Down,  Ireland  (by  Rev.  Dr.  Kennedj'),  1774  ; 
in  Little  Lever,  near  Bolton,  England  (by 
James  Heys),  in  1775  ;  in  Mansfield,  England 
(by  Rev.  David  Simpson),  in  1778  ;  also,  about 
the  same  time,  in  Asbury,  England  (by  Rev. 
Thomas  Stock),  and  in  Dursley,  England  (by 
William  King). 

There  arc  different  claimants  for  the  credit 
of  introducing  the  modern  Sunday-school  into 
the  United  States  as  a  permanency  heie.  In 
1786  a  Sunday-school  was  organized  by  Bishop 
Asbury,  at  the  house  of  Thomas  Crenshaw, 
in  Hanover  County,  Ya.,  but  nothing  is  known 
of  it  save  its  beginning.  A  minute  in  favor 
of  organizing  Sunday-schools  was  adopted  by 
the  ]\iethodist  Conference,  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
in  Feb.,  1790  ;  yet  no  record  is  found  of  Sun- 
day-schools organized  in  consequence.  In 
Dec,  1790,  a  meeting  was  called  in  Philadel- 
phia to  consider  the  importance  of  this  work  ; 
and  in  Jan.,  1791,  the  First-Day,  or  Sunday- 
School  Society  was  formed,  for  the  securing 
of  religious  instruction  to  poor  children  on 
Svtnday.  This  society  is  still  in  e.xistence. 
Its  schools,  like  those  of  Robert  Raikes,  em- 
ployed paid  teachers  during  the  earlier  years 
of  its  existence.  Other  Sunday-schools  were 
started  :  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1791  ;  in  New 
York  City  (by  Katy  Ferguson,  a  colored 
w^oman),  in  1793  ;  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  in  1794  ; 
in  Pawtucket,  R.  I.  (by  Samuel  Slater),  in 
1797;  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1800;  in  New 
York  Citv  Hjy  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Divie  Bethuue), 
in  1803  ;  'in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1803,  and 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1804.  In  1811  the  Rev. 
Robert  ]May,  of  London,  came  to  Philadel- 
phia, and  gave  the  Sunday-school  cause  a  new 
start  that  was  of  permanent  influence.  Local 
unions  for  Sunday-school  work  were  organ- 
ized in  New  York  City  and  in  Boston  in 
1816,  and  in  Philadelphia  in  1817.  These  soci- 
eties became  the  nucleus  of  The  American  Sun- 
day-school Union,  a  national  society,  in  1824. 
Two  years  later  a  Methodist  Episcopal  Sunday- 
school  Union  was  formed  ;  and,  one  after  an- 
other, the  more  prominent  denominations  of 
Christians  undertook  the  direction  of  their  own 
Sunday-school  work,  in  addition  to  all  that 
was  being  done  on  an  undenominational 
basis. 

The  Sunday-school,  as  an  agency  of  the 
Christian  Church  for  the  ingathering  and  in- 
struction of  the  young,  has  had  a  transcen- 
dant  influence  on  the  social  and  moral  inter- 
ests of  the  community  among  all  English- 
speaking  peoples.  Adam  Smith  said  of  this 
agency,  as  soon  as  it  had  time  to  indicate  its 
possibilities  :  "No  plan  has  promised  to  effect 
a  change  of  manners,  with  equal  ease  and 
simplicity,  since  the  days  of  the  apostles. ' '  A 
century  later  John  Bright,  looking  back  upon 
its  work,  said  :  "  In  my  mind  the  Sunday- 
schools  have  been  the  foundation  of  much  of 
what  is  good  among  the  millions  of  our  peo- 
ple. ...  I  believe  that  there  is  no  field  of 
labor,  no  field  of  Christian  benevolence,  which 
has  yielded  a  greater  harvest  to  our  national 
interests  and  national  character  than  the  great 
institution  of  Sunday-schools."  In  its  trans- 
ference to  America,  the  Sunday-school  was 
broadened  and  amplified  so  as  to  meet  the 


peculiar  phases  of  American  social  and  relig- 
ious life.  On  the  one  hand,  the  Sunday-school 
is  here  recognized  as  a  vital  portion  of  the 
church  itself,  instead  of  having  a  formal  con- 
nection with  the  church  ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Sunday-school  is  here  made  the  fore- 
runner of  the  church  in  the  newer  communi- 
ties of  city  and  country.  It  is  largely  by  this 
means  that  the  children  of  the  incoming  host 
of  irreligious  immigrants  have  been  reached 
and  trained  religiously  in  America,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  state  church,  and  with  no  possibility 
of  systematic  religious  instruction  in  the  pub- 
lic schools.  Meanwhile  its  influence  as  sup- 
plementing and  promoting  religious  instruc- 
tion in  the  families  of  church-members  has 
been  obviously  for  good.  The  president  of 
the  French  Commission  to  the  United  States 
Centennial  Exposition,  in  1876,  as  an  inde- 
pendent and  careful  observer,  was  deeply  im- 
pressed by  the  place  and  power  of  the  Sunday- 
school  in  America.  In  his  official  report  to 
his  government  he  said  :  "  The  Sunday-school 
is  not  an  accessory  agency  in  the  normal  econ- 
omy of  American  education  ;  ...  it  is  an 
ahsolute  necessity  for  the  complete  instruction 
of  the  child.  Its  aim  is  to  fill  by  itself  the 
complex  mission  which  elsewhere  is  in  large 
measure  assigned  to  the  family,  the  school, 
and  the  church.  .  .  .  All  things  unite  to  as 
sign  to  this  institution  a  granel  part  in  the 
American  life." 

Meanwhile  all  that  is  good  in  tlie  distinctive 
American  idea  of  the  Sunelay-schocl  is  being 
made  available  in  Great  Britain  and  Europe, 
and  in  missionary  fields  beyond.  The  free 
intercommunication  between  Great  Britain 
and  America  secures  this  in  one  elirection, 
wiiile  the  co-operation  of  workers  from  both 
lands  is  secured  for  the  extension  of  the 
American  system  of  Sunday-schools  among 
the  churches  of  continental  Europe,  and  other 
portions  of  the  globe.  An  extensive  litera- 
ture has  been  created  by  and  for  the  Sunday- 
school  :  books  for  loan  libraries  for  the  schol- 
ars ;  lesson-helps  for  teachers  and  scholars  ; 
periodicals  for  both  these  classes  ;  hymn  and 
music-books,  and  other  aids  to  study  or  wor- 
ship. Improved  systems  of  teaching  are  pro- 
moted by  normal  classes,  teachers'  institutes, 
conventions,  and  "  assemblies"  on  the  famous 
"  Chautaucjua"  plan.  Every  branch  of  Chris- 
tian work  feels  the  impulse  of  Sunday-school 
activities,  and  this  not  because  the  Sunday- 
school  is  a  modern  invention,  bvit  because  it 
is  the  latest  adaptation  of  an  agency  which 
had  the  approval  of  Christ  and  his  apostles, 
and  which  has  stood  the  test  of  experience  in 
all  the  Christian  centuries. 

Literature. — L.  G.  Pray,  The  History 
of  Sunday-schools  and  of  Bdigiovs  Education, 
from  the  Earliest  Times,  Boston,  1847  ;  W.  H. 
Watson,  The  History  of  the  Sunday-school 
Union,  London,  1853 ;  do,,  The  First  Fifty  Tears 
of  the  Sunday-school  [1873]  ,  Alfred  Gregory, 
Robert  Raikes,  Journalist  and  Philanthroinst , 
London  and  New  York  [1877]  ;  John  H.  Vin- 
cent, The  Modern  Sunday -school.  New  York, 
1887;  do..  The  Ghvrch  School  and  Norma^ 
Guide,  1889  ;  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  Tale  Lec- 
tures on  the  Sunday-school,  Philadelphia, 
1888  ; Rejjort  of  the  General  Sunday-school 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL 


(885) 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL 


Convention  in  London,  186'2,  Loudon  [1862]  ; 
Centenary  Memorial  of  the  EstablislDnent  of 
Sunday-schools,  Loudon,  1880  ;  Itecord  of  tin- 


World's  Sunday-school  Convention  in  London 
1889,  Loudou  uud  Chicago,  1889. 

H.  Clay  Tiiumbull. 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL  STATISTICS 

For  the  United  State.s  and  throughout  the  World.  A  Special  Canvass  for  the  "World's 
Sunday-School  Convention,  London,  July,  1889,  compiled  by  E.  P.wson  Porter,  Statis- 
tical Secretary  of  the  International  Sunday-School  Convention,  195  Broadway,  New  York. 
(Reprinted' from  the  Report  of  the  Convention.) 


UNITED   STATES. 


Alabama 

Alaska  Territory 

Arizona  Territory 

Arkansas, 

California 

Colorado ....         

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho  Territory 

Illinois  

Indian  Territory 

Indiana  

Iowa 

Kansas  

Kentucky 

Louisiana   

3Iaine 

Maryland  , 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minni-sota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana , 

Nebraska 

Nevada   

New  Hampshire 

New  .Iersey 

New  Mexico  Territory. . . 

New  York '  . . . 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon , 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas  


Utah  Territory 

Vermont 

Virginia 

"Washington 

"West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming  Territory. 


Totals  United  States... 


SI-\-I>AV- 

SCIIOOLS. 

SCHOLAK^*. 

.-VIKMlJKK-mi'. 

3,048 

19,301 

158,120 

177,427 

14 

52 

1,101) 

1.152 

23 

ooo 

1,309 

1..-91 

1.712 

11,965 

94,305 

106,2  ro 

803 

7,863 

71,687 

79,5.-)() 

393 

3,088 

25,217 

2s,305 

1,071 

18,854 

142,346 

161.200 

801 

5,623 

30,848 

36,471 

217 

2,913 

22,706 

25  619 

177 

3,842 

34,968 

38.810 

G03 

4,043 

26,676 

30.719 

5,454 

31,749 

298,187 

329,936 

43 

396 

3,223 

3,619 

6,849 

76,202 

574,322 

650.524 

222 

1,093 

8,586 

9.679 

4,951 

48,924 

371,382 

420,306 

5,112 

43,295 

319,128 

362.423 

3.544 

32,132 

214,422 

246,554 

2,647 

31,606 

225,801 

257.407 

522 

4,131 

32.617 

36.748 

1,325 

11,625 

92,750 

104.375 

2,390 

31,021 

253.063 

284.084 

1,790 

33,923 

237,593 

271.516 

3.300 

36,000 

264.000 

300.000 

1.323 

12.321 

100.320 

112.641 

1,614 

11.767 

84.677 

96.444 

3,955 

37,284 

280,922 

818.206 

80 

450 

4.200 

4,650 

2,151 

19,450 

11 8,  .525 

137.975 

30 

812 

2.060 

2,872 

519 

6.640 

49.3:^5 

55,975 

1,996 

32,634 

246.267 

278.901 

45 

225 

1.345 

1.570 

7,193 

108,272 

979.415 

1,087,687 

4,197 

33,576 

197.937 

231.513 

6,753 

88.332 

619.499 

707.831 

290 

2,531 

20,749 

23.280 

8,729 

123.484 

964.599 

1,088,083 

300 

5,430 

44,570 

50,000 

1,667 

13,054 

103.315 

116,:W.t 

3.840 

34.560 

249.600 

284.160 

3,097 

23,161 

190,625 

213.786 

93 

554 

6.741 

7.295 

609 

7  30.S 

53.473 

60,781 

3.652 

42,678 

277  781 

320.459 

129 

921 

6.950 

7.871 

1,888 

19.212 

120.811 

140.023 

1,610 

15.211 

114.869 

130,(»80 

54 

274 

2.424 

2,698 

101,824 

1,100.104 

8.345.431 

9,44.-..53-) 

SUNDAY-SCHOOL 


(886) 


SUNDAY-SCHOOIi 


COUNTRIES. 

SUNDAY- 
SCHOOLS. 

TEACHERS. 

SCHOLARS. 

TOTAL. 

EUKOPE. 

Eno-land  and  Wales 

35,983 

5,648 . 

3,313 

62 

140 

300 

120 

1,200 

3,231 

1,471 

200 

250 

30 

23 

100 

3,350 

1,162 

616,941 

59,213 

28,132 

186 

312 

2,000 

800 

3,110 

20.240 

5,676 

850 

2,190 

100 

438 

400 

15,355 

5,459 

5,733.325 

651,975 

310,099 

2,259 

4,519 

35,000 

8,000 

59,000 

410,981 

152,(100 

12,560 

25,000 

2,000 

6,007 

8,000 

222,727 

84,000 

6,350,266 

Scotland 

Ireland 

711,188 

338,231 

2,542 

4,831 

Denmark 

37,000 

8,800 

53,110 

431,221 

Holland 

157,676 

Italy  

13,410 

27,190 

2,100 

Russia 

Spain 

6,445 

8,400 

Sweden 

238,  (J32 

89,459 

Asia. 
India 

2,757 

107 

105 

150 

60 

5,744 
440 

1,053 
390 
600 

110.270 
4,876 
5,264 
7,019 
7,000 

116,014 

Persia 

5,316 
6,317 

7,409 

Central  Turkey 

7  600 

Africa 

4,246 

8,455 

161,394 

169,849 

North  America. 

101,824 

6,636 

314 

2,185 
550 

1,100,104 

55,050 

2,162 

9,673 

1.300 

8,345,431 
467,292 

22,817 

110,233 

15,000 

9,445,535 

522,343 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador 

West  Indies 

24,979 
119,906 

Central  America  and  Mexico 

16,300 

South  America 

350 

3,000 

150,000 

153,000 

OCEANICA. 

Australia 

4,719 
890 

1,474 
230 
210 

35,295 

9,998 

2,700 

1,413 

800 

422,434 
99,884 
42,909 
15,840 
10,000 

457  729 

New  Zealand 

Fiji  Islands ...     . 

109,872 
45.609 

Hawaiian  Islands 

17  253 

Other  Islands 

10,800 

World 

183,390 

1,699,569 

17,716,212 

19,715,781 

Canada. 

SUNDAY- 
SCHOOLS. 

TEACHERS. 

SCHOLARS. 

TOT  A  I,    MEM- 
BERSHIP. 

Ontario 

Quebec  

3,961 
676 

804 
845 
189 
150 
11 

37,867 
4,137 
6,195 
5,143 
1,051 
600 
57 

320,613 

36,183 

55,487 

40,028 

9,554 

5,000 

427 

358,480 
40,320 

Nova  Scotia 

61,683 

New  Brunswick 

45,171 

Prince  Edward  Island 

10  605 

Manitoba           .... 

5,600 

484 

British  Columbia 

Total 

6.636 

55,050 

467,292 

522  342 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador 

314 

2,162 

22,817 

24,979 

Totals  for  United  Stales  and  British 
American  Provinces 

108,774 

1.157,316 

8,835,540 

9.992,856 

SUNDAT-SCHOOL 


(887) 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL   STATISTICS   OF  CITIES  IN   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Containing  100,000  population  and  over. 


Albany 

Alleghanj' 

Baltimore 

Boston 

Brooklyn 

Builalo 

Chicago 

Cincinnati. .  . 

Cleveland 

Denver 

Detroit> 

Indianapolis. . 
Jersey  City . . . 
Kansas  City.. 
Louisville. . .. 
Milwaukee. .. 
Minneapolis... 

Newark 

New  Orleans . 

New  York 

Omaha 

Philadelphia. . 

Pittsburg 

Providence. . . 

Rochester 

San  Francisco 

St.  Louis 

St.  Paul 

Toledo 

"Washington.. , 


SUNDAY- 
SCHOOLS. 


67 

65 
383 
131 
2ii3 
127 
286 
167 
105 

47 

93 
100 

68 

80 
137 

59 
147 

94 

77 
600 

58 
616 

73 
150 

78 

75 
239 

91 


TEACH  EH8. 


1.284 
1,300 
7,939 
3,514 
10,201 
1,799 
7,626 
3,417 
3,110 

597 
2,181 
1,000 
2,111 
1,000 
2,031 
1,283 
2,205 
3,006 

924 
15,000 

850 
16,937 
1,840 
2,715 
2,356 
1,247 
3.337 

926 
1,157 
3,611 


SCHOLARS. 


16,408 
11,700 
76,790 
31,475 
97,033 
30,428 
85,516 
41,220 
29,000 

5,880 
16,939 
18,000 
19,937 
16,000 
19,442 
12,223 
31.550 
26,596 

7,278 
172,000 

7,950 
181,865 
16,560 
22,285 
23,781 
11,316 
36,694 
10,240 
10,991 
33.386 


TOTAL. 

POPULATION. 

17,692 

100,000 

13.000 

110,000 

84,729 

416,805 

34,989 

410,000 

107,234 

805,855 

35,597 

242.000 

93,142 

850.000 

44,637 

330,000 

32,110 

250,000 

6,477 

100.000 

19,120 

236,000 

19,000 

125,000 

22,048 

185,000 

17,000 

200,000 

21,473 

200,000 

13,506 

210,000 

33,755 

247,000 

29,602 

175,000 

8,202 

250.000 

187,000 

1,585,529 

8,800 

110,000 

195,802 

1,100,000 

18,400 

230,000 

25,000 

125,000 

26,137 

125,000 

12.563 

320,000 

40,031 

450,000 

11,166 

200.000 

12,148 

100,000 

36,897 

218.157 

Sunday-school  instruction,  as  that  term  is 
now  commonly  employed,  is  the  growth  of 
the  past  century  in  the  realm  of  the  religious 
teaching  and  impressing  of  children  by  the 
Christian  Church,  and  of  systematic  Bible 
study  by  both  young  and  old.  There  was 
nothing  to  correspond  with  its  present  sub- 
stance and  methods  prior  to  the  close  of  the 
18th  century.  When  the  modern  Sunday- 
school  movement  was  begun  bv  Robert  Raikes, 
in  1780,  its  work  was  practically  limited  to 
teaching  children  to  read,  and  inducing  them 
to  memorize  the  Churcli  of  Englaiul  Cate- 
chism ;  although  this  work  was  soon  supple- 
mented by  occasional  addresses  to  the  chil- 
dren, and  by  securin<r  their  attendance  at  the 
regular  services  of  the  sanctuary.  At  that 
time,  and  for  a  third  of  a  century  after,  elforts 
at  the  religious  instruction  of  the  young  were 
well-nigii  wliolly  in  the  direction  of  impress- 
ing and  indoctrinating  children  liirouirh  their 
memorizing  of  catechism  formula  and  of  the 
Bible-text.  The  idea  of  teaching  children  the 
facts  and  lessons  of  the  Bible  through  the 
rational  exercise  of  tlieir  young  minds  had 
no  hold  upon  the  Christian  community  until 
a  later  date.  For  years  the  highest  attain- 
ment in  the  Sunday-school  was  tiie  memoriz- 
ing of  large  jwrtious  of  Scripture,  regardless 


of  the  (juestion   whether   any   meaning   was 
attached  to  the  words  by  the'parrotlcarner. 

So  simple  a  plan  as  the  selection  of  a  limited 
passage  of  Scripture  for  a  pupil's  study  of 
its  sense,  its  teachings,  and  the  application  of 
its  truths  did  not  come  into  special  promi- 
nence as  a  method  of  Sunday-school  instruc- 
tion until  it  was  brought  forward  and  advo- 
cated  by  James  Gall, "of  Edinburgh,  during 
the  decade  from  1820  to  1830.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  exhibit  of  its  value,  however, 
this  plan  came  to  be  adopted  widely  in  the 
Sunday-schools  of  Great  Britain  and  America, 
an.l  oil  its  basis  a  series  of  (jucstion  books 
on  different  i>orti<)ns  of  the  Bible,  begun  by 
I  Truman  Parmalee.  of  I'tica.  and  Albi  rt  Jud- 
j  son.  of  New  York.  im])roved  and  continued, 
I  as  revised  and  edited  by  John  Hall,  of  Tren- 
I  ton.  under  the  name  of  the  Union  (Questions, 
!  by  the  American  Sunday-school  Union.  The 
les.sons  of  this  seri»s  were  widely  us(d  in 
Canada  and  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  in  the 
L'nited  Sl:ites.  The  sticces^ful  advocac-v, 
about  the  same  time,  by  David  .stow,  of  Glas- 
gow, of  the  plan  of  training  youuL'  chil<lren 
collectively  to  an  interest  in  anil  a  knowledtrc 
of  the  practical  lessons  of  a  passage  of  Scrip- 
ture by  means  of  wise  (piestioning  and  help- 
ful  word- picturing,  introduced  another  new 


SUNDAT-SOHOOIi 


(888) 


SUNDAT-SCHOOL 


feature  into  the  Sunday-school  system  ;  and 
the  work  of  these  pioneers  combined  to  lay 
the  basis  of  the  best  methods  of  the  Sunday- 
school  instruction  of  to-day.  Under  the  lead 
of  Frederick  A.  Packard,  of  Philadelphia,  the 
American  Sunday-school  Union,  from  about 
the  year  1830,  issued  a  weekly  Sunday-school 
periodical,  with  its  weekly  lesson-notes  and 
its  quarterly  review  plans,  and  it  urged  the 
importance  of  training  teachers  for  their  work 
in  the  Sunday-school.  So,  also,  a  published 
series  of  lectures  on  the  Sunday-school  and 
its  methods  of  work,  by  John  Todd,  of  Phila- 
delphia, did  much  to  systematize  and  unify 
the  various  plans  in  this  direction.  In  1842 
the  London  Sunday-school  Union  began  the 
publication  of  a  series  of  weekly  notes  on 
Bible  lessons,  which  has  continued,  with 
modifications  and  improvements,  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  Sunday-school  instruction,  having 
its  beginning  on  an  undenominational  basis, 
was  taken  up  and  promoted  by  the  leading 
Christian  denominations  severally. 

Meanwhile  an  extensive  literature  for  the 
Sunday-school  was  growing  up,  and  helps  to 
popular  Bible  study  and  teaching  were  multi- 
plying. Maps  and  charts  and  pictorial  illus- 
trations of  Bible  scenes  were  prepared.  Bible- 
dictionaries,  hand-books  of  Bible-geography, 
of  Oriental  manners  and  customs,  and  of  bibli- 
cal antiquities,  and  popular  Bible  commen- 
taries, as  well  as  guides  to  wise  methods  in 
teaching,  were  supplied  to  meet  the  ever-in- 
creasing demand  in  this  constantly  enlarging 
field.  These  aids  to  the  teaching  of  children 
were  found  equally  helpful  for  the  instruction 
of  those  in  maturer  life,  and  the  Sunday-school 
came  to  be  recognized  as  the  most  efficient 
agency  for  the  promoting  of  Bible  knowledge 
generally,  until  Sunday-school  instruction 
finally  included  or  largely  influenced  all  phases 
of  popular  Bible  study  and  teaching  among 
persons  of  all  ages. 

Successful  experiments  in  chorus  singing 
by  large  bodies  of  children,  both  in  England 
and  America,  led  to  the  preparation  of  hymns 
and  tunes  suited  to  the  tastes  and  comprehen- 
sion of  children,  and  to  the  recognition  of  this 
means  of  religious  impression  and  influence 
as  an  essential  factor  of  Sunday-school  in- 
struction. This  stage  of  progress  was  reached 
in  the  decade  between  1850  and  1860,  William 
B.  Bradbury,  of  New  Jersey,  being  prominent 
in  securing  its  attainment. 

Conventions,  both  local  and  national,  for 
the  discussion  of  plans  for  the  promotion  and 
advancement  of  Sunday-school  interests,  were 
numerous  from  1830  to  1835  ;  and  the  subject 
of  teacher-training  and  of  improved  systems 
of  instruction  received  much  attention  in  those 
discussions.  A  revival  of  this  convention  sys- 
tem, in  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Con- 
necticut, in  1855-57,  revived  an  interest  in 
improved  methods  of  Sunday-school  work. 
The  efforts  of  R.  G.  Pardee,  of  New  York, 
with  his  tact  and  persistency  and  sound  good 
sense,  and  of  John  H.  Vincent,  of  Illinois, 
with  his  inventive  faculty  and  organizing 
power,  were  of  peculiar  value  in  promoting 
the  formation  of  normal  classes  and  teachers' 
institutes  for  the  instruction  and  training  of 
Sunday-school  teachers.    At  the  beginning  of 


the  year  1859  the  founding  of  The  Sunday- 
school  Times,  as  an  undenominational  and  na- 
tional weekly  periodical  devoted  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Sunday-school,  under  the  editorship 
of  John  S.  Hart,  of  Philadelphia,  an  educator 
of  large  experience  and  of  exceptional  ability, 
gave  increased  opportunities  for  the  pressing 
of  reforms,  and  for  the  advocacy  of  higher 
standards  in  the  realm  of  Sunday-school  in- 
struction. The  holding  of  a  national  Sunday- 
school  convention  at  Philadelphia,  early  in  that 
same  year,  was  again  the  beginning  of  better 
things  for  the  cause  of  wise  Sunday-school 
instruction. 

Sunday-school  periodicals  and  plans  for  sys- 
tematic Bible  study  and  systematic  teacher- 
training  multiplied.  Among  the  recognized 
leaders  in  these  lines  of  efliort,  in  addition  to 
Vincent  and  Hart  and  Pardee,  were  Edward 
Eggleston  and  B.  F.  Jacobs,  of  Chicago,  the 
one  with  his  brilliancy  of  intellect  and  strong 
personal  magnetism  and  the  other  with  his 
tireless  energy  and  zeal  ;  Henry  C.  McCook, 
of  St.  Louis,  with  his  interest  in  methods  of 
teaching  and  his  skill  in  their  presenting,  and 
Ralph  Wells,  of  New  York,  with  his  intensity 
of  spirit  and  manner.  The  Sunday-school 
was  already  a  main  agency  of  popular  relig- 
ious instruction  in  all  the  Christian  de- 
nominations and  bej'ond  them,  but  there 
was  still  a  lack  of  unity  in  its  plans  of  system- 
atic Bible  study,  and  that  unity  was  longed 
for. 

In  1873,  at  a  national  convention  of  Sun- 
day-school workers  at  Indianapolis,  a  plan  of 
uniform  Bible  lessons,  to  cover  the  systematic 
study  of  tiie  Bible  in,  sa}',  a  period  of  seven 
years,  was  agreed  on,  largely  through  the 
efforts  of  B.  F.  Jacobs,  and  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  select  the  lessons  accordingly. 
This  committee  was  subsequently  made  inter- 
national by  the  addition  of  members  from 
Great  Britain,  and  its  plan  of  lessons  was  soon 
adopted  widely  throughout  the  English-speak- 
ing world  and  in  many  foreign  countries. 
The  securing  of  a  common  topic  of  study  in 
the  Sunday-schools  of  the  community  gener- 
ally centred  popular  interest  in  the  portions 
of  tlie  Bible  thus  under  treatment,  and  it  jus- 
tified the  publication  of  valuable  helps  to 
popular  Bible  study  in  a  variety  and  to  an  ex- 
tent hitherto  unknown.  The  foremost  schol- 
ars of  the  world  were  enlisted  in  the  work  of 
throwing  light  on  the  text  and  teachings  of 
the  current  Sunday-school  lessons  week  by 
week,  and  the  topics  of  these  lessons  came  to 
command  a  prominent  place  in  both  the  peri- 
odical and  the  permanent  literature  of  the 
world,  as  also  to  affect  materially  the  work 
of  the  pulpit  and  of  the  press. 

An  important  agency  in  promoting  the 
progress  and  etficiency  of  this  system  of  uni- 
form Bible  study,  with  its  accompaniment  of 
improved  teacher-training,  throughout  the 
United  States  and  beyond,  has  been  what  is 
known  as  the  "Chautauqua  Movement,"  a 
series  of  assemblies  for  the  stimulating  and 
directing  of  persons  of  all  ages  in  such  study 
as  would  make  them  more  intelligent  and 
efficient  students  and  teachers  of  th^  Bible. 
This  movement,  begun  in  1874,  under  the  lead 
of  John  H.  Vincent,  has  extended  itself  very 


SUPEREROGATION 


(889) 


SUPERSTITION 


widely,  and  it  is  one  of  the  educating  forces 
of  the  day. 

Sunday-school  instruction  properly  in- 
cludes at  the  present  time  all  those  various 
agencies  for  the  training  and  guiding  of  teach- 
ers, and  for  the  influencing,  impressing,  teach- 
ing, and  training  of  pupils,  that  have  their 
place  and  part  in  the  Sunday-school  system  at 
its  best ;  for  all  these  agencies  have  come  into 
prominence  within  the  past  century  as  ele- 
ments or  aids  in  the  work  of  Sunday-school 
instruction,  and  are  now  recognized  as  its  fac- 
tors. Even  Sunday-school  teaching  requires 
more  than  mere  teaching  to  make  it  effective 
fts  teaching. 

The  normal  class  is  for  the  instruction  of 
those  who  are  or  are  to  be  teachers  in  the 
subjects  and  methods  of  wise  teaching.  It 
maj'  have  weekly  sessions,  or  may  assemble 
less  frequently,  at  such  time  and  place  as  are 
found  convenient.  The  teachers'  meeting  is 
a  weekly  gatlun-ing  of  the  teachers  for  confer- 
ence over  the  next  lesson  which  they  are  to 
teach  to  their  scholars.  This  gathering  is 
sometimes  called,  in  England,  a  "  preparation 
class."  It  is  not  for  the  original  .stud}'  of  the 
lesson  by  the  teachers,  but  rather  for  the  com- 
parison of  the  results  of  their  study,  and  for 
mutual  suggestions  as  to  its  manner  of  teach- 
ing. Sunday-school  instruction  cannot  be 
what  it  should  be  without  such  helps  to  the 
teachers  as  are  supplied  by  the  normal  class 
and  teachers'  meeting. 

Exercises  of  worship  at  the  opening  and 
close  of  a  Sunday-school  session  are  an  im- 
portant ('lenient  of  Sunday-school  instruction. 
Included  ia  these  exerci-ses  are  i)rayer  and 
singing  and  simultaneous  or  responsive  Bible 
reading.  A  review -exercise,  conducted  from 
the  desk  by  the  superintendent  or  pastor,  has 
its  value  as  a  means  of  instruction.  This  may 
include  test  questions  to  the  scholars  on  the 
teachings  of  the  day's  lesson,  and  a  use  of  the 
blackboard  as  a  means  of  impres.sing  through 
the  eye  any  truth  deemed  of  peculiar  impor- 
tance in  the  review. 

Class  teaching  must  be  a  mutual  exercise 
shared  by  teacher  and  pupils  alike.  Lectur- 
ing is  not  teaching,  nor  is  the  asking  of  a  series 
of  set  questions,  which  are  to  be  responded  to 
bj'  memorized  answers.  Teaching  involves  a 
knowledge  by  the  teacher  of  the  truth  he 
would  teach,  of  the  pupils  to  whom  he  would 
leach  it,  of  wise  methods  of  its  teacliing  ;  and 
it  requires  the  co-work  of  teadier  and  pupils. 
Personal  influence  is  an  important  factor  in 
Sunday-school  instruction,  and  that  must  be 
gained  by  the  teacher's  exhibit  of  an  aflfection- 
ate  interest  in  his  puj)ils  both  in  the  cla.ss  and 
during  the  interval  of  the  Sunday-school  ses- 
sions. Calling  attention  to  tlie  truths  of  the 
lesson  by  appropriate  questions,  making  tho.se 
truths  clear  by  explanation  and  illustration, 
testing  the  pupil's  understanding  of  tliem,  step 
by  step,  as  they  arc  considered,  and  helpinj: 
him  to  applv  their  teachings  to  his  every -day 
life,  are  all  included  in  the  i)rocess  of  Sunday- 
school  teaching.  A  question-book  or  a  lesson- 
paper  is  out  of  place  in  the  class,  in  the  hands 
of  either  teacher  or  pupil,  but  a  Bible  is  always 
in  order. 

Sundav-school    instruction    has    its    chief 


prominence  in  the  Sunday-school  hour,  but 
it  is  operative  all  through  the  week,  and  it 
represents  the  teacher's  continuous  life  and 
labors.  It  goes  on  in  the  home,  the  Wfck-day 
school,  and  the  college,  as  well  as  in  the  Sun- 
day-school. It  properly  includes  wiiatever 
tends  to  ])roniote  an  intelligent  knowledge  of 
the  Bible  and  steady  growth  and  progress  in 
the  individual  Christian  life. 

LiTEU.VTTTRE.— Jan;es  Gall,  The  End  and 
Estunce  of  SahJiath -school  Instmction,  2d  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1S27  ;  Louisa  Davids,  TheSurulay- 
school,  1847,4th  ed.,  London,  1854  ;  Nature's 
Normal  School,  1862;  David  Stow,  The  Train- 
ing System,  The  Moral  Traininf]  School,  and 
The  Normal  Stminary,  9th  ed.',  Edinburgh, 

1859; John  Todd,    The  Sabbath -school 

Teacher,  Northampton,  1887  ;  Frederick  A. 
Packard.  The  Teacher  Taught,  Pliiladelpliia, 
1889;  The  Tarher  Teorhinq,  Phila<lclpliia, 
1861  ;  P.  G.  Pardee,  The  Sihhath-Hrl,,,..}  Indcj', 
Philadelphia,  INC.S;  .Ichn  S.  Hart.  Th>  Sunday- 
.W/wi7'/f'/,  Philadelphia,  1S70;, John  II.  Vincent, 
The  Vliautauqud  Moirment,  New  York,  1885  ; 
The  Modern  Sunday-school,  New  York,  1887  ; 
I'he  Church  School  and  llw  Sanda //-school 
Normal  Guide,  New  York,  1889  ;  11.  Clay 
Trumbull,  Children  in  the  Temple,  Spriugtichl, 
1869  ;  The  Model  Superintendent,  New  York, 
1880  ;  Teaching  and  Teachers,  Philadelphia, 
1885  ; H.  C.  McCook,  Ohject  and  Out- 
line Teaching,  St.  Louis,  1871  ;  W.  F.  Crafts, 
Through  the  Eye  to  the  Heart,  New  York, 
1873,  'Frank  Beard,  The  Blackboard  in  the 
Sunday-school,  New  York,  1877  ;  Mis.  W.  F. 
Crafts,  Open  Letters  to  Primary  Teachers,  New 
York,  1876  ;  ]\Irs.  Alice  W.  Knox,  Helps  for 
Infant  Class  Teachers,  rev.  ed.,  Philadelphia, 
1888  ;  A.  E.  Dunning,  Tlie  Sunday-school  Li- 
brary, Boston,  1883  ;  various  denominational 
normal-class  manuals,  etc. 

H.  Cl.\.y  Tkumbull. 

Supererogation.  The  Roman  divines  dis- 
tinguish between  precepts  and  evangelical 
counsels.  The  former  are  binding  on  all,  but 
the  latter,  not  being  commanded,  when  ob- 
served lay  up  a  stock  of  merit  wliich  is  trans- 
ferable to  others.  But  the  distinction  is  justly 
rejected  bv  Protestants  as  un.scrijitural  and 
absurd.      "  T.  W.  C. 

Supematuralism.     See  P.vtionalism. 

Superstition  is  a  general  term  for  all  false 
and  baseless  faith,  and  always  involves  a  su- 
jiernatural  element.  It  is  seen  in  iwlytheism, 
dualism,  and  fetichism  ;  in  all  systems  that 
])ut  fate  above  or  at  the  side  of  God  ;  in  the 
belief  in  ghosts,  elves,  fairies,  and  witches  ; 
in  magic  and  sorcery  :  in  the  recognition  of 
omens,  imlucky  days  or  numbers,  and  in  all 
observances  which  have  no  basis  in  reason  or 
in  revelation.  There  is  very  little  middle 
ground  Intween  faith  and  superstition.  The 
man  who  rejects  true  religion  is  pretty  sure  to 
substitut<'  for  it  .sonw  false  guide.  5leu  wlio 
turn  away  their  ears  from  the  truth  turn  aside 
unto  fables  (2  Tim.  iv.  4).  Voltaire  rejected 
the  Bible,  yet  believed  in  omens,  and  in  our 
own  day  infidels  have  accepted  the  <lisgusting 
impostures  of  spiritualism.  Jean  Paul  .says. 
"  I  would  rather  be  in  the  den.>iest  atmosphere 
of  superstition  than  under  the  air-pump  of  un- 


SUPRALAPSARIANISM 


(890) 


SWEDENBORG 


belief.     In  the  former  case  one  breathes  with 
difficulty  :  in  the  latter  he  is  suffocated. " 
T.  W.  C. 

Supralapsarianism,  the  theory  according  to 
which  God  not  only  foresaw  and  permitted, 
but  actually  decreed  the  fall  of  man  and  over- 
ruled it  for  his  redemption.  His  purposes 
were  formed  supra  lapsum,  antecedently  to 
the  occurrence  of  sin.  It  is  logically  a  con- 
sistent system,  but  is  rejected  by  most  of  the 
Reformed.  T.  W.  C. 

Surplice  (Latin,  superpellicsum,  "overgar- 
ment") is  a  modification  of  the  alb,  used  as 
early  as  the  13th  century.  It  is  made  of  white 
linen  and  always  worn  by  clergymen  of  the 
Church  of  England  during  service,  while 
clergymen  of  the  Danish,  Norwegian,  and 
Swedish  churches  wear  it  only  during  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  C.  P. 

Suso  (seusse),  Heinrich  (otherwise  St. 
Amandus,    and    Heinrich    von    Berg),    the 

"  Minnesinger  among  the  German  mystics  ;" 
b.  at  Ueberlingen,  Baden,  8  m.  n.  of  Con- 
stance, March  21,  1295  ;  d.  in  the  Dominican 
monastery  at  Ulm,  Jan.  25,  1365.  His  father 
belonged  to  an  old  noble  family,  von  Berg, 
and  his  mother  to  the  family  Sausz  or  Siisz. 
His  father  was  a  rough  soldier,  but  the  mother 
was  gentle  and  pious,  and  she  moulded  the 
boy.  When  thirteen  years  of  age  he  was  sent 
to  a  parochial  school  in  Constance,  and  later 
from  thence  to  Cologne  to  study  theology. 
He  was  then  of  an  active,  buoyant,  and  im- 
pulsive temperament,  and  sought  "  rest"  in 
the  world  without  finding  it.  But  his  mother's 
death,  when  he  was  eighteen,  changed  him 
by  turning  his  mind  and  heart  to  God  and 
spiritual  things.  From  this  time  he  assumed 
his  mother's  name.  In  his  youthful  days  he 
was  an  enthusiastic  pupil  of  Eckarts,  but  as 
his  temper  was  so  different  from  the  masters, 
he  never  came  to  rest  in  logical  formulas,  nor 
did  he  find  satisfaction  in  speculative  ideas. 
For  ten  years  he  was  in  the  deepest  spiritual 
gloom,  and  could  not  realize  the  mysteries  of 
faith.  Then  he  became  an  ascetic,  and  his 
life  to  his  fortieth  year  was  one  long  self-tor- 
ture. In  1338  he  began  to  write  his  famous 
Book  of  Everlasting  Wisdom.  Before  that  the 
Eternal  Wisdom  had  revealed  itself  to  him 
and  demanded  his  soul  :  "  My  son,  give  me 
thine  heart  !"  From  that  time  he  dedicated 
his  life  to  her  and  called  himself  the  servant 
and  knight  of  Eternal  Wisdom.  The  lan- 
guage in  which  he  expresses  himself  reminds 
one  of  Rabia  and  the  Sufis.  He  wrote  the 
book  in  passive  moments,  himself  ignorant  of 
what  he  wrote.  But  when  the  illumination 
was  past,  he  carefully  examined  what  he  had 
written  to  see  if  it  was  in  agreement  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Fathers.  He  sent  a  Latin 
version  of  the  book  to  Hugo  von  Vancemain, 
the  master  of  his  order,  for  approval.  This 
conduct  of  Suso's  is  remarkable,  for  it  throws 
a  strong  light  upon  his  theological  character, 
and  frees  him  from  the  charges  of  preaching 
^nd  propagating  the  tenets  of  the  Brethren  of 
>he  Free  Spirit.  The  prologue  to  the  copy 
sent  to  the  master  gives  an  account  of  the  iti- 
spiratio  superna  under  which  the  book  was 
written.       This     prologue,     translated     into 


French,  English,  and  Dutch,  seems  to  have 
been  as  popular  in  the  14th  century  as  the 
Imitatio  was  later  in  the  15th.  Suso's  influ- 
ence was  large  and  far-reaching  ;  we  may 
say  even  in  this  day  he  is  an  active  teacher 
in  many  places.  His  life  is  studied  with  dili- 
gence and  his  experiences  are  repeated  among 
the  "silent  in  the  land."  He  was  not  ouly 
called  the  "  sweet"  Suso  because  he  was  a 
poet,  but  much  more  because  of  his  sweet, 
submissive  ways  and  childlike  faith.  It  is 
this  element  that  makes  him  ever  young  and 
causes  his  character  to  loom  up  high  above 
the  mixture  of  conceit,  vanity,  and  self-seek- 
ing of  most  saints.  There  is  indeed  some 
noble  truth  in  his  secret  name,  Amandus 
(' '  lovely' '),  concealed  till  after  his  death.  The 
legend  relates  that  it  was  conferred  by  the 
Everlasting  Wisdom  on  the  beloved  servant, 
who — did  return  the  love. 

Suso  was  intimate  with  Tauler,  Heinrich 
von  Nordlingen,  and  most  of  the  ' '  friends 
of  God."  His  name  was  familiar  in  the 
Rhine  valley  and  his  preaching  gladly  heard. 
His  organization,  the  Brotherhood  of  "Eternal 
Wisdom,  was  fruitful  in  goodly  men  and  ac- 
tive in  an  age  that  needed  them.  His  works 
appeared  at  Augsburg,  1482,  2d  ed.,  1512; 
ed.  by  Diepenbrock,  Regensburg,  1829,  4th 
ed.,  Vienna,  1863;  by  Denifle,  Augsburg, 
1878.  They  have  been  translated  into  Latin, 
French,  Italian,  Danish.  His  life  was  written 
after  his  own  narrative  by  the  nun  Staglin  and 
corrected  by  himself.  It  is  found  in  Diepen- 
brock's  edition,  and  in  an  Eng.  trans. ,  London, 
1865.  (Cf.  F.  Bevan  in  his  2'rois  Amis  de  Die  a, 
Lausanne,  1890.)     C.  H.  A.  Bjekregaard. 

Svredenborg,  Emanuel,  b.  in  Stockholm, 
Jan.  29,  1688  ;  d.  in  London,  March  29,  1772. 
At  the  time  of  his  birth  his  father,  Jesper  Swed- 
berg,  afterward  bishop  of  Skara,  was  serv- 
ing as  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  the  king.  His 
childhood  was  passed  chiefly  at  Upsala"  where 
his  father  was  rector  and  professor  of  theology, 
and  afterward  dean  of  the  cathedral.  In  1709 
Swedenborg  received  his  degree  of  Ph.D. 
from  the  University  of  Upsala,  after  which  he 
spent  five  years  in  travel  and  stud}-  upon  the 
continent  and  in  England.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent classical  scholar,  but  at  this  time  gave 
most  of  his  attention  to  mathematics,  mechan- 
ics, and  astronomy,  inventing  pumps  and  other 
machines,  as  well  as  a  method  of  determining 
longitude. 

In  1716,  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  he  was 
appointed  assessor  extraordinary  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Mines,  a  board  having  charge  of 
all  the  mines  of  Sweden,  which  were  prin- 
cipally iron  and  copper.  In  1724  he  was  made 
an  ordinary  assessor,  with  a  salary  of  800 
dalers  in  silver,  which  was  increased  in  1730 
to  1200.  He  retained  his  connection  with  the 
College  of  Mines  for  thirty  years,  giving  strict 
attention  to  its  duties,  inventing  new  proc- 
esses of  mining  and  smelting,  and  interested 
in  everything  that  might  contribute  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  mines  and  the  prosperity  of 
his  country.  Among  his  early  publications 
were  a  small  treatise  on  the  principles  of  chem- 
istry and  a  large  work,  in  three  folio  volumes, 
containing  his  Principia  and  an  elaborate  de- 


SWEDENBORG 


(891 


SWEDENBORG 


scription  of  the  methods  of  smelting  iron  and 
copper.     All  his  works  were  written  in  Latin. 

The  family  was  ennol)led  b}'  Queen  Ulrica 
Eleonora  under  the  name  of  ISwedenborg, 
with  the  right  to  sit  in  the  Swedish  Diet. 
Swedenborg  took  his  seat  in  the  Diet  in  1723, 
and  though  not  an  orator,  he  retained' till  his 
death  a  lively  interest  in  the  government  of 
his  country,  and  presented  to  the  Diet  i)apers 
upon  mining,  tinance,  economics,  and  morals, 
eminent  for  their  good  sense. 

From  17;5(!  to  174l»  he  had  leave  of  absence 
from  the  College  of  ]Mines,  and  pursued  his 
studies  abroad.  "  These  were  chiefly  in  philoso- 
phy anil  anatomy.  He  hail  before  given  some 
attention  to  anatomy,  but  now  the  thought 
grew  upon  him  that  he  might  form  some  ra- 
tional idea  of  the  sjiiritual  soul  from  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  her  working  in  the  body. 
During  his  absence  he  publisjied  with  this 
view  his  Economy  of  the  Anniud  Kiiif/dom, 
which  was  confessedly  a  disappointment  in  its 
effort  to  tind  the  soul  by  an  analysis  of  the 
physical  vessels  and  fluids.  In  the  much  more 
elaborate  work,  entitled  the  AiiiiiKtl  Kinr/dom. 
which  followed,  he  describes  the  mutual  rela- 
tions and  uses  of  the  organs  of  the  Jjody,  with 
much  poetic  insight  and  imagination, 'having 
now  the  clear  idea  that  the  relation  of  the  soul 
to  the  body  is  not  one  of  continuity,  but  of 
"correspondence;"  that,  for  instance,  the 
processes  by  which  the  mind  receives  its  men- 
tal food,  examines  it,  reflects  upon  it,  assorts 
and  assimilates  it,  are  correspondent  to  the 
parallel  physical  processes  ;  an<l  that  the  life 
of  the  soul  thus  animates  the  body  throughout 
in  correspondence  with  itself.  About  this 
time  he  published  also  a  small  work,  entitled 
the  Worxhip  and  Love  of  God,  which  contains 
a  highly  figurative  and  poetic  description  of 
the  development  of  the  faculties  of  the  mind 
in  their  true  relation  to  God. 

>\othing  could  have  been  further  from  Swe- 
denborg's  thought  than  that  he  should  become 
a  teacher  of  theology,  or  should  have  any 
special  revelations  on'spiritual  subjects.  He 
was  reverent  and  religious,  devoted  with  his 
whole  soul  to  the  service  of  truth,  and  of  Him 
who  is  the  Truth,  l)ut  with  no  thought  of 
seeking  it  otherwise  than  by  the  rational  proc- 
esses of  a  humble  and  devout  student.  But 
in  the  year  1745  his  whole  course  of  life  was 
changed.  He  testifles  that  an  angel  of  the 
Lord  suddenly  appeared  to  him,  and  com- 
mandi-d  him  to  apply  himself  to  the  .study  of 
the  Word,  promising  that  the  Lord  would  be 
with  him  and  instruct  him.  Hi-  began  innne- 
diately.  pen  in  hand,  a  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
which  he  prosecuted  through  the  whole  of 
the  Old  Testament,  during  which  study  the 
spiritual  sense  of  the  Scriptures,  as  he  1m-- 
lieved.  was  gradually  opened  to  him  by  the 
Lord,  and  he  came  to  a  full  recognition  of 
those  essential  principles  which  he  afterward 
promulgated  as  the  doctrines  of  the  New 
Church  signified  by  the  New  Jerusalem. 
(See  art.  Ni;w  Chikch.)  This  preliminary 
study  he  never  wrote  out  for  the  pn-ss,  but  it 
has  since  Ixcn  published  in  Latin,  and  is  known 
as  his  Adrerxiiriti.  When  the.sc  fundamental 
principles  Iwcanie  clear  to  him  he  began  again, 
and  wrote  a  systematic  exi)lanatioa  of  the 


spiritual  sense  of  Genesis  and  Exodus,  which 
he  published  in  eight  large  ciuarto  volumes 
under  the  title  of  Arcana  Co:lt!<tui.  Other 
works  rapidly  followed,  upon  Hitinn  dud 
Ifell,  The  Earths  in  the  Univem;  The  J..,,t 
Ji/dqnie/it,  7' hr  ^'ew  Jerusalem  and  its  l[(,iv(  nh/ 
Dor'trine,  The  White llors,.  The D»rtrtn,s,.fthe 
Neir  Jerusalrm  Conrernin;!  the  J.ord,  the  Sacred 
Script xres,  J.ife,  and  Eaith,  a  Vontiniiation 
Concerninfi  the  Last  .JiaUpnent,  The  Dirine 
IjOveandtheDiriue  Wisd<an,  Tht  Dirine  J'rovi 
dence.  The  Ap'>cahipse  Recaled,  Conjuf/id 
Lore,  The  rnterronr'se  brtir,.  n  the  ^»il  and  the 
Bodii,  a  Ihiif  Exjtosition  »f  the  Doctrine  of  the 
New  Church,  and  Tin'  True  Christian  lieWi- 
itrn  ;  or.  Entire  Theolof/y  of  the  I^'ew  Church. 
This  last  is,  as  its  title  implies,  a  full  and  thor- 
ough compendium  of  the  new  doctrines.  The 
works  on  The  Divine  Lore  and  the  Dirine 
Wisdom,  The  Dirine  Providence,  and  The  In- 
tercourse hetireen  the  Soul  and  the  7?or/// contain 
the  philosophy  of  the  New  Church,  and  the 
Arcana  Calestia  and  The  Ap"cali/jjse  Rriealed 
contain  the  explanations  of  the  sjjiritual  .'^en.se 
of  the  Scriptures.  An  earlier  and  much  more 
voluminous  work  upon  the  Apocalypse  was 
entitled  2' he  Apora/i/jjse  Krj'lained.'  It  was 
not  published  by  Swetk-iibnrg,  but  has  since 
been  published  ill  Latin  and  in  English.  Be- 
sides these  several  minor  works  have  been 
published,  which  were  not  prepared  for  the 
press  by  the  author.  The  most  imi>ortant  of 
these  is  the  so-called  Spiritual  Diary,  which 
contains  an  extensive  collection  of  memoranda 
of  Swedenborg's  spiritual  experiences,  to- 
gether with  short  treati.ses  upon  various  sub- 
jects. His  open  communication  with  spirits 
and  angels  continued  luitil  his  death  in  1772. 

Although  Swedenborg  belonged  to  an  hon- 
ored family,  and  was  kindly  treated  by  the 
royal  family  of  Sweden,  his  writings  ujion 
spiritual  subjects  met  little  favor  and  much 
persecution  in  his  own  country.  For  this 
reason  he  passed  the  last  years  of  his  life  in 
London,  where  he  had  greater  freedom  of 
writing  and  publishing. 

He  was  a  man  of  extremely  simple  and  tem- 
perate habits  of  life,  niodest'and  courteous  in 
demeanor,  and  of  inten?<e  industry,  the  works 
jjublished  by  himself  amounting  to  more  than 
thirtv  large  "octavo  volumes,  besides  nearly  as 
much  which  he  left  unpublished.  Those  who 
know  him  best  consider  that  his  chief  char- 
acteristics were  profound  Inunility  and  com- 
mon sense.  The  idle  tale  of  his  having  at  one 
time  been  insane— unfortunately  believed  by 
John  Wesley— was  traced  to  Brockmer,  its 
author,  by  Kev.  Samuel  Noble,  and  by  Brock- 
mer himself  was  denied.  Swedenborg's  liuhs 
of  Life,  found  written  in  more  than  one  place 
among  his  manuscripts,  were  : 

1.  Diliirentlv  to  read  and  meditate  upon  the 
Word  of  Goii 

2.  To  be  content  under  the  disix?nsations  of 
Gods  providence. 

3.  To  observe  a  propriety  of  Ix-havior,  and 
keep  the  conscience  pure. 

4.  To  obev  what  is  commanded,  to  attend 
faithfidlv  to" one's  office  and  other  duties,  and 
in  addition  to  make  one's  self  useful  to  .society 
in  general. 

His  works  are  very  voluminous.    There  is 


SWING 


(892) 


SYMMACHUS 


an  edition  by  R.  L.  Tafel,  Stockiiolm,  1869- 
70,  10  vols.  fol.  Eng.  trans,  of  many  of  ]iis 
writings  are  on  sale  by  the  New  Church  pub- 
lishing societies.  (See  art.  New  Church.) 
(See  liis  life  by  Benjamin  Worcester,  Boston, 
1883.)  Jonx  Worcester. 

Swing,  David,  b.  in  Cincinnati,  O.,  Aug. 
23,  1830  ;  graduated  at  Miami  University,  Ox- 
ford, O.,  1852  ;  became  professor  of  languages 
there,  1853  ;  pastor  of  the  Fourth  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  Chicago,  1866  ;  withdrew  from 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  1874,  in  conse- 
quence of  attacks  upon  his  orthodoxy,  and 
has  since  served  an  independent  congregation 
in  the  same  city.  Many  of  his  sermons  have 
been  published,  singly  and  in  collections. 

Swithin,  St.,  or   Swithun,  Swithum,  was 

educated  in  the  monastery  of  Winchester  ;  be- 
came the  tutor  of  Ethelwolf  and  afterward 
his  councillor,  and  was  by  him,  in  852,  made 
bishop  of  Winchester,  where  he  died,  July  2, 
862.  His  festival,  however,  falls  on  July  15, 
as  the  day  on  which  his  remains  were  trans- 
ferred from  his  grave  in  the  churchyard  to 
his  tomb  in  the  cathedral,  whose  patron  he  is. 
(See  Butler's  Lives  of  the  Saints,  July  15.) 

Sy'-char,  a  city  of  Samaria  (John  iv.  5), 
often  said  to  be  the  same  as  Shecliem,  but 
more  likely  the  little  village  of  'Ascliar.  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  Ebal,  more  than  a  mile  from 
Shechem  or  Nablus.  T.  W.  C. 

Syllabus  means  an  index,  a  catalogue,  and 
is  applied  with  special  pregnancy  to  the  list 
of  heresies  which  Pius  IX.  made  up  for  his 
encyclica  of  Dec.  8,  1864,  eighty  in  number, 
arranged  in  ten  divisions.  That  syllabus  is  a 
ghastly  attempt  to  conjure  up  the  Romanism 
of  the  Middle  Ages  ;  it  rejects  every  achieve- 
ment and  every  exertion  characteristic  of  mod- 
ern civilization.  It  was  received  with  regret 
by  many  Roman  Catholics,  and  seriously  at- 
tacked by  some  Protestants.  But,  generally 
speaking,  it  fell  rather  tiat  upon  the  time,  and 
not  altogether  without  a  suggestion  of  the 
ludicrous. 

Sylvester  is  the  name  of  three  popes.  Syl- 
vester I.  (314-35)  is  said  to  have  baptized 
Constautine  the  Great.  He  is  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  Church.  Sylvester  II.  (999-1003) 
came  from  humble  parents  iu  Auvergne.  His 
name  is  really  Gerbert.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  attainments  and  noted  for  his  liberal 
views  on  the  interrelationship  of  synods,  bish- 
ops, and  popes.  He  was  made  abbot  of  Bobbio 
by  Otto  11. ,  whose  son  he  had  tauglit.  Tliough 
he  had  defended  the  decrees  of  tlie  synod  of 
Rheims  (991)  against  the  pope  (John  XV.), 
they  were  nevertheless  later  on  reconciled,  and 
Sylvester  was  made  archbishop  of  Ravenna. 
When  he  became  pope  he  changed  from  his 
liberal  views  to  those  of  an  autocrat.  Like 
most  scholars  of  his  age,  he  studied  alchemy 
and  the  magic  arts,  but,  unlike  most  others,  he 
was  in  bad  repute,  and  people  thought  him  in 
league  with  the  devil.  His  life  was  written 
by  Hock  and  published  in  Vienna,  1837.  His 
writings  have  been  published  by  Duchesne 
and  Masson.  Sylvester  III.  figured  for  three 
months  as  anti-pope  against  Benedict  IX.  and 


Gregory  VI.,  and  was  deposed  by  the  svnod 
of  Sutri,  1046.  C.  H.  A.  B. 

Symbol,  properly  a  mark,  or  sign,  or  figura- 
tive representation  of  moral  or  religious  truth, 
but  in  a  theological  sense  a  summary  of  doc- 
trines. It  was  first  used  by  Cyprian  (250),  but 
in  the  4th  century  became  common.  Orig- 
inally it  was  applied  to  the  Apostles'  Creed  as 
a  military  watchword  distinguishing  Chiis- 
tians  from  all  others.  The  Reformers  first 
designated  Protestant  creeds  by  this  term. 
(See  J.  R.  Allen,  Early  Christian  SyuiboUsm, 
London,  1887.)  T.  W.  C. 

Symbolics  treats  of  the  origin,  history,  and 
contents  of  the  various  creeds,  and  was  for- 
merly known  as  "  Polemics,"  but  is  now  more 
dispassionately  treated.  It  began  with  Mar- 
heinike,  who  in  1810  published  his  SymhoUk, 
and  was  followed  by  Winer  in  1824.  Since 
then  the  subject  has  been  carefully  investi- 
gated and  much  light  thrown  upon  the  origin 
of  the  prominent  ci-eeds.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic Mohler  (1834)  has  been  answered  by  Baur, 
Nitzsch,  Hase,  and  others.  Among  the  reli- 
able treatises  in  this  department  may  be  men- 
tioned ScUaff,  Creeds  of  Christendom,  New 
York.  1878,  3  vols.,  6th  ed.,  1890  ;  H.  G.  v. 
Scheele,  Theologisehe  SymboUk,  Ger.  trans., 
Gotha,  1880-81,  3  vols.  T.  W.  C. 

Symmachians  was  the  name  of  a  sect  de- 
scribed by  Philast>.r  in  his  De  Hceresibus,  ed. 
Fabricius,  Hamburg,  1721,  as  people  who 
without  scruple  indulged  all  the  lusts  of  the 
world  and  the  flesh.  They  lived  in  Rome  at 
the  time  of  Augustine,  but  nothing  further  is 
known  about  them. 

Symmachus,  pope  from  498  to  514.  Was  a 
native  of  Sardinia,  and  it  seems  a  convert 
from  heathenism.  He  is  noted  for  his  conflicts 
with  the  civil  powers  and  for  his  endeavor  to 
heighten  the  Roman  see.  In  502  he  revoked 
the  ordinance  of  Odoacer,  which  forbid  the 
incumbent  of  the  papal  chair  to  sell  any  of 
the  church's  property,  and  he  excluded  the 
laity  from  interference  in  the  affairs  of  the 
church.  These  acts  greatly  increased  the 
powers  of  the  papacy,  and  have  always  been 
referred  to  as  the  cardinal  principle  of  the 
church's  administration.  He  further,  at  a 
synod  held  at  Rome,  504,  promulgated  sev- 
eral ordinances  against  those  who  should  ap- 
propriate anything  from  the  church.  At  the 
synods  during  his  reign  he  was  addressed  as 
Papa,  and  tradition  says,  that  during  his  ad- 
ministration the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  was  intro- 
duced in  the  mass.  He  died  in  514,  and  has 
been  accused  of  ^lanichaean  tendencies, 
though  he  himself  drove  Manicha'tms  from 
Rome  antl  burned  their  books.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  his  reiarn  was  disturbed  by  the  im- 
perial party's  candidate  for  the  papacy. 

C.  H.  A.  B. 

Symmachus,  a  translator  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment into  Greek,  was  born  in  Samaria  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  2d  century.  Originally  a 
Jew,  he  became  an  Ebionitic  Christian.  His 
translation  was  made  because  of  the  distrust 
the  stricter  Jews  bore  to  the  Septuagint.  His 
translation  has  been  called  Versio  persjncua, 
manifesta,   adniirabilis,   aperta.     At   present 


SYNAGOGUES 


(893) 


SYNESIUS 


we  have  only  fragments  of  it  edited  l»y  Y^o- 
bilis,  Rome,  1587  ;  Drusins,  Arnheiiiis,  16:22  ; 
Bos,  Frankfort,  1709  ;  Montfaucon,  Paris, 
1713  ;  Bahrdt,  Leip/.iii;  u.  Liibeek,  1769-70. 
(See  Keil,  Kaulen,  and  ilcrl)st  in  tiieir  several 
introductions  to  the  Old  Testament.) 

C.  II.  A.  B. 

Synagogues  of  the  Jew.s,  the  religious  as- 
semblies which  during  the  post-exile  period 
existed  along  with  the  temple,  and  after  its 
destruction  took  its  place.  According  to  Jew- 
ish law,  wherever  ten  Jews  lived  a  house  of 
assembly  was  to  be  erected.  In  our  Lord's 
time  every  city  in  Palestine  and  among  the 
diaspora  had  at  least  one  sjiiagogue.  The 
building  was  usually  set  up  on  high  ground 
and  near  a  stream,  and  was  solemnly  set  apart 
by  prayer.  The  only  furniture  was  an  ark 
containing  the  law,  a" reading-desk,  and  alms- 
boxes.  Besides  prayers,  sections  of  the  law 
and  of  the  prophets  were  read.  The  officers 
were  the  elders,  the  chazzan  or  sexton,  and 
tlie  almoners.  T.  W.  C. 

Synagogue,  The  Great,  the  council  ap- 
pointed after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
Babylon  to  reorganize  their  literature  and  in- 
stitutions. Ezra  was  its  head.  It  consisted 
of  130  men,  who  were  not  contemporaneous, 
l)ut  transmitters  of  tradition  from  Moses  and 
Joshua  down  to  Simon  the  Just,  300  B.C..  who 
was  the  last  surviving  member.  The  correct- 
ness of  this  view  has  been  much  questioned 
by  such  men  as  R.  Simon,  J.  D.  3Iichaelis, 
De  Wette,  etc.,  but  Eichhorn,  .lost,  Zunz,  etc., 
maintained  that  there  is  much  historical  truth 
underlvinsr  it.  It  is  not  to  be  identified  with 
the  Great ^Sanhedrin.  T.  W.  C. 

Syncretism,  a  Greek  term  made  current  by 
Erasmus  (b")!'.*),  to  denote  an  effort  to  recon- 
cile discordant  parties  and  systems  not  by 
compromise  between  different  tenets,  Imt  bv 
a  union  on  tiie  basis  of  such  views  as  were 
common  to  1)oth  parties.  First  u.sed  indiffer- 
ently in  a  good  sense  or  a  bad  one,  it  came  in 
time  to  mean  a  mnngrel  system,  sacrificing 
truth  to  a  formal  union,  so' far  as  applied  to 
the  differences  between  Romanists  and  Protes- 
tants or  the  Reformed  and  the  Lutherans,  and 
afterward,  within  the  pale  of  Lutherani.sm,  the 
principle  of  moderation  and  jirogress  in  oppo- 
sition to  a  stiff  and  stationary  orthodoxv. 

The  title  xi/iin-t'ti/itic  was  given  to  a  si-ries  of 
f  erce  controversies,  which  in  the  second  half 
of  the  17th  century  were  waged  in  Germanv. 
Calovius  (1612-86)  was  the  leader  on  the  side 
of  strict  adherence  to  doctrinal  exclusiveness, 
and  Calixtus  (1 586-1 6.")6),  whose  work  was 
taken  up  by  his  son  in  1G67,  was  the  leader 
on  the  other  side.  Both  went  to  extremes. 
In  the  end  .syncretism  wa.s  vanciuislied,  and 
cunfessional  rigidity  wa.s  dominant.  Tlu; 
whole  experience  is  useful  as  showing  in  what 
way  and  on  what  grounds  unity  is  not  to  Ik- 
sought,  leaving  the  positive  atVirmations  in  the 
ca.se  for  furtiier  di-velopment  under  tlie  teach- 
ings of  the  Word  and  Spirit.  T.  W.  C. 

Synergism.  Martin  Luther,  in  consequence 
of  his  vivid  sense  of  tlie  sinfulness  and  corrup- 
tion of  man  by  nature,  had  emphasized  in  tlie 
strongest  terms  the  bondage  of  the  will,  csik.-- 


<'ially  in  his  controversy  with  Erasmus.  At 
first  .Melanclithon  followed  him  entirely  ;  l)ut 
witli  growing  familiarity  with  theologj-  and 
growing  independence,  "he  rejected  the  view 
that  man  was  ])urely  passive  in  the  process  of 
conversion,  and  taught  that  the  human  will 
was  capahle  of  responding  to  the  divine  in- 
itiative, and  denominated  it  a  "  faculty  capa- 
bl(^  of  ajiplying  itself  to  grace. "  Conversion 
was  thus  brought  about  l)y  the  co  operation 
of  three  causes  :  tlie  Spirit  of  God  jireceding  ; 
the  word,  which  he  uses  as  his  instnnnent, 
operatmg  ;  and  the  will  accompanying.  This 
was  called  synergism,  and  was  understood  by 
the  representatives  of  pure  Lutheraiiism, 
Flacius  and  others,  as  giving  the  initiative  in 
conversion  to  the  human  will,  though  nc  ither 
]\Ielanchtlion  nor  his  associates  and  folhjwers 
intended  to  teach  this,  and  ]\Ielanchthon  sub- 
sequently altered  his  forms  of  expression  to 
avoid  the  danger  of  such  misinterpretation. 
A  violent  contest  arose,  in  which  the  Univer- 
sity of  Jena,  which  had  been  founded  to  rep- 
resent the  original  Lutlieranism  against  the 
universities  of  W^iltenberg  and  Leipzig,  which 
had  fallen  away,  tigiires  largely.  A  "  Con- 
futation" of  the  ]\ielanchthonian  view  was 
])repared  (1559)  and  forced  upon  the  clergy  of 
ducal  Saxony.  Then  for  a  time  the  milder 
school  carriecl  the  day,  and  Flacius  and  his 
colleagues  of  the  sterner  doctrine  were  driven 
from  the  university  (1561).  But  Strigel  also 
left,  and  the  professors  from  Wittenberg,  who 
came  in  to  rill  the  vacancies,  were  able  to 
maintain  themselves  but  a  short  time.  The 
Flacian  jiarty  returned  (1568),  and  when  the 
Formula  of  Concord  was  drawn  up,  it  took 
the  side  of  the  Flacians.  But  synergism,  since, 
though  it  marked  the  milder  tendency  of  Lu- 
theran theology,  and  maintained  the  priority  of 
the  Spirit's  action  in  conversion,  has  operated 
to  prevent  Pelagianism  from  entering  info 
the  Lutheran  theological  system.  But  ftw 
modern  defenders  of  orthodox  Lutlieranism 
now  endorse  the  Flacian  phraseology  of  the 
Formula  of  Concord.  (See  W.  Preger,  J/. 
FlncittK  Jllyricus  und  xrine  Ziit,  £rlany:cn, 
1861  ;  Herriinger,  T/,roI,,;/ir  M>/a»rtf,oirs;Gc,- 
tha,  1879;  Foster,  in  Anurioni.  Chxrch  ///.<- 
tonj  Papers,  vol.  i.,  pp.  185-204.)     F.  H.  F. 

Synesius,  b.  at  Cyrene,  the  capital  of  the 
Lybian  Pentapolis,  550  m.  e.  of  modern  Trip- 
oli, about  375  ;  d.  at  Ptolemais,  also  in  the 
Lybian  Pentapolis,  414.  He  claimed  descent 
from  Spartan  kings.  In  393  he  went  to 
Alexandria  and  became  a  disciple  of  Ilypatia. 
He  never  was  able  to  throw  oil  and  free  him- 
self from  tlie  Alexandrinian  influence  ;  it 
clung  to  him  in  his  literary  labors  and  cropped 
out  in  his  theolog}-.  After  his  return  to  hi.s 
native  city  he  was  sent  as  amba.ssador  to  the 
emperor  to  ask  for  remission  of  taxes.  He 
went,  and  stayed  three  years  in  Constantinople. 
Being  wearied  of  waiting,  he  took  to  literary 
work.  In  400  la-  came  back  and  s]Kiit  mo.«.t 
of  his  time  in  domestic  retirement  and  leisure. 
In  403  he  married  happily.  In  409  (or  410) 
he  was  called  unanimously  to  the  liisliojiric  of 
Ptolemais.  This  call  shows  us  Imw  1  lie  church 
in  tlie  East  was  relatid  to  Xeo-i'latonism. 
It  proves  the  sanction  at  that  time  of  a  com- 


SYRIA 


(894; 


TABOR 


bination  of  Platonic,  JS^eo-Platonic,  and  Aris- 
totelian ideas  with  Christian  dogmatics. 
Synesius  distinctly  declared  that  he  did  not 
believe  in  the  final  destruction  of  the  world, 
that  he  favored  the  doctrine  of  the  pre-exist- 
ence  of  the  soul,  that  he  believed  the  soul  was 
immortal,  but  considered  the  doctrine  of  resur- 
rection as  merely  a  sacred  allegory.  "  Should 
I  therefore  accept  the  episcopal  dignity,"  he 
said,  "  I  must  be  allowed  to  hold  to  my  pre- 
vious convictions  and  to  philosophize  pri- 
vately, while  I  publicly  expound  fables  to  the 
people."  On  these  conditions  and  notwith- 
standing his  confession  the  episcopal  dignity 
was  conferred  upon  him.  After  his  consecra- 
tion he  separated  himself  from  his  wife.  The 
editio  princeps  of  his  extant  works  is  that  of 
Turnebus,  Paiis,  1553,  Latin  trans,  by  Peta- 
vius,  1613.  enlarged  and  improved,  1633,  and 
rep.  by  Migne,  Pat.  Grcec.  LXVI.  Complete 
French  trans,  by  H.  Druon,  Paris,  1878.  His 
epistles,  which  have  historical  value,  have 
been  edited  very  often.  (J.  Clausen,  De 
Synesio  pjiilompho,  Copenhagen,  1831  ;  H. 
Druon,  Etudes  siir  la  Vie  et  les  CEuvres  de 
Synesius,  Paris,  1859  ;  R.  Volkmann,  Synesius 
Ton  Gyrene,  Berlin,  1869  ;  Alice  Gardner, 
Synesius  of  Gyrene,  Philosoplur  and  Bishop, 
London,  1886.)        C.  H.  A.  Bjerregaard. 

Syria,  the  Greek  name  of  the  country  known 
to  tlie  Hebrews  as  Aram,  which  lay  between 
the  Mediterranean,  the  Taurus  range,  and  the 
Tigris,  and  was  370  miles  long  by  150  wide. 
It  included  several  distinct  principalities 
(Aram-Dammesek,  Aram-Zobah,  etc.),  but 
the  Syria  of  the  New  Testament  was  the 
Roman  province  of  that  name,  whose  eastern 
limit  was  the  Euphrates. 

Syria  was  first  the  seat  of  the  powerful  Hit- 
tite  kingdom,  the  Kliatti  of  Assyrian  monu- 
ments. It  was  subdued  in  part  by  Joshua 
(xi.  2-18),  then  further  by  David  (3  Sam.  viii., 
X.).  Afterward  it  was  in  frequent  conflict 
with  Judah  and  Israel,  but  was  at  length  sub- 
jugated by  Tiglath  Pileser,  and  ruled  by  the 
Babylonians  and  the  Persians.  Alexander 
the  Great  conquered  it  (333  b.c),  and  after 
his  death  it  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Seleucids, 
and  after  being  overrun  by  the  Parthiaus 
(164)  was  added  to  the  Roman  Empire  by 
Pompey  (64). 

Christianity  was  early  planted  in  Syria,  and 
the  churches  became  large  and  prosperous 
(Acts  siii.,  XV.).  In  634  the  Moslems  captured 
it,  and  save  during  the  Crusades  have  held  it 
ever  since.  It  is  now  under  three  pashalics, 
Aleppo,  Damascus,  and  Sidon.  The  popula- 
tion is  2,000,000,  three  quarters  of  whom  are 
Moslems.  The  prevailing  language  is  Arabic. 
There  are  70  or  80  mission  stations,  Beirut 
being  the  chief  centre,  and  175  schools,  and 
the  Protestant  communicants  number  700. 
(See  I.  Burton,  Inner  Life  of  Syria,  London, 
1875,  8d  ed.,  1884  ;  Conder,  Exploration  in 
Syria,  1883,  Syrian  Stone  Lore,  1886.) 

T.  W.  C. 


Tabernacle,  a  tent  or   movable  dwelling 
usually  the  structure  prepared  for  worship  bj 


the  Jews.  Two  of  these  are  mentioned  in 
the  Bible,  one  erected  by  Moses  in  the  wilder- 
ness, the  other  that  in  which  David  put  the 
ark,  where  it  remained  till  the  temple  was 
completed  (2  Sam.  vi.  17).  The  old  taber- 
nacle was  at  Gibeon  (1  Chron.  xvi.  39,  xxi. 
29). 

The  tabernacle  was  made  of  planks  overlaid 
with  gold  and  fitted  to  each  other  so  as  easily 
to  be  taken  apart  and  put  together  again,  and 
covered  with  triple  hangings  of  goats'  hair, 
rams'  skins,  and  seal-skins,  and  placed  in  a 
court  surrounded  by  canvas  screens.  It  was 
divided  by  a  curtain  into  two  parts  of  the 
same  width,  but  one  twice  as  long  as  the  other. 
The  interior  apartment,  the  Most  Holy  place, 
had  the  ark  and  mercy  seat  and  overshadow- 
ing cherubim  ;  the  other,  the  Holy  place,  had 
the  golden  candlestick,  table  of  shewbread, 
and  altar  of  incense.  In  the  court  was  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering  and  the  brazen  laver. 
The  whole  took  nine  months  to  erect  and  cost 
about  $1,250,000. 

While  Israel  was  in  the  desert  the  tabernacle 
was  always  pitched  in  the  middle  of  the  camp. 
Its  name  was  "  the  tent  of  meeting,"  where 
God  met  with  his  people  (Ex.  xxv.  8,  xxix. 
45)  and  dwelt  among  them.  A  lively  symbol 
of  this  truth  was  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  of  fire 
(Ex.  xl.).  In  Palestine  it  was  first  erected  at 
Gilgal  (Josh.  iv.  19),  then  removed  to  Shiloh 
(1  Sam.  i.  3),  then  to  Nob  (1  Sam.  xxi.  1-9), 
and  thence  to  Gibeon  (1  Chron.  xxi.  29), 
where  it  was  when  Solomon  began  to  reign. 
(See  E.  E.  Atwater,  Tabernacle  of  the  Hebrews, 
iS'ew  York,  1875  ;  T.  O.  Paine,  Tabernacle, 
Boston  and  New  York,  1885  ;  T.  Hawkins, 
Lectures  on  tlie  Tabernacle,  London,  1883.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Tabernacle,  the  case  in  which  the  eucharist 
was  kejjt  for  sending  to  the  absent  sick  or 
for  other  purposes,  such  as  for  being  carried 
about  as  a  means  of  protection.  It  was  orig- 
inally in  the  shape  of  a  tower,  later  modified 
and  altered,  so  that  after  a  time  the  common- 
est form  was  that  of  a  dove.  It  was  made  of 
various  materials — metal,  stone,  glass,  or  wood. 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of.  One  of  the  three 
great  yearly  festivals.  It  took  its  name  from 
the  booths  in  Avhich  the  people  dwelt  during 
its  continuance  (Lev.  xxiii.  34-43),  it  being 
designed  to  commemorate  the  long  tent-life  of 
Israel  in  the  wilderness.  It  began  on  the 
15th  day  of  the  7th  month  and  lasted  8  days, 
and  on  every  7th  year  the  Law  was  read  to 
the  whole  people  (Deut.  xxxi.,  Neh.  viii.).  It 
was  a  joyful  service.  Booths  were  put  up  on 
the  tops  of  the  houses,  in  the  temple  courts, 
in  the  streets,  and  on  the  hills  around  the 
city.  In  Ex.  xxiii.  16  it  is  called  "  the  feast 
of  ingathering"  because  it  occurred  at  the  end 
of  harvest,  15th  to  22d  Tisri  =  September- 
October.  The  later  Jews  had  a  custom  of 
pouring  water  from  Siloam  mingled  with  wine 
on  the  morning  sacrifice,  to  which  our  Lord 
is  supposed  to  refer  or  allude  in  John  vii.  2, 
37-38,  "  if  any  man  thirst,"  etc.    T.  W.  C. 

Ta'-hor  {mound,  heiyht),  a  mountain  of  Pal- 
estine on  the  northeastern  edge  of  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  6  m.  s.  of  east  from  Nazareth. 
Here  Barak  gathered  his  forces  against  Sisera 


TABORITES 


(895) 


TALMUD 


(Judges  iv.  G-14),  and  Gidoon's  brothers  were 
slain  (viii.  18),  and  at  a  later  day  it  was  dese- 
crated by  idolatry  (Hos.  v.  1).  Tabor  is  ex- 
tolled with  Hermon  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  12),  and  is 
mentioned  with  Carmel  (Jer.  xlvi.  18).  Its 
isolated  position  makes  it  remarkable,  espe- 
cially from  the  south,  where  it  has  the  form  of 
an  arc  of  a  circle.  The  view  from  the  top  is 
extensive  and  beautiful.  Its  sides  are  wooded 
with  various  trees  and  the  ascent  is  ea.sy.  The 
summit  is  a  small  plain,  on  which  are  two 
modern  monasteries,  one  Latin,  the  other 
Greek.  Here  there  was  anciently  a  fortified 
town  (1  Chrou.  vi.  77),  and  Antiochus  founded 
a  town  (B.C.  218),  which  was  strengthened  by 
Josephus  and  garrisoned  by  Romans  in  our 
Lord's  time.  A  tradition  as  early  as  Origen 
and  Jerome  makes  this  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
traustiguration.  As  this  took  place  at  night, 
it  might  very  well  have  occurred  in  some  nook 
on  the  side  of  the  mountain,  out  of  sight  from 
the  summit.  T.  \Y.  C. 

Taboritea,  The,  thus  called  after  their  orig- 
inal meeting-place.  Tabor,  a  hill  in  the  circle 
of  Bechin,  Bohemia,  formed  the  most  radical 
portion  of  the  Hu.ssite  (p.  388)  party  during 
the  great  reform  movement  in  Boliemia  in  the 
first  half  of  the  loth  century.  They  fought, 
however,  in  perfect  unison  with  the  more 
moderate  portions  as  long  as  the  wars  lasted, 
but  when  those  wars  at  last  ended  in  sheer 
exhaustion,  the  Taborites  did  not  bend  before 
the  Roman  Catholic  reaction  which  set  in,  but 
gradually  were  transformed  into  the  Bohe- 
mian Brethren  (p.  112).     See  Utraquists. 

Tad'-mor  (Hebrew,  iamar,  "palm-tree"), 
a  city  in  the  desert,  built  by  Solomon  (1  Kings 
ix.  18)  to  protect  his  caravan  trallic.  It  is 
about  120  miles  from  Damascus  and  CO  from 
the  Euphrates.  After  the  time  of  Alexander 
it  was  called  Palmyra,  and  became  famous 
from  Zeuobia,  "  the;  (jueen  of  the  East,"  who 
was  subdued  by  Aurelian.  Its  wealth  and 
importance  declined  till  it  fell  into  oblivion, 
but  has  in  modern  times  been  explored  and 
described.  Its  ruins  are  marvellous  for  their 
number,  size,  and  splendor.  T.  W.  C. 

Tai-Ping  (tjreat  peace),  a  Chinese  religious 
sect,  formed  upon  a  mixture  of  Christian  and 
Chinese  elements  about  1840.  In  1850  the 
founder  tried  to  give  the  movement  a  political 
character,  and  the  attempt  was  about  to  be- 
come formidable  when  the  Chinese  Govern- 
7nent  succeeded  in  putting  down  the  rebellion 
by  the  aid  of  Frencli  and  English  troops. 

Tail,  Archibald  CampbeU,  D.D.  (Oxford, 
1856  L-J).  U..\).  (Cambridg.-  [Vj,  18(58  [?]), 
archbisliop  of  Canterburv  ;  1).  at  E<linburgh, 
Dec.  22,  1811  ;  d.  at  Crnvdon.  10  m.  s.  of 
London  Dec.  3,  1882.  He  entered  Gla.sgow 
University,  1827,  and  Balliol  College.  Oxford. 
1830.  rf  which  he  became  fellow  and  tutor. 
He  opposed  the  new  views,  and  protested 
against  Tract  No.  90.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Ar- 
nold as  head  master  at  Hugby.  1842  ;  became 
dean  of  Carlisle.  1^.'>  >  :  bishop  of  London, 
1856.  and  primal e.  iMi-'.  In  London  he  pro- 
moted a  plan  to  raise  £1.000.(>00  for  increasing 
church  accommodations  ;  at  Lambeili  lie  pre- 
sided over  the  P.ui-Auglicaa  Svuod  of  li^T^i. 


He  was  a  moderate  Low  Churchman  and  an 
aniial)le  and  judicious  prelate.  He  publishecl 
sundry  sermons,  charges,  etc.  (See  W.  Ikn- 
ham's  Memoridlx,  London  and  New  York. 
1880  ;  A.  C.  liecklev's  Skatch,  London,  1883, 
and  Land  (Hid  Tait,  1883.)  F.  M.  B. 

Tallis,  Thomas,  "the  father  of  English 
cathedral  music  ;"  b.  about  1515  ;  d.  in  London, 
Nov.  23,  1585  ;  was  organist  at  Waltham  ab- 
])ey,  and  soon  after  its  dissolution  in  1540  Ik; 
was  appointed  a  gentleman  of  Ihe  royal  cliapel. 
One  of  his  earliest  compositions,  >Scrrirr  in  tJte 
JJorian  Mode,  was  first  printed  in  Barnard's 
Siii'cted  Church  Munir,  1641,  and  rep.  in 
Boyce's  Cathidral  Mimic,  1760.  His  last  com- 
positions, CaKtitiiK'n  Sarrd',  were  published  in 
1575  l)y  himself  and  his  pupil,  William  Byrd, 
they  having  obtained  letters  patent  from 
t^ui'en  Eli/.abeth,  which  gave  them  exclusive 
right  for  twenty-one  years  to  print  mu.si(!  and 
rule  music  paper  in  England.  ^lany  of  his 
compositions  are  still  in  use  in  the  English 
Church. 

Talmage,  Thomas  De  Witt,  A.M.  (Univer- 
sity of  New  York,  1862),  D.D.  (University  of 
Tennessee,  1884),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  near 
Bound  Brook,  N.  J.,  Jan.  7,  1832  ;  graduated 
at  the  University  of  the  Cit}'  of  New  York, 
1853,  and  at  the  New  Brunswick  (Reformed 
Dutch)  Theological  Seminary,  New  Jersey, 
185(j;  and  became  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Chiu-ch  at  Belleville,  N.  J.,  1S56  ;  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  1859  ;  Second  Church,  Phila"(iel|.liia, 
Pa.,  1862  ;  of  the  Central  Presl)vteiian 
Church,  iirooklyn,  N.  Y'.,  1869.  In  1H70  the 
congregation  built  a  new  and  larger  church, 
the  "  Tabernacle,"  wliich  was  burnt  in  1872, 
but  rebuilt  in  1873  still  larger,  seating  about 
5000  people.  This  buildiiig  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1889,  and  a  third  time  liis  congrega- 
tion were  called  upon  to  erect  a  church  lor 
him.  Dr.  Talmage  edited  Tlie  Chrixtian  at 
Work,  New  Y'ork,  1873-76  ;  The  Adcaxce, 
Chicago,  1877-78  ;  Frank  Leslie's  Hnudny 
.Unf/azine,  New  York,  1879-89  ;  ami  since  7'he 
Christian  Herald,  New  Y'ork.  His  sermons 
are  published  every  week  in  a  number  of 
papers  and  in  various  languages,  and  appear 
from  time  to  time  in  collections,  C'nnnba  Stnjit 
Up,  Ah(»iiiiiati'>ns  of  ^fodern  Societ)/,  Ai'/ht 
Side  of  Xc>n  York,  The  Battle  for  L'nad, 
Orange  JH'tHsoms  FroMed,  etc. 

Talmud,  The  {tmchiiifj),  tlie  storehouse  of 
Rabbinical  Judaism.  It  cousi.sts  of  two  parts, 
the  Miiihna  or  llie  text,  and  the  (Junara  or 
commentary.  Tlie  former  is  a  collection  of 
various  traditions,  with  expositions  of  various 
Scripture  texts.  These,  the  Jews  claim,  were 
delivered  to  .Moses  on  the  mount,  and  were 
transmitted  from  him  through  Aaron,  Eliezer. 
an<l  Joshua  to  the  prophets,  and  by  tli<'m  to 
tiie  men  of  the  Great  SynagoL'-ue  and  their 
successors  until  the  2d"  Christian  century, 
when  they  were  red\»(eil  to  writuig  by  Jehli- 
dah  the  Holy  and  his  scholars.  The"Mishua 
is  divided  into  six  books  entitled  1.  Z<niiiii, 
seeds  ;  2.  .Voiil,  festivals  ;  3.  y'lKhim,  women  ; 
4.  y>zikim,  damages;  5.  Kixhixhim.  sjicred 
tilings;  and  6.  Tdmroth,  puriticaiioiiv.  Un- 
der these  are  sixty-three  treatises  wiiieli  are 
M.Min  subdivided  "into  chapters.      After   the 


TAMMUZ 


(896) 


TARSUS 


completion  of  Rabbi  Jehuda's  work  additional 
collections  were  made  by  his  successors,  but 
they  were  not  incorporated  in  the  Mishna 
proper.  Still  the  Mishna  did  not  satisfy  the 
zeal  of  the  Rabbins,  and  on  its  basis  they 
formed  the  Gemara,  meaning  coniplera'int  or 
doctrine.  This  contains  the  discussions  of 
the  wise  upon  the  Mishna. 

Tlie  Gamara  exists  in  two  forms,  that  of 
Jerusalem  and  that  of  Babylon,  both  expound- 
ing the  same  text.  The  farmer  was  made  at 
Tiberias  near  the  close  of  the  4th  century, 
and  is  the  Western  or  Palestinian  Talmud. 
The  latter  was  made  in  the  school  of  Sura  in 
Babylonia  (427-98),  and  is  four  times  as  large 
as  the  former  and  much  more  highly  esteemed 
by  the  Jews.  It  contains  nearly  6000  folio 
pages.  The  language  of  the  Mishna  is  a  late 
Hebrew  mixed  with  foreign  words  ;  that  of 
the  Gemara,  a  corrupt  Aramaic.  Both  are 
written  without  points  and  abound  in  abbre- 
viations, making  the  reading  very  dilliciilt. 
A  vast  variety  of  subjects  is  treated  with  end- 
less detail,  and  the  judgment  of  most  Chris- 
tian scholars  who  have  examined  its  pages  is 
that  they  do  not  repay  the  trouble  of  examin- 
ing them,  the  occasional  good  things  that  have 
been  quoted  being  "a  few  bright  pearls 
found  at  the  bottom  of  an  immense  heap  of 
rubbish."  Besides  an  inconceivable  amount 
of  solemn  trifling  there  is  no  small  degr^ie  of 
indecency. 

Tliere  exists  no  complete  translation  of  tlie 
Talmad  in  any  language.  In  Ugolino,  I'hcs. 
An.  Sac,  there  is  a  Latin  translation  of  a 
large  portion  of  the  Jerusalem  Talmud.  Por- 
tions of  the  same  were  issued  in  a  French  ver- 
sion by  Schwab  (Paris,  1872)  and  in  English 
(London,  1885). 

Literature.  —  Eisenmenger,  Entdecktes 
Jucletithui/i,  Konigsbcrg,  1711  ;  Jost,  Ge- 
schichte  d.  Judentham.  Leipzig,  1857-59  ; 
\Y ebcr.  Syst.  d.  altsyii.  Paldst.  TheoL,  1S80; 
P.  J.  Hershon,  Treasures  of  the  Talmud,  Lon- 
don, 1881.  T.  W.  C. 

Tam'-muz  (sprout  of  life),  a  Syrian  idol, 
seen  in  vision  as  at  Jerusalem  by  Ezekiel  in 
captivity  (Ezek.  viii.  14).  Its  -worship  was 
accompanied  with  obscene  rites.  Jerome 
identified  it  with  Adonis  or  the  Phoenician 
sun-god.  The  festival  was  usually  celebrated 
in  July,  and  it  was  on  the  14th  day  of  Tam- 
muz,  the  fourth  month  of  the  Jewish  sacred 
year,  corresponding  to  our  July,  during  the 
riotous  revels  then  indulged,  that  the  city  of 
Babylon  was  captured  ''without  fighting," 
as  the  exhumed  monuments  state.  So  Daniel 
(v.  1-3,  23,  30).  T.  W.  C. 

Taoism.  See  Z.  Peisson,  Le  Taoisme, 
Amiens,  1890,  and  China,  Religions  of,  p. 
157. 

Tappan,  Henry  Philip,  D.D.  (Union  Col- 
lege, 1845),  LL.i).  (Columbia  College,  1853), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y., 
April  23,  1805  ;  d.  at  Vevay,  Switzerland, 
Nov.  15,  1881  ;  graduated  at  Union  College, 
1825,  and  Auburn  Theological  Seminary, 
1827  ;  had  charge  of  the  Congregational 
church  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  1828-32  ;  was  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  New  York,  1832-38,  and  chancellor  of  the 


University  of  Michigan,  1852-63,  and  spent 
the  last  part  of  his  life  in  Europe.  He  pub- 
lished A  Revieio  of  Edwards  On  the  Will,  New 
York,  1839;  Doctrine  of  the  Will  Determined 
by  an  Appeal  to  Consciousness,  1840  ;  Doctrine 
of  the  Will  Applied  to  Moral  Agency  and  Re- 
sponsibility, 1841  (all  three  volumes  rep.  in 
one  at  Glasgow,  1857)  ;  ElemerUs  of  Logic, 
1844. 

Targum  {version),  the  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  the  language  of  Southern 
Syria,  the  so-called  Chaldee.  Oral  versions 
were  made  by  Nehemiah's  directions  (Neli. 
viii.  8),  but  when  these  were  committed  to 
writing  we  do  not  know.  The  earliest  is  that 
of  Onkelos,  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of 
Gamaliel,  a  very  literal  version  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, but  with  some  deviations  from  the  He- 
brew text.  .It  was  made  in  the  1st  century  or 
the  2d  of  our  era.  The  next  is  the  Targum 
on  the  Prophets  (i.<^.,  from  Joshua  toMalachi, 
except  the  five  poetical  books),  ascribed  to 
Jonathan  ben  L'^zziel,  a  pupil  of  Hillel,  quite 
simple  in  the  historical  books,  but  more  para- 
phrastic in  the  others.  There  are  two  other 
Targums  on  the  Pentateuch,  one  on  the  whole 
of  it,  the  other  on  single  verses  and  words. 
The  former  is  assigned  to  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel, 
but  falsely,  and  hence  it  bears  the  name  of 
Pseudo-Jonathan  ;  it  is  a  revision  of  the  work 
of  Onkelos.  The  latter  bears  the  name  of 
Jerushalmi. 

The  Targums  on  the  Hagiographa  are  of 
the  approximate  date  1000  a.d.  Those  on 
Psalms,  Job,  and  Proverbs  were  probably 
contemporaneous,  and  due  to  Syria.  That 
on  the  five  Megilloth  (Ruth,  Esther,  Ecclesi- 
astes.  Canticles,  and  Lamentations)  is  of  a 
dialect  between  the  east  and  west  Aramaic, 
and  is  a  free  version  with  many  fanciful  ad- 
ditions. There  is  no  known  Targum  on  Dan- 
iel. Ezra,  or  Nehemiah.  Etheridge  translated 
lite  Targums  of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  Ben  Uz- 
ziel on  tlie  Pentateuch,  London,  1862-65,  2  vols. 
T.  W.  C. 

Tar'-shish  is  first  mentioned  in  the  famous 
genealogy  of  Genesis  (x.  4).  It  is  connected 
with  "the  isles  afar  off"  (Isa.  Ixvi.  19,  Ps. 
Ixxii.  10).  We  read  of  "a  navy"  and  of 
"ships"  of  Tarshish  (1  Kings  x.  22,  Isa.  ii. 
16,  xxiii.  1,  Ps.  xlviii.  7).  It  w^as  an  impor- 
tant place  of  trade  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  13),  and 
exported  silver  (Jcr.  x.  9)  and  also  iron,  tin, 
and  lead  (Ezek.  xxv.  12).  It  was  for  Tarshish 
that  Jonah  embarked  from  Joppa  (Jonah  i.  3, 
iv.  2). 

Its  true  site  has  been  much  disputed.  A 
few  identified  it  with  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  but> 
most  scholars  deem  it  to  have  been  Taitessus, 
a  Phoenician  colony  in  Spain.  It  is  not  un- 
likely that  "  ships  of  Tarshish"  denoted  any 
large  vessels  fitted  for  long  voyages  in  any 
direction,  in  the  same  general  sense  in  which 
the  British  term  Indiaman  has  long  been  used. 
T.  W.  C. 

Tcir'-sus,  the  capital  of  Cilicia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  "  no  mean  city"  (Acts  xxi.  39). 
It  stood  on  both  banks  of  the  river  Cydnus,  13 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  was  a  place  of  much 
commerce.  It  was  distinguished  for  its 
schools  and  its  learned  men.  in  the  number  of 


TARTAN 


(897) 


TAULER 


■which  it  rivalled  Athens  and  Alexandria.  In 
return  for  its  exertions  in  the  civil  wars  Au- 
gustus made  it  a  free  city.  Here  the  Apostle 
Paul  was  born  and  educated.  The  modern 
city,  called  Tersous,  is  a  mean  Turkish  town, 
with  a  population  of  7000  in  summer  and 
30,000  in  winter.  T.  W.  C. 

Tar'-tan  {star-form),  not  the  name,  but  the 
official  title  of  an  Assj-rian  trcneral  sent  by 
Sennacherib  to  lluzekiah  (2  Kin;i;s  xviii.  17)  ; 
and  of  another  sent  by  Sargon  against  Asiulod 
(Isa.  XX.  1).  T.  W.  C. 

Tar'-tak  {hero  of  darkness),  an  idol  intro- 
duced by  the  Avites  into  Samaria  (3  Kings 
xvii.  31)  ;  worsliipped  according  to  the  K;ib- 
bins  in  the  form  of  an  ass  ;  believed  to  bo  the 
Accadian  idol  Tartak,  who  was  the  special 
guardian  of  the  Tigris.  T.  W.  C. 

Tate,  Nahum,  b.  in  Dublin,  1052  ;  d.  in 
London,  Aug.  12,  1715  ;  became  poet-laureate 
in  1692,  and  published,  together  with  Nicholas 
Brady,  .1  New  Version  of  the  Psalms  of  Davvl, 
twenty  psalms  appearing  in  1695,  and  the  en- 
tire psalter  in  1696.  It  was  made  to  be  sung, 
not  only  to  be  read,  and  was  much  used  both 
in  England  and  America. 

Tatian,  the  apologist  ;  b.  in  the  land  of  As- 
syria, east  of  the  Tigris,  between  110  and  120  ; 
well  educated  in  pagan  learning  ;  converted 
to  Christianity  in  maturer  years,  he  lived  in 
Rome  for  a  while  in  friendly  relations  with 
Justin  Martyr,  and  brought  out  an  able  apol- 
ogy for  Christianity  entitled  An  Address  to  the 
Greeks,  and  written  in  that  language.  Hav- 
ing already  lmbil)ed  Gnostic  doctrines,  he  left 
Rome  (172)  and  went  to  ^lesopotumia,  wiiere 
he  died.  He  prepared  the  first  JHut^saaron, 
or  combination  of  the  four  gospels,  into  a  con- 
tinuous narrati^'C.  His  Address  is  in  tlie  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers,  vol.  ii.,  65-S2  ;  his  Diatcssaroa 
has  recentlv  been  recovered.  (See  Hemphill, 
The  Diatts'saron  of  Tatian,  London,  1889.) 

Tattam,  Henry,  D.D.  (Gottin-rcn,  18—), 
LL.D.  (Trinity  Collc-e,  Dublin,  18—),  Ph.D. 
(Levden,  18—),  F.R.S.  (18—),  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  in  Ireland.  Dec.  28,  1788;  d.  at 
Stamford  Rivers,  E^sex,  Jan.  8,  1868.  H.; 
studied  at  Dublin  and  in  Germany,  and  was 
rector  of  Bedf.ml,  1818-45,  arclideacon  of 
Bedford,  1844-66,  and  rector  of  Stamford 
Rivers,  1849-68.  He  was  a  great  Coptic 
scholar,  and  published  a  grammar  (London, 
1828)  and  dictionary  (18:i5)  of  that  tongue.  l)e- 
sides  versions  of  the  prophets,  ls:56-52,  and  of 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  1849. 

F.  M.  B. 

Tauler,  John,  b.  at  Strassburg,  1290  or 
1300  ;  d.  thjre,  June  16,  1361.  He  belonged 
to  a  tolerably  wealthy  family  and  might  have 
lived  on  his  patrimonv,  since  he  tells  us  in 
one  of  his  sermons,  "  Ha  I  I  knowa  when  I 
lived  as  my  father's  son  all  that  I  know  now.  I 
would  have  lived  on  his  heritage  and  not  upon 
alms"  ((piotod  by  ^Miss  Winkworth,  p.  73). 
However,  in  early  years— probably  1313  or 
1318— he  entered" the  Strassburg  Dominican 
convent,  while  Meister  Eckart  was  theologi- 
cal professor  in  the  monastic  school.  From 
Strassburg  he  went  to  Cologne  tj  a  college  of 


his  own  order,  and  after  that,  it  seems,  to  the 
famous  Dominican  college  of  St.  Jacijues  at 
Paris.  After  having  linished  his  studies  he 
returned  to  his  native  city,  wliere  he  settled, 
and  with  whose  history  iiis  life  and  labors  are 
closely  connected. 

In  1324  Strassburg  was  laid  under  Pope 
John  XXII.'s  ban  for  siding  with  the  excom- 
municated emperor,  Louis  of  Bavaria.  Tau- 
ler's  order,  the  Dominican,  continued  to  say 
mass,  to  keep  its  churches  open,  and  to  ad- 
minister the  sacraments,  mainly  through  the 
elTorts  of  Tauler.  But  in  1339  the  heads  of 
the  order  commanded  the  Strassburg  brethren 
to  close  their  churciies,  which  they  did,  only 
to  be  driven  from  the  city  by  the  town  coun- 
cil. For  three  years  and  a  half  they  were  ab- 
sent. Tauler  and  other  monks  with  him  went 
to  Basel,  though  that  city  was  also  under  the 
ban  for  the  like  cause  as  Strassburg. 

At  this  time  begins  a  new  development  in 
Tauler's  life.  In  Switzerland  he  became 
familiar  with  the  "  Friends  of  God"  (q.v.), 
and  to  this  ixiriod  belongs  that  story,  so  ofteu 
recited,  of  his  meeting  with  "  the  friend  from 
Oberland,"  who  exercised  so  great  an  intiu- 
ence  upon  him.  It  is  said  that  one  day  a 
stranger  appeared  before  Tauler  and  told  him 
that  his  sermons,  though  excellent,  could 
teach  him  nothing.  Tauler  was  at  first  aston- 
ished, then  indignant,  but  after  awhile  the 
truth  flashed  across  his  mind.  Deeply  affect- 
ed, he  embraced  the  layman,  saying,  "  Thou 
art  tiie  tirst  to  tell  me  of  my  fault.  Stay  with 
me,  I  will  follow  thy  counsel.  Thou  shalt  be 
my  spiritual  father,  and  I  thy  sinful  son." 
Nicolas,  "  the  Friend  of  God,"  ever  afterward 
"  ruled"  Tauler  with  happy  results. 

The  historic  character  of  this  episode  has 
been  doubted  by  Denille,  but  almost  all  schol- 
ars adhere  to  Professor  ('.  Schmidt's  theory 
of  its  credibility.  However.  Tauler's  intlu- 
ence  and  .standing  with  "the  Friends"  may 
be  guessed  from  the  designation  common 
among  them,  "our  dear  father,  Tauler," 
which  dates  from  this  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  Tauler  calls  the  "Friends"  the  "pil- 
lars" of  Christianity.  Probably  in  the  year 
1346  he  returned  to  Strassburg  and  lived 
throui^h  the  most  important  part  of  his  life. 
In  1348  the  "  black  death"  visited  Slra.s.sburg 
and  made  a  dreadful  havoc  among  the  peo- 
ple, but  Tauler  stuck  to  his  post  and  com- 
forted the  peojile.  Apparently  Tauler  re- 
mained in  Stra.s.sburg  for  the  most  part 
till  his  death  in  1361,  thoiigh  he  certainly 
made  several  tours  into  the  Hhineland,  and 
lived  and  preached  for  some  time  in  Cologne. 

It  was  but  natural  that  various  estimates 
should  have  boon  made  of  Tauler's  character 
and  inllucnce.  But  correct  or  not.  they  are 
all  favorable  to  him.  Compared  to  Eckart, 
Tauler  stands  out  as  an  emotional  and  very 
])ra(tical  man.  not  given  to  pantheistic  specii- 
lation,  l)Ut  rather  to  the  realization  of  senti- 
ment and  tiiought.  His  position  as  against 
the  "  Friends  of  God"  is  that  of  a  rational 
and  well-balanced  man,  full  of  evangelical 
life,  but  not  given  to  exaggerations  and  de- 
nials of  sacramental  grace.  In  relation  to  the 
later  following  Reformation,  to  Luther  in 
particular,  it  will  be  suflicient  tocjuote  Luther's 


TAUSEN 


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TAYLOR 


■words  that  he  knew  no  better  book  than 
Tauler's  sermons. 

Tauler  preached  in  German.  His  sermons, 
"  though  not  what  is  called  flowery,  are  yet 
like  a  meadow,  adorned  everywhere  with 
fresh  and  fragrant  flowers,  rich  in  spiritual 
insight  and  manifold  examples  from  life,  and 
fuirof  kind,  afliectionate,  hearty,  and  pro- 
found expressions."  We  can  find  in  them 
the  most  heterogeneous  elements  bearing  wit- 
ness to  his  wide  reading  and  large  acquaint- 
ance ;  the  scholasticism  of  Thomas  Aquiuas 
is  found  mixed  with  the  Neo-Platonistic 
dreamery  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  ;  Augus- 
tiiiian  rigor  and  gospel  discipline  run  parallel 
with  Eckart's  individualism  and  the  intensity 
of  Nicolas  of  Freiburg.  But  these  various 
elements  appear  in  him  well  digested,  and  are 
reproduced  in  pure  form  and  clear  thought. 
His  mysticism  is  of  a  high  type,  and  springs 
essentially  from  his  own  regenerate  individual- 
ity. It  is  possible  that  the  criticism  of  an- 
other and  later  age  may  change  this  estimate, 
if  it  shall  be  proved  that  his  masterpiece,  The 
Book  of  Spiritual  Poverty,  is  really  not  his 
work.  His  authorship  is  disputed  by  a  critic 
of  high  order,  but  no  means  exist  wherewith 
to  prove  any  theory  for  or  against. 

Tauler's  sermons  were  first  printed  in  Leip- 
zig, 1498  ;  of  these  Denifle  thinks  that  only 
eighty  are  genuine.  Many  editions  have 
since  appeared,  most  of  them  with  additions 
from  other  sources— all  included  in  the  Frank- 
fort edition  of  1826.  The  most  recent  Frank- 
fort edition  is  by  Julius  Hamberger,  1864. 
(See  C.  Schmidt,  J.  Tauler  twi  Straszburg, 
Hamburg,  1841  [this  work  contains  all  the 
bibliography  on  Tauler  up  to  that  date]  ;  the 
same,  Nicolas  von  Basel,  Berich  t  von  der  Bekeh- 
rung  Taulers,  Strassburg,  1875  ;  Denifle,  Das 
Buck  von  der  geistlichen  Armuth,  Strassburg, 
1877  ;  the  same,  Taulers  Bekchrung,  1879  ; 
Miss  Susanna  Winkworth,  Ta^iler's  Life  and 
Times,  with  trans,  of  twenty-five  of  his  ser- 
mons, London,  1857,  n.e.,  i878,  New  York, 
1858  ;  F.  Bevan,  Trois  Amis  de  Dieu,  Lau- 
sanne, 1890.)  C.  H.  A.  Bjerregaard. 

Tausen,  Hans,  b.  at  Birkinde,  Fiinen,  Den- 
mark, 1494  ;  d.  at  Ribe,  Jutland,  Nov.  11, 
1561  ;  was  a  monk  in  Antvorshov  monastery 
in  Sealand,  but  visited  Wittenberg  and  began 
to  preach  the  Reformation  immediately  after 
his  return  home.  In  1529  he  was  made  pastor 
of  St.  Nicholas  in  Copenhagen  and  chaplain 
1o  theking,  and  in  1542  bishop  of  Ribe.  From 
tlis  beginning  to  the  end  he  stood  at  the  head 
of  the  movement  which  introduced  and  es- 
tablished the  Reformation  in  Denmark.  He 
published  some  sermons,  treatises,  and  a 
translation  of  the  Psalms. 

Taverner,  Richard,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Brisley,  Norfolk,  1505  ;  d.  at  Oxford, 
July  14,  1575,  when  high  sheriff  of  Oxford- 
shire. He  studied  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford  ; 
;became  a  lawyer  and  clerk  of  the  signet,  1587. 
At  Oxford  he  was  imprisoned  for  reading  Tyn- 
.dale's  New  Testament  ;  Edward  VI.  licensed 
him  to  preach,  1552.  He  translated  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  1536,  and  published  a  revised 
edition  of  Matthew's  Bible,  1539,  in  foho  and 
.quarto,  the  latter  in  parts  for  more  general 


distribution.     (See  Mombert,  English  Versions 
of  the  Bible,  New  York,  1883.)        F.  M.  B. 

Taxes,  Ecclesiastical.  These  existed  in  a 
great  variety  of  forms.  The  laity  and  clergy 
alike  in  the  earliest  days  made  voluntary 
offerings  of  kind  and  money  ;  after  a  time 
tithes  {dismes)  were  exacted,  from  which  the 
clergy  were  exempted  (5lh  century).  They 
were,  however,  subject  to  special  taxes — for 
support  of  the  cathedral  church  ;  for  the  en- 
tertainment of  the  visiting  bishop  ;  for  the  re- 
lief of  an  extraordinary  distress.  The  bishop- 
elect  must  pay  certain  charges  for  his  ordina- 
tion, and  metropolitans  to  the  pope  for  their 
pallium.  Formerly  non-residence  could  be 
condoned  by  a  money  payment.  Annats 
(q.v.)  were  heavy  taxes.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  most  of  these  taxes  remain, 
while  in  Protestant  churches  they  have  never 
existed. 

Taxing,  or  "  enrolment,"  as  the  R.  V.  gives 
it,  a  registration  of  property  for  purposes  of 
taxation.  The  one  mentioned  in  Luke  (ii.  2) 
was  held  under  imperial  order  through  all 
the  Roman  world,  and  was  conducted  with  a 
mixture  ol'  Roman  and  Hebrew  usages.  That 
it  was  made  by  Cyrenius,  see  Quirinius.  An- 
other enrolment  is  mentioned  by  Gamaliel 
(Acts  v.  37).  T.  W.  C. 

Taylor,  Dan,  founder  of  the  New  Connec- 
tion of  General  Baptists  ;  b.  at  Northowram. 
Halifax.  York,  Dec.  21,  1738  ;  d.  in  London, 
Dec.  2,  1816.  He  was  first  a  Methodist  local 
preacher,  but  joined  the  General  Baptists,  and, 
disliking  their  Unitarian  drift,  effected  a 
union  between  those  like-minded  among  them 
and  the  Barton  Independent  Baptists,  which 
resulted  in  the  New  Connection  (June,  1770). 
He  was  their  leader,  and  from  1785  till  his 
death  preached  in  London.  He  wrote  much 
in  defence  of  his  opinions.  (See  his  life  by 
W.  Underwood,  London,  1870.) 


Taylor,  Isaac,  LL.D.    (- 


;  18-),  lay- 


man of  the  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Laven- 
ham,  Suffolk,  62  m.  n.e.  of  London,  Aug.  17, 
1787;  d.  at  Ongar,  Essex,  June  28,  1865. 
Originally  an  engraver,  he  turned  to  mechani- 
cal inventions  and  religious  literature.  Among 
his  books  are  :  Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm, 
London,  1829,  and  Natural  History  of  Fanati- 
cism, 1833  ;  Spiritual  Despotism,  1835  ;  Phy- 
sical Theory  of  Another  Life,  1836  ;  Ancient 
Christianity  and  the  Doctrines  of  the  Oxford 
Tracts,  1839-40,  2  vols.;  Loyola  and  Jesuitism, 
1849  ;  Wesley  and  Methodism,  1851  ;  Restora- 
tion of  Belief  ,  1855  ;  Logic  in  Theology,  1859  ; 
Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  1861  ;  Considerations 
on  the  Pentateuch,  in  answer  to  Colenso,  1863. 
F.  M.  B. 
Taylor,  Jane,  Congregationalist  ;  b.  in 
London,  Sept.  23,  1783  ;  d.  at  Ongar,  Essex, 
21  m.  e.n.e.  of  London,  April  12,  1824.  She 
published  Display,  London,  1815  ;  Essays  in 
Rhyme,  1816;  Contributions  of  Q.  Q.,  182G, 
etc.  Her  Memoirs,  Correspondence,  and  Poeti- 
cal Remains  was  edited  by  her  brother  Isaac, 
1825.  With  her  sister,  Ann  Taylor  (1782- 
1866),  who  married  Rev.  Joseph  Gilbert,  she 
wrote  the  long  popular  Original  Poems,  1805. 
and  LLymnsforLnfant  Minds,  1809.     The  Au- 


TAYLOR 


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TAYLOR 


tobiography  and  Otlicr  Memorials  of  Mrs.  Gil- 
bert appeared  1874.  F.  M.  B. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1642), 
bishop  of  Down,  Conuor,  and  Droniore  ;  b. 
at  Cambridge,  Aug.  15,  1(318  ;  d.  at  Lisburne, 
County  Antrim,  Ireland,  8  m.  s.w.  of  Belfast, 
Aug.  13,  1667.  A  barber'.s  son,  he  entered 
Caius  College,  Cambridge,  1626,  and  became 
a  fellow,  16^:!  :  Archbishop  Laud  transferred 
him  to  All  Souls,  Oxford,  1636,  and  Bishop 
Juxon  made  him  rector  of  Uppingham,  Rut- 
land, 1638.  Ilis  sufferings  under  the  Com- 
monwealth called  forth  his  greatest  books, 
the  Liberty  of  Prophesy  in  ff,  London,  1647, 
■wherein  he  argued  with  unrivalled  wit,  fervor, 
eloquence,  and  logic  against  the  persecution 
of  anj'  but  Anabaptists  ;  the  better  known 
Great  Exemplar  (otherwise  Life  of  Ohriat), 
1649,  and  Holy  Living  and  Dying,  16.")0-51  ; 
Sermons,  1652-53-56,  3  vols. ;  lieal  Presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Sacrament,  1654  ;  Golden  Grove, 
1655,  containing  his  hymns  ;  Umtm  Xeces- 
sarium  ;  or.  Doctrine  and  Practice  of  Repent- 
ance, 1655,  which  involved  him  in  controversy; 
theenovmoxis Ductor  Dubit((ntit//n,  1660,  "  the 
most  extensive  and  learned  work  on  casuistry" 
in  English,  and  The  Worthy  Cmniniinicant, 
1660.  He  was  in  Ireland  from  165S,  and  was 
made  a  bishop  at  the  Restoration,  but  had  little 
comfort  in  his  new  dignity,  and  wrote  not 
much  beyond  Dissuasices  from  Popery,  1664- 
67.  In  the  famous  eulogy  of  his  successor,  he 
had  "  the  fancy  of  a  poet,  the  acuteness  of  a 
schoolman,  the  profoundness  of  a  philo.sopher, 
the  wisdom  of  a  chancellor,  the  sagacity  of  a 
prophet,  the  reason  of  an  angel,  antl  the  piety 
of  a  saint.  He  had  devotion  enough  for  a 
cloister,  learning  enough  for  a  university,  and 
wit  enough  for  a  college  of  virtuosi."  Some 
at  least  of  these  praises  are  deserved  ;  his  in- 
tellectual rank  in  the  Church  of  England  is 
higher  than  that  of  Chrysostom  in  the  ancient 
church,  and  his  books  are  loved  by  readers  of 
every  creed  and  connection  :  Emerson  calls 
him"  the  Shakespeare  of  divines. "  His  Con- 
ternplations  of  the  State  of  Man  appeared  post- 
humously. 'His  whole  works,  \yith  a  life  by 
Bisliop  ileber,  were  collected  in  15  vols., 
1820-22,  u.e.  1852-61.  His  Holy  Living  and 
Jl'ly  Dying  are  .standard  devotional  manuals. 
Selections  from  his  writings  were  published, 
London,  1884.  (See  also'his  life  bv  R.  A. 
Willmott,  1847.)  F.  >!.  B. 

Taylor,  Nathaniel  William,  D.D.  (Union, 

1823),  a  distini^uislud  Congregatioiialist 
preacher  and  theolotrian  ;  b.  at  New  Milford, 
Conn.,  June  23,  1786;  d.  at  New  Haven. 
March  10,  1858.  He  w:us  a  farmer's  boy,  but 
made  his  way  through  Yale  College,  gradu- 
atins  in  1807.  He  became  jia.'^tor  of  the  First 
Chul-ch  in  New  Haven  in  1811,  after  tinishing 
his  studies  with  President  Dwight,  and  con- 
tinued in  this  position  until  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  theologv  in  1822.  in  which  ]>osition 
he  continued  till  death.  He  gained  high  repu- 
tation as  a  preacher,  and  was  always  in  de- 
man  1  upon  occasions  of  special  religious  inter- 
est as  long  as  he  remained  in  active  life.  His 
efforts  to  find  a  basis  in  tlie  mind  for  the  ap- 
plication of  the  truth,  bv  whicii  the  effect 
might  be  produced  of  moving  the  sinner  to 


repentance  and  conversion,  led  him  to  accepfc 
the  threefold  division  of  the  mind,  and  to 
ascribe  to  the  sensibility  that  neutral  position 
which  made  it  the  fit  object  of  hortatory  ad- 
dress. He  exalted  also  the  freedom  of  the 
will,  to  which  he  gave  the  ])ower  of  contrary 
choice,  or  the  power  at  the  time  and  under 
the  circumstances  when  a  given  choice  was 
actually  made,  of  making  the  exact  opposite. 
Yet  he  maintained  that  in  con.sequence  of  the 
sin  of  Adam,  all  men  are  born  into  the  world 
with  the  certainty  of  sinning.  The  electioa 
of  some  in  like  maimer  makes  it  certain,  but 
not  necessary,  that  they  will  repent,  upon 
which  they  are  saved.  Love  of  personal  hap- 
piness is  the  subjective  spring  of  all  choices  ; 
but  virtue  is  benevolence,  or  the  choice  of  the 
highest  good  of  the  universe,  with  which  the 
highest  hai>piuess  of  the  individual  can  never 
come  in  conllict.  Upon  these  lines  Dr.  Tay- 
lor built  up  with  great  ingenuity  an.!  acute- 
ness a  system  of  thought  which  gaincil  the 
widest  inlluence  in  the  Congregati(jnal  and 
Presbyterian  denominations.  With  Dr. 
Tyler,  of  East  "\Vind.sor,  he  was  himself  en- 
gaged in  controversy,  and  "  Taylorism"  was 
a  bone  of  contention  among  the  Presbyterians, 
contributing  largely  to  produce  the  separation 
into  Old  and  New  School  churches  in  1838. 
(See  G.  P.  Fisher  in  Discussions  in  History 
and  Theology,  also  articles  in  Xew  Englander, 
vols.  xvii.  and  xviii.  Four  volumes  of  his 
works  have  been  published.  Practical  Srmons, 
Xew  York.  185»;  Moral  Government,  1859, 
2  vols.  ;  Exxays,   etc.,  1859.)    See   New  E.ng- 

LAND  TuEOUXiY.  F.   II.   F. 

Taylor,  William,  D.D.  (:\It.  Union  College, 
O.,  1S(><2;  Hed.iing  College.  Aliuigton,  Illi- 
nois, 1884),  MetluKhst  ;  b.  in  Rockbridire  Co., 
Va..  May  2,  1821  ;  began  his  ministry.  1842  ; 
in  1862  went  forth  as  evangelist  to  Australia, 
Africa,  Asia,  and  South  .\merica  ;  founded 
at  Bombay  a  self-supporting  mission,  1872  ; 
and  the  same  in  South  America,  1878.  In 
1884  he  was  ehcted  missionary  bisliop  in 
Africa  and  established  missions  "there  which 
are  expected  to  become  self-supporting. 
Among  his  books  may  be  mentioned,  Sreii 
Years'  Street  Preaching  in  San  Franciiiro, 
New  York,  1856  :  Christian  Adventures  in 
S»ith  Africa.  1867 ;  Our  South  American 
CouxinJi,  1878  ;  Ten  Tears  of  Self-soppirting 
Minions  in  India,  1882;  Pauline  M'thods  of 
Missionani  W»rk,  1SS9.  (See  his  life  by  E. 
Davies,   Reading,   Mass..  1sk5.) 

Taylor,  WUUam  Mackergo,  D.D.  (Yale 
and  Amherst.  1872).  LL.D.  (College  of  New 
Jersev,  Princeton,  1883),  Congregationalist  : 
b.  at' Kilmarnock.  .Scotland.  Oct.  23.  1829; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  1849, 
and  at  the  t'nited  Presbyterian  Tlieological 
Seminarv.  Edinburgh.  lk52  ;  held  various 
pastoral  charges  in  Scotland  and  England,  and 
l>ecame  in  1872  pii-Mor  of  the  Broadwav  Taber- 
nacle Church.  New  York.  He  edited  The 
Christian  at  Work.  1876-80.  New  York, 
and  published.  Ix-sides  several  collections 
of  .sermons,  h.-^miletical  bioirraphics  of 
David  (1S75).  Elijah  (1876),  Peter  (1H77), 
Daniel  (1878).  Moses  (1879).  Paul  (1882 >.  Jo- 
seph   (1886),   The  Gospel  MiracUs  in  their  Re- 


TEACHING 


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TEACHING 


lation  to  Christ  and  Christianity,  New  York, 
1880  ;  John  Knox,  a  Biography,  1885  ;  Para- 
bles of  Our  Saviour,  1886  ;  The  Scottish  Pulpit 
from  the  Reformation  to  the  Present  Day,  1887  ; 
The  Miracles  of  Our  Lord,    1890. 

Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,   The 

{\L6ax>i  Tuv  (5(j(5e/va  aToirro/.cjw),  or  Didache,  as 
it  is  commonly  called,  is  au  ancient  Christian 
writing,  which  was  first  published  in  Con- 
stantinople in  1883  by  Pliilotheos  Bryennios, 
metropolitan  of  Nicomedia,  from  a  manu- 
script dis(;overed  by  him  in  the  Jerusalem 
convent  in  Constantinople  in  1873.  Imme- 
diately upon  its  appearance  the  work  attracted 
widespread  attention  and  became  speedily  the 
occasion  of  a  very  extensive  literature  in  many 
languages.  Though  of  small  compass — not 
larger  than  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatiaus — this 
earliest  church  manual,  as  it  is  aptly  desig- 
nated by  Schaff,  is  of  great  historical  impor- 
tance, for  it  throws  no  little  light  upon  the 
obscure  period  of  transition  through  which 
the  church  passed  in  the  generations  imme- 
diately succeeding  the  apostolic  age,  and  en- 
ables us  satisfactorily  to  explain  many  hitherto 
obscure  points  in  connection  with  church  gov- 
ernment and  worship.  The  tract,  which  is 
divided  by  Bryennios  and  subsequent  editors 
into  sixteen  chapters,  treats  of  the  personal 
life  of  the  Christian  in  the  form  of  a  series  of 
moral  and  religious  precepts  (chaps,  i.-vi.), 
of  baptism,  fasting,  and  prayer,  and  the 
eucharist  (chaps,  vii.-x.),  of  the  treatment  of 
teachers,  apostles,  prophets,  and  travelling 
disciples  (chaps,  xi.-xiii.),  of  the  religious  ob- 
servance of  the  Lord's  day  (chap,  xiv.),  of 
the  appointment  of  bishops  and  deacons  (chap, 
xv.),  and  finally  of  the  second  coming  of 
Christ  and  the  conduct  to  be  observed  by  the 
Christian  in  view  of  that  event  (chap.  xvi.). 

Tlie  history  of  the  Didache  in  the  ancient 
church  is  very  interesting.  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria quotes  as  Scripture  {yfya^ij)  a  passage 
which  is  found  in  the  third  chapter  of  the 
Teaching  ;  Athanasius  refers  to  the  Teaching 
of  the  Apostles  as  adapted  for  use  in  the  in- 
struction of  catechumens,  and  Eusebius,  in  his 
famous  passage  on  the  New  Testament  Canon 
{H.  E.,  Bk.  iii.,  chap.  25),  mentions  the  So- 
called  Teachings  of  the  Apostles  (on  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  plural  Teachings,  see  the 
writer's  article  in  the  Andover  Review,  April, 
1886,  p.  439  sq.)  among  the  voBoi,  wiiich  shows 
that  these  Teachings  must  have  enjoyed  a 
wide  circulation  at  some  time  and  have  been 
accepted  by  at  least  a  portion  of  the  church 
as  worthy  to  be  read  in  divine  service,  and 
thus  in  a  certain  sense  as  a  part  of  the  canon 
(a  fact  which  is  confirmed  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria's  quotation  referred  to  above), 
while  in  Eusebius'  time  their  canonicity  was 
not  acknowledged  (see  the  writer's  edition  of 
Eusebius'  Church  History,  Bk.  iii.,  chap.  25, 
notes  1  and  21).  Other  certain  and  possible 
references  to  or  quotations  from  or  parallel- 
isms with  the  Didache  which  have  been  dis- 
covered, in  no  inconsiderable  number,  need 
not  be  referred  to  here. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  however,  that  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  of 
the  so-called  Ecclesiastical  Canons  agree  so 


closely  with  the  earlier  chapters  of  the  Didache, 
that  some  kind  of  a  literary  connection  be- 
tween them  must  be  assumed,  wliile  a  portion 
of  the  seventh  book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions is  directly  based  upon  the  Didache  in  its 
entirety. 

The  author  of  the  work  under  discussion  is 
unknown.  The  time  of  composition  cannot 
be  determined  with  exactness,  but  it  is  almost 
universally  conceded  that  it  must  have  been 
written  before  the  middle  of  the  2d  century, 
and  both  external  and  internal  arguments 
point  rather  to  the  first  than  to  the  second 
quarter  of  that  century.  The  views  of  schol- 
ars in  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  work  and  its 
relations  to  other  writings  are  more  or  less  at 
variance,  but  a  consensus  of  opinion  has  been 
reached  on  many  points,  and  the  following 
positions  are  now  quite  generally  accepted, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  practically  established. 
The  Didache  is  composed  of  two  parts,  of 
■which  the  former  (chaps,  i.-vi.)  is  a  redaction 
of  an  independent  moral  treatise,  probably  of 
Jewish  origin,  entitled  the  Ttw  Ways,  which 
was  known  and  used  in  Alexandria,  and  there 
formed  the  basis  of  other  writings  {e.g.,  of 
certain  chapters  of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas 
and  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Canons).  This  (Jewish) 
Two  Ways,  which  was  in  existence  certainly 
before  the  end  of  the  1st  century  (how  much 
earlier  we  do  not  know),  was  early  in  the  2d 
century,  if  not  before,  made  apart  of  a  primi- 
tive church  manual — viz.,  our  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles.  The  Two  Ways,  both  before 
and  at  the  time  of  (perhaps  after)  its  incorpo- 
ration into  the  Teaching,  received  important 
additions,  chiefly  of  a  Christian  character. 
The  completed  Teaching  dates  from  Syria, . 
though  this  is  denied  by  many  scholars,  who 
prefer,  on  what  seem  to  the  writer  inadequate 
grounds,  Egypt  as  the  place  of  composition. 
Finally  the  completed  work  formed  the  basis 
of  a  part  of  the  seventh  book  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  whch  originated  in  Syria  in  the 
4th  century.  An  adequate  explanation  of 
certain  slight  resemblances  between  the  later 
chapters  of  the  completed  work  and  one  or 
two  Alexandrian  writings  {e.g.,  the  Epistle  of 
Barnabas),  which  betray  in  the  main  a  knowl- 
edge of  only  the  first  five  chapters,  or  Tico 
Ways,  has  not  yet  been  given. 

The  most  complete  and  useful  edition  of 
the  Didache  is  that  of  Schaff  ( The  Teaching 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  New  York,  1885,  3d 
ed.,  1889),  which  contains  the  Greek  text  with 
Englisli  translation  of  the  work  itself  and  of 
kindred  documents,  together  with  an  excel- 
lent commentary  and  a  full  discussion  of  the 
chief  questions  affected  by  the  discovery  of 
the  work.  Harnack's  important  edition.  Die 
Lehre  der  Zwdlf  Apostel  {Te.rte  tind  Untersuch- 
itngen,  II.,  1  and  2,  Leipzig,  1884),  is  still  the 
standard  German  work  upon  the  subject, 
though  it  contains  some  conclusions  which 
have  since  been  proved  incorrect,  and  which 
he  has  himself  modified.  His  article  in  Her- 
zog,  2d  ed.  (reproduced  in  Schaff-Herzog, 
rev.  ed.,  1887,  at  the  close  of  vol.  i.),  and  his 
Die  Apostellehre  11  nd  die  jildischen  Beideii  Wege, 
Leipzig,  1886,  should  therefore  be  compared 
with  his  original  work.  Schaff's  edition 
contains  a  very  complete  digest  of  the  litera- 


TE   DZUM 


(901) 


TEMPERANCE 


ture  down  to  the  close  of  1888.  Si)ecial  men- 
tion may  be  made  here  of  Hitchci^ck  and 
BroM'n's  2d  ed.  (New  York,  1885),  and  of  the 
magniticeat  fac-siniile  edition  of  J.  Reudel 
Harris  (Baltimore,  1887),  and  attention  may 
be  called  to  the  articles  of  Wartield,  Taylor, 
and  Salmon  (see  Schaft's  3d  ed..  Appendix  I. 
and  II.  for  the  references). 

A.  C.  McGlFFEUT. 

Te  Deum  (Te  Benin  landanvis,  "  We  praise 
thee,  O  Goil  !"),  generally  called  the  Ambro- 
sian  hymn  because,  even  if  Ambrose  did  not 
translate  it,  he  introduced  it  into  the  Western 
Church  ;  sometimes  also  called  the  hymn  of 
Augustine  and  Ambrose,  referring  to  a  pas- 
sage in  a  spurious  sermon  found  among" the 
works  of  Ambrose,  according  to  wliich,  Am- 
brose having  performed  the  baptism  of  Au- 
gustine, both  at  once  spontaneously  burst  out 
singing  this  hvmn  in  praise  of  the  Holy 
Trinity.  Its  origin  is  certainly  Greek.  It 
became  known  to  the  West  through  the 
€hurch  o^  Milan.  Generally  adopted  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  it  is  also  used  in  all 
•evangelical  churches. 

Te-ko'-ah  {pitching  of  tents),  a  city  south  of 
Bethlehem,  colonized  by  Asher  (1  Chron.  iv. 
5)  ;  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi.  6)  ; 
the  home  of  "the  wise  woman"  who  inter- 
ceded for  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xiv.  2),  and  the 
birthplace  of  the  Prophet  Amos  (Amos  i.  1). 
Its  ruins  are  still  seen  on  a  broad  hill-top 
called  Tek'na.  T.  W.  C. 

Teleology  (Greek,  relnq,  "end,  purpose") 
rests  upon  the  idea  that  behind  the  jihenomena 
of  nature  tliere  is  a  purpose  which  reveals 
itself  to  the  human  understanding  through 
tlie  connection  between  phenomenon  and 
phenomenon,  and  which  furnislies  the  mate- 
rials for  tile  teleological  or  physico-theological 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  God. 

Telesphorus,  ])()i)e.  128-:^9,  was  a  native  of 
Greece,  but  nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 

Teller,  Wilhelm  Abraham,  b.  at  Leipzig, 
Jan.  9.  1734  ;  d.  at  KuIn-au-der-Spree,  Prus- 
sia. Dec.  9,  1804  ;  was  appointed  i)rofes.sor  of 
theology  at  Ilelmstadt  in  1741,  and  provost  of 
Kiiln-an-der-Spree  in  1767.  He  was  one  of 
the  pillars  of  Rationalism,  and  his  three 
works,  fA'hrhuch  ties  chriHtlichen  Glnubens, 
Halle,  1764;  Wrn'terhuHi  des  X.  T.,  Berlin, 
1772,  6tiied.,  1805;  and  Religion  der  Volkom- 
meiunen,  1792,  show  its  rapid  evolution  from 
tentative  fumbling  to  audacious  certainty. 
The  evolution,  however,  proved  a  little  too 
rapid  for  the  Prussian  Government.  After  the 
publication  of  his  Wih-terbuch  the  author  was 
sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  line  to  a — lunatic 
asylum. 

Tellier,  Michael  Le  (leh-ta-le  a),  b.  at  Vire, 
Norniandv.  D<-c.  16.  1648  ;  d.  at  La  Flfeche, 
on  the  Loire,  Sept.  2.  1719;  entered  tlie  So- 
cietv  of  Jesus  in  1661,  and  be<ame  confes.sor 
to  Louis  XIV.  after  tin-  deatli  of  Pere  La 
Chaise  in  1709.  He  is  believed  to  have  exer- 
cised a  decisive  intluence  on  the  old  king  in 
all  affairs  of  importance,  and  wa^  banished 
from  Pari-i  immediately  after  his  death. 

Temperance,  as  used  iu  the  New  Testament 


(Ads  x.xiv.  2."),  Gal.  v.  23.  2  Peter  i.  6).  does 
n.H  denote  moderation  in  the  u.se  of  intoxi- 
cating drinks,  much  le.ss  total  abstinence  from 
tliem,  but  self-control  or  command  over  all 
appetites  and  passions,  mental  or  bodily,  the 
regulation  of  thought,  sjjeech,  and  l)eliavior 
in  accordance  with  rea.von  and  ])r()pri(ty. 
Tlius  regarded  it  has  always  and  (icscrvidly 
held  cliicf  prominence  in  any  etliical  scIk  me. 

Witliin  the  present  century  the  word  has 
come  in  popular  usage  to  have  the  restricted 
meaning  of  abstinence  from  intoxicants,  and 
men  have  shown  tliemselves  temperate  in  this 
sense,  but  in  notiiiiig  else. 

The  so-called  temiierance  movement  began 
some  seventy  or  eiglity  years  ago,  at  tirst  lim- 
iting the  restriction  to  "alcoholic  spirits,  but 
afterward  extending  it  to  all  fermented 
liquors,  and  has  wrought  a  very  great  change 
iu  the  liabits  of  society,  greatly  diminishing 
the  ravages  of  intemperance  in  the  United 
States  and  in  the  British  Empire.  Its  claims 
have  been  advocated  on  the  ground  tlnit  any 
use  of  li(iuor  was  sinful,  or  from  pruikntial 
considerations,  or  from  tlie  Christian  law  (if 
love.  Great  use  was  made  of  a  written  plidge 
as  a  remembrance  and  a  stinndus  to  haUing 
resolution.  Still  it  was  found  that  many  could 
not  be  reached  in  tiiis  way,  or  lliat  if  con\inced 
and  reformed  tliey  fell  a  prey  to  the  tempta- 
tions of  the  saloon  or  dram-sliop.  Accoid- 
ingly  it  was  sought  to  aid  and  save  these  per- 
.sons  as  well  as  to  prevent  others  from  acijuir- 
ing  drinking  hahils,  by  jiroliihiting  the  sale 
of  stimulants.  Laws  to  this  clfect  have  been 
enacted  in  several  states  of  the  Union,  and  in 
one  of  them  (Maine)  have  been  engrafted  on 
the  constitution.  At  the  present  time  the 
chief  object  of  temperance  associations  is  to 
secure  such  prohibitory  legislation  in  every 
state  and  also  by  the"  general  government. 
The  most  plausible  objection  to  such  laws  is 
that  if  enacted  they  cannot  l)e  enforced  with- 
out a  general  sentfment  in  their  favor,  and  if 
such  a  .sentiment  exists,  then  there  is  no  need 
of  the  laws. 

The  Scripture  clearly  does  not  forbid  all 
use  of  intoxicaiUs,  but  it  strongly  condemns 
drunkenness  not  only  as  a  weakness  and  a 
vice,  but  also  as  a  sin.  And  this  sin  is  .so 
common  and  so  deadly,  tliat  all  good  men 
nuist  rejoice  in  wliatever  promises  to  rescue 
its  victims  or  hinder  any  addition  to  their 
number.  T.  \V.  (  . 

Temperance  Societies.  Among  the  earli- 
est records  tii.it  we  lisive  of  movements  against 
the  evils  of  intemperance  are  those  of  laws 
enacted  in  Massachusetts  in  1639.  to  restrain 
intemperate  drinkiuL',  and  of  similar  law.s 
enacted  in  Connecticut  about  tiie  same  time. 
In  1744  John  Weslev,  in  England,  enjoined 
upon  the  memlxTs  of  his  societies  nbslinen<e 
from  all  spirituous  li(juors  except  in  ca.se  of 
necessity.  The  Society  of  Friends,  in  their 
yearly  meeting  for  New  England  in  17M4.  in- 
corporated into  their  discipline  a  .sp<'cial  clause 
against  the  use  of  ardent  spirits.  It  is  gener- 
ally held,  however,  that  the  modern  temi>er- 
ance  movement  dates  from  17s.'»,  when  Dr. 
Benjamin  Rush,  of  Pinladelfthia,  jmblished 
his  essay  on  Tfie  Effects  of  Ardent  .ijnril»  on 


TEMPERANCE 


(902) 


TEMPERANCE 


the  Human  Body  and  Mind.  In  1789,  at 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  200  farmers,  to  discourage 
the  use  of  spirituous  liquors,  determined  not 
to  use  any  distilled  liquors  in  doing  their  farm 
work  during  the  ensuing  season.  In  1790 
the  College  of  Physicians  in  Philadelphia  me- 
morialized Congress  "  to  impose  such  heavy 
duties  upon  distilled  spirits  as  shall  be  effec- 
tual to  restrain  their  intemperate  use  in  this 
country."  These  movements  were  tentative, 
and  were  directed  against  the  traffic  in  and 
the  use  of  distilled  spirits.  The  early  societies 
were  temperance  societies  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  term  ;  it  was  later  that  any  of  these 
organizations  came  on  to  the  platform  of  total 
abstinence.  A  strong  ally  of  the  cause  was 
Rev.  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher,  who  was  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  reading  of  Dr.  Rush's  essay, 
and  whose  Six  Sermons  Against  Intemperance 
— preached  in  1826  and  published  in  Boston 
— were  very  effective.  Dr.  J.  B.  Clark  was 
also  a  reader  of  Rush,  and  formed  what  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  first  modern  tem- 
perance society.  This  was  the  Union  Tem- 
perance Society  of  Moreau,  N.  Y.,  founded 
in  1808,  which  was  followed  the  next  year  by 
an  anti-spirits  society  at  Greenfield,  also  in 
Saratoga  County,  N.  Y.  In  1811  the  Pres- 
byterian General  Assembly  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  devise  measures  for  preventing  the 
evils  of  intemperance.  The  General  Associa- 
tion of  Massachusetts  appointed  a  committee 
to  co-operate  with  that  of  the  General  As- 
sembly and  also  of  the  General  Association  of 
Connecticut  on  this  subject.  In  1813  this 
committee  organized  the  Massachusetts  So- 
ciety for  the  Suppression  of  Intemperance, 
which  in  1833  changed  its  name  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts Temperance  Society,  under  which 
title  it  was  incorporated  in  1845,  and  still  holds 
a  corporate  existence.  The  American  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Temperance  was  formed 
in  Boston  in  1826.  Rev.  Dr.  Justin  Edwards 
was  the  secretary  of  this  society,  and  travelled 
extensively,  preaching  total  abstinence  and 
organizing  state  and  local  societies.  In  1836 
the  society  changed  its  name  to  the  American 
Temperance  Union,  and  was  then  established 
in  Philadelphia,  from  whence,  in  1838,  it  was 
removed  to  New  York.  The  first  national 
temperance  convention  was  held  in  Philadel- 
phia in  Mav,  1833,  and  was  composed  of  400 
delegates  from  twenty-one  states.  This  con- 
vention did  not  occupy  the  total  abstinence 
position;  it  simply  took  ground  that  "the 
tralfic  in  ardent  spirits  as  a  drink,  and  the  use 
of  it  as  such  are  morally  wrong,  and  ought 
to  be  abandoned  throughout  the  world."  In 
this  same  year,  however,  the  Massachusetts 
society  adopted  a  new  constitution  with  a 
pledge  of  total  abstinence.  In  1836  the  State 
Society  of  Pennsylvania— formed  in  1827 — 
adopted  the  pledge  of  ' '  total  abstinence  from 
all  that  can  intoxicate."  The  most  marked 
feature  of  the  second  national  convention- 
held  in  Saratoga  in  1836 — was  the  adoption  of 
tiie  principle  of  total  abstinence  from  all  in- 
toxicating drinks  as  a  beverage.  The  fourth 
national  convention- Saratoga,  1851 — passed 
resolutions  in  favor  of  prohibitory  laws.  The 
fifth  convention,  1865,  recommended  the  use 
of  "  unfermented  "  wine  at  the  communion, 


and  deprecated  the  use  of  liquors  as  medicine. 
A  committee  appointed  by  this  convention  or- 
ganized in  the  same  year  the  National  Tem- 
perance Society  and  Publication  House,  with 
headquarters  at  New  York.  The  sixth  con- 
vention—  Cleveland,  O.,  1868  —  urged  the 
friends  of  the  cause  "  to  refuse  to  vote  for  any 
candidate  who  denies  the  application  of  the 
just  powers  of  civil  government  to  the  sup- 
pression of  the  liquor  traffic."  Subsequent 
conventions  went  still  further  in  the  line  of 
seeking  to  introduce  the  temperance  issue  into 
politics. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  first  wholly  total  ab- 
stinence society  was  formed  by  a  Mr.  Jewell, 
in  1829,  in  Hector,  N.  Y.  A  society  already 
existed  in  the  place,  in  connection  with  which 
it  is  said  that  the  term  "  teetotal"  originated. 
This  society  at  that  time  (1826)  had  two 
pledges— the  old  pledge  of  abstinence  from 
ardent  spirits  and  the  new  pledge  of  total  ab- 
stinence from  all  intoxicants.  The  secretary 
prefixed  to  the  names  of  members  on  the  roil 
the  letters  O  P  or  T  respectively,  to  indicate 
whether  they  took  the  old  pledge  or  the  new 
one  of  T  =  total  abstinence.  Hence  the  phrase 
T-Total  (tee-total)  came  to  be  used.  Another 
alleged  origin  of  the  term  is  in  the  attempt  of 
a  stuttering  farmer  of  Preston,  England,  in 
1833,  to  assure  the  members  of  the  local  tem- 
perance society— formed  in  1832— that  he 
believed  in  "  t-t-total  abstinence." 

The  Washingtouian  Temperance  Society 
was  formed  in  Baltimore  in  1840  by  six  meii 
of  intemperate  habits,  who  signed  a  total  ab- 
stinence pledge  with  the  determination  to  in- 
duce others  to  do  the  same.  The  society 
rapidly  increased,  and  similar  societies  were 
formed  in  other  places,  and  the  movement 
grew  till  it  was  estimated  that  150,000  intem- 
perate men  had  given  up  drink. 

There  are  several  temperance  orders  :  The 
Order  of  the  Sons  of  Temperance  was  organ- 
ized in  New  York  in  1842.  It  combines  the 
total  abstinence  idea  with  mutual  aid  of  its 
members  in  sickness  and  for  funerals.  It  had 
a  rapid  growth  at  first,  but  is  not  as  large 
an  order  now  as  it  once  was.  It  numbers  at 
present  35  grand  divisions  and  1617  subordi- 
nate divisions.  Its  total  membership  is  77,879. 
The  Order  of  Templars  of  Honor  and  Tem- 
perance was  instituted  in  New  Vork  in  1845 
by  prominent  Sons  of  Temperance,  and  was 
designed  to  be  a  high  branch  of  that  order. 
In  1848  its  connection  with  the  Sous  of  Tem- 
perance was  severed.  It  is  a  fraternal  order, 
holding  to  total  abstinence  for  the  individual 
and  prohibition  for  the  state.  It  embraces  15 
grand  temples,  with  subordinates  in  nearly  all 
the  states  of  the  Union,  and  a  total  member- 
ship of  9438.  The  Independent  Order  of 
Good  Templars  was  organized  in  1851.  It 
has  passwords,  signs,  grips,  and  signals  ;  its 
lodges  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It 
numbers  88  grand  lodges  with  11,571  subordi- 
nate lodges,  and  a  membership  of  483,100. 
The  JiojaX  Templars  of  Temperance  is  a  tem- 
perance and  relief  association,  organized  in 
1877,  and  having  supreme  councils  in  several 
of  the  states.  The  Sons  of  Jonadab  is  a  non- 
sectarian  and  non-political  order,  organized 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  1867.     (For  woman's 


TEMPERANCE 


(008) 


TEMPERANCE 


work  in  temperance,  see  next  section  headed 
"  Woman's  Cliristiau  Temperance  Union.") 

The  National  Temperance  Society,  already 
referred  to,  is  the  most  prominent  of  the  tem- 
perance organizations  in  this  country.  It  cele- 
brated its  twenty-tiftli  anniversarV  in  Ma_v, 
1890,  and  its  work  for  that  period  is  thus  sum- 
marized :  More  thau  a  million  and  a  cjuarter 
of  dollars  have  been  receivetl  and  used  in  the 
publication  work  of  the  society.  There  have 
been  issued  185:3  separate  books,  pamphlets, 
tracts,  etc.,  comprising  a  circulation  of  nearly 
800,000,000  pages  of  literature.  The  total  as- 
sets of  the  societv,  including  invested  funds 
of  $22,000,  are  $7G,000.  It  has  organized  a 
large  number  of  important  conventions,  con- 
ferences, and  the  like  in  dilferent  parts  of  the 
country,  including  the  great  International 
Temperance  Conference  to  commemorate  the 
Centennial  of  our  national  independence,  in 
1876,  and  the  Centeimial  Conference  of  IMSo, 
to  commemorate  the  centennial  of  the  tem- 
perance reform.  The  proceedings  of  each  of 
these  conferences  make  a  hirge  volume,  both 
of  which  are  published  by  this  society.  It 
has  also  a  missionary  department,  which  dis- 
tributes its  literature  in  jails  and  needy  local- 
ities, seeking,  among  other  things,  to  do  a  work 
among  the  colored  people  of  the  South.  !More 
than  ^400,000  has  been  expended  in  this  mis- 
sion work  in  the  twenty-live  years  of  tiic  so- 
ciety's existence.  The  National  Temjicnince 
Society  was  the  pioneer  in  the  agitation  for 
putting  temperance  text-books  in'the  public 
schools  of  the  land,  beginning  in  the  year  of 
its  organization,  and  publishing  a  temperance 
catechism  in  1870.  This  society  is  non-par- 
tisan, non-sectional,  and  non-sectarian.  In 
this  connection  it  may  be  said  that  there  are 
eighty-six  temperance  periodicals  published 
by  various  organizations  in  this  country  and 
Canada. 

The  various  religious  denominations  of  the 
country,  as  such,  have  temperance  organiza- 
tions for  promoting  the  cause.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Church  Temperance  Society, 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  which 
has  the  double  basis,  all  of  the  American  so- 
cieties are  total  abstinence  ;  and  with  the  ad- 
ditional exception  of  the  Father  3Iathew 
Total  Abstinence  Society,  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  they  believe  in  jirohibition. 

The  temperance  movement  in  Great  Britain 
was  begun  by  John  Duidop  in  Scotland, 
where,  in  1829,  he  formed  the  lirst  temperance 
society  near  Ghusgow.  There  is,  however, 
evidence  to  show  that  there  was  iihemperance 
society  in  Skibbereen,  Ireland,  in  1817,  but  it 
■was  local  and  died.  The  first  total  abstinence 
society  in  Great  Britain  was  formed  at  Dum- 
fermline  in  1830.  The  active  movement 
against  intemperance  began  in  England  in 
1830,  when  the  lirst  societv  was  firmed  at 
Bradford.  In  18:51  the  Brkish  and  Foreign 
Temperance  Society  was  formed  with  a  pledge 
"to  abstain  from  distilled  spirits  excei)t  for 
medicinal  jnirposes."  The  tirst  total  absti- 
nence society  in  England  was  forme<l  at  Pres- 
ton in  18:32,' Joseph  Livesey  In-ing  the  chief 
mover  in  it.  In  18:3")  tiie  British  Asso<'iatinn 
for  the  Promotion  of  Temperance  WiLs  formed 
at  Manchester  on  the  principle  of  total  absti-  | 


nenee,  and  the  British  Teetotal  T<'mperance 
Society  was  formed  in  London.  Tliere  were 
several  changes  in  the  forms  of  organization, 
and  the  cause  spread  rapidly.  In  1840  tluru 
were  500,000  members  enrolled  in  the  soci- 
eties, while  the  adherents  to  total  abstinence 
numl)ered  more  than  2,000,000.  The  National 
Temperance  Societv,  tlie  London  Tempeiance 
League,  and  the  United  Kingdom  Alliance 
are  all  in  active  operation,  and  there  are  nu- 
merous other  organizations  in  llie  kingdom. 
In  Ireland  the  lirst  total  abstinence  society 
was  formed  at  Strabane  in  1835.  Father 
]\Iathew  (q.  v.)  began  his  labors. at  Cork  in 
1S;38,  and  extended  them  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  total  abstinence  society 
formed  by  him  in  18:58,  the  T.  A.  B.  (The 
Total  Abstinence  Brotherhood),  had  1,800,000 
members  in  1840,  and  before  his  death,  in 
1856,  between  three  and  four  million  persons 
had  received  the  i)le(lg(!  from  his  hands. 

There  is  a  steadily  increasing  interest  in  the 
temperance  cause  on  the  continent,  and  new 
adherents  are  being  gained  in  China,  Japan, 
India,  and  Africa. 

WOMAN'S  CHRISTIAN  TEMPERANCE  UNION. 

This  organization  had  its  roots  in  the 
"Woman's  Temperance  Crusade,  which  began 
in  Ohio  in  Dec,  1873,  and  extended  over  a 
dozen  of  the  states.  This  si)ontaneous  move- 
ment met  with  considerable  success  for  a 
time,  but,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  its  methods 
could  not  be  long  continued.  Organization 
followed.  The  "Woman's  Praying  Bands  be- 
came the  "Woman's  Temperance  Bands.  In 
the  spring  of  1874 .several  state  conventions  of 
the.se  temperance  women  met,  and  state  or- 
ganizations resulted,  called  at  lirst  temperance 
leagues,  which  name  was  soon  changed  to 
unions.  The  next  step  was  to  confederate 
these  societies  in  a  national  union.  A  conven- 
tion was  called  by  women  who  had  gathered 
at  the  tirst  National  Sunday-school  Conven- 
tion at  Chautaucpia  Lake,  N.  Y.,  in  Aug., 
1874.  The  convention  met  at  Cleveland,  O., 
Nov.  18-20.  1874,  and  was  attended  by  dele- 
gates representing  sixteen  states.  A  constitu- 
tion was  adopted,  with  a  plan  of  organization 
intended  to  reacli  every  handet  and  city  in 
the  land.  Its  financial  plan  was  to  a><k  for  a 
cent  u  week  from  memlxrs.  The  organiza- 
tion was  named  file  Wonum's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Uiuon.  In  the  first  year  of  its  history 
it  added  six  state  organizations  to  its  numbers, 
and  now  has  organizations  in  every  state  ami 
territory  and  has  an  enrolment  of  2(R),()00 
members.  Its  methods  are  flexible,  and  its 
work  is  carried  on  in  many  departments,  clas- 
sified under  the  heads  of  preventive,  edma- 
lional,  evangelistic,  social,  and  legal  work. 
These  departments  are  luider  tlie  direction  of 
superinten<lents,  great  reliance  Ining  filacfd 
upon  individual  efTort  in  the  tmd«  rtakings  of 
this  .MKJety.  The  de|>arfment  of  .'.(ientific 
temperance  edvication  was  organiz<-d  in  1880. 
In  part  through  its  influence  laws  have  l)een 
adopted  in  most  of  the  stat«'s  re<iuiring  in  tlie 
public  schools  teaching  in  jihysirilogy  and 
liygiene  m  iih  reference  to  stimulants  and  nar- 
cotics. The  receipts  for  the  vear  reported  to 
the  annual  convention  of  1\ov..   1h90,  were 


TEMPLARS 


(904) 


TEMPLE 


$36,128.33,  including  $15,786.32  for  the  Tem- 
perance Temple  (to  be  erected  in  Chicago  and 
to  cost  more  than  a  million  of  dollars).  The 
expenditures  for  the  year  were  $26,007.39. 
The  Union  Signal,  which  is  the  official  organ 
of  the  society,  has  a  subscription  list  of  80,000, 
and  there  are  a  number  of  other  publications 
fitted  to  help  the  work  of  the  organization. 

The  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union 
has  pronounced  in  favor  of  woman  suffrage, 
and  also  is  distinctly  in  favor  of  the  Prohibi- 
tion party  in  both  state  and  national  politics. 
In  consequence  of  its  utterance  upon  this 
point,  at  the  convention  of  Nov.,  1889,  a  num- 
ber of  members  withdrew,  and  in  Jan.,  1890, 
formed  the  Non-Partisan  National  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union,  which  refuses 
to  pledge  itself  to  any  particular  political 
party.  This  organization  will  carry  on  its 
work  in  lines  similar  to  the  older  society,  but 
will  confine  itself  closely  to  non-partisan  and 
non-sectarian  Christian  temperance  work. 

There  are  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Unions  in  Great  Britain,  New  South  Wales. 
Canada,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  New  Zealand, 
Queensland,  Victoria,  South  Australia,  Cey- 
lon, Sweden,  Turkey,  China,  Japan,  India, 
Cape  Colony,  Chili,  Denmark,  Norway, 
Natal,  Orange  Free  State,  Sierra  Leone,  Nas- 
sau, and  Newfoundland,  the  tirst  named  hav- 
ing been  formed  in  1876  and  the  last  in  1890. 
These,  with  the  parent  society,  constitute  the 
"World's  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union. 

Literature. — The  National  Temperance 
Society  publishes  many  books  and  tracts  upon 
the  various  phases  of  the  drink  problem.  Of 
the  large  literature  from  this  and  other  sources 
may  be  mentioned  P.  T.  Winskill,  History  of 
the  Temperance  Reformation,  New  York, 
1866  ;  Centennial  Temperance  Volume,  1876  ; 
B.  W.  Richardson,  Cantor  Lectures  on  Alcohol, 
London,  7th  ed.,  1875  ;  A.  Gustafson,  The 
Foundation  of  Death  :  A  Study  of  the  Drink 
Question  (with  a  bibliographv),  Boston  and 
London,  1884,  5th  ed.,  1888;  D.  Burns,  Tern- 
perance  History,  London,  1890-91,  2  vols. 
Oliver  Addison  Kingsbury. 

Templars,  The  Order  of  the  Knight  (Fra^res 

Militi(F  Christi,  or  Equites  Templarii),  was 
founded  in  1119  in  Jerusalem  by  Hugh  de 
Payens  and  Geoffrey  de  St.  Omer,  and  re- 
ceived from  King  Baldwin  II.  a  piece  of 
ground  for  its  headquarters  close  to  what  was 
supposed  to  be  the  site  of  Solomon's  Temple, 
whence  its  name.  In  1128,  at  the  Council  of 
Troyes,  it  was  confirmed  by  Honorius  II., 
who,  among  many  other  great  privileges,  ex- 
empted it  from  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction, 
except  his  own.  Its  rules  were  drawn  up  by 
Bernard  of  Clairveaux,  and  the  laws  were,  as 
might  be  inferred  from  the  character  of  the 
lawgiver,  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  severe  asceti- 
cism and  moral  loftiness,  just  a  little  fantastic. 
Thus  they  were  forbidden  to  withdraw  from 
a  contest,  even  though  attacked  by  three  to 
one,  and  they  were  not  allowed  to  give  quar- 
ter to  an  opponent,  if  he  were  an  infidel. 

When  the  order  was  founded  the  number 
of  its  members  was  eight,  and  they  were  so 
poor  that  they  adopted  for  the  seal  of  the 


order  the  device  of  two  knights  riding  on  one 
horse.  But  before  the  century  ran  out  the 
order  could  muster  20,000  knights,  and  was 
possessed  of  almost  fabulous  wealth.  Its 
riches,  however,  became  its  ruin.  In  1244 
the  Templars  removed  from  Jerusalem  to 
Cyprus,  and  in  1280  from  Cyprus  to  Paris. 
It  is  very  probable  that  Philip  the  Fair,  king 
of  France,  1285-1314,  experienced  some  diffi- 
culties, or,  at  all  events,  considered  it  a  great 
danger  to  have  an  organization  like  that  of 
the  Templars  domiciled  within  his  realm. 
But  the  real  nerve  of  the  policy  he  adopted 
toward  them  was,  nevertheless,  lust  after 
their  money,  or,  at  the  best,  a  fatal  need  of 
it.  He  was  an  admirable  lawyer.  He  always 
avoided  violence,  if  it  could  be  avoided,  and 
he  never  employed  it  unless  he  could  do  so 
with  safety.  Oct.  12,  1307,  all  the  members 
of  the  order  in  France  were  arrested,  without 
warning,  in  deepest  secrecy,  and  the  next  day 
legal  proceedings  were  instituted  against  them, 
with  the  result  that,  April  3,  1312,  the  pope 
dissolved  the  order,  the  king  confiscated  its 
property,  and  those  of  the  members  who  had 
not  died  in  the  dungeons  or  on  the  rack  were 
properly  and  duly  burned  at  the  stake. 

This  process  against  the  Templars,  one  of 
the  most  curious  and  most  characteristic  in- 
cidents in  mediseval  history,  is  now  tolerably 
well  cleared  up.  On  the  death  of  Benedict 
XL,  1304,  a  bargain  was  struck  between 
Philip  the  Fair  and  Bertrand  d'Agoust,  arch- 
bishop of  Bordeaux,  that  the  king  should  help 
the  archbishop  to  become  pope,  after  which 
the  pope  should  deliver  up  the  Templars  to 
the  king.  Philip  the  Fair  fulfilled  his  part 
of  the  bargain  with  consummate  adroitness  ; 
nobody  suspected  that  the  succession  to  the 
throne  of  St.  Peter  had  been  bought  and  sold. 
But  the  abject  and  miserable  manner  in  which 
Clement  V.  tried  to  shirk  his  part  of  the  busi- 
ness told  the  story.  No  other  crime  than 
heresy  was  heavy  enough  to  crush  an  organi- 
zation like  that  of  the  Templars.  They  were 
consequently  accused  of  denying  Christ,  ador- 
ing an  idol  made  of  copper,  secretly  practis- 
ing Mohammedanism,  etc.,  and  by  means  of 
the  rack  the  Inquisition  procured  their  con- 
fession. But  they  immediately  retracted. 
The  Inquisition  considered  the  retraction  as 
simply  an  aggravation  of  their  crime,  and 
proposed  to  deal  with  them  as  "  lapsed  here- 
tics.' The  pope,  however,  suddenly  remem- 
bering that,  according  to  the  foundation  act, 
the  Templar^  were  exempted  from  any  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction  except  his  own,  decided 
to  take  the  whole  case  in  his  own  hands. 
But  Philip,  who  understood  the  meaning  of 
the  manoeuvre,  placed  the  pope  between  con- 
viction of  simony  and  the  surrender  of  the 
Templars,  and  the  pope  chose  the  latter. 
(See  the  woiks  on  the  subject  by  Havemann, 
Stuttgart  and  Tubingen,  1846 ;  Hammer- 
Purgstall,  Vienna,  1855  ;  Loiseleur,  Paris, 
1871  ;  Merzdorf,  Halle,  1877  ;  Prutz,  Berlin, 
1879,  etc.)  C.  P. 

Temporal  Power.     See  Church,   States 

OF  THE,   p.   166. 

Temple,  a  building  hallowed  by  the  special 
presence  of  God  and  consecrated  to  his  wor- 


TEMPLE 


(905) 


TENNENT 


ship.  In  the  Greek  there  is  one  word  (iepov) 
for  the  whole  eucU)sure  of  the  grounds,  and 
another  (vaog)  for  tlie  structure  itself. 

The  first  temple  was  erected  b\'  Solomon, 
though  the  idea  was  conceived  by  his  father, 
David  (1  Chron.  xvii.  1-12),  who  collected 
the  money  and  materials  for  it,  and  by  divine 
direction  furnished  its  design  and  site  (1 
Chron.  xxi.-xxiii.).  In  its  general  form  it 
copied  its  prototype,  tlie  tabernacle  (q.v.).  It 
was  seven  and  one  half  years  in  building,  and 
cost  about  four  and  one  half  millions  of  our 
money.  It  was  70  cubits  long  and  20  wide, 
and  had  in  front  a  porch  more  than  200  feet 
high.  All  around  the  main  structure  there 
were  attached  to  the  north  and  south  sides 
and  at  the  west  end  certain  buildings  called 
side  chambers  (1  Kings  vi.  10),  three  stories 
in  height,  which  were  much  more  extensive 
than  the  temple  itself.  The  material  was 
wliite  stone  ;  the  woodwork  of  cedar,  over- 
laid with  fine  gold  ;  the  fioor  of  cedar,  with 
planks  of  fir  (1  Kings  vi.  15).  The  quarries 
of  Solomon  have  of  recent  years  been  discov- 
ered under  the  city,  near  the  Damascus  gate. 
All  the  parts  were  prepared  beforehand,  and 
when  brought  together  the  whole  was  erected 
without  the  sound  of  a  hammer  (1  Kings  vi. 
7).  Tills  temple  stood  424  years.  It  was 
plundered  by  Shishak  during  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam  and  afterwartl  often  profaned,  and 
finally  was  destroyed  by  the  king  of  Babylon 
(2  Kings  XXV.  8-17). 

A  second  structure  on  the  ruins  of  the  first 
was  erected  by  Zerubbabel,  who,  B.C.  536. 
received  permission  from  C^tus  to  superintend 
the  work  of  *the  restored  exiles,  but  it  was 
twenty  years  before  the  building  was  com- 
pleted. '  See  the  account  in  the  Book  of  Ezra. 
This  edifice  was  in  breadth  and  height  one 
third  larger  than  Solomon's,  but  had  no  ark, 
no  mercy  seat,  no  sacred  fire,  no  Urim  and 
Thummim,  no  spirit  of  prophecy.  Its  court 
of  the  worshippers  had,  iinlike  that  of  the 
first  temple,  two  compartments,  the  outer  one 
of  which  was  known  as  the  court  of  the  Gen- 
tiles. Although  less  splendid  than  the  first 
temple,  it  was  the  theatre  of  far  more  glorious 
illustrations  of  the  divine  goodness  (Hag.  ii. 
G-9,  Mai.  iii.  1). 

After  this  temple  had  stood  500  years  what 
was  equivalent  to  a  new  edifice  was  built  by 
Herod  the  Great.  He  began  the  work  twenty 
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  it  was 
not  entirely  completed  until  .\.i).  64,  .so  that 
the  Jews'  "statement  in  John  ii.  20  is  entirely 
correct.  It  was  built  of  white  marl)le  ex- 
quisitely wrought  and  with  stones  of  very 
large  dimensions.  Its  ornamentation  was  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful  and  costly.  It  rose  lik(^  a 
mountain  of  gold  and  of  snow,  and  was  the 
admiration  of  every  I>ehoIder. 

But,  as  Ciirist  pVedicted  (Mark  xiii.  2),  the 
whole  was  demolished,  and  not  one  stone  left 
upon  another,  by  Titus,  .v.n.  70.  Three  cen- 
turies after  the  Emperor  Julian  sought  to  re- 
build it,  but  failed.  The  site  now  is  occupied 
by  two  Turkish  mosques.  (See  Edersheim. 
I'he  TeinpU',  London,  1874  ;  Fergusson,  The 
Templex  nf  (he  Jeim.  1878  :  T.  ().  Paine,  Soh>. 
moil's  Tfiiijile,  Boston  and  New  York,  1885; 
Ch.  Chipicz  et  6,  Perrot,  Le  Tempk  de  Jeru- 


salem, rentitne  apres  Ezechielet  lelicredcs  lioia, 
Paris,  1889.)  T.  W.  C. 

Temple,  Frederick,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1858), 
lord  l)isliop  of  London,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Santa  Maura.  Ionian  Island.  Nov.  30, 
1821  ;  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  or<laiued 
prie.st,  1847  ;  became  head  ma-ster  of  Kugbv 
School,  1858  ;  bishop  of  Exeter,  IWJ,  and 
bishop  of  London,  1885.  He  has  publislied, 
besides  tliree  series  of  sermons,  liiintionH  lii- 
tmeeii  Ih'Iirjioii  and  Science,  London,  1884,  2d 
ed.,  18S5.' 

Temporal  Power.  See  Ciu'kcii  and 
Statk  ;  Cuuucii,  Statks  ok  tiik.     • 

Ten  Commandments,  The,  in  Hebrew  "  the 
ten  words,"  to  which  the  (Jreek  word  dicaloijue 
exactly  correspontls.  They  are  el.Newhere 
called  "the  words  of  the  covenant."  "the 
tables  of  testimony."  or  brielly,  "  tiie  testi- 
monj'"  (Ex.  xxv.  16,  xxxi.  18,  xx.xiv.  28). 
Hence  the  chest  that  contained  them  was 
called  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  the  tent 
that  covered  them  became  the  tent  of  the 
testimony  (Num.  xvii.  7,  8).  The  words  were 
first  spoken  in  majesty  from  the  sununit  of 
Sinai,  and  then  written  by  the  finger  of  God 
on  two  stone  tablets. 

It  is  common  to  assign  four  words  to  the 
first  table  and  six  to  the  .second,  but  it  is  bet- 
ter to  follow  tiie  Jewish  division  of  five  to 
each  table  (.losepiius,  Philo),  because  the  fifth 
contains  a  religious  duty  (lue  to  God,  as  to 
perform  filial  duty  is  to  siiow  piety  (1  Tim. 
v.  4),  and  by  theii.sage  of  our  own  tongue 
filial  obedience  is  filial  piety. 

The  number  tfii  symbolizes  the  comprehen- 
siveness and  perfection  of  these  command- 
ments. They  are  a  complete  sumnuiry  of 
human  duty.  They  are  at  tiie  .same  time  the 
earliest  and  the  liest  moral  code  of  which  we 
have  knowledge.  They  are  not  national  or 
temporary,  but  strictly  universal,  suited  to 
every  nation  and  every  age.  Their  substance 
is  well  given  in  our"  Lord's  summation  of 
supreme  love  to  God  on  one  hand,  and  love 
to  our  neighbor  as  to  ourselves  on  the  other 
(Matt.  xxii.  37,  38).  Nor  are  they  ever  to  be 
superseded  or  become  oUsolete,  for  Christ  has 
said,  "It  is  easier  for  heaven  and  earth  to 
pass  awav  than  for  one  tittle  of  the  law  to 
fail  "  (Luke  xvi.  17).  While  the  world  stands 
the  ten  words  must  stand.  (See  F.  S.  Sclienck 
The  Ten  Connniindments  in  the  yiueteeuth 
Century,  New  York,  1890.)  T.  W.  C. 

Tenaent,  a  family  of  Prcsbvterian  minis- 
ters. William  Tennent,  b.  in  Ireland,  1673  ; 
d.  at  Nesliaininv,  Bucks  County,  Pa.,  20  m. 
n.  of  I'liiladeliillia.  .May  6,  1745^  He  was  of 
the  Church  of  Ireland,  but.  changing  his  view.s 
and  relations,  emigrated  with  his  four  sons  in 
1718,  or  earlier,  settled  at  B<-nsalem,  1721,  and 
in  1726  at  Neslinminy,  where  he  established 
the  famous  Log  College,  tlie  tirst  I'reshvterian 
sciiool  in  America  ;  here  heeducateii  his  three 
eldest  sons  and  otiier  young  men.  He  ttgures 
in  Whitefield's  journal.  Gilbert  Tennent, 
b.  in  County  Armatdi.  April  ."">.  17o;!  ;  d.  in 
I'hiladelpliia.  July  3.  1764.  He  was  i>astnr 
at  New  Brunswiik.  N  J..  1727-43.  and  a 
zealous  re%ivalist,  travelling,  1740,  as  far  as 


TERAPHIM 


(906; 


TERTUIiLIAN 


Boston  at  Whitefield's  desire,  and  freely  ac- 
cusing of  "  hypocrisy"  his  brethren  who  op- 
posed the  movement  ;  thence  came,  in  1741, 
a  scliism  in  tlie  Presbyterian  ranks,  healed, 
largely  by  his  efforts,  in  1758.  In  1743  he 
founded  the  Second  Congregation  in  Phila 
delphia  ;  here  his  ministry  was  quieter.  In 
1753  he  went  to  England  and  raised  some 
£1500  for  the  college  at  Princeton.  He  pub- 
lished sermons,  1743,  1758,  etc.  William 
Tennent,  D.D.  (?),  b.  in  County  Antrim,  Jan. 
3,  1705  ;  d.  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  March  8, 1777, 
where  he  was  pastor  from  1733.  While  study- 
ing with  his  brother,  Gilbert,  at  New  Bruns- 
wick, he  fell  into  a  trance,  was  counted  dead 
for  three  days,  narrowly  escaped  burial,  and 
did  not  regain  his  wits  and  health  till  long 
after.  Other  marvellous  experiences  fol- 
lowed, but  his  purity  and  force  of  character 
were,  through  a  long  and  efficient  pastorate, 
as  unquestioned  as  his  laborious  zeal.  (See 
his  memoir  by  E.  Boudinot,  Poughkeepsie, 
1815,  repub.,  New  York,  1847.)  John  Ten- 
nent, b.  in  Armagh,  Nov.  12,  1707  ;  d.  at 
Freehold,  April  23,  1732,  where  he  had  pre- 
ceded William  in  a  promising  ministry  of 
seventeen  months.  Two  of  his  sermons,  with 
a  memoir  by  his  brother  Gilbert,  appeared, 
Boston,  1735.  Charles  Tennent,  b.  at  Cole- 
rain,  County  Down,  May  3,  1711  ;  pastor  at 
White  Clay  Creek,  Del.;  d.  at  Buckingham, 
Md.,  after  1760.  (See  Sermons  and  Essays  of 
the  Tennents,  etc.,  Philadelphia,  1855.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Ter'-aph-im  (nourishers),  a  species  of  do- 
mestic idols,  sometimes  rendered  in  the  A.  V. 
"images"  (Gen.  xxxi.  19)  or  "idolatry"  (1 
Sam.  XV.  23),  but  always  in  the  R.  V.  left 
untranslated.  First  found  in  the  family  of 
Laban,  they  seem  to  have  been  tenaciously 
adhered  to  among  the  Hebrews  (Judges  xvii. 
5,  xviii.  17,  1  Sam.  xv.  23,  xix.  13,  16,  2 
Kings  xxiii.  24,  Ezek.  xxi.  21).  They  appear 
to  have  been  small  images  resembling  the 
human  form,  and  regarded  as  oracles  or  talis- 
mans. They  may  be  compared  to  the  house- 
hold Lares  et  Penates  of  the  classic  world. 
T.  W.  C. 

Territorialism,  or  the  Territorial  System, 
denotes  a  principle  of  church  polity  which 
developed  within  the  Lutheran  reform  move- 
ment, and  is  pithily  expressed  in  the  propo- 
sition cujus  dominium  ejus  religio — that  is, 
it  gives  the  sovereign  prince  the  right  to  ar- 
range ecclesiastical  affairs  within  his  domin- 
ion just  as  he  sees  fit  himself,  or  it  lays  the 
duty  on  all  people  within  a  certain  territory 
to  have  the  same  religion  as  the  prince  who 
rules  over  them.  This  singular  principle 
was,  if  not  invented,  at  all  events  sanctioned 
by  Luther  and  the  other  reformers,  and  they 
were  probably  led  to  do  so  by  the  impression 
created  by  the  Anabaptist  and  other  sucli  tur- 
bulent upheavals.  It  was  formally  adopted 
by  the  Diet  of  Spires,  1526.  C.  P. 

Terry,  Milton  Spencer,  S.  T.  D.  (Wesley- 
an  Universitv,  1819),  Methodist ;  b.  at  Coey- 
mans,  N.  Y",  Feb.  22,  1840;  graduated  at 
Yale  Theological  Seminary,  1862  ;  since  1884 
has  been  professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis 
in  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  Evanston, 


111.  Besides  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment he  wrote  Biblical  Hermeneutics ,  New 
York,  1880, 2d  ed.,  1885  ;  The  Sibylline  Oracles 
Translated,  1890. 

Tersteegen  (ter-sta-gen),  Gerhard,  mystic 
and  evangelical  preacher  ;  b.  at  Moers,  17  m. 
n.n.e.  of  Diisseldorf,  Nov.  25,  1697  ;  d.  at 
Mlilheim,  10  m.  n.n.e.  of  Diisseldorf,  April  3, 
1769.  His  earliest  education  he  received  in 
the  grammar  school  of  his  native  city.  Later 
he  studied  and  became  quite  proficient  iu 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew.  He  was  relig- 
iously inclined  from  his  childhood.  His  con- 
version took  place  on  the  road  to  Duisburg, 
where  he  w^as  suddenly  taken  ill  and  exiiected 
to  die.  He  stepped  off  from  the  road  and 
gave  himself  up  to  God,  when  suddenly  he 
experienced  relief  and  was  well  again.  From 
that  moment  he  devoted  himself  unreservedly 
to  God,  and  shortly  after  (1719)  gave  up  his 
mercantile  life  for  the  trade  of  a  ribbon  weaver, 
and  settled  at  Miilheim  on  the  Ruhr,  two  miles 
from  his  birthplace,  where  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  the  greatest  self-denial, 
doing  good  to  the  poor,  translating  and  com- 
posing pious  works.  His  ideas  were  more  or 
less  those  of  the  mystics,  such  as  Augelus 
Silesius,  Hochmann,  J.  de  Bernieres  Lau- 
vigny,  M.  de  Rentz,  and  Poiret,  but  the  cast 
of  his  theology  was  Reformed.  Of  his  hymns 
many  have  passed  into  the  hymn-books  of  the 
various  denominations.  His  poetry  is  pure 
iu  form,  elevated  in  tone,  deeply  evangelical, 
and  contains  more  dogmatic  teaching  than 
most  hymns.  It  is  a  question  whether  Suso, 
or  Tersteegen,  or  Silesius  is  to  be  considered 
the  best  poet  of  the  mystics.  In  1727  he  be- 
gan to  speak  in  private  meetings  at  the  insti- 
gation of  candidate  Hoffmann  (d.  1746)  and 
with  much  blessing.  Having  a  valuable 
knowledge  of  physic,  he  also  began  to  pre- 
pare certain  medicines  which  he  administered 
gratuitously.  Soon  after  he  began  to  speak 
publicly  and  to  travel.  On  his  evangelistic 
tours  he  sometimes  went  into  Holland,  and 
was  welcomed  everywhere  and  held  in  great 
reverence  and  affection.  He  suffered  much 
from  public  persecution  and  at  the  hands  of 
calumniators  His  life  w'as  also  a  perpetual 
struggle  against  disease. 

Besides  a  number  of  beautiful  hymns,  which 
entitle  him  to  the  distinction  of  being  the 
chief  German  mystical  poet,  he  wrote  Lebens- 
beschreibungen  heiliger  Seelen,  Frankfort  and 
Leipzig,  1733-53,  3  vols. ;  Geistliche  Brosamen, 
Elberfeld,  1769-73,  4  vols.,  etc.  His  German 
letters  were  pubhshed  at  Solingen,  1773-75, 
2  vols.;  the  Dutch  at  Horn,  1722.  His  life, 
with  extracts  from  his  letters  and  writings, 
was  translated  from  the  German  by  Samuel 
Jackson,  London,  1832,  and  was  written  by 
Kerlen,  Miilheim,  2d  ed.,  1853,  and  Stursberg, 
Leipzig,  1869.         C.  H.  A.  Bjerkegaard. 

Tertiaries.    See  Francis  of  Assist,  p.  303. 

TertuUian,  the  father  of  Latin  theology, 
was  born  in  Carthage  between  150  and  160,  as 
the  son  of  a  Roman  centurion.  He  received 
a  broad  education  in  all  the  branches  of 
knowledge  then  cultivated,  adding  the  Greek 
language,  in  which  he  composed  a  number  of 


TEST 


(907) 


TEUTONIC 


books.  His  professioual  education  was  for 
the  law,  which  he  left  upon  his  conversion,  at 
a  mature  age,  for  the  service  of  the  church, 
and  was  ordained  a  presbyter.  His  religious 
experiences  were  individual  and  strong,  and 
prepared  him  for  the  (U'velopmentof  the  earli- 
est anthropology  of  the  church,  in  which  he 
was  the  predecessor  of  Augustine.  Some- 
where between  lOD  and  2();i  lie  left  the  Catho- 
lic Churcii  for  the  >Iontani.stic  .sect,  in  whicli 
he  remained.  Tiie  reason  for  the  change  was 
probably  his  dissatisfaction  with  the  lax  dis- 
cipline of  the  Iloman  Church  in  the  case  of 
the  lapsed,  and  his  antagonism  to  the  patri- 
passian  lieresy,  -which  was  favored  by  I4ie 
Roman  bishoi)s  Zephyrinus  and  Callistus. 
He  died  somewhere  between  220  and  240,  his 
last  writings  dating  about  220.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  freshness  and  originalit}',  of 
vigor,  cultivation,  and  zeal,  but  also  some- 
what eccentric  and  unbalanced.  His  writings 
were  very  numerous,  some  of  them  very 
-short,  and  are  divided  into  apologetic,  among 
which  should  be  mentioned  the  Apology  and 
the  tract  On  the  M'Hihss  of  the  Soul ;  dog- 
matic, among  which  is  that  On  the  Prescrip- 
tion of  Heretics  and  the  largest  of  his  works, 
the  Five  Books  nrininst  Marcion,  as  well  as  one 
Afjitinst  the  Vahiitiniiois ;  and  ethical,  of 
which  some  have  to  ilo  e.\clu.siveh"  with  Mon- 
tanislic  regulations,  and  others  are  of  a  more 
general  character.  That  Against  Pntxens  dis- 
cusses the  whole  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  In 
his  ^lontanistic  writings  Tertulliaa  does  not 
abandon  the  Catholic  theology,  and  in  his 
writings  during  the  Catholic  period  of  his  life 
he  said  many  things  which  bear  the  marks  of 
the  same  rigor  of  conception  which  inclined 
him  afterward  to  the  ^lontanists.  His  works 
may  be  found  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  I.-H., 
and  edited  by  A.  ReilTerscheid  and  G.  Wis- 
sowa,  Vienna,  1890.  sqq.,  and  the  English 
translation  is  found  reprinted  in  vols.  iii.  ami 
iv.  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Library  of  the  Christian 
Literature  Company,  New  York.  (See  J. 
Kaye,  Ecclesiitstical  History  of  the  Second  and 
Third  Centuries,  Ilh/stratrdfroin  the  Writings 
ofTertullian.  London,  184.') ;  alsoE.  Noeldeck- 
en,  Tertullian  dargestellt,  Gotha,  1890  ;  C.  A. 
H.  Kellner,  Chronvlogin  Tertulliana,  Bonn, 
1890  ;  W.  V.  Yi-JiXiG\,Tertidlian,  Vienna.  1890.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Test  Act,  The,  or  "  An  act  for  preventing 
dangers  wiiich  may  happen  from  popish  re- 
cusants," was  passed  by  tlie  Englisii  Parlia- 
ment in  1672,  and  enforced  upon  all  persons 
holding  any  ollice,  whether  civil  or  military, 
the  obligation  of  subscribing  a  declaration 
against  tlie  doctrine  of  substantiation  and  re- 
ceiving every  year  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  according  to  the  rite  of  the  Church' 
of  England.  There  was  an  earlier  law  of  a 
similar  purport  from  1601  and  a  later  from 
1678,  but  thev  were  all  repealed  by  the  Roman 
Catliolic  Relief  act  of  1829. 

Testament.  See  Bible,  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Tetragrammaton  {four  htters).  the  con- 
sonants (.1  H  V  Hi  of  tii('  Hebrew  word  Jeho- 
vah, which  the  later  Jews  considered  it  wrong 


to  pronounce,  and  to  which  thero  was  some- 
times attached  a  magical  iutlueuce. 

T.  W.  C. 
Tetrapolitan  Oonfeasion,  The,  also  called 

Confixsio  Snetica  or  -l/v/c// /«//<//.«.'(, was  adopted 
by  the  four  cities  of  Strassburg,  Constance, 
Memmingen,  and  Lindau,  and  bv  them  pre- 
sented to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  July  11,  IWO, 
a  few  days  after  the  i)resentation  by  "the  Sa.xon 
theologians  of  tlie  Confesnio  Augusta na.  It 
was  drawn  ui>by  Butzer  and  Capito,  lint  never 
read  before  the"  Diet.  (See  SchalT,  Creeds  of 
Christendom,   New  York,    1877,  vol.   i.,   526 

sqq) 

Tetrarch  (rnler  of  a  fourth  part),  a  title  at 
first  given  to  one  who  governed  a  fourth  part 
of  a  province,  but  afterward  to  one  who  gov- 
erned any  portion  of  a  given  territory  (Luke 
iii.  1).  Herod  Antipas  was  tetrarch  of  Galilee 
and  Pertva  (^Matt.  xiv.  1,  Acts  xiii.  1),  but 
was  also  called  king  (Mark  vi.  14,  26). 

T.  W.  C. 

Tetzel,  Johann,  b.  at  Leipzig  about  1455  ; 
d.  there  in  I0I9  ;  entered  the  Dominican  or- 
der in  1489,  and  was  in  1502  commissioned 
by  the  pope  to  preach  the  jubihe  indulgence, 
and  in  1512  to  sell  indulgences  in  all  Germany 
and  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms.  He  .sold 
full  forgiveness  for  sins  not  yet  committed, 
and  accepted  in  payment  what  the  i)easant9 
could  give— egg.s,  "butter,  wool.  etc.  But 
Luther's  appearance  put  a  sudden  stop  to  the 
business.  Though  he  was  simply  a  rascal  and 
his  tricks  those  of  a  common  mountebank, 
his  life  is  nevertheless  very  characteristic  of 
the  time,  and  interesting  on  account  of  the 
effect  it  produced.  It  has  been  written  by 
F.  G.  Ilofmann,  Leipzig,  1844  :  V.  Grtine 
(R.  C),  Soest,  1860  ;  Kayser,  1877.  and  F. 
Korner,  Frankcnberg,  1880 ;  J.  B.  Riihm, 
Hildesheim,  1890. 

Teutonic  Enights,  an  order  of  knights 
which  originated  in  the  crusades,  on  occasion 
of  sickness  among  German  pilgrims  at  the 
siege  of  Acco.  Certain  of  tlie  followers  of 
Count  Adolf  of  Holstein  nursed  the  unfortu- 
nates, and  Frederick  of  Swabia  conceived  the 
idea  of  a  special  order,  like  the  Knights  of  St. 
John  and  tiie  Templars,  for  such  services.  It 
was  accordingly  formed  and  jiut  under  the 
monastic  vows,  "and  wascontirmed  by  Clement 
III.  in  1191.  Forty  German  nobl(  s  were 
made  knights,  and  tliese  associated  with  them- 
selves others,  who  had  sp«-cial  cliarge  of  the 
sick.  Later.  prie>ts  were  allowed  admission 
to  the  order.  They  soon  began  to  receive 
property,  and  in  1210  elected  a  grand  muster, 
who  briuight  the  order  to  a  high  degree  of 
importance— Hermann  von  Salza.  I'nder 
him  many  privileges  were  granted  to  the 
knights,  anil  after  tiie  satisfactory  decision  of 
a  case  between  Poj>e  Honorius  and  Frederick 
II.,  in  which  Hermann  was  arliiter,  Ihf  grand 
master  was  made  a  prince  of  tlie  einjtire. 

The  great  and  decisive  event  in  the  hi.'»tory 
of  the  order  was  the  summons  whidi  it  n - 
c.ivi-d  toassi.st  in  the  concjuest  of  the  lieallu  11 
iMliat)itants  of  I'russia  in  1226.  Tin-  grnnrl 
m.ister  nccept«(l  the  invitation.  Frederiek  gave 
the  order  permissioa  to  lake  the  Icrritof)-  of 


TEXTUS 


(908; 


THEINER 


Kulm,  which  was  offered  to  it,  and  all  it 
should  further  conquer  as  an  independent 
sovereignty.  The  country  of  Kulm  was  soon 
brought  into  subjection,  and  the  cities  Kulm, 
Thorn,  and  Marienwerder  founded.  Then 
the  advance  was  made  against  the  Prussians. 
In  1237  the  city  of  Elbing  was  founded,  and 
the  Knights  of  the  Sword  in  Livonia  united 
with  the  Teutonic  Knights.  The  whole  of 
Prussia  was  conquered  by  1383,  and  then  be- 
gan the  task  of  Germanizing  it  and  reducing 
it  under  a  regular  government. 

For  some  time  the  seat  of  the  order  re- 
mained Acco,  but  with  the  fall  of  this  place, 
in  1291,  it  was  removed  to  Venice,  and  thence, 
in  1309,  to  Marienburg,  in  Prussia.  But  the 
career  of  the  order  was  a  stormy  one.  In 
1337  the  emperor  gave  the  order  the  province 
of  Lithuania,  which  resisted  their  rule,  and 
with  the  aid  of  Poland  defeated  them  in  the 
disastrous  battle  of  Tennenberg,  in  which 
their  army  of  83,000  men  was  almost  wiped 
out  of  existence.  There  were  constant  com- 
plications with  Poland,  till,  in  1466,  that  power 
got  actual  control  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
territory  of  the  knights  and  became  feudal 
suzerain  for  the  rest.  The  successive  grand 
masters  sought  to  avoid  rendering  the  pre- 
scribed oath  till,  by  the  advice  of  Luther,  the 
grand  master,  Albrecht  of  Brandenburg,  gave 
up  the  monastic  constitution  of  the  order, 
married  a  wife,  surrendered  the  territory  of 
the  order  to  the  king  of  Poland,  and  received 
it  back  again  as  a  hereditary  duchy.  Thus 
was  founded  modern  Prussia.  The  small 
portion  of  the  order  which  did  not  accept 
these  measures  maintained  an  existence  in  the 
German  Empire,  and  is  still  represented  by 
an  order  in  Austria.  (See  J.  Voigt,  Oeschichte 
Preussens  bis  zum  Untergang  des  deutscheii 
Ordem,  Konigsberg,  1827-39,  9  vols.,  and 
Geschichte  des  deutschen  Ritterordens,  Berlin, 
1857-59,  2  vols.)  F.  H.  F. 

Textus  Receptus,  "The  Received  Text." 
See  Bible,  p.  104. 

Thacher,  Peter,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1791), 
Congregationalist ;  b.  at  Milton,  Mass.,  March 
21,  1752  ;  d.  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  Dec.  16,  1802. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1769,  and  was  min- 
ister at  Maiden.  1770-85,  and  thereafter  at 
Brattle  street,  Boston  ;  eminent  as  a  patriot, 
citizen,  preacher,  and  writer.  Chief  among 
his  22  publications  are  Observations  on  the 
State  of  the  Clergy,  Boston,  1783,  and  Memoirs 
of  Dr.  Boylston,  1789.  F.  M.  B. 

Thaddaeus.     See  Judas  II.,  p.  462. 

Thanksgiving  Day.     See  p. 

Thayer,  Joseph  Henry,  D.D.  (Yale,  1883  ; 
Harvard,  1884),  Congregationalist  ;■  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, Nov.  7,  1828  ;  graduated  at  Harvard, 
1850,  and  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1857 ;  was  professor  of  sacred  literature  in 
the  latter,  1864-82,  and  has  been  since  1884 
professor  of  New  Testament  criticism  and 
interpretation  at  Harvard.  He  translated 
Winer's  Orammar  of  the  New  lestament  Greek, 
Andover,  1869,  last  ed.,  1884;  Buttmann's 
Grammar  of  the  New  Testament  Greek,  1873, 
last  ed.,  1883  ;  and  with  revision  and  enlarge- 
ment Grimm's  Wilke's  Clavis  Novi  Testa- 
menti,  under  the  title  A  Greek- English  Lexi- 


con of  the  New  Testament,  New  York,  1886, 
and  brought  out  the  new  edition  of  Sophocles' 
Greek  Lexican,  1887. 

Theatines  {Clerici  Regulares  Theatini,  oj 
Chietini,  or  Cajetani),  a  monastic  order  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  founded  in  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century  by  Bishop 
Caraffa,  of  Theale  or  Chieti  (afterward  Paul 
IV.),  Cajetan  of  Thiene,  and  Boniface  of 
Colle,  and  confirmed  by  Paul  III.,  1540,  and 
by  Pius  v.,  1568.  The  object  of  the  order 
was  to  form  able  and  worthy  recruits  for  the 
higher  ranks  of  the  hierarchy,  but  though 
(jpnvents  were  founded  in  Italy,  France,  Ger- 
many, etc.,  no  appreciable  result  was  pro- 
duced. Two  female  orders,  founded  in  1583 
and  1610  by  Ursula  Benincasa,  bear  also  the 
name  of  Theatines. 

Theatre,  The,  and  the  Church.  The  Bible 
contains  all  kinds  of  poetry  except  dramatic, 
and  the  Jews  always  opposed  the  introduction 
of  theatrical  games  and  spectacles  among 
them.  The  early  Christians  shared  in  this 
feeling.  TertuUian,  Chrysostom,  and  Aujrus- 
tin  pronounced  strongly  against  the  theatre. 
Yet  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  not  at  all  un- 
common to  encourage  what  were  called  mir- 
acle-plays, i.e.,  religious  themes  treated  in  a 
dramatic  way.  The  Reformers  were  less 
favorable,  yet  did  not  entirely  prohibit  all 
plays,  as  the  Protestant  ministers  did  in  the  next 
generation.  In  Germany  the  Pietists  ranked 
theatrical  exhibitions  among  the  worldly 
amusements  that  are  to  be  shunned.  In  the 
present  century  ethical  writers  (De  Wette, 
Nitzsch,  Rothe)  have  held  that  the  theatre  is 
to  be  reformed  rather  than  destroyed.  In 
Britain  the  Puritans  always  opposed  theatres, 
and  during  the  Commonwealth  suppressed 
them,  but  under  the  Stuarts  they  were  revived. 
The  early  Methodists  and  most  Nonconform- 
ists shunned  all  theatres.  At  the  present  time 
some,  such  as  the  late  bishop  Eraser  of  Man- 
chester, think  that  the  theatre  can  and  should 
be  elevated  by  the  patronage  of  the  Christian 
public,  but  most  teachers  of  religion  consider 
it  a  hopeless  undertaking.  [But  Rothe  says, 
"Our  theatre  certainly  stands  in  need  of  a 
reformation  from  the  base  upward  ;  but  the 
way  to  reach  it  is  certainly  not  for  Christians 
to  denounce  the  stage  as  unchristian,  and  then 
to  withdraw  from  it  all  sympathy  and  solic- 
itude."— Ethik  (quoted  in  Schaff-Herzog,  p. 
2321)].  T.  W.  C. 

Theban  Legion.  See  Legion,  Theban, 
p.  495. 

Thecla  and  Paul,  Acts  of.      See   PsEUD- 

EPIGRAPIIA,  p.    777. 

Theiner  (ti'-ner),  Augustin,  b.  at  Breslau, 
April  11.  1804  ;  d.  in  Rome,  Aug.  10,  1874  ; 
studied  theology  and  canon  law  in  his  native 
city,  and  published  in  connection  with  his 
brother  Die  Einfuhrung  der  erzwungenen 
Ehclosigkeit  bei  den  christlichen  Geistlichen, 
Altenburg,  1828,  2  vols.,  which  was  put  on 
the  Index.  Afterward  he  entered  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Oratory,  and  in  1855  he  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  papal  archives.  But 
during  the  infallibility  debate  in  the  Vatican 
Council  (1870)  the  Jesuits    accused  him  of 


THEISM 


(909) 


THEODORA 


lending  out  embarrassing  documents  to  the 
members  of  the  opposition  from  the  archives, 
and  he  was  immediately  discharged.  He 
published  Oeschichte  des  Pontificals  Cleynens 
XIV.,  Paris,  1858,  2  vols.;  Moiiumentd 
PolonifF,  Rome,  1860-G4,  3  vols.;  Actagenuiiui 
Concilii  Tridentini,  1874,  Zagral)  (Agram)  and 
Leipzig,  2  vols.  (See  Gisiger,  P.  T heiiier  und 
die  Jesuiten,  Mannheim,  1875.) 

Theism  by  etymology  means  all  forms  of 
belief  in  the  existence  of  the  Divine,  but  in 
usage  is  identified  with  monotheism,  and  is 
opposed  to  pantheism  and  polytheism,  as  well 
as  atheism.  It  holds  that  the  universe  owes 
its  existence  and  continuance  to  one  supreme 
and  perfect  Being,  who  is  distinct  from  what 
he  created.  The  historical  origin  of  the  belief 
is  much  disputed,  some  regarding  it  as  the 
primeval  form  of  religion,  while  others  hold 
that  it  was  always  preceded  by  polytheism. 
Not  enough  of  man's  primitive  condition  is 
known  to  decide  this  point  on  scientific 
grounds,  but  to  believers  in  revelation  it  is 
already  decided.  The  God  of  the  Bible  is  our 
God. 

The  Bible  presupposes  the  existence  of  God, 
this  being  implied  in  the  very  idea  of  a  reve- 
lation. What,  then,  is  the  source  of  the  belief  ? 
Some  put  it  in  external  agencies,  such  as  in- 
struction and  tradition,  but  tliese  convey  only 
what  has  already  been  originated,  and  there- 
fore oifer  no  solution.  Others  refer  it  to  in- 
ternal agencies,  such  as  mere  feelings— Lucre- 
tius to  fear,  Feuerbach  to  desire,  Schleier- 
macher  to  the  sense  of  dependence,  or,  as  Max 
Miiller,  to  a  special  faculty  of  religion  ;  but 
all  these  imply  an  action  of  the  mind,  and  are 
valid  only  as  confirmed  by  intelligence.  We 
get  the  idea  of  God  only  through  the  exercise 
of  all  our  faculties— will,  intelligence,  con- 
science, reason,  and  the  notions  they  give  us 
— cause,  design,  goodness,  infinity.  This  is 
a  natural  process  and  a  conclusive  one.  The- 
istic  ))roofs  reached  in  this  way  coalesce  into 
one  grand  whole  and  furnish  a  solid  basis  for 
religious  faith.  Such  a  faith  takes  in  all  tlie 
sources  of  knowledge— the  pliysical  creation, 
the  human  mind,  the  data  of  liistory,  and  the 
revelation  of  Scripture.  From  these  full}"  and 
impartially  considered  it  obtains  a  true  and 
worthy  conception  of  God — his  unity,  self- 
existence  and  independence,  his  freedom  and 
intelligence,  his  transcendence  and  personal- 
ity—such  a  conception  as  meets  all  the  de- 
mands of  the  intellect,  the  affections,  and  the 
conscience. 

The  question  at  the  present  time  is  not 
whether  there  be  a  God  or  not,  for  material- 
istic monism  is  as  unreasonable  as  it  is  irre- 
ligious, but  whether  he  is  identical  with  the 
universe — i.e.,  only  immanent  in  nature  and 
not  transcendent  over  it.  Tlie  pantheistic 
view  of  the  subject  has  always  been  strangely 
attractive  to  inquirers. 

LiTEHATi-RE.— Robert  Flint,  Theism,  Edin- 
burgli.  1877,  5th  ed.,  1886;  Samuel  Harris, 
The  Philosophical  Basisof  Theiion,  New  York, 
1883;  G.  P.  Fisher,  Th^  Grounds  "f  Thei.Htic 
and  Christian  Belief  ,  New  York,  ISSS  ;  B.  P. 
Bowne,  Philosophi/  of  Thei.vn,  1887  ;  C.  A. 
Row,  Christian  Theism.  London,  1890. 

T.  W.  C. 


Theocracy  {rule  of  God)  is  a  term  first 
used  by  Josephus,  to  denote  the  pecuHar  state 
organization  of  tlie  Jews,  in  which  the  Al- 
mighty is  regarded  as  tlie  sole  sovereign  and 
the  laws  of  the  realm  as  divine  commands 
rather  than  human  ordinances.       T.  W.  C. 

Theodicy  {judgment  of  God)  denotes  a  vin- 
dication of  God's  wisdom  and  goodness  in  the 
creation  and  government  of  the  world,  in 
spite  of  seeming  imperfections  and  the  actual 
existence  of  evil.  Tlie  name  dates  from  the 
famous  Essais  de  Theodicee  of  Leibnitz  (1712), 
but  the  question  it  considers  is  as  old  as  phi- 
losophy itself,  and  indeed  gave  origin  to  the 
Book  of  Job.  See  Optimism  and  Pessimism. 
T.  W.  C. 

Theodora  is  the  name  of  two  Byzantine  em- 
presses who  have  exercised  a  very  conspicu- 
ous, though  only  passing  infiuence  on  the 
history  of  the  church.  1.  The  first,  b.  in 
Constantinople,  508  ;  d.  there,  548,  was  the 
wife  of  Justinian  I.,  the  great  legislator,  who 
reigned  527-65.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a 
common  bear-keeper  at  the  amphitheatre, 
grew  up  on  the  stage  among  the  vilest  scum 
and  the  most  vicious  practices  of  an  utterly 
corrupted  metropolis,  and  followed  the  Gov- 
ernor Hecebolus  to  the  Libyan  Pentapolis  as 
his  mistress,  but  returned  home  soon  after 
and  lived  in  abject  poverty,  when  Justinian, 
the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne,  met  her  and 
fell  desperately  in  love  with  her.  He  induced 
his  uncle,  the  Emperor  Justin  I.,  to  abolish 
the  laws  against  marrying  actresses  and  prosti- 
tutes, and  when,  some  months  later,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne,  he  caused  liis  wife  to  be 
crowned  not  only  empress  consort,  but  em- 
press regent.  From  that  day  and  till  her 
death  she  was  the  real  ruler  of  the  empire, 
and  her  influence  was  felt  as  an  irresistible 
power  in  every  field,  not  least  in  the  church. 
She  was  a  decided  Monophysite,  and  not  only 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  the  bish- 
ops of  the  Eastern  Church,  but  also  the  pope 
of  Rome  and  even  her  own  liusband  had  to 
bend  before  her.  Her  twenty  years  of  rule 
were  the  golden  time  of  ]\Iouophysitism.  (See 
Antonin  D^bidour,  LTniperatrice  Theodora, 
Paris,  1885.)  The  second  was  the  wife  of 
Theophilus,  who  reigned  829-42.  He  was  an 
iconoclast  of  the  most  violent  type,  and  icono- 
clasm  generally  meant  in  religion  indiffer- 
ence ;  in  politics  the  centralized  despotism  ; 
and  socially  the  destitution  of  a  number  of 
monastic  institutions  whose  members  lived  by 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  images.  His 
wife  was  a  decided  image-worshipper,  how- 
ever, and  at  his  death  she  became  regent  dur- 
ing the  minority  of  her  son,  Michael  IH.  Im- 
age-worship has  generally  been  connected 
with  religious  fanaticism,  and  religious  fanati- 
cism is  always  apt  to  burst  out  in  tyrannical 
acts,  which  may  prove  great  political  and  social 
blunders.  This  was  the  fate  of  Theodora.  She 
immediately  expelled  all  iconoclasts  from  the 
public  ollices,  recalled  all  the  banished  image- 
worshippers,  and  convened  thcSyiK)d  of  Con- 
stantinople, 842,  which  restored  the  images  to 
the  churches  and  even  instituted  an  annual 
festival  in  commemoration  of  the  victory. 
The  first  result  of  these  proceedings  was  the 


THEODORE 


(910) 


THBODOSIUS 


utter  estrangement  of  Rome,  and  when,  shortly 
after,  she  renewed  the  persecutions  against  the 
Paulicians,  she  provoked  a  series  of  wars  with 
the  Saracens,  which  brought  the  empire  to  the 
very  verge  of  ruin.  But  suddenly  Michael 
III.  grasped  the  reins  of  government  and  shut 
her  up  in  a  monastery,  where  she  died  soon 
after,  855.     See  Image- Worship,  p.  898. 

C.  P. 

Theodore  I.,  pope  of  Rome,  Nov.,  642,  till 
his  death.  May,  649.  He  was  a  native  of 
Jerusalem  and  of  Greek  race.  As  pope  he 
vigorously  opposed  Monothelitism,  deposing 
Paul,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  because  he 
held  it,  and  receiving  Pyrrhus,  Paul's  pred- 
ecessor, as  the  patriarch,  because  he  rejected 
it.  But  when  Pyrrhus  later  announced  mono- 
thelite  views  Theodore  promptly  excommuni- 
cated liim.  2.  Born  in  Rome,  was  pope  for 
twenty  days  in  897. 

Theodoro,  the  lector  oi:  reader  of  the 
Church  of  Constantinople,  flourished  in  the 
6th  century,  compiled  from  Socrates,  Sozo- 
men,  and  Theodoret  a  church  history,  and 
wrote  a  history  from  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Theodosius  the  Younger  to  that  of  the  elder 
Justin,  518.  The  first  has  never  been  pub- 
lished ;  some  fragments  of  the  second  are  all 
that  remain.  (See  Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  LXXXVI. , 
col.  157-2280.) 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  b.  at  Antioch, 
350  ;  d.  at  Mopsuestia,  40  m.  w.  of  Tarsus, 
428.  As  his  family  was  prominent  and  weal- 
thy, he  grew  up  amid  luxurious  surroundings 
and  gave  his  early  years  to  pleasure.  But 
before  he  was  twenty,  in  company  with  his 
friend,  John  Chrysostom,  he  abandoned  the 
world  (370),  became  a  presbyter  at  Antioch 
(383)  and  tlien  at  Tarsus  (386) ;  finally  bishop 
of  Mopsuestia,  392.  He  was  an  excellent 
ecclesiastic,  but  his  fame  rests  securely  upon 
his  literary  activity,  which  was  very  great, 
and  raised  him  to  a  high  place  among  his  con- 
temporaries, so  that  he  was  commonly  called 
a  "Doctor  of  the  Universal  Church."  Yet 
his  fame  was  not  unchallenged  while  he  lived, 
and  his  opponents  after  his  death  increased  in 
numbers  and  boldness.  They  denounced  him 
as  the  precursor  of  Nestorianism,  and  at  the 
general  council  of  Ephesus  (431)  his  opinions 
were  condemned,  and  at  that  of  Constan- 
tinople (553)  he  was  anathematized.  The 
unforeseen  result  was  that  his  commentaries 
on  the  Pauline  Epistles  were  translated  into 
Latin,  and  under  the  innocent  name  of  St. 
Ambrose  of  Milan  found  their  way  into  the 
monastic  libraries  of  the  West,  were  copied 
into  the  mtence,  and  thus  gave  the  accepted 
interpretation  to  that  portion  of  the  Bible. 

Theodore's  works  embrace  exegetical,  con- 
troversial, practical,  pastoral,  and  liturgical 
writings.  The  first  class  cover  well  nigh  the 
entire  Bible  ;  the  second  include  those  against 
Augustinianism,  Apollinarianism,  and  Eu- 
nomianism.  His  extant  works  (much  has 
been  lost)  are  in  Migne,  Pat.  Or.  LXVI.  (See 
H.  Kihn,  Theodor  v.  3fop.  u.  Junilms  Afri- 
canus,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1880.) 

Theodore  of  Tarsus,  seventh  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  ;  b.  at  Tarsus,  Cilicia,  602  ;  d.  at 
Canterbury,    Sept.    19,    690.      His  education 


was  completed  at  Athens  ;  won  reputation  as 
a  philosopher,  although  a  monk,  and  came  to 
Rome,  667.  The  pope  Vitalian  nominated 
him  to  the  see  of  Canterbury  and  put  him 
through  all  the  grades  from  subdeacon — for 
he  appears  not  to  have  been  in  orders — to 
archbishop,  and  he  left  Rome.  May  27,  668, 
and  arrived  at  Canterbury,  May  27,  669.  He 
did  a  great  work  in  healing  breaches,  restor- 
ing sees,  educating  the  clergy,  and  in  other 
ways  building  up  the  church  'in  Britain. 

Theodoret,  bishop  of  Cyrrhus,  or  Cyrus, 
in  the  province  of  Euphratensis,  patriarchate 
of  Antioch,  present  pachalic  of  Aleppo  ;  b. 
at  Antioch  about  393  ;  d.  probably  at  Cyrrhus 
about  453.  His  mother,  who  was  wealthy 
and  beautiful,  led  a  worldly  life  until,  in  her 
twenty-fourth  year,  cured  of  an  eye  trouble 
by  a  recluse,  who  exhorted  her  to  alter  her 
life,  she  suddenly  foreswore  society.  It  was 
after  a  married  life  of  thirteen  years,  at  the 
age  of  thirty,  that  she  bore  a  child,  whom  she 
appropriately  named  Theodoret,  "  the  gift  of 
God,"  because  he  was  the  answer  of  many 
prayers.  The  boy  was  trained  by  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  (q.v.),  and  early  showed  marked 
ability.  His  parents  died  when  he  was 
twenty-three  years  old,  and,  promptly  giving 
away  the  property  he  inherited,  he  betook 
himself  to  a  monastery  at  Nicerte,  about  75 
m.  e.  of  Antioch,  where,  immersed  in  study, 
he  passed  seven  happy  years.  But  at  the  end 
of  that  period,  about  423,  he  was  elected  to 
and  reluctantly  accepted  the  episcopate  of 
Cyrrhus.  Then  began  a  career  of  extraor- 
dinary activity.  To  learning  and  dialectic 
skill  he  united  great  zeal  and  moving  elo- 
quence ;  and  withal  a  practical  turn  of  mind. 
He  set  out  to  uproot  heresy  in  his  diocese,  and 
he  succeeded.  He  beautified  Cyrrhus,  re- 
lieved it  by  his  intercession  of  much  burden- 
some taxation,  and  increased  its  habitability. 
His  services  were  in  general  demand  outside 
of  his  diocese,  but  he  seldom  journeyed  far 
from  home.  The  uprooter  of  heresy  in  others, 
he  was  deposed  for  heresy  himself  by  the  so- 
called  Robber  Synod  of  Ephesus  (449)  and 
banished  to  the  familiar  monastery  of  Nicerte. 
His  alleged  heresy  was  Nestorianism,  but  this 
he  denied  at  the  'Council  of  Chalcedon  (451), 
and  so  was  restored  to  his  see.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer,  preparing  commentaries 
upon  a  large  part  of  the  Bible,  controversial 
and  specifically  theological  treatises,  and  espe- 
cially two  histories,  one  a  continuation  of 
Eusebius  (325-429)  and  the  other.  The  Re- 
ligious History,  a  series  of  sketches  of  contem- 
porary saints,  which  is  full  of  miraculous, 
not  to  say  incredible  stories.  His  numerous 
Letters  richly  repay  perusal.  (See  his  works 
in  Migne,  Pat.  Gr.  LXXX.-LXXXIV.  ;  Eng. 
trans..  New  York,  Christian  Literature  Com- 
pany ;  Oxford,  Parker  &  Son,  1891,  and  life 
by  Gueldenpenning). 

Theodosius  I.,  The  Great,  emperor  of  the 
East  ;  b.  at  Cauca,  Northwestern  Spain,  346  ; 
brought  up  in  his  father's  camp  in  Britain, 
and  after  his  murder,  376,  apparently  in  con- 
sequence of  the  insane  jealousy  of  V^alens, 
who  had  all  prominent  persons  whose  names 
began  with  THEOD  put  out  of  the  way,  be- 


THEODOTION 


(911) 


THEOPHILANTHROPISTS 


cause  he  had  learned  a  medium  had  declared 
that  his  successor  would  bear  a  name  so  be- 
ginning, retired  to  Cauca,  where  he  remained 
in  deepest  obscurity  till  called  by  Gratian  to 
succeed  Valens,  379.  He  was  an  energetic 
ruler  in  ecclesiastical  as  in  political  affairs, 
and  threw  his  whole  authority  on  the  side  of 
orthodoxy,  persecuting  the  Arians,  Mani- 
chieans,  and  other  heretics,  and  by  means  of 
the  Council  of  Constantinople  (381),  the  second 
oecumenical  council,  making  the  Nicene  Creed 
the  creed  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  He  exerted 
influence  likewise  in  the  West.  He  was 
guilty  of  an  atroeious  massacre  of  7000  per- 
sons "in  revenge  for  the  murder  of  the  gov- 
ernor of  Thessalonica  (390),  and  for  this  act 
was  forbidden  the  communion  by  Ambrose 
(q.v.)  in  Milan  until  he  had  done  penance. 
(See  Gueldenpenning  and  Island,  Der  Kaiser 
'Theodosirts  der  Grosse,  Halle,  1878.) 

Theodotion.     See  Bible,  p.  104. 

Theodulph,  bishop  of  Orleans  ;  b.  in  Spain 
about  753  ;  became  bishop,  801  ;  deposed  for 
alleged  treason,  819  ;  reinstated,  821  ;  d.  per- 
haps by  poison,  at  Orleans,  Sept.  19,  821. 
He  was  one  of  the  learned  men  simimoned  by 
Charlemagne  to  his  court  ;  wrote  much  in 
prose  and  in  poetry,  the  latter  much  admired 
in  that  day.  His  works  are  in  Migue,  Pat. 
Lat.  CV.,  cols.  187-380,  and  his  poems  in 
Diimmler,  Puetm  Lat.  aev.  Cur.  i.,  2,  pp.  437- 
581.  629-30.  (See  also  L.  Baunard,  Thto- 
dulfe,  Orleans,  1860.) 

Theologia  Germanica  is  the  name  of  a  little 
book  by  an  unknown  author  and  from  an 
uncertain  date,  but  resembling  the  works  of 
the  German  mystics  in  its  general  character. 
It  was  tirst  discovered  by  Luther,  and  he  pub- 
lished it  at  Wittenberg  in  1516  and  again 
having  found  a  complete  copy  in  1518.  In 
Rome  it  was  put  on  the  Inde.x,  but  in  Ger- 
many, Holland,  France,  and  England  it  was 
translated  and  much  read.  A  better  manu- 
scri]>t  was  discovered  at  Wurzburg  and  edited 
by  F.  Pfeiffer,  Stuttgart,  1851,  from  which 
an  Eng.  trans,  has  been  made  by  Susanna 
Winkworth,  London,  1854,  n.e.,  1874. 

Theologus  or  Theologal,  an  officer  of  the 
Koman  Catholic  Church  attached  to  all  cathe- 
dral and  collegiate  churches  in  great  and  pop- 
ulous cities,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the 
clergy  free  instruction  in  theology.  He  is 
not  necessarily  a  canon,  though  in  practice 
he  is  generally  chosen  among  the  canons  of 
the  chapter.  The  office  was  instituted  by  the 
third  Council  of  the  Lateran,  1179. 

Theology  {doctrine  of  God)  in  the  widest 
sense;  is  the  science  of  religion,  especially  the 
Christian  religion  as  taught  in  the  Bible  and 
developed  in  the  experience  of  the  church. 
The  usual  divisions  of  it  are  :  (1)  Exegetical 
theology,  or  biblical  learning  ;  (2)  historical, 
or  church  history  ;  (3)  S3'.stematic,  or  doctrinal, 
and  (4)  practical,  which  is  concerned  with 
government,  homiletics.  litiirgies.  etc.  Ethics 
and  apologetics  are  usually  treated  vmder  the 
third  head,  although  .some  think  that  they 
should  be  made  a  separate  department.  Prot- 
estant theology  in  general  builds  itself  upon 
the  Scriptures,  but  there  is  a  speculative  the- 


ology which  starts  from  the  intuitions  and 
proceeds  by  deduction,  and  seeks  to  lecoucile 
knowledge  and  faith,  science  and  religion. 

In  a  narrower  sense  theology  means  dog- 
matics, and  includes  1.  Theology  j^roper  (the- 
ism, the  Trinity,  the  attributes,  etc.)  2.  An- 
thropolorjy  (the  origin,  nature,  and  fall  of 
man)  ;  3.  Christolor/y  (the  person  and  work 
of  Christ)  ;  4.  Pneinnatolocjy  (the  i)erson  and 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit)  ;  5.  t^>tcriolorjy  (new 
birth,  justification,  .sanctilication,  etc.)  ;  6. 
EcclcniiAogy  (church,  sacraments,  and  means 
of  grace  )  ;  7.  Eticltatohxjy  (the  middle  state, 
second  advent,  resurrec-tion,  and  judgment). 

In  a  still  narrower  sense  theology  means  the 
doctrine  of  God,  his  existence,  perfections, 
and  the  distinctions  in  the  godhead. 

For  LiTER.VTURE,  see  Dogmatics,  to  which 
add,  Arminian,  W".  B.  Pope,  A  Higher  Cate- 
chistiiofT hcologu ,Ijondon,  1883  ;  Roman  Catho- 
lic, I.  Wilhelm  and  T.  B.  Scannel,  Manual  of 
Catholic  Theology,  London,  1890.    T.  W.  C. 

Theology,  Monumental.  See  Monumen- 
tal TlIKOLOGY. 

Theology,  New  England.  See  New  Eng- 
land ThEOLOC4Y. 

Theophanes  of  Byzantium,  b.  about  758  ;  d. 
816  ;  was  abbot  of  the  monastery  Ager,  which 
he  had  built  himself  in  Mysia.  Asia  Minor, 
and  a  fanatical  image-worshipper,  on  account 
of  which  he  was  banished  by  Leo  the  Armin- 
ian, in  813,  to  the  island  of  Samothrace.  His 
Chronogra'phia,  reaching  from  Diocletian  to 
Leo  the  Arminian,  was  edited  by  Classen, 
Bonn.  1839, 2  vols.,  and  is  in  Migne,  Pat.  Grac. 
CVIII. 

Theophanes  Cerameus,  bishop  of  Taura- 
menium,  Sicily,  in  the  tirst  part  of  the  11th 
century,  left," written  in  Greek,  which  was 
the  language  spoken  in  his  diocese,  62  homilies, 
which  were  edited  by  Scorsus,  Paris,  1644. 

Theophany  {(tppearance  of  GoiT),  a  term  to 
denote  the  visible  manifestation  of  God  to 
men,  such  as  was  made  to  the  .saints  of  the 
Old  Testament.  It  was  alwaj's  accompanied 
by  a  vision,  and  was  temporary,  and  is  there- 
fore to  be  distinguished  from  the  immediate 
and  permanent  revelation  of  God  made  in  the 
incarnation  of  his  Son,  and  generally  denoted 
by  the  term  epiphany.  T.  W.  C. 

Theophilanthropists  was  the  name  of  a 
kind  of  religious  sect  which  arose  in  Paris  in 
1796,  during  the  tin)e  when  Christianity  wa.s 
abolished,  and  which  professed  what  may  be 
called  the  natural  creed.  It  was  foimded  on 
tlie  three  ideas — God,  virtue,  and  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul — and  expressed  in  a  very  sim- 
l^le  form  of  worship.  One  of  its  founders, 
Cheniin,  published  in  Paris,  in  1796,  Manuel 
dts  Thiophihnithr.>i>cs.  which  contains  their 
whole  theology.  Thomas  Paine  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  society  and  delivered  a  discour.se 
l)efore  it,  which  is  found  in  his  Theological 
Works.  In  the  first  two  or  three  years  the 
sect  seemed  to  thrive,  but  when  Romanism 
was  allowed  to  return,  it  was  simply  pushed 
out  of  existence.  Tlie  first  consul,  Bonaparte, 
took  their  clnirchcs  from  them  in  ls02.  and 
after  that  time  nothing  more  was  heard  of 


THEOPHIIiUS 


(912) 


THESSALONIOA 


them.     Their  literary  monuments  were  col- 
lected and  printed  at  Basel,  1797-99,  2  vols. 

Theophilus,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  385-412, 
was  an  adversary  of  Origin.  Three  of  his 
letters  have  come  down  to  us  in  a  Latin  trans- 
lation by  Jerome,  and  are  found  in  Gallandi, 
Bibl.  Pat.  vii. 

Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch,  176-86, 
wrote  about  180  an  apology  of  Christianity, 
which  has  been  edited  by  Otto,  Jena,  186i  ; 
Eng.  trans.,  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  ed..  New 
York,  Christian  Literature  Company,  vol.  li., 
89-121.  The  genuineness  of  his  commentary 
on  the  gospels  has  been  attacked  by  A.  Har- 
nack  and  defended  by  Th.  Zahn. 

Theophylact,  the  most  learned  exegete  of 
the  Greek  Church  in  his  day  ;  b.  probably  at 
Euripus,  on  the  island  of  Euba?a,  in  the 
^gean  Sea  ;  spent  his  early  life  in  Constanti- 
nople ;  became  tutor  to  Constantine  Porphyro- 
genitus,  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Michael  Ducas  ; 
archbishop  of  Achrida  and  metropolitan  of 
Bulgaria,  1078  ;  d.  after  1107.  His  fame  rests 
securely  on  his  commentaries,  not,  it  is  true, 
entirely  original,  but  still  truly  exegetical,  on 
Hosea,  Jonah,  Nahum,  and  Habbakuk,  and 
on  the  Gospels,  Acts,  Pauline  and  Catholic 
Epistles.  But  he  wrote  much  besides  them. 
(See  his  works  in  Migne,  Pat.  Or.  CXXIIL- 
CXXVL) 

Theopneusty,  the  Greek  word  for  Inspira- 
tion. Cf.  W.  Koelling,  Prolegomena  zur 
Theopneustie,  Breslau,  1890.    See  p.  418. 

Theosophy  (divine  wisdom),  a  so-called  sa- 
cred science,  differing  alike  from  philosophy, 
which  employs  the  ideas  derived  from  natural 
reason  in  investigating  the  divine  nature,  and 
from  theology,  which  superadds  to  these  the 
principles  derived  from  revelation.  Theoso- 
phy, on  the  contrary,  professes  to  exclude  all 
dialectics  and  to  derive  its  knowledge  from 
direct  intuition,  or  from  the  immediate  com- 
munications of  God  himself.  It  is,  therefore, 
simply  another  name  for  mysticism.  It  is 
found  among  all  nations — Hindus,  Persians, 
Arabs,  Greeks  (the  later  Neo-Platonists),  and 
Jews  (the  Cabalists).  Sometimes  it  has  ap- 
peared in  the  form  of  occult  science  (Agrippa 
of  Nettesheim,  Paracelsus),  at  others  in  visions 
(Swedenborg),  and  again  in  rapt  contempla- 
tion (Jacob  Boehme,  Oettinger).  Schelling, 
in  his  later  writings,  developed  a  close  approxi- 
mation to  this  mystic  system. 

The  recent  attempted  revival  of  theosophy 
by  some  Americans  with  the  aid  of  Hindu 
Buddhists  is  hardly  worthy  of  notice. 

T.  W.  C. 

Theotokos  (God-bearing),  a  term  adopted 
at  the  Councils  of  Ephesus  (431)  and  Chalce- 
don  (451)  to  assert  the  divinity  of  our  Lord's 
person.  The  human  nature  he  derived  from 
the  Virgin  was  so  intimately  united  with 
deity,  that  the  person  she  bore  was  really 
divine.  T.  W.  C. 

Therapeutae  (worshippers),  a  sect  of  Jewish 
ascetics  allied  to  the  Essenes,  described  onlv 
in  a  treatise.  On  a  Contemplative  Life,  ascribed 
to  Philo.  But  many,  on  several  grounds,  dis- 
pute Philo's  authorship  and  pronounce  the 
work  a  Christian  forgery  of  ascetic  origin. 
The  Therapeutae  were  said  to  be  of  both  sexes. 


to  live  in  separate  cells,  and  come  together 
only  for  worship,  to  eat  only  one  meal  a  day, 
and  that  merely  bread  and  water,  and  to  de- 
rive their  support  from  the  charitable.  (See 
Lucius,  Die  TJierapeutenund  ihre  Stellung, 
Strassburg,  1879  ;  J.  Nirschl,  Die  Therapeuten, 
Mainz,  1890.)  T.  W.  C. 

Theremin  (tareh-meen),  Ludwig  Friedrich 
Franz,  b.  at  Gramzow,  Brandenburg,  Prus- 
sia, March  19,  1780  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Sept.  26, 
1846  ;  studied  theology  at  Halle  and  Geneva  ; 
was  elected  pastor  of  the  French  Reformed 
congregation  in  Berlin,  1810,  and  appointed 
court  preacher  there  in  1814,  and  professor  of 
homiletics  in  the  university,  1839.  His  Elo- 
quence a  Virtue  was  translated  into  English 
by  W.  T.  G.  Shedd,  Andover.  1850,  3d  ed.. 
1864.  Among  his  other  works  are  Ahend- 
stnnden,  Berlin,  1833-39,  3  vols.,  6th  ed., 
1869. 

Theresa,  Ste.,  b.  at  Avila,  Old  Castile,  Spain, 
March  28,  1515  :  d.  at  Alba  de  Liste,  Oct.  15, 
1582  ;  entered  the  order  of  the  Carmelites  in 
1534,  and  began  in  1561  to  reform  the  order, 
which  resulted  in  the  establishment  before 
her  death  of  17  nunneries  and  15  monasteries 
of  Barefooted  Carmelites  or  Theresians.  Her 
works,  mystical  and  ascetical,  have  appeared 
in  many  collected  editions,  e.  g.,  Salamanca, 
1587,  Paris,  1847.  There  is  a  complete  French 
translation  edited  by  Migne,  Paris,  1840-46, 
4  vols.  Her  life  was  written  in  English  by 
Maria  French,  London,  1875. 

Thessalonians,  Epistles  to.  These  were 
the  earliest  of  Paul's  writings  and  the  oldest 
portion  of  the  New  Testament.  They  were 
written  from  Corinth,  a.d.  52  and  53.  The 
first  was  sent  after  receiving  Timothy's  good 
report  of  their  faith,  and  also  of  some  diffi- 
culties among  them.  Accordingly  he  thank.^ 
God  for  their  advancement  (ch.  i.),  expresses 
his  loving  care  for  them  (ii.,  iii.),  urges  them 
to  holiness  (iv.  1-12),  comforts  them  under 
bereavement  by  mention  of  Christ's  advent 
(iv.  13-v.  11),  and  concludes  with  various  ad- 
monitions (v.  12-28).  But  learning  that  his 
words  had  been  misapprehended,  he  wrote 
again,  commending  their  faith  in  trial  (2  i.), 
correcting  their  error  in  expecting  the  imme- 
diate advent  of  Christ  (ii.),  and  gives  direc- 
tions to  meet  the  evils  this  error'had  caused 
(iii. ).  The  epistles  are  of  undoubted  genuine- 
ness, and  bear  the  impress  of  the  apostle's 
great  loving  heart.  (See  the  commentaries  on 
the  two  Epistles  by  Lillie  [N.  Y.,  1860],  Lange 
[1869],  Eadie  [London,  1877],  J.  Hutchinson 
[1884],  the  Pulpit  Commentary  [1887],  M.  F. 
Sadler  [1890],  W.  A.  Stevens  [Philadelphia. 
1891]).  T.  W.  C. 

Thes-sa-lon-i'-ca  (conquest  of  Tliessaly),  a 
seaport  at  the  head  of  the  Themaic  Gulf  ;  in 
Paul's  time  a  free  city  and  the  most  populous 
in  Macedonia.  Paul  visited  it,  a.d.  38,  and 
preached  three  Sabbaths  in  the  synagogue, 
but  was  driven  away  by  persecution  (Acts 
xvii.).  He  left  Silas  and  Timothy  to  carry 
on  the  work  he  had  successfully  begun.  The 
"rulers"  (Acts  xvii.  6)  are  "  politarchs, "  a 
term  that  occurs  here  only  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  is  found  on  a  local  triumphal  arch, 
erected  after  the  battle  of  Philippi. 


THEUDAS 


(913) 


THOMAS 


Tlie    city    still    survives    under    the   name 
Salonika,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  com- 
merce.    Population,   80,000.      It  abounds  in 
broken  columns  and  sculptured  fragments. 
T.  W.  C. 

Theu'-das  {God-give ii),  an  impostor  who  in- 
stiirated  a  rebellion  that  came  to  a  wretched 
end  in  the  time  of  Augustus  (Acts  v.  36). 
The  Theudas  Josephus  mentions  was  eleven 
years  later  than  Gamaliel's  time,  but  the  name 
being  a  common  one  at  that  period,  it  may 
well  have  been  borne  by  dillerent  persons. 
T.  W.  C. 

Theurgy,  a  term  which  arose  among  the 
Neo-Platonists  in  Alexandria,  denotes  a  sci- 
ence by  which  it  becomes  possible  to  man  to 
influence  the  will  of  the  gods.  Wherever  this 
magical  science  spread  it  transformed  all 
other  ideas,  religious  as  well  as  philo.sophical, 
into  stupid  superstitions 

Thiersch  (teersh),  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Jo- 
sias,  Ph.D.  (Munich,  188H).  Irvingite  ;  b.  at 
Munich,  Nov.  5,  1817  ;  d.  at  Ba.sel,  Dec.  3, 
1885  :  studied  at  Munich.  Erlangen,  and 
Tubingen,  and  was  in  1843  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Marburg,  but  having  been  won 
over  by  the  Irviugites,  at  that  time  active  in 
Germany,  he  resigned  in  1850,  joined  the 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  and  was  pastor  of 
small  congregations,  and  was  superintendent 
of  the  Irvingite  congregations  in  North  Ger- 
many (1850-60),  in  South  Germany  and  Swit- 
zerland (1860-64),  in  South  Germany,  Swit- 
zerland, and  Austria,  1875,  till  death.  Of  his 
numerous  writings  there  have  appeared  in 
£ng.  trans,  in  London,  The  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,  1852  ;  Christian  Family 
Life,  n.e.,  1858;  On  the  Chi-istvm  Common- 
wealth, Edinburgh,  1876  ;  The  Book  of  Gen- 
esis, London,  1878  ;  Life  of  Bishop  Gobat, 
1884. 

Thietmar,  b.  in  Saxony  of  noble  ancestry, 
July  25,  976  ;  d.  at  Merseburg,  where  he  had 
been  bishop  since  1009.  Dec.  1,  1018.  He 
wrote  a  chronicle  whose  latter  part,  1002- 
1018,  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the 
history  of  Germany.  The  whole  work  has 
been  edited  by  Lappenberg  in  Mon.  Oerm. 
Llist.  iii..  and  translated  into  German  by 
Laurent.  1849. 

Thilo,  Johann  Karl,  b.  at  Langensalza, 
25  m.  n.w.  of  Erfurt,  Thuringia,  Nov.  28, 
1794  ;  d.  at  Halle,  May  17,  1S53  :  studied 
theology  at  Leipzig,  and  was  apjiointed  pro- 
fessor at  Halle  in  1822.  Of  his  Coder  Apoc- 
ryphus,  the  tinst  vol.,  T he  ATMcryphal  Gospels, 
appeared  at  Leipzig  in  1832,  the  Act<i  Petri 
et  Pauli,  1838,  and  Acta  AndrecB  et  Matthice, 
1846. 

Thirlwall,  Connop,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
1840),  bishop  of  St.  David's  ;  b.  at  Stepnev, 
London,  Jan.  11.  1797  ;  d.  at  Bath,  July  27, 
1875.  A  precocious  student,  his  Primitia  ap- 
peared, London,  1809.  He  passed  from  the 
Charter-hou.se  to  Trinitv  College,  Cambridge, 
1814  ;  beciime  a  fellow. '1818  ;  ordained,  1827- 
28  ;  rector  of  Kirby.  Yorkshire,  1834  ;  bishop 
of  St.  David's,  1840-74.  His  lil)eral  principles 
hindered  further  promotion  ;  lie  was  the  only 


prelate  who  voted  for  Irish  disestal)lishment, 
and  refu.sed  to  demand  Colenso's  resignation. 
He  translated  Schleiermacher's  Essay  on  the 
Gospel  of  ISt.  Luke,  London,  1825,  and  with 
Julius  Hare,  Niebuhr's  History  of  Rome,  vols, 
i.,  ii.,  1828-31.  His  History  of  Greece,  which 
ranks  next  to  Grote's,  appeared  in  Lardner's 
Ci/clopadi,,,  1835-40,  and  in  8  vols.,  1845-52. 
His  lieiiuiinx  (cliietly  his  memorable  Charges') 
were  edited  by  Dean  Perowne  in  3  vols. ,  1875- 
76,  and  his  Ltttersin  3 vols.,  1881-82.  Carlyle 
called  him  "  a  right  and  honest-hearted  man, 
full  of  knowledge  and  sense,"  and  Dr.  Gar- 
uett  "  as  scholar,  critic,  and  ecclesiastical 
statesman  almost  above  praise."     F.  M.  B. 

Tholuck,  Friedrich  August,  b.  at  Breslau, 
March  30,  1799  ;  d.  in  Halle,  June  10,  1877  ; 
studied  Oriental  languages  and  theology  ya. 
Berlin,  where  he  conversed  intimately  with 
the  pieti.stic  circles  ;  was  in  1824  appointed 
professor  extraordinary  there,  and  in  1826 
ordinary  professor  at  Halle,  where  he  re- 
mained till  his  death  ;  one  of  the  representa- 
tives and  leaders  of  the  evangelical  movement 
not  only  in  his  university,  but  in  his  church 
and  in  Christendom.  Of  his  works,  the  two 
most  widely  read  are  Sin  and  Redemption, 
Eng.  trans,  by  Kyland,  repub.  in  Boston,  1854. 
under  the  title  Guido  and  Julius,  and  Hours 
of  Devotion,  translated  by  Robert  IMenzies,  18—, 
n.e.,  Edinburgh  and  New  York,  1875.  His 
Commentaries  on  Romans,  John,  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  Hebrews,  and  Psalms  have  all 
been  translated  into  English,  and  4  vols,  of 
his  sermons  under  different  titles.  He  also 
wrote  several  works  of  a  historical  character, 
Luthensche  Tlteologen  Wittenbergs  im  17. 
Jahrhumlert,  Hamburg,  1852 ;  Das  akademische 
Leben  im  17.  Jahrhundert,  Hamburg,  1853-54, 
2  vols. ;  GescMchte  des  Rationalismus,  Berlin, 
1865,  unfinished.  His  life  was  written  by 
Leopold  Witte,  Bielefeld,  1884-86,  2  vols. 

Thomas  (tirin),  also  called  Didymus,  one  of 
the  twelve.  His  birthplace  and  calling  are 
unknown,  though  he  was  probably  a  Galilean. 
He  seems  to  have  been  of  an  impulsive  tem- 
perament, devoted  to  Christ  (John  xi.  16),  yet 
somewhat  gloomy  (\lv.  5),  and  slow  to  be 
convinced  even  of  a  joyful  trutli  (xx.  19-29). 
The  earlier  fathers  say 'he  preached  in  Persia, 
the  later  in  India.  He  sufiered  martvrdom. 
T.  W.  C. 

Thomas  Aquinas,  the  leading  theologian  of 
the  Dominicans,  now  exalted  to  the  same 
place  in  general  Catholic  theology  by  the 
recommendation  of  the  present  pope,  Lea 
XIII.  (1879)  ;  b.  in  the  castle  of  Rocca  Sicca, 
near  Aquino,  the  birthplace  of  Juvenal,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Naples.  Italy,  in  1225  or 
1227  :  d.  near  Terracina,  ]\Iarch  7.  1274.  He 
was  of  a  noble  family,  and  designed  for  a 
political  career  ;  but  he  felt  himself  drawn  to 
the  new  order  of  tlie  Dominicans,  and  after 
much  opposition  he  entered  it  in  1244.  and  the 
following  year  went  to  study  with  Albert  the 
Great  at  Cologne.  His  talents  were  soon  per- 
ceived by  his  teacher,  who  predicted  for  liim 
a  brilliant  future.  He  went  in  the  same  year 
to  Paris,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  bachelor 
in  1248,  and  then  tauglit  in  various  places,  as 
in  Cologne,  and  then  after  ordination  (1251) 


THOMAS 


(914) 


THOMAS 


to  Paris,  where  he  was  made  doctor  in  1257, 
only  after  the  contest  between  the  university 
and  the  mendicant  orders  had  been  brought 
to  a  happy  conclusion  by  the  interventioiTof 
the  pope.  He  continued  to  teach  at  Paris, 
and  then  in  various  places  in  Italy  after  1261. 
He  was  employed  in  many  learned  labors  by 
different  popes,  and  drawn  into  practical 
affairs,  but  in  the  midst  of  all  these  diver- 
sions he  was  active  from  the  first  in  literary 
work,  particularly  after  his  return  to  Italy 
in  the  composition  of  his  Suimna.  He  was 
on  his  way  to  a  church  council  at  Lyons  at 
the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  canonized  July 
18,  1328,  and  in  1567  named  the  fifth  doctor 
of  the  church  by  Pius  V. 

The  writings  of  Thomas  may  be  divided 
into  several  classes.  The  philosophical  con- 
sist largely  in  commentaries  upon  Aristotle. 
His  exege'tical  works  are  of  little  value,  the 
best  being  a  continuous  exposition  of  the  gos- 
pels, the  so-called  Catena  Aitrea  (see  below), 
in  which  he  has  incorporated  numerous 
extracts  from  the  previous  churcli  writers. 
His  chief  apologetical  composition  is  his 
Sumrna  of  the  Catholic  Faith  Against  the  Gen- 
tiles, directed  principally  against  the  Moham- 
medans. His  most  important  works  are  those 
pertaining  to  systematic  theology,  of  which 
there  are  many,  tlie  chief  being  the  Siimma 
totius  Theologim  already  mentioned. 

The  system  of  Thomas  may  be  described  in 
general  as  the  completed  Catholic  system  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  incorporated  in  the  Catholic 
Church  by  the  result  of  tlie  Council  of  Trent. 
His  primary  supposition  is  that  of  scliolasti- 
cism,  that  all  knowledge  is  harmonious,  and 
also  that  that  which  is  attained  by  the  reason 
must  agree  with  the  doctrines  of  tlie  church, 
which  are  given  man  by  revelation,  and  are 
not  to  be  questioned.  He  thus  fully  repre- 
sents in  himself  his  period,  and  forms  the  apex 
of  scholastic  development.  There  are  two 
classes  of  religious  truth,  those  which  reason 
can  attain,  but  which  need  the  divine  revela- 
tion for  their  full  proof,  and  those  which  are 
objects  of  revelation  entirely.  Yet  there  runs 
through  the  system  a  subtle  conflict  between 
reason  and  Bevelation.  In  spite  of  the  au- 
thority which  he  ascribes  to  the  church,  it  is 
interesting  to  observe  that  Thomas  places  the 
Scriptures  at  the  head  of  the  authorities  used 
in  proof  of  doctrines.  As  lie  had  no  knowl- 
edge of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages,  his 
interpretations  are  often  of  little  value.  In 
his  doctrine  of  God  he  gives  several  proofs  of 
Ihe  divine  existence,  re^'ecting,  however,  the 
Anselmic  proof.  The  positive  foundation  of 
his  doctrine  is  that  God  is  tlie  infinite  being 
whose  essence  is  action.  He  seeks  in  various 
ways  to  make  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in- 
telligible, representing  the  filiation  as  tlie  pro- 
cession of  the  Word  out  of  the  divine  thought, 
and  the  spiration  as  the  procession  of  the  di- 
vine love.  His  doctrine  of  providence  refers 
everything  in  the  spiritual  as  well  as  the  phy- 
sical world  to  the  supreme  causality  of  God. 
Since  God  rules  all  things,  lie  must  have  had 
the  thought  of  this  always  in  his  mind — that 
is,  must  have  predetermined  all  things.  There 
is  a  double  predestination,  to  life  and  death. 
He  makes  attempts  to  save  the  freedom  of  the 


will  in  order  to  rescue  responsibility,  and  dis- 
tinguishes between  natural  (necessary)  causes 
and  moral  (contingent)  causes.  And  yet,  in 
fact,  there  is  no  place  in  his  system  for  a  free 
will.  Men  are  free  only  in  the  sense  that  they 
are  the  subjects  of  the  divine  activity  passing 
through  them  as  channels.  His  definition  of 
miracle  tended  also  to  increase  the  disposition 
to  expect  the  miraculous  in  daily  affairs. 
Original  sin  consists  only  in  the  lack  of  super- 
natural assistance.  As  to  the  atonement, 
Thomas  took  lower  ground  than  Anselm. 
Reconciliation  might  have  been  effected  in 
some  other  way  had  God  willed.  God  might 
also  forgive  without  satisfaction,  as  a  private 
man  can  do.  The  doctrines  of  justification 
and  sanctification  are  treated  from  the  sacra- 
mental theory  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
need  not  be  further  considered  here.  Thomas 
did  also  much  for  ethics,  but  his  whole  treat- 
ment of  this  subject  was  somewhat  too  em- 
piric, not  ideal. 

Literature. — The  works  of  Thomas 
Aquinas  are  partially  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  sup- 
plement ;  last  complete  edition,  Parma,  1852- 
71,  25  vols.,  4to  ;  n.e.  under  the  patronage 
of  Leo  XIII. ,  who  is  a  great  admirer  of 
Aquinas.  Rome,  1882,  sqq.  There  is  a  French 
trans,  of  the  Summa,  Paris,  1850-54,  8  vols., 
and  a  German  one  by  C.  M.  Schneider,  Rc- 
gensburg,  1890  ;  and  Eng.  trans,  of  the  Catena 
Aurea  (on  the  Gospels),  Oxford,  1841-45,  8 
vols.,  n.e.,  1870,  6  vols.;  Homilies  for  the 
Whole  Christian  Year,  London,  1867  ;  Tlie 
Venerable  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  1871.  For 
his  life  see  R.  B.  Vaughan,  1871-72,  2  vols., 
abridged  ed.,  1  vol.,  1875;  F.  Hays,  1889. 
For  his  philosophy  and  theology  see  Thomas 
Harper,  The  Metapliysics  of  the  School,  Lon- 
don, 1880,  sqq.;  and  the  treatises  by  Gundsalv 
Feldner,  Graz,  1890  ;  V.  Lipperheide,  Munich, 
1890  ;  Fr.  J.  V.  de  Groot,  Regensburg,  1890, 
and  L.  Crolet,  Besan9on,  1890.        F.  H.  F. 

Thomas  a  Becket.     See  Becket,  p.  92. 

Thomas  a  Kempis.     See  Kempis,  p.  471. 

Thomas  Christians.  See  Christians  of 
St.  Thomas,  p.  160. 

Thomas  of  Celano,  a  native  of  Celano, 
Southern  Italy,  and  about  1221  generai  of  the 
Franciscan  order  in  Germany,  is  generally 
recognized  as  the  author  of  the  oldest  life  of 
Francis  of  Assisi  and  of  the  celebrated  hymn 
Dies  ira,  dies  ilia  (q.v.). 

Thomas  of  Villanova,  b.  at  Fuenlana,  Leon, 

Spain,  1487  ;  d.  at  Valencia,  Nov.  8,  1555  ; 
entered  the  order  of  the  Augustinian  Hermits 
in  1517  ;  became  the  confessor  of  Charles  V. 
and  archbishop  of  Valencia,  and  was  canon- 
ized by  Alexander  VII.,  1668.  His  life  was 
written  in  Spanish  by  Queveda  and  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Maimbourg,  Paris,  1666. 

Thomas,  David,  D.D.  (Waynesburg  Col- 
lege, Pennsylvania,  1862),  Congregationalist  ; 
b.  at  Ho'llybush-Vatson,  Pembrokeshire, 
Wales,  Feb.  1,  1813  ;  educated  at  Cheshuut 
College,  Buckingham  ;  entered  the  Indepen- 
dent ministry,  1841  ;  was  minister  of  Stock- 
well  Independent  Church,  London,  1845-74  ; 
founded  in  1855    the   National   Newspaper 


THOMASIN 


(915) 


thorndiee: 


League  Company,  and  in  18G1  the  Working 
Men's  Club  and  Institute  Unions  ;  originated 
the  University  of  Wales  in  1802,  and  the  Uni- 
versity College,  which  was  ot)ened  at  Aberyst- 
with  in  1877.  He  is  a  Broad  Churchman,  rec- 
ognizing that  as  Christ  is  tlie  only  revealer 
of  absolute  truth,  he  is  not  to  be  interpreted 
by  the  Old  Testament  writers  or  by  the  apos- 
tles, but  they  are  all  to  be  interpreted  by  him. 
He  is  best  known  as  the  editor  of  The  Ilomi- 
list,  London,  1851-83,  50  vols.,  and  of  the 
Homilistic  Library,  1883,  sqq. 

Thomasin  of  Zirklaria,  a  native  of  the  Tyrol, 
wrote  in  1315  Der  icdUrhe  Gast,  a  didactic 
poem  of  considerable  interest  for  the  true 
conception  of  the  religious  state  of  the  time, 
edited  by  Ruckert,  Leipzig,  1853. 

Thomasius,  Gottfried,  b.  at  Egenhausen, 
Wurtemberg,  1803  ;  d.  at  Erlaugen,  Jan.  34, 
1875,  having  been  professor  of  systematic  the- 
ology there  since  1843.  His  two  principal 
works  are  Origines,  Nuremberg,  1837,  and 
Die  cliri«tUclie  Dogrnengeschichte,  Erlangen, 
1874-76,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.  by  Bonwetsch  and 
Seeberg,  1890. 

Thomassin,  Louis,  b.  at  Aix,  17  m.  n.  of 
Marseilles,  Aug.  38,  1619  ;  d.  in  Paris,  Dec. 
24,  1697  ;  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory  in  1633,  and  published  in  Paris  in 
1678-79,  Ancieane  et  Noumlle  Discij)line  de 
V^jlise  toucliant  les  Benefices  et  les  Beneficiers, 
3  vols,  fol.,  a  standard  work  on  its  subject. 

Thompson,  Joseph  Parrish,  D.D.  (Har- 
vard, 1850).  LL.D.  (University  of  New  York, 
1868),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
Aug.  7.  1819  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Sept.  30,  1879. 
He  graduated  at  Yale,  1838  ;  was  pastor  at 
New  Haven,  1840-45,  and  of  the  Broadway 
Tabernacle,  New  York,  1845-71.  He  was  a 
founder  of  the  Xew  Englandcr,  1843,  and  of 
the  Independent,  New  York,  1848,  on  which 
he  did  much  editorial  work  for  fourteen  years. 
He  was  prominent  as  a  preacher,  writer,  pa- 
triot, reformer,  and  philanthropist.  In  1871 
his  health  gave  way  and  he  removed  to  Ber- 
lin, hoping  to  continue  researciics  begun  on  a 
visit  to  Egypt  in  1853.  Here  he  became,  in 
Dorner's  words,  "a  living  link"  between 
America  and  Germany,  and  won  lienors  and 
influence  hardly  inferior  to  Bayard  Taylor's. 
His  constant  and  varied  activity  lielped  the 
progress  of  American  ideas  abroad,  and  the 
cause  of  religious  liberty.  Among  his  many 
publications  are  T?te  Theology  of  Christ,  New 
York,  1870  ;  Church  and  State  in  the  United 
States,  1873,  and  The  United  States  as  a  Ka- 
tion,  1877.  He  "struck  one  more  blow  for 
liberty"  just  before  his  death  by  the  address 
to  the  emperor  of  Austria  in  behalf  of  re- 
ligious liberty.  F.  M.  B. 

Thomson,  William  McClure,  D.D.  (Wa- 
bash College,  Crawfordsville.  Ind.,  1858), 
Presbvterian  ;  b.  at  Spring  Dale,  near  Cin- 
cinnati, O.,  Dec.  31,  1806;  graduated  at 
Miami  College,  Oxford,  O.,  1826;  studied  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  New  Jersey, 
1826-37  ;  ordained  an  evangelist  by  Pres- 
bytery of  Cincinnati,  O.,  Oct.  13,  1831  ;  was 
missionary  in  Syria  and  Palestine  under  A.  B. 
C.  F.  M.  and  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign 


Missions,  1833-49,  1850-57,  1859-76,  and 
wrote  The  Laud  and  tlie  Book,  New  York, 
1859,  2  vols.,  rewritten  and  adorned  with  nu- 
merous illustrations,  1880-86,  3  vols. 

Thorah  {teaching),  the  ordinary  name  for 
the  Mosaic  code.  In  Babylon  arose  a  custom 
of  observing  at  the  close  of  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles a  Feast  of  the  Law,  which  consisted  in 
reading  and  chanting  and  distributing  alms 
and  presents.  The  copying  of  the  Thorah 
was  done  b}'  trained  men  under  severe  restric- 
tions as  to  material,  ink,  stylus,  columns, 
lines,  shape  and  size  of  the  letters,  spaces, 
errors,  and  blots.  The  greatest  accuracy  was 
thus  secured,  and  all  men  are  greatly  indeljted 
to  the  Jews  for  their  conscientious  fidelity  in 
preserving  the  sacred  text.  T.  W.  C. 

Thorn,  an  old  Polish  city,  but  a  Prussian 
possession  since  1793,  was  the  meeting-place 
of  an  important  conference,  the  so-called  Col- 
loquium earitatituni,  1645,  and  the  scene  of  a 
horrible  massacre,  1734.  The  conference  was 
convened  by  Ladislaus  IV.,  consisted  of  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  Re- 
formed, the  Moravian  Brethren,  and  the  Lu- 
therans, and  sat  from  Aug.  18  till  Nov.  31. 
Its  object  was  to  bring  about,  if  not  a  union, 
at  least  a  better  modus  vivendi  between  the 
various  denominations  within  the  Polish 
realm.  But  nothing  was  achieved,  though 
the  members  separated  with  reciprocal  cour- 
tesies and  assurances.  The  cause  of  the  fail- 
ure was  the  arrogance  of  the  Jesuits,  and  this 
was  also  the  cause  of  the  massacre  of  1724. 
Some  Protestants  witnessing  the  passage  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  procession  bared  their  heads, 
but  neglected  to  bend  their  knees.  Reproved 
in  an  insulting  manner  by  the  pupils  of  the 
Jesuit  college,  a  commotion  arose  in  the  street, 
and  when  the  Jesuits  fired  on  the  people  from 
the  windows  of  the  college,  the  building  was 
stormed  and  bloody  revenge  taken.  A  royal 
committ(!e  was  appointed  to  investigate  the 
case,  and  the  mayor  of  the  city,  together  with 
several  other  prominent  Protestants,  were  sen- 
tenced to  death  and  executed.  (See  Ledder- 
hose,  Bern  Blutbad  ton  Thorn  im  1724,  Basel, 
1853.)  C.  P. 

Thorn  in  the  Flesh,  Pavd's.  The  nature 
of  this  thorn  or  "  stake,"  R.  V.  (3  Cor.  xii. 
7-10),  has  been  greatly  questioned.  Some  sup- 
pose it  to  have  been  spiritual,  either  sensual 
temptations  (Romanists)  or  doubts  arising 
from  his  sinful  past  (Luther,  Calvin,  etc.). 
Others  refer  it  to  his  persecutions  or  adver- 
saries (Chrysostom  and  the  Greek  Fathers). 
But  it  is  more  likely  to  have  been  a  bodily  ail- 
ment, which  can  no  further  be  defined  than 
that  it  was  acute,  in  .some  way  humiliating,  a 
hindrance  to  the  apostle's  efficiency,  of  such 
a  nature  that  it  could  not  be  concealed  from 
others,  and  was  continuous  or  recurrent. 
Paul's  earnest  prayers  could  not  obtain  its  re- 
moval, but  he  received  grace  to  bear  it,  even 
in  such  measure  as  to  make  hiin  glory  in 
infirmities.  T.  \\  .  C. 

Thomdike,  Herbert,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  about  159H  ;  d.  at  Chiswick,  7  m.  w.  by  s. 
of  London,  1672.  He  entered  Cambridge, 
1613  ;  became  canon  of  Lincoln,  1636  ;  vicar 


THORNWELL 


(916) 


TILLEMONT 


of  Claybrooke,  Leicestershire,  1639  ;  rector  of 
Barley,  Herts,  1642  ;  master  of  Sidney  Col- 
lege, 1643  ;  ejected  under  the  parliament  ; 
canon  of  Westminster,  1661  ;  member  of  the 
Savoy  Conference,  and  of  Convocation.  He 
was  a  learned  but  obscure  writer  on  the  Angli- 
can side.  His  theological  works  were  col- 
lected at  Oxford  in  6  vols.,  1844-57  ;  the  chief 
of  them  is  An  Epilogue  to  the  To'agedy  of  the 
Church  of  England,  London,  1659.  Besides 
these  he  published  a  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and 
Arabic  lexicon,  1635,  and  helped  Walton  with 
his  Polyglot,  1654-57.  F.  M.  B. 

Thornwell,  James  Henley,  D.D.  (Jeffer- 
son ;  Hampden  Sidney ;  Centre  College, 
Kentucky,  all  1845),  LL  D.  (Oglethorpe  Uni- 
versity, Georgia,  1857),  Presbyterian  ;  b. 
in  Marlborough  District,  S.  C,  Dec.  9,  1813  ; 
d.  at  Charlotte,  N.  C,  Aug.  1,  1862.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  1831  ;  was  pas- 
tor at  Lancaster,  S.  C,  1835-37,  and  at  Co- 
lumbia, 1840-41  ;  professor  at  South  Carolina 
College.  Columbia,  1838-40,  and  (in  the  chair 
of  sacred  literature)  1841-51  ;  its  president, 
1851-55  ;  professor  in  South  Carolina  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1855-62.  He  founded  and 
edited  the  Southern  Quarterly  Beview,  1855- 
57.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Old 
School  General  Assembly,  and  its  moderator 
in  1847.  His  writings  were  edited  by  J.  B. 
Adger  and  J.  L.  Girardeau  in  4  vols.,  Eich- 
mond,  1871-73,  and  his  Life  and  Letters  by 
B.  M.  Palmer,  1875.  F.  M.  B. 

Thorold,  Anthony  Wilson,  D.D.  (by  diplo- 
ma, 1877),  lord  bishop  of  Rochester,  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  at  Hougham,  June  13,  1825  ; 
educated  at  Oxford  ;  was  ordained  priest  in 
1850  ;  held  various  pastoral  charges  ;  became 
bishop  of  Rochester  in  1877  ;  translated  to 
Winchester,  1891.  He  is  the  author  of  the 
popular  devotional  volumes  The  Presence  of 
Christ,  London,  1869,  16th  ed.,  1884  ;  The 
Gospel  of  Christ,  1881, ' 5th  ed.,  1884;  The 
Claim  of  Christ  on  the  Young,  1882,  2d  ed., 
1883  ;  The  Yoke  of  Cfmst,  1883,  7th  ed.,  1887. 

Three  Chapter  Controversy.  See  Chap- 
ters, Three. 

Thugs,  a  Hindu  sect,  which  by  the  very 
worship  of  the  goddess  Kali  was  led  to  com- 
mit the  most  outrageous  crimes,  and  finally 
sank  down  into  a  mere  gang  of  criminals. 
They  terrorized  a  large  district  of  India  for 
many  years,  until  finally  put  down  by  the 
government  between  1828  and  1835.  (See 
Meadows  Taylor,  The  Confessions  of  a  Thug, 
London,  1858.) 

Thummim.    See  Urim  and  Thummum. 

Thurificati.    See  Lapsed,  p.  488. 

Thy-a-ti'-ra,  a  city  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
near  the  river  Lycus,  between  Sardis  and 
Pergamos.  Dyeing  was  an  important  branch 
of  its  business  from  Homer's  time,  and  the 
first  New  Testament  mention  of  it  (Acts  xvi. 
14)  connects  it  with  the  purple-seller,  Lydia. 
It  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  churches 
of  Asia  (Rev.  ii.  18,  24).  The  city  on  its  site, 
now  called  Ak-hissar,  "the  white  castle," 
has  17,000  inhabitants,  and  is  famous  for  the 
scarlet  cloth  dyed  there.  T.  W.  C. 

Tiara  was  the  name  by  which  the  Greeks 


designated  the  head-dress  of  the  great  king 
of  Persia,  and  is  now  the  specific  name  for 
the  head-dress  of  the  pope  on  grand  occasions. 
It  consists  of  a  cylindrical  cap  of  gold  cloth, 
pointed  at  the  top,  and  encircled  with  three 
crowns,  one  above  the  other,  of  which  the 
first  was  adopted  in  the  9th  century,  the  sec- 
ond in  the  12th,  and  the  third  in  the  14th. 
The  exact  dates,  however,  in  the  history  of 
this  peculiar  vestment  are  as  imcertain  as  the 
meaning  of  its  composition. 

Ti-be'-ri-as,  a  town  in  Galilee  founded  by 
Herod  Antipas,  and  named  by  him  after  the 
Emperor  Tiberius.  It  was  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret,  to  which 
sometimes  it  gave  its  own  name  (John  vi.  1, 
xxi.  1).  It  was  an  important  town,  but  there 
is  no  record  of  our  Lord's  visiting  it.  After 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  it  became  a  famous  seat 
of  Jewish  learning,  where  the  Mishna  was 
compiled,  a.d.  190,  and  the  biblical  Massorah. 
It  is  still  one  of  the  holy  cities  of  the  Jews. 
The  modern  town,  Tabariyeh,  was  half  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  1837.  It  has  a 
population  of  about  3000.  T.  W.  C. 

Ti-be'-ri-us,  Claudius  Nero,  was  the  step- 
son and  successor  of  Augustus  (Luke  iii.  1). 
He  began  to  reign  a.d.  14,  and  continued  on 
the  throne  twenty-three  years.  He  was  at 
first  moderate  and  just,  but  soon  degenerated 
into  a  gloomy  despot.  T.  W.  C. 

Tiele,  Cornelis  Petrus,  D.D.  (hon.,  Lei- 
den, 1853),  Dutch  theologian  ;  b.  at  Leiden, 
Dec.  16,  1830  ;  studied  at  the  Remonstrants' 
Seminary  and  at  the  Athenfeum  of  Amster- 
dam ;  became  professor  in  the  former  institu- 
tion, 1873,  and  professor  of  history  of  relig- 
ions in  the  University  of  Leiden,  1877.  He 
has  been  joint  editor  with  Kuenen  and  others 
of  Theologisch  Tijdscltrift  (Leiden)  since  its 
foundation  in  1867.  Of  his  works  have  been 
translated.  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religion 
to  the  Spread  of  the  Universal  Religions,  Lon- 
don, 1878,  4th  ed.,  1888  ;  The  History  of  the 
Egyptian  Religion,  1882. 

Tig'-lath-Pi-le'-ser,  the  second  Assyrian 
king  mentioned  as  having  come  in  contact 
with  Israel,  and  the  second  of  the  name.  He 
invaded  Samaria  (2  Kings  xv.  29)  and  carried 
away  many  captives.  Afterward,  being  in- 
vited by  Ahaz  to  aid  him  against  the  allied 
kings  of  Syria  and  Israel,  Rezin  and  Pekah, 
he  came  in  force,  captured  Damascus,  slew 
Rezin  (2  Kings  xvi.  9),  ravaged  Israel  east  of 
the  Jordan,  and  distressed  Ahaz  by  exacting 
a  heavy  tribute  (1  Chron.  v.  26,  2  Chron. 
xxviii.  16-21).  The  Nineveh  tablets  record 
his  capture  of  Damascus,  Samaria,  and  Tyre. 
He  reigned,  e.c.  747-739,  and  w^as  probably 
a  usurper  of  the  throne.  T.  W.  C. 

Tillemont  (tel-mon),  Louis  Sebastien  Le 
Nain  de,  b.  in  Paris,  Nov.  30,  1637  ;  d.  there, 
Jan.  10,  1698  ;  was  educated  in  Port  Royal 
and  ordained  priest,  and  appointed  pastor  of 
Tillemont,  near  Paris,  in  1676.  Of  his  His- 
to  ire  des  Empereurs  et  .  .  .  des  Persecutions, 
etc.,  the  first  volume  appeared  in  Paris,  1690. 
three  more  during  his  lifetime,  and  two  after 
his  death  ;  and  of  his  Memoires  pour  servir  a 
VMstoire ecclesiastique,  etc.,  the  first  three  vol- 


TILLOTSON 


(917) 


TITUS 


umes  appeared  in  Paris,  1694,  and  thirteen  more 
followed,  reaching  down  to  513.  Besides  these 
two  great  historical  works,  which  are  still  of 
value  on  account  of  the  erudition  and  con- 
scientiousness with  which  he  worked,  he  wrote 
several  minor  sketches  and  essays. 

Tillotson,  John,  b.  at  Sowerby,  Yorkshire, 
England,  1080  ;  d.  at  Lambeth,  Nov.  22, 
1694 ;  was  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  sub- 
scribed to  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  1662,  and 
was  in  1663  appointed  rector  of  Keddington  ; 
rose  slowly  in  the  hierarchy,  more  rapidly 
after  the  accession  of  William  III.,  and  was 
in  1691  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  His 
sermons  were  collected  after  his  death  by  his 
chaplain,  Dr.  Barker,  and  have  been  often  re- 
printed and  translated  into  German.  (See  his 
Works,  with  his  life  by  Thomas  Birch,  best 
ed.,  Loudon,  1820,  10  \o\s.,  and  ^xlect  SertnoHS, 
edited  by  Weldon,  1886.) 

Timothy  {honoring  God),  a  disciple  and 
companion  of  Paul.  He  was  a  native  of  Derbe 
or  Lystra,  iu  Lycaonia,  his  father  being  a 
Gentile  and  his  mother,  Eunice,  a  Jewess 
(Acts  xvi.  1),  distinguished  for  her  piety,  as 
■was  also  his  grandmother,  Lois  (2  Tim.  i.  5). 
By  them  he  was  carefully  trained  in  the  Scrip- 
tures (2  Tim.  iii.  15).  At  Paul's  lirst  visit  to 
Lystra,  a.d.  48,  he  was  converted,  and  on  his 
second  visit  the  apostle  made  him  his  a.ssist- 
ant,  circumcising  him  to  disarm  the  prej- 
udices of  the  Jews.  Afterward  he  became  a 
companion  of  Paul,  who  loved  him  as  his 
own  son.  He  labored  much  at  Ephesus,  and 
that  when  he  was  quite  young  (1  Tim.  i.  3, 
iv.  12).  The  post-apostolic  tradition  makes 
liim  bishop  of  Ephesus. 

Einxths  of  Paul  to.  These,  with  that  to 
Titus,  are  known  as  the  Pastoral  Epistles, 
becau.se  tliey  set  forth  chictly  the  duties  of 
church  officers.  The  First  scents  to  have 
been  written  about  the  year  64,  after  Paul's 
first  imprisonment  at  Rome.  It  contains 
special  instriictions  upon  the  qualifications 
and  duties  of  bishops  and  deacons,  and  pun- 
gent exhortatious  to  fidelity.  The  Second 
was  written  a  year  or  two  later,  during  Paul's 
second  imprisonment,  and  while  he  was  in 
constant  expectation  of  martvrdom  (2  Tim. 
iv.  6-8).  It  is  the  dying  charge  of  the  faith- 
ful apostle  to  his  beloved  child.  It  contains 
a  varietj'  of  injunctions  to  activity  in  work 
and  fortitude  under  trials,  and  concludes  with 
the  expression  of  a  full  and  triumphant  faith 
in  the  Lord  Jesus  and  the  anticipation  of  an 
unfading  crown.  (See  the  commentaries  on 
the  Pastoral  Epistles  bv  P.  Fairbairn,  Edin- 
burgh, 1874;  C.  J.  Ellicott,  London,  5th  ed., 
1883,  and  by  M.  F.  Sadler,  1890.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Tindal,  Matthew,  deist ;  1).  at  Beer  Ferris, 
Devonshire,  1656  ;  d.  at  Oxford,  Aug.  16, 
1733.  He  studied  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford, 
and  was  a  fellow  of  All  Soul's  from  1677. 
He  entered  the  Church  of  Rome,  1685.  and 
left  it,  1688.  Besides  .several  political  tracts, 
he  published  The  Rif/hts  of  the  Christian 
Church,  London,  1706  (an  Erastian  work,  pro- 
scribed. 1707)  ;  A  Defence  Thereof,  1709,  and 
Christianity/  as  Old  as  the  Creation,  1730. 
This  was  considered  the  maiu  treasury  and 


defence  of  deism  ;  it  was  answered  by  J.  Fos- 
ter, 1730  ;  J.  Conybeare,  1732  ;  J.  Leland, 
1733,  and  Bishop  Butler,  1736,  and  translated 
into  German  by  J.  L.  Schmidt,  1741.  A 
second  part  never  appeared.  (See  Lechler, 
Geschichte  des  englischen  Deismus,  Stuttgart, 
1841  ;  Leslie  Stephen,  History  of  English 
Thought  in  the  \Wi  Century,  London,  2d  ed., 
1881,  2  vols.)  F.  M.  B. 

Tischendorf,  Lobegott  Friedrich  Eon- 
stantin,  b.  at  Lengenfeld,  Saxony,  Jan.  18, 
1815  ;  d.  at  Leipzig,  Dec.  7,  1874  ;  studied 
theology  at  Leipzig,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor there  in  1845,  but  spent  much  of  his 
time  on  extensive  travels  in  Europe  and  the 
Orient  iu  behalf  of  his  .science.  His  critical 
labors  on  tlie  text  of  the  Bil)le  resulted  in 
twenty  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  of 
which  the  eight  larger  ones  are  replete  with 
invaluable  materials  for  the  establishment  of 
the  true  reading,  8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1872,  the 
Prolegomena  (in  Latin)  were  written  by  the 
American,  Dr.  Caspar  Rene  Gregorv,  pars 
prior  (with  Ezra  Abbot),  1884,  pars  altera  (1890) 
—a  monument  of  well-directed  industry,  con- 
taining by  far  the  fullest  description  of  the 
imciai  and  cursive  mss.  of  the  Greek  New 
Testament,  from  personal  examination  ; 
editions  of  the  Evangeli^nn  Pithitinum,  1847  ; 
Codex Amiatinus,  1850;  Cmh.r  Chuoiuontanvs, 
1852  ;  Fragmenta  sacra palunps,  sta,  1854;  Co- 
dex Sinaiticus,  1862,  4  vols,  fol.;  JS'oinim  Tes- 
tamentum  Vaticanum,  1867  ;  also  a  critical 
edition  of  the  Septuagint,  often  reprinted  ; 
Acta  Apostolormn  apocrypha,  1851  ;  Evangelia 
apocrypha,  1854  ;  Apocalyp)sesapocryphm,  1866, 
etc.  His  Wann  lourden  vnsere  Erangclien 
rerfasst?  1865,  was  translated  into  all  Euro- 
pean languages. 

Tithe  (tenth),  a  tax  for  religious  purposes 
from  an  early  period  (Gen.  xiv.  20,  xxviii. 
22).  A  twofold  tithe  was  paid  by  all  Jews  : 
frst,  a  tenth  of  the  yield  of  fields,  herds,  etc., 
which  went  to  the  support  of  the  Levites, 
who  in  turn  paid  a  tenth  of  what  they  re- 
ceived to  the  priests  (Num.  xviii.  21-28)  ;  and, 
secondly,  a  tithe  of  the  nine  parts  left,  which 
was  spent  in  entertaining  at  the  tabernacle  or 
temple  his  own  family  and  friends  and  the 
Levites.  Every  third  "year  a  special  provision 
was  made  for  the  poor  either  out  of  this  tithe 
or  in  addition  to  it  (Deut.  xiv.  28,  29).  The 
system  was  renewed  after  the  exile  (Neh.  x. 
3*7,  38),  but  not  alwavs  regularlv  paid  (]\Ial. 
iii.  8-12).  The  Pharisees  tithed  garden  herbs, 
but  neglected  weightier  matters  (Matt,  xxiii. 
23).  Siome  contend  that  the  law  of  tithes  ex- 
ists under  the  Gospel,  but  the  New  Testament 
is  silent  on  the  point.  T.  "\V.  C. 

Titular  Bishops.     See  In  r.\RTrBUS,  p.  416. 

Titus,  a  Gentile  (Gal.  ii.  3)  converted  under 
the  preaching  of  Paul  (Tit.  i.  4),  who,  how- 
ever, refused  to  circumcise  him  when  that 
was  demanded  as  a  matter  of  necessity.  He 
was  Paul's  companion  on  many  missionary 
tours,  and  was  entrusted  with  several  impor- 
tant conmii.ssions  (2  Cor.  xii.  18,  2  Tim.  iv. 
10,  Tit.  i.  12). 

Epixtle  to.  This  was  probably  written 
from  Ephesus,  a.d.  65,  when  Paul  was  on  his 
way  to  Nicopolis,  and  was  designed  to  instruct 


TOBIT 


(918) 


TOPLADT 


Titus  in  the  right  discharge  of  ministerial 
oflaces  in  Crete,  whose  people  were  noted  for 
lying,  gluttony,  and  idleness,  and  therefore 
made  a  difficult  field.  (See  the  commentaries 
mentioned  under  Timothy  ;  also  H.  D.  M. 
Spence,  Tihis,  Loudon,  1883.)        T.  W.  C. 

Tobit.    See  Pseijdepigrapha,  p.  775. 

Tobler,  Titus,  b.  at  Stein,  Appenzell,  Swit- 
zerland, June  25,  1806  ;  d.  in  Munich,  Jan. 
21,  1871  ;  studied  medicine  at  Zurich  and 
Vienna,  and  visited  Palestine  in  1835-36  for 
medical  purposes,  but  returned  afterward 
four  times  and  made  extensive  geographical 
and  topographical  researches.  His  principal 
works  are  Topographie  mn  Jerusalem,  Berlin, 
1853-54,  2  vols.;  PlanograpMe  mn  Jerusalem, 
Gotha,  1858  ;  Dritte  Wanderung  nach  Pales- 
Una,  1859  ;  Nazareth,  Berlin,  1868  _;  Biblio- 
gi'apMa  OeograpMca  Palestine,  Leipzig,  1867  ; 
'Palestine  Descriptiones  ex  So'culo  IV.,  V.  et 
VI.,  1867  .  .  .  ex  Smculo  VIII,  IX.,  XII, 
et  XV.,  1874.  His  life  was  written  by  Helm, 
Zurich,  1879. 

Todd,  John,  D.D.  (Williams,  1845),  Con- 
gregationalist  ;  b.  at  Rutland,  Vt.,  Oct,  9, 
1800;  d.  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1873. 
He  graduated  at  Yale,  1822,  and  at  Andover, 
1825,  and  was  pastor  at  Groton,  Mass.,  1827- 
33 ;  Northampton,  1833-36  ;  Philadelphia, 
1836-42,  and  Pittsfield,  1842-72.  He  was  a 
founder  of  the  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary,  and 
a  voluminous  and  popular  writer.  Collected 
editions  of  his  books  appeared  in  London, 
1853  and  1879  ;  among  them  were  lectures  to 
Children,  1834-58.  2  vols.,  widely  translated, 
and  Students'  Manual,  1835.  His  autobiog- 
raphy, edited  by  his  son,  appeared.  New  York, 
1876.  F.  M.  B. 

Toland,  John,  deist ;  b.  near  Londonderry, 
Ireland,  Nov.  30,  1670  ;  d.  at  Putney,  4  m. 
w.  of  London,  May  11,  1722.  His  name  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  James  Junius. 
Brought  up  a  Romanist,  he  became  a  Protes- 
tant in  boyhood.  He  studied  at  Glasgow, 
Edinburgh  (M.A.,  1690),  and  Leydeu,  having 
the  dissenting  ministry  in  view.  He  Hved  at 
Oxford,  1694-96,  published  his  Christianity 
not  Mysterious,  London,  1696  ;  was  in  con- 
sequence driven  out  of  Dublin  and  his  book 
burnt  by  the  hangman.  His  life  of  Milton, 
1698,  and  Amyntor,  1699,  contained  matter  of 
the  same  kind.  From  1701-10  he  was  mainly 
abroad,  and  wrote  on  the  Hanoverian  succes- 
sion. His  later  books  are  Origines  Judaicw, 
1709 ;  Nazarenus,  1718  ;  Tetradymus,  1720, 
and  Pantlieisticon,  1720  ;  the  last,  a  liturgy 
from  heathen  sources,  was  privately  printed. 
His  Posthumous  Works  appeared  in  2  vols., 
1726,  with  a  life  ;  see  another  by  Huddlestone, 
Montrose,  1814.  He  was  an  able  and  earnest 
student,  poor,  persecuted,  and  embittered. 
F.  M.  B. 

Toledoth  Jeshu  (Hebrew,  History  of  Jesus) 
is  the  name  of  two  Jewish  pasquils  on  the  life 
of  Jesus,  dating  from  the  12th  or  13th  cen- 
tury, and  principally  made  up  from  Talmudic 
legends.  One  of  them  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  Wagenseil  in  his  Tela  Ignsa  Satanm, 
Altdorf,  1681,  Eng.  trans..  New  York,  2d  ed., 
1879 ;  and  the  other  by  Huldrich  in  his 
Historia  JeschuoB  a  Judms  corrupta,  Leyden, 


1705.     (See  Baring-Gould,  The  Lost  and  Hos- 
tile Gospels,  London,  1874.) 

Toleration,  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word,  is 
synonymous  with  freedom  of  religion,  but  in 
accordance  with  the  actual  state  of  affairs  in 
this  sphere  it  simply  means  that  modicum  of 
religious  liberty  which  is  conceded  to  olhtr 
denominations  by  the  reigning  church,  the 
state  institution.  In  the  development  of  the 
idea  of  toleration  there  is  a  multitude  of  dis- 
tinct stages,  from  the  cruel  intolerance  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  to  the  religious  liberty  of  America  of 
to-day,  a  concise  account  of  which,  by  Rev.  Dr. 
Philip  Schaff,  will  be  found  in  the  Papers  of  the 
America7i  Society  of  Church  History,  vol.  i., 
1889. 

Tombes,  John,  b.  at  Beaudley,  Worcester- 
shire, England,  1603  ;  d.  at  Salisbury,  May  22, 
1676 ;  was  educated  at  Oxford  ;  became 
preacher  at  Beaudley  in  1647,  next  neighbor 
to  Richard  Baxter  at  Kidderminster,  but  re- 
tired from  pastoral  duties  in  1658.  He  was 
appreciated  as  a  preacher,  especially  among 
the  Puritans,  and  wrote  much  against  infant 
baptism  :  Two  Treatises,  London,  1645  ;  Apol- 
ogy, 1646  ;  Anti-pcedobaptism,  1652,  etc. 

Tomline,  George,  b.  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's, 
60  m.  n.e.  of  London,  Suffolk,  England,  Oct. 
9,  1750  ;  d.  at  Winchester,  Nov.  14,  1827  ; 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became  bish- 
op of  Lincoln  in  1787,  and  of  Winchester  in 
1820.  Of  his  Elements  of  Christian  Theology, 
London,  1799,  2  vols.,  the  14th  ed.  appeared 
1843,  and  vol.  i.  was  separately  printed  under 
the  title  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible, 
1876. 

Tongues.     See  Gifts,  p.  366. 

Tonsure,  the  shaving  of  the  head  of  a  cleric 
of  the  Roman  or  Greek  Church  in  a  circle  ; 
the  inevitable  accompaniment  of  admission  to 
even  the  lowest  order,  that  of  lector  or  read- 
er ;  primarily  performed  by  the  bishop,  mitred 
abbot,  or  cardinal  priest.  It  was  not  the  rec- 
ognized clerical  distinguishing  mark  until  the 
6th  century.  There  are  three  sorts  of  ton- 
sure :  (1)  the  Roman,  which  takes  in  the 
crown  of  the  head,  and  widens  as  the  rank  of 
the  ecclesiastic  is  higher  ;  (2)  the  Greek,  which 
takes  in  the  whole  head,  and  (3)  the  Celtic, 
which  extends  from  the  front  to  the  line 
drawn  over  the  head  from  ear  to  ear. 

Toplady,  Augustus  Montague,  Church  of 
England  ;  b.  at  Farnliam,  Surrey,  38  m. 
w.s.w.  of  London,  Nov.  4,  1740  ;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, Aug.  11,  1778.  He  studied  at  Westmin- 
ster school  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  ; 
was  ordained,  1762  ;  vicar  of  Blagdon,  Somer- 
set, 1762-68  ;  of  Broad  Hembury,  Devonshire, 
1768-75,  when  he  removed  to  London  ;  from 
1776  till  his  death  he  preached  in  the  French 
Calvinistic  Reformed  Chapel,  Orange  Street, 
Leicesterfields,  London.  He  was  an  advanced 
Calvinist  and  a  fierce  denouncer  of  Wesley. 
His  works,  collected  in  6  vols.,  London,  1825, 
are  less  valued  now  than  his  precocious  Poems 
on  Sacred  Subjects,  Dublin,  1759.  and  completed 
in  D.  Sedgwick's  edition,  London,  1860. 
After  the  Wesleys  he  is  the  most  brilliant  and 


TORQUBMADA 


:9i9) 


TRACT 


fiery  hymnist  of  the  last  century.  His  great- 
est lyric,  "  Rock  of  Alices,"  appeared  1776,  as 
did  his  collection  of  Fucdins  and  Jlijiiutfi,  con- 
taining but  few  of  his  own.  F.  ]\I.  B. 

Torquemada  (Turrecremata),  Thomas  de, 

the  Spanish  Inquisitor  ;  b.  at  Valladolid, 
1420  ;  d.  at  Avila,  Sept.  16,  1498.  He  was  a 
Dominican  monk,  very  zealous  for  ortho- 
doxy ;  secured  tlie  introduction  of  the  "  Holy 
Office"  of  the  Iu(iuisiti()n  in  Spain,  1478,  and 
was  appointed  imiuisitor-ireneral,  1482,  and 
so  admirably  filled  his  office  that  he  has 
passed  into  current  speech  as  a  synonyme  of 
heartless  cruelty.  He  is  responsible  for  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain. 

Torrey,  Joseph,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1850), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Rowley,  Mass.,  Feb. 
2,  1797;  d.  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  Nov.  26,  1867. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth,  1816,  and  at  An- 
dover,  1819  ;  was  pastor  at  Royalton,  Vt., 
1819-27  ;  professor  of  classics  in  "the  Univer- 
sity of  Vermont,  1827-42  ;  of  intellectual  and 
moral  philosophy,  1842-67,  and  president. 
1863-65.  He  translated  Neander's  Church 
History,  Boston,  1854.  5  vols.,  and  wrote 
memoirs  of  his  predecessors,  J.  ^larch  (1843) 
and  W.  Smith  (1861),  prefixed  to  their  works, 
which  he  edited.  F.  M.  B. 

Towianski,  Andreas,  b.  at  Antoszwiniec, 
Lithuania,  Jan.  1,  1799  ;  d.  at  Zurich,  May 
13,  1878  ;  practised  law  at  Wilna,  1818-26  ; 
went  to  Paris  ;  became  a  convert  of  St.  Simon, 
and  began  in  1841  to  preach  his  own  views, 
a  mixture  of  social  revolution  and  religious 
mysticism.  It  was  his  disciple,  however,  the 
great  Polish  poet,  Mickiewicz.  rather  than  he 
himself,  who  aroused  attention  to  his  ideas. 
(See  Semenka,  Toioianski  et  sa  doctrine,  Paris, 
1850,  and  Mickiewicz,  L'ef/lise  officielle  et  la 
Messianisme,  1842-43.  2  vols.) 

Townley,  James,  b.  at  Manchester,  Eng- 
land. May  11,  1774  ;  d.  at  Kamsgate,  67  m. 
s.e.  of  London,  Dec.  12,  1833  ;  became  a  local 
preacher  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  and  was  ap- 
pointed general  secretary  to  the  Wesleyan 
Missionary  Society  in  1827.  His  Illustrations 
of  Biblical  Literature  appeared  in  London, 
1821,  3  vols.,  and  was  reprinted  in  New  York, 
1842,  2  vols. 

Townsend,  Luther  Tracy,  D.D.  (Dart- 
mouth Colleirc,  Hanover.  N.  11.,  1871),  Meth- 
odist ;  b.  at  (Jrono,  Me.,  Sept.  27.  1838  ;  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  College,  1859,  and  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary,  ^hissachusetts, 
1862,  and  was  in  1867  appointed  professor  of 
theology  in  Boston  University.  Among  his 
numerous  writings  are  Sirord  and  Garment, 
Boston,  1871  ;  God-Man,  1872  ;  Credo,  1873  ; 
Arena  and  Throne,  1874  ;  Lost  Forever,  1875  ; 
Bible  Theology  and  Modern  Thouyht,  1883  ; 
Faith  Works,  Christian  Science,  and  Other 
Cures,  1885  ;  The  Bible  and  Other  Ancient 
Literature  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  New 
York,  1889. 

To'wnson,  Thomas,  b.  at  Much  Lees,  Essex, 
England,  1715  :  d.  at  Richmond,  April  15, 
1792  ;  was  e<lucated  at  Oxford,  and  made 
archdeacon  of  Richmond  in  1780.  In  1778  he 
published  at  Oxford  his  Discourses  on  the  Four 


Gospels.     His    works    appeared    in   London, 
1810,  2  vols. 

Toy,  Crawford  Howell,  D.D.  (Wake 
Forest,  N.  C,  1872),  LL.D.  (Howard,  Ala., 
1882  ;  Univ.  of  N.  C,  1889),  Baptist  ;  b.  at 
Norfolk,  Va.,  ]March  23,  1836  ;  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Virginia,  1856  ;  studied  at 
Berlin,  1866-68,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  Old  Testament  interpretation  in  Southern 
Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  Greenville, 
S.  C,  1869,  and  professor  of  Hebrew  in  Har- 
vard University,  1880.  He  published  i7(!V*to?y 
of  the  lieligion  of  Isrod,  Bo.ston,  1882,  3d  ed., 
1884  ;  Quotations  in  the  JVew  Testament,  New 
York,  1884  ;  Judaism  and  Ghristianity :  a 
Sketch  of  the  Progress  of  Thought  from  Old 
Testament  to  New  Testament,  Boston,  1890. 

Trach-o-ni'-tis  {rugged  region),  one  of  the 
five  Roman  provinces  into  which  the  district 
northeast  of  the  Jordan  was  divided.  It  lay 
between  Damascus  and  Bostra,  and  included 
the  modern  Leyah.  Herod  Philip  was  tet- 
rarch  of  it  (Luke  iii.  1),  and  after  his  death, 
A.D.  53,  Caligula  gave  it  to  Herod  Agrippa  I. 
T.  W.  C. 

Tractarianism,  a  remarkable  movement  in 
the  English  Church,  which  took  its  name  from 
the  Tracts  for  the  Times,  a  series  of  papers 
published  at  Oxford  from  1833  to  1841.  It  con- 
sisted of  ninety  tracts,  of  which  Newman  wrote 
twenty-four  and  Keble  also  a  number.  The 
immediate  occasion  of  the  movement  was  the 
abolition  of  ten  Irish  bi-shoprics,  but  the  writ- 
ers went  on  to  press  apostolic  succession,  the 
efficacy  of  sacraments,  priestly  absolution,  the 
authority  of  the  church,  and  the  value  of 
tradition,  until  at  length  Tract  No.  90  showed 
how  it  was  possible  to  interpret  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  in  a  Romanizing  sense.  This 
excited  so  much  opposition  as  to  cause  the 
discontinuance  of  the  series. 

The  results  of  the  movement  appear  in  the 
greater  strength  of  the  High  Churc-h  party  in 
England  ;  the  large  development  of  ritual  and 
all  accessories  of  worship  ;  the  impulse  given 
to  the  building  and  restoration  of  churches, 
with  improved  arcliitecture  ;  the  secession  of 
many  persons  of  ability  and  distinction  (New- 
man, Faber,  Manning,  Wilberforce,  et  al.) 
to  Rome,  amoimting  to  many  hundreds  of 
clerg}'  and  laity  ;  and,  it  must  be  admitted, 
to  a'vast  increase  of  activity  in  all  forms  of 
religious  life.  Yet  with  the  last  nuist  be 
reckoned  also  an  agnostic  and  rationalistic 
reaction  in  tlie  Churcth  of  England.  Pu.sey, 
Williams,  Keble.  and  Perceval,  although 
among  the  earliest  Tractarians,  lived  and  died 
in  the  Anglican  commimion.  T.  W.  C. 

Tract  Societies.  Tract  societies,  tech- 
nically s]icaking,  are  organizations  for  the 
prepaVation  and  circulation  of  a  religious  liter- 
ature. The  "tract"  distinctively  is  a  short 
treatise  on  practical  religion,  but  tracts  on 
political  and  other  subjects  have  at  times  been 
largely  piiblished  and  circulated.  While  tract 
societies  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin, 
the  circulation  of  short  treatises  for  tlie  pro- 
motion of  religious  knowledge  is  older  than 
the  invention  of  printing.  Wiclif.  e.g.,w&s 
a  great  writer  and  circulator  of  tracts,  his 


TRACT 


(920) 


TRACT 


friends  being  employed  to  multiply  copies. 
It  is  said  that  one  of  his  tracts  was  the  means 
of  the  conversion  of  John  Hus,  and  thus  of 
spreading  the  Reformation.  Luther  had  the 
press  to  aid  him,  and  was  diligent  in  his  use 
of  it  in  multiplying  copies  of  his  tractates. 
As  early  as  1524  there  was  at  Basel,  Switzer- 
land, what  was  virtually  a  Bible  society,  a 
tract  society,  and  a  colporteur  association. 
A  forerunner  of  modern  tract  societies  was 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl- 
edge, organized  in  London  in  1701  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  of  England,  and  having 
for  its  object  the  promotion  of  charity  schools 
in  England  and  Wales,  and  to  dispense  at 
home  and  abroad  Bibles  and  tracts  of  religious 
knowledge.  The  different  religious  denomi- 
nations abroad  and  in  this  country  have  been 
diligent  in  preparing  and  circulating  religious 
literature  having  special  denominational 
adaptations.  The  first  tract  society  in  which 
different  Christian  denominations  united  was 
formed  in  England  in  1750,  and  was  known 
as  the  Society  for  Promoting  Religious 
Knowledge  among  the  Poor.  In  1790  Miss 
Hannah  More  began  to  issue  her  famous 
Cheap  Repository  Tracts,  and  their  success 
stimulated  further  endeavor  in  tract  circula- 
tion. In  1793  the  Religious  Tract  and  Book 
Society  of  Scotland  was  formed,  which,  in 
1885,  following  American  example,  adojited 
the  system  of  colportage. 

This  last-named  society  has,  however,  been 
overshadowed  by  an  oganization  which  is  the 
greatest  of  the  tract  societies  of  the  world,  the 
model  which  many  of  them  have  copied,  and 
the  fruitful  parent  and  efficient  helper  of 
others.  This  is  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 
founded  in  London  in  1799,  the  Rev.  George 
Burder  being  the  prime  mover  in  it.  This 
society  had  for  its  object  the  circulation  of 
religious  books  and  treatises  in  foreign  coun- 
tries as  well  as  throughout  the  British  domin- 
ions. It  had  a  small  beginning,  and  at  first 
its  sphere  of  labor  was  much  circumscribed. 
Now  its  operations  are  on  an  extended  scale, 
and  reach  to  nearly  every  part  of  the  world. 
Its  affairs  are  administered  by  a  committee 
annually  chosen,  consisting  of  four  ministers 
and  eight  laymen,  the  members  being  equally 
divided  between  the  Established  Church  and 
Protestant  Dissenters.  The  society  works  by 
means  of  direct  sales  or  gifts  in  different 
places,  or  through  the  agency  of  local  soci- 
eties or  committees.  It  aids  foreign  organiza- 
tion on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  mission 
fields  by  grants  of  money  or  paper.  It  has 
given  efficient  aid  to  missionaries  in  the  work 
of  publication,  assisting  American  missions  as 
well  as  British  in  this  direction.  Its  affairs 
are  so  prudently  conducted,  and  its  business 
is  so  extensive  and  remunerative,  that  it  is 
able  to  devote  a  large  sum  every  year  from  its 
profits  to  its  benevolent  work,  besides  paying 
all  costs  and  charges  whatsoever.  Thus  for 
the  year  ending  March  31,  1890,  the  total 
grants  in  money,  paper,  and  publications  were 
£47,378  5*.  M.  Toward  this  sum  the  recipi- 
ents of  grants  in  part  payment  contributed 
£9919  13s.  M.,  leaving  the  net  amount  £37,458 
lis.  M.  The  contributions  received  during 
the  year  amounted  to  £27,938  5s.  \d.,  of  which 


amount  a  legacy  of  a  little  more  than  £10,000 
was  invested  as  a  permanent  provision  for 
missionary  purposes.  The  excess  of  grants 
over  the  available  free  contributions  was 
£19.670  15s.  \d.,  provided  from  the  trade  re- 
ceipts. The  total  receipts  of  the  society  from 
all  sources  for  the  year  amounted  to  £211,675 
4s.  'id.,  being  an  increase  of  more  than  £14,000 
over  the  previous  year.  The  expenditure  in 
all  departments  was  £208.756  2s.  \M.  The 
society  gave  away  more  than  as  much  again 
as  it  received  from  the  public.  It  does  not 
do  its  own  work  of  manufacturing,  but  con- 
tracts for  the  making  of  its  various  publica- 
tions. Its  issues  for  the  year  in  books,  tracts, 
cards,  and  separate  numbers  of  periodicals 
amounted  to  62,435,130.  Of  these  25,289,800 
-were  tracts.  Counting  the  publications  issued 
by  foreign  societies  and  depots  by  its  aid,  the 
total  number  of  its  publications  for  the  year 
was  nearly  seventy -seven  and  a  half  millions, 
and  its  total  distribution  from  the  beginning 
has  been  more  than  two  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  fifty  millions— in  exact  figures,  2,757,- 
521,710.  It  has  printed  important  books  and 
tracts  in  200  languages,  dialects,  and  charac- 
ters, and  its  works  vary  from  a  handbill  to  a 
commentary,  and  even  to  complete  editions  of 
the  Bible  itself.  It  publishes  plain  books  and 
those  which  are  richly  illustrated,  and  it  is- 
sues a  number  of  periodicals  of  different 
kinds,  from  the  paper  for  children  to  the 
magazines.  The  Leisure  Hour  and  Sunday  at 
Home.  Its  publications  suit  all  classes  of 
readers,  from  the  plain  cottager  to  the  learned 
student. 

The  earhest  undenominational  tract  society 
which  seems  to  have  been  formed  in  this 
country  was  the  Massachusetts  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  which  was 
founded  in  1803.  It  was  one  of  several  local 
organizations  whose  object  was  the  printing 
and  circulation  of  tracts  and  volumes  on  re- 
ligious subjects.  Among  these  were  the  New 
York  Religious  Tract  Society,  organized  in 
1812,  and  the  New  England  Tract  Society, 
organized  in  Boston  in  1814.  This  latter  in 
1823  changed  its  name  to  the  American  Tract 
Society,  and  in  1825  it  became  a  branch  of 
the  national  society  which  was  then  insti- 
tuted. It  separated  from  that  society  in  after 
years,  pursuing  a  different  policy  on  the  sub- 
ject of  slavery  ;  but  after  some  changes  and 
vicissitudes,  while  its  name  and  a  distinct  or- 
ganization is  maintained,  it  has  practically 
become  merged  in  the  larger  society  of  New 
York.  The  design  of  the  American  Tract 
Society,  which  was  organized  in  New  York 
in  1825,  and  which  is  the  principal  tract  so- 
ciety in  this  country,  was  that  of  a  society 
for  the  whole  Union,  inviting  the  co-operation 
of  Christians  of  all  denominations  and  of 
other  tract  associations  as  auxiliaries.  Its  ob- 
ject, as  set  forth  in  its  constitution,  is  to  pub- 
lish and  circulate  such  a  literature  as  will  best 
' '  diffuse  a  knowledge  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
as  the  Redeemer  of  sinners,  and  promote  the 
interests  of  vital  godliness  and  sound  moral- 
ity." It  is  restricted  to  the  publication  of 
only  that  which  is  "  calculated  to  receive  the 
approbation  of  all  evangelical  Christians." 
The  affairs  of  the  society  are  under  the  con- 


TRADITION 


(921) 


TRADITION 


trol  of  three  committees  :  the  Publishing  Com- 
mittee, six  leading  clergymen  of  as  many  dif- 
ferent denominations,  without  whose  unani- 
mous approval  no  publication  is  made  ,  the 
Distributing  Committee,  who  regulate  all 
grants  ;  and  the  Finance  Committee,  who  at- 
tend to  the  raising  and  expending  of  funds. 
The  action  of  these  committees  is  revised 
monthly  by  the  three  sitting  as  an  Executive 
Committee.  The  society  owns  its  house  and 
an  ample  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  its 
publications,  the  house  having  been  given  by 
the  liberality  of  friends  very  soon  after  its 
organization.  Beginning  solely  with  tracts, 
the  society  soon  came  to  issue  volumes  as 
well.  A  little  later  it  began  the  publication 
of  periodicals,  of  which  it  now  issues  six,  four 
in  English  and  two  in  German.  It  issues  a 
large  variety  of  publications,  and  in  about  as 
many  langiiages  and  dialects  as  the  Religious 
Tract  Society  of  London.  IMauy  of  its  issues 
are  handsomely  illustrated.  The  aggregate 
circulation  of  the  periodicals  for  the  year  end- 
ing March  31,  1890,  was  2.413,600.  The 
whole  number  of  distinct  publications  issued 
by  the  society  from  the  beginning  is  7435,  of 
which  1691  are  volumes  and  the  remainder 
tracts  of  various  forms — leaflets,  handbills, 
cards,  booklets,  etc.  The  whole  number  of 
publications  at  foreign  mission  stations  ap- 
proved by  the  society's  committee  and  pub- 
lished wholly  or  in  part  bj'  funds  granted  for 
the  purpose  is  4584,  of  which  788  are  vol- 
umes. The  total  number  of  tracts  and  books 
printed  by  the  society  during  the  year  covered 
by  the  last  report  was  3.189,966,  numbering 
53,190,742  pages.  There  have  been  printed 
bv  the  society  from  the  beginning,  of  books 
and  tracts  441,201,394,  making  a  total  of 
9,371,832,883  pages.  The  society  received 
for  the  year  in  donations  and  legacies  $72,864.- 
85  ;  its  sales  amounted  to  $158,418.38  ;  the 
total  receipts  from  all  sources  were  $398,690.- 
95.  In.  the  sixty-five  years  of  its  history  it 
has  received  from  gifts  and  sales  a  total  of 
$18,429,907.93.  Among  its  other  grants  it 
has  given  in  cash  to  aid  in  the  work  of  publi- 
cation at  foreign  mission  stations  a  total  of 
$696,949.33.  A  feature  of  the  work  of  the 
American  Tract  Society,  which  distinguishes 
it  from  its  London  prototype,  is  its  sj-stera  of 
colportage,  which  was  organized  m  1841. 
The  aim  of  this  plan  of  operation  is  to  reach 
with  Christian  truth  through  both  the  printed 
page  and  the  living  voice  the  scattered  thou- 
sands of  people  throughout  the  country  who 
are  practically  outside  the  churches.  It  is 
eminently  adapted  to  reacii  the  multitudes  of 
immigrants  who  pour  into  the  countrj-,  and 
is  economiciil,  practical,  and  elastic.  During 
the  forty-nine  years  in  which  this  system  has 
been  in  operation,  the  time  employed  has  been 
equivalent  to  the  work  of  one  nian  for  5800 
years.  The  colporteurs  have  addressed  463,- 
208  meetings  and  have  made  13.775.030  family 
visits,  in  most  of  which  there  has  been  prayer 
and  religious  conversation  as  well  as  the  sale 
or  gift  of  books.  The  results  of  these  labors 
cannot  be  tabulated,  but  there  is  abundance 
of  convincing  proof  of  their  usefulness. 

There  are  other  tract  societies  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.      Ou  the  coutiuent  of 


Europe  these  are  as  follows  :  The  Paris  Tract 
Society,  the  Belgium  Evangelical  Society,  the 
Geneva  Evangelical  Society,  the  Lausanne 
Tract  Society ,"the  Italian  Evangelical  Publi- 
cation Society  (Florence),  the  German  Evan- 
gelical Book  and  Tract  Society,  the  Baden 
Colportage  Association,  the  Hamburg  Tract 
Society,  the  Danish  Tract  Society,  the  Swe- 
dish Evangelical  Society,  the  Stockholm 
Evangelical  Tract  Society,  and  the  Luther 
Society  in  Christiania. 

In  India  these  societies  are  as  follows  :  Cal- 
cutta Book  and  Tract  Society,  North  India 
Christian  Tract  and  Book  Society  (Allahabad). 
Punjab  Religious  Book  Society,  Bombay 
Book  and  Tract  Soci(;ty,  Madras  Religious 
Tract  and  Book  Society,  Bangalore  Tract  and 
Book  Society,  South  Travancore  Book  and 
Tract  Society,  Burmah  Bible  and  Tract  So- 
ciety, Ceylon  Christian  Vernacular  Education 
and  Religious  Tract  Society. 

There  are  societies  in  China  as  follows : 
North  China  Tract  Society,  East  China  Re- 
ligious Tract  Society,  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Christian  and  General  Knowledge  among 
the  Chinese,  Chinese  Religious  Tract  Society, 
Central  China  Tract  Society,  Foochow  Re- 
ligious Tract  Committee,  Canton  Committee 
of  Religious  Tract  Society. 

There  is  a  South  African  Tract  and  Book 
Society,  a  Mexican  Tract  Society,  a  Montreal 
Tract  Society,  and  the  British  American  Book 
and  Tract  Society  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia. 

]\rany  of  these  societies  receive  aid  from  the 
London  Religious  Tract  Society.  They  do  a 
work  that  in  the  aggregate  is  very  consider- 
able. The  methods  of  the  Christian  tract 
societies  are  followed  to  some  extent  by  soci- 
eties existing  in  different  parts  of  the  world 
for  the  promulgation  of  infidel  doctrines.  It 
is  not  believed  that  these  endeavors  are  meet- 
ing with  any  wide  success,  or  are  likely  to  be 
permanent. 

Oliver  Addison  Kingsbury. 

Tradition.  The  original  meaning  of  the 
word,  as  used  by  the  early  church  writers 
was  the  entire  body  of  instruction  which  had 
been  handed  down  by  the  apostles.  Had 
there  been  no  written  histories  and  epistles, 
the  church  would  have  had  an  apostolic  doc- 
trine which  .she  would  have  sought  to  pre- 
.serve.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament  so  completely  embraced  all 
that  the  apostles  had  taught,  that  by  the  time 
of  Eusebius  there  was  almost  nothing  current 
in  the  church  as  oral  tradition  in  the  way  of 
narrative  about  Christ,  or  of  apostolic  instruc- 
tion, which  he  was  able  to  find  and  record, 
when  he  sought  to  do  this.  But  already,  in 
the  controversies  with  the  Gnostics,  there  had 
sprung  up  another  use  of  the  word  tradition. 
It  now  signitied  the  interpretation  of  the  apos- 
tolic writings  which  had  l)een  reached  in  the 
church,  or  the  common  doctrine  of  the  church, 
tiieii  very  simple,  but  gathered  in  a  "  rule  of 
faith"  wiiieii  exiiibifcdVemarkable  uniformity 
in  widelv  separated  regions,  was  the  foundation 
of  the  present  Ajiostles'  Creed  so  called.  But 
no  difference  was  recognized  between  the  oral 
and  the  written  tradition  as  to  their  matter. 
About  the  lime  of  Augustine,  however,  there 


TRADITORES 


(922) 


TRANSMIGRATION 


arose  a  disposition  to  put  tradition  upon  a 
level  with  the  Scriptures  as  another  source  of 
doctrine.  Vincent  of  Lerinum  (434)  sought 
to  formulate  the  meaning  of  that  tradition 
which  he  would  make  the  standard  of  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  Scriptures.  It  was  "  that 
which  has  been  believed  always,  everywhere, 
and  by  all."  There  was  in  the  days  of  com- 
parative agreement  in  the  church,  and  when 
.scientific  exegesis  was  unborn,  some  justifica- 
tion for  this  use  of  tradition  ;  but  its  use  soon 
became  perversion.  The  Roman  Church, 
which  demanded  uniformity  in  its  own  fold, 
and  cast  every  disagreeing  body  out  of  the 
church,  soon  made  the  "  always,  everywhere, 
and  by  all  "  to  mean  what  it  had  itself  set 
forth  in  its  decisions.  The  teaching  oftice  of 
the  church  was  emphasized  as  the  chief  thing, 
and  the  Bible  naturally  became  of  less  ac- 
count. The  result  was  that  the  solid  ground 
of  biblical  doctrine  was  abandoned,  and  then 
the  tradition  itself  was  so  employed  that  doc- 
trines were  promulgated  upon  the  authority 
of  the  church  which,  like  the  immaculate 
conception  of  Mary,  or  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope,  have  no  tradition  in  their  favor  at  all, 
if  tradition  is  to  be  defined  still  in  the  words 
of  Vincent.  In  fact,  tradition  in  the  Roman 
Church  to-day  is  the  pope  himself  ;  and  Pius 
IX.  once  expressly  said,  "  I  am  the  tradition. " 

Protestants  have  always  made  the  Bible 
the  sole  authority  for  appeal  in  case  of  doc- 
trinal doubt.  And  yet  there  has  arisen  in  the 
process  of  time  a  Protestant  tradition,  wb'ch 
consists  in  the  commonly  received  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Bible.  It  is  expressed  in  the  great 
confessions,  in  which,  with  all  their  differ- 
ences, a  striking  agreement  is  to  be  found 
upon  the  principal  heads  of  divinity.  If  the 
distinction  be  made  between  doctrines  and 
theories  of  doctrine,  as  striking  an  agreement 
in  the  former  will  be  found  among  Protes- 
tants as  disagreement  in  some  of  the  latter. 
(See  Collotte,  Rome's  Theory  of  Tradition 
Examined,  London,  1886.)  F.  H.  F. 

Traditores.    See  Lapsed,  p.  488. 

Traducianism.     See  Creationism,  p.  204. 

Trsgan  (Marcus  Ulpius  Trajanus),  Roman 
emperor  98-117,  began  his  reign  with  one  of 
those  extremely  rare  measures  of  a  purely 
humane  description  which  are  to  be  found 
in  the  history  of  pagan  Rome  ;  immediately 
after  his  entrance  into  Rome,  in  the  latter 
part  of  99,  he  made  provision  on  a  large  scale 
out  of  his  private  purse  for  the  support  and 
education  of  the  children  of  the  poor  in  Italy. 
Roman  civilization  aspired  to  justice.  Roman 
character  could  be  grandly  magnanimous. 
But  the  idea  of  humanity  did  not  exist  in  an- 
tiquity ;  it  is  a  specifically  Christian  growth. 
Curious  it  looks,  therefore,  that  the  first 
Roman  emperor  to  whom  a  purely  humane 
measure  can  be  ascribed  is  also  the  first  to 
legalize  persecution  of  the  Christians.  In  110 
the  younger  Pliny  was  sent  as  governor  to 
Bithynia,  and  there  he  found  that  about  one 
half  of  the  population,  not  only  in  the  cities, 
but  also  in  the  country  were  Christians.  Ju- 
daism wasa  religio  licita  ("  tolerated  religion"), 
but  as  the  Romans  just  about  this  time  became 
fully  aware  of  the  difference  between  the  Chris- 


tians and  the  Jews,  Christianity  became  a  re- 
ligio illicita,  and  the  perplexing  question  now 
arose  before  the  governor  of  Bithynia,  What  to 
do  with  those  people  ?— perplexing  on  account 
of  its  number  only, for  the  Roman  law  concern- 
ing religiones  illiciUe  was  unmistakable,  and  the 
practice  of  the  Roman  Government  was  settled 
once  for  all,  as  is  shown,  for  instance,  in  its 
relation  to  Druidism.  Pliny  addressed  him- 
self to  the  emperor  for  instruction.  In  Tra- 
jan's answer  there  is  a  touch  of  mildness  ;  he 
says  that  the  Christians  are  not  to  be  sought 
for,  nor  are  denunciations  against  them  to  be 
acted  upon.  But  otherwise  he  is  minded  to 
vindicate  the  law  in  its  whole  inhumanity, 
for  he  adds  that,  when  brought  into  court, 
they  shall  be  compelled  to  abandon  their  re- 
ligion or  be— executed.  The  result  of  this 
edict  was  the  martyrdom  of  Simeon  of  Jeru- 
salem and  Ignatius  of  Antioch.  An  Eng. 
trans,  of  Pliny's  letters  is  found  in  Bohn's 
Library,  London,  1878.  C.  P. 

Transcendentalism,  a  term  of  Kantian 
origin,  denoting  that  which  is  valid  beyond 
the  experience  of  the  senses,  though  present 
to  the  mind.  In  Germany  and  France  it  de- 
veloped itself  in  opposition  to  a  crass  material- 
ism. In  New  England  in  the  second  quarter 
of  the  present  century  it  appeared  as  a  protest 
against  existing  faiths  and  usages,  maintain- 
ing the  inspiration  of  the  individual  soul.  It 
rejected  all  established  doctrines  and  indeed 
all  authority  of  any  kind,  and  professed  to 
find  all  needful  truth  in  nature,  spontaneity, 
and  the  unfettered  aspirations  of  the  soul. 
T.  W.  C. 

Transfiguration,  a  wondrous  change  in  the 
appearance  of  our  Lord,  which  took  place  on 
a  certain  occasion  in  the  presence  of  Peter, 
James,  and  John  (Matt.  xvii.  1-9,  Mark  ix. 
1-8,  Luke  ix.  28-36).  Tradition  makes  Tabor 
the  scene,  but  most  scholars  now  assign  it  to 
the  western  slope  of  Hermon.  The  inward 
glory  of  Christ's  person  burst  forth  and  in- 
vested his  form  and  his  raiment  with  super- 
natural brilliancy.  The  law  and  the  prophets 
in  the  persons  of  Moses  and  Elijah  did  hom- 
age to  the  Saviour,  and  God  himself  bore 
audible  witness  to  the  claims  of  his  beloved 
Son.  The  design  of  the  majestic  manifesta- 
tion was  doubtless  to  cheer  the  human  heart 
of  our  Lord  in  view  of  his  approaching  enu, 
to  strengthen  the  faith  of  the  disciples,  to 
show  the  harmony  between  the  Old  Dispen- 
sation and  the  New,  to  indicate  the  impor- 
tance of  Christ's  sacrificial  death,  and  to  estab- 
lish in  a  solemn  manner  the  divinity  of  the 
Messiah's  person  and  mission.  The  impres- 
sion it  made  on  one  of  the  three  witnesses  was 
described  long  afterward  by  Peter  (2  £p.  i. 
16-18),  who  dwells  upon  the  glory  he  had 
seen  and  the  voice  he  had  heard  out  of  heaven. 
The  narrative  bears  its  own  testimonial  in  its 
simplicity,  appropriateness,  and  grandeur, 
since  no  mere  man,  especially  no  unlettered 
fisherman,  could  have  invented  it. 

T.  W.  C. 

Transmigration  of  souls  from  one  body 
after  death  into  another  forms  an  important 
element  in  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism,  and 
was  also  taught  in   ancient  Egypt,  but  in 


TRANSUBSTANTIATION 


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TREOELLES 


Greece  never  took  root  among  the  people, 
although  it  was  held  by  Pythagoras  and 
Plato.  Among  the  Jews  it  was  taught  in  the 
mystical  system  of  the  Cabala.  The  Mani- 
clueaus  adhered  to  it,  but  in  the  church  it  was 
always  regarded  as  a  heresy.  It  has  been  re- 
vived among  the  modern  Theosophists  under 
the  name  of  Karma  (reiucarnation.) 

T.  W.  C. 

Transubstantiation  {conversion  of  substance), 
a  term  first  used  by  Hildebert  of  Tours  (d.  1134) 
to  express  the  change  supposed  to  be  wrought 
by  the  consecrating  words  of  the  priest  in  the 
elements  used  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  The 
doctrine  had  its  origin  in  the  strong  and  em- 
phatic language  in  which  the  early  Fathers 
spoke  of  Christ's  presence  in  the  sacrament 
(Chrysostom  calls  it  a  tremendous  mystery) ; 
and  as  the  ministry  came  to  be  called  a  priest- 
hood, and  a  real  priesthood  requires  a  real 
sacrifice,  men  were  led  to  see  in  the  Supper  a 
divine  incarnate  victim.  The  present  form 
of  the  tenet  was  first  put  forth  by  Paschasius 
Radbertus  (831),  decreed  as  an  article  of  faith 
by  the  fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215),  and 
fully  defined  by  the  Council  of  Trent— viz., 
that  the  bread  and  wine  are  changed  into  the 
very  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  whose  soul 
and  divinity  are  inseparable  from  his  body 
and  blood,  and  that  only  the  accidents  or  sensi- 
ble qualities  of  the  bread  and  Avine  remain. 

The  only  Scripture  argument  for  this  view 
is  taken  from  the  words  of  institution,  "  This 
is  my  body,"  to  which  it  is  replied  that  the 
phrase,  according  to  Scripture  usage,  means 
only  that  the  bread  represents  Christ's  body, 
for'Christ  was  present  in  the  body  at  the  time 
and  himself  ate  the  bread.  The  apostle  calls 
one  of  the  elements  bread  as  well  after  as  be- 
fore its  consecration  (1  Cor.  x.  16,  xi.  26-28). 
The  Roman  doctrine  destroys  the  sacrament 
by  confounding  two  things  essentially  differ- 
ent— viz.,  the  sign  and  the  thing  signified.  It 
contradicts  our  senses,  for  the  elements  even 
after  consecration  are  .still  to  sight,  touch, 
taste,  and  smell  bread  and  wine,  and  our 
senses  exercised  in  their  proper  si)here  are  a 
trustworthy  guide.  It  contrailicts  reason, 
because  a  body  cannot  be  all  in  heaven  and 
also  in  many  different  places  at  the  same  time  ; 
nor  can  we  have  the  sensible  qualities  of  a 
body  while  its  substance  is  absent,  qualities 
having  no  existence  apart  from  the  substance 
to  which  they  belong  ;  and  while  reason  may 
be  and  is  transcended,  it  is  never  contradicted 
by  revelation.  Moreover,  the  doctrine  sub- 
jects the  divinity  of  our  Saviour  to  the  control 
of  his  creatures,  who  according  to  it  can  at 
their  own  will  call  him  down  from  heaven, 
and  withhold  him  or  communicate  him  to  the 
people. 

Transubstantiation  is  part  of  an  anti-Chris- 
tian system  of  priestcraft,  which  includes  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mass  and  the  worship  of  the 
host,  and  in  effect  substitutes  the  priest  and 
his  work  in  the  place  of  Christ  and  his  work. 
T.  W.  C. 

Trapp,  John,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  1601  ; 
d.  at  \Veston-on-Avon,  IGO'J.  He  studied  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  was  vicar  of 
SVeston   from   1624.     He  wrote   God's  Love- 


Tokens,  London,  1637,  but  his  enduring  fame 
rests  on  his  commentary  on  the  whole  Bible, 
1654-56  5  vols.,  which  was  reprinted,  with 
a  Memoir,  1866-68,  5  vols.;  characterized  by 
Spurgeon  as  ' '  incomparably  sententious  and 
suggestive."  F.  M.  B. 

Trappists,  The,  is  the  name  of  a  monastic 
order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  noted 
for  its  extreme  austerity.  In  1140  a  Cister- 
cian abbey  was  founded  by  Count  Rotrou  of 
Perche  in  a  lonesome  and  inhospitable  place 
in  the  present  department  of  Orne,  Normandy. 
The  place  was  so  unhealthy  that  it  was  called 
ht  trappe,  "  the  trap,"  and  the  inmates  soon 
came  to  resemble  their  abode  ;  they  were 
known  as  the  "  bandits  of  La  Trappe."  In 
1636,  however,  Dominique  Armand  Jean  le 
Bouthillier  de  Ranee  became  abbot  of  the 
monastery.  He  was  then  ten  years  old,  and 
in  his  youth  he  gave  promise  of  becoming  a 
fit  leader  of  the  bandits.  But  suddenly  he 
was  overtaken  by  repentance,  and  in  spite  of 
the  violent  resistance  of  the  monks  he  finally 
succeeded  in  remodelling  the  monastery  com- 
pletely. He  compelled  them  to  rise  at  2  a.m. 
and  retire  at  7  p.m.  ;  to  spend  eleven  hours 
each  day  in  spiritiiul  exercises  and  the  rest  in 
hard  labor  ;  to  eat  nothing  but  vegetables, 
bread,  and  water,  and  go  digging  at  their 
future  graves  after  each  meal ;  never  to  speak 
to  each  other  except  the  passing  greeting. 
Memento  mori,  etc.  The  order  did  not  be- 
come flourishing,  but  it  spread  and  enjoyed 
a  great  reputation.  The  Revolution  drove 
the  Trappists  out  of  France,  however,  but 
the  Bourbons  restored  them  again  in  1817. 
But  in  1829  their  hou.ses  were  again  closed, 
and  in  1873  they  were  formall}'-  expelled.  A 
colony  of  Trappists  settled  in  1803  at  Cone- 
wagol!  Pa.,  and  removed  in  1818  to  Tracadie, 
N.  S.  Another  Trappist  colony  emigrated 
in  1848  to  Kentucky,  and  settled  afterward 
at  Dubuque,  la.  (See  Ranee,  Trnite  de  la 
saintete,  1683  ;  Gaillardin,  Les  Trapjnstes, 
Paris,  1844.)  C.  P. 

Tregelles,  Samuel  Prideaux,  LL.D.  (St. 
Andrews,  185U),  b.  near  Falmouth,  Cornwall, 
269  m.  w.s.w.  of  London,  Jan.  30,  1813  ;  d. 
at  Plymouth,  April  24,  1875.  His  parents 
were  Quakers,  but  he  was  long  connected 
with  the  Darbyite  branch  of  the  Plymouth. 
Brethren,  and  in  later  years  with  the  Church 
of  England.  From  fifteen  to  twenty-one  he 
was  emploj-ed  in  iron  works  in  Wales  ;  la 
1836  he  took  to  teaching,  and  soon  devoted 
himself  to  biblical  study.  His  plan  of  a  criti- 
cal edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  from  the 
earliest  manuscripts  was  conceived  in  1837  ; 
the  first  specimen  appeared,  1838,  and  the  first 
part,  the  Apocalj-pse,  London,  1844.  The 
work  grew  upon  his  hands,  and  was  furthered 
by  visits  to  the  continent.  His  Prospectus 
was  issued,  1848,  two  of  the  gospels.  1857,  and 
the  rest  in  successive  parts,  the  seventh  and 
last  being  edited  by  Dr.  Hort  and  A.  W. 
Streane  in  1879.  In  1^63  he  received  a  pen- 
sion of  £100,  afterward  doubled.  A  second 
paralytic  stroke  in  1870  disabled  him.  and 
prevented  his  joining  the  English  Revision 
Company.  Apart  from  his  great  work  he 
edited  Greek  and  Hebrew  concordances,  1839- 


TREMELLIUS 


(924) 


TRIBES 


43  ;  the  Codex  Zacynthius,  1861,  and  the  Canon 
Muratorianus,  1868  ;  translated  Gesenius'  He- 
brew Lexicon,  1847,  and  wrote  on  Daniel, 
1847-52,  and  Matthew.  1850  ;  The  Jansenists, 
1851  ;  Authorship  and  Transmission  of  the 
Books  of  the  New  Testament,  1851  ;  Heads  of 
Hebrew  Orammar,  1852  ;  Printed  Text  of  the 
Q-reek  New  Testament,  1854  ;  the  fourth  vol- 
ume of  the  10th  ed.  (1856)  of  Home's  Introduc- 
tion, and  several  hymns.  F.  M.  B. 

Tremellius,  Emmanuel,  b.  of  Hebrew  par- 
ents at  Ferrara,  about  1510  ;  d.  at  Sedan.  1580. 
He  was  converted  to  Catholicism  by  Cardinal 
Pole,  but  under  the  influence  of  Peter  Martyr 
Vermigli  turned  to  Protestantism.  He  was 
in  England  from  1547  to  1553,  then  in  various 
placed  in  Germany,  where  he  taught  Hebrew, 
his  last  appointment  being  that  of  professor 
of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Sedan.  He 
is  the  author  (assisted  by  his  son-in-law,  Fran- 
cis Junius)  of  a  famous  Latin  translation  of 
the  Bible,  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1575-79, 
2  parts,  best  ed.,  Hanau,  1624,  2  vols.,  and  of 
a  Latin  translation  of  the  Syriac  JSfew  Testa- 
ment, Paris,  1569. 

Trench,  Most  Rev.  Richard  Ohenevix, 
D.D.  (Cambridge,  1856 ;  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  1864),  lord  archbishop  of  Dubhn. 
Church  of  Ireland ;  b.  in  Dublin,  Sept.  9. 
1807  ;  d.  in  London.  March  28.  1886.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  ;  ordained  priest  in 
1833  ;  became  dean  of  Westminster,  1856,  and 
archbishop  of  Dublin,  1864,  and  retired, 
1884.  He  published,  besides  numerous  poems, 
Notes  on  tfie  Parables  of  Our  Lord,  London, 
1841.  15th  ed.,  1886  ;  Notes  on  the  Miracles  of 
Our  Lord,  1846,  13th  ed.,  1886  ;  On  the  Study 
of  Words,  1851,  18th  ed.,  1882  ;  Synonymes  of 
the  New  Testament,  Cambridge,  1854-63.  2 
series,  together  1  vol.,  10th  ed.,  1886  ;  Studies 
on  the  Gospels,  London.  1867,  4th  ed.,  1878  ; 
Lectures  on  Mediaeval  Church  History,  1877, 
2ded..  1879. 

Trent,  The  Council  of  {Concilium  Triden- 
iinum),  was  held  from  Dec.  13,  1545,  to  Dec. 
4,  1563,  at  Trent,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Tyrol,  and  at  that  time  a  free  imperial  city. 
It  was  caused  by  the  Reformation,  and  tixed 
the  relation  between  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
the  Protestant  evangelical  churches  on  all  the 
most  important  points  of  doctrine  and  dis- 
cipline. Its  course  was  somewhat  checkered  ; 
opened  at  Trent  on  Dec.  13,  1545,  it  was 
transferred  to  Bologna  in  March,  1547,  and 
indefinitely  prorogued,  Sept.  17,  1549 ;  re- 
opened at  Trent,  May  1,  1551,  but  broken  up 
suddenly  by  the  victory  of  Maurice  of  Saxony 
over  Charles  V.,  April  28,  1552  ;  recalled  to 
Trent,  Jan.  18,  1562,  and  finally  closed  with  a 
solemn  anathema  upon  all  heretics,  Dec.  4, 
1563.  Its  attendance  varied  very  much.  It 
opened  with  only  25  bishops  present,  but  its  de- 
crees are  signed  by  255  members,  among  whom 
were  3  patriarchs,  25  archbishops,  and  168 
bishops,  but  two  thirds  of  them  were  Italians. 
Its  canons  and  decrees  were  first  printed  by 
Paul  Manutius,  Rome,  1564  ;  the  best  English 
edition  is  that  of  J.  Waterworth,  London, 
1848.  The  original  acts  and  debates  were 
first  published  by  Augustin  Theiner,  Acta 
genuina  SS.   (Ecum.   Concilii   Trident,  Leip- 


zig, 1874,  2  vols.,  to  which  have  been  added 
various  collections  of  monumenta  by  Dollin- 
ger,  Druffel,  etc.  The  history  of  the  council 
was  written  by  Paolo  Sarpi  and  Pallavicino 
(q.v.),  and  among  recent  writers  by  J.  A. 
Buckley,  London,  1852,  and  by  F.  Bungener, 
translated  into  English  by  D.  S.  Scott,  Edin- 
burgh, 1855,  and  reprinted  in  New  York. 
(See  Vermeulin,  Die  Verlegung  des  Konzils  von 
Trent,  Regensburg,  1890.  Cf.  Schaff,  Creeds, 
ad  loc.) 

Tribes.  The  posterity  of  each  of  the  12 
sons  of  Jacob  is  called  a  tribe.  The  sons  of 
Joseph,  Ephraim,  and  Manasseh  were  each 
made  a  tribe,  but  Levi  being  set  apart  for 
temple  service,  only  12  shares  were  made 
in  the  distribution  of  Canaan.  The  tribes 
were  a  confederacy  rather  than  a  union,  and 
had  considerable  independence — several  of 
the  judges  had  only  a  local  jurisdiction — until 
they  were  welded  together  in  the  monarchy. 
But  after  Solomon's  death  the  10  northern, 
tribes  revolted  and  took  the  name  of  Israel, 
while  the  two  others  made  a  separate  kingdom, 
which  was  called  Judah.  The  tribal  idea  re- 
appears in  the  New  Testament.  Our  Lord 
appointed  12  apostles,  and  the  Apocalypse 
tells  lis  that  the  sealed  ones  were  a  multiple 
of  12  (Rev.  vii.  4-8),  and  the  new  Jerusalem 
had  12  foundations  and  12  gates  (xxi.  14, 
21).  A  detailed  account  of  each  tribe  here 
follows  in  alphabetical  order  : 

AsHEK.  Jacob's  eighth  son  received  this 
name,  "happy,"  because  of  Leah's  feelings 
at  his  birth  (Gen.  xxx.  12).  His  father's 
dying  words  promised  him  a  fruitful  land — 
"  his  bread  shall  be  fat,  and  he  shall  yield 
royal  dainties"  (xlix.  20).  The  territory  of 
the  tribe  was  along  the  seaboard  between 
Lebanon  on  the  north  and  Carmel  on  the 
south,  and  west  of  Zebulon  and  Naphtali.  It 
yielded  grain,  wine,  oil,  and  minerals  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  24,  25).  But  while  outwardly  pros- 
perous, the  tribe  was  not  distinguished  for 
patriotism  (Judges  v.  17)  nor  for  mental 
ability,  as  it  furnished  no  hero  or  judge  to  the 
nation.  The  prophetess  Anna,  however,  was 
an  Asherite  (Luke  ii.  36). 

Benjamin.  Jacob's  youngest  son  was 
called  "son  of  the  right  hand,"  because  of 
the  comfort  he  gave  his  father  in  view  of  the 
death  of  the  mother,  who  died  in  giving  him 
birth  (Gen.  xxxv.  16-18).  The  tribe  though 
small  at  first,  and  once  almost  exterminated 
(Judges  XX.),  afterward  greatly  increased 
(2  Chron.  xiv.  8).  Its  territory,  between 
Ephraim  on  the  north  and  Judah  on  the 
south,  stretched  from  the  Jordan  to  Dan.  It 
was  valiant  (Gen.  xlix.  27),  and  beloved  of 
Jehovah  (Deut.  xxxiii.  12).  It  produced 
Ehud,  one  of  the  earliest  judges  (Judges  iii. 
15),  Saul,  Israel's  first  king  (1  Sam.  ix.  1),  and 
the  great  Apostle  Paul  (Phil.  iii.  5).  Itwas 
noted  for  the  prevalence  of  left-handed  sling- 
ers  (Judges  xx.  16).  Its  chief  towns  were 
Jericho,  Ramah,  Bethel,  Gibeon,  and  a  part 
of  Jerusalem. 

Dan.  Jacob's  son  by  Bilhah.  His  descend- 
ants were  next  in  numbers  to  those  of  Judah 
(Num.  i.  39),  but  were  the  last  to  receive  their 
inheritance,  which  extended  southeast  from 


TRIBES 


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TRIBES 


the  sea-coast  near  Joppa  and  bordered  on  tlie 
land  of  the  Philistines,  upon  whom  Dan's 
only  distinguished  man,  Samson,  wrought 
his  exploits  (Judges  xiii.-xvi.).  Their  terri- 
tory being  small,  a  part  of  the  tribe  sought 
and  coniiuered  another  home  in  the  north 
(Judges  xviii.).  Its  name  does  not  appear  in 
the  list  of  those  sealed  by  the  angel  in  the 
Apocalypse  (Rev.  vii.  5-7),  an  omission  for 
which  it  is  difficult  to  account. 

Epiirai.m.  The  younger  son  of  Joseph,  he 
obtained  the  chief  prophetic  blessing  (Gen. 
xlviii.  19),  and  fulfilled  the  meaning  of  his 
name,  "double  fruitfulness,"  his  tribe  being 
always  more  distinguished  than  that  of  his 
brother,  Manasseh.  Their  inlieritance  was 
large  and  central,  extending  from  the  Jordan 
to  the  sea,  south  of  Manasseh  and  north  of 
Benjamin  and  Dan,  a  well-watered  and  fertile 
region.  The  Ephraimites  were  energetic  and 
ambitious.  They  acted  badly  to  every  leader 
who  did  not  court  them— t'.g^.,  toward  Gideon, 
Jephthah,  and  David  (Judges  viii.,  xii.,  3  Sam. 
xix.  41^3).  They  were  the  great  rival  of 
Judah,  the  chief  fomenter  of  trouble,  and  the 
stanch  support  of  the  revolt  from  Rehoboam. 
Their  name  was  frequently  used  for  the  whole 
kingdom  of  Israel  (Isa.  xi.  13,  Hos.  xi.  3,  8). 
Their  greatest  man  was  Joshua. 

Gad.  The  seventh  son  of  Jacob'  has  a 
name  indicating  good  fortune  (Gen.  xxx.  11, 
R.  v.),  and  it  was  fulfilled  in  the  tine  pastoral 
region  his  descendants  held  east  of  the  Jordan, 
between  Reuben  on  the  south  and  Manasseh 
on  the  north.  Its  exposure  to  incursions 
compelled  the  Gadites  to  be  alert  and  well 
armed,  and  they  are  described  as  men  of  war 
and  of  might  (1  Chron.  xii.  8).  The  tribe 
produced  three  famous  men,  Jephthah.  the 
conqueror  and  judge  (Judges  xi.),  Barzillai, 
David's  noble  friend  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27),  and 
the  extraordinary  man  of  God,  Elijah  (1  Kings 
xvii.  1).  Tiglath-pileser  carried  the  Gadites 
away  (2  Kings  xv.  29),  and  the  Ammonites 
occupied  their  cities  (Jer.  xlix.  1).  The  "  men 
of  Gad"  are  mentioned  on  the  Moabite  stone. 

IssACHAR  {recompenw).  The  ninth  son  of 
Jacob  got  his  name  from  his  mother  Leah 
(Gen.  xxx.  18).  His  descendants  numbered 
over  64,000  on  entering  Canaan,  and  received 
as  their  portion  a  large  part  of  tlie  great  plain 
of  Esdnxelon,  the  most  fertile  in  the  country. 
It  contained  many  noted  cities,  and  Jezreel 
stood  almost  in  the  exact  centre.  The  people 
were  industrious  agriculturists  (Gen.  xlix.  14, 
15),  and  are  mentioned  with  honor  for  their 
brave  and  wise  patriotism  (Judges  v.  15, 
1  Chron.  xii.  32).  Tola,  one  of  the  judges, 
was  of  Issachar  (Judges  x.  1),  and  so  was 
Baasha,  who  usurped  the  throne  of  Israel 
(1  Kings  XV.  27). 

JcDAii  {praise).  The  fourth  son  of  Jacob 
and  Leah,  whose  name  was  an  expression  of 
his  mother's  gratitude  (Gen.  xxix.  35).  is  bet- 
ter known  than  any  of  the  others  save  Joseph, 
whose  life  he  saved  (xxxvii.  26-28)  ;  and  his 
plea  for  Benjamin  is  eloquent  and  affecting 
(xliv.  I'i-iU).  His  tribe  was  always  large, 
and  it  remarkably  fulfilled  the  glowing 
prophecy  of  Jacob"  (xlix.  8-12).  Tlieir  terri- 
tory was  the  southern  section  of  Palestine, 
from  the  Jordan  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  as 


far  north  as  Benjamin  and  Dan.  They  had 
cities  in  the  extreme  south  ;  in  the  lowland 
by  the  sea  ;  in  the  hill  country,  and  in  the 
wilderness  toward  the  Dead  Sea.  Most  of 
the  region  was  rich  and  fertile.  It  had  many 
towns  of  note — Hebron,  Bethlehem,  etc.  It 
gave  only  one  judge,  Othniel,  to  the  nation 
(Judges  iii.  9),  and  little  is  heard  of  it  in  early 
times,  but  in  David  it  beciime  famous,  and 
after  Solomon's  death  was  merged  in  the 
kingdom  of  Judah. 

Levi  {joining).  The  third  son  of  Jacob 
and  Leah,  named  by  his  mother  (Gen.  xxix. 
34),  united  with  Simeon  to  avenge  Dinali  on 
the  Shechemites  (xxxiv.  25),  and  so  incurred 
Jacob's  curse  (xlix.  5-7) ;  but  the  zeal  of  his 
descendants  on  occasion  of  the  golden  calf 
(Ex.  xxxii.  26-29)  transformed  the  curse  into 
a  blessing.  The  Levites  were  scattered  in  Is- 
rael, but  it  was  as  ministers  of  religion.  They 
had  48  cities  and  suburbs  assigned  to  them, 
and  a  tithe  of  all  the  produce,  animal  and 
vegetable,  of  the  land.     See  Levites. 

Manasseh  (fofffcttinf/).  The  firstborn  of 
Joseph  (Gen.  xii.  50),  of  whose  personal  his- 
tory notliing  is  known.  The  tribe  received  a 
double  porUon  in  Canaan,  one  half,  whose 
property  was  chiefly  in  cattle,  obtaining  the 
rich  pastures  east  of  Jordan  from  Mahanaim 
to  the  northern  frontier,  and  the  other  a  tract 
between  Ephraim  and  Issachar,  stretching 
across  the  country  from  the  Jordan  to  the 
Mediterranean.  The  western  half  was  slow 
in  expelling  the  Canaanites  (Judges  i.  27),  but 
took  part  in  the  war  with  Jabin  (v.  14),  and 
furnished  the  judges  Gideon  and  Jair.  The 
eastern  half  prospered  much  and  spread 
widely,  but  tinallj',  mixing  with  the  Canaan- 
ites, fell  into  their  idolatry  (1  Chron.  iii.  25), 
and  were  the  first  to  be  carried  away  to  As- 
syria. 

Napiitali  {ini/  irrestlinff).  The  sixth  son  of 
Jacob,  Avho  owed  his  name  to  Rachel's  earnest 
prayers  for  him,  was  called  in  Jacob's  bless- 
ing, "  A  hind  let  loose  ;  he  giveth  goodly 
words"  (Gen.  xlix.  21),  indicating  grace  and 
eloquence.  The  tribe  derived  from  him  was 
numerous  at  the  Exodus,  and  obtained  a  large 
inheritance  between  Asher  and  the  Jordan, 
extending  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the 
Leontes.  It  afforded  a  great  variety  of  soil 
and  climate.  The  Naphtalim  are  mentioned 
with  honor  in  the  wars  of  the  Judges  (Judges 
v.  18,  vi.  35,  vii.  23),  but  later  they  became 
allied  with  tlieir  Gentile  neighbors,  and  kept 
aloof  from  tlie  great  historical  movements  of 
Israel.  Barak  was  their  most  notable  leader 
(Judges  iv.  6).  Our  Lord  syyent  much  time 
in  the  region  of  this  tribe  (Matt.  iv.  15). 

Reukex  (Miold  !  a  son).  The  firstborn  of 
Jacob  and  Leah,  his  name  indicates  the  joy 
at  his  appearance  (Gen.  xxix.  32).  Impulsive 
as  bubbling  water,  he  committed  a  sin  (xxv. 
32)  wliicii  cost  him  liis  birthright  (xlix.  3,  4). 
His  descendants  souglit  and  obtained  an  allot- 
ment east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  which  was  well 
adapted  for  herdsmen.  Tliey  soon  became 
wealthy,  but  were  averse  to  war  (Judges  v. 
15,  16),  and  were  among  tlie  first  to  be  carried 
into  captivity.  The  finding  of  tlie  "  Moabite 
stone"  at  Diix)n  indicates  rich  results  to  come 
from  further  careful  explorations  in  this  region. 


TRICHOTOMY 


(926) 


TRINITY-SUNDAY 


Simeon  {hearing).  The  second  son  of  Jacob 
by  Leah,  who  regarded  his  birth  as  a  token 
that  God  heard  her  prayers.  His  descendants 
were  the  smallest  tribe  that  entered  Canaan, 
and  they  received  a  district  in  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  Palestine,  set  off  from  the  territory 
of  Judah.  As  a  punishment  for  their  ances- 
tor's oflEence  in  the  matter  of  the  Shechemites, 
they  dwindled  continually.  They  were  alto- 
gether omitted  from  Moses'  blessing.  At  the 
disruption  of  the  kingdom  they  took  part 
with  the  northern  tribes.  No  eminent  person 
is  recorded  as  of  this  tribe  save  Judith,  a 
heroine  of  the  Apocrypha  ;  though  there  is  a 
tradition  that  the  Simeouites  furnished  school- 
masters to  the  rest  of  the  nation. 

Zebulon  {dwellinfi).  Jacob's  tenth  son  re- 
ceived this  name  from  his  mother,  Leah's 
belief  that  henceforth  Jacob  would  dwell 
with  her  (Gen.  xxx.  20).  The  exact  limits  of 
the  tribe's  inheritance  cannot  be  determined  ; 
they  extended  west  from  the  Jordan  and  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  toward  Carmel,  having  Asher 
and  Naphtali  on  the  north  and  Issachar  on 
the  south.  The  region  was  fertile,  and  access 
to  the  waters  east  and  west  was  a  source  of 
wealth  (Gen.  xlix.  13,  Deut.  xxxiii.  18,  19). 
The  tribe  took  part  in  Barak's  conflict  (Judges 
V.  14,  18),  assisted  Gideon  (vi.  35),  and  helped 
to  make  David  king  (1  Chron.  xii.  33,  40).  It 
produced  Elon,  one  of  the  judges  (Judges 
xii.  12),  and  also  the  prophet  Jonah  (2  Kings 
xiv.  25).  In  New  Testament  times  its  terri- 
tory was  part  of  the  region  honored  with 
Christ's  presence  and  works  (Matt.  iv.  13-16), 
in  fulfilment  of  Isaiah's  great  promise  (Isa. 
ix.  1,  2).  Within  its  limits  were  Nazareth, 
Capernaum,  and  Cana.  T.  W.  C. 

Trichotomy  and  Dichotomy  denote  respec- 
tively the  division  of  human  nature  into  three 
parts — body,  soul,  and  spirit— and  into  tw^o 
parts — body  and  soul.  The  former  seems  to 
be  prevalent  among  German  theologians, 
the  latter  among  English.  (See  J.  B.  Heard, 
The  Tripartite  Nature  of  Man,  Edinburgh, 
1870.) 

Tridentine  Profession  of  Faith,  The  {Pro- 
fefisio  Fidei  Tridentince,  or  the  Creed  of  Pius 
/F.),  was  drawn  up  in  1564  by  a  college  of 
cardinals,  by  the  order  of  Pius  IV.,  and  on 
the  suggestion  of  the  Tridentine  Council.  It 
is  the  shortest  but  practically  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  creeds  recognized  by  the  Church 
of  Rome,  as  it  must  be  subscribed  and  sworn 
to  by  all  priests,  public  teachers,  and  Protes- 
tant converts.  (See  Schaff,  Creeds  of  Chris- 
tendom, New  York,  1877,  8  vols.) 

Trine  Baptism  denotes  that  form  of  the 
administration  of  the  ordinance  in  which  the 
person  baptized  is  immersed,  or  has  the  water 
poured  or  sprinkled  over  him  thrice,  in  the 
name  of  the  three  persons  of  the  Godhead. 
The  usage  goes  back  to  the  2d  century  if  not 
earlier,  and  the  first  to  depart  from  it  was  the 
Arian  Eunomius,  who  introduced  single  bap- 
tism into  Spain,  where,  however,  it  prevailed 
for  only  a  short  time.  Trine  baptism  repre- 
sents the  symbolical  character  of  the  ordi- 
nance very  strikingly.  T.  W.  C. 

Trinitarians,  a  monastic  order  of  the  Church 


of  Rome,  founded  in  1197  by  John  of  Matha 
and  Felix  of  Valois,  and  confirmed  in  1198  by 
Innocent  III.  Its  purpose  was  to  redeem 
Christians  wiio  had  been  taken  captives  by 
infidels,  and  it  derived  its  name  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  all  its  churches  were  dedi- 
cated to  the  Holy  Trinity.  It  spent  one  third 
of  its  revenue  for  its  special  purpose,  and  is 
said  to  have  ransomed  900,000  prisoners  who 
otherwise  would  have  been  sold  as  slaves. 

C.  P. 

Trinity,  a  term  denoting  the  nature  of  the 
Godhead  as  one  in  essence,  but  consisting  of 
three  persons,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost.  The  word  does  not  occur  in 
Scripture,  but  the  doctrine  is  very  plainly 
taught.  It  was  faintly  foreshadowed  in  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  plural  names  and  utter- 
ances of  God,  in  the  angel  of  Jehovah,  who  is 
distinct  from  Jehovah  yet  divine,  and  in  the 
prominence  given  in  creation  and  regenera- 
tion to  the  Spirit  of  God.  But  the  full  reve- 
lation of  the  tenet  is  given  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  formula  of  baptism  (Matt,  xxviii. 
19)  and  in  that  of  benediction  (2  Cor.  xiii. 
14),  and  in  the  divine  words,  works,  and  wor- 
ship ascribed  to  the  Lord  Jesus  and  to  the 
Holy  Ghost. 

The  xloctrine  is  not  a  specidative  one,  be- 
longing merely  to  the  metaphysics  of  theol- 
ogy, but  an  essential  part  of  the  system  of 
Scripture,  which  reveals  a  redemption  for  lost 
man  provided  by  the  Father  out  of  his  mere 
grace,  executed  by  the  divine  Son  by  means 
of  his  incarnation  and  death,  and  applied  to 
the  believer  through  the  immediate  agency  of 
the  divine  Spirit.  If  any  of  these  factors  be 
omitted,  the  whole  scheme  is  altered  and  de- 
ranged, and  the  gospel  ceases  to  be  the  power 
of  God  and  the  wisdom  of  God  unto  salva- 
tion. 

This  doctrine  was  one  of  the  first  to  be  im- 
peached by  errorists.  Arianism,  which  denies 
the  deity  of  the  Son,  was  condemned  by  the 
Council  of  Nica?a,  and  so  in  efl'ect  was  Sabel- 
lianism,  which  holds  merely  a  modal  trinity. 
Controversy  raged  for  a  long  time,  and  it  was 
only  by  slow  degrees  that  the  equality  of  the 
members  of  the  divine  triad  was  reached. 
But  it  was  reached,  and  now  for  many  cen- 
turies the  historic  church  has  maintained  the 
existence  of  one  God  in  three  persons,  hold- 
ing that,  while  the  tenet  is  above  reason,  it  is 
not  contrary  to  reason,  and  while  mysterious 
in  itself,  it  solves  many  other  mysteries,  and 
furnishes  the  only  solid  basis  for  an  intelli- 
gent, enduring,  and  satisfying  faith.  After 
the  Reformation  Socinus  headed  a  troop  of 
opposers  of  the  doctrine,  but  their  success 
w^is  local  and  temporary.  Modern  systems 
of  religious  philosophy  have  almost  without 
exception  retained  the  term  and  its  factors, 
but  often  with  a  serious  departure  from  the 
sense  attached  to  them  by  the  church  (Schleier- 
macher,  Hegel,  etc.),  yet  in  truth  modern  dis- 
cussion has  added  nothing  to  what  was  gained 
in  the  first  five  centuries  of  the  church,  when 
the  whole  subject  w^as  handled  by  the  acutest 
minds  the  world  has  known.  T.  "W.  C. 

Trinity-Sunday,  the  first  Sunday  after 
Pentecost,  was  set  apart  by  Benedict  XL,  in 


TRISAGION 


(927) 


TRUMPET 


1305,  as  the  Festival  of  the  Holy  Trinitj-,  and 
under  John  XXII.,  1334,  its  celebration  be- 
came universal  througliout  the  Western 
Church.  In  the  Church  of  England  as  well 
as  in  the  Danish  Church  tlie  Sundays  between 
Whitsuntide  and  Ailvcnt  are  designated  as 
the  first,  second,  etc.,  Sunday  after  Trinity. 

Trisagion  (Greek,  thrice  holy)  is  the  name 
of  an  anthem.  "  Holy  God,  Holy  Mighty, 
Holy  Immortal,  have  mercy  upon  us, "which 
was  used  at  an  early  date  in  the  Eastern 
Church  ;  legend  tells  us  about  its  origin,  that 
a  boy  was  caught  u|)  into  the  sky  and  heard 
it  sung  b}'  the  angels.  Later  on  it  came  to 
play  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  Monophysite 
controversy,  some  one  having  added,  "  who 
was  crucified  for  us,"  which  gave  the  formula 
a  decided  patripassian  import.  (See  the  defi- 
nition of  these  terms  under  the  titles  respec- 
tively). 

Tristram,  Henry  Baker,  D.D.  (Durham, 
1882),  LL.D.  (Edinburgh,  1868),  E.R.S.  (18--), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  EngUngham, 
Northumberland,  May  11,  1822  ;  educated  at 
Oxford;  ordained  priest,  1846;  canon  of  Dur- 
ham since  1874,  and  dean  since  1880.  He  has 
travelled  much  in  the  East,  especially  in  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  has  published.  The  Grcdt 
Sahara,  London.  1860  ;  The  Land  of  Israel, 
1865,  4th  ed.,  1882  ;  Xatiinil  IlUtory  of  the 
Bible,  1867,  5th  ed.,  1880  ;  Daughters  of  Syria, 
1869,  3d  ed.,  1874  ;  Bible  Places,  1872,  11th 
1000,  1884  ;  The  Land  of  Moab,  1873,  2d  ed., 
1874  ;  Pathioays  of  Palestine,  1882,  2  vols. ; 
Ornithology  (1867),  Fauna  and  Flora  of  Pales- 
tine, 1884. 

Tritheism  {three  gods).  Twice  in  the  his- 
tory of  Christian  theology  it  has  happened 
that  in  the  conception  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
the  principle  of  monotheism  seems  to  have 
become  lost  and  the  doctrine  of  three  gods  to 
be  germinating— Philopouus  in  the  6th  century 
in  the  Ea.stern  Church  and  Koscellinus  in  the 
Western  in  the  11th  century.  In  both  cases 
the  misunderstanding  was  easily  cleared  away. 

Trithemius,  Johanu,  b.  at  Trittenheim, 
near  Treves,  Feb.  1,  1462  :  d.  at  Wiirzburg, 
Dec.  16,  1516  ;  was  abbot  first  of  the  convent 
at  Spanheim  and  afterward  at  Wiirzburg  ; 
was  a  friend  of  Reuchlin,  Pirkheimer,  etc., 
and  wrote  a  number  of  l)ooks,  of  which  his 
Catal.  Illustr.  Viror.  Germ,  and  Be  Script. 
EccU's.  are  the  first  works  on  Church  history  in 
Germany.  He  also  deserves  mention  on  (juite 
other  grounds.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the 
shorthand  practised  among  the  Romans,  Poly- 
graphiii,  Oppenlieim,  151s,  and  invented  a 
system  of  sliorthand,  StiiiiHiographin,  sice  dc 
rationc  occulte  scribendi,  Frankfort,  l<j()6. 

Tro'-as,  a  city  of  Lesser  ^lysia  on  the  sea- 
coast,  6  m.  s.  of  the  entrance  to  the  Hellespont, 
and  not  far  from  the  site  of  ancient  Troy.  It 
had  a  fine  harbor  and  an  extensive  commerce. 
It  was  visited  twice  by  Paul.  Here  he  saw 
in  vision  "  the  man  of  Macedonia"  (Acts  xvi. 
9).  Here  he  spent  eiglit  davs.  and  restored 
Eutvchus  to  life  (xx.  5-12).  Traces  of  another 
visit  are  seen  in  2  Tim.  iv.  13.        T.  W.  C. 

Truce  of  God,  The  {Treuga  Dei),   was  a 


measure  inaugurated  by  the  church  in  the 
11th  century  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  or 
at  least  alleviating  the  feuds  which  almost 
incessantly  were  carried  on  between  the  petty 
lords  of  the  castles.  It  forbade  all  warlike 
operations — if  duels,  murder,  plunder,  etc., 
can  be  called  so — on  the  days  of  church  festi- 
vals, during  the  fast,  on  week  days  from 
Thursday  evening  to  Monday  morning,  and 
it  tried  "to  secure  from  the  brutality  of  the 
belligerents  certain  places — churches,  hospi- 
tals, etc.— and  certain  persons— priests  while 
ofiiciating,  peasants  working  in  the  fields, 
women,  etc.  It  was  invented  and  first  applied 
by  the  bishops  of  Southern  France,  and  highly 
recommended  by  the  councils  of  Orleans, 
1016,  and  Limoges,  1031.  Afterward  it  was 
adopted  by  the  church  in  general,  and  recom- 
mended by  the  second  and  third  Lateran 
Councils,  1139  and  1179.  Fines,  penance, 
and  finally  excomnumication  were  the  penal- 
ties for  breaking  the  truce. 

Trullan  Councils,  The,  thus  called  from 
the  room  {rpol'/'/or,  "  a  dome")  in  the  imperial 
palace  in  Constantinople  in  which  the  meet- 
ings were  held,  are  two.  The  first,  which  is 
recognized  botli  in  the  West  and  the  East  as 
the  sixth  Ecumenical  Council,  was  convened 
in  680  by  the  Emperor  Constantinus  Pago- 
natus  against  the  Monophysites  or  rather  the 
Mouothelites.  Pope  llonorius  I..  625-38, 
who  had  accepted  the  Monothelite  doctrine, 
was  solenuily  anathematized  as  a  heretic  by 
the  council  in  its  sixteenth  and  eighteenth 
sittings,  and  the  anathema  was  recognized  by 
Pope  Agatho  (678-81),  whose  letter  on  the  two 
wills  in  Christ  was  adopted  as  the  true,  ortho- 
dox doctrine.  The  second  Trullan  Council, 
also  called  quinisextnin,  because  it  was  meant 
to  supplement  the  fifth  and  sixth  Oi^cumenical 
Councils,  was  convened  in  692  by  the  Em- 
peror Justinian.  But  its  102  canons,  mostly 
of  disciplinary  import,  were  rejected  by  Ser- 
gius  I.,  though  his  legates  had  signed  them, 
and  the  council  is  considered  spurious  or  er- 
ratic by  the  Church  of  Rome. 

Trumbull,  Henry  Clay,  D.D.  (Lafayette 
College,  Easton.  Pa.,  1881  ;  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York,  lb82),  Congregationalist  ; 
b.  at  Stonington,  Conn.,  June  8,  1830;  was 
privately  educated  ;  ordained  Congregational 
clergyman,  Sept.  10,  1862,  in  order  to  go  as 
chaplain  to  the  Tentli  Regiment  Connecticut 
Volunteers  ;  was  secretary  to  tlie  American 
Sunday-school  Union,  186'5-75,  and  has  since 
edited  the  Sunday-School  Tiutcs,  Philadelphia. 
He  has  written  The  Model  Supenntendent  (life 
of  H.  P.  Haven).  New  York,  1880  ;  Kadesh 
Biirrua,  1884  ;  Teaching  and  Teaching,  Phila- 
delphia. 1885 ;  The  Blood  Cocenant,  New 
York,  1885;  The  Sunday-school:  its  Origin, 
Mission,  Methods,  and  Auriliaries  (Yale  lec- 
tures). Pliiladelphia,  1888 ;  Principles  and 
Practur,   1889. 

Trumpet.  The  two  trumpets  of  silver 
(Num.  x.  2)  were  used  only  by  the  priests  to 
call  the  people  together,  or  to  proclaim  the 
approach  of  festivals,  or  to  give  signals  of  war 
(Lev.  xxiii.  24,  xxix.  1). 

The  Feast  of  Trumpets  was  a  New  Year's 
festival,  kept  on  the  first  day  of  Tisri,  the 


TUBINGEN 


(928) 


TURRETIN 


seventh  month  of  the  sacred  year,  which  was 
the  first  of  the  civil  year  (Lev.  xxiii.  24, 
Num.  xxix.  1-6).  T.  W.  C. 

Tiibingen  School,  The,  is  the  general  desig- 
nation of  two  important  movements  in  Ger- 
man theology,  the  first  of  which  was  under 
the  leadership  of  Gottlob  Christian  Storr  (q.v.) 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  18th  century,  and 
stood  for  the  defence  of  the  supernatural 
origin  of  Christianity.  But  the  term  is  better 
known  as  applied  to  the  movement  headed  by 
Ferdinand  Christian  Baur  and  his  disciples, 
Zeller,  Schwegler,  Kostlin,  etc.,  all  at  one 
time  connected  with  the  University  of  Tii- 
bingen, who  tried  to  construct  Christianity 
upon  purely  natural  and  historical  agencies. 
It  found  its  most  widely  known  expression 
in  D.  F.  Strauss'  Lcbeii  Jesii. 

Tuckerman,  Joseph,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1824), 
Unitarian  ;  b.  in  Boston,  Jan.  18,  1778  ;  d.  in 
Havana,  Cuba,  April  20,  1840  ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard,  1798  ;  entered  the  Unitarian 
ministry  in  1801,  but  devoted  since  1826  his 
life  to  the  study  of  pauperism  and  the  admin- 
istration of  charity,  and  revolutionized  in  both 
these  fields  the  then  reigning  views  and  meth- 
ods. He  published  a  great  number  of  dis- 
courses, tracts,  reports,  etc.,  the  principal  of 
which  were  collected  in  Boston,  1874,  under 
the  title  Elevation  of  the  Poor.  There  are 
memoirs  of  him  by  William  E.  Channing. 
Boston,  1841,  and  Mary  Carpenter,  London, 
1849. 

Tuckney,  Anthony,  Puritan  ;  b.  at  Kir  ton, 
Lincolnshire,  England,  Sept.,  1599  ;  d.  Feb., 
1670.  Educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge, he  became  M.A.,  1622  ;  B.D.,  1627  ; 
and  afterward  fellow  ;  minister  at  Boston  and 
in  London  ;  a  prominent  member  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly  ;  master  of  his  college, 
1645  ;  vice-chancellor  of  the  university,  1648  ; 
master  of  St.  John's,  1653,  and  professor  of 
divinity.  Here  he  had  a  memorable  contro- 
versy with  Whichcot  the  "Platonist,"  who 
had  been  his  pupil.  He  was  silenced,  1661. 
His  chief  works  are  posthumous  :  Forty  Ser- 
mons, London,  1676,  and  PrcBlectiones  tlieo- 
logicm,  1679.  F.  M.  B. 

Tudela.    See  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  p.  98. 

TuUoch,  John,  D.D.  (St.  Andrew's,  1854), 
LL.D.  (Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  1884), 
Church  of  Scotland  ;  b.  near  Tibbermuir. 
Perthshire,  Scotland,  June  1,  1823  ;  d.  at 
Torquay,  England,  Feb.  13,  1885.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Andrew's  and  Edinburgh  ; 
became  parish  minister  at  Dundee,  1845,  and 
at  Keltins,  Forfarshire,  1849  ;  principal  and 
primarius  professor  of  divinity  in  St.  Mary's 
College,  St.  Andrew's  (on  the  recommendation 
of  Baron  Bunsen),  1854,  and  senior  principal 
of  the  university,  1860.  In  1859  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  chaplain-in-ordinary  to  the  queen 
for  Scotland,  and  frequently  preached  before 
her.  In  1878  he  was  elected  moderator  of 
the  General  Assembly.  He  was  a  liberal  in 
theology,  a  broad  and  many-minded  man,  an 
acknowledged  leader.  His  writings,  aside 
from  sermons,  were  Tlieism,  Edinburgh, 
1855  ;  Leaders  of  the  Reformation,  1859,  4th 
ed.,  1888  ;  English  Protestants  and  tlceir  Lead- 


ers, 1861  ;  Beginning  Life,  1862,  16th  1000, 
1888  ;  Rational  Theology  and  Christian  Phi- 
losophy in  England  in  the  Seventeenth  Century, 
1872,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1886  ;  Pascal,  1876,  2d 
ed.,  1882  ;  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin, 
1877  ;  Modern  Theories  in  Philosophy  and  Re- 
ligion, 1884  ;  Movements  in  Religions  Thought 
in  Britain  during  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
1885.  (See  his  memoir  by  Mrs.  Oliphant, 
1888,  3d  ed.,  1889.) 

Tunkers.     See  Baptists,  p.  83. 

Turlupins  is  the  Parisian  nickname  of  a 
sect  which  seems  to  have  arisen  in  the  13th 
century  among  the  Beghards,  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  to  have  disappeared  in  the  15th 
among  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,  in 
Germany,  but  which  in  the  14th  century  was 
so  numerous  in  Paris  and  the  vicinity  that 
Pope  Gregory  XI.  asked  the  French  king  to 
aid  the  Dominicans  in  their  contest  with  the 
Turlupins.  The  word  means  a  maker  of  co- 
nundrums. 

Turner,    Samuel  Hulbeart,  D.D.  ( , 

18 — ),  Episcopalian  ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Jan. 
23,  1790  ;  d.  in  New  York,  Dec.  21.  1861. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1807  ;  was  ordained  deacon,  1811,  and 
priest,  1814;  rector  at  Chestertown,  Md., 
1812-17  ;  professor  of  historic  theology  in  the 
General  Seminary,  New  York,  1818,  and  of 
biblical  learning 'from  1822.  He  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  Hebrews,  New  York,  1852  ; 
Romans,  1853  ;  Ephesians,  1856,  and  Gala- 
tians,  1856  ;  Companion  to  Genesis,  1841  ; 
Thoughts  on  Prophecy,  1852,  and  other  books, 
besides  translating  jahn's  Introduction  (with 
W.  R.  Whittingham),  1827,  and  Planck's 
Sacred  Philology,  1834.  His  Autobiography 
appeared,  1863.  F.  M.  B. 

Turretin  is  the  name  of  several  distinguished 
theologians  of  the  Reformed  faith,  descending 
from  Francesco  Turretini,  who  in  1579  re- 
moved from  Lucca  to  Geneva,  having  em- 
braced the  Reformation.  Fran9ois,  generally 
called  the  elder  Turretin,  b.  at  Geneva,  Oct. 
17,  1623  ;  d.  there,  Sept.  28,  1687  ;  studied 
theology  in  Geneva,  Leyden,  Paris,  Mon- 
tauban,  and  Nimes  ;  became  pastor  of  the 
Italian  congregation  in  Geneva,  and  in  1653 
also  professo^  of  theology.  He  represented 
the  orthodoxy  of  the  Reformed  faith  in  its 
strictest  form  ;  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the 
Helvetic  consensus,  and  vigorously  opposed 
the  milder  tendencies  of  the  theology  of 
Saumur,  represented  in  Geneva  by  Tronchin. 
His  principal  work  is  Institutio  Theologice 
Elencticce,  Geneva,  1679-85,  n.e.,  Edinburgh, 
1847-48,  2  vols.  (See  his  life  in  Latin  by 
Pictet,  1688.)  Jean  Alphonse,  generally 
called  the  younger  Turretin,  a  sou  of  the  pre- 
ceding ;  b.  at  "Geneva,  Aug.  24,  1674  ;  d. 
there,  May  1,  1737 ;  studied  theology  in 
Geneva  under  Trouchin,  at  Leyden  and  Ox- 
ford ;  became  pastor  of  the  Italian  congrega- 
tion in  Geneva,  and  successively  also  profes- 
sor of  church  history,  1697,  and  of  systematic 
theology,  1734.  He  followed  another  line 
than  that  laid  down  by  his  father.  He  made 
a  distinction  between  fundamental  and  non- 
fundamental  doctrines — see  his  Discourse  Con- 


TWESTEN 


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TYNDALE 


cerning  the  Fundamentd  Articles  of  Religion, 
■wliicb  appeared  in  London,  1720 — and  took 
an  active  part  in  various  exertions  to  bring 
about  a  union  between  the  Reformed  and 
Lutheran  churches.  His  principal  work  is 
Cogitationes  et  Dissert.  Tlieolog.,  Geneva,  1737, 
2  vols.  The  lives  of  both  were  written  by 
Bude,  Lausanne,  1880,  2  vols. 

Twresten,  August  Detler  Christian,  b.  at 

Gliickstadt.  Ilolslein,  29  m.  n.  w.  of  Ham- 
burg, April  11,  1789  ;  d.  in  Berlin,  Jan.  8, 
1876  ;  was  appointed  professor  at  Kiel  in  1814 
and  in  Berlin  in  1834,  and  published  Vor- 
lesiuigen  uber  die  Dogniatik  der  evang. -hither 
Kirc'he,  Hamburg,  1826,  2  vols.,  which  in- 
dicates an  interesting  transition  from  the 
standpoint  of  Schleiermacher  to  the  strict 
Lutheran  orthodoxy. 

Twin  or  Dwin  was  made  the  capital  of 
Armenia  by  Khosroo  IL ,  314-25,  and  the  seat 
of  the  Catholicos  by  the  first  council,  452.  It 
thus  became  the  religious  centre  of  the  coun- 
try, and  in  course  of  time  eight  important 
councils  were  held  there.  The  second  coun- 
cil, 527,  ordered  a  fast  of  one  week  every 
month.  Tlie  third  coimcil,  551,  decreed  that 
the  Armenian  era  should  begin  on  July  11th, 
553.  The  seventh  council,  719,  passed  thirty- 
two  canons  which,  among  other  things,  pro- 
vided that  the  altar  and  the  baptismal  font 
should  be  maile  of  stone  ;  that  unleavened 
bread  or  immixed  wine  should  be  used  in  the 
communion,  etc. 

Twlsse,  William,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1614), 
Puritan ;  b.  at  Speenhamland,  near  New- 
bury, Berkshire,  1575  ;  d.  in  Loudon,  July 
20,  1646.  He  passed,  in  1593,  from  Winches- 
ter school  to  New  College,  Oxford,  of  which 
he  became  a  fellow  ;  chaplain  to  the  Princess 
Elizabeth,  queen  of  Bohemia  ;  vicar  of  New- 
bury, Berkshire  ;  first  moderator  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly.  He  declined  other  pref- 
erments in  the  churcli  and  a  chair  of  divinity 
in  Friesland.  He  wrote  The  Moralitg  of  the 
Fourth  Commandm-ent,  London,  1641,  and 
Tfi£  Riches  of  God's  Low,  1653.  His  Latin 
works  appeared  in  Amsterdam,  1652.  3  vols. 
F.  M.  B. 

Tyana,  Apollonius  of.  See  Apollonius 
OF  Tyana,  p.  36. 

Tyana,  The  Synod  of,  was  held  in  368  at 
Tyana,  Cappadocia,  which  was  of  some  im- 
portance because  the  Semi-Arians  present 
finally  subscribed  to  the  Nicene  faith. 

Tychonius,  a  Donatist  ;  d.  about  390  ; 
wrote  a  book,  Liher  de  S  ptein  llegulis,  edited 
by  Gallandi  in  his  7?W.  I";  t.  Pntr.  viii.,  which 
isof  great  interest  as  tlie  first  attempt  to  form 
a  theory  of  Christian  hermeneutics. 

Tyler,  Bennet,  D.D.  (Middlebury,  1823), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Middleburv,  Conn., 
Julv  10.  1783  ;  d.  at  Ejist  WindsoV,  Conn., 
Mav  14,  1858.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  1804  ; 
was  pastor  at  South  Britain.  Cniui.,  1808-22  ; 
president  of  Dartmoiitli  Colk-ge,  1822-28  ; 
pastor  at  Portland,  Me.,  1S2S-33.  He  advo- 
cated the  views  of  Edwards,  Bellamy,  Hop- 
kins, and  Dwight  against  the  "  New"  Haven 
School"  of  Rev.  Dr.  N.  W.  Taylor  ;  their  dis- 


cussions led  the  conservative  party  to  establish 
the  Theological  Institute  at  East  Windsor,  of 
which  Tyler  was  president,  1834-57.  He 
was  an  active  controversialist,  and  wrote  A 
History  of  the  New  Haven  Tfi^logy,  Hartford, 
Conn.,  1837  ;  Retiew  of  Day  on  the  Will, 
1837  ;  Memoir  of  Nettleton,  1844  ;  Sufferings 
of  Ohrist,  1845  ;  The  JVew  England  Revivals, 
1846,  and  Ia  Iters  to  Dr.  H.  Bushnell,  1847-48. 
After  his  death  appeared  a  volume  of  his  ser- 
mons, and  his  Lectures  on  Theology,  with  a 
memoir  by  N.  Gale,  Boston,  1859. 

F.  M.  B. 

Tyndale,  William,  Bible  translator  and 
martyr  ;  b.  in  Gloucestershire  about  1484  ; 
d.  at  Vilvorde,  near  Brussels.  Oct.  6,  1536. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  ;  was 
ordained  about  1520,  and  for  two  or  three 
j-ears  was  chaplain  and  tutor  in  the  house  of 
Sir  John  Walsh  at  Little  Sodbury,  Glouces- 
tershire. Here  his  sympathy  with  the  "  new 
learning"  roused  the  suspicions  of  neighbor- 
ing clergy  ;  after  a  year  in  London,  1523-24, 
he  went  to  Germany.  His  movements  during 
the  following  years  have  never  been  traced 
with  certainty,  but  for  a  time  he  was  at 
Cologne  and  Worms,  where  his  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  was  made  and  printed, 
1525-26.  After  this  he  seems  to  have  been  in 
hiding,  and  sought  in  vain  by  heresy -hunters 
from  England.  His  Pathicay  into  the  Holy 
Scripture,  originally  the  prologue  of  his  quarto 
Testament,  was  separately  issued  before  1532  ; 
The  Parable  of  the  Wicked  J1^^//i7?;o«  appeared, 
London,  1527,  and  The  Obidience  (fa  Chris- 
tian Man,  1528.  Those  were  attacked  by  Sir 
Thomas  More,  1529  ;  Tyndale's  Ansirer  came. 
1531,  after  his  Pentateuch  and  Practyse  of 
Prelates,  1530,  and  was  closely  followed  by 
Jonah  with  a  Prologue,  an  Exposition  of  the 
First  Epistk  of  St.  John,  and  another  of  Mat- 
thew v.,  vi.,  and  vii.  ;  A  Brief  Dechiratiow 
of  the  Sacraments  appeared,  1536,  perhaps  after 
his  death.  His  versions  of  the  Pentateuch 
and  the  other  historical  books  to  1  Chronicles, 
with  Jonah,  were  included  in  Matthew's  Bible 
of  1537.  From  1534  or  earlier  he  lived  at 
Antwerp,  supposing  himself  safe ;  but  an 
English  emissary  procured  his  arrest  and  im- 
prisonment in  the  castle  of  Vilvorde,  1535. 
Here,  being  tried  and  convicted  of  heresy  and 
perhaps  of  treason,  he  was  strangled  and  his 
body  burned  in  the  prison  yanl.  His  last 
words  were,  "  Lord,  open  the  king  of  Eng- 
land's eyes." 

As  a  Bible  translator  he  is  of  the  highest  merit 
and  importance.  His  work  was  done  from 
the  originals,  which  he  had  diligently  studied  ; 
so  far  as  it  goes — and  it  covers  half  the  canon- 
ical Scriptures— it  "is  not  only  the  basis  of 
those  portions  of  the  Authorized  Version,  but 
constitutes  nine  tenths"  of  the  text  thereof. 
(See  the  introduction  to  Dr.  ^lombert's  criti- 
cal reprintof  Tyndale's  Pentateuch, New  York, 
1884.  and  cliapter  iv.  of  his  Handdjook  of  tlie 
English  Versions.  1883.  By  these  translations 
and  his  other  writings  Tyndale  is  memorable 
among  cl)ampions  of  the  Reformation.  If 
the  history  of  his  wanderings  and  perils  could 
l)e  recovered,  it  would  add  not  a  little  to  our 
knowledge  of  those  days  of  transition  and  of 


TYNG 


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THANKSGIVING  DAY 


terror,  but  most  of  the  facts  have  thus  far 
eluded  research.  (See  his  life  by  R.  Demaus, 
Loudon  [18711  ;  F.  L.  Clarke,  1883.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Tyng,  Stephen  Higginson,  D.D.  (Jefferson 
College,  1833  ;  Harvard  College,  1851),  Epis- 
copalian ;  b.  at  Newbury  port,  Mass.,  March  1, 
1800  ;  d.  at  Irvington-on-the-Hudson,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  4,  1885.  He  graduated  at  Harvard, 
1817  ;  was  in  business,  then  studied  theology  ; 
became  rector  in  Georgetown,  D.  C,  1831  ; 
Queen  Anne  Parish,  Md.,  1833  ;  of  St.  Paul's, 
Philadelphia,  1839,  and  then  of  the  Epiphany 
in  the  same  city,  1833  ;  of  St.  George's,  New 
York,  1845.  He  retired  as  pastor  emeritus, 
1875.  He  did  a  great  work  ;  was  the  leading 
man  among  the  Low  Church  clergy,  and 
prominent  in  evangelical  movements  of  every 
description.  He  published  many  volumes  ; 
among  them  may  be  mentioned  memoirs  of 
Rev.  G.  T.  Bedell  (Philadelphia,  1835,  3ded., 
1836),  Rev.  E.  P.  J.  Messenger  (New  York, 
1857),  and  D.  A.  Tyng  (1866)  ;  expositions  of 
Ruth  {Tlie  Rich  Kinsman,  1855)  and  Esther 
{The  Captive  Queen,  1859)  ;  a  novel.  The  Spen- 
cers (1870),  and  a  treatise  on  pastoral  theology 
{Tlie  Office  and  Duty  of  a  Christian  Pastor, 
1874).  (See  his  biography  by  his  son,  New 
York,  1890.) 

Type  {stamp,  figure),  a  word  which,  denot- 
ing first  the  mark  made  by  a  blow  (John  xx. 
35),  came  to  mean  figure  (Acts  vii.  43),  form 
(Rom.  vi.  17),  pattern  (Acts  vii.  44,  1  Cor.  x. 
6),  and  finally  a  prophetic  symbol,  a  shadow 
of  good  things  to  come.  The  most  character- 
istic feature  of  the  Old  Testament  is  its  typical 
character.  The  types  include  not  only  ritual 
observances,  such  as  altars,  sacrifices,  ablu- 
tions, etc. ,  but  also  historical  persons — Adam, 
Melchizedek,  Moses,  et  al. — and  events,  such 
as  the  exodus,  the  brazen  serpent,  the  smitten 
rock,  etc.  A  type  is  more  than  an  illustration 
(as  the  cities  of  refuge)  ;  it  is  a  designed  pre- 
figuration  of  evangelical  truth.  Care  is  to  be 
taken  lest  a  prophetic  character  be  assigned 
to  mere  accidental  resemblances.    T.  W.  C. 

Tyre  {a  rock),  a  famous  city  of  Phoenicia, 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  30  m. 
s.  of  Sidon.  First  mentioned  in  Scripture  in 
Joshua  (xix.  39)  as  a  fortified  city.  Under 
King  Hiram  it  held  friendly  relations  with 
David  and  Solomon,  and  it  was  from  assist- 
ance given  by  the  Tyrians,  both  in  artificers 
and  materials,  that  the  temple  was  built 
(1  Kings  v.).  Hiram  and  Solomon  were  also 
associated  in  commercial  enterprises  (ix.  37, 
X.  11).  Tyre  had  immense  exports  and  im- 
ports, and  was  exceedingly  prosperous  (Isa. 
xxiii.,  Ezek.  xxvii.).  It  became  proud  and 
wicked.  It  exulted  in  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem (Ezra  xxvi.  3),  and  was  denounced  by 
Joel  (iii.  4-8)  for  selling  Jews  as  slaves  to  the 
Greeks,  and  by  Amos  (i.  9,  10)  for  surrender- 
ing them  as  captives  to  Edom.  It  was  be- 
sieged by  Nebuchadnezzar,  fell  under  the 
power  of  the  Persians,  and  was  captured  by 
Alexander  (333  B.C.).  Under  the  Seleucid* 
and  the  Romans  it  prospered,  but  never  as  it 
had  done  of  old.  Paul  spent  a  week  there 
(Acts  xxi.  3),  and  it  became  the  seat  of  a 
Christian  bishopric,  but  now  for  centuries  it 


has  been  an  utter  ruin  (Ezek.  xxvi.  5,  14),  ful- 
filling a  prophecy  uttered  3500  years  ago. 
Our  Lord  visited  its  "  borders"  (Mark  vii.  34), 
but  whether  he  entered  the  city  is  uncertain. 
The  modern  town,  called  Sur,  is  a  miserable 
village,  whose  shipping  consis  of  a  few  fish- 
ing-boats. T.  W.  C. 


Thanksgiving  Day,  in  the  United  States  is 
the  last  Thursday  in  November  of  each  year, 
according  to  the  annual  appointment  by  proc- 
lamation of  the  President,  and  after  him  of 
the  governor  of  each  state  and  territory.  On 
this  day  there  are  morning  religious  services 
in  the  churches,  with  a  sermon  as  to  which 
custom  allows  the  minister  considerable  lib- 
erty, so  that  usually  it  is  upon  some  national 
or  local  topic  of  a  political  or  social  nature. 
Often  the  service  partakes  of  a  harvest  home, 
and  special  thanks  are  offered  for  the  fruits 
of  the  earth.  The  service  over  the  rest  of  the 
day  is  spent  in  festivities.  A  feature  of  the 
day  in  cities  is  the  dinner  provided  for  the 
inmates  of  charitable  institutions. 

The  idea  of  such  a  day  is  as  old  as  organ- 
ized political  life.  It  is  natural  for  man  on 
occasion  of  great  deliverances  to  thank  his 
deity.  But  the  form  the  day  has  taken  in  the 
United  States  is  peculiar  to  revealed  religion. 
It  is  a  recognition  of  the  truth  that  God  is 
good  continually,  as  good  in  withholding  as 
in  giving.  Accordingly  Thanksgiving  Day 
is  appointed  annually,  irrespective  of  the 
events  of  the  year. 

The  history  of  the  day  is  instructive.  In 
the  early  times  of  New  England  there  is  rec- 
ord of  numerous  specially  appointed  days  for 
thanksgiving  ;  generally  in  the  autumn,  and 
in  November.  But  there  was  no  uniformity  of 
action  among  the  sister  colonies.  In  some  it 
was  nearly  annual,  in  others  only  on  occa- 
sion of  some  specified  benefit.  During  the 
Revolution  Congress  appointed  a  thanksgiving 
day  each  year.  But  there  was  none  from 
1784  till  1789,  when  Washington  appointed 
one  for  thanksgiving  over  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution.  Later  in  New  England  and  in 
the  Western  states,  colonized  by  New  Eng- 
landers,  Thanksgiving  Day  was  appointed  by 
governors  and  mayors,  but  not  upon  the  same 
day  in  different  states.  The  custom  of  an  an- 
nual Thanksgiving  Day  took  a  firmer  hold 
on  the  people  as  time  went  on.  and  so  it  was 
generally  appointed  throughout  the  Union. 
It  is  noteworthy  in  this  connection  that  in  the 
American  Book  of  Common  Prayer  there  is 
"  a  form  of  prayer  and  thanksgiving  to  Al- 
mighty God  for  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and 
all  the  other  blessings  of  his  merciful  Provi- 
dence, to  be  used  yearly  on  the  first  Thursday 
in  November,  or  on  such  other  day  as  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  civil  authority. ' '  The  credit 
of  the  change  whereby  Thanksgiving  Day  is 
an  annual  national  festival,  and  kept  upon 
tlie  same  day  throughout  the  Union,  belongs 
to  Mrs.  Sarah  Josepiia  Hale(b.  1788  ;  d.  1879). 
the  editress  of  Oodey's  Lady's  Book,  published 
in  Philadelphia,  who  urged  the  idea  upon  suc- 
cessive governors  and  presidents,  not  only  in 
her  magazine,  but  by  personal  correspondence 
during  the  space  of  twenty  years  ;  and  the 


UBBONITES 


(931 


UNIGENITUS 


first  President  to  put  her  idea  into  effect  was 
Abraham  Lincoln,  who  in  1864  issued  the  first 
presidential  proclamation  making  Thanks- 
giving Day  a  national  phenomenon.  (See 
I.  N.  Tarbox,  "  Our  New  England  Thanks- 
giving," in  the  JVew  Englander  for  March, 
1879,  and  sub.  Hale,  S.  J. ,  in  Apjtleton's  Cyclo- 
paedia of  American  Biography,  iii.,  35.) 


u. 


Ubbonites,  a  party  of  Dutch  Anabaptists 
whicli  denied  the  theory  of  the  earthly  reign 
of  Christ,  so  called  from  its  founder,  Ubbo 
Philippi  (or  properly  Ubbe  Philipzoon),  1534. 
Ubbo,  b.  at  Leeuwarden,  Holland,  had  gone 
the  previous  year  from  the  Roman  priesthood 
over  to  Anabaptism.  He  left  the  sect  some 
years  prior  to  his  death,  1568. 

Ubiquity,  a  term  used  to  express  the  doc- 
trine of  Luther  and  his  followers  concerning 
the  presence  of  the  body  of  Clirist  at  every 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  was 
deemed  possible  in  consequence  of  the  hypo- 
static union  of  the  two  natures.  These  are 
not  confused  so  as  to  form  one  essence,  but 
they  are  so  united  that  what  the  one  is  the 
other  is,  and  what  the  one  does  the  other 
does,  and  hence  the  human  is  interpenetrated 
by  tlie  divine,  and  has  its  attributes.  And  so 
the  body  of  Christ  can  be  and  is  ubiquitous. 
Origen  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa  appear  to  have 
held  this  view,  but  it  was  expressly  denied  by 
Augustin,  with  whom  agreed  Zwingli,  Calvin, 
and  the  Reformed  generally,  holding  that 
Christ's  body  is  localized  at  his  Father's  right 
hand  in  heaven  (Eph.  i.  20,  Col.  iii.  1,  1 
Peter  iii.  22),  and  therefore  cannot  be  omni- 
present. T.  W.  C. 

Uhlhorn,  Johann  Gerhard  Wilhelm,  Ger- 
man Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Osnaltriick,  Feb.  17. 
1826  ;  studied  theology  at  Gottingen  ;  became 
court  preacher  at  Hanover,  1855  ;  member  of 
the  consistory,  1866,  and  abbot  of  Lokkuhi, 
1878.  He  published  Lhr  Kampf  des  Chris- 
tentums  viit  dem  JLidi  ntmii,  Stuttc:a4:t,  1874, 
Eng.  trans.,  The  Conflict  of  Christianity  with 
Heathenism,  by  E.  Smith  and  C.  J.  H.  Ropes, 
New  York,  1879  ;  Die  chriatlirhe  Lichesthiitia- 
keit,  vol.  i.,  Die  nlte  KircJie,  1881,  Eng.  trans., 
Christian  Charity  in  the  Ancient  Church, 
Edinburirh,  1883;  vol.  ii..  Das  Mittelnlter, 
1884  ;  vol.  iii.,  Seit  der  Reforination,  1890. 

Ulfilas  (Wulfila,  little- wolf),  b.  among  the 
Goths,  313  ;  d.  at  Constantinople,  383.  He 
was  descended  from  a  Christian  familj'  which 
the  Goths  carried  with  them  as  prisoners  from 
Cappadocia,  but  which  afterward  seems  to 
have  identified  itself  with  the  captors.  Thus 
the  boy  received  a  Gothic  name  and  was  edu- 
cated in  Christianity,  in  Greek  learning,  and 
in  the  daily  use  of  the  Gothic  tongue,  which 
he  afterward  reduced  to  writing  by  a  curious 
combination  of  the  Runic  and  the  Greek  al- 
phabet. He  became  bishop,  (343)  and  the 
apostle  of  the  Goths  (f|. v.,  p.  334),  and  translat- 
ed probably  the  whole  Bible  into  Gothic.  Of 
this  translation,  however,  only  fragments  have 
come  down  to  us — the  four  Gospels  in  the  so- 


called  Codfx  Argenteus  in  Upsala,  written  on 
purple  vellum  with  letters  in  gold  and  silver, 
etc.  (See  llie  Gothic  and  Anglo-^a-nn  Gos- 
pels in  Paralki  Columns,  with  the  Versions  of 
WycUffe  and  Tymlale,  by  Joseph  Bosworth,, 
London,  1874  :  Skeat,  Tfie  Gospel  of  St.  Mark 
in  Gothic,  with  glossary,  grammar,  and  notes, 
Oxford,  1882  ;  C.  A.  Scott,  Ulfilas,  the  Apos- 
tle of  the  Goths,  London,  1885.) 

UUmann,  Karl,  b.  at  Epfenbach,  Baden, 
March  15,  1796  ;  d.  at  Carlsruhe.  Jan.  12, 
1865  ;  studied  theology  at  Heidelberg,  Tu- 
bingen, and  Berlin,  anctwas,  inl821.  appointed 
professor  at  Heidelberg,  and  in  1853  Prelat — 
an  ecclesiastical  position  somewhat  similar  to 
tliat  of  a  bishop — which  office  he  resigned  in 
1861.  He  founded,  in  1828,  and  edited  dur- 
ing his  lifetime  the  Stadien  und  Kritiken, 
which  was  the  organ  of  the  evangelical  school 
of  theology.  His  principal  work  is  The  He- 
formers  before  the  Reformation,  Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1841-42,  2  vols.  Of  his  other 
works  have  been  translated  The  Worship  of 
Genius,  London,  1840,  and  The  Essence  of 
Christianity,  1846.  (See  his  life  by  W.  Bey- 
schlag,  Gotha,  1866.) 

Ulrich,  bishop  of  Aug.sburg  ;  b.  at  Augs- 
burg in  890  ;  d.  there  in  973  ;  was  elected 
bishop  in  923,  and  was  in  993  made  a  saint 
by  John  XV. — the  first  instance  of  the  exer- 
cise of  tliis  specific  papal  power. 

Ulrich  von  Hutten.  See  Hutten,  Ulrich 
VON,  p.  389. 

Ultramontane  (Latin,  ultrei  monies,  "be- 
yond tlie  mountains" — that  is,  south  of  the 
Alps)  denotes  a  tendency  or  party  within  the 
Roman  Catholic  Cliurch,  which  wants  all  na- 
tional peculiarities  or  national  rights  wiped  out, 
in  order  that  the  church  may  be  truly  "  one" 
imder  the  foot  of  the  pope. 

Uncial  Manuscripts  are  those  written 
througliout  in  capital  letters,  littene  vnciales 
or  majuscahe,  while  cursive  manuscripts  are 
written  in  small  or  current  letters,  litterce 
minusculee.  The  uncial  manuscripts  of  the 
New  Testament  are  older  than  the  cursive, 
ranging  from  the  4th  to  the  10th  century. 
Their  number  is  83. 

Unction,  Extreme.  See  Extreme  Unc- 
tion, p.  282. 

Uniformity,  Acts  of,  fixing  the  forms  of 
the  worship  of  the  Clunch  of  England,  were 
passed  in  1549,  enforcing  the  first  Service 
Book  ;  in  1552  the  revised  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  ;  in  1558  the  new  Prayer-Book,  and  in 
1662  the  revision  of  the  Prayer-Book.  entail- 
ing very  severe  penalties,  consisting  in  fines 
and  imprisonment,  for  any  deviation  from  the 
forms  prescribed.  On  account  of  the  last  act 
of  imiformity  about  2000  clergymen  were  de- 
prived of  their  livings.  It  was  .set  aside  by 
tlie  Act  of  Toleration;  .May  24,  1089. 

Unigenitus  is  the  name  of  the  bull  of  Sept. 
8,  1713,  designated  as  the  papal  l)ulls  always 
are  by  its  opening  words,  I'nigeuitus  Dei 
Filius,  etc.,  by  which  Clement  XL  condemned 
as  heretical  101  propositions  of  Quesnf  I's  an- 
notated translation  of  the  Bible,  though  mo.«t 
of  these  propositions  are  found  in  tiie  Bible 
itself,  or  in  the  works  of  the  Fathers. 


UNION 


(932) 


UNITARIANISM 


Union  of  Churches.  The  Church  of  Christ 
is  necessarily  one,  although  from  the  earliest 
times  divisions  of  one  kind  or  another  have 
existed.  The  causes  of  these  divisions  have 
been  manifold,  but  witli  the  progress  of  en- 
lightenment and  sanctitication  we  may  as- 
suredly look  forward  to  the  healing  of  all  di- 
visions, at  least  so  far  as  they  are  harmful  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 
The  lirst  division  in  the  church  was  caused 
by  the  effort  to  impose  the  ceremonial  law 
upon  the  Gentiles,  and  which  the  Apostolical 
Council,  A.D.  52,  only  partially  healed.  The 
next  great  division  was  that  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  caused  chiefly  by  the  am- 
bition of  men.  This  yet  continues  after  fifteen 
centuries.  The  last  attempt  at  reconciliation 
(1439)  was  successful  in  the  negotiations,  but 
practically  it  failed.  The  third  great  division 
was  that  of  Protestantism  from  the  Romish 
Church.  In  1683  Leibnitz,  Moranus,  and 
Spinola  attempted  to  arrange  plans  for  a  re- 
union by  receiving  the  whole  Protestant  min- 
istry into  the  priesthood  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  afterward  working  out  a  doc- 
trinal reconciliation  ;  but  after  ten  j'ears  of 
negotiations  the  effort  was  abandoned.  On 
the  Continent  of  Europe,  Protestantism  was 
quickly  divided  into  Lutherans  and  Reformed. 
In  1817  these  two  divisions  were  united,  so 
far  as  Prussia  was  concerned,  and  a  new  Prus- 
sian Agenda  appeared  in  1832  In  Great  Brit- 
ain divisions  took  place  between  the  Church 
of  England,  as  established  by  Henry  VIII., 
and  those  who  were  not  satisfied  with  the 
Reformation  as  thus  established.  These  dis- 
senters became  known  as  Puritans,  Indepen- 
dents, Congregationalists,  Presbyterians,  etc. 
After  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  1660,  they  be- 
came known  as  Nonconformists,  and  suffered 
not  a  little  from  penal  enactments.  But  these 
soon  began  to  become  partially  inoperative, 
and  have  been  largely  repealed.  Union  with 
the  mother  church  can  hardly  be  effected  be- 
fore disestablishment  is  secured.  The  separa- 
tion of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  from 
the  Church  of  England  took  place  about  1740, 
because  of  the  decline  of  piety  in  the  Estab- 
lished Church.  Efforts  have  repeatedly  been 
madeto  reunite  them  to  the  parent  church, 
but  hitherto  without  success.  The  divisions 
of  Presbyterianism  in  Great  Britain,  caused 
by  differences  of  view  in  reference  to  internal 
management  and  relations  to  the  state,  are 
gradually  being  healed.  In  the  United  States 
all  the  conditions  are  different,  as  all  denomi- 
nations are  equal  before  the  law.  Attempts 
to  establish  certain  churches  in  certain  local- 
ities in  colonial  times  were  only  imperfectly 
successful.  In  1743  the  far-sighted  Classis 
of  Amsterdam  sought  to  unite  the  Dutch,  the 
German,  and  the  Presbyterian  churches,  but 
the  effort  did  not  succeed.  Immediately  after 
independence  was  assumed  by  the  Dutch  and 
German  churches  efforts  were  made  to  unite 
them  into  one  body,  and  have  been  continued 
at  intervals  for  a  century.  Articles  of  agree- 
ment were  entered  into  between  the  Presby- 
terian, the  Associate  Reformed,  and  the  Dutch 
churches  in  1785,  which  were  elaborated  more 
fully  in  1800,  but  a  trifling  circumstance  pre- 
vented their  final  adoption.      Corresponding 


delegates  have,  however,  gone  back  and  forth 
between  most  of  the  Protestant  denominations 
during  all  this  century,  conveying  the  frater- 
nal regards  of  one  denomination  to  another, 
and  empliasizing  tlie  points  of  similarity,  and 
minimizing  the  points  of  difference,  and  ex- 
pressing the  hope  of  closer  co-operation,  if 
not  of  ultimate  union.  In  1837  the  New 
School  Presbyterian  Church  was  separated 
from  the  main  body  on  account  of  questions 
connected  with  slavery  and  certain  doctrines, 
but  in  1869  this  division  was  healed.  In  the 
mean  time,  1861,  the  Civil  War  caused  the 
separation  of  the  Southern  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  all  attempts  to  reunite  have 
hitherto  proved  unsuccessful.  In  1870  the 
Dutch  Church  sent  a  corresponding  delegate 
to  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church,  which  ■ 
led  in  1873  to  committees  to  consider  the  pos- 
sibility of  union  or  federation.  Committees 
were  in  the  same  year  appointed  by  the  North- 
ern Presbyterian  Church  and  the  German 
Church  to  confer  with  the  committee  of  the 
Dutch  Church  on  the  same  subject.  Articles 
of  co-operation  were  drawn  up  between  the 
Dutch  Church  and  the  Southern  Presbj'terian 
Church  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Dutch  Church 
aud  the  German  on  the  other,  but  practically 
they  amounted  to  nothing.  Now  (1890)  a 
scheme  of  a  federal  synod  for  the  Dutch  and 
German  churches  is  under  discussion,  aud 
will  probably  be  adopted.  This  synod  will 
give  advice  in  reference  to  mission  and  edu- 
cational work.  The  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  has  recently  proposed  a  plan  of  church 
unity  on  the  basis  of  the  Bible  as  the  Word  of 
God  ;  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  creeds  ;  the 
two  sacraments,  and  the  historic  episcopate. 
This  is  now  under  consideration  by  commit- 
tees of  different  bodies.  The  great  union 
societies  which  were  established  in  the  early 
part  of  the  century  have  done  much  for  prac- 
tical co-operation  in  the  distribution  of  Bibles, 
tracts,  and  in  mission  and  Sunday-school 
work  ;  also  the  Evangelical  Alliance  (1846) 
and  the  other  national  alliances,  and  alliances 
of  kindred  bodies  have  shown  the  unity  of 
Protestantism  on  a  scale  as  vast  as  Christen- 
dom. It  now  looks  as  if  federation  of  all  de- 
nominations for  practical  Christian  work  will 
be  the  initial  step  toward  the  final  unity  of 
the  church.  (R.  Smith,  Reunion  among 
Christians,  London,  1890.) 

E.   T.  CORWIN. 

Unitarianism  is  a  general  term  applied  to 
various  forms  of  Christian  theology,  which 
in  opposition  to  Trinitarianism  have  asserted 
the  unity  of  the  divine  existence.  Originally 
the  word  meant  simply  Anti-trinitarianism  ; 
but,  like  other  names  born  of  controversy,  it 
has  grown  into  a  wider  range  of  significance, 
and  represents  a  movement  and  tendency  of 
religious  thought  and  a  body  of  principles 
and  doctrines  not  covered  or  suggested  by  the 
original  term.  All  monotheists,  such  as  Jews 
and  Mohammedans,  are  Unitarian  in  the  sense 
of  believing  in  one  God  ;  but  the  term  is 
usually  limited  to  a  phase  of  Christian  theism 
and  its  outgrowth.  It  is  so  used  in  this  arti- 
cle. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  their  doctrines, 


UNTTARIANISM 


(933) 


UNITARIANISM 


Unitiirians  are  accustomed  to  regard  the  teach- 
ings of  Jesus  as  expressing  a  belief  in  one 
God,  and  interpret  the  doctrine  of  the  apostles 
as  essentially  true  to  the  monotheistic  heri- 
tage. They  regard  the  doctrine  of  the  trinity 
as  a  development  of  later  metaphysical  specu- 
lation, the  consequence  of  the  infusion  of 
Greek  philosophy.  Traces  of  this  speculation 
and  of  Unitarian  reactions  from  it  may  be 
found  in  the  Trinitarian  controversies  of  the 
2d  and  8d  century,  in  the  doctrines  of  Ebion- 
ites.  Monarchists,  Theodotians,  Alogians,  and 
Sabellians,  and  later  in  the  i>rolonged  discus- 
sions and  voluminous  literature  of  the  Arian 
controversy.  See  Auius.  Though  con- 
demned as  heresy,  Unitarianism  in  various 
forms  survived  the  Arian  conflict.  It  reap- 
peared and  became  conspicuous  again  in  the 
era  of  free  inquiry  stimulated  by  the  Refor- 
mation. In  Gerrnany  it  found  a  represent- 
ative in  John  Denck"  the  leader  of  the  Ana- 
baptists, who  approached  modern  Unitarian 
views  in  teaching  that  the  person  of  Christ 
was  a  natural  exhibition  of  the  divine  love  ; 
that  man  was  naturally  inclined  to  good,  and 
wlio  laid  great  emphasis  upon  the  observance 
of  the  moral  law  as  a  condition  of  salvation. 
In  Spain  it  was  conspicuously  represented  by 
Michael  Servetus,  born  in  Arragon  in  1509. 
He  taught  that  the  ecclesiastical  doctrine  of 
the  trinity  is  opposed  both  to  Scripture  and 
reason  ;  he  attacked  the  doctrine  of  original 
sin,  Luther's  doctrine  of  justification,  and  the 
Cah'inistic  doctrine  of  predestination.  Escap- 
ing from  prison  at  Yienne,  where  his  doctrines 
were  condemned,  he  was  arrested  at  Geneva, 
and  after  public  disputation  with  Calvin  was 
condemned  and  burned  to  death  in  15r)3. 

Italy  was  also  a  hotbed  of  Unitarianism. 
Seeds  there  developed  were  tlirough  exile  and 
persecution  transplanted  to  Switzerland,  Po- 
land, Hungary,  and  Transylvania,  where  they 
became  permanently  rooted.  Of  these  seed- 
sowers  may  be  mentioned  Gentillis,  beheaded 
for  heresy  in  Switzerland,  Ocliinos,  Blan- 
drata,  and  Lajlelius  and  Faustus  Socinus. 
Blaudrata  secured  recognition  for  Unitarian- 
ism in  Transylvania,  where  it  was  further  de- 
veloped by  "Francis  David,  who  be(;:ime  its 
chief  exponent.  So  powerful  was  his  preach- 
ing in  Kolozsvar  in  156(5  that  the  prince  and 
court  were  converted,  and  Unitarianism  be- 
came the  established  religion.  Dissension  and 
reaction  followed,  and  David  was  condemned 
as  a  blasphemer  and  sentenced  to  imprison- 
ment for  life.  Three  months  later  he  died  in 
prison,  in  1579.  Unitarianism  in  Transyl- 
vania, though  reduced  by  persecution,  has 
flourished  until  the  present  time.  It  numl)crs 
108  churches,  witli  nearly  60.000  members. 
It  has  several  schools,  the  largest  at  Kolozsvar 
having  10  professors  and  370  students.  In 
church  government  it  is  a  form  of  episcopacy. 
Friendly  intercourse;  is  now  maintained  be- 
tween tran.sylvania  Unitarians  and  those  in 
Enirland  and  America. 

In  Poland  the  Italian  refugees  also  spread 
Unitarian  beliefs.  In  1565  the  Anti-trinita- 
rians  were  excluded  by  the  Trinitarians  from 
their  synods,  and  fornied  a  separate  church. 
The  ditlercnt  elements  maile  uji  of  Arians, 
Samosatenians,  and  others  found  it  difficult  to 


harmonize  their  views.  Division  arose  as  to 
whether  divine  honors  should  be  paid  to 
Christ  and  also  concerning  the  baptism  of  in- 
fants. Through  the  influence  of  Faustus 
Socinus,  who  arrivetl  in  1579,  the  Adoration- 
ists  secured  the  victory.  Socinian  views  be- 
came generally  prevalent,  and  exerted  a  wide 
influence.  The  Ilacovian  confession,  the 
chief  symbol  of  the  Socinians,  was  published 
at  Kacovia  in  1605.  In  the  Catholic  reaction 
which  followed,  Unitarianism  was  nearly 
stamped  out  by  rigorous  i)ersecution.  Its 
schools  were  abolished,  and  in  1658  all  Arians 
and  Anabaptists  wcr(Mlriven  from  the  country 
and  sought  refuge  in  Germany,  Transylvania, 
and  Holland. 

In  Germany  theological  discussion  has  been 
marked  by  free  and  independent  inquiry. 
Liberalism  and  dissent  have  taken  rationalistic 
forms,  but  without  formal  separation  from 
the  Established  Church.  The  Protestunten- 
verein  is  a  liberal  organization  of  preachers  and 
churches,  essentially  Unitarian.  It  holds 
Conferences,  circulates  liberal  literature,  and 
sustains  a  weeklj--  paper.  Das  Protestanten- 
Matt. 

Holland  has  also  a  large  liberal  part}'  in  the 
Estal>lished  Church,  and  a  Bond  or  associa- 
tion similar  to  the  ProtestantenTei-ein.  It 
maintains  a  paper,  Be  Ilervormiitg.  Both 
Holland  and  Germany  have  sent  representa- 
tives to  the  National  Conference  of  Unitarians 
in  America.  Cons]iicuous  among  Dutch  Uni- 
tarians is  Kuenen,  tlic  l>i])lical  critic. 

In  France  liberalism  has  developed  in  the 
Reformed  Church,  and  has  been  ably  repre- 
sented by  the  Coquerels,  father  and  son,  Vin- 
cent, Co'lani,  and  others.  Its  weekly  organ 
is  La  Eeiuimance. 

In  England  Unitarianism  early  had  its  ad- 
vocates and  martyrs.  In  the  resigns  of  Ed- 
ward, Mary,  and  Eliziibeth  several  were  burn- 
ed to  deatii  for  denying  the  trinity.  Milton 
it  is  now  known  held  Arian  views.  Long 
before  it  became  organized,  Unitarianism  was 
preached  in  London  and  Dublin.  John  Biddle 
(1615-62)  was  a  prominent  Socinian.  The 
spread  of  Anti-trinitarian  views  is  shown  in 
the  condemnation,  in  1640,  by  the  Synod  of 
London  and  York  of  Socinianism,  and  the 
burning,  in  1652,  of  the  English  version  of 
the  Racovian  catechism.  Unitarianism  slowly 
permeated  many  of  the  Calvinistic  churches. 
In  the  last  century  it  found  an  effective  leader 
in  Theophilus  Lindsey,  who  in  1774  became 
pa.stor  of  a  Unitarian  church  in  London. 
The  same  process  of  dissent  revealed  itself  in 
various  Presbyterian  congregations.  A  nota- 
ble expositor  "was  Dr.  Joseph  Priestley,  born 
in  1773,  the  pastor  of  a  small  dissenting  con- 
gregation, and  as  widely  known  for  his  scien- 
tific attainments  as  for  "his  religious  opinions. 
His  political  sentiments  expo.sed  him  to  the 
fury  of  a  mob,  who  destroyed  his  books,  man- 
uscripts, and  instruments.  He  came  to 
America  in  1792.  and  was  influential  in  stimu- 
lating Unitarianism  in  Philadelphia.  In  1813 
the  Engli><h  laws  against  Anti-trinitarianism 
were  repeaUnl,  and  the  act  of  1844  .secured  to 
Unitarians  the  chajK'ls  received  from  their 
Presbyterian  ancestry.  Unitarianism  as  held 
by  Priestley  was  supported  by  an  appeal  to 


UNITARIANISM 


(934) 


UNTTARIANISM 


the  Bible  as  an  inspired  and  final  authority. 
It  depended  largely  on  textual  proofs,  but  its 
interpretations  of  religion  were  influenced  by 
the  philosophy  of  Locke.  A  society  was 
formed  in  England  in  1791  for  the  diffusion 
of  Unitarian  literature.  The  British  and  For- 
eign Unitarian  Association  was  formed  in 
1825,  and  still  has  its  headquarters  in  Essex 
Street,  London.  A  large  number  of  Presby- 
terian and  some  Baptist  chapels  went  over  to 
Unitarianism  in  the  religious  transitions  of  the 
last  century,  and  these  names  are  still  retained 
by  many  Unitarian  congregations  in  England. 
One  hundred  and  fifty  congregations  date 
their  origin  to  the  period  between  1662  and 
1750.  There  are  now  350  Unitarian  congre- 
gations in  England,  about  10  in  Scotland,  40 
in  Ireland,  and  34  in  Wales.  Their  institu- 
tions for  ministerial  education  are  Manchester 
New  College,  Oxford,  Carmathen  College, 
and  the  Unitarian  Home  Missionary  Board. 
Their  religious  weeklies  are  The  Inquirer  and 
the  Ghnstiaii  Life.  Of  English  Unitarians, 
no  one  has  had  a  wider  or  more  continuous 
influence  on  the  thought  of  his  time  than 
James  Martineau. 

The  same  influences  which  developed  Uni- 
tarianism in  England  in  the  last  century 
caused  it  to  germinate  also  in  the  United 
States.  New  England  Congregationalism 
was  favorable  to  the  growth  of  free  and  di- 
vergent opinions  in  theology.  Though  many 
of  its  church  covenants  were  rigidly  Calvinis- 
tic,  those  of  some  of  the  oldest  churches  were 
so  simple  and  undogmatic  that  they  are  still 
retained  in  their  original  form  by  their  Uni- 
tarian descendants.  Unitarian  views  may  be 
traced  in  the  literature  and  occasional  pulpit 
utterances  of  the  last  century.  Arminianism 
helped  to  modify  Puritan  Calvinism.  Dr. 
Gay,  of  Ilingham,  and  Mayhew,  of  Boston, 
were  early  pioneers.  Priestley  by  his  lectures 
on  the  Corruptions  of  Gliristianity  helped  the 
quiet  transformation  of  belief.  The  writings 
of  Belsham  and  Lindsey  were  circulated  in 
this  country.  It  was  the  complaint  of  certain 
orthodox  writers  that  there  was  more  Uni- 
tarianism in  Boston  than  was  publicly  ac- 
knowledged. The  first  Episcopal  church  in 
New  England  became  the  first  distinctively 
Unitarian  church  in  America.  James  Free- 
man, its  minister  in  1783,  removed  all  refer- 
ences to  the  trinity  from  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer.  Separated  from  Episcopacy,  it 
became  congregational  in  church  government. 
Its  liturgy  after  various  revisions  is  still  re- 
tained. Smouldering  fires  of  controversy  in 
New  England  burst  into  flame  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  Rev.  Henry  Ware,  D.D.,  as  professor 
of  divinity  at  Harvard  College.  In  the  dis- 
cussion which  followed  Dr.  William  Ellery 
Channing  was  the  most  distinguished  leader 
and  representative  of  Unitarianism.  Though 
Channing  deplored  division,  the  split  which 
followed  in  the  Congregational  body  was  in- 
evitable at  that  time.  In  this  separation 
twenty-eight  of  the  oldest  settled  churches  in 
New  England  became  Unitarian.  The  Har- 
vard Divinity  School  was  established  in  1816. 
Unitarianism  became  in  New  England  almost 
synonymous  with  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  literature  and  philanthropy.     As  held 


by  Channing,  the  Wares,  and  Norton,  Uni- 
tarianism was  a  rational  and  ethical  movement, 
with  a  theology  based  upon  a  free  interpreta- 
tion of  the  New  Testament.  It  accepted  the 
Bible  as  inspired  in  a  special  sense.  It  ap- 
pealed to  miracles  in  attestation  of  the  claims 
of  Christianity.  Semi-Arian  views  of  the 
nature  and  rank  of  Jesus  prevailed.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  was  rejected  as  a  meta- 
physical speculation.  The  Evangelical  theory 
of  the  atonement  was  exchanged  for  one  ex- 
hibiting the  moral  example  of  Jesus.  Later 
the  doctrine  of  everlasting  punishment  was 
abandoned,  and  the  moral  argument  against 
Calvinism  was  strongly  urged  by  Channing. 
Under  the  diffusion  of  German  thought,  the 
rise  of  transcendentalism,  and  the  influence 
of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  and  Theodore 
Parker,  Unitarianism  in  America  has  passed 
through  important  transitions.  It  has  ceased 
to  appeal  primarily  to  the  Scripture  text  ;  it 
recognizes  the  Bible  rather  as  a  body  of  sacred 
literature.  It  turns  less  to  tradition  and  more 
to  the  individual  reason  and  conscience  ;  it 
has  ceased  to  refer  to  miracles  for  the  evi- 
dence of  Christianity.  Truth,  it  affirms,  fur- 
nishes its  own  verification.  Arian  views  of 
Jesus  have  gradually  given  place  to  those  dis- 
tinctly humanitarian.  Sympathetic  in  its  at- 
titude toward  science,  Unitarianism  was 
among  the  first  forms  of  Christianity  to  wel- 
come the  philosophy  of  evolution.  It  has 
been  hospitable  to  studies  in  comparative 
mythology  and  comparative  religion.  Under 
these  influences  there  is  perhaps  more  uni- 
formity of  doctrine  and  belief  among  Unita- 
rians to-day  than  ever  before.  Christianity  is 
regarded  less  as  a  special  revelation  from  God 
and  more  as  a  manifestation  of  the  one  great 
religion. 

Unitarians  both  in  England  and  America 
have  refused  to  formulate  any  denominational 
creed  or  authoritative  doctrinal  statement. 
Their  church  covenants  are  religious  bonds 
of  union  rather  than  doctrinal  declarations. 
They  hold  to  the  congregational  order  in  its 
most  independent  form.  Their  consensus  of 
belief  is  easily  gathered  from  their  volumi- 
nous publications.  Indeed,  Unitarianism  has 
exerted  its  greatest  influence  more  through 
literature  than  through  organized  effort.  The 
writings  of  Channing  have  been  widely  dif- 
fused in  this  country  and  in  England,  100,000 
copies  having  been  circulated  in  the  last 
twenty  years.  In  England  the  writings  of 
Thom,  Taylor,  Martineau,  and  in  America 
those  of  Parker,  James  Freeman  Clarke, 
A.  P.  Peabody,  Bartol,  Hedge,  Furness, 
G.  E.  Ellis,  O.  B.  Frothingham,  Edward  E. 
Hale,  J.  W.  Chadwick,  W.  C.  Gannett,  and 
M.  J.  Savage  have  been  representative  and 
influential. 

Outside  of  the  pale  of  theology  Unitarian- 
ism has  been  represented  by  an  array  of  noble 
men  in  literature.  Among  historical  writers 
may  be  named  Palfrey,  Prescott,  Sparks, 
Young.  Bancroft,  Motley,  and  Parkman  ;  in 
science, '  Agassiz,  Pierce.  Gould,  and  many 
others  ;  in  politics,  John  Adams,  John  Quincy 
Adams,  Webster,  Everett,  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  Storey,  Shaw,  and  Sumner  ;  in  poetry 
and  belles  lettres,  Emerson,  Margaret  Fuller, 


UNITARIANISM 


(935) 


UNITARIANISM 


Irving,  Hawthorne,  Thoreau,  Alcott.  Felton, 
George  Ripley,  George  W.  Curtis,  James  Rus- 
sell Lowell,  Longfellow,  Holmes,  Bryant, 
Whipple,  Higgiuson,  and  Parton. 

The  American  Unitarian  Organization  was 
organized  in  lH2o.  It  is  the  oldest  organiza- 
tion in  this  country  bearing  the  Unitarian 
name,  and  shows  the  organic  break  with  or- 
thodoxy, thougli  four  years  earlier  (1821)  The 
Christian  BegiHter  was  established  as  an  organ 
of  Unitarian  thought  and  sentiment.  The 
Unitarian  Sunday-school  Society  was  insti- 
tuted in  1837,  but  had  a  feeble  existence  until 
reorganized  in  1854.  The  next  organization 
bearing  distinctly  the  Unitarian  name  wa.*;  the 
Western  Unitarian  Conference,  organized  at 
Cincinnati.  O.,  May  7,  1852.  Between  1825 
and  1860,  a  period  of  thirty-five  years,  Uni- 
tarianism  made  little  progress  in  organization. 
The  ministerial  associations  and  a  few  chari- 
table bodies  were  the  main  centres  of  associ- 
ation, but  the  churches  did  not  unite  for  de- 
nominational work.  The  only  surviving 
organization  of  that  period  still  in  tlie  Year 
Book  is  the  Benevolent  Fraternity  of 
Churches,  1834,  one  of  the  most  fruitful  en- 
terprises, and  we  might  say  tlie  pioneer  of  all 
Unitarian  church  associated  work.  The  Chil- 
dren's Mission  to  the  Destitute,  Boston,  dates 
back  to  1849.  A  similar  organization  in 
Providence  was  founded  in  1857  ;  tlie  Society 
for  the  Relief  of  Aged  and  Destitute  Clergy- 
men was  established  in  1848.  These  societies, 
some  of  them  wholly  unsectarian,  indicate  the 
humane  and  philanthropic  direction  which 
Unitarian  organization  took.  There  were 
other  charitable  and  educational  enterprises 
established  by  little  groups  of  Unitarians  or 
founded  by  individuals  which  have  no  place 
in  its  Year  Book.  Meetings  and  gatherings 
of  the  churches  were  held  from  time  to  time 
for  purposes  of  conference,  without  definite 
organization.  The  first  attempt  to  national- 
ize the  Unitarian  body  as  an  association  of 
churches  sprang,  in  1864,  from  the  American 
Unitarian  Association,  which  was  at  that 
time,  and  for  some  year's  later,  only  an  asso- 
ciation of  individuals.  The  National  Confer- 
ence of  Unitarian  and  other  Christian  churches 
was  organized  in  New  York  in  1865.  The 
inspiration  of  this  conference  and  the  organic 
movement  which  produced  it  are  both  seen  in 
the  organization  of  seven  state  and  county 
conferences  the  same  year. 

In  the  next  decade,  1870-80,  nine  confer- 
ences and  associations  were  formed,  most  of 
them  in  the  West,  showing  the  extension  of 
the  state  conference  system.  Another  im- 
portant association  of  ministers,  the  Minis- 
terial Institute,  was  founded  in  1876.  The 
increased  interest  in  Sunday-school  work  was 
shown  in  the  formation  of  the  Western  Sun- 
day-school Society  in  1873.  The  impulse  to 
organizM'ion  set  instill  stronger  in  the  eigh- 
ties. No  less  than  twenty-five  national  state 
and  county  associations  of  Unitarians  were 
formed  in  the  decade  from  1880  to  1890. 
Some  of  these,  such  as  the  National  Bureau 
of  Unity  Clubs,  the  National  Guild  Alliance, 
and  the  Women's  Auxiliary  Conference,  rep- 
resent a  large  number  of  tributary  organiza- 
tions. 


The  last  ten  years  have  been  especially  sig- 
nalized by  tlie  organization  of  women— name- 
ly, in  the  Women's  Auxiliary  Conference,  the 
Women's  Western  Conference,  and  the  more 
national  movement  llowiug  out  of  these,  the 
National  Alliance.  These  conferences  have 
been  productive  of  great  good  in  the  Uni- 
tarian body.  Another  feature  of  the  last 
decade  has  been  the  formation^ of  Unitarian 
clubs.  Tliese  are  bringing  together  the  men, 
as  the  AVomen's  Auxiliar}'  Conference  has 
brought  together  the  women.  Active  clubs 
of  this  kind  now  exist  in  Boston  and  elsewhere 
in  3Iassachusetts,  in  New  York.  Philadelphia, 
Providence,  Chicago,  Denver,  San  Francisco, 
and  at  Puget  Sound.  A  Southern  Confer- 
ence, a  Pacific  Conference,  and  a  Rocky 
3Iountain  Conference  have  also  been  formed, 
and  state  organizations  in  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
New  York,  and  ^Minnesota.  The  National 
Bureau  of  Unity  Clubs  has  grown  from  the 
need  of  comm\inication  between  the  large 
number  of  church  clubs  organized  for  educa- 
tional, philanthropic,  and  other  church  work. 
The  is^ational  Guild  Alliance  represents  an 
earnest  endeavor  to  develop  in  the  young  an 
active  experience  and  expression  of  the  re- 
ligious sentiment.  The  Unitarian  Church 
Temperance  Society,  organized  in  1886,  is  the 
outcome  of  an  increased  interest  in  the  tem- 
perance problem  and  a  desire  to  bring  the 
forces  of  church  life  to  bear  upon  its  solution. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  movement 
toward  Unitarian  organization  has  been  mul- 
tiplied and  developed  since  the  close  of  the 
war.  No  less  than  thirty-two  conferences  of 
Unitarian  churches  have  been  organized  in 
that  time,  and  fifteen  other  organizations, 
educational,  philanthropic,  or  missionary  in 
character,  making  nearly  fifty  associations 
which  have  spruifg  from  the  (•o-()i)erative 
work  of  Unitarian  churclies  in  the  last  twenty- 
five  years.  There  are  about  400  ciiu relies  on 
the  Year  Book  of  the  American  Unitarian 
Association.  Of  these  168  have  been  formed 
since  1864.  All  this  shows  that  Unitarianism 
is  growing  out  of  its  old-time  individualism 
into  a  spirit  of  associated  activity.  And  it 
has  done  this  without  impairing  or  endanger- 
ing its  freedom,  which  has  been  rather  en- 
larged than  diminished  in  the  last  twenty-five 
years. 

The  American  Unitarian  Association  now 
supports  a  Scandinavian  mi.ssionary  in  the 
West  and  two  missionaries  in  Japan.  It 
maintains  friendly  relations  with  the  Brahmo 
Somaj  in  India'  The  principal  Unitarian 
periodicals  are  The  (JhriKtian  Register  and 
Vnifi/,  weekly  ;  and  tlie  Unitnnnn  and  Uni- 
tnrinn  Rrriiw,  monthly.  A  denominational 
tlieoloirical  school  is  maintained  at  Meadville, 
Pa.  the  I)i\inity  School  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege, though  unsectarian  in  spirit  and  admin- 
istration, was  founded  by  Unitarians.  largely 
endowed  bv  them,  and  furnislies  still  the 
schola-stic  doorway  to  the  Unitarian  ministry. 
(See  James  Freeman  Clarke,  Modern  Unitari- 
anism. Boston,  1886  ;  Unitarianism  [16  lec- 
tures], Boston  [American  Unitarian  Associ- 
ation], 1889  ;  O.  B.  Frothingham.  Boston 
Unitarianism,  1820-1850,  New  York.  1890.) 
S.  J.  Barrows. 


UNITAS 


(936) 


UNIVERSALISTS 


Unitas  Pratrum.  See  Moravian  Church, 
p.  610. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ,  The,  form  a 
denomination  of  evangelical  Christians,  which 
was  founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century  by  Philip  William  Otterbein.  He 
came  to  America  in  1753  as  a  missionary  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church,  and  settled  at 
Lancaster,  Pa.  Prom  that  place  he  often 
made  journeys  in  the  vicinity,  institutin;^ 
prayer-meetings  or  attending  large  open-air 
assemblies,  and  the  result  of  this  labor  of 
evangelization  was  the  organization  of  numer- 
ous societies  of  converts,  for  which  he  pro- 
vided ministers  and  teachers.  Conferences 
of  the  ministers  thus  appointed  naturally  fol- 
lowed, and  at  one  of  these  conferences,  held 
in  1800,  all  the  scattered  societies  were  formed 
into  one  compact  church  with  Mr.  Otterbein 
as  their  bishop,  under  the  name  of  "  The 
Uni  ted  Brethren  in  Christ. "  Tlie  government 
of  this  church  is  vested  in  Annual  Confer- 
ences with  chiefly  executive  powers,  and  of 
which  laymen  may  be  members,  and  in  a 
General  Conference  which  holds  quadrennial 
sessions,  and  whose  members,  tliough  chosen 
by  the  church  at  large,  are  all  ministers.  The 
ministers  are  appointed  by  the  Annual  Con 
ferences  through  a  stationary  board  on  the 
itinerant  plan  ;  the  bishops  and  tlie  officers  of 
the  various  executive  boards  are  appointed  by 
the  General  Conference. 

United  Evangelical  Church  in  Prussia, 
the  union  between  the  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed bodies,  made,  1817,  on  order  of  Fred- 
erick WilUam  IL  It  is  the  existing  state 
church.  The  doctrinal  differences  between 
the  Lutherans  and  Reformed  are  ingored,  with 
the  result  that  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Prussia 
the  Reformed  type  is  absorbed  by  the  Luther- 
an, and  in  the  western  the  two  types  grad- 
ually approach  amalgamation. 

United  Greeks  are  Christians  who  origi- 
nally belonged  to  the  Greek  Church,  but  who, 
retaining  their  church  policy  and  church  dis- 
cipline, the  use  of  the  vernacular  tongue  in 
worship,  and  the  administration  of  the  eucha- 
rist  sub  utroque  specie  (i.e.,  both  the  bread  and 
tlie  wine),  have  accepted  the  doctrines  of  fili- 
oque,  the  purgatory,  and  the  primacy  of  the 
pope,  and  joined  the  Church  of  Rome.  Tliey 
number  between  four  and  five  millions,  and 
are  found  in  Poland.  Transylvania,  Hungary, 
Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Turkey. 

Universalists.  This  Christian  sect,  believ- 
ing in  the  reconciliation  of  all  souls  to  God 
through  the  grace  that  is  revealed  in  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  is,  as  to  its  organization,  com- 
paratively modern.  The  same  may  also  be 
said  of  its  name.  Believers  in  its  distinctive 
doctrine  in  the  early  Greek  branch  of  the 
church  had  at  first  no  distinctive  appellation. 
Later  they  were  called  "  Origenists,"  and 
subsequently  they  were  known  as  "The 
Merciful  Doctors."  The  four  earliest  Chris- 
tian schools  at  Alexandria,  Ctesarea,  Antioch, 
and  Eastern  Syria  were  established  by  be- 
lievers in  and  presided  over  by  teachers  of 
this  result  of  God's  purpose  and  providence. 
After  the  Lutheran  Reformation  believers  in 


universal  salvation  were  found  among  the 
Anabaptists.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  15th 
century  those  who,  in  opposition  to  the  teach- 
ings of  Augustine,  held  to  the  possibility  of 
the  salvation  of  all  souls,  were  called,  in  de- 
rision, Universalists.  Early  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury those  who  held  to  the  certainty  of  the 
salvation  of  all  were  in  like  spirit  given  this 
title,  just  as  the  name  Christian  was  first  be- 
stowed on  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  in  the 
way  of  mimicry  and  ridicule.  James  Relly, 
of  London,  by  his  preaching  and  his  books 
gave  the  occasion  for  thus  naming  the  be- 
lievers in  his  interpretation  of  tlie  Bible.  His 
theory  was  that  the  race  lost  everything  in 
and  by  the  sin  of  Adam,  and  that  this  loss 
was  retrieved  in  Christ,  the  second  Adam,  by 
his  becoming  the  substitute  for  the  penalty  of 
the  sins  of  the  whole  world.  All  were  equally 
guilty  in  Adam  because  united  with  him  ;  all 
are  equally  united  to  Clirist,  who,  by  bearing 
the  penalty,  redeems  all  unto  God.  Mr.  Relly 
establislied  a  church  in  London  about  1750, 
and  from  this  dates  organized  Universalism 
under  that  distinctive  name. 

At  present  there  are  no  organizations  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Universalist  in  Europe,  ex- 
cept in  Scotland,  where  a' mission  is  sustained 
by  the  Universalist  women  of  America.  But 
there  are  many  congregations  believing  in  the 
doctrines  of  Universalism,  though  bearing  an- 
other name.  This  is  true  of  all  the  Unitarian 
churches,  some  of  which,  because  of  their 
preference  for  that  form  of  government,  still 
retain  the  name  Presbyterian,  which  in  Great 
Britain  and  Wales  denotes  not  as  with  us  a 
form  of  belief  and  also  a  polity  of  govern- 
ment, but  only  a  peculiarity  of  church  polity. 
In  France  there  is  much  avowed  Universalism 
in  all  the  Protestant  churches.  The  same  is 
also  true  of  Germany. 

Organized  churches  bearing  the  Universal- 
ist name  may  be  said,  therefore,  to  exist  only 
in  the  United  States.  The  earliest  of  these 
churches  dates  from  1779,  and  is  located  in 
Gloucester,  Mass.  It  was  organized  by  Rev. 
John  Murray,  who  had  been  a  member  of 
Relly's  church  in  London,  and  was  a  firm  be- 
liever in  and  skilful  advocate  of  his  doctrines. 
Mr.  Murray  came  to  America  in  1770,  and 
was  active  in  the  ministry  from  that  time  un- 
til 1809,  when  he  was  laid  aside  by  paralysis. 
He  had  been  anticipated  in  the  proclamation 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  final  "  restitution  of  all 
things"  by  various  defenders  of  the  faith 
among  the  Dunkers  (or  Tunkers — i.e.,  the 
German  Baptists),  the  Congregationalists, 
Episcopalians,  and  others.  But  none  of  these 
came  out  from  their  respective  communions 
to  form  Universalist  churches,  and  therefore 
John  Murray  is  called  the  father  of  organized 
Universalism.  His  earliest  associates  in  pro- 
claiming Universalist  doctrines  and  organizing 
churches  were  Caleb  Rich,  Adams  Streeter, 
Elhanan  Winchester,  David  Evans,  and  Abel 
Sarjent.  The  first  two  itinerated  in  New 
England,  the  others  in  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey, and  Pennsylvania. 

Elhanan  Winchester  had  been  an  eminent 
Baptist  preacher,  and  on  his  conversion  to 
Universalism,  which  occurred  in  1781,  while 
he  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Phila- 


UNIVERSALISTS 


(937) 


UNIVERSALISTS 


delphia,  he  brought  with  him  into  his  changed 
views  the  majority  of  the  members  of  his 
church.  They  at  once  organized  as  the  So- 
ciety of  Universal  Baptists.  Abel  Sarjent 
was  a  Unitarian  Universalist,  and  organized 
churches  in  New  Jersey  ou  that  basis.  Hosea 
Ballou,  the  son  of  a  Baptist  preacher  in  New 
Hampshire,  began  preaching  as  a  Universalist 
in  1T91,  and  four  years  later  he,  too,  had  re- 
jected the  doctrine  of  the  trinity,  and  by  1805 
had  been  foliosved  in  that  theological  change 
by  all  the  Universalist  preachers  in  America 
except  two. 

In  New  England  the  Universalists  first  or- 
ganized societies  or  parishes,  and  afterward 
churches  within  the  societies.  In  New  Jer- 
sey and  Pennsylvania  churches  were  the  only 
organization.  The  society  in  Gloucester, 
which,  as  we  have  said,  was  the  first,  early 
encountered  legal  dilficulties,  their  members 
being  seized  in  their  persons  and  property  for 
payment  of  taxes  to  the  first  parish  in  that 
town.  The  Universalists  entered  suits  in  the 
courts  in  1783  to  establish  their  right  to  ex- 
emption from  taxation  for  the  support  of  any 
other  tlian  their  own  minister.  After  various 
delays  and  appeals  final  decision  was  reached 
in  1786,  when  the  rights  of  the  Universalists 
were  established.  ^leanwhile  congregations 
and  societies  gathered  in  other  parts  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  in  Rhode  Island,  desiring  counsel 
and  advice,  \mited  with  the  society  in  Glou- 
cester in  holding  an  association  at  Oxford, 
Mass.,  in  178.").  The  Gloucester  form  of  or- 
ganization was  recommended  to  the  societies 
represented,  who  were  also  requested  to  take 
on  themselves  the  name  of  "  Independent 
Christian  Society,  commonly  called  Univer- 
salists," and  to  meet  annually,  by  delegates, 
for  conference.  The  legal  rights  secured  the 
following  year  by  the  decidiou  of  the  Glou- 
cester suit  seem  to  have  accomplished  all  that 
the  a.=;sociation  aimed  at,  and  it  ceased  to  exist 
in  1787.  In  1790  the  church  at  Philadelphia, 
feeling  the  need  of  a  more  perfect  organiza- 
tion of  the  believers  at  large,  issued  a  call  for 
a  convention,  which  was  lield  in  IMay  of  that 
year,  at  wliich  time  a  profession  of  faith  and 
platform  of  government  for  the  churches  was 
drawn  up  and  recommended  to  all  those  or- 
ganizations for  their  adoption.  Five  churches 
were  represented  and  seven  preachers  were  in 
attendance  at  this  convention.  The  annual 
meetings  of  the  convention  were  all  held  in 
Philadelphia,  but  the  distance  from  that  city 
was  .=0  great,  and  the  inconveniences  of  jour- 
neying were  then  so  numerous,  that  in  1792 
the  Universalists  of  Boston  asked  and  obtained 
permission  to  organize  another  convention  for 
the  Eastern  States.  This  convention  held  its 
first  session  at  Oxford.  Ma.ss.,  in  1793,  and 
adopted,  the  following  year,  the  Philadelphia 
profession  and  platform,  and  recommended 
the  same  to  all  its  churches.  In  1802  churches 
and  associations  of  churches  having  greatly 
increased,  aud  a  "  diversity  of  \news  prevail- 
ing," the  New  Englaml  Convention  deemed 
it  best  to  unite,  if  possible,  on  a  profession  of 
faith,  and  to  establish  well-defined  rules  of 
government,  ordination,  fellow>hip,  and  dis- 
ciplme  for  the  use  of  that  body.  This  was 
accomplished  in  1803  by  the  adoption  at  the 


session  held  in  Winchester,  N.  H.,  of  such 
definite  rules,  and  of  the  following  profession 
of  belief  : 

"  Art.  I.  "We  believe  that  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  contain 
a  revelation  of  the  character  of  God,  aud  of 
the  duty,  interest,  and  final  destination  of 
mankind. 

"  Art.  II.  We  believe  that  there  is  one  God, 
whose  nature  is  love,  revealed  in  one  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  by  one  Holy  Spirit  of  Grace, 
who  will  finally  restore  the  whole  family  of 
mankind  to  holiness  aud  happiness. 

"  Art.  III.  We  believe  that  holiness  and 
true  happiness  are  inseparably  connected,  aud 
that  believers  ought  to  be  careful  to  maintain 
order  and  practise  good  works  ;  for  these 
things  are  good  and  profitable  unto  men." 

This  profession  remains  unchanged.  The 
Philadelphia  Convention  was  dissolved  in 
1809,  but  the  New  England  Convention, 
though  with  changes  both  in  form  of  govern- 
ment and  in  name,  has  continued  to  the  pres- 
ent, and  is  now  "The  Universalist  General 
Convention."  It  is  composed  of  clerical  and 
lay  delegates  from  the  state  conventions,  and 
from  the  parishes  and  churches  in  states  and 
territories  where  no  state  organization  exists. 
Every  parish,  to  be  counted  in  the  basis  of 
representation,  must  maintain  its  legal  exist- 
ence and  support  public  worship  ;  and  every 
minister  nmst  be  actually  engaged  in  the  work 
of  the  ministry  unless  disabled  by  age  or  sick- 
ness. Preachers  and  parishes  must  assent  to 
the  profession  of  belief,  and  no  parish  can 
settle  a  minister  not  in  fellowship,  nor  can  a 
minister  settle  over  a  parish  not  in  fellowship. 
The  convention  establishes  uniform  rules  for 
fellowship,  ordination  and  discipline,  and  is 
the  final  court  of  appeal  in  all  cases  of  diffi- 
culty between  conventions,  or  between  con- 
ventions and  parishes,  or  ministers  not  other- 
wise settled  bj'  subordinate  bodies  ;  but  it  has 
no  power  to  interfere  with  the  affairs  of  a 
parish  in  the  settlement  or  dismissal  of  a  min- 
ister in  fellowship  ;  nor  can  it,  under  any 
circumstances,  do  more  than  to  withdraw 
fellowship  from  those  who  are  convicted  of 
offences. 

State  conventions  are  composed  of  ministers 
in  fellowship  and  of  delegates  from  parishes 
or  churches.  They  can  make  any  regulations 
and  adopt  any  policy  not  in  confiict  with  the 
con.stitution  and  laws  of  the  General  Conven- 
tion ;  provide  for  the  enforcement  of  the  rules 
on  fellowship,  ordination,  and  discipline  ;  and 
raise  and  disburse  funds  for  local  missionary 
work.  In  several  states  the  old  associations 
still  exist,  composed  of  counties  or  of  parishes 
extending  over  larger  territory,  but  they  now 
have  no  ecclesiastical  authority,  ^nd  are  only 
a  medium  of  local  conference  and  encourage- 
ment in  religious  growth.  Parishes  are  local 
legal  organizations  for  the  purpose  of  holding 
property  and  conducting  the  blisiness  neces- 
sary to  the  maintenance  of  religious  worship. 
Aside  from  a  required  assent  to  the  Profession 
of  Faith  and  their  obtaining  the  fellowship 
of  the  State  Convention,  or,  in  localities  where 
no  such  organization  exists,  the  direct  fellow- 
ship of  the  General  Convention,  all  parishes 
are  congregational  in  the  management  of  their 


UPHAM 


(938) 


URBAN 


affairs,  and  are  subject  only  to  the  civil  laws 
of  the  state  or  territory  where  they  are  located. 
Churches,  with  the  exception  of  those  before 
mentioned,  are  the  religious  organizations 
created  within  the  legal  parish.  In  these  the 
ordinances  of  the  gospel  are  administered,  and 
the  purpose  of  their  existence  is  the  union  of 
believers  and  the  quickening  and  increase  of 
their  religious  life,  obedient  to  the  command 
of  the  Lord  and  his  apostles.  Sunday-schools 
are  also  established  in  the  parishes. 

The  General  Convention  holds  funds 
amounting  to  nearly  $213,000,  the  income  of 
which  is  devoted  to  aid  in  the  education  of 
candidates  for  the  ministry,  church  extension, 
the  circulation  of  denominational  literature, 
and  the  relief  of  the  families  of  deceased 
clergymen.  There  are  twenty-five  state  con- 
ventions, in  sixteen  of  which  are  permanent 
funds  amounting  to  |354,456,  the  income  of 
which  is  employed  for  relief  and  missionary 
work.  The  total  number  of  parishes  is  974, 
with  which  40,844  families  are  connected  ; 
733  churches,  with  a  membership  of  42,953  ; 
Sunday-schools,  674 ;  teachers  and  pupils, 
56,146  ;  church  edifices,  815  ;  total  value  of 
parish  property  above  indebtedness,  $8,018,- 
046  ;  ministers,  700.  The  General  Convention 
has,  in  the  spring  of  1890,  established  a  mis- 
sion in  Japan,  in  charge  of  Rev.  George  L. 
Perin,  D.D. ,  with  whom  teachers  and  other  as- 
sistants are  associated.  Four  colleges,  three 
theological  schools,  and  five  academies  are 
under  the  auspices  and  patronage  of  the  Uni- 
versalist  Church.  The  assets  of  these  institu- 
tions are  $3,778,000  ;  professors  and  teachers, 
112  ;  students,  1163.  The  periodical  Iherature 
consists  of  four  papers  published  weekly,  one 
semi-weekly,  and  several  having  only  local 
circulation  ;  one  monthly  magazine,  one 
monthly  Sunday-school  magazine,  a  quarterly 
review,  and  the  register  or  statistical  year- 
book, issued  annually  since  1886.  Most  of 
these  periodicals  are  from  the  press  of  the 
Uuivei'salist  Publishing  House,  located  in 
Boston,  incorporated  in  1873,  and  having  as- 
sets consisting  of  periodicals,  books,  plates, 
etc.,  of  $70,000.  The  general  literature  of 
Universalism,  ipro  and  con,  has  been  quite 
successfully  collected  by  the  Historical  So- 
ciety, organized  in  1834,  and  the  American 
portion  numbers  over  2000  titles,  exclusive  of 
periodicals,  which,  during  the  last  century, 
have  been  numerous. 

"The  Woman's  Centenary  Association," 
organized  in  1869,  is  national  in  its  character 
and  membership,  and  various  state  organiza- 
tions of  the  women  of  the  church  are  helpful 
to  the  work  of  the  conventions.  Numerous 
Sunday-school  associations,  conferences,  and 
unions  render  great  service  to  the  cause  of  re- 
ligious instruction.  The  young  people's  soci- 
eties for  promoting  Christian  culture  and  work 
are  numerous,  and  have  just  organized  as  a 
national  body  "The  Young  People's  Chris- 
tian Union  of  tiie  Universalist  Church." 
([See  Richard  Eddy,  Universalism  in  America. 
Boston,  1883-84,  2  vols.;  J.  G.  Adams,  Fifty 
Notable  Years :  Views  of  the  Ministry  of  Chris- 
tian Universalism,  1882  ;  lives  of  Ballou, 
Chapin,  Murray,  Whittemore,  etc.]  T.  Allin, 
Universalism  Asserted  on  the  Autliority  of  Rea- 


son., The  Fathers  and  Scripture,  London,  n.  e., 
1888.)  Richard  Eddy. 

Upham,  Thomas  Cogswell,  D.D.  (Wesley- 
an,  1843),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Deerfield, 
N.  H.,  Jan.  30,  1799  ;  d.  in  New  York,  April 
2,  1872.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth,  1818, 
and  at  Andover,  1821  ;  was  Hebrew  tutor 
there,  1821-23,  and  translated  Jahu's  Biblical 
Archeology ;  colleague  pastor  at  Rochester, 
N.  H.,  1823-25;  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  at  Bowdoin,  1835-67,  and  a 
voluminous  writer.  His  Elements  of  Mental 
Philosophy,  Portland,  1837,  was  widely  used 
as  a  text-book.  His  leaning  toward  mystical 
opinions  appeared  in  the  Life  of  Mine.  Ovyon, 
New  York,  1847,  3  vols.,  London,  1854; 
Hidden  Life,  1848  ;  Life  of  Faith,  New  Yoik, 
1848,  Liverpool,  1859  ;  Divine  Union,  Boston, 
1851,  London,  1858,  and  in  a  volume  of 
hymns,  Christ  in  the  Soul,  New  York,  1872. 
F.  M.  B. 

Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  the  birthplace  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  38).  It  was  formerly  iden- 
tified with  Orfa,  in  Northern  Mesopotamia,  a 
little  east  of  the  Upper  Euphrates.  Later 
geographers  place  it  at  Warka,  in  Southern 
Mesopotamia,  130  m.  s.e.  of  Babylon.  But 
Rawlinsou  and  others  put  it  at  ]Mugheir,  6  m. 
w.  of  the  confluence  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  and  135  m.  from  the  Persian  Gulf,  a 
place  of  vast  ruins,  among  which  is  a  temple 
l)uilt  of  bricks,  many  of  which  are  inscribed 
Urukh,  a  Chaldaean  monarch,  who  reigned 
about  2330  B.C.  This  is  the  most  ancient 
Chaldaean  site  yet  discovered.         T.  W.  C. 

Urban  is  the  name  of  eighth  popes.  1.  232- 
30,  the  successor  of  Callistus.  Nothing  is 
known  about  him.  3.  Endes  de  Lagny, 
March  13,  1088-July  39,  1099,  was  a  native  of 
France,  a  monk  of  Clugny,  thoroughly  per- 
vaded by  the  ideas  of  Gregory  VII.,  by  him 
called  to  Rome  in  1078,  and  made  cardinal- 
bishop  of  Ostia.  His  reign  was  an  uniutermit- 
tent  struggle  against  Henry  IV.  and  the  anti- 
pope,  Clement  III.,  but  he  finally  overcame 
both,  not  because  the  foul  means  he  employed 
were  particularly  clever,  but  because  he  had 
a  talent  for  choosing  just  that  side  of  a  case 
which  was  best  fitted  to  become  public  opinion 
or  popular  passion.  By  the  sermon  which  he 
preached  during  the  Council  of  Clermont, 
1095,  from  a  platform  erected  in  open  air,  and 
which  the  multitude,  weltering  aroiuid  him, 
answered  with  a  unison,  "God  will  it,  "  he 
started  the  first  crusade  and  gave  the  history 
of  Europe  its  character  for  the  two  next  cen- 
turies. Measured  by  its  effect,  that  speech  is 
the  greatest  ever  made  by  man.  3.  Uberto 
Crivelli,  Nov.  25,  1185-dct.  19,  1187,  was  a 
native  of  Milan  and  its  archbishop.  His  reigu 
was  a  bitter  fight  with  Friedrich  Barbarossa, 
mostly  about  money,  though  also  about  pow- 
er. 4.  Jacques  Pantaleon,  Aug.  39,  1261- 
Oct.  3,  1364,  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker  in 
Troyes  ;  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  became 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  vitter  confu- 
sion of  European  politics,  which  he  was  far 
from  mastering,  he  was  driven  in  one  definite 
direction  by  his  hatred  of  the  Hohenstaufens. 
In  spite  of  the  humble  approaches  of  JManfred 
and  the  earnest  intervention  of  James  of  Ara- 


URIJAH 


(939) 


USSHER 


gon  and  Baldwin  of  Jerusalem,  he  took  Na- 
ples and  Sicily  from  ^Manfred  and  gave  it  to 
Charles  of  Aujou.  But  then  Manfred  marched 
against  Rome,  and  tlie  pope  on  his  flight 
reached  only  to  Perugia,  where  he  died. 
There  is  a  life  of  him  by  Georges,  Paris,  1865. 
5.  Quillaume  de  Grimoard,  Oct.  28,  18G2- 
Nov.  13,  1370.  was  a  native  of  France,  a  doc- 
tor decn'torum,  and  papal  legate  at  Naples, 
but  not  a  cardinal,  lie  was  one  of  those 
piteous  mediocrities  wiio  always  mean  the 
right  thing  and  always  do  the  wrong.  He 
excommunicated  Bernabo  Viscouti  because 
he  had  seized  some  cities  belonging  to  the 
papal  dominion  and  then  boxight  them  of  him 
for  half  a  million  of  gold  guldens.  He  left 
Avignon  and  returned  to  liome,  but  after  re- 
ceiving congratulatory  visits  th(?re  from  the 
emperor  of  Germany,  the  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  queen  of  Naples,  St.  Birgetta, 
etc.,  he  went  back  again  to  Avignon.  His 
life  has  been  written  by  JNIagnon,  Paris,  1862  ; 
Albanes,  1872,  and  Charhonnel.  1872.  6. 
Bartolomeo  Prignano,  April  8,  1378-Oct.  15, 
13S9,  was  a  native  of  Naples  and  archbishop 
of  Bari.  lie  was  a  man  of  violent  temper 
and  with  a  suspicion  of  insanity  hovering 
about  him.  The  legitimacy  of  his  election  was 
not  beyond  doubt,  and  by  his  insolence  he  ac- 
tually drove  a  majority  of  the  cardinals  into 
rebellion.  They  assembled  at  Fundi  and 
chose  Clement  VII.  anti-pope.  He  was  recog- 
nized by  Naples,  Aragon,  Castile,  France, 
and  Scotland,  Urban  by  Germany,  England, 
and  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms.  During 
the  bloody  war  between  the  two  popes,  Urban 
caught  the  idea  that  even  those  cardinals  who 
had  remained  with  him  were  conspiring 
against  him,  and  without  hesitation  he  had 
them  put  on  the  rack,  and  .some  of  them  were 
killed.  (See  Thierry  de  Niem,  Ilistoria  de 
schismate,  Basel,  1560.  7.  Sept.  15  -27,  1590. 
died  before  he  was  consecrated.  8.  MafTeo 
Barberini,  Aug.  6,  1623-July  29.  1644,  a  na- 
tive of  Florence,  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits,  arcli- 
bisliop  of  Na/.areth,  1604,  and  cardinal,  1605. 
He  canoni/ed  Ignatius  Loyola,  Francis  Xavier, 
AI.  Gonzaga,  Filippo  Neri,  etc.  ;  paraphrased 
the  Psalms,  and  wrote  hymns  to  the  Virgin 
in  Horatiau  metres  (printed  at  Antwerp,  1634, 
and  in  Paris,  1642)  ;  looked  upon  the  Tliirty 
Years'  War  as  a  merely  political  alTair,  and 
sided  with  France,  the  ally  of  the  Protestants, 
against  the  emperor  and  Spain  ;  Ijuilt  a  num- 
ber of  strong  fortresses  in  the  papal  states  and 
formed  a  huge  arsenal  below  the  Vatican  Li- 
brary ;  enhanced  the  annual  revenue  of  the 
Barberini  family  from  12.000  to  300,000  scudi. 
and  died  of  chagrin  because  his  costly  and 
brilliant  army  proved  utterly  inelTective  in 
his  war  witli  Parma.  There  is  no  modern 
biograpliy  of  him.  Very  interesting  but  not 
fully  clear  are  liis  relations  with  Galileo.  (See 
Grisar,  Ualileiiitudieii,  Regensburg,  1882.) 

C.  P. 

U-ri'-jah,  the  name  of  a  highpriest  in  the 
days  of  Ahaz,  who  obeyed  tiie  king's  order 
to  make  an  altar  after  the  idolatrous  pattern 
of  that  at  Damascus  (2  Kings  xvi.  11),  and 
also  a  faithful  prophet  in  the  time  of  Jehoia- 
kim,  who,  having  fled  to  Egypt  to  escape  the 


king's  wrath,  was  brought  back  and  wickedly 
slain  (Jer.  xxvi.  23).  T.  W.  C. 

Urim  and  Thuininim  {light  and  perfection), 
a  divinely  appointed  means  of  "  inquiring  of 
tlie  Lord,"  put  in  the  highpriest's  breastplate 
to  be  upon  his  heart  when  he  went  in  before 
Jehovah  (Ex.  xxviii.  30),  but  what  it  was  and 
how  answer  was  given  by  it  we  do  not  know. 
Moses  speaks  of  it  as  the  crowning  glory  of 
the  Levites  (Deut.  xxxiii.  8),  and  when  Joshua 
was  commissioned  (Num.  xxvii.  21)  Eleazar 
is  said  to  ask  counsel  for  him  by  Urim.  Its 
successful  use  is  not  mentioned  after  Abia- 
thar's  day  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  6),  and  Saul  sought 
by  it  in  vain  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  6).  At  the  era 
of  the  captivity  it  had  been  for  some  time 
forfeited  (Ezra  ii.  63).  T.  W.  C. 

Ursicinus  was  chosen  anti-pope  to  Damasus 
in  366  I)y  a  minority  of  the  Roman  clergy, 
but  driven  out  of  Rome  and  finally  banished 
from  Italy  by  the  Council  of  Aquileia. 

Ursinus,  Zacharias,  b.  at  Breslau,  July  18, 
1534  ;  d.  at  Neustadt-on-the-IIardt,  March  6, 
1583  ;  studied  theology  at  Wittenberg  under 
Melanchthon,  afterward  at  Geneva  under  Cal- 
vin, and  was  professor  first  at  Heidelberg, 
1561-68,  then  at  Neustadt-on-the-Hardt.  To- 
gether with  Olevianus  he  drew  up  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism,  and  wrote  two  works  in  its 
defence.  In  1581  he  published  a  very  sharp 
criticism  of  the  Formula  Coitcordim  under  the 
title  Admom'tio  ChriHtian%.  There  is  a  life 
of  him  by  Sudhoflf,  Olevianus  und  Ursinus, 
Elberfeld,  1857,  and  a  translation  of  one  of 
his  works.  Commentary  on  the  Jleidelherq  Cate- 
chism, by  G.  W.  Willard,  Columbus,  o!,  1851. 
republished  by  the  Reformeil  Dutch  Church 
Board  of  Publication  in  New  York. 

Ursula,  Ste.,  was  according  to  legend  the 
daughter  of  a  Christian  king  in  Britain,  and 
started  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  at  the  head 
of  11,000  virgins,  but  was  overtaken  near 
Cologne  by  the  Huns,  who  slew  them  all. 
(See  Schade,  Die  lieil.  Ursula,  Wiirtzl)urg, 
1854  ;  Stein,  D.  h.  Ursula,  Cologne,  1879.) 

Ursulines  is  the  name  of  a  female  monastic 
order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded 
in  honor  of  Ste.  Ursula  in  Brescia.  1537,  by 
Angela  Merici  (q.v.,  p.  31),  and  confirmed  in 
1544  by  Paul  III.  Its  object  was  to  teach 
girls  and  to  take  care  of  the  poor  and  the  sick. 
It  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Cardinal  Bor- 
romeo  and  spread  rapidly,  but  a.ssumed  a 
more  strictly  monastic  aspect  when  trans- 
planted to  Germany  and  France.  There  are 
several  Ursuline  convents  both  in  the  United 
States— Morrisauia,  Cleveland,  Toledo,  etc. — 
and  in  Canada. 

Ussher,  James,  D.D.  (Dublin.  1612),  pri- 
mate of  Ireland  ;  b.  at  Dublin,  Jan.  4,  1581  : 
d.  at  Ryegate,  Surrev,  21  m.  s.w.  of  London, 
March  21,  1656.  He  entered  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  1593,  and  became  a  fellow,  1600  ;  pro- 
fessor of  divinity,  1607,  and  vire-chancellor, 
1614  ;  bishop  of*  3Ieath,  1621  ;  archbishop  of 
Armagh,  1625.  He  probably  drew  up  the 
104  Calvinistic  articles  which  were  passed  by 
a  .synod  at  Dublin,  1615,  but  never  ratified  by 
Parliament.  Disagreeing  with  Wentworth, 
lord  deputy  of  Ireland  (163:3-40),  as  to  the  in- 


USURY 


(940) 


UTRAQUISTS 


troduction  of  the  English  Thirty-nine  Articles 
and  the  toleration  of  Romanists,  he  withdrew 
to  England  when  that  official  was  made  earl 
of  Strafford  and  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  ; 
his  house  was  burned  by  the  rebels,  1641,  and 
he  never  returned.  His  position  was  peculiar  ; 
strongly  Calvinistic,  and  favoring  a  modified 
episcopacy,  he  was  yet  a  stout  royalist  and 
consistently  faithful  to  the  king.  His  Direc- 
tions Goroceriiing  the  Liturgy  and  Episcopal 
Qovernment  were  inoffensive  to  the  Puritans  ; 
but  he-  attended  Strafford  at  the  block,  and 
obeyed  when  Charles  II.  forbade  him  to  sit 
in  the  "Westminster  Assembly.  He  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Carlisle,  lived  at  Oxford, 
1642-46,  and  from  1647  was  preacher  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn.  His  learning,  ability,  moderation, 
and  high  character  won  the  respect  of  all 
parties.  Cromwell  buried  him  with  magnifi- 
cence in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  Annales 
Veteri  et  Novi  Testamenti,  London,  1650-54, 
2  parts,  Eug.  trans.,  Annals  of  the  World,  1658, 
supplied  the  chronology  generally  accepted 
and  followed  in  the  margin  of  many  editions 
of  the  Bible.  He  was  the  first  to  publish  the 
epistles  of  Ignatius  and  Polycarp.  His  works 
were  collected  in  17  vols., Dublin,  1847-64,  with 
a  life  by  C.  R.  Elrington.  Other  lives  of  him 
were  written  by  Bernard,  London,  1656  ;  R. 
Parr,  1686,  and  J.  Aikin,  1811.       F.  M.  B. 

Usury  in  Scripture  means  the  taking  of 
any  interest  for  th«  tise  of  money.  The  Jews, 
not  being  a  commercial  people,  were  required 
to  lend  to  each  other  without  charge,  in  recog- 
nition of  their  brotherly  relation  and  charac- 
ter. They  were,  however,  allowed  to  require 
interest  of  foreigners  (Deut.  xxiii.  19,  20),  the 
ordinary  principles  of  trade  being  observed 
outside  of  the  family  of  Israel.  Of  course  the 
]VIo.saic  statute  is  not  binding  now,  but  its  un- 
derlying principle  is  of  perpetual  and  univer- 
sal authority.  T.  W.  C. 

Utilitarianism,  the  doctrine  that  actions  de- 
rive their  moral  character  from  their  conse- 
quences ;  that  virtue  consists  in  such  action 
as  tends  to  good  ;  that  the  ethical  depends 
upon  and  is  derived  from  the  useful.  This 
view  may  be  either  egoistic  or  altruistic.  The 
former,  the  utilitarianism  of  personal  interest, 
is  sometimes  known  as  hedonism  {hedone, 
pleasure),  and  was  maintained  in  both  the 
Cyrenaic  and  the  Epicurean  schools  of  antiq- 
uity, as  it  has  been  among  the  moderns  by 
Hobbes,  Helvetius,  Mandeville,  and  Paley. 
But  it  is  opposed  to  consciousness,  which  de- 
clares that  interest  and  duty  are  distinct  in 
idea,  and  to  experience,  which  shows  that  in 
fact  they  may  be  separated  and  even  opposed 
to  each  other.  Duty  may  dictate  the  sacrifice 
of  health,  fortune,  and  life  in  direct  antago- 
nism to  self-interest. 

The  latter  phase,  the  altruistic,  regards  the 
social  consequences  of  actions,  and  makes  the 
greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number  the 
standard  of  right.  It  has  been  the  favorite 
theory  of  English  writers  on  ethics.  Cum- 
berland, Locke,  and  Hume  favored  the  view, 
and  Bentham,  Austin,  the  Mills,  and  Bayne 
have  been  its  strenuous  advocates.  Yet  it  is 
inadmissible.  It  mistakes  what  at  best  is 
only  a  criterion  of  rightness  for  its  founda- 


tion. No  doubt  virtue  is  useful,  but  no  one 
has  ever  shown  that  utility  is  the  source  of 
virtue.  Its  defenders  always  adduce  some- 
thing else,  the  will  of  God,  the  authority  of 
law,  association,  etc.  Utility  and  duty  are 
not  and  cannot  be  the  same.  T.  W.  C. 

Utraquists,  followers  of  Hus  in  Bohemia, 
who  demanded  the  communion  under  both. 
{nterqve)  kinds.  The  beginning  of  their  or- 
ganization as  a  party  was  at  the  Diet  in 
Prague  in  1415,  when  an  alliance  was  formed 
for  mutual  protection  in  matters  of  religion. 
The  conservative  Catholic  party  answered  by 
forming  a  counter  alliance.  Martin  V.  after 
the  close  of  the  Council  of  Constance  pro- 
ceeded against  the  Bohemians.  King  Wenzel 
would  have  acceded  to  the  pope's  demands 
but  for  the  steadfast  resistance  of  the  people. 
He  died  in  1419,  and  in  1420  the  Utraquists 
met  at  Prague  and  formulated  their  demands 
in  four  articles,  which  specified  the  free  preach- 
ing of  the  Word  of  God  in  Bohemia,  the  com- 
munion under  both  kinds,  the  reform  of  the 
clergy  by  the  relinquishment  of  its  worldly 
possessions,  and  the  prohibition  of  mortal  sins. 
A  division  of  the  party  into  two  portions,  of 
which  one  was  far  more  radical  than  the  other, 
had  already  occurred.  The  more  moderate 
wing  received  the  name  of  Utraquists,  or 
Calixtines,  and  the  other  that  of  Taborites 
(q.v.),  from  the  city  and  fortress  of  Tabor, 
which  they  built.  War  was  now  declared, 
against  the  Hussites,  and  from  1420  to  1425 
the  Germans  made  crusades  against  them. 
The  Bohemians  defended  themselves  success- 
fully. Then  they  adopted  in  1427  the  offen- 
sive. By  1431  they  had  forced  the  Catholic 
Church  to  the  opinion  that  the  only  way  of 
subduing  them  was  by  negotiation,  and  ac- 
cordingly their  deputies  were  invited  before 
the  Council  of  Basel.  Repeated  efforts  led  to 
a  final  agreement,  by  which,  however,  the 
Hussites  secured  little  more  than  the  permis- 
sion to  partake  of  the  cup  at  the  communion 
(1433).  The  more  radical  Taborites  would  not 
accept  these  small  concessions,  and  war  broke 
out  between  the  two  divisions,  resulting  ia 
the  defeat  of  the  Taborites  at  Bomischbrod  in 
1434.  After  this  time  they  exercised  no  mili- 
tary or  political  power.  The  year  1436  marks 
the  reconciliation  of  Bohemia  with  the  rest  of 
European  Christendom.  In  1443  a  disputa- 
tion was  held  in  Prague  between  representa- 
tives of  the  Utraquists  and  the  Taborites,  but 
without  result.  But  little  by  little  the  re- 
form principles  of  Hus  were  forgotten  by  the 
Utraquists,  and  they  were  distinguished  by 
little  else  than  their  peculiar  privilege.  But 
this  conflicted  so  with  the  Roman  ritual  that 
the  pope  was  anxious  to  bring  it  to  an  end. 
In  1462  Pius  II.  declared  the  compact  of  1433 
null  and  void  ;  but  until  long  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Reformation  the  practice  of 
using  the  cup  was  maintained.  When  word 
came  of  Luther's  doctrine,  a  large  part  of  the 
remaining  Hussites  accepted  the  new  doctrine 
with  joy,  and  in  1572  the  Protestant  party 
set  forth  a  confession  of  its  faith  at  the  diet. 
The  Utraquists  w^ho  refused  to  join  in  this 
confession  had  now  no  alternative  to  return- 
ing to  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
F.  H.  F. 


UYTENBOGAERT 


(941) 


VALENTINIAN 


U3rtenbogaert  (Wyttembogard),  Jan,  Ar- 
minian  leader  ;  b.  at  Utrecht,  Feb.  11,  1557  ; 
d.  at  The  Hague,  Sept.  21,  1644.  After  study- 
ing theology  under  Beza  in  Geneva,  he  be- 
came ii  preacher  at  Utrecht,  1584  ;  court  chap- 
lain at  The  Hague,  1590  ;  was  banished  on  ac- 
count of  liis  religious  opinions,  1022  ;  secretly 
returned,  1629  ;  preached  again  at  The  Hague. 
1631,  but  ere  his  death  was  silenced.  His 
life  was  first  written  anonymously  (in  Dutch), 
Amsterdam  (?).  16—,  2d"ed.,  1646;  see  also 
that  by  H.  C.  Rogge. 

Uz-zi'-ah,  the  tenth  king  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.),  called  also  Azariah  (3  Kings  xv.).  He 
began  to  reign  at  sixteen,  and  reigned  fifty- 
two  years,  B.C.  808-756.  His  career  at  first 
was  prosperous.  He  was  victorious  over  his 
foes.  He  "loved  husbandry,"  and  largely 
developed  the  resources  of  the  country.  But 
puffed  up  by  success,  he  presumed  to  usurp 
the  priest's  office  and  burn  incense  in  the 
temple.  Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of 
the  priests,  he  persisted,  and  at  length  was 
smitten  with  leprosy,  when  he  withdrew  in 
haste.  He  had  to  continue  during  the  rest  of 
his  life  to  live  apart  in  a  separate  house.  A 
great  earthquake  occurred  in  his  reign  (Amos 
i.  1,  Zech.  xiv.  5).  T.  W.  C. 


V. 


Vadian  (Joachim  von  Watt),  Reformer  of 
St.  Gall  ;  b.  at  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  Dec. 
30,  1484  ;  d.  there,  April  6,  1551.  He  was 
educated  at  Vienna,  matriculating  1502,  after 
Zwingli  had  left  ;  took  in  all  the  learning  of 
his  day,  including  medicine,  so  that  after 
serving  as  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  lan- 
guages and  literature  in  his  university  (1510- 
18),  he  became  physician  to  the  city  of  St. 
Gall.  There  he  introduced  the  Reformation 
(1534).  (See  his  life  by  W.  Pressel,  Elber- 
feld,  1861.) 

Vagantes  (cUHci  VM/antes,  or  vufji)  were 
clerics  who  had  obtained  ordination  without 
any  corresponding  office.  As  long  as  the 
church  was  essentially  missionary,  such  a  state 
of  affairs  was  (juite  natural  ;  but  when  the 
church  had  develDin-d  into  a  .settled  social  or- 
ganization, the  tiling  hcc  aine  dangerous.  Per- 
sons woidd  obtain  ordination  merely  for  bu.si- 
ness  purposes,  and  when  business  liiiled  they 
became  tramps.  Already  the  Council  of 
Chalc(>don.  451,  felt  compelled  to  interfere, 
but  without  any  effect.  Tiie  prohibition  was 
repeated  by  council  after  council,  iintil  in  the 
12tii  century  the  l)ishop  was  made  to  main- 
tain, out  of  his  own  pocket,  any  person  whom 
he  ordained  until  he  coidd  procure  employ- 
ment for  him,  a  principle  which  is  still  in 
force. 

Valdes,  Alonso  and  Juan  de,  twin  brothers  ; 
b.  about  15(M)  at  Cuenca,  Castile,  and  notice- 
able on  account  of  tlieir  relations  to  the  Refor- 
mation. Alonso  accompanied  Charles  V.  to 
Germany  in  1520,  and  was  present  at  the  Diet 
of  Worms,  and  again  in  1530,  when  he  was 
present  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.     He  after- 


ward lived  at  the  court  of  Brussels,  b\it  seems 
to  liave  died  shortly  after  1538.  In  1527  he 
wrote  a  dialogue  on  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the 
constable  of  Bourbon,  which  nearly  brought 
him  into  the  clutch  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion. It  was  printed  in  ]\Iadrid,  however,  in 
1529,  and  is  still  read  ;  Inst  ed.,  1850.  He 
enjoyed  the  confidence;  of  Melanchthon,  and 
at  many  occasions  showed  his  sympathy  for 
the  Protestants.  Juan  settled  at  Naples  in 
1533,  and  died  there  in  1540.  He  conversed 
intimately  with  Ochino,  Peter  Vermigli,  etc., 
and  formed  the  centre  of  a  circle  which  stood 
in  strong  opposition  to  the  principles  reigning 
in  the  Church  of  Rome.  There  are  English 
translations  of  his  Chrixtian  Alphabet,  Lon- 
don, 1860  ;  Comideratioits,  his  principal  work, 
1865  ;  Spintiial  ,\filk,  1882,  and  in  the  same 
year  his  (JaimnenUt  rij  on  St.  Matthcic,  with  lives 
of  him  and  his  brotlier  by  p]d.  Bochmer. 

Valens,  Roman  emperor,  304-78,  a  rude, 
stupid  fellow,  never  roused  into  anything  like 
cleverness  unless  by  malice.  His  reign  was 
the  triumph  of  Arianism.  In  368  he  was  bap- 
tized by  Eudoxius,  patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple, who  was  an  Arian,  and  consequently  he 
became  an  Arian  himself.  Arianism  was, 
indeed,  at  that  moment  so  predominant  in 
Constantmople  that  the  orthodox  had  no  one 
single  church  at  their  disposal  within  the 
walls.  A  delegation  of  eighty  orthodox  pres- 
byters asked  for  an  audience  to  lay  the  case 
before  the  emperor,  but  Valens  not  only  de- 
clined to  receive  them,  but  he  ordered  the 
whole  delegation  to  be  put  on  board  a  vessel 
and  the  vessel  when  out  on  the  open  sea  to 
be  set  on  fire  and  abandoned  by  the  crew. 
In  371  he  m:vde  a  procession  through  Asia 
Elinor,  and  wherever  he  stopped — Antioch, 
Edessa,  etc. — he  delivered  ui>  the  orthodox 
bishops  to  the  Arian  mobs  and  gave  their 
offices  to  Arian  theologians.  In  373  Athana- 
sius  died,  and  his  successor,  Lucius,  was  an 
Arian.  In  a  short  time  all  the  leaders  of  the 
orthodox  party  were  swept  out  of  Alexandria, 
and  a  detachment  of  soldiers  was  sent  to  the 
Nitriau  desert  to  handle  the  monks,  who 
were  dispersed  or  forced  into  the  regiments 
or  killed.  C.  P. 

Valentine,  St.,  was  a  presbyter  of  Rome, 
and  beheaded  during  the  persecution  of  Clau- 
dius II.,  270.  He  Mas  then  made  a  saint,  and 
his  festival  was  celebrated  on  Feb.  14.  But 
originally  he  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  cus- 
tom of  "choosing  valentines. "  It  arose  from 
the  old  pagan  festival  of  Lupercalia,  cele- 
brated on  the  same  day.  With  reference  to 
the  fact  that  just  at  that  sea.son  many  birds 
select  their  "  mate  for  the  year,"  the  Romans 
used  to  put  the  names  of  the  young  girls  in  a 
box,  from  which  the  yoimg  man  then  drew 
"  his  love  for  the  year."  The  coincidence  of 
the  date  led  the  clergy  to  try  to  remodel  the 
pagan  feast,  which  probably  was  not  without 
its"  difliculties  ;  they  stuffed  the  box  with 
names  of  the  saints,  and  the  boys  drew  their 
"  example  for  the  year."  C.  P. 

Valentinian  is  the  name  of  three  Roman 
emperors,  who  all  are  of  interest  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Chri-stian  Church.  1.  364-75,  es- 
tablished religious  liberty  in  the  full,  modem 


VAIiENTINUS 


(942) 


VAN  DYCK 


sense  of  the  word  throughout  the  western 
part  of  the  empire.  Professing  the  Nlcaean 
Creed  himself,  he  gave  equal  rights  to  the 
Arians,  to  other  Christian  sects,  to  the  Jews, 
and  to  the  pagans.  It  is  a  striking  fact  that 
under  the  titles  De  Pagan  is,  Be  Heretkis,  and 
Be  Jiulmis,  which  used  to  swarm  with  laws  of 
persecutions,  the  Codex  Justiniani  contains 
not  one  single  edict  between  356  and  381. 
But  though  Valentinian  I.  left  conviction  en- 
tirely free,  he  did  not  abandon  all  control  of 
conduct.  On  the  one  side  he  forbade  the 
nocturnal  celebration  of  the  pagan  mysteries, 
the  employment  of  magic,  etc. ;  on  the  other, 
he  rendered  illegal  all  bequests  to  priests  or 
monks  by  widows  and  virgins.  2.  375-92,  a 
son  of  the  preceding  and  a  pupil  of  Ambrose, 
declined  the  petition  of  the  senate  to  have  the 
statue  of  Victory  restored  to  the  senate-room. 
(See  Relatio  Symviachi  Urbis  Profecti  given  by 
Migne,  Pat.  Lat.  XVI..  and  Ambrose,  Epp. 
xvii.  and  xviii.)  He  died  before  receiving 
baptism.  (See  Ambrose,  Be  Obitu  Valen- 
tiniani  Consolatio.)  3.  425-55,  a  weak  and 
vicious  character,  completely  under  the  sway 
of  the  clergy.  He  expelled  all  heretics  and 
schismatics  from  Rome,  more  especially  the 
followers  of  Eulalius  ;  deprived  apostates  of 
all  testamentary  power  ;  prohibited  Jews 
from  disinheriting  their  children  because  they 
embraced  Christianity,  and  reserved  all  cleri- 
cal offenders  to  the  tribunal  of  the  bishops, 
a  privilege  which,  however,  he  afterward  was 
compelled  to  take  back  as  too  dangerous. 

Valentinus.    See  Gnosticism,  p.  329. 

Valerian,  Roman  emperor,  253-59,  belonged 
to  the  prononciamiento  period  of  the  history 
of  the  empire,  when  every  successful  general 
made  himself  emperor  or  was  made  emperor 
by  the  legions,  and  his  reign  designates  the 
darkest  moment  of  that  period.  From  every 
point  wild  barbarian  hordes  or  mighty  neigh- 
boring kings  broke  across  the  frontier  into 
the  realm,  while  in  the  central  provinces  the 
plague  was  decimating  the  population  and 
paralyzed  all  concentrated  action.  It  was 
probably  the  despair  of  the  situation  which 
suddenly  changed  his  relation  to  the  Chris- 
tians. There  were  many  Christians  in  his 
household  and  among  his  nearest  friends,  and 
he  had  always  shown  them  regard  and  sym- 
pathy. But  suddenly  he  caught  the  idea  that, 
somehow,  they  were  the  cause  of  all  the 
miseries  and  calamities  of  the  time,  and, 
bold  and  upright  man  as  he  was,  he  acted 
upon  his  conviction.  He  determined  to  stamp 
out  Christianity,  crushing  first  the  leaders, 
then  the  flock.  In  256  he  forbade  the  Chris- 
tians to  hold  meetings  and  celebrate  service  ; 
in  257  he  ordered  all  who  disobeyed  to  be  sent 
to  the  mines  or  the  galleys  ;  in  258  he  finally 
decreed  that  all  the  bishops,  presbyters,  and 
deacons  should  be  put  to  death.  But  in  259 
he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Persian  king 
Sapor,  who  never  let  him  loose  again,  and  his 
son,  Gallienus,  saw  the  mistake  and  stopped 
the  persecution. 

Valesius  (Henri  de  Valois),  b.  in  Paris, 
Sept.  10,  1603  ;  d.  there,  May  7,  1676  ;  was 
educated  by  the  Jesuits  ;  obtained  a  pension 
from  Louis  XIV.,   and   gave    out    valuable 


critical  editions  of  Ammianus  MarceUinus, 
Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomenos,  Theodoret, 
Enagrius,  etc. 

Valla.     See  Laurentius  Valla,  p.  491. 

Vallombrosa,  The  Order  of,  forms  simply 
a  branch  of  the  Benedictines,  and  was  founded 
in  1039  by  Johannes  Gualbertus  in  a  valley 
of  the  Apennines,  without  ever  attaining  any 
considerable  extension,  but  was  the  first  mo- 
nastic order  which  admitted  lay  brothers  into 
their  community.  The  valley  is  alluded  to 
in  Milton's  famous  ode  on  the  Waldenses. 

Vandals,  The,  crossed  from  Spain  over  to 
Africa  in  430  under  their  king,  Genseric,  at 
the  invitation  of  the  Roman  governor,  Boni- 
face, who  had  rebelled  against  the  imperial 
government.  So  far  as,  in  the  meantime, 
they  had  not  dispersed  themselves  in  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  Italy — where  they  took  and  plun- 
dered Rome  in  455 — and  other  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, they  were  again  driven  from  Africa  in 
534  by  Justinian's  general,  Belisarius.  But 
during  this  rule  of  100  years  over  the  Roman 
province  of  Africa  they  made,  as  the  phrase 
neatly  expresses  it.  clean  work  ;  no  field  was 
ever  eaten  off  more  closely  by  the  grasshoppers 
than  was  Africa  by  the  Vandals.  Among  the 
precious  things  they  utterly  destroyed  was 
also  the  African  Church,  at  that  time  under 
the  leadership  of  Augustine,  the  most  flourish- 
ing branch  of  the  Latin  Church.  They  were 
Arians,  and  they  hated  the  orthodox.  Xo 
doubt,  they  had  at  times  suffered  from  the  fa- 
naticism of  the  orthodox  and  they  now  took 
their  revenge.  The  church-buildings  and  all 
other  church  property  they  confiscated  and  ap- 
propriated to  their  own  exclusive  use.  Of  the 
bishops,  presbyters,  deacons,  and  monks  they 
banished  some,  burned  more,  and  the  rest 
they  employed  as  slaves  in  the  mills  and  the 
mines,  or  they  used  them  for  their  amusement 
by  throwing  them  to  the  wild  beasts  in  the 
amphitheatre,  or  crowding  them  together  on 
feeble  rafts  and  setting  them  at  sea  in  the 
Mediterranean.  Then  they  began  to  search 
the  flock.  Such  as  were  rich  or  supposed  to 
be  so,  they  put  on  the  rack,  and  when  they 
discovered  that  a  victim  had  not  so  much 
money  as,  according  to  their  computation,  he 
ought  to  have,  they  added  to  the  confiscation 
of  his  property  by  selling  himself,  his  wife, 
and  his  children  as  slaves.  Thus  the  African 
Church  became  thoroughly  Arianized  ?  Xo. 
The  Vandals  built  up  nothing,  they  destroyed 
only.  In  the  history  of  mankind  they  have 
left  absolutely  nothing  which  is  positive  and 
unforgetable  and  effective,  but  their— name. 
(See  Ruinart,  Hist,  persect.  Yand.,  Paris, 
1694.)  C.  P. 

Van  Doren,  William  Howard,  b.  in  Orange 
County,  X.  Y.,  March  2.  1810  ;  d.  at  Indian- 
apolis, Sept.  8,  1882  ;  was  graduated  at  Co- 
lumbia College,  and  in  1832  at  the  Western 
Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny,  Pa.;  held 
various  pastoral  charges  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  published  Suggestive  Commentary 
on  the  New  Testament,  of  which  appeared 
Luke,  New  York,  1868,  2  vols.,  John,  1879, 
2  vols.,  and  Romans,  1870,  2  vols. 

Van  Dyck,  OorneUus  Valen,M.D.  (Jeffer- 


VAN  DYKE 


(943; 


VAUGHAN 


son  Medical  College,  Philadephia.  1839),  D.D. 
(Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
1865),  lleformed  (Dutch)  ;  b.  at  Kinderhook, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  13,  1818;  studied  medicine  at 
Jefferson  Medical  College  ;  was  appointed 
missionary  of  the  xV.  B.  C.  F.  M.  for  Sjria, 
1839,  and  ordained  by  the  Syrian  Mission  in 
council,  1846  ;  was  principal  of  the  Missionary 
Seminary.  Beirut,  184:8-r)3  ;  missionary  in  the 
Sidon  tield,  1852-57  ;  manager  of  the  Mission 
Press,  Beirut,  1857-80  ;  physician  to  St.  John's 
Hospital  and  professor  of  pathology  in  the 
Syrian  Protestant  College,  1880-82 ;  since 
physician  to  St.  George's  Hospital.  He 
taught  Hebrew  in  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary. New  York,  1866-07,  while  superintend- 
ing tlie  printing  of  his  Arabic  translation  of 
the  Bible. 

Van  Dyke,  Henry  Jackson,  Jr.  (now  sim- 
ply Henry  van  Dyke),  D.l).  (College  of  New 
Jersey,  Princeton,  1884),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at 
Germantowu,  Pa.,  Nov.  10,  1852;  graduated 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton, 
18T3,  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
1877  ;  studied  in  Berlin  ;  held  pastoral  charges 
at  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  New  York,  and  be- 
came in  1884Sirector  of  Princeton  Theologi- 
cal Seminary.  He  published  lite  Renlity  of 
Relirjion,  New  York,  1884,  2d  ed.,  1885  ;  The 
Story  of  the  Psalms,  1887  ;  God  and  Little 
Children,  1890. 

Various  Readings.  The  differences,  mostlj' 
of  tritling  moment,  noted  between  the  differ- 
ent Bible  manuscripts,  translations,  and  quo- 
tations in  the  Fathers.  Those  in  the  case  of 
the  Old  Testament  are  few,  because  of  the 
scrupulous  care  with  which  the  Massoretic 
text  was  copied  ;  while  in  that  of  the  New 
Testament  they  are  numerous.  They  affect 
no  doctrine,  and  are  mostly  variations  in 
spelling,  verbal  order,  or  at  worst  duplication 
of  words  or  phrases— just  the  errors,  in  fact, 
as  would  be  expected  in  documents  copied  so 
frequently  and  often  so  carelessly. 

Vassy,  Massacre  of.  See  France,  Re- 
formed Chcrcii  of,  p.  800. 

Vater,  Johannes  Severin,  b.  at  Altenburgh, 
May  27,  1771  ;  d.  at  Halle.  March  15,  1826. 
Studied  at  Jena  and  Halle  ;  became  professor 
at  Halle,  1799  ;  at  Konigsbcrg,  1810  ;  at  Halle, 
1820.  He  is  still  rememl)ered  by  his  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch,  Halle,  1802-5,  3 
parts. 

Vatican  Codes,  the  famous  manuscript  of 
the  Bible  preserved  in  the  Vatican  Library. 
The  New  Testament  was  reproduced  infac- 
simih  by  phototype  in  Rome,  1889.  One  hun- 
dred copies  only  were  printed.  There  are 
three  more  volumes  of  like  style  to  follow, 
containing  the  Old  Testament  part  of  the 
manuscript.     See  Yatic.vn. 

Vatican  Council.    See  Pius  IX.,  p.  726. 

Vatican  Palace,  The,  the  residence  of  the 
pope,  stands  on  tin-  Vaticim  Hill,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tiber,  in  th;it  part  of  Rome  which 
is  called  the  Leonine  City.  It  derived  its 
name  from  the  hill,  and  that  of  the  hill  sprung 
from  the  circumstance  of  tin*  Etruscan  proph- 
ets   mtes,  originally    having   lia  I   their   seat 


there.  The  palace  consists  of  a  large  group 
of  buildings,  of  which  the  oldest  dates  back 
to  Innocent  III.,  1198-1216.  Symmachus, 
498-514,  first  built  a  palace  on  the  Vatican 
Hill,  but  tile  popes  then  residing  in  the  Later- 
an,  that  building  was  for  centuries  only  used, 
when  kings  or  other  distinguished  persons 
visited  Rome.  Having  fallen  into  decay,  it 
was  rebuilt  by  Innocent  III.  and  much  en- 
larged by  Nicholas  III.,  1277-81.  After  the 
return  from  Avignon  the  popes  chose  the 
Vatican  for  their  residence  in  preference  to 
the  Lateran,  because,  on  account  of  its  near- 
ness to  St.  Angelo.  it  was  safer.  The  first 
conclave  was  held  there  in  1378.  Then  began 
its  extension.  John  XXIIL,  1410-17,  con- 
nected it  with  St.  Angelo  by  a  covered  pas- 
sage. Nicholas  V.,  1447-55,  began  and  Alex- 
ander VI.,  1492-1503,  finished  the  Tor  di 
Borgia.  The  Sistine  Chapel  was  built  by 
Sixtus  IV.,  1471-84,  and  the  hbrary  building 
by  Sixtus  V.,  1585-90.  Clement  VIII..  1592- 
1605,  built  the  building  which  now  is  the  resi- 
dence proper  of  the  popes.  Besides  its  library, 
absolutely  invaluable  and  containing  23,580 
manuscripts,  the  Vatican  has  the  greatest  col- 
lection of  statuary  in  the  world,  and  some  of 
the  finest  pictures  which  the  art  of  painting 
has  produced  are  also  there.  (See  Hare,  Walki^ 
in  Borne ;  L.  Batissol,  La  Vatican  de  Paul 
ILL  dPaulLV.,  Paris,  1890.) 

Vatke,  Johann  Karl  Wilhelm,  b.  at  Behn- 
dorf,  Prussian  Saxony,  March  14,  1806  ;  d. 
in  Berlin,  April  19,  1882;  was  in  1837  ap- 
pointed professor  extraordinary  of  theology 
in  Berlin,  and  published  Die  Religion  des 
Alien  Testaments,  Berlin,  1835,  which  was  the 
first  germ  of  the  Wellhausen  views  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

Vaudois.     See  Waldenses. 

Vaughan,  Charles  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
1845),  dean  of  Llandaff,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Leicester,  Aug.  6,  1816  ;  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  ordained  priest,  1841  ; 
head  master  of  Harrow  School,  1844-59  ; 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  queen,  1851-79  ; 
master  of  the  Temple  .since  1869,  and  dean  of 
Llandaff  since  1879.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  New  Testament  Revision  Committee, 
1870-81,  and  has  published  exposition  of  Ro- 
mans (London.  1859,  3d  ed..  1880),  Philip- 
pians  (1862,  4th  ed.,  1883,  and  another  in  1885). 
Revelation  (1863,  5th  ed.,  1882),  Acts  (1863- 
65,  3  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1890),  and  volumes  of 
sermons,  etc. 

Vaughan,  Henry,  "the  Silurist."  poet  of 
the  Churcii  of  Entrland  ;  b.  at  Skelhiog,  in 
South  Wales,  1621';  d.  there,  April  23,  1693. 
He  studied  at  Jesus  College,  Oxford  ;  became 
a  physician  ;  practised  for  a  time  at  Brecon, 
and  then  returned  to  his  native  place.  His 
prose  works,  Mount  of  Olives,  London.  1652, 
etc.,  are  unimportant.  His  Poems  appeared 
1640  ;  Silex  Scintiilans  ;  or,  Sacred  Poems  and 
Primte  Ejaculations,  1650.  2d  ed..  1655,  fac- 
simile ed..  1885  :  Thalia  liediviva,  1678. 
These  were  little  known  till  H.  F.  Lvte  edited 
Silex  Scintiilans  {with  a  memoir),  1847,  4th  ed., 
1891.  Vaughan's  ]Vo>-ks  in  Prose  and  Verse, 
ed.  A.  B.  Grosart,  appeared  in  Edinburgh, 


VAUGHAN 


941) 


VEDA 


187 — 7-,  4  vols.  Vaughan  is  very  unequal, 
but  sometimes  rises  to  great  heights.  He  fol- 
lowed Herbert,  and  Archbishop  Trench  pre- 
ferred him  to  his  master.  F.  M.  B. 


Vaughan,  Robert,  D.D.  (- 


-,  18—).  Con- 


gregationalist  ;  b.  in  Wales,  1795  ;  d.  at  Tor- 
quay, Devonshire,  June  15, 1868.  He  studied 
at  EIristol,  and  was  pastor  at  Worcester,  1819- 
25,  and  at  Kensington,  1825-30  ;  professor  of 
modern  history  in  London  University,  1830- 
42  ;  principal  of  Lancashire  Independent  Col- 
lege, Manchester,  1842-57 ;  pastor  at  Ux- 
bridgi,  near  London,  and  in  1867  at  Torquay. 
He  edited  the  British  Quarterly,  London, 
1845-66,  and  was  an  able  orator  and  a  volu- 
minous writer.  Among  his  publications  are 
a  Life  of  Wydiffe,  London,  1828,  2  vols.  ;  a 
monograph  on  Wydiffe,  1853  ;  Causes  of  the 
Corruption  of  Christianity,  1834  ;  The  His- 
tory of  England  (1603-88),  1840  ;  Revolutions 
in  Enqlish  History,  1859-63,  3  vols.,  and  Eng- 
lish Nonconformity,  1862.  (See  his  Memorial, 
1839.)  F.  M.  B. 

Veda.  The  original  signification  of  the 
word  is  "  knowledge,  science."  It  then 
comes  to  denote  the  whole  Hindu  sacred  liter- 
ature as  pre-eminently  the  science.  It  desig- 
nates not  a  book,  but  a  whole  literature.  It 
appears  under  tlie  forms  of  sanhita,  brah- 
mana,  sutra.  The  aranyakas  and  upanishads 
are  developments  of  the  brahmana.  The 
sanhita  and  brahmana  together  form  cruti, 
"hearing,  revelation."  the  sQtras,  smriti, 
"memory,  tradition."  Sanhita  means  "col- 
lection." The  sanhitSs  contain  the  mantras, 
"  songs. "  There  are  four  :  the  Vedas  in  con- 
tradistinction from  the  Veda,  the  Rig-Veda, 
Sama-Veda,  Yajur-Veda,  and  Atharva- Veda. 
The  general  form  is  lyrical  poetry.  They 
comprise  the  songs  brought  by  the  Hindus 
from  their  ancient  home  on  the  Indus,  and 
which  they  there  used  for  "  invoking  pros- 
perity on  themselves  and  their  flocks,  in  their 
adoration  of  the  dawn,  in  celebration  of  the 
struggle  between  the  god  who  wields  the 
lightning  and  the  power  of  darkness,  and  in 
rendering  thanks  to  the  heavenly  beings  for 
preservation  in  battle"  (Roth  in  Weber,  His- 
tory of  Indian  Literature).  They  are  almost 
exclusively  religious  and  mostly  simple  invo- 
cations and  glorifications  of  the  divinity  ad- 
dressed. The  metrical  form  is  very  simple. 
The  language  is  an  older  dialect,  varying  con- 
siderably from  the  later  classical  Sanskrit. 
First  in  extent  and  importance  is  the  Rig- 
Veda.  It  contains  1017  suktas.  "  hymns,"  in 
10 .  580  rchas, ' '  verses . "  Re  (c  as  ch  in  church), 
originally  "  praising,"  came  to  mean  a  verse. 
The  stem  re  alone  becomes  rk,  before  a  sonant 
letter,  rg.  So  Rg-Veda,  ordinarily  printed 
Ri!z;-Veda,  the  Veda  of  rcas,  "  verses,  songs." 
It  is  a  historical  collection,  prompted  by  a  de- 
sire to  treasure  up  ancient  songs,  brought 
from  the  earlier  seat  of  the  race.  The  S§.ma- 
Veda  is  a  liturgical  collection.  Its  matter  is 
almost  all  found  in  the  Rig- Veda,  but  it  is 
here  transformed  into  the  sSman,  "chant." 
The  chants  of  the  Sama-Veda  were  to  be  sung 
in  the  Soma  ritual.  The  Yajur-Veda  also 
took  shape  in  connection  witli  the  develop- 
ment of  the  cultus.     A  body  of  utterances, 


mostly  from  the  Rig- Veda,  intended  to  accom- 
pany each  action,  was  established.  These  sac- 
rificial formulas  received  the  name  of  yajtis, 
from  the  root  yaj,  "sacrifice."  A  book  of 
these  expressions  is  a  Yajur-Veda.  The 
Yajur-Veda  has  no  internal  connection.  The 
actions  to  which  the  formulas  belong  are  ex- 
plained by  the  commentaries,  the  brahmanas 
and  the  sutras.  The  f o  arth  Veda,  the  Athar- 
van,  never  came  to  be  universally  acknowl- 
edged. Like  the  Rig-Veda,  it  is  a  historical, 
not  a  liturgical  collection.  Atharvan  is  the 
half  mythical  name  of  an  ancient  family  of 
Rishis,  "  singers."  with  whom  it  was  sought 
to  bring  the  collection  into  connection.  The 
Atharvan  comprises  nearly  760  hymns  and 
6000  verses.  A  sixth,  however,  is  not  metri- 
cal, but  consists  of  longer  or  shorter  prose 
pieces.  Of  the  metrical  portion,  about  one 
sixth  is  found  in  the  Rig- Veda,  about  five 
sixths  are  peculiar  to  the  Atharvan.  From 
their  internal  character  the  Atharvan  hymns, 
as  those  of  the  tenth  book  of  the  Rig- Veda,  are 
generally  supposed  to  be  the  production  of  a 
later  period.  The  Atharvan  appears  (accord- 
ing to  Whitney)  to  be  rather  of  popular  than 
of  priestly  origin. 

The  whole  range  of  at  least  the  pre-Buddh- 
istic  literature  does  not  furnish  a  single  date 
or  thoroughly  trustworthy  chronological  indi- 
cation. The  Hindu  mind  lacks  entirely  the 
historical  sense.  General  considerations, 
especially  inference  founded  on  what  may  be 
called  literary  stratification,  seem  to  refer  the 
Vedic  period  to  B.C.  2000-1500.  The  oldest 
hymns  may  reach  back  into  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic,  or  at  least  the  Indo-Persian  period,  the 
latest,  as  also  the  later  recensions  of  the  older, 
may  come  from  the  Buddhistic.  When, 
where,  and  under  whose  direction  their  col- 
lection may  have  taken  place  is  undetermi- 
nable. The  brahmana  sustains  to  the  mantra 
of  the  sanhitas  the  relation  of  canonized  ex- 
position to  canonized  text.  Its  separate 
treatises  are  known  as  brahmanas.  "  Their 
object  is  to  connect  the  sacrificial  songs  and 
formulas  with  the  sacrificial  rite,  by  pointing 
out,  on  the  one  hand,  their  direct  mutual  re- 
lation ;  and,  on  the  other,  their  symbolical 
connection  with  each  other.  We  thus  find  in 
them  the  oldest  rituals  we  have,  the  oldest 
linguistic  explanations,  .the  oldest  traditional 
narratives,  and  the  oldest  philosophical  specu- 
lations. With  respect  to  age,  they  all  date 
from  the  period  of  transition  from  Vedic  civil- 
ization and  culture  to  the  Brahmanic  mode  of 
thought  and  social  order."  (Weher,  History 
of  Indian  Literature,  p.  12.)  The  Aranyakas 
are  writings  supplementary  to  the  Brah- 
manas.  These,  literally  "forest-treatises," 
were  specially  designed  for  the  Hylobioi  of 
Megasthenes,  Brahmans  who  had  retired  to 
the  forest  for  meditation  and  prayer.  From 
some  of  the  Aranyakas,  or  even  from  the  Brah- 
manas, are  extracted  the  earliest  upanishads, 
"sittings,  lectures."  These,  however,  are 
added  to  until  a  comparatively  modern  time. 
They  are  the  repository  of  Hindu  philosophy. 

Sutra  means  "line,  rule."  "While  the 
Brahmanas  uniformly  confine  themselves  to 
individual  instances  of  ritual,  interpretation, 
tradition,  and  speculation,  subjecting  these 


VE3HMIC 


(945) 


VERSIONS 


to  copious  dogmatic  treatment,  the  object  of 
the  Sutras  is  to  comprehend  everytliing  that 
had  any  reference  whatever  to  tliese  subjects. 
Diffuse  discussion  had  to  be  rephiced  by  con- 
cise collective  summaries."  (Weber,  History 
of  Indian  Litendiire.)  "  In  part  (9rauta  or 
kalpa-sutras)  they  take  up  the  great  sacrificial 
ceremonies  with  which  the  Biahmanas  have 
to  do  ;  in  part  (grh^'a-sutra-s)  they  teach  the 
minor  duties  of  a  pious  householder  ;  in  some 
cases  (samayacarika-sutras)  they  lay  down  the 
general  obligations  of  one  wliose  life  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  prescribed  duty.  And  out  of 
the  last  two,  or  especially  the  last,  come  by 
natural  development  the  law  books  (dharma- 
9astras),  which  make  a  conspicuous  figure  in 
the  later  literature  ;  the  oldest  and  most  noted 
of  them  being  that  called  by  the  name  of 
Manu  (an  outgrowth,  it  is  believed,  of  the 
Manava  Vedic  school)."  (Whitney,  Sans- 
krit Grauiiiuir.) 

The  Rig-  Vedn  has  been  edited  by  Max  Miil- 
ler  and  by  Aufrecht  ;  the  Sdmn-  Veda  by 
Benfey ;  the  Tajur-Veda  bv  Weber;  the 
Atharm-Veda  by"  Roth  and  W.  D.  Wliitney. 
Only  the  Rig-  Veda  exists  in  a  complete  Eng- 
lish'translation,  that  of  H.  H.  Wilson,  which 
follows  too  much  the  native  commentary 
fairly  to  represent  the  original. 

On  the  general  subject  see  Whitney,  Ori- 
ental and  Linguistic  Studies,  first  series  ;  Max 
Miiller,  Chips,  vol.  i. ;  Monier  Williams,  Ind- 
ian  Wisdom  ;  Weber,  History  of  Ii.dian  Lit- 
erature. For  the  Upanishads,  see  Sacred  Books 
of  the  East,  vols.  i.  and  xv.  For  a  Brahmana, 
see  S.  B.  E.,  vols.  xii.  and  xxvi.  For  the 
Grhya-sutras,  see  8.  B.  E.,  vols.  xxix.  and  xxx. 
For  gastras,  see  S.  B.  E.,  vols,  ii.,  xiv.,  xxv. 
(Manu  xxv.).  W.  R.  Martin. 

Vehmic  (fa-mic).  Court  {vehmgericht),  a 
word  of  uncertain  derivation,  was  a  half 
secret,  wholly  unauthorized,  but  very  effective 
tribunal  which  was  very  active  in  Southwest- 
ern Germany  during  the  JVIiddle  Ages.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Charlemagne, 
and  it  was  suppressed  by  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
1811. 

Veil  is  in  the  Authorized  Version  several 
times  used  to  render  Hebrew  words  which 
really  mean  mantle,  shawl,  etc.  (Gen.  xxiv. 
65,  xxxviii.  14,  Ruth  iii.  15,  Cant.  v.  7,  Isa. 
Hi.  23).  In  olden  times  the  Hebrew,  Assyrian, 
and  Egyptian  women  did  not  use  the  veil  ; 
there  is" no  allusion  to  it  either  in  the  litera- 
ture or  in  the  monuments  of  those  nations. 
Where  to-day  it  is  generally  in  those  coun- 
tries, it  is  wholly  due  to  an  influence  from 
Mohammedan  civilization. 

Veil,  Taking  the,  part  of  the  ceremony  of 
the  consecration  of  a  nun.  On  entering  on 
her  novitiate,  she  takes  the  white  veil  ;  on  tak- 
ing the  final  vows,  the  black  veil. 

Venables,  Edmund,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  in  Loudon,  July  5,  1819  ;  wivs  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  ordained  priest  in  1846  ;  held 
various  curacies,  and  has  since  1867  been  canon 
residentiary  and  precentor  of  Lincoln  cathe- 
dral, and  for  many  years  has  devoted  himself 
to  architectural  and  archteological  researches. 
His  literary  work  has  been  mainly  editorial 
and  journalistic. 


Venantius  Fortuatus.  See  Fortunatus, 
p.  297. 

Vence  Bible,  The  {La  Bible  de  Vence),  is 
simply  the  edition  of  1748-50  of  the  Bible  of 
Calmet,  14  vols,  quarto,  with  which  were  in- 
corporated some  essays  by  Henri  Fran9ois  de 
Vence,  b.  at  Pareid  (Department  of  Meuse, 
France),  about  125  m.  e.  of  Paris,  about 
1675  ;  d.  at  Nancy,  Nov.  1,  1749. 

Venema,  Hermann,  1697-1787,  professor  of 
theology  at  the  University  of  Franecker,  of 
whose  Institutes  of  Theology  an  English  trans- 
lation, by  A.  W.  Brown,  appeared  in  Edin- 
burgh, 1850. 

Venerable,  the  title  of  an  archdeacon  in  the 
Church  of  England. 

Venerable  Bede.    See  Bede. 

Venn,  Henry,  Church  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Barnes,  Surrey,  March  2,  1724  ;  d.  at  Yelling, 
Huntingdonshire,  June  24,  1797.  He  studied 
at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  became 
fellow  of  Queen's,  1749  ;  curate  of  Clapham, 
1754  ;  vicar  of  Huddersfield,  Yorkshire,  1759, 
and  of  Yelling,  1771.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Whitefield  and  Lady  Huntingdon,  and  a 
leader  of  the  Evangelical  party.  He  wrote 
the  long  popular  Complete  iJuty  of  Man,  Lon- 
don, 1763,  n.e.,  with  memoir,  1841.  and  the 
less  known  3Iistakes  in  Religion  Exposed, 
1774.  (See  his  Life  and  Letters,  edited  by  his 
son.  London,  1834,  7th  ed.,  1853.  and  W. 
Knight's  Henry  Venn,  1881.)  F.  M.  B. 

Vercellone,  Carlo,  b.  at  Sordevolo.  Pied- 
mont, Jan.  14,  1814  ;  d.  in  Rome,  Jan.  19, 
1869,  as  president  of  the  college  of  the  Barna- 
bites  ;  published  the  various  readings  of  the 
Vulgate,  Rome,  1860-64,  2  vols.,  and  prepared, 
together  with  Cozza,  the  edition  of  the  Code£ 
Vaticanus,  1868-81,  5  vols.  - 

Vermigli,  Peter  Martyr.  See  Peter 
Martyr  Vermkji.i. 

Veronica  is  the  name  of  the  woman  who, 
according  to  legend,  wiped  off  the  blood  and 
the  sweat  by  her  head-cloth  from  the  face  of 
Christ  when,  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem,  he 
passed  by  her  on  his  way  to  Golgotha.  Ever 
after  his  features  remained  impressed  upon 
the  cloth,  and  it  became  so  famous  for  its 
healing  power  that  even  the  Emperor  Ti- 
berius heard  about  it.  and  sent  for  it  in  his 
last  agonies.  Thus  Veronica  came  to  Rome, 
and  there  she  presented  the  cloth  to  Bishop 
Clement,  the  successor  of  Peter.  Pope  John 
VII.,  705-7.  asserted  that  the  miraculous  por- 
trait was  still  in  the  po.ssession  of  the  church 
of  St.  Maria  ;Maggiore  in  Rome,  but  decreed 
that  it  should  only  be  shown  to  kings  and 
emperors,  and  only  on  certain  conditions. 
Unfortunately  the  cathedral  of  Milan  and  the 
cathedral  of  Jaen  also  claim  to  possess  the 
genuine  cloth,  and  still  more  unfortunately, 
when  the  word  Veronica  is  dissolved  into  its 
components,  rera  iron  (fa^^i"),  it  proves  to  be 
no  name  at  all,  but  to  mean  "  the  true  pic- 
ture. ' ' 

Verses.    See  Chapter  and  Verse,  p.  154. 

Versions.     See  Bibi.e.  p.  104. 


VERY 


(946) 


VILLEGAIGNON 


Very,  Jones,  b.  at  Salem,  Mass.,  Aug.  28, 
1813  ;  d.  there,  May  8.  1880  ;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  and  licensed  as  a  Unitarian  preach- 
er, but  lived  mostly  in  retirement  in  his  native 
city.  He  has  written  some  very  fine  hymns. 
A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  pub- 
lished in  Boston,  1886. 

Vespers  (vespera  or  officium  vespertinum  or 
lucernarium)  denotes  the  service  celebrated 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  at  sunset.  It 
is  of  very  early  origin,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Chrysostom,  Jerome,  in  the  rules  of  Bene- 
dict, Columban,  etc. 

Vestments,  Ecclesiastical.  See  Clothing, 
Clerical,  p.  177. 

Vestry  means,  in  the  modern  terminology 
of  the  Episcopal  Church,  an  assembly  of  the 
parishioners  for  the  discussion  of  the  affairs 
of  the  parish,  and  the  ollicers  of  the  assembly 
are  called  the  vestry  board.  Originally,  how- 
ever, the  name  was  only  applied  to  that  part 
of  the  church  building  in  which  such  business 
meetings  took  place,  the  sacristy  (q.v.). 

Via  Dolorosa  is  the  name  of  a  street  in 
Jerusalem  running  from  St.  Stephen's  Gate 
to  the  street  of  the  Gate  of  the  Column, 
though  only  a  part  of  it,  from  Antonia  past 
the  Ecce  homo  arch  to  the  Church  of  the  Sepul- 
chre, is  supposed  to  have  been  actually  passed 
by  Jesus  on  his  way  to  Golgotha. 

Viaticum  means  in  classical  Latin  simply 
provision  for  a  journey,  but  is  by  Christian 
writers  from  the  4th  century  to  our  days  ap- 
plied specifically  to  the  Eucharist  as  the  true 
provision  for  the  great  journey  through  death. 

Vicar  (Latin,  mcarius)  means  generally  any 
substitute  for  any  olficer.  but  has  in  hierarchi- 
cal terminology  received  a  very  elaborate  ap- 
plication, ranging  with  various  epithets  from 
the  pope,  who  is  the  vicar  of  Christ,  to  the 
humblest  pastor  of  the  smallest  flock  in  some 
out-of-the-way  corner  of  the  country,  who  is 
the  vicar  of  the  rector. 

Vicarious  Atonement.     See  Atonement. 

Vicelin,  the  apostle  of  Holstein,  was  edu- 
cated in  the  school  of  Paderborn  ;  studied  in 
Paris  under  Anselm,  and  went  as  a  inissionary 
to  the  pagan  Obotrites  in  Mecklenburg  and 
Holstein,  where,  in  1149,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Aldenburg,  and  died,  Dec.  12,  1154. 
His  life  has  been  described  in  the  chronicles 
of  Adam  of  Bremen  and  Saxo  Grammaticus. 

Victor  is  the  name  of  three  popes  and  two 
anti-popes.  1.  185-97,  the  successor  of  Eleu- 
therus  and  the  predecessor  of  Zephyrinus, 
but  the  dates  of  the  succession  are  uncertain. 
He  was  an  African  by  birth.  In  a  letter  to 
Polycrates,  the  successor  of  Polycarp,  he 
threatened  to  excommunicate  all  those  bishops 
in  the  East  who  would  not  conform  to  the 
Roman  computation  of  Easter,  a  measure 
which  might  have  proved  a  fatal  feature  in 
the  Paschal  controversy  ;  but  a  letter  from 
Irenaeus  brought  him  to  retract.  2.  Gebhard, 
1055-57,  a  native  of  Germany,  a  cousin  and 
intimate  friend  of  Henry  III. ,  and  bishop  of 
Eichstadt.  If  it  be  true  that  his  elevation 
was  due  to  the  intrigues  of  Hildebrand,.the 


scheme  of  the  wily  monk  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful. Bishop  Gebhard  of  Eichstadt  had 
been  the  leader  of  the  German  opposition  to 
the  ultramontane  tendencies  of  the  Cluniasen- 
sian  party,  but  Pope  Victor  II.  became  at 
once  a  zealous  advocate  of  those  measures 
upon  which  the  realization  of  Hildebrand's 
ideas  depended.  (See  Hcifler,  OescJiichte  der 
deutschen  Papste,  Ratisbon,  1839.)  3.  Desi- 
derius,  1087,  a  son  of  Landulf  V.,  prince  of 
Benevento,  changed  his  name,  Dauferius,  into 
Desiderius  when,  in  his  thirtieth  year,  he  en- 
tered the  Benedictine  order,  and  soon  after 
became  abbot  of  Monte  Casino.  The  dying 
Gregory  VII.  recommended  him  as  his  suc- 
cessor, but  it  was  nearly  a  whole  year  be- 
fore he  accepted  the  election,  and  he  died  half 
a  year  later.  In  his  short  reign,  however,  he 
proved  himself  true  to  the  Hildebrandian 
traditions  and  ver}^  energetic.  4.  Two  anti- 
popes  have  during  the  12th  century  borne 
the  name  of  Victor  IV.  The  first  was  Car- 
dinal Gregorius  Couti,  who  succeeded  Anacle- 
tus  II.  in  1138,  but  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
months  gave  way  to  Innocent  II.,  who  was 
suppoited  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux.  The 
second  was  Cardinal  Octavianus,  who  from 
]  159  was  supported  by  Friedrich  Barbarossa 
against  Alexander  III.,  and  held  on  to  his 
death,  April  20,  1164,  though  far  inferior  to 
his  antagonist  both  in  moral  authority  and 
political  influence.  (See  Renter,  Alexander 
III.,  Berlin,  1841,  3  vols.) 

Vienne,  a  city  of  Southeastern  France,  has 
been  the  seat  of  a  number  of  councils,  of 
which,  however,  only  one  is  of  importance. 
It  was  convened  by  Clement  V.  in  1311,  lasted 
over  half  a  year,  and  was  attended  by  114 
bishops.  It  dissolved  the  order  of  the  Tem- 
plars. 

Vigilantius,  a  native  of  Gaul,  visited  Alex- 
andria and  Jerusalem  during  the  last  years  of 
the  4th  century,  and  seems  to  have  played 
quite  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  ecclesiastical 
development  of  his  time,  but  is  known  to  us 
only  through  Jerome's  Contra  Vigilantium, 
according  to  which  he  rejected  the  worship 
of  saints  as  a  relapse  into  paganism  and  at- 
tacked monasticism  as  a  mere  chimera.  (See 
W.  S.  G\\\j .Vigilantius and ?iis  2 'mes, London., 
1844.) 

Vigilius,  pope  540-55,  a  native  of  Rome, 
was  one  of  those  irritating  characters  who  fill 
the  world  with  confusion  and  arrest  all  sound 
development  by  promising  everything,  but 
paying  only  with  prevarications  ;  by  accepting 
everything  and  then  shirking  the  responsi- 
bility through  subterfuges.  The  sources  of 
his  life  are  all  found  in  Gallandi,  Bihlioth. 
X.  and  xii. 

Vigils  (Latin,  mgilice,  "  night-watch")  was 
originally  the  name  of  those  meetings  during 
night  to  which  the  Christians  were  confined 
inperiods  of  persecution,  but  is  now  applied 
to  those  preparatory  services  which  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  celebrates  on  the  eve 
before  a  great  festival,  such  as  Christmas  and 
Easter. 

Villegaignon  (vel-gSn-yon),  Nicholas  Du- 
rand  de,  vice-admiral  of  Brittany  (1551),  am- 


VUiMAR 


(947) 


VISITANTS 


bassador  of  the  Knights  of  Malta  to  the  king 
of  France  (1568),  and  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent ligures  at  the  French  court  ;  b.  at  Pro- 
vins,  50  m.  s.e.  of  Paris,  1510  :  d.  at  Beauvais, 
25  m.  n.e.  of  Orleans,  Jan.  10,  1571.  He  is 
mentioned  here  from  liis  connection  with  the 
first  Huguenot  settlement  in  the  New  World. 
He  set  out  from  Havre  in  1555  for  Brazil,  to 
found  a  colony  which,  under  the  auspices  of 
Calvin,  Coligny,  etc.,  should  be  a  place  of 
refuge  for  the  Reformed  faith.  A  settlement 
was  made  on  the  island  of  C'oligny,  where 
now  Rio  Janeiro  stands,  but  in  1557  the  foun- 
der turned  roimd,  declared  his  Roman  Catholic 
views,  and  put  to  death  several  of  the  Protes- 
tants (1558).  In  1559  Villegaignon  returned 
to  France.  The  colonists  in  15G0  were  con- 
quered by  the  Portuguese,  and  few  escaped 
with  their  lives.  (See  Jean  de  L6ry,  Ilistoire 
(.Van  voyage  en  Bresil,  Geneva,  1578,  n.  e.  Paris, 
1879,  2  vols.,  and  T.  £.  V.  Smith  in  Proceed- 
ings of  the  American  Society  of  Ch  urch  History, 
vol.  iii.,  1890.) 

Vilmjur,  August  Friedrich  Christian,  b.  at 
Solz,  in  Hesse,  Nov.  21,  1800  ;  d.  at  Marburg, 
July  80,  1868  ;  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Marburg  in  1855,  and  shortly 
after  a  member  of  the  Consistory  of  Cassel. 
In  these  positions  he  proved  himself  one  of 
the  high-handed  and  art)itrar3'  representatives 
of  the  religious  reaction.  But  he  was  by  no 
means  without  talent.  (See  his  Die  Theologie 
der  Thatsachen  wider  die  Theologie  der  Rheto- 
rik,  1854,  4th  ed.,  1876,  and  his  history  of 
Grcrman  literature,  Marburg,  1845,  13th  ed. 
1870.)  His  life  was  written  by  Leimbach, 
Hanover,  1875,  and  Grau,  Giitefsloh,  1879. 

Vincent  of  Beauvais  (Bellovarensis,  the 
Speculator),  a  Dominican  monk  who  taught 
in  the  monastery  of  Beauvais  in  the  first  half 
of  the  13th  century  ;  wrote  Speculum  ntujus 
in  three  parts  :  naturale,  doctrinuk,  liistcriale, 
a  work  which  is  of  great  interest  not  only  in 
church  history,  but  also  in  history  in  general. 
It  was  first  printed  at  Strassburg,  1473. 

Vincent  of  Lerins,  a  monk  of  Lerinum 
(see  Leuins  Isles),  wrote  in  4:54  his  Commoni- 
torium,  which  is  a  calm  and  clear  exposition 
of  the  semi-Pelagianism  at  that  time  prevail- 
ing in  the  southern  part  of  Gaul.  It  was 
edited  by  Baluze  and  often  later  ;  several  Eng. 
trans.,  e.g.,  London,  1879,  and  with  the  Latin 
text,  Oxford,  1886. 

Vincent  de  Paul.    See  Paul,  Vincent  de. 

Vincent  of  Saragossa  suffered  martyrdom 
under  Diocletian  about  303.  His  pussio  in 
Act.  Stiict.,  Jan.  12,  is  one  of  the  oldest  ex- 
tant, nearly  contemporary  witii  the  event. 

Vincent,  John  Heyl,  S.T.D.  (Ohio  We.s- 
leyau  University,  Delaware,  O.,  1870).  LL.D. 
(Washington  and  Jefferson  College,  Washing- 
ton. Pa.,  1885),  Methodist;  b.  at  Tuscaloosa, 
Ala.,  Feb.  23,  1832  ;  studied  in  Newark  Wes- 
leyan  Institute  ;  held  various  pa.storal  charges, 
and  became  in  1868  correspontling  secretary 
of  the  Sunday-school  Union  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  in  1874  superintendent  of 
instruction  at  Chautauqua,  and  in  1884  chan- 
cellor of  Chautauqua  University.      He   was 


elected  a  bishop  in  1888.  He  has  written 
Sun  day -School  institutes  and  Normal  Classes, 
New  York,  1866,  2d  ed.  1868  ;  The  Church 
School  and  its  Officers,  1868  ;  The  Modern  Sun- 
day-School, 1887. 

Vincent,  Marvin  Richardson,  D.D.  (Union 

College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1868),  Presbyte- 
rian ;  b.  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  Sept."  11, 
1834  ;  graduated  at  Columbia  College,  1854  ; 
became  professor  of  Latin  in  Troy  University,. 
N.  Y.,  1858  ;  pastor  of  First  Presbvterian 
Church,  Troy,  1863;  of  the  Church 'of  the 
Covenant,  New  York,  1873,  and  was  then  ap- 
pointed professor  of  New  Testament  exegesis 
in  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 
Besides  seveial  volumes  of  sermons  he  has 
published  Wo)-d  Studies  in  the  Xerc  Testament, 
New  York,  vol.  i.,  1887,  vol.  ii.,  1889,  vol.  iii.. 
1890. 

Vinet(vee-naO,  Alexandre Rodolphe,  D.D. 
(Basel,  1837  ;  Berlin,  1846).  b.  at  Ouchy,  near 
Lausanne,  Switzerland,  June  17,  1797  ;  d.  at 
Clarens,  on  Lake  Geneva,  May  4,  1847  ;  was 
preacher  and  professor  of  the  French  language 
and  literature  at  Basel,  1817-37.  and  then  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Lausanne  ;  always  active 
for  the  separation  between  church  and  state, 
and  the  establishment  of  true  religious 
liberty.  Of  his  works,  the  following  have 
been  translated  into  English  :  Latitude  Eeo/m-' 
mended  to  the  Christian  Minister,  London, 
1841  ;  On  the  Profession  of  Personal  Religious 
Confession  and  the  Separation  of  Church  and 
State,  1843  ;  Christian  Philosophy,  1846  ;  Vital 
Ciristianity,  1846  ;  Pastoral  Theology,  1852  ; 
Hoiniletics,  1853  ;  Evdnyelical  Meditations, 
1858  ;  Studies  on  Pascal,  1859  ;  Outlines  of  Phil- 
osophy, ISQo  ;  Outlines  of  Theology,  ISQii.  His 
life  was  written  by  Scherer,  Paris,  1853 ; 
Rambert,  1875  ;  E.  de  Pressense  et  Henri  Lut- 
teroth,  1890,  and  Laura  M.  Lane,  Edinburch, 
1890. 

Vinton,  Francis,  S.T.D.  (Columbia  Colleire, 
1848),  D.C.L.  (William  and  Mary,  1869). 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  Providence,  R.'l.,  Aug. 
29.  1809  ;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  Sept.  29, 
1872  ;  was  educated  at  West  Point  ;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1834  ;  left  the  army  and  entered 
the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  New 
York  in  1836  ;  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1839  ; 
was  pastor  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York, 
1855-72,  and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  law 
and  polity  in  the  General  Seminary  since 
1869.  and  published,  besides  other  works, 
Manual  Commentary  on  the  General  Canon 
Law  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States,  1870. 

Vishnu.    See  Indi.\,  Religions  of,  p.  405. 

Viret  (ve-ra),  Pierre,  b.  at  Orbe,  Vaud, 
Switzerland,  May  4,  1511  ;  d.  at  Orthez,  Na- 
varre. April  4,  1571  ;  studied  theology  in  Paris, 
but  embraced  the  Reformation  ;  was  ordained 
byFarel  in  1531  ;  worked  for  the  establishment 
of  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland  for  thirtv 
vears,  then  for  a  few  years  at  Nimes  and 
Lyons,  and  settled  finally  at  Orthez.  He  was 
a  Very  prolific  writer. 

Visitants  or  Nuns  of  the  Visitation,  formed 
originally,  as  founded  in  KJIO.  at  Annecy 
by  St.  Francis  of  Sales  and  Madame  de  Chan- 


VITALIANXJS 


(948) 


VOLTAIRE 


tal,  not  strictly  a  monastic  order,  but  only  a 
congregation,  whose  purpose  was  to  visit  the 
sick  and  the  poor,  and  to  educate  and  instruct 
young  girls.  In  1618,  however,  it  was  found 
expedient  to  change  the  organization  into  that 
of  a  regular  monastic  order  and  adopt  the 
rules  of  Augustine,  and  in  this  form  the  order 
was  confirmed  by  Urban  VIII.  in  1626.  It 
spread  rapidly  through  Switzerland,  Italy, 
and  France,  and  did  good  service  as  a  means 
of  education  and  instruction. 

Vitalianus,  pope  657-72,  was  a  native  of 
Campania.  He  summoned  Archbishop  Mau- 
rus  of  Ravenna  to  appear  in  Rome  before  the 
papal  tribunal,  and  when  Maurus  declined  to 
obey,  he  was  excommunicated.  But  then 
the  archbishop  turned  round  and  excommuni- 
cated the  pope,  and  Vitalianus  had  no  means 
to  vindicate  the  papal  authority. 

Vitalis,  Ordericus,  b.  at  Attengesham,  near 
Shrewsbury,  England,  Feb.  16,  1075  ;  de- 
scended from  a  French  family  ;  was  in  1086 
sent  to  Normandy  ;  became  monk  in  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Evroul,  and  wrote  a  lUstoria 
Ecclesiastica  from  the  creation  to  1142.  The 
book,  which  is  very  important  both  for  Nor- 
mandy and  England,  was  first  edited  by  Du- 
chesne in  his  Hist.  Norm.  Script..  Paris,  1619  ; 
best  by  A.  le  Prevost,  Paris,  1838-55,  5  vols., 
and  translated  into  English  by  Forester,  Lon- 
don, 1853-56,  4  vols. 

Vitringa,  Oampegius,  b.  at  Leeuwarden, 
Holland,  May  16,  1659  ;  d.  at  Franeker, 
March  31,  1722  ;  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Franeker  in  1683,  and  published 
Comment,  in  Isaiam,  Leeuwarden,  1714-20, 
2  vols.,  which  is  still  recognized  as  a  work  of 
great  value. 

Vitus,  St.,  a  Sicilian  boy  who  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom under  Diocletian.  He  is  the  patron 
saint  of  actors  and  dancers,  and, for  some  reason 
unknown,  his  name  has  always  been  connected 
with  dancing.  In  the  17th  century  arose 
among  the  peasants  of  Southern  Germany  the 
superstition  that  one  could  ensure  good  health 
for  one  year  to  come  by  presenting  gifts  to 
his  image  and  dancing  the  whole  day  and 
night  before  it  on  his  festival,  June  15  ;  and 
consequently  his  chapels  at  Ulm  and  Ravens- 
berg  were  filled  that  day  with  fanatic  dancers. 
But  long  before  that  time  his  name  had  been 
connected  with  a  peculiar  nervous  disease, 
caused  by  hysteria,  and  called  Chorea  St.  Viti, 
St.  Vitus's  Dance,  etc. 

Vives,  Juan  Ludovico  de,  b.  at  Valencia, 
Spain,  March,  1492  ;  d.  at  Bruges,  Flanders, 
May  6,  1540  ;  studied  theology  and  philosophy 
in  Paris  ;  lectured  at  Lou  vain  and  Oxford, 
and  finally  settled  at  Bruges.  He  was  a  de- 
cided adversary  of  scholasticism,  and  leaned 
conspicuously  toward  the  Reformation.  His 
complete  works  appeared  at  Valencia,  1782, 
8  vols,  quarto.  His  life  was  written  in  Dutch 
by  W.  Francken,  Rotterdam,  1853. 

Voetius  (foo'-5-tius),  Gysbertua,  b.  at  Heus- 
den,  Holland,  March  3,  1588  ;  d.  at  Utrecht, 
Nov.  1,  1676  ;  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Utrecht  in  1634.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Gomorrus,  a  bitter  enemy  of  Arminianism, 


and  for  many  years  the  master  spirit  of  the 
Dutch  Church,  but  not  only  his  polemical, 
also  his  dogmatical  works  have  long  ago 
ceased  to  have  any  but  an  historical  interest. 

Volney,  Constantin  Fran9ois  Chasse- 
boevif,  Comte  de,  b.  at  Craon.  Feb.  3,  1757  ; 
d.  in  Paris,  April  25,  1820.  He  made  an  ex- 
tensive and  eventful  tour  in  the  East,  which 
he  w/ote  up  in  his  famous  Voyage  en  Syrie  et 
en  Egypte,  Paris,  1787,  2  vols.,  Eng.  trans., 
Ihtvels  through  Syria  and  BgyjH  in  1783, 
1784,  and  1785,  London,  1787,  2  vols.  From 
this  book  he  published  an  extract  under  the 
title  Les  Ruines,  Paris,  1701,  Eng.  trans.. 
The  Ruins :  or,  A  Survey  of  the  Revolutions 
of  Empires,  London,  1792  (V),  2  parts,  n.e., 
1878,  which  is  an  infidel  classic.  (See  his 
anonymous  life,  London,  2d  ed.,  1840.) 

Voltaire,  Fran9ois  Marie  Arouet  de,  b.  in 

Paris,  Nov.  24,  1694  ;  d.  there.  May  30,  1778. 
As  a  young  man  he  made  a  forced  stay  of 
three  years,  1726-29,  in  London,  and  with 
him  begins  that  invasion  of  English  ideas 
which  characterized  French  civilization  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century.  Later 
on  he  lived  for  many  years,  1734-49,  in  the 
house  of  Madame  Chatelet  at  Circy,  and  three 
years,  1750-53,  at  the  court  of  Friedrich  the 
Great.  The  last  part  of  his  life  he  spent  at 
Ferney,  in  the  county  of  Gex,  where  he 
bought  a  great  estate  and  lived,  in  grand 
style.  His  attempts  at  diplomacy,  1718-19, 
in  Holland,  and  1750-53  at  Potsdam,  covered 
him  with  ridicule.  But  in  literature,  as  a 
poet,  historian,  and  philosopher,  he  achieved 
a  fame  even  beyond  that  of  Erasmus  in  the 
16th  century,  and  never  equalled  since.  As 
a  landlord,  neighbor,  friend,  and  citizen  in 
general,  he  also  commands  respect.  The  Swiss 
watch-making  industry,  at  one  time  an  im- 
portant item  in  the  household  of  the  people, 
owed  a  good  deal  of  its  success  to  his  energy 
and  practical  sense,  and  for  his  tenants  he 
built  not  only  a  theatre,  but  also  a  church. 
What  interest,  however,  he  may  have  in 
church  history  is  due  to  his  philosophy.  As 
a  philosopher  he  represents  the  deism  or 
atheism  of  his  time  in  its  most  superficial 
form,  often  on  the  very  verge  of  blasphemy. 
So  far  as  his  criticism  and  sarcasms  were  di- 
rected against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
such  as  it  revealed  itself  just  then  in  France, 
with  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
and  the  judicial  murder  of  Galas  on  the  one 
side,  and  on  the  other  its  abbes  galants  writing 
the  Encyclopedie  and  dancing  attendance  upon 
the  Paris  salons,  he  was  not  so  very  far  from 
right ;  there  are  occasions  at  which  his  ecrasez 
rinfame  actually  has  the  ring  of  a  cry  for 
justice.  But  even  the  best  he  did,  his  Traite 
sur  la  ToUrauce,  for  instance,  shows  plainly 
enough  that  his  views,  acceptable  though  they 
be,  did  not  spring  from  an  elevated  idea  of 
liberty,  but  were  simply  based  upon  religious 
indifference,  and  the  mark  he  left  upon  French 
intellect  has,  beside  its  clearness,  precision, 
simplicity,  and  other  admirable  qualities,  also 
an  element  of  levity  and  superciliousness, 
which  is  altogether  too  dear  as  a  joke  and 
altogether  too  cheap  when  taken  seriously. 
There  is  an  excellent  life  of  him  by  James 


VORAGINE 


(919) 


VOWS 


Parton,  Boston,  1881,  2  vols.  (Cf.  John  Mor- 
ley,  Voltaire,  London,  1886.  Also  George 
Horn,  Wilhelmine,  Margravine  <>f  Baireuth 
and  Voltaire,  London,  1888  ;  Voltaire  and  the 
Margravine  of  Baireuth  [correspondence 
edited  by  Princess  Christian],  1888.)    C.  P. 

Voragine.     See  Jacob  of  Vikaggio. 

Votive  Offerings.  Among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  it  was  quite  a  common  custom  to 
place  votive  tables,  accompanied  with  valuable 
offerings,  in  tlie  temples,  in  order  to  perpetuate 
the  remembrance  of  some  signal  deliverance 
from  peril,  or  of  some  other  direct  answer  to 
prayer.  The  Christians  adopted  this  custom, 
and  it  finally  assumed  enormous  dimensions 
as  the  worship  of  saints  and  relics  increased. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  it  is  still  alive. 

Vow,  a  solemn  religious  promise  by  which 
one  binds  himself  to  do  or  suffer  certain 
things.  The  first  instance  recorded  in  Scrip- 
ture is  that  of  Jacob  on  his  way  to  Padan- 
Aram  (Gen.  xxviii.  20).  They  were  not  en- 
joined in  the  Mosaic  law,  which  only  regu- 
lated an  existing  custom.  The  vows  of  mi- 
nors, etc.,  were  not  binding  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  head  of  the  family  (Num.  xxx.). 
If  persons  vowed  themselves  to  the  Lord's 
service,  they  were  obliged  to  perform  strictly 
what  they  had  said,  but  wlien  it  was  other 
persons  or  things,  there  might  be  a  redemp- 
tion on  certain  terms  (Lev.  xxvii.).  To  fulfil 
a  sinful  vow  was  sin,  but  no  consideration  of 
incoavenience  or  loss  could  absolve  one  from 
a  lawful  obligation  (Ps.  xv.  4,  Mai.  i.  14). 
Such  self-imposed  services  seem  to  have  been 
allowed  in  the  early  and  imperfect  dispensa- 
tion, but  are  out  of  place  in  the  fuller  light 
and  freedom  of  the  gospel.  T.  W.  C. 

Vowel-points.     See  Buxtorf,  Capellus. 

Vows.  A  vow  was  a  voluntary  promise 
made  to  God  or  an  act  by  which  a  man  de- 
voted himself  or  some  member  of  his  family, 
or  some  portion  of  his  propertv  to  the  service 
of  religion.  Vows  sprung  up  in  the  earliest 
times  as  expressions  of  gratitude  or  to  avert 
some  calamity,  to  secure  a  special  blessing, 
or  to  express  peculiar  zeal  for  God.  Under 
the  Mosaic  system  three  kinds  of  vows  are 
recognized.  There  were,  first,  vows  of  special 
consecration  {neder).  They  consisted  of  a 
promise  to  do  something  for  God's  glory  in 
addition  to  the  required  sacrifices  or  tithes. 
Jacob's  vow  was  of  this  class.  Nothing  could 
be  vowed  which  already  legally  belonged  to 
God,  or  which  had  been  acquired  by  fraud 
or  crime.  Vows  could  be  redeemed  b}'  money 
given  to  the  sanctuary,  according  to  the  valu- 
ation of  the  priest.  Persons  or  thincs  con- 
secrated to  a  sacred  use  were  called  corhan,  or 
a  gift.  Christ  rebuked  the  habit  of  some 
who  vowed  Tlieir  property  to  religious  uses, 
and  thereby  neglected  the  care  of  their  aged 
parents. 

A  second  kind  of  vow  (nezer)  involved  a 
personal  separation  from  common  circum- 
stances for  a  time,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  ser- 
vice of  God  and  to  present  an  example  of 
piety  to  others.  This  included  all  vows  of 
abstinence  or  renunciation  to  which  a  person 
bound  himself.     The  Nazarites  are  the  prin- 


cipal example  of  this  kind  of  vows.  They 
were  the  heroes  of  the  faith  and  piety  of  their 
day.  Their  vows  are  called  "  singular" — i.e., 
special  or  extraordinary  (Num.  vi.  2,  Lev. 
xxvii.  2).  Married  women  and  minors  could 
not  make  such  vows  without  permission  of 
the  head  of  the  family  (Num.  xxx.).  The 
rules  for  the  Nazarite  are  given  in  Num.  vi. 
He  must  abstain  from  wine  to  avoid  unholy 
fanaticism.  His  hair  must  remain  uncut,  as 
a  living  crown  or  pledge  of  his  separation 
luito  holiness.  Like  the  high  priest,  he  must 
not  defile  himself  by  touching  a  dead  body, 
for  death  was  the  penalty  of  sin.  At  the 
close  of  the  period  he  must  offer  up  a  burnt- 
olfering,  a  peace-offering,  and  a  sin-ofl'er- 
ing,  in  view  of  any  imperfections  in  his 
service,  and  cut  off  his  living  crown  of  hair 
and  put  it  on  the  fire  under  the  peace-offering 
(Rev.  iv.  10).  Now,  except  the  last,  these 
rites  correspond  to  those  used  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  highpriest.  Hence  Nazariteship 
rose  to  a  life  nearer  to  God  and  similar  to 
a  priestly  life.  The  nation  indeed  was  to  be 
a  kingdom  of  priests  (Ex.  xix.  6),  yet  few 
rose  to  the  high  privilege.  Nazariteship 
was  also  akin  to  the  prophetical  order,  Naza- 
rites  and  prophets  being  classed  together  and 
held  up  as  examples  of  purity  (Amos  ii.  11, 
Sam.  iv.  7).  Occasionally  devout  partnts 
dedicated  their  children  to  a  lifelong  Nazarite- 
ship. There  are  three  remarkable  examjjles, 
Samson,  Samuel,  and  John  the  Baptist.  God 
also  intended  Israel  to  be  the  Nazarite  among 
the  nations.  Samson,  in  his  strength  and 
weakness,  was  a  remarkable  type  of  Israel  in 
this  respect.  He  generally  lacked  a  true  and 
intelligent  zeal  for  God.  When  true  he  was 
invincible,  but  when  dallying  -with  sin  he  lost 
his  strength.  Yet  finally,  by  repentance  and 
prayer,  his  strength  was'  restored,  and  he  be- 
came a  very  hero  of  faith  (Heb.  xi.  32). 

The  third  class  of  vows  (chereni)  referred  to 
things  which  were  utterly  devoted  to  destruc- 
tion. This  included  everything  hostile  to  the 
Theocracy.  But  only  God  could  specify 
what  should  be  put  under  the  ban,  and  Israel 
promised  to  execute  his  commands  in  this  re- 
spect. God  ordered  the  Canaanites  to  be  ex- 
tirpated, because  the  cup  of  their  inicjuity 
was  full  I'all  enticers  to  idolatry  were  to  be 
put  to  death,  and  what  God  declared  to  be  an 
"accursed  thing"  was  not  to  be  appropri- 
ated. Such  things,  if  incapable  of  destruc- 
tion, like  the  metals,  were  to  become  the  in- 
alienable proi)erty  of  the  sanctuary.  Now 
Christ,  Avhile  not  ceremonially  a  Nazarite,  ex- 
hibited all  the  conditions.  He  was  entirely 
consecrated  to  God.  separate  from  all  sin,  and 
he  became  a  curse  for  us. 

If  vows  were  not  enjoined  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment they  would  not  be  in  the  New.  Yet 
they  are  not  even  now  forbidden.  Paul's  as- 
sumption of  vows  on  a  few  occasions  was  evi- 
dently only  to  disarm  the  prejudices  of  his 
enemies.  'Monastic  vows  betray  the  legal 
spirit  of  the  medi;T>val  church.  The  conmlia 
erangelica  (or  vows  of  celibacy,  poverty,  and 
obedience  to  ecclesiastical  superiors)  were 
obligatory  only  on  those  who  wished  to  reach 
perfection.  But  alas  !  the  .system  claimed 
that  its  devotees  could  do  more  than  the  gos- 


VULGATE 


(950) 


WAEZ: 


pel  required,  and  hence  these  works  of  su- 
pererogation could  be  sold  to  others.  See 
Indulgences.  Vows  are  now  unnecessary, 
just  so  far  as  the  Christian  intelligently  un- 
derstands his  profession,  which  includes  all 
vows.  For  with  the  profession  of  Christ  a 
man  consecrates  himself,  his  family,  and  his 
property  unto  God.  He  separates  himself 
from  sin,  renouncing  the  world,  the  flesh,  and 
the  devil.  He  regards  ev^ery  evil  as  under 
the  divine  anathema,  and  therefore  utterly 
devoted  to  destruction.  Hence,  special  vows 
of  consecration,  or  pledges  of  abstinence  from 
certain  dangers,  or  vows  of  hostility  to  cer- 
tain evils  are  unnecessary  to  the  thoroughly 
intelligent  and  sincere  professor  of  religion. 
But  believers  represent  every  grade  of  intelli- 
gence and  faith,  and  vows  may  be  useful  to 
certain  classes.  It  is  also  the  privilege  of  the 
strong  to  bear  the  infirmities  of  the  weak,  and 
the  association  of  the  strong  with  the  weak  in 
special  vows  may  be  the  fulfilling  of  the  law 
of  love.  E.  T.  CoRWiN. 

Vulgate.     See  Bible,  p.  104. 


W. 


Wace,  Henry,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1883  ;  Edin- 
burgh, 1882),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  10,  1836  ;  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  ordained  priest,  1862  ;  professor  of  eccle- 
siastical history  in  King's  College,  1875.  and 
its  principal  since  1883.  He  wrote  Christi- 
anity and  Morality  (Boyle  Lectures),  London, 
1876,  7th  ed.,  1886  ;  The  Foundation  of  Faith 
(Bampton  Lectures),  1880,  2d  ed. ,  1881  ;  The 
Gospel  and  its  Witnesses,  1883,  2d  ed.,  1884  ; 
Some  Central  Points  of  Our  Lord's  Ministry, 
1890.  He  was  joint  editor  with  Dr.  William 
Smith  of  the  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biog- 
raphy .  .  .  to  Charlemagne,  1880-86,  4  vols. ; 
with  Dr.  Schafl  of  second  series  of  the  Nicene 
and  Post-Nicene  Library,  New  York,  Chris- 
tian Literature  Company,  and  Oxford,  Parker, 
1890  sqq.;  and  alone  of  the  Bible  (Speaker's) 
Commeritary  on  the  Apocrypha,  London,  1888, 
2  vols. 

Wackernagel,  Karl  Eduard  Philipp,  b.  at 
Berlin,  June  28,  1800  ;  d.  at  Dresden,  June 
20,  1877  ;  acquired  a  great  name  by  his  hym- 
nological  publications.  Das  deutsche  Kirclien- 
lied  von  Luther  bis  Herman,  Stuttgart,  1841  ; 
Das  deutsche  Kirchenlied  von  der  altesten  Zeit 
bis  d.  17.  Jahrhundert,  Leipzig,  1862-77,  5 
vols.,  etc. 

Waddel,  James,  D.D.  (Dickinson,  1792), 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Newry,  Ireland,  July, 
1739;  d.  at  Hopewell,  Louisa  County,  Va.. 
Sept.  17,  1805.  He  was  brought  to  Pennsyl- 
vania in  infancy ;  held  rural  charges  in 
Virginia  ;  lost  his  sight,  1785,  and  became 
famous  as  the  "blind  preacher,"  and  is 
sketched  in  William  Wirt's  British  Spy.  All 
his  manuscripts  were  burned  by  his  order. 
His  daughter  married  Dr.  Archibald  Alex- 
ander. F.  M.  B. 

Wadding,  Luke,  Roman  Catholic  historian  ; 


b.  at  Waterford,  Ireland,  Oct.  16,  1588  ;  d.  at 
Rome.  Nov.  18,  1657.  He  was  taken  to  Spain 
in  childhood  ;  studied  at  Lisbon  ;  entered  the 
order  of  Cordeliers,  1604  ;  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Salamanca  ;  went  to  Rome, 
1618,  with  the  bishop  of  Cartagena  ;  received 
a  chair  of  divinity  there  ;  founded  the  Irish 
college  of  St.  Isidore,  1625,  and  was  its  prin- 
cipal till  death  ;  procurator  of  his  order,  1630- 
34,  and  vice-commissary,  1645-48.  He  fa- 
vored Jansenism  till  it  was  condemned  by  the 
pope,  in  1653.  His  chief  work,  a  history  of 
the  Franciscans,  Annates  ordinis  Minorum, 
Lyons  and  Rome,  1625-54,  8  vols.,  extends  to 
1540  ;  it  was  continued  by  De  Luca,  Ancona, 
Asculano,  and  De  Correto  (vol.  xxi.  to  1584, 
1844).  F.  M.  B. 

Waddington,  George,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
18—),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  Sept.  7,  179^3  ; 
d.  at  Durham.  July  20,  1869.  He  was  fellow 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  ;  prebendary 
of  Ferring,  Chichester  ;  vicar  of  Masham, 
Yorkshire  ;  dean  of  Durham,  1840,  and  war- 
den of  the  college  there,  1841.  His  chief 
works  are  A  History  of  the  Church  to  the  Ref- 
ormation, London,  1833,  and  History  of  the 
Reformation  on  the  Continent,  1841. 

F.  M.  B. 

Wafer,  the  form  in  which  the  bread  is  pre- 
pared by  Romanists  and  Lutherans  for  the 
eucharist.  Its  use  began  in  the  11th  century. 
It  is  composed  of  unleavened  bread,  and  in 
the  Roman  Church  bears  upon  it  the  form  of 
the  Saviour  or  the  letters  I.  II.  S.     F.  H.  F. 

Wagenseil,  Johann  Christoph,  b.  at  Nu- 
remberg, Nov.  26,  1033  ;  d.  at  Altdorf,  Oct. 
9, 1705  ;  was  appointed  professor  at  the  latter 
place  in  1667,  and  published  Sota,  Altdorf, 
1674,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Mishna  tractate 
on  the  treatment  of  an  adulterous  wife,  and 
Tela  Lgnea  Satanm,  1681,  a  translation  into 
Latin  of  some  Jewish  writings  against  the 
Christians. 

Wahhabees.     See  p.  601. 

Wainwright,    Jonathan    May  hew,    D.D. 

(Union  College,  1823  ;  Harvard,  1835),  D.C.L. 
(Oxford,  1852),  Episcopalian  ;  b.  at  Liver- 
pool, England,  Feb.  24,  1792  ;  d.  in  New 
York,  Sept.  21,  1854  ;  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard, 1812  ;  ordained  priest,  1816  ;  was  suc- 
cessively rector  at  Hartford,  Boston,  and  New 
York,  and  consecrated  provisional  bishop  of 
New  York,  1852.  He  published  sermons, 
travels,  articles,  etc.  His  controversy  with 
Rev.  Dr.  George  Potts,  a  Presbyterian  divine 
of  New  York  City,  caused  by  his  saying, 
"  There  is  no  church  where  there  is  no  bish- 
op," attracted  much  attention.  It  was  pub- 
lished under  title  No  Church  without  a  Bishop, 
New  York,  1845. 

Wake,  William,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1689),  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  ;  b.  at  Blandford,  Dor- 
setshire, 103  m.  w.  by  s.  of  London,  1657  ; 
d.  at  Lambeth  Palace,  Jan.  24,  1737.  He 
studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  ;  became 
canon  and  king's  chaplain,  1689  ;  rector  of 
St.  James',  Westminster,  1693 ;  dean  of  Exeter, 
1701  ;  bishop  of  Lincoln,  1705,  and  primate, 
1716.     He  was  a  man  of  learning,  moderation. 


WAKEFIELD 


(951) 


WAIiDBNSES 


and  high  character.  The  most  noted  of  his 
many  works  is  liis  translation  of  T?ie  Oenuine 
Epistles  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers,  London, 
1693.  F.  M.  B. 

Wakefield,  Gilbert,  b.  at  Nottingham. 
Feb.  22,  1756  ;  d.  in  London,  Sept.  9,  1801- 
He  entered  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  1772, 
and  became  a  fellow,  1776  ;  took  orders,  1778, 
and  was  curate  at  Stockport  and  Liverpool, 
but  left  the  church,  1779  ;  was  classical  tutor 
in  the  dissenting  academy  at  Warrington, 
1779-83,  and  at  Hackney,  1790-91.  llxa  En- 
quiry into  the  Expediency  and  Propriety  of 
Public  or  Social  Worship  (London,  1791)  did 
him  much  injury,  and  his  attack  on  Bishop 
Watson's  Address  (1798)  proc-ured  him  two 
years'  imprisonment  for  seditious  libel.  He 
was  "one  of  the  most  honest  of  men,  but 
precipitate,  narrow-minded,  presumptuous," 
and  very  acrimonious  in  controversy,  attack- 
ing with  equal  zeal  Bishop  Horsley  (1788), 
Thomas  Paine  (1794),  and  Wilberforce  (1798). 
(See  his  memoirs  [partly  autobiographic], 
1804,  2  vols.)  F.  M.  B. 

Walahfrid  Strabo.     See  Strabo. 

Walch,  Christian  Wilhelm  Franz,  b.  at 
Jena,  Dec.  25,  1726  ;  d.  at  Gdttingen,  March 
10,  1784  ;  was  appointed  professor  at  Jena  in 
1750,  ami  at  Gottingen,  1753.  He  was  a  very 
prolific  writer,  and  his  Historie  der  Ketzereien, 
Leipzig,  1762-85,  11  vols.,  is  still  used. 

Waldenses,  the  native  Free  Church  of 
Italy.  The  origin  of  the  Waldenses  has  been 
traced  by  some  to  the  Henricians  (q.v.),  the 
Cathari  (q.v.),  and  others,  but  there  is  no  re- 
liable evidence  that  they  had  an  existence  be- 
fore Peter  Waldo  (Valdez),  a  merchant  of 
Lyons,  France,  in  the  12th  century,  who  is 
said  to  have  acquired  his  property  by  ques- 
tionable means,  and  to  have  resolved,  when 
he  was  converted  in  consequence  of  a  star- 
tling event,  which  happened  in  his  own  his- 
tory, to  distribute  it  among  the  poor.  A 
friend  is  said  to  have  fallen  suddenly  dead  by 
his  side,  and  when  he  applied  to  a  theologian 
for  spiritual  counsel,  he  was  directed  to 
"  go  and  sell  all  that  he  had."  He  also  re- 
membered the  remaining  portion  of  the  pas- 
sage, and  sought  to  follow  Christ.  He  thus 
accepted  for  himself  the  principle  of  volun- 
tary poverty,  without,  however,  taking  the 
monastic  position  in  reference  to  it,  and  it  be- 
came characteristic  of  his  followers,  though 
they  were  never  enjoined  to  gain  their  liveli- 
hood by  begging,  as  has  been  maintained. 
Peter  also  had  portions,  at  least,  of  the  Bible 
translated  for  his  own  use,  and  sought  to 
spread  the  knowledge  of  the  truth  thus  ob- 
tained among  the  people  by  preaching.  He 
is  said  to  have  visited  the  pope  (Alexander 
in.)  and  to  have  been  affectionately  received 
by  him.  His  voluntary  poverty  was  ap- 
proved, but  he  was  not  encouraged  to  preach 
except  upon  consent  of  the  clergy  of  the  city 
where  he  was. 

Waldo's  followers  multiplied  and  spread, 
preaching  as  they  went.  At  a  council  in 
Rome,  in  1179,  certain  Waldenses  appeared, 
and  asked  that  the  privilege  of  preaching  might 
be  formally  granted  to  them.     Their  ignorance 


of  technical  theology  caused  some  amusement 
among  the  bishops,  and  they  were  forbidden 
to  preach.  But  their  call  was  from  God,  and 
they  refused  to  submit  to  the  commands  of 
the  hierarchy.  Tiiey  soon  fell  out  with  the 
bishop  of  Lyons,  and  the  Council  of  Verona 
(1183-84)  pronounced  the  anathema  upou 
them.  But  they  maintained  the  universal 
priesthood  of  believers,  and  the  right  of  pri- 
vate judgment,  and  perceiving  that  they  were 
in  fundamental  opposition  to  the  church,  they 
consented,  for  the  most  part,  to  take  the  con- 
sequences, and  separated  from  Rome.  This 
occurred  at  the  disputation  of  Pamiers  (France, 
40  m.  s.  of  Toulouse)  in  1207.  Those  of  the 
AValdenses  who  remained  in  the  Roman 
Church,  or  soon  returned  to  it,  formed  a 
number  of  small  sects  ;  but  in  general  the 
Waldenses  left  it.  They  were  soon  con- 
demned again  and  commands  given  for  their 
persecution.  And  at  the  Lateran  Council 
(1215)  Rome  spoke  again  formally  against 
them. 

Now  began  the  dispersion  of  the  Waldenses, 
seeking  asylum  and  opportunity  for  labor 
throughout  Europe.  We  hear  of  them  in 
different  parts  of  France,  in  the  Netherlands, 
in  Germany,  particularly  in  Bohemia,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Hussites  when  the  latter  had 
arisen,  in  Austria,  and  in  Switzerland.  But 
all  these  groups  of  individuals  led  to  no  or- 
ganizations which  perpetuated  the  name  and 
influence  of  the  church  ;  they  soon  were  ab- 
sorbed and  disappeared  in  the  church  life  of 
the  different  countries.  Not  so  with  the 
colonies  which  sought  refuge  in  the  obscurity 
of  the  French  and  Italian  Alps.  The  French 
Alps  were  a  natural  refuge,  and  the  Italian 
Alps  were  occupied  with  people  in  some 
senses  prepared  for  their  pure  gospel.  Here 
they  settled,  cultivated  the  barren  and  for- 
saken valleys,  made  themselves  useful,  and 
gained  a  permanent  home.  Gradually  they 
increased  in  numbers,  till  they  finally  were 
compelled  to  seek  new  quarters.  In  1332  they 
nmst  have  numbered  about  50,000  souls.  So 
the  colony  in  Calabria  was  founded,  which, 
though  exterminated  in  the  period  of  the 
Reformation,  has  left  traces  of  its  existence 
even  to  our  own  day.  The  proper  home  of 
the  Waldenses  remained,  however,  the  Cot- 
tian  Alps. 

The  persecutions  of  the  Waldenses  began  as 
soon  as  they  had  fairly  settled  in  their  new 
home.  In  1209  was  the  decree  of  Otto  IV. 
against  them.  Eleven  years  later  the  city  of 
Pinerolo  (21  m.  s.  w.  of  Turin)  forbade  its 
citizens  to  harbor  them  under  penalty  of  a 
heavy  fine.  Bloody  persecutions  began  about 
the  end  of  the  13th  century.  In  1297  an  In- 
quisitor was  directed  to  remain  at  Perosa  and 
arrest  all  heretics.  In  1312  a  Waldensian 
preacher  was  burned  at  Perosa  (13  m.  s.  w. 
of  Turin).  And  so  at  various  dates  down  to 
1500,  witii  longer  or  shorter  intervals  of  peace, 
the  Waldenses  were  exposed  to  the  bitterest 
trials.  The  same  history  is  to  be  given  of  the 
settlements  within  the  French  territories,  till 
in  1502  a  decree  of  Louis  XII.  gave  them  rest 
for  a  time. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Waldenses  in  this  early- 
period  are  to  be  reduced  to  one,  so  far  as  they 


WALDENSES 


(952) 


WALDENSTROM 


differ  from  those  of  tlie  Roman  Church,  and 
that  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible.  They  read 
the  Bible,  and  such  practices  as  gathered 
about  the  unbiblical  belief  in  purgatory  were 
rejected  by  them,  along  with  this  belief. 
They  denied  the  necessity  of  the  intervention 
of  the  priest  between  the  soul  and  God. 
Proper  creeds  they  did  not  have.  The  Bible 
was  their  creed,  but  they  laid  special  em- 
phasis upon  the  Sermon  upon  the  Mount. 
The  influence  of  neighboring  Cathari  is  to  be 
observed  in  their  objections  to  begging,  to 
the  taking  of  oaths,  and  to  recognizing  the 
power  of  the  state  over  life  and  death.  They 
distinguished  between  bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons,  but  their  bishops  were  not  an  especial 
order.  The  dogmatic  side  of  the  Waldensian 
movement  was,  therefore,  not  of  a  schismatic 
tendency,  except  so  far  as  the  abuses  of  the 
administration  of  Rome  calledfor  a  separation. 

When  the  Reformation  took  place  the 
Waldenses  at  once  took  measures  to  bring 
themselves  into  communication  with  the 
leaders  of  the  new  movement.  The  Reform- 
ers gave  them  a  statement  of  the  Reformed 
doctrine,  which  was  considered  at  a  synod  at 
Chanforans  in  1532.  The  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination gave  some  trouble,  but  the  follow- 
ing year  the  statement  was  accepted,  and  con- 
nection definitely  made  with  the  Swiss  Re- 
formers. The  next  problem  was  the  practical 
reformation  of  the  customs  and  doctrine  of 
the  churches.  This  was  accomplished  with 
little  difficulty.  The  churches  were  organ- 
ized upon  the  presbyterian  model.  The  Bible 
as  translated  by  Olivetan  was  largely  intro- 
duced. Colporteurs  carried  the  writings  of 
the  reforroers  throughout  the  church.  The 
French  valleys  were  soon  thoroughly  re- 
formed, and  in  1535  gave  in  their  confession 
of  faith  to  Francis  I.  Then  came  persecu- 
tion. Twenty  villages  were  burned  ;  thou- 
sands were  slain.  Only  about  4000  survived, 
and  these  fled  into  the  higher  Alps  for  safety. 
In  1560  persecution  broke  out  again.  The 
process  was  slower  in  the  Italian  Alps. 
Preaching  began  in  1555,  and  in  the  same 
year  persecution  began.  In  1561  a  certain 
toleration  was  granted  the  Waldenses,  and  a 
confession  having  been  prepared  in  French 
in  1559,  it  was  published  in  1563  in  Italian. 

Thus  the  first  contact  of  the  Waldenses 
with  the  Reformation  cost  them  much,  but 
worse  times, were  to  follow.  In  1630  a  plague 
killed  nearly  all  the  pastors  of  the  Italian 
churches,  so  that  thej'  were  obliged  to  call  in 
the  services  of  French  pastors.  The  French 
language  was  therefore  made  the  language  of 
the  public  services.  The  organization  of  the 
churclies  became  also  more  perfectly  Pres- 
byterian. In  1655  came  the  severest  period  of 
persecution.  So  dreadful  were  the  cruelties 
that  Cromwell  threatened  armed  intervention, 
and  Milton  called  out  in  impassioned  verse, 
"Avenge,  O  Lord,  thy  slaughtered  saints." 
In  1686-87  they  were  compelled  to  emigrate, 
but  in  1689  they  returned  to  their  homes. 
(See  Arnatjd.)  At  the  end  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury they  were  still  in  an  oppressed  and  sad 
condition,  but  Napoleon  manifested  an  interest 
in  them,  and  they  lived  on  till  the  day  of  their 
liberation,  with  that  of  all  Italy,  came. 


This  was  ushered  in  by  the  revolutionary 
year  ol  1848.  The  edict  of  emancipation  was 
signed  Feb.  17.  1848.  The  Waldenses  had 
been  prepared  for  this  event  by  the  visit  of 
Felix  Neff  (1826),  who  reawakened  the  fire 
ol  evangelical  piety  among  them,  and  by  the 
work  of  Antoine  Blanc,  who  had  established 
meetings  for  the  cultivation  of  practical  piety 
among  them.  Other  Protestant  efforts  in 
Italy  at  large  had  been  made  and  certain  for- 
eign churches  built,  but  the  field  was  still 
uncultivated,  and  Milton's  prayer,  with  which 
he  closed  his  sonnet,  was  unfulfilled.  But 
now  the  Waldenses  seized  upon  their  oppor- 
tunity and  began  the  work  of  evangelical 
missions  in  Italy.  Slowly,  as  circumstances 
allowed  here  and  there,  the  work  of  missions 
was  pushed  forward.  In  1854  the  Walden- 
sian Theological  School  was  established  ;  in 
1860  the  conduct  of  the  mission  entrusted  to 
a  special  commission.  The  results  of  the 
work  may  be  seen  by  the  following  statistical 
statements  :  In  1848  the  Waldensian  churches 
had  18  clergymen,  15  congregations,  and  a 
few  schools.  In  1885  the  state  of  things  in 
the  valleys  was  about  the  same,  24  clergymen 
taking  the  place  of  the  former  18  ;  but  there 
were  43  new  congregations,  with  4000  com- 
municants, and  with  occasional  and  regular 
church  attendants  numbering  from  30,000  to 
40,000.  On  Nov.  25.  1883,  the  persecuted 
Waldensian  Church  dedicated  its  first  church 
in  the  city  of  Rome  !  It  has  developed  an  ex- 
tensive literary  activity,  has  journals  of  all 
sorts,  and  independent  works  in  every  depart- 
ment of  theological  science. 

A  full  and  valuable  bibliography,  by 
Comba,  is  to  be  found  in  Herzog's  Realency- 
clopddie,  2ded.,  vol.xvi.,p.  610.  (See  also  Lea, 
History  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
New  York,  1888,3  vols.;  Melia,  Origin,  Perse- 
cution, and  Doctrines  of  the  Waldenses, , 

18—,  — vols.;  E.  Montet,  Histoire  litteraire  des 
Vavdois  du  Piemont,  Geneve,  Paris,  1885  ;  E. 
Comba,  History  of  the  Waldenses,  £ng.  trans., 
London,  1888  ;  Louis  Brunei,  Les  Vaudois  des 
Alpes  Fran^aises,  Paris,  18—,  2d  ed.,  1890  ; 
Jules  Chevalier,  Memoire  historique  sur  les 
heresies  en  Dauphine  (Vaudois),  Valence, 
1890  ;  Hermann  Haupt.  Waldenserthum  nnd 
Inquisition  imsud-ost.  Deutschla nd,  Freihurg 
i.  Br.,  1890  ;  Wilhelm  Preger,  Die  Verfassung 
der  franz.  Walde.nser  in  der  dlteren  Zeit,  Miin- 
chen,  1890.)  F.  H.  F. 

Waldenstrom,  Paul  Fetter,  Swedish  Lu- 
theran ;  b.  at  Lulea?,  Sweden,  July  20,  1838  ; 
studied  theology  at  Upsala  ;  was  ordained  in 
1864,  and  became  in  the  same  year  head  mas- 
ter of  the  gymnasium  at  Nucese,  and  in  1874  at 
Gefle.  He  is  leader  of  the  free  church  move- 
ment in  Sweden,  and  the  representative  of  a 
widespread  revival  of  a  somewhat  aggressive 
character.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
"  Svenska  Missionsforbundet, "  which  has  de- 
veloped a 'considerable  energy  both  in  home 
and  foreign  missions.  Among  his  writings 
are  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  with 
notes,  1883  ;  several  collections  of  sermons  ; 
translated  are  The  lord  is  Right :  Meditations 
on  the  Twenty-fifth  Psalm,  Chicago,  1889  ;  The 
Blood  of  Jesus,  1889;  TJie  Reconciliation,  1889, 


WAIiDO 


(953) 


WAR 


Waldo.     See  Waldenses. 

Walker,  James,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1835), 
LL.D.  (Yale.  1860),  Unitarian  ;  b.  at  Burling- 
ton, Mass.,  Aug.  16,  1794  ;  d.  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Dec.  23,  1874  ;  was  pastor  of  the  Uni- 
tarian chiuch  in  Charlestown,  1818-39  ;  edi- 
tor of  the  Christian  Examiner,  1831-39  ;  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  Harvard,  1839-53,  and 
president,  1853-60,  when  he  retired.  He  pub- 
lished several  sermons,  memoirs,  Natural  Re- 
ligion, The  Philosophy  of  Religion,  etc. 

Wallter,  James  Barr,  D.D.  (Western  Re- 
serve College,  18 — ),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  in 
Pliiladelphia,  Pa.,  July  29,  1805  ;  d.  at 
Wheatou,  111.,  March  6,  1887.  He  graduated 
at  Western  Reserve  College,  1831  ;  edited  re- 
ligious newspapers  ;  was  licensed,  1841,  but 
was  never  a  settled  pastor.  He  wrote  the 
widely  circulated  Philosophy  of  the  Plan  of 
Salvation,  Boston,  1855  (published  anouy- 
jnously),  and  other  works. 

Wall,  William,  D.D.  (Oxford,  17-).  Church 
of  England  ;  b.  1646  ;  d.  at  Shoreham.  Kent, 
56  m.  s.  by  w.  of  Loudon,  1728.  Here  he 
was  vicar  from  1676.  His  monumental  His- 
tory of  Infant  Baptism  appeared,  London, 
1705.  2  vols.;  was  translated  into  Latin,  and 
reprinted  1836  and  1862,  with  Reflections  on  it 
by  the  Baptist,  John  Gale,  1711,  and  Wall's 
Defence,  1720.  He  wrote  also  Critical  Notes 
en  the  Old  Testament,  1734.  etc.       F.  M.  B. 

Walther,  Oarl  Ferdinand  Wilhelm,  D.D. 

(Capital  University,  Columbus.  O.,  1877), 
Luheran ;  b.  at  Langenchursdorf.  Saxony, 
Oct.  25,  1811  ;  d.  in  St.  Louis.  Mo.,  May  7, 
1887.  He  studied  theology  at  Leipzig  ;  came 
to  America  in  1838,  and  became  in  1849 
professor  of  theology  and  president  of  Con- 
cordia Seminary  in  St.  Louis.  He  was  the 
founder  and  leader  of  the  Missouri  Synod, 
the  most  orthodox  branch  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  America.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
works  in  German.  (See  Encyclopmdia  of  Liv- 
ing Divines,  s.v.) 

Wallis,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge.  16~), 
P. U.S.  (16—).  b.  at  Ashford,  Kent,  England, 
Nov.  23.  1616  ;  d.  at  Oxford.  Oct.  28.  1703  ; 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  became  Savilian 
professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford  in  1658.  and 
was  made  one  of  the  royal  chaplains  after  the 
Restoration.  Besides  mathematical  works  he 
published  A  Btief  and  Easy  Explanation  of 
the  Shorter  Catechism,  London.  1662,  which 
ran  through  manv  editions  ;  The  Doctrine  of 
the  Blessed  Trinity,  1690  ,  .1  Defence  of  the 
Christian  Sfibbath,  Oxford,  1692 ;  sermons, 
etc. 

Walloon  Church,  The,  numbers  in  the 
Netherlands  17  congregations,  with  26  minis- 
ters, and  about  10,000  members,  descendants 
from  French  Reformed  refugees  from  France 
and  Flanders,  and  speaking  French  or  the 
Walloon  patois. 

Walpurgis,  or  Walpurga,  St.,  the  sister  of 
Willibald  (q.v.).  wlio  bt'cainc  abbess  of  the 
convent  at  Heidenheim.  where  her  brother. 
Wunnebald.  also  exercised  supervision.  She 
died  in  776  or  778.  and  May  1  is  observed  in 
her  honor  as  the  day  of  her  canonization. 


The  night  of  Walpurgis,  May  1,  is  the  time 
when  witches  are  supposed  to  begin  their 
operations.  F.  H.  F. 

Walter  of  St.  Victor,  pupil  of  Hugo  of 
S.  Victor  (q.v.),  sub-prior  of  the  same  monas- 
tery till  1173,  and  then  prior  ;  d.  about  1180. 
He  is  known  by  extracts  from  an  unpublished 
work,  in  which  he  condemns  the  philosophic 
treatment  of  theology  as  heresy.     F.  H.  F. 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  a  minne- 
singer of  rare  delicacy  and  beauty  ;  b.  in  the 
Tyrol,  1165-70  ;  d.  about  1230  in  WUrzburg, 
near  which  a  small  hef  had  been  given  him 
by  Frederick  IL  He  spent  his  life  at  the 
courts  of  various  royal  personages  engaged  in 
the  cultivation  of  poetry.  In  the  conflicts  of 
the  times  between  the  papacj^and  the  empire, 
he  was  found  upon  the  side  of  the  empire, 
and  did  much  to  influence  opinion. 

F.  H.  F. 

Walton,  Brian,  D.D.  (Cambridge.  1639), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Seymour,  in  the 
Cleveland  district  of  Yorkshire,  1600  ;  d.  in 
London,  Nov.  29,  1661.  He  studied  at  Mag- 
dalen and  Peterhouse,  Cambridge  ;  B.A., 
1619  ;  M.A..  1623  ;  rector  of  St.  Martin's 
Ongar,  London.  1626.  and  of  Sandon.  Essex, 
1636 ;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's.  Deprived 
of  these  preferments,  in  consequence  of  the 
Civil  AVar,  he  retired  to  Oxford,  1642,  and 
planned  his  great  Polyglott  Bible,  in  which 
he  was  assisted  by  various  scholars  and  facil- 
itated by  Cromwell.  The  proposals  appeared 
1652.  and  the  six  folio  volumes,  London. 
1654-57.  His  Introductio  ad  lectionen  Lin- 
garmn  Orientalium,  1654.  was  subsidiary  to 
the  Polyglott.  He  lived  in  London  from 
1646,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Chester, 
Dec.  2.  1660.  (See  his  memoirs  by  H.  J. 
Todd.  London.  1821  ;  vol.  ii.  contains  his  an- 
swer to  Owen.)  F.  M.  B. 

Wandering  Jew.  See  Jew,  The  Wan- 
dering. 

Wandering,  The.     See  Wilderness. 

War  is  certainly  a  great  evil,  alike  in  the 
suffering  it  causes  and  the  sins  it  occasions, 
yet  neither  Scripture  nor  reason  justify  tho.se 
who  condemn  it  as  always  wicked.  In  this 
imperfect  world  a  nation  has  the  same  right. 
and.  we  may  add,  duty  of  self-defence  that  an 
individual  has  in  cases  where  life  can  be 
preserved  in  no  other  way.  Peace  may  be 
bought  at  too  dear  a  price.  The  sore  discip- 
line of  war  works  out  what  is  to  be  gained  in 
no  other  way.  In  the  Old  Testament  Jehovah 
is  called  "a  man  of  war"  (Ex.  xv.  3).  and 
David  again  and  again  asks  divine  guidance 
in  his  military  concerns  (Ps.  ix..  xviii.,  Ix., 
cxliv.,  etc.).  Nor  is  the  tone  of  the  New 
Testament  different.  John  the  Baptist  did 
not  demand  of  the  soldiers  (Luke  iii.  14).  nor 
Jesus  of  the  centurion  of  Capernaum  (Matt. 
viii.  5).  nor  Peter  of  Cornelius  (Acts  x.)  that 
they  should  abandon  their  profession.  God 
has  given  the  powers  that  be  the  sword  to 
punish  evil  doers  (Rom.  xiii.  3.  4.  1  Peter  ii. 
14),  and  it  is  surely  as  much  a  duty  to  defend 
the  state  against  external  as  against  internal 
transgressors.     The  opposition  of  the  primi- 


WARBURTON 


(954) 


WARNECE 


live  church  to  military  service  rested  not  so 
much  upon  its  intrinsic  character  as  upon 
the  idolatry  involved  in  the  oath  bv  the  stand- 
ards. "T.  W.  C. 

War  burton,  William,  D.D.  (Cambridge  [?]. 
1755),  bishop  of  Gloucester  ;  b.  at  Newark, 
120  m.  n.  by.  w.  of  London,  Dec.  24,  1698  ; 
d.  at  Gloucester,  June  7,  1779.  He  attended 
grammar  schools  only,  and  was  bred  to  the 
law,  but  took  orders,  1733-26,  and  became 
rector  of  Griesly,  1726,  and  of  Brant  Brough- 
ton,  Lincolnshire,  1728.  Here  he  studied 
hard,  and  produced  The  Alliance  bettceen 
Church  and  State,  London,  1736,  and  The  Di- 
vine Legation  of  Moses,  1738-41,  2  vols.  The 
latter  was  directed  against  the  Deists  ;  it  won 
great  fame,  and  provoked  many  attacks,  which 
he  answered  in  Remarks,  1745.  His  Vindication 
of  Pope's  Essay  on  Man,  1739,  was  the  means 
of  advancing  his  fortunes  and  helping  him  to 
a  wealthy  marriage.  He  published  an  edition 
of  Shakespeare,  1747,  and  Julian,  1750.  In 
1757  he  was  made  dean  of  Durham,  and  in 
1760  bishop  of  Gloucester.  He  attacked  the 
Methodists  in  The  Doctrine  of  Grace,  1762  ; 
engaged  in  controversy  with  Bishop  Lowth. 
and  founded  the  Warburton  Lecture  (1768), 
to  prove  the  truth  of  revealed  religion  from 
the  prophecies.  He  was  a  man  of  brilliant 
talents  and  generous  nature,  an  intellectual 
athlete,  a  ready,  "rude  and  arrogant"  dis- 
putant, who  (however  sincerely)  argued  rather 
for  victory  than  for  truth,  and  accomplished 
rather  the  display  of  mental  power  than  any 
solid  and  permanent  result.  His  works, 
edited  by  Bishop  Hurd,  and  containing  more 
of  Tlie  Divine  Legation,  appeared  in  7  vols., 
1788,  and  in  12  vols..  1811.  (See  also  Tracts, 
1789  ;  Letters,  1808,  and  Selection  from  Un- 
published Papers,  1841.  His  life  was  wriiton 
by  Bishop  Hurd,  1794  [enlarged,  1860],  and 
by  J.  S.  Watson,  1863.)  F.  M.  B. 

Ward,  William  Hayes,  D.D.  (University 
of  New  York  and  College  of  New  Jersey, 
1873),  LL.D.  (Amherst  College,  Massachu- 
setts, 1885),  Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Abing- 
ton,  Mass.,  June  25,  1835  ;  studied  in  Union 
Theological  Seminary  of  New  York,  1856-57  ; 
held  various  pastoral  charges  ;  was  professor 
of  Latin  in  Ripon  College,  Wisconsin,  1865- 
67,  and  became  associate  editor  of  the  Neio 
York  Tndependent  in  1868,  and  in  1871  super- 
intending editor.  He  was  director  of  the 
Wolfe  Exploration  to  Babylonia,  1884-85. 

Wardlaw,  Ralph, D.D.  (Yale,  1818),  Scotch 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  at  Dalkeith,  6  m.  s.e. 
of  Edinburgh,  Dec.  22,  1779  ;  d.  at  Glasgow, 
Dec.  17,  1853.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, and  was  pastor  in  that  city  from  1803. 
and  professor  of  theology  from  1811.  He 
published  a  Selection  of  Hymns,  Glasgow, 
1803,  6th  ed..  1820,  and  books  on  The  Socinian 
Controversy,  1814,  2ded.,  1815  ;  Unitarianism, 
London,  1816  ;  Ecclesiastes,  Edinburgh,  1821  ; 
Infant  Baptism,  1825  ;  Assurance  of  Faith, 
Glasgow,  1830  ;  The  Sabbath,  London,  1832  ; 
Civil  Establishments  of  Christianity,  Glasgow, 
1832  ;  Christian  Ethics,  London,  1833  ;  The 
Atonement,  Glasgow,  1844  ;  Congregational 
Independency,  1848.  and  The  Miracles,  Edin- 
burgh, 1852.     His  lectures  on  theology  (Edin- 


burgh, 1856-57,  3  vols.).  Proverbs  (Edin- 
burgh, 1861,  3  vols.),  Romans  (London,  1861, 
3  vols.),  James  (1862),  and  Zechariah  (Edin- 
burgh, 1862),  appeared  posthumously.  Some 
of  his  twelve  hymns  have  been  much  used. 
(See  his  life  by  Dr.  W.  L.  Alexander,  Edin- 
burgh, 1856.)  F.  M.  B. 

Ware,  Henry,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1806),  Uni- 
tarian ;  b.  at  Sherburne,  Mass..  April  1,  1764  ; 
d.  at  Cambridge,  July  12,  1845.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard,  1785  ;  was  pastor  at  Hing- 
ham,  1787-1805,  and  Hollis  professor  of  divin- 
ity in  Harvard,  1805-45.  His  election  to  this 
post  was  earnestly  opposed  as  denotingg  a 
transition  in  the  doctrinal  position  of  the  col- 
lege, and  caused  the  beginning  of  the  Unitarian 
controversy.  Ware  published  Letters  to  Trin- 
itarians and  Caldnists,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1820,  in  answer  to  L.  Woods'  Letters  to  Uni- 
tarians, and  an  Inquiry  into  the  Foundation, 
Evidences,  and  Trutfis  of  Religion,  Camhridge, 
Mass.,  and  London,  1842,  2  vols.  His  son, 
Henry  Ware,  Jr.,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1834),  b. 
at  Hingham,  Mass.,  April  21,  1794;  d.  at 
Framingham.  Mass..  Sept.  22,  1843  ;  grad- 
uated at  Harvard,  1812;  was  pastor  of  the 
Second  Church  in  Boston,  1817-30,  and  Park- 
man  professor  of  pulpit  eloquence  in  Cam- 
bridge Divinity  School,  1830-42.  He  edited 
the  Christian  Discip>le  and  wrote  Hints  on 
Extemporaneous  Preaching,  Boston,  1824 ; 
Formation  of  the  Christian  Character,  1831, 
and  sundry  memoirs,  poems,  etc.  A  few  of 
his  hymns  have  been  much  used.  Four  vol- 
umes of  selections  from  his  writings  were 
edited  by  C.  Bobbins.  1846-47,  and  a  memoir 
by  his  brother,  J.  Ware,  1845,  2  vols.  His 
wife,  Mary  Lovell  Ware  (d.  1849),  was  the 
subject  of  a  well-known  memoir  by  E.  B. 
Hall.  1852.  His  brother,  William  Ware 
(1797-1852),  the  most  brilliant  member  of  this 
family,  wrote  the  historical  romances  Z(?«oWa, 
New  York,  1837  ;  Aurelian,  1838,  and  Julian,. 
1841.  F.  M.  B. 

Warfield,  Benjamin   Breckinridge,    D.D. 

(College  of  New  Jersey,  1880),  Presbyterian  ; 
b.  at  Lexington.  Ky.,  Nov.  5,  1851  ;  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  College,  1871,  and  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  1876,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  New  Testament  language  and  liter- 
ature at  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
Allegheny,  Pa.,  in  1879,  and  professor  of 
systematic  theology  in  Princeton,  1887.  He 
is  the  author  of  An  Introduction  to  the  Textual 
Criticism  of  the  New  Testament,  New  York, 
1887. 

Warneck,  Gustav,  Ph.D.  (Jena,  1870), 
D.D.  (hon.,  Halle,  1883).  German  Protestant  ; 
b.  at  Naumburg,  Prussian  Saxony,  March  6, 
1834  ;  studied  theology  at  Halle  ;  held  various 
pastoral  charges,  and  edits  since  1874  the 
Allgemeine  Missions  Zeitschrift,  Giitersloh. 
Of  his  many  books  and  pamphlets  on  missions 
(for  list  see  Encyclopedia  of  Living  Divines, 
now  incorporated  with  the  Schaff-Herzog  En- 
cyclopcedia)  may  be  mentioned  in  Eng.  trans.. 
Modern  Missions  and  Culture,  Edinburgh, 
1883  :  Outline  of  the  History  of  Protestant 
Missions,  1884  ;  and  in  the  original.  Missions- 
stunden,  Giitersloh,  1878  sqq. ;  Protestantische 
Beleuchtung  der  romischen  Angriffe  auf  die 


WARREN 


(955) 


WATTS 


evangelischen     Heidenmission,     1884-1885,     2 
parts  ;   UUrainontane  Fechterkunste,  1889. 

Warren,  William  Fairfield,  D.D.  (Oliio 
Wcsleyan  University,  Delaware,  O.,  1862), 
LL.D.  (Woslcyaii  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  1874),  Metliodi.st  ;  b.  at  Williamsburg, 
Mass.,  March  13,  1833  ;  graduated  at  ]\Iiddl^ 
town  Wesleyan  University,  1853  ;  entered  the 
Methodist  ministry,  1854  ;  studied  at  Berlin 
and  Halle,  and  travelled  in  the  East,  1856-58  ; 
was  acting  president  of  Boston  Theological 
Seminary,  1806-71,  and  president  of  Boston 
University  since  1873.  He  is  the  author  of 
Paradise  Found ;  The  Cradle  of  the  Human 
Race  at  the  North  Pule,  Boston,  1885,  5th  ed., 
same  year  ;  In  the  Footsteps  of  Arminius  : 
A  Deliyhtsome  Pilgrimage,  New  York,  1888. 

Watch-Night,  Keeping.  The  name  for  the 
Methodist  practice  of  holding  a  service  on  the 
last  hours  of  the  old  year  to  midnight  is  so 
called.  There  were  formerly  meetings  of  this 
character  held  at  night  on  other  days. 

Water,  Holy.     See  Holy  Water,  p.  375. 

Water  of  Jealousy.     See  Jealousy,  p.  434. 

Waterland,  Daniel,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
17 — ).  Church  of  England ;  b.  at  Wasely, 
Lincolnshire,  England,  Feb.  14,  1683  ;  d.  in 
Loudon,  Dec.  23,  1740.  He  became  a  fellow 
of  Magdaleu  College,  Cambridge,  1704,  and 
its  master,  1713  ;  chaplain  to  George  L,  1714  ; 
rector  of  EUingham,  1713,- and  of  St.  Austin 
and  St.  Faith,  London.  1720  ;  chancellor  of 
York,  1723  :  canon  of  Windsor,  1727  ;  vicar 
of  Twickenham  and  archdeacon  of  Middle- 
sex, 1730.  He  is  eminent  as  a  patristic  schol- 
ar, a  champion  of  orthodoxy,  and  a  fair- 
minded  and  unembittered  controversialist. 
Besides  much  against  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke, 
Whitby,  Middleton,  Tindal,  and  others,  he 
wrote  a  Critical  Ilistory  of  the  Athanamin 
Creed,  Cambridge,  1724.  n.  e.  Oxford,  1870. 
and  a  Revieio  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist, 
1737,  n.  e.  Oxford,  1868.  His  works,  with  a 
memoir  by  Bishop  Van  Jlildert,  were  col- 
lected in  11  vols.,  Oxford,  1823-28,  and  iu 
6  vols.,  1843  and  1856.  F.  M.  B. 

Watson,  Richard,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1771), 
F.R.S.  (17—),  bishop  of  LlandalT  ;  b.  at  Hev- 
ersham,  near  Kendal.  Westmoreland,  Eng- 
land. Aug.  1737  ;  d.  at  Calgarth  Park,  West- 
moreland, July  2,  1816.  He  entered  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  1754  ;  became  a  fellow, 
1760  ;  professor  of  cheniistr\'  (of  which  he 
then  knew  nothing).  1764.  and  of  divinity, 
1771  ;  gained  various  other  preferments,  which 
he  was  allowed  to  retain  wlien  appointed  to 
a  poor  Welsh  bishoprics  1782.  A  liberal  in 
politics  and  religion,  with  ideas  far  ahead  of 
his  age,  he  lo.st  the  favor  of  the  ruling  pow- 
ers, and  withdrew,  1789.  to  a  farm  in  his  na- 
tive county.  His  character  wa.s  an  extraor- 
dinary combination  of  manly  virtues,  with 
almost  cynical  indifference  to  duties  and  in- 
ordinate worldly  ambition.  His  Apology  for 
Christianity,  Cambridge,  1776,  and  Apology 
for  the  Bible.  London,  1796.  in  answer  to  Gib- 
bon and  Paine  respectively,  were  highly 
valued,  as  was  his  f'olUrtion  of  TTieoloqical 
Tracts,  Cambridge,  1785.  6  vols.,  2d  ed..  1791.  | 


His  autobiography  was  published  by  his  son 
iu  2  vols.,  London,  1817.  F.  M.  B. 

Watson,  Richard,  Wesleyan  ;  b.  at  Bur- 
ton-upon-Humber.  Lincolnshire.  Feb.  22, 
1781  ;  d.  in  London.  Jan.  8,  1833.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  a  carpenter  at  fourteen,  but 
soon  after  began  to  j)reach,  and  published  in 
1800  an  Apology  for  the  People  called  Methodists 
(London).  From  1801-12  he  was  in  the 
Methodist  New  Connection.  Returning  to 
the  Wesleyans,  he  helped  organize  their  mis- 
sionary society.  1813.  and  was  one  of  its  secre- 
taries, 1816-30.  By  his  Defence  of  the  Wesley- 
an Methodist  Missions  in  the  West  Indies,  Lon- 
don, 1817.  and  otherwise,  he  furthered  the 
anti-slavery  cause.  His  Conversations  for  the 
Young,  1830  ;  Life  of  John  Wesley,  1831  ;  Bib- 
lical and  Theological  Dictionary,  1832,  10th 
ed.,  1850,  rep.  in  New  York,  1853  ;  Exposition 
of  Matthew  and  Mark,  1833,  m\6.  Sermons  and 
Sketches  of  Sermons,  1834,  3  vols.,  have  all 
been  popular  and  useful  in  his  denomination. 
His  most  important  work.  Theological  Insti- 
tutes, 1823-24,  3  vols.,  "has  been  the  moral 
and  .scientific  standard  of  Methodi.';m.  "  (See 
the  Amilysis  of  it  by  Dr.  McClintock,  1842, 
included  in  the  New  York  edition  of  1850.) 
His  works,  with  a  life  by  T.  Jackson,  were 
collected  in  12  vols.,  London,  1834-37. 

F.  M.  B. 

Watts,  Isaac,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1728  ; 
Aberdeen,  172.8),  father  of  English  hym- 
nody  ;  b.  at  Southampton,  July  17,  1674  ;  d. 
at  Abney  Park,  near  London,  Nov.  25,  1748. 
He  was  a  precocious  student,  and  probably 
undermined  his  health  by  overwork.  In  1698 
he  became  assistant  minister,  and  in  1702  pas- 
tor of  the  Independent  congregation  in  JNIark 
Lane.  London  ;  the  next  year  lie  had  an  as- 
sistant, and  from  1712  lived  with  Sir  T.  Ab- 
ney.    His  first  book.  Horce  Lyiicce,  London, 

1706,  supplied  several  pieces  to  later  collec- 
tions ;  but  his  Hymns  and  Spiritual  Soitgs, 

1707,  and  Psalms  of  David  Imitated  in  tfie 
Language  of  the  JVew  Testament,  1719.  revo- 
lutionized a  most  important  part  of  public 
worship,  and  exerted  a  mighty  influence  on 
the  religious  thought  and  feeling  of  most 
Englishmen  and  Americans  for  the  century 
succeeding.  Their  strength,  simplicity,  and 
directness  commended  them  to  the  public 
mind,  and  they  were  quite  poetical  enough 
for  that  day,  though  modern  taste  has  found 
much  in  them  to  reject  or  disapprove.  No 
one  who  made  a  business  of  writing  English 
hymns  l)efore  Watts  (except  John  Mason,  who 
produced  comparatively  few)  had  ai)i)roached 
him  in  talent,  and  no  one  had  furnished  sacred 
songs  nearly  as  well  fitted  for  general  use  ; 
so  the  Psalms  and  Hymns  went  through  in- 
numerable editions,  and  held  the  field  almrst 
unrivalled,  except  among  the  Methodists, 
throughout  the  century,  supplements  to  them 
being  put  forth  as  late  as  1836.  IWs  Dirine 
and  Moral  Songs  for  Children,  1720.  were  long 
extremely  popular.  Other  hymns  were  added 
in  his  Peliquia"  Juveniles  and  Sermons.  His 
Logic,  1725.  for  a  time  highly  esteemed  and 
much  used,  is  now  set  aside,  and  his  numc  r- 
ous  essays,  treatises,  etc..  are  comparatively 
unimportant.     His  character  was  wholly  es- 


WAYLAND 


(956) 


WEIGHTS 


tiraable  and  lovable,  and  his  doctrinal  opin- 
ions moderate  for  that  day.  His  works  were 
collected  in  6  vols. ,  1754.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Dr.  Johnson  {Lives  of  the  Poets), 
Gibbons  (London,  1780),  T.  Milner  (1834), 
Southey,  and  S.  Palmer.  F.  M,  B. 

Wayland,  Francis,  D.D.  (Union.  1827  ; 
Harvard,  1829),  LL.D.  (Harvard,  1852),  Bap- 
tist ;  b.  in  New  York  City,  March  11,  1796  ; 
d.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Sept.  30,  1865.  He 
was  of  English  parentage,  his  father  being  a 
self-educated  minister  who  came  to  this  coun- 
try in  1793,  and  was  pastor  of  several  Baptist 
churches.  His  early  training  was  strict  to 
austerity.  Though  not  precocious,  he  was  a 
good  student,  and  at  seventeen  was  graduated 
from  Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.  He 
studied  medicine,  completing  his  course  three 
years  later,  but,  in  the  last  year  was  converted 
and  baptized.  Feeling  called  to  the  ministry, 
he  entered  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1816,  but  after  a  year  accepted  an  appoint- 
ment as  tutor  in  Union  College.  In  1821  he 
became  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church, 
Boston,  where  he  became  at  once  a  leader  of 
men.  His  sermons  on  TToe  Moral  Dignity  of 
the  Missionary  Enterprise  (Boston,  1823)  and 
The  Duties  of  an  American  Citizen  (1825)  were 
widely  circulated,  and  had  a  profound  influ- 
ence. In  1826  he  was  elected  professor  in 
Union  College,  and  the  following  year  was 
called  to  the  presidency  of  Brown  University, 
Providence,  R.  I.,  where  he  did  the  great 
work  of  his  life.  No  educator  of  his  genera- 
tion had  greater  power  to  mould  the  mind 
and  character  of  young  men.  Others  may 
have  been  more  learned,  more  eloquent,  more 
polished  ;  none  were  greater  teachers.  He 
led  the  way  in  all  educational  and  moral  re- 
forms, and  left  his  impress  on  all  the  move- 
ments of  his  day.  A  tirm  believer  in  the  dis- 
tinctive principles  of  his  denomination,  he 
was  a  broad-minded  man,  a  catholic  Christian, 
a  friend  of  every  good  work.  In  every  way 
he  was  a  great  man — greater,  perhaps,  in  the 
simplicity  of  his  character  and  the  strength 
of  his  Christian  faith  than  in  mental  power, 
learning,  or  the  capacity  of  leadershio.  In 
1855  he  resigned  the  presidency  of  Brown 
University,  and  after  serving  eighteen  months 
as  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  Church,  Provi- 
dence, spent  his  remaining  years  in  philan- 
thropic work  and  in  authorship.  (See  his 
Moral  Science,  New  York,  1835  ;  Political 
Economy,  1837,  and  Intellectual  Philosophy, 
1854,  text-books  that  still  hold  their  place  in 
schools  and  colleges  ;  also  the  memoir  by  his 
sons.  New  York,  1868,  2  vols.,  and  by  J.  O. 
Murray,  Boston,  1891.) 

Henry  C.  Vedder, 

Wayland,  Heman  Lincoln,  D.D.  (Brown 
University,  Providence,  R.  I.,  1869),  Baptist  ; 
son  of  the  preceding,  b.  at  Providence,  April 
23,  1830  ;  graduated  at  Brown  University, 
1849,  and  at  Newton  Theological  Institution, 
1850  ;  held  various  pastoral  charges  ;  was  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  and  logic  in  Kalamazoo  Col- 
lege, Michigan,  1865-70,  and  president  of 
Franklin  College,  Indiana,  1870-72,  and  be- 
came  in  the  latter  year  editor  of  The  National 
Baptist,  Philadelphia. 


Weaver,  Jonathan,  D.D.  (Otterbein  Uni- 
versity, Westerville,  O.,  1873),  United  Breth- 
ren ;  b.  in  Carroll  County,  O. ,  Feb.  23,  1824  ; 
became  pastor,  1847  ;  presiding  elder,  1852  ; 
general  agent  of  Otterbein  University,  1857  ; 
bishop,  1865.  He  wrote  The  Resurrection, 
..Dayton,  O.,  1871;  Ministerial  Salary,  1873; 
Divine  Providence, 1%1Z  ;  Universal  Restoration 
not  Sustained  by  the  Word  of  God,  1878. 

Week,  the  division  of  time  into  seven  days, 
found  among  nations  remote  from  each  other 
— Chinese,  Peruvians,  etc.  —and  hence  to  be 
attributed  to  the  order  of  creation.  The  Jews 
had  only  numeral  names  for  the  days  of  the 
week,  except  the  Sabbath.  Besides  the  week 
of  days  they  had  a  week  of  years  or  seven 
years  ;  and  a  week  of  seven  times  seven  years, 
or  forty-nine  years,  brought  round  the  year 
of  jubilee.  T.  W.  C. 

Wegscheider,  Julius  August  Ludwig,   b. 

at  Kubbelingen,  Brunswick,  Sept.  17,  1771  ; 
d.  at  Halle,  Jan.  27,  1849  _;  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Rinteln,  Hesse,  iu 
1806,  and  removed  to  Halle  in  1810.  He  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Rationalists,  and  his 
Institationes  theologicm  Christiana,  dogrnaticce, 
Halle,  1815,  8th  ed.,  1844,  is  considered  the 
representative  exposition  of  rationalistic  dog- 
rnatics.  In  Halle,  where  he  worked  in  per- 
fect unison  with  Gesenius,  he  achieved  an 
immense  success  ;  he  had  often  300  students 
in  his  lecture-room.  But  in  the  beginning  of 
1830  he  was  denounced  as  a  blasphemer  by 
the  Evangelische  Kirchenzeitung ,  and  he  and 
Gesenius  were  placed  before  a  committee  of 
investigation.  Meanwhile  the  July  revolution 
broke  out  in  Paris,  and  the  Wegscheider  case 
was  dropped.  But  from  that  time  his  leader- 
ship, his  influence,  was  gone. 

Weigel,  Valentin,  b.  at  Grossenhain,  Sax- 
ony, 1533  ;  d.  June  10,  1588.  at  Zschapau, 
Saxony,  where  he  had  been  appointed  pastor 
of  a  Lutheran  congregation  in  1557.  During 
his  lifetime  nothing  was  heard  about  his 
heresy,  but  some  years  after  his  death  his 
cantor,  Weikert,  published  his  writings,  which 
teach  a  mystic  pantheism,  a  blending  of  Para- 
celsus and  Tauler.  Weikert  was  expelled 
from  his  office  and  the  books  were  publicly 
burned,  but  a  sect  had  nevertheless  been 
formed.  (See  Hilliger,  Fata  et  scripta  Valen- 
tini  Weigelii,  Wittenberg,  1721  ;  Opel,  Val. 
Weigel,  Leipzig,  1864.) 

Weights  and  Measures.  The  ancient  He- 
brews weighed  all  the  gold  and  silver  used  in 
trade.  The  shekel,  tiie  mineh,  the  talent, 
were  all  originally  names  of  weights.  The 
"  shekel  of  the  sanctuary"  (Ex.  xxx.  13)  de- 
noted not  one  different  from  the  common 
shekel,  but  the  standard  weight,  preserved  in 
some  apartment  of  the  sanctuary.  The 
weights  of  the  Jews  were  the  sliekel  (Amos 
viii.  5),  half  an  ounce  avoirdupois  ;  the  mineh 
or  mina  (Ezek.  xlv.  12),  100  shekels  or  50 
ounces  =  3  pounds,  2  ounces  avoirdupois  ; 
and  the  talent  (2  Sam.  xii.  30),  3000  shekels, 
30  maneh,  1500  ounces  =  93  pounds,  12  ounces 
avoirdupois.  The  Roman  money  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament  is  thus  valued  in  U.  S. 
coinage— TwtYe  =  1.87  cts. ;  2  mites  =  1  far- 


WEISS 


(957) 


WERTHEIM 


thing  =  3.75  cts. ;  4  farthings  =  1  penny  = 
15  cts  ;  100  pence  =  1  pound  =  $15.00. 

Measures  of  Length  were  derived  from 
the  human  body,  i.e.,  from  the  finger,  hand, 
and  arm,  not  the  foot  or  pace.  The  haiid- 
bnadth  (1  Kings  vii.  26)  was  the  breadth  of 
tour  fingers,  from  3  to  3^  inches.  Tlie  span 
(Lam.  ii.  20)  was  the  distance  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  thumb  to  that  of  tlie  little 
finger,  stretched  as  far  apart  as  possible,  say 
9  to  10  inches.  The  cubit,  the  distance  from 
the  elbow  to  the  end  of  the  middle  finger, 
about  18  inches.  The  different  expressions 
about  this,  sucli  as  "  the  cubit  of  a  man" 
(Deut.  iii.  11),  "  the  first  measure"  (2  Chron. 
iii.  3),  "a  great  cubit"  (Ezek.  xli.  8),  .show 
that  it  varied.  The  fathoin  (Acts  xxvii.  28) 
was  from  6  to  6^  feet.  The  >ne<isunng  reed 
(Ezek.  xlii.  16)  was  6  cubits,  or  from  10  to  11 
left,  and  the  measuring  line  (Zech.  ii.  1)  was 
146  feet.  The  furlong  (Luke  xxiv.  13)  was  a 
Greek  measure  —  one  eighth  of  a  mile  or  40 
rods.  The  /iiile,  mentioned  only  once  (Matt. 
V.  41),  was  the  Roman  miliar! um,  which  con- 
tained 1000  paces  =  1618  yards  ;  l)ut  the  Jew- 
ish mile  was  longer  or  shorter  according  to 
the  pace  in  use  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
country.  The  Sitbbath  Day's  journey  (Acts  i. 
12)  was  the  distance  tradition  said  one  might 
travel  on  the  rest-day  without  breaking  the 
law,  about  seven  eighths  of  a  mile.  A  day's 
journey  (Num.  xi.  31,  Luke  ii.  44)  indicated 
the  distance  which  a  person  ordinarily  accom- 
plishes on  foot  or  on  a  camel,  about  20  miles. 

Measures  of  Capacity.  The  dry  meas- 
ures were  the  cab  or  kab  (holloic)  (2  Kings  vi. 
25),  one  third  of  an  omer  or  2  pints  ;  the  omer 
(a  sheaf),  the  tenth  of  an  ephah  or  6  pints 
(Ex.  xvi.  36)  ;  the  seah  (measure),  one  third  of 
an  ephah  or  20  pints  (Gen.  xviii.  6,  Matt.  xiii. 
33,  Luke  xiii.  21),  the  ordinary  measure  for 
household  purposes  ;  the  epiiah  (Num.  v.  15, 
Judges  vi.  19,  Ruth  ii.  IT),  10  omers  or  3 
seahs  =  60  pints  ;  the  homer  or  cor  (Isa.  v. 
10),  the  largest  dry  measure  of  the  Hebrews, 
100  omers  or  600  pints,  about  8  of  our  bush- 
els. The  Roman  imdiiis,  translated  "  bushel  " 
(Matt.  V.  15),  was  nearly  the  same  as  the  Eng- 
lish peck. 

The  liquid  measures  were  the  log  (basin), 
which  was  the  smallest,  and  contained  one 
twelfth  of  a  hin  or  about  five  sixths  of  a  pint 
(Lev.  xiv.  10)  ;  the  hin,  one  sixth  of  a  bath 
or  10  pints  (Ex.  xxix.  40) ;  the  bath,  the  largest, 
and  containing  one  tenth  of  a  homer,  7^  gal- 
lons or  60  pints  (1  Kings  vii.  26,  Isa.  v.  10). 
The  frkin  (John  ii.  6)  was  a  Greek  measure 
containing  7^  gallons.  T.  W.  C. 

Weiss,  Bernhard,  D.D.  (Halle  [?],  1863  [?]). 
Gorman  Protestant  ;  b.  at  Konigsberg,  June 
20,  1827  ,  studied  there,  at  Halle,  and  in  Ber- 
lin, and  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Kiel  in  1857,  and  in  Berlin  in  1877.  He 
has  written,  among  other  learned  and  able 
works,  I^hrbuch  der  biblischen  Theoloqie  des 
N.  T.,  Berlin,  1868,  5th  ed.,  1888,  Eng. 'trans.. 
Biblical  Theohigy  (f  the  New  Testament,  Edin- 
burgh, 1882-83,  2  vols. ;  D<t.^  Marc<iserangdiu)n 
und  seine  sytwplischen  ParaUi  h  n ,  Berlin,  1872  ; 
Dn«  Matthiiuserangdium  und  seine  Lucas-Par- 
allelen,  Halle,  1876  ;  Das  Lebea  Jeiu,  Berlin, 


1882,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1888,  Eng.  trans..  The 
Life  of  Jesus,  Edinburgh,  1883-84,  3  vols.;  Lehr- 
buchderEinleitungindasJS'eue  Testament,  1886, 
2d  ed.,  1889,  Eng.  trans..  Introduction  to  the 
New  Testament,  London  and  New  York,  1889, 
2  vols.  Besides  he  has  written  in  the  so-called 
new  edition  of  Meyer's  Commentary  the  vols, 
on  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John,  Romans, 
Timothy,  and  Titus. 

Weisse,  Christian  Hermann,  b.  at  Leipzig, 
Aug.  10,  1801  ;  d.  there,  Sept.  19,  1866  ;  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  university  of 
his  native  city,  but  has  exercised  some  influ- 
ence also  on  theology  by  his  Philosophische 
Dogmatik,  Leipzig,  1855-62,  3  vols.;  Die  evan- 
gelische  OescJdchte,  1838  ;  Die  Zukunft  der 
evangelisch.  Kirche,  1849,  etc. 

WeUs,  Edward,  b.  about  1665  ;  d.  1727, 
at  Cottesbuch,  Leicestershire,  England,  where 
he  was  rector  since  1717  ;  published  An  Help 
for  the  more  E((sy  and  Clear  Understanding 
of  th^  Holy  Scriptures,  1709-28,  21  parts,  in- 
cluding an  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment, an  English  translation,  notes,  etc. 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church. 
See  Presbyterian  Cuurciies,  Wales,  p.  748. 

Wellhausen,  Julius,  b.  at  Hamelnon  the- 
Weser,  May  17,  1844  ;  studied  at  Gottingen, 
1862-65  ;  was  appointed  professor  in  the  theo- 
logical faculty  of  Greifswald,  1872  ;  professor 
in  the  philosophical  faculty  of  Halle,  1882  ; 
in  that  of  Marburg,  1885.  He  is  the  foremost 
representative  in  Germany  of  destructive  bib- 
lical criticism  ;  particularly  known  for  his 
analysis  of  the  Pentateuch.  He  wrote  Text 
der  Bilcher  Samuels,  Gottingen,  1871  ;  Phari- 
saeer  und  Saddncaeer,  Greifswald,  1874  ;  Pro- 
legomena zur  Geschichte  Israels,  Berlin,  1878, 
3d  ed.,  1886,  Eng.  trans..  History  of  Israel, 
Edinburiih  and  London,  1885  ;  Skizzen  und 
IWarbriten,  i.,  1884  ;  ii.,  1885  ;  iii..  1887  ;  iv., 
1889  ;  Die  Composition  des  Ilexateuchs  rind  der 
historischen  Bucher  des  Alien  Testaments,  1889. 

Werkmeister,  Benedikt  Maria  von,  b.  at 

Alli^^au,  Upper  Suabia,  Oct  22,  1745  ;  d.  at 
Steinbach,  near  Stuttgart,  July  16.  1823  ;  en- 
tered the  Benedictine  order  in  1764  ;  studied 
theology,  and  was  in  1796  appointed  pastor 
of  Steinbach,  though  he  was  suspected  of 
Josephinism,  (q.v.)  His  Bi  tri  i.s  dass  die  bei  den 
Protestanten  i'Michen  EhiKclteidungen  auch 
nach katholischen  Gru ndsdtztn gultig sind,  1804, 
made  a  great  sensation 

Wemsdorf,  Gottlieb,  b.  at  Schcinewalde, 
Feb.  25,  1668  ;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  July  1, 
1729  ;  was  successively  professor  of  theology, 
provost  at  the  cathedral  church,  and  super- 
intendent-general at  Wittenberg.  In  his  De 
auctoritate  librorurn  symbolicorum  he  claims  a 
kind  of  mediate  inspiration  for  the  symbolical 
books  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

Wertheim,  The  Bible  of,  is  a  German  trans- 
lation of  the  Pentateuch  by  J.  L.  Schmidt, 
published  at  Wertheim,  1735.  as  the  first  in- 
stalment of  a  translation  of  the  whole  Bible. 
If  the  work  had  been  completed,  it  would 
have  been  the  Bible  translation  of  the  Ration- 
alists, but,  vehemently  denounced  by  the 
theologians,  the  work  was  stopped  by  the 


WESEIi 


(958) 


WESLEY 


police,  and  the  part  issued  was  seized  and 
confiscated. 

Wesel,  Johann  von,  one  of  the  men  who 
In  tlie  15th  century  performed  work  prepara- 
tory for  the  Reformation  of  the  16th  ;  died  as 
an  old  man  in  prison  in  1481.  But  little  is 
known  of  his  life.  He  was  a  teacher  in  the 
University  of  Erfurt  in  the  decade  between 
1445  and  1456,  in  the  last  of  these  years  being 
made  Doctor  of  Theology.  The  humanistic 
spirit  was  controlling  at  Erfurt  in  this  period, 
and  Wesel  exercised  an  influence  which  was 
felt  later  by  Martin  Luther.  During  his  resi- 
dence at  Erfurt  he  composed  the  tract  upon 
indulgences  which  was  subsequently  the 
cause  of  his  accusation  and  condemnation. 
In  1458  we  find  him  vice-rector  of  the  univer- 
sity, and  about  1460  he  was  called  to  some 
place  upon  the  Rhine  as  preacher.  His  trial 
occurred  in  1479,  and  he  recanted  his  "  er- 
rors" and  submitted  to  the  church,  though 
not  procuring  release  thereby. 

The  work  upon  indulgences  begins  with 
denying  that  the  punishments  inflicted  by  the 
church  upon  the  penitent  are  identical  with 
the  temporal  punishments  prescribed  by  God. 
The  canon  law  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
matter  of  the  divine  forgiveness  of  sins.  God 
alone  forgives  sins  upon  true  repentance. 
The  priest  is  simply  the  minister  of  the  sacra- 
ment of  penance.  The  divine  forgiveness 
removes  only  the  eternal,  not  the  temporal 
consequences  of  sin.  The  power  of  the  keys 
cannot  suspend  the  divinely  imposed  temporal 
penalty.  Hence  indulgences  are  to  be  re- 
jected. So  also  the  doctrine  of  a  "treasure 
of  the  church,"  consisting  in  the  supereroga- 
tory works  of  the  saints.  If  there  were  such 
a  treasure,  God  alone  could  bestow  anything 
of  it  upon  any  soul.  Indulgences  are  vice 
frn  udes. 

In  the  doctrine  of  salvation  Wesel  occupied 
the  position  of  the  theology  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  taught  the  infusion  of  grace  and 
the  validity  of  human  merit.  For  the  best 
account  of  his  life  see  Ulmann's  Reformers 
before  the  Bfiformation.  F.  H.  F. 

Wesley.  The  Wesley  family,  made  fa- 
mous by  the  religious  reformation  wrought 
in  England  through  the  labors  of  one  of  its 
members,  is  of  honorable  descent.  Its  origin 
is  traced  back  to  Guy  de  Wcllesley,  who  was 
made  a  thane  in  938  by  Athelstan,  and  whose 
home  was  at  Welswe,  Somerset.  The  duke 
of  Wellington  (of  whose  connection  with  the 
family  of  the  reformer  see  further  notice  un- 
der Charles  Wesley)  spelled  his  name  Wesley 
until  1790,  when  he  adopted  the  form  of  Wel- 
lesley.  The  immediate  ancestors  of  John  Wes- 
ley called  the  name  Westley  until  his  father, 
Samuel,  some  time  after  entering  Oxford, 
clianged  it  to  its  present  form. 

SAMUEL  WESLEY,  the  father  of  the  reformer, 
was  born  at  Winterborn,  Whitchurch,  Dor- 
setshire, Dec,  1662  ;  d.  at  Epworth,  April  25, 
1735.  He  was  the  sou  of  John  Westley  and 
grandson  of  Bartholomew  Westley,  two 
learned  divines,  both  of  whom  were  ejected 
from  their  livings  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
(1662).  The  grandfather,  Bartholomew,  after 
this  supported  himself  as  a  physician,  a  prac- 


tice so  common  among  the  ejected  ministers 
that  one  wittily  said  to  the  commissioner 
who  turned  him  out,  "  I  perceive  that  this  is 
like  to  occasion  the  death  of  many."  John 
after  his  ejection  led  a  precarious  life  as  a 
dissenting  preacher  until  his  early  death,  about 
1678.  Samuel  Wesley  was  designed  by  his 
family  for  the  dissenting  ministry,  and  was 
educated  in  several  dissenting  academies,  but 
being  led  by  a  controversy  to  examine  into 
the  reasons  for  the  separation  of  the  Noncon- 
formists from  the  state  church,  he  secretly 
resolved  to  join  the  Church  of  England.  He 
went  to  Oxford  without  the  knowledge  of  his 
family  in  1683,  and  entered  Exeter  College  as 
a  "  poor  student."  This  step  gave  his  rela- 
tives great  offence.  During  his  college  life 
he  published  Maggots ;  or,  Poems  on  tSeveral 
Subjects  Never  before  Handled  (1685).  He 
graduated  June,  1688.  and  was  ordained  dea- 
con a  few  weeks  after.  About  1689  he  mar- 
ried Susanna  Annesley,  the  daughter  ot  a  dis- 
tinguished Nonconformist  minister.  In  1691 
he  received  the  living  of  South  Ormsby,  Lin- 
colnshire. While  here  he  wrote  for  Dunton's 
Athenian  Gazette,  an  occupation  which 
brought  him  the  acquaintance  of  many  liter- 
ary men.  In  1697  he  was  made  rector  of  Ep- 
worth, Lincolnshire,  by  order  of  Queen  Mary, 
to  whom  he  had,  in  1693,  dedicated  his  Life 
of  Christ  in  verse.  Samuel  Wesley  reversed 
the  tradition  of  his  family  by  showing  himself 
a  strong  Churchman  and  Tory,  but  he  was 
learned,  laborious,  and  godly,  a  contrast  in 
these  respects  to  most  of  the  state  clergy  of 
the  day.  The  nearly  forty  years  of  his  life 
at  Epworth  were  full  of  trouble.  His  living, 
nominally  of  £200  value,  rarely  yielded  over 
£160  a  year.  The  small  living  of  Wroote, 
added  in  1726  to  his  cure,  brought  him  biit  a 
trifle.  He  had  nineteen  children,  ten  of  whom 
(three  sons  and  seven  daughters)  lived  to  be 
men  and  women.  In  Dec,  1716,  and  Jan., 
1717,  his  family  were  disturbed  by  mysterious 
noises,  which  they  believed  to  be  supernatural. 
Twice  his  house  was  burned,  once  to  the 
ground.  Three  times  he  attended  convoca- 
tion as  representative  of  the  diocese  of  Lin- 
coln, at  great  expense  to  himself.  His  natural 
unpracticalness  added  to  misfortune  kept  him 
constantly  in  debt.  He  was  once  sent  to  jail 
by  enemies  for  a  small  debt,  but  was  released 
by  his  faithful  friend.  Dr.  Sharpe,  archbishop 
of  York.  Notwithstanding  his  troubles,  he 
was  devoted  to  learned  studies  ;  he  unceas- 
ingly toiled  for  the  spiritual  improvement  of 
his  people,  encouraged  his  sons  to  persevere 
in  the  "  Holy  Club"  at  Oxford,  and  said,  when 
dying,  to  his  son  Charles,  "  The  Christian 
faith  will  surely  revive  in  this  kingdom  ;  you 
shall  see  it,  though  I  shall  not."  He  was 
buried  "  very  frugally  yet  decently"  in  Ep- 
worth churchyard.  Among  his  many  writ- 
ings, besides  those  already  noticed,  are  The 
Pious  Communicant  Rightly  Prepared,  1700  ; 
History  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  in  Verse, 
1701  ;  Dissertations  on  the  Book  of  Job  in  Latin. 
This  last  work  was  published  after  his  death. 

SUSANNA  WESLEY,  wife  of  the  above  and 
mother  of  John  Wesley  ;  b.  in  London,  Jan. 
20,  1669  ;  d.  there,  July  33,  1743.     She  was 


WESLEY 


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WESLEY 


the  daughter  of  Dr.  Samuel  Annesley,  a 
learned  Nonconformist  minister,  and  her  edu- 
cation was  much  above  that  commonly  then 
received  by  women.  While  yet  a  child  she 
joined  the  Cliurch  of  England  from  convic- 
tion. She  was  a  great  help  to  her  husband 
in  his  parish  worli,  but  her  chief  claim  to 
fame  rests  upon  the  religious  training  she 
gave  her  large  family.  A  woman  of  strong, 
good  sense,  tirm  will,  and  real  piety,  she  de- 
voted herself  to  the  education  of  her  children, 
pursuing  a  system  which  would  seem  to  us 
severe,  but  which  certainly  produced  great 
results  in  her  sons,  who  loved  :iud  consulted 
her  until  the  end  of  her  life.  She  kept  school 
for  her  children  six  hours  a  day.  Each  child 
entered  tliis  school  when  five  years  old,  and 
was  expected  to  learn  the  alphabet  on  the  first 
day  of  school  life,  a  feat  accomplished  by 
eight  of  them,  the  other  two  failing.  During 
her  husband's  absence  at  convocation,  in  1712, 
she  held  religious  meetings  at  the  rectory, 
reading  prayers  and  sermons  to  sometimes 
over  2U0  persons.  Her  letters  to  her  husband 
in  defence  of  tliis  proceeding  are  very  inter- 
esting, and  show  her  character.  Many  of  her 
letters  to  her  sons  after  they  left  home  are 
models  of  religious  advice  and  fine  specimens 
of  English.  It  was  through  her  counsel  that 
John  Wesley  accepted  lay  preachers.  She 
died  while  "living  in  Loudon  with  her  son 
John,  and  was  buried  at  Bunhill  Fields.  Iler 
daughters  showed  talent  as  well  as  her  sons, 
but  they  married  poorly,  some  of  them  un- 
happily. 

SAMUEL  WESLEY,  Jr.,  oldest  son  of  the  rec- 
tor of  Epworth  ;  b.  in  London,  where  his 
father  for  a  time  had  a  curacy,  Feb.  10,  1690  ; 
d.  at  Tiverton.  Nov.  6,  1739.  Ho  went  to 
Westminster  School,  London,  1704  ;  was 
nominated  king's  scholar,  1707,  and  entered 
Christ  Church  College.  Oxford,  1711.  On  re- 
ceis'ing  the  degree  of  M.A.  he  took  orders,  and 
was  made  usher  at  Westminster  School,  where 
he  remained  twenty  years.  Wiiile  thus  teach- 
ing he  became  the'  friend  of  many  of  the  lit- 
erary Tories  of  the  day,  being  well  acquainted 
with  Lord  Oxford,  Pope,  Swift,  and  Prior, 
as  well  as  with  Addison  and  others  of  the  op- 
posite party.  His  friendshij)  witli  Bishop 
Atterbury,  in  whose  defence  he  wrote  epigrams 
on  Sir  Robert  Walpole  and  other  Whigs,  is 
said  to  have  ruined  his  prospects  of  prefer- 
ment. He  was  learned,  good,  and  charitable. 
He  gave  all  he  could  to  his  father,  and  helped 
his  brothers  John  and  Charles  through  col- 
lege. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  what  is 
now  St.  George's  Ho.spital,  London.  He  had 
the  family  talent  for  poetry,  and  publi.«:hed  a 
volume  of  poems  in  1736.  A  second  edition 
of  it  appeared  after  his  death,  in  1743,  and 
in  18G2  another  edition,  with  a  life  of  him  by 
William  Nichols.  Some  of  liis  hymns  are 
still  sung.  In  1732  he  was  made  head  master 
of  Blandell's  free  grammar  school  at  Tiverton, 
a  po-;ition  he  retained  until  liis  death.  Being 
a  High  Churchman,  he  was  di.struslful  of  the 
new  ideas  promulgated  by  his  brothers.  He 
complains  in  a  letter  to  "his  mother,  "  Tliey 
leave  otT  the  liturgy  in  the  field-;.  Though 
Mr.  Whitefield  expresses  his  value  for  it,  he 


never  once  read  it  to  his  tatterdemalions  on 
a  common."  At  the  same  time  he  urged  his 
brothers  to  good  works.  Shortly  after  writ- 
ing the  above-mentioned  letter  he  died  quite 
suddenly,  and  was  buried  at  Tiverton.  His 
wife  was  a  daugliter  of  the  Rev.  John  Berry, 
a  Church  of  England  clergyman. 

JOHN  WESLEY,  the  founder  of  Methodism 
and  the  son  of  Samuel  and  Susanna  Wesley, 
b.  at  Epworth,  June  17,  1703  (N.  S.,  June 
28)  ;  d.  in  Loudon,  March  2,  1791.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  christened  John  Benjamin.  In 
1709,  when  his  father's  rectory  burned  down, 
he  narrowly  es(;aped  death,  'in  1714  he  was 
admitted  a  pupil  in  the  Chartei house  School, 
London,  through  the  kindness  of  the  duke  of 
Buckingham.  He  attributed  the  foundation 
of  his  good  health  in  after  years  to  his  father's 
command  to  run  around  the  Charterhouse 
garden  three  times  every  morning.  In  1720 
he  entered  Christ  Cliurch  College,  Oxford,  as 
a  Charterhouse  scholar,  receiving  £40  a  year. 
He  was  ordained  deacon,  Sept.  19,  1725,  his 
father  by  a  great  effort  raising  the  money  to 
pay  the  charges  ;  and  prie-st,  Sept.  22.  1728. 
All  his  life  he  had  a  great  respect  for  Bishop 
Potter,  by  whom  he  was  ordained  to  both 
offices.  His  first  sermon  was  preached  at  the 
village  of  Stmth  Leigli,  near  Witney,  in  1725. 
On  March  17,  1726,  he  was  elected  fellow  of 
Lincoln  College,  where  his  rooms  are  still 
shown.  Tlie  payment  of  the  fees  caused  the 
usual  pinch  at  home,  but  in  a  letter  to  "  Dear 
Mr.  Fellow-Elect  of  Lincoln."  sending  him 
the  needed  money,  his  father  says,  "  Wher- 
ever I  am,  my  Jack  is  fellow  ot  Lincoln." 
He  spent  tliat  summer  at  home  to  save  ex- 
pense, acting  as  his  father's  curate  ;  he  was 
his  father's  curate  a  second  time  from  Aug. , 
1727,  to  Nov.,  1729.  On  his  return  to  Oxford, 
in  1729,  he  found  that  his  brother  Charles, 
now  at  Christ  Church,  was,  with  two  friends, 
Robert  Kirkham  and  William  Morgan,  en- 
deavoring to  lead  a  strict  Christian  life  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  the  church.  -He  joined 
them,  became  their  leader  ;  the  number  of 
members  of  the  society  increased,  and  they 
speedily  became  objects  of  ridicule,  being 
called  the  "  Holy  Club,"  and  "  3Iethodists. " 
Their  "  method  "  was  this:  They  attended  the 
sacrament  at  Christ  Church  once  a  week,  they 
met  together  every  evening  for  religious  con- 
versation and  prayer,  they  every  day  urged 
others  to  a  religious  life,  they  visited  tlie  pris- 
oners in  the  jail,  supplying  their  needs  and 
releasing  those  who  were  imprisoned  for  small 
debts.  Old  Samuel  Wesley,  as  usual,  encour- 
aged his  sons.  He  wrote  John.  "  I  have  the 
liighest  reason  to  bless  God  that  he  has  given 
me  two  sons  together  at  Oxford,  to  whom  he 
lias  granted  grace  and  courage  to  turn  tlie 
war  against  the  world  and  the  devil."  In 
1733  Wesley  published  his  first  book,  ^1  Col- 
hrtimi  of  forms  of  Prayer  fnr  every  Day  in  tlie 
Week.  He  grew  continually  more  of  a  High 
Churchman,  and  was  unwilling  to  ask  for  the 
next  presentation  to  Epworth,  l)ecause  he 
thought  he  could  be  holier  "  at  Oxford  than 
at  any  other  place."  Just  before  his  father's 
death,  however,  he  applied  for  the  living,  and 
failed    to    secure    it.     Notwithstanding    this 


WESLEY 


(960) 


WESLEY 


preference  for  Oxford,  he  sailed,  Oct.  14,  1735, 
as  a  missionary  to  Georgia.  Tlie  founder  of 
the  colony,  General  Oglethorpe,  had  been  a 
kind  friend  to  his  father.  Charles  Wesley, 
who  accompanied  his  brother,  soon  returned 
home,  and  Wesley  went  back  in  1738  after 
an  unfruitful  though  toilsome  pastorate. 
The  extreme  rigidity  of  the  rules  of  discipline 
he  endeavored  to  enforce  upon  the  colonists 
would  have  gotten  any  man  into  trouble. 
His  trip,  however,  produced  for  him  two  good 
results  :  practical  experience,  even  if  disagree- 
able, and  a  knowledge  of  the  Moravians. 
Immediately  ou  landing  in  England  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Peter  Bohler  (Feb.  7, 
1738),  a  Moravian  preacher,  from  whom  he 
learned  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith 
alone.  On  the  night  of  May  24,  1738,  at  a 
Moravian  society  meeting  in  Aldersgate  street, 
London,  while  a  person  read  Lather's  preface 
to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  Wesley  says  of 
himself,  "  I  felt  my  heart  strangely  warmed. 
I  felt  I  did  trust  in  Christ,  Christ  alone,  for 
salvation  ;  and  an  assurance  was  given  me 
that  he  had  taken  away  my  sins,  even  mine, 
and  saved  me  from  the  law  of  sin  and  death." 
The  conviction  which  at  this  humble  service 
flashed  upon  the  powerful  mind  of  Wesley 
was  the  beginning  of  the  evangelical  reforma- 
tion of  England,  and  the  beginning  also  of 
Methodism.  Three  weeks  after  this  meeting 
Wesley  started  for  Germany  to  visit  the  Mora- 
vians at  home,  returning  in  Sept.  He  then, 
with  his  brother  Charles  and  Whitelield,  be- 
gan preaching  immediate  justification  by  faith 
with  such  vigor  and  with  such  wonderful  re- 
sults in  the  conversion  of  hearers,  that  by  the 
end  of  the  year  nearly  all  of  the  churches  of 
London  were  closed  against  them.  Thereupon 
Whitefield  began  preaching  in  the  open  air  to 
the  colliers  near  Bristol.  His  audiences  rap- 
idly arose  to  10,000  persons.  Wesley,  at  his 
entreaty,  with  much  hesitation,  followed  his 
example,  preaching  out-of-doors  for  the  first 
time  near  Bristol,  April  2,  1739,  to  3000  per- 
sons. Describing  his  reluctance,  Wesley 
says,  "  I  could  scarce  reconcile  myself  at  first 
to  this  strange  way  of  preaching  in  the  fields  ; 
.  .  .  till  very  lately  I  should  have  thought 
the  saving  of  souls  almost  a  sin  if  it  had  not 
been  done  in  a  church."  His  good  sense 
speedily  overcame  his  scruples,  and  he  not 
only  became  a  great  open-air  preacher  him- 
self, but  insisted  that  all  his  itinerants  should 
follow  in  his  footsteps.  At  Bristol  he  em- 
ployed his  first  lay  preacher,  John  Cennick. 
June,  1739.  The  money  difficulties  en- 
countered during  the  building  of  a  chapel  at 
Bristol  this  same  year  led  him  to  vest  the 
title  in  himself,  a  practice  he  followed  for  a 
long  time.  This  secured  the  organic  unity 
of  liis  societies.  By  a  deed  of  declaration, 
Feb.  28,  1784,  he  transferred  his  rights  in  the 
chapels  after  his  death  to  a  conference  of  100 
of  his  preachers  and  their  successors  forever. 
The  original  100  men  were  chosen  by  himself. 
In  this  body,  called  "  The  Legal  Hun- 
dred," all  the  church  property  of  the  Wesley- 
ans  is  still  vested.  He  withdrew  from  the 
Moravians  in  London  on  account  of  their 
mystical  notions,  and  formed  a  separate  so- 
ciety at  the  Foundery,  July  23,  1740.     Here 


his  second  lay  preacher,  Thomas  Muxfield, 
began  preaching.  The  proposal  made  by  a 
member  of  his  Bristol  society,  Feb.  15,  1742, 
to  divide  the  society  into  bands,  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  raising  of  money,  suggested  to 
Wesley  the  idea  of  class  meetings.  In  1741 
Wesley  and  Whitefield  separated  entirely, 
owing  to  Whitefield's  adherence  to  the  doc 
trines  of  Calvinism.  The  difference  between 
them  began  with  the  publication  of  Wesley's 
sermon  on  Free  Grace  in  1740.  After  a  short 
estrangement  the  two  men,  in  1742,  became 
personal  friends  again.  Throughout  the  rest 
of  his  life  Wesley  was  involved  in  incessant 
controversies  with  both  Churchmen  and  Cal- 
vinists.  In  1742  he  began  the  long  preaching 
tours  on  which  he  went  every  year  until  his 
death. .  In  1742  one  of  the  best  known  inci- 
dents of  Wesley's  career  occurred.  He  was 
at  Epworth,  his  father's  old  parish,  the  first 
Sunday  of  June.  Romley,  the  curate  in 
charge,  refused  his  aid  in  the  church  service, 
and  himself  preached  against  enthusiasts.  At 
six  o'clock  that  evening  Wesley,  standing  on 
his  father's  tomb  in  the  churchyard,  preached 
to  a  great  congregation  with  wonderful  effect. 
This  he  continued  to  do  for  eight  evenings. 
A  bas-relief  commemorating  this  event  was 
placed  in  Westminster  Abbey  by  Dean  Stan- 
ley as  a  memorial  of  Wesley.  Wesley  says. 
"  There  were  scarce  any  in  the  town  on  whom 
either  my  father  or  I  had  taken  any  pains 
formerly,  but  the  seed  sown  so  long  since 
now  sprung  up."  The  first  edition  of  the 
General  Bales  of  the  United  Societies  was  issued 
by  John  Wesley,  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Feb. 
23,  1743.  The  second  edition,  signed  by  both 
brothers,  appeared  shortly  after.  On  June 
25,  1744,  Wesley  held  his  first  conference 
at  the  Foundery  Church,  London.  It  con- 
sisted of  ten  persons,  John  and  Charles 
Wesley,  four  other  clergymen  who  held  their 
views,  and  four  lay  preachers.  In  1747  he 
went  to  Ireland,  landing  in  Dublin,  Aug.  9. 
This  was  the  first  of  forty- two  trips  to  Ireland. 
In  1775  Wesley  issued  A  Calm  Address  to  our 
American  Colonies,  a  pamphlet  which  was  an 
abridgment  of  Samuel  Johnson's  Taxation  no 
Tyranny,  published  a  short  time  before.  The 
address,  which  was  on  the  king's  side,  caused 
a  great  uproar  in  England  and  much  angry 
feeling  in  America.  On  Jan.  1,  1778,  ap- 
peared the  first  number  of  hXnAvmiiiian  Maga- 
zine. Sept.  2,  1784,  he  ordained  Thomas 
Coke,  already  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  to  be  a  superintendent  or  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  societies  in  North  America. 
In  the  same  year  he  issued  Hie  Siniday  /Ser- 
vice of  the  Methodists  in  America,  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  Church  of  England  liturgy,  and 
also  an  abridgment  of  the  English  Articles, 
which  he  reduced  in  number  to  twenty-four. 
The  articles  of  this  book  and  most  of  its  litur- 
gical forms  have  been  incorporated  by  Ameri- 
can Methodists  in  their  Discipline.  Aug.  1, 
1785,  he  ordained  three  laj'  preachers  to  be 
ministers  for  Scotland.  In  Nov.,  1787,  the 
Toleration  Act,  not  covering  their  position, 
Wesley  directed  his  itinerants  to  take  out 
licenses  for  their  places  of  worship  when 
necessary.  Feb.  23,  1791,  Wesley  preached 
his  last  sermon  at  Leatherhead,  near  London. 


WESLEY 


(961 


Feb.  24  he  wrote  to  Wilberforce  on  *'  that 
execrable  villainy,"  the  slave  trade,  his  last 
letter.  He  died  at  his  rooms  in  City  Road 
Chapel,  March  3,  and  was  buried  behind  the 
chapel,  March  9.  To  avoid  the  collection  of 
too  great  a  throng,  his  funeral  took  place  at 
five  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

Wesley's  career  derives  its  extraordinary 
character  from  the  fact  that  he  was  a  man  of 
great  mental  power  and  fine  scholarship,  who 
at  a  time  when  the  poor  of  England  were 
utterly  neglected  devoted  himself  to  the  re- 
lief of  their  spiritual  and  physical  needs.  He 
enforced  cleanliness  among  them,  established 
dispensaries,  organized  loan  societies,  homes 
for  strangers  and  orphans,  led  the  way  in  city 
and  foreign  mission  work,  and  developed  the 
Sunday-scliool  system.  He  also  was  among 
the  first,  if  not  the  first  to  found  tract  and 
Bible  societies,  and  was  one  of  the  most  out- 
spoken opposers  of  the  slave  trade.  This 
singleness  of  purpose  added  to  great  adminis- 
trative ability  gave  hini  unbounded  influence 
over  all  with  whom  he  came  into  contact,  and 
made  his  personal  will  law  to  his  followers. 
His  labors  were  prodigious  ;  in  the  fifty  years 
of  his  tours  througli  Great  Britain  he  trav- 
elled over  250,000  miles,  chiefly  on  horseback, 
and  preached  over  40,000  sermons.  His 
printed  works,  including  the  compilations 
made  for  the  education  of  his  ])eople,  are  over 
200.  In  person  he  was  below  medium  height, 
with  healthy  complexion  and  long,  flowing 
hair.  His  manners  were  unaffected  and 
courteous  ;  his  conversation  was  agreeable  and 
often  witty  ;  his  preaching,  like  his  writing, 
clear,  direct,  and  incisive.  During  his  many 
persecutions  and  encounters  with  mobs  he 
never  lost  either  his  head  or  his  courage.  He 
lived  on  the  smallest  possible  sum  of  money, 
in  order  to  have  more  for  his  charities.  In 
his  old  age  he  was  revered  throughout  Great 
Britain  by  all  classes  of  men. 

He  was  married,  Feb.,  1751,  to  a  widow, 
>rrs.  Vazeille,  who  died,  Oct.  8,  1781.  The 
marriage  was  made  unhappy  by  the  jealou.sy 
and  violent  temper  of  his  wife. 

His  best  original  works  are  his  sermons  and 
journals.  They  are  published  in  seven  octavo 
volumes  by  Ihe  Methodist  Book  Concern, 
New  York. 

CHARLES  WESLEY,  the  brother  of  John  Wes- 
ley ;b.  atEpworth,  Dec.  18, 1708  (some  author- 
ities say  1707)  ;  d.  in  London,  March  29,  1788. 
In  1716  he  entered  Westminster  School,  Lon- 
don, where  his  brother  Samuel  was  a  teacher  ; 
he  was  made  a  king's  scholar,  by  which  elec- 
tion the  school  bore  his  expenses,  in  1721, 
and  entered  Ciirist  Church  College,  Oxford, 
in  1726.  He  was  tlie  founder  of  the  Oxford 
"Holy  Club."  About  1726  he  refused  the 
request  of  a  kiasman.  Garrett  Wesley,  of 
County  Meath,  Ireland,  to  live  in  Iraland  as 
his  expected  heir.  Garrett  Wesley  conse- 
quently adopted  Rirliard  Collcy,  a  more  dis- 
tant connection  ;  this  Richard  was  the  grand- 
father of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  In  1735 
Charles  accompanied  his  brother  John  to 
Georgia,  being  ordained  ju.st  before  sailing. 
He  was  not  successful  either  as  secretary  to 
General  Oglethorpe  or  as  a  preacher  to  the 


colonists.  July  26,  1736,  sick  and  disap- 
pointed, he  sailed  for  home.  He  arrived  in 
England,  Dec.  3,  1736,  having  stopped  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  on  the  way.  In  1738  he  re- 
ceived, witli  his  brother,  the  instructions  of 
Peter  Bolder,  and  on  May  21  felt  he  had  re- 
ceived the  assurance  of  divine  pardon.  This 
same  year  he  had  his  only  church  preferment, 
being  curate  of  St.  Mary's,  Islington,  Lon- 
don. Here  he  labored  until  his  preaching  of 
ju.stification  by  faith  caused  his  expulsion. 
From  1739  to  1757  he  itinerated  through  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  preaching  with  great  courage 
and  success.  On  April  8,  1749.  he  married 
Sarah  Gwynne,  a  Welsh  lady.  The  marriage, 
unlike  tho.se  of  most  of  the  meml)ers  of  the 
Wesley  family,  was  a  very  happy  one.  From 
about  1757  to  1768  he  divided  hi.s  time  chiefly 
between  the  societies  formed  in  Bristol  and 
London.  In  1768  he  settled  in  London,  where 
he  lived  until  his  death.  He  was  buried  in 
the  churchyard  of  St.  Marylebone.  This  was 
a  great  trial  to  his  brother,  who  desired  when 
their  end  came  that  they  should  both  be  buried 
at  City  Road  Cliapel ;  but  Charles  wished  his 
remains  to  lie  in  consecrated  ground. 

Charles  Wesley  had  not  the  administrative 
ability  nor  the  bread ili  of  mind  of  John.  He 
opposed  his  brotlier's  ordination  of  preachers, 
and  was  in  theory  a  strong  Churchman.  His 
fame  rests  on  his  hymns,  of  which  he  pub- 
lished over  4000,  and  left  at  his  death  more 
tlian  2000  in  manuscript.  He  is  by  many 
considered  the  finest  hymn-writer  in  the  Eng- 
lish language.  His  best  known  hymn  is 
"  Jesus,  Lover  of  my  Soul."  This  and  many 
of  his  others  are  sung  by  all  Christians.  His 
finest  lyric  poem,  sometimes  used  as  a  hymn, 
is  "Wrestling  Jacob."  Two  sons,  Charles 
and  Samuel,  and  a  grandson,  Samuel,  were 
noted  organists  and  musical  composers.  The 
grandson,  Samuel  Wesley,  died  in  1876. 

Literature. — The  most  copious  life  of 
Charles  Wesley  is  Jackson's.  London,  1841, 
2  vols.  ;  the  most  readable  of  John  Wesley  is 
Southey's,  London,  1820.  2  vols.  Luke  Tyer- 
man  has  written  the  fullest  account  of  Joha 
Wesley's  life,  and  enriched  it  with  much  new 
and  original  matter.  London  and  New  York, 
1870,  3  vols.  The  same  author  has  written  a 
work  on  the  life  and  times  of  Samuel  Wesley 
(London,  1866),  the  father  of  John  and 
Charles.  George  R.  Crooks. 

Wessel,  Johann,  surnamed  Gansfort  or 
Gosevort,  b.  at  Groningen  about  1419  ;  d. 
there,  Oct.  4,  1489  ;  was  educated  at  Zwolle 
by  the  Rretliren  of  the  Common  Life,  under 
Thomas  a  Kempis.  and  became  a  teacher 
there  ;  studied  and  taugiit  in  Cologne,  Lou- 
vain,  and  Paris  ;  visited  Roine(147()j  ;  taught 
in  Paris,  Basel,  and  lleiden)erg,  but  retired 
finally  to  his  native  city,  and  there  lived  in 
honor  an, Isafcty.altbougli  afraid  oft  lie  Inquisi- 
tion. He  piil)lishednolhingduring his  lifetime; 
but  many  years  after  his  death  his  manuscripts 
were  sent  to  Luther,  who  published  them  in 
1522  in  Wittenberg,  under  the  title  Farrago 
renna  theolofjicarum  nberriina,  and  with  there- 
mark  that  it  was  well  he  had  already  published 
a  good  deal  himself,  as  otherwise  people  might 
have  said  that  he  had  stolen  everything  from 


WESSENBERG 


(962) 


WESTMINSTER 


Gansfort.  There  are  later  and  more  complete 
editions  :  Groningen,  1614,  and  Giessen,  1617. 
(See  his  life  by  Ullmann,  Hamburg,  1834  ; 
J.  Friedrich,  Regensburg,  1863  ;  T.  Jacobi 
[Latin],  Jena,  1878.) 

Wessenberg,  Ignaz  Heinrich,  b.  in  Dres- 
den, Novr.  4,  1774  ;  d.  at  Constance,  Aug.  6, 
1860  ;  was  educated  at  Dillingen  under  Sailer  ; 
studied  theology  at  Wiirzburg  and  Vienna  ; 
was,  in  1800,  appointed  vicar-general  to  Dal- 
berg,  and  after  his  death,  in  1817,  unanimously 
elected  his  successor  by  the  Chapter  of  Con- 
stance. But  the  pope  absolutely  refused  to 
confirm  him,  and  when  the  refusal  had  been 
repeated  a  second  and  third  time,  he  retired 
into  private  life.  Not  only  had  Wessenberg 
during  his  vicariate  introduced  the  German 
language  in  the  liturgy  of  his  diocesan 
churches,  but  in  his  book.  Die  deuUclie 
KircJie,  Constance,  1814,  he  had  spoken  in 
favor  of  the  establishment  of  a  national  church 
of  Germany.  He  also  published  Die  grossen 
KircJicnversammlungen  des  15.  itnd  16.  Jalw- 
hunderts,  Constance,  1840,  4  vols.  (See  his 
life  by  J.  Beck,  Freiburg,  1862.) 

West-Goths.     See  Goths,  p.  334. 

West,  Stephen,  D.D.  (Dartmouth.  1792), 
minister  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  from  June  15, 
1759,  to  Aug.,  1818  ;  was  born  at  Tolland, 
Conn.,  Nov.  13,  1735,  and  died  at  Stock- 
bridge,  May  15,  1819.  He  was  the  son  of 
Judge  Zebulon  West,  of  Hartford,  a  man  of 
extensive  influence,  and  was  educated  at  Yale 
College,  graduating  in  1755.  After  teaching 
he  studied  theology  for  a  time  in  Hatfield, 
Mass.,  and  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  ap- 
pointed chaplain  at  Hoosack  Fort.  Upon  the 
departure  of  Jonathan  Edwards  to  the  presi- 
dency of  Princeton  College  (1758),  West  was 
called  to  succeed  him  in  the  Indian  Mission  at 
Stockbridge.  where  he  labored  for  a  time  with 
both  the  Indians  and  the  English  settlers. 
After  sev^eral  years  the  Indian  Mission  was 
relinquished.  It  was  about  the  same  time 
that  a  great  change  passed  over  Mr.  West's 
theological  views,  in  consequence  of  his  inti- 
macy with  Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins,  then  settled 
at  Great  Barrington.  He  had  formerly  been 
of  Arminian  sentiments,  but  was  now  led  to 
accept  the  Calvinistic  theology  of  Edwards. 
He  experienced  at  the  same  time  what  he  be- 
lieved to  be  his  conversion.  His  preaching 
became  different,  not  at  first  to  the  pleasure 
of  his  congregation  ;  but  a  revival  of  religion 
united  pastor  and  people  in  their  religious  ex- 
periences and  theological  views.  The  first 
public  fruit  of  this  crisis  was  the  publication 
of  West's  Essay  on  Moved  Agency  (New  Haven, 
Conn.,  1772,  2d  ed.,  Salem,  Mass.,  1774),  in 
which  he  defended  Edwards'  views,  though 
under  the  influence  of  the  Berkeleyan  philoso- 
phy he  denied  the  existence  of  second  causes, 
and  ascribed  all  man's  volitions  to  the  imme- 
diate agency  of  God.  At  the  same  time  he 
made  all  moral  agency  to  consist  in  exercises. 
He  thus  promoted  the  tendency  which,  begun 
by  Hopkins,  was  to  culminate  in  the  "  exer- 
cise scheme"  of  the  will  aud  of  regeneration. 
The  Universalist  controversy  and  the  signs  of 
incipient  Unitarianisni  also  led  him  to  write 


An  Essay  on  the  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Atone- 
ment (1785),  which  was  issued  the  same  year 
with  the  sermons  of  Dr.  Jonathan  Edwards 
upon  the  same  topic,  and  differ  from  them 
only  in  greater  fulness  and  in  the  clearness 
of  the  connection  which  they  trace  between 
the  character  of  God  and  the  provision  of  the 
atonement.  In  his  last  years  he  also  pub- 
lished Evidence  of  the  Divinity  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  Collected  from  the  Scriptures 
(1816).  His  principal  other  general  service  to 
the  churches  was  rendered  by  teaching  a 
number  of  young  men  in  theology  in  prepa- 
ration for  the  ministry.  His  local  influence 
was  great.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
Williams  College,  and  prominent  in  every 
good  work.  (See  Sprague's  Anncds,  Trinita- 
rian Congregationalist,  vol.  i.,  p.  548.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Westcott,  Brooke  Foss,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
1870  ;  hon.,  Edinburgh,  1884)  ;  D.C.L.  (hon., 
Oxford,  1881),  Church  of  England  ;  b.  near 
Birmingham,  Jan.  12,  1825  ;  was  educated  at 
Cambridge  and  ordained  priest,  1851  ;  assist- 
ant master  of  Harrow  School.  1852-69  ;  canon 
residentiary  of  Peterborough,  1869-83  ;  be- 
came canon  of  Westminster,  1884,  regius 
professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  1870  ; 
bishop  of  Durham,  1890.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  New  Testament  Revision  Company, 
1870-81.  With  Hort  he  edited  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  Original  Greek,  London,  1881, 
2  vols.  Among  his  books  may  be  mentioned. 
History  of  the  Canon  of  the  Nero  Testament 
during  the  first  Fonr  Centuries,  London, 
1855,  5th  ed.,  1881  ;  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Gospels,  1860,  6th  ed..  1882  ;  The  Bible 
in  the  Church,  1864,  9th  ed.,  1885  ;  The  Gos- 
pel of  the  Resurrection,  1866,  5(h  ed.,  1884  ; 
History  of  the  English  Bible,  1868  ;  commen- 
taries on  John's  Gospel.  1882.  2d  ed.,  1884; 
John's  Epistles,  1883,  2d  ed..  1886,  and  He- 
brews, 1889. 

Westen,  Thomas  von,  b.  at  Trondhiem, 
Norway,  1682  ;  d.  there,  April  9,  1727  ;  stud- 
ied theology  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen, 
and  was  in  1710  appointed  pastor  of  Wedaen, 
and  in  1716  director  of  the  missionary  semi- 
nary in  Trondhjem.  This  institution  was  one 
of  the  first  moves  of  the  Mission  Department 
of  the  royal  government  in  Copenhagen,  es- 
tablished in  1714,  and  had  for  its  purpose  to 
convert  the  Finns  living  in  Norway  to  Chris- 
tianity. It  cannot  be  said  to  have  fulfilled  its 
object,  but  Westen  himself  was  a  man  of 
great  enthusiasm  and  untiring  energy.  He 
made  personally  three  missionary  journeys 
among  the  Finns— 1716,  1718-19.  and  1722. 
He  was  perfectly  master  of  the  Finnish  lan- 
guage, wrote  a  Grammatica  Lapponica,  a 
specimen  Vocabidarii  Lapponici,  etc.,  and 
educated  some  devoted  disciples.  C.  P. 

Westminster  Assembly  was  convoked  by 
the  Long  Parliament  and  opened,  July  1, 
1643.  It  was  composed  of  121  English  clergy- 
men, 5  Scotch  commissioners,  and  30  lay  as- 
sessors, of  whom  10  were  peers  and  20  com- 
moners, all  appointed  by  Parliament.  It  held 
daily  sessions  from  9  o'clock  to  2,  except  Sat- 
urday and  Sunday,  and  sat  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  first  in  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII., 


WESTMINSTER 


(963) 


WHATELT 


afterward  in  the  so-called  Jerusalem  Cham- 
ber. Its  purpose  was  to  form  a  complete 
creed  with  corresponding  systems  of  church 
polity  and  worship  fijr  the  three  united  king- 
doms of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  on 
a  Calviuistic  and  Puritan  basis.  When  this 
was  done,  with  tiie  completion  of  the  so-called 
Westminster  Stnndards  (q.v.)  in  the  1163d  ses- 
sion, Feb.  23,  16-18,  the  assembly  assumed  the 
functions  of  an  executive  body,  examining 
candidates,  etc.  But  its  authority  waned 
away.  It  was  never  dissolved.  It  only 
"  disappeared  with  the  Parliament."  It  held 
its  last  session,  ^larch  2"),  1652.  Its  official 
records  were  long  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  London  lire  of  1666,  but  were 
discovered,  not  many  years  ago,  in  Dr.  Will- 
iams' librtiry  in  Loudon,  3  vols.  fol.  The 
minutes  of  the  doctrinal  debates  were  edited 
by  Professor  Alexander  F.  ^Mitchell,  of  St. 
Andrews,  and  Rev.  John  Struthers,  Edin- 
burgh, 1874  ;  cf.  A.  F.  Mitchell,  TJie  Wesi- 
minster  Assembly  and  Standards,  London, 
1888. 

Westminster  Standards  is  the  name  of  a 
complete  set  of  church  books  relating  to  doc- 
trine, discipline,  polity,  and  worship,  which 
was  drawn  up  by  the  Westminster  Assembly 
and  ratitied  by  the  Long  Parliament.  They 
are  : 

1.  TJie  Westminster  Confession,  completed 
by  the  assembly  Dec.  4,  1646,  and  approved, 
with  the  omission  of  chapters  30  and  81  and 
parts  of  chapters  20  and  24,  by  Parliament  in 
1648  under  the  title  of  Articles  of  Faith.  It 
consists  of  thirty-three  chapters,  and  is  to  a 
large  extent  based  upon  the  so-called  Irish 
Articles,  which  probably  were  drawn  up  by 
Archbishop  Ussher,  1615,  and  which  form  a 
transition  between  the  Thirtv-nine  Articles 
and  the  Westminster  Confession.  It  was 
compietel}'  set  aside  by  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, but  adopted,  without  the  omissions,  by 
the  Church  of  Scotland  and  tlie  Presbyterian 
Church  of  America.  See  Phesbyterianism 
and  Sciiaff.  Creeds  of  Christendom. 

2.  The  Westminster  Catechisms,  one  larger, 
for  explanation  from  the  pulpit,  and  another, 
smaller,  for  the  in.struction  of  children.  They 
were  prepared  at  the  same  time  as  the  confes- 
sion, approved  by  Parliament,  Sept.  15.  1648, 
and  adopted  by  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

3.  The  Directory  of  Public  Worship,  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  Anglican  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  prepared,  1644.  approved,  1645,  and 

4.'  Tft^  Directory  fur  Church  Polity  and  Dis- 
cipline, setting  forth  the  principles  of  Presby- 
terian church  polity.     See  Pkesbyteriakism. 

Westphal,  Joachim,  a  Lutheran  controver- 
sialist ;  b.  in  Hamburg,  1510  or  1511  ;  d.  at 
the  same  place,  Jan.  16,  1574.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Wittenberg,  matriculating  there  in 
1529,  and  after  an  absence  of  two  years  re- 
turning there,  with  a  stipendium  from  the  city 
of  Hamburg  for  further  study,  in  1534.  In 
1541  he  was  called  to  Rostock  as  professor  of 
philosophy,  but  preferred  to  go  to  Hamburg 
as  preacher,  where  he  remained  till  death. 
He  began  his  controversial  labors  early,  con- 
necting himself  with  the  extreme  Lutheran 
and  anti-Melanchthon  party.     His  most  im- 


portant controversy  was  that  with  Calvin 
upon  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  published,  at 
Magdeburg,  in  1552,  a  Farrago  of  the  con- 
fused and  discordant  opinions  of  the  Sacra- 
mentarians  upon  the  Supper,  in  which  he  ex- 
hibited twenty-eight  different  methods  of  ex- 
plaining the  words  of  institution,  chariiing' 
the  opponents  of  Luther  with  agreement  in 
nothing  but  rejection  of  the  Lutheran  view. 
In  1553  he  issued  a  tract  upon  the  right  view 
of  the  sacrament.  These  tracts  were  at  lirst 
neglected  by  the  Lutlierans,  and  not  deemed 
important  enough  by  the  Reformed  to  require 
an  answer.  But  the  treatment  whicli  Calviu- 
istic refugees  from  England  in  Clary's  reign 
received  in  Germany  stirred  up  Calvin  to  an 
answer,  and  a  lively  controversy  ensued, 
which  was  conducted  with  much  acrimony 
on  both  sides.  Calvin  wrote  three  tracts 
against  Westphal,  the  last  appearing  in  1557. 
The  later  years  of  "Westphal's  life  passed  more 
quietly,  tiiougli  he  continued  to  take  a  part 
in  the  synergistic  controversies  and  the  efforts 
against  the  Philippists.  (See  G.  Frank, 
Ceschichte  der  prot.  Theol.,  i.,  p.  95  fif.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Westphalia,  The  Peace  of,  endiog  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  was  signed  at  Miinster, 
Oct.  14,  1648,  having  been  prepared  by  two 
simultaneous  congresses,  one  sitting  at  Osua- 
briick,  and  consisting  of  deputies  from  the 
emperor,  Sweden,  and  the  princes  of  the  em- 
pire, and  another  sitting  at  Miinster.  and  con- 
sisting of  deputies  from  the  emperor,  France, 
and  other  foreign  powers.  It  finally  settled 
the  relations  between  the  Protestants  and  the 
Roman  Catholics  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  empire,  and  also  the  relations  between  the 
two  Protestant  churches,  the  Lutheran  and 
the  Reformed,  fixing  upon  Jan.  1,  1624,  as 
the  dividing  line  both  in  questions  of  denomi- 
nation and  in  question  of  property.  (See  C.  L. 
von  Woltmann,  Geschichte  d.  Westphiilischeii 
Friedens,  Leipzig,  1808-09,  2  parts.) 

Wetstein,  Johann  Jakob,  b.  at  Basel,  March 
5,  1693  ;  d.  in  Amsterdam,  March  22,  1754  ; 
began  ver}'  early  his  critical  researches  con- 
cerning the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  made  extensive  travels  in  Europe,  collat- 
ing manuscripts  ;  settled  in  1720  at  Basel  as 
assistant  pastor  of  St.  Leonard's  church,  but 
was  in  1730  summoned  before  a  committee  of 
investigation,  accused  of  Socinianism,  found 
guilty,  and  deposed  ;  published  in  the  same 
year  the  prolegomena  to  his  edition  of  the 
New  Testament  ;  accepted,  in  1733,  a  place 
in  the  Remonstrants  College  in  Amsterdam, 
and  published  finally  his  celebrated  edition  of 
the  New  Testament,  Amsterdam,  1751-52, 
2  vols.,  which,  on  account  of  its  wealth  of 
textual  illustrations,  is  still  of  great  use  to 
commentators. 

Whately,  Richard,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1825), 
archbisliop  of  Dublin  ;  b.  in  London,  Feb.  1, 
1787  ;  d.  in  Dublin,  Oct.  8.  1863.  In  lb05  he 
entered  Oriel  College.  Oxford,  where  he  was 
strongly  influenced  by  Copleston,  and  in  turn 
influenced  Arnold.  He  was  elected  fellow,. 
1811:  took  orders,  1814,  and  in  1819  published, 
in  Oxford  and  London,  his  famous  tract.  His- 


WHATBLY 


(964) 


WHICHOOT 


tone  Doubts  Relative  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
to  expose  the  folly  of  excessive  skepticism  as 
to  the  gospel  history.  His  Bampion  Lectures, 
On  the  Use  and  Abu-te  of  Party  Spirit  in  Matters 
■of  Religion,  appeared  1833,  and  Five  Sermons, 
1833.  He  became  rector  of  Halesworth,  Suf- 
folk, 1833,  but  in  1835  returned  to  Oxford  as 
principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall,  and  put  forth 
Essays  on  ■'^omeoft/u;  Peculiarities  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion  (1835).  His  Elements  of  Logic, 
1836,  was  long  unrivalled  as  a  text-book,  and 
still  has  authority.  This  and  Elements  of 
Rhetoric,  1838.  were  part  of  the  Encyclopedia 
Metropolitana.  Next  came  Some  of  the  Diffi- 
■cultiesin  the  Writings  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  etc., 
1838  ;  Scripture  Revelations  Concerning  a  Fu- 
ture State,  1829,  and  Errors  of  Romanism 
Traced  to  their  Origin  in  Human  Nature,  1830. 
His  Thoughts  on  the  Sabbath,  1830.  alarmed 
many,  expressing  views  then  novel,  though 
now  familiar.  He  was  professor  of  political 
economy  at  Oxford,  1829-31,  and  in  1831  pub- 
lished Introductory  Lectures  on  that  science, 
and  Essay  on  the  Omission  of  Creeds,  Liturgies, 
and  Codes  of  Ecclesiastical  Canons  in  the  New 
Testament. 

His  appointment'by  Earl  Grey,  1831,  to  the 
see  of  Dublin — which  he  styled  "  a  call  to 
the  helm  of  a  crazy  ship  in  a  storm" — caused 
vast  surprise  and  no  little  opposition,  for  he 
was  neither  courtier  nor  partisan,  but  an  in- 
dependent liberal,  as  far  from  Tractarianism 
as  from  Evangelicalism  ;  blunt  in  his  man- 
ners, careless  of  appearances  and  opinions, 
free  in  the  indulgence  of  his  abundant  wit. 
By  consequence  he  was  far  from  popular  ; 
loved  and  revered  by  a  few,  he  was  disliked 
and  dreaded,  if  not  detested,  by  most.  His 
position  was  thus,  perhaps,  the  most  difficult 
cue  in  the  British  isles  ;  he  had  to  meet  the 
new  condition  (including  a  general  refusal 
to  pay  tithes)  produced  by  the  Catholic  Eman- 
cipation Act,  and  to  reform  his  diocese,  where 
discipline  was  almost  unknown.  But  he 
proved  a  wise,  faithful,  and  most  efficient 
prelate.  His  scheme  for  national  and  un- 
sectarian  education,  tried  till  1852,  was  then 
unhappily  overthrown.  His  generosity  was 
princely,  his  rule  firm,  impartial,  and  con- 
sistent to  its  principles. 

His  later  works  were  Charges  and  Tracts, 
1836  ;  an  admirable  manual  of  Christian  Evi- 
dences. 1837 ;  Dangers  to  Christian  Faith,  1839 ; 
Kingdom  of  Christ,  1841  ;  Study  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistles,  1849 ;  Scripture  Revelations,  1851  ; 
Cautions  for  the  Times,  1853  ;  Easy  Lessons  on 
Morals,  Mind,  and  the  British  Constitution, 
Lectures  on  the  Parables  and  on  Prayer.  1859- 
60  (several  small  volumes) ;  Revision  of  the  Lit- 
urgy, 1860  ;  Rise,  Progress,  and  Corruption  of 
Christianity,  1860  ;  Lectures  and  Reviews,  1861, 
and  editions  of  Bacon  and  Paley.  A  volume 
of  Remains  appeared,  1864. 

Whately's  intellect  was  practical,  "clear 
and  massive,  though  in  no  sense  fruitful  or 
suggestive."  A  firm  believer  in  Christianity 
as  he  understood  it.  his  mind  was  not  pro- 
foundly spiritual,  but  took  the  "  common- 
sense"  view  of  the  18th  century.  Essentially 
,a  logician,  he  was  rather  a  follower  of  Paley 
than  a  leader  of  modern  thought.  Yet  he 
has  his  share,  though  probably  a  smaller  one 


than  those  of  Coleridge  and  Arnold,  in  found- 
ing the  "Broad"  school  and  preparing  the 
way  for  Maurice.  Robertson,  Stanley,  and 
Jowett.  His  Life  and.  Correspondence  was 
edited  by  his  daughter,  London,  1866,  2  vols., 
and  Anecdotal  Memoirs  by  W.  J.  Fitzpatrick, 
1864,  2  vols.  F.  M.  B. 

Whedon,  Daniel  Denison,  D.D.  (Emory 
and  Henry  College,  Emory.  Va.,  1847),  LL.D. 
(Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn., 
1868),  b.  at  Onondaga,  N.  Y.,  March  20. 
1808  ;  d.  at  Atlantic  Highlands,  N.  J.,  June 
8,  1885.  He  studied  law  at  Rochester,  N.  Y. ; 
became  a  teacher  in  Oneida  Conference  Semi- 
nary ;  professor  of  rhetoric,  logic,  and  history 
in  the  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor, 
1845,  and  was  editor  of  lite  Metliodist  Quar- 
terly Review  from  1856  till  1884.  He  edited  a 
commentary  on  the  Bible,  New  York  ;  New 
Testament  part,  1860-75,  5  vols. ;  Old  Testa- 
ment part,  1880  sqq.,  vol.  vii..  Jeremiah. 
1886  ;  wrote  on  The  Freedom  of  the  Will, 
1864.  3d  ed.,  same  year  ;  .Assays  (posthumous, 
with  biographical  sketch),  1887  ;  Statements, 
Theological  and  Critical,  1887. 

Whewell,  William,  D.D.  (Cambridge, 
18—},  F.R.S.  (1820),  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
at  Lancaster,  England,  May  34,  1794  ;  d.  at 
Cambridge,  March  6.  1866.  He  entered 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1813  ;  became  a 
fellow,  1817,  and  soon  tutor  ;  professor  of 
mineralogy,  1828-32,  and  of  moral  philosophy, 
1838-55  ;  'master  of  his  college,  1841  ;  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university,  1855.  Here  his 
entire  life  was  spent,  chiefly  in  scientific  study. 
His  most  important  works  are  History  (Lou- 
don, 1837)  and  Philosophy  (1840)  of  the  Induc- 
tive Sciences.  Among  his  other  books  are 
Lectures  on  Systematic  Morality,  1846  ;  Lee- 
tures  on  tlie  History  of  Moral  Philosophy.  1852 
Plurality  of  Worlds,  1853,  and  Platonic  Dia 
logues,  1859-61.  His  Elements  of  Morality, 
1845,  2  vols.,  was  widely  used  as  a  text-book 
An  Account  of  his  Writings,  by  L.  Todhunter, 
appeared,  London,  1876,  and  his  life,  by  Mrs 
S.  Douglas,  1881. 

Whiohcot,   Benjamin,    D.D.    (Cambridge, 

16 — ),  one  of  the  "  Cambridge  Platonists  ;' 
b.  in  Shropshire,  England,  March  11.  1610 
d.  at  Cambridge,  May,  1683.  He  entered 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  1626 ;  be 
came  fellow,  1633  ;  provost  of  King's  College 
1644-61  ;  rector  of  Milton,  1649,  and  of  St 
Anne's,  Blackfriars,  1662-66  ;  vicar  of  St 
Lawrence,  Jewry,  from  1668.  Baxter  placed 
him  among  "  the  best  and  ablest  of  the  Con- 
formists ;"  Shaftesbury  called  him  "the 
preacher  of  good  nature."  He  was  promi- 
nent in  that  singular  band  of  philosophic  ra- 
tionalists, or  "  latitudinarians, "  who  cared 
little  for  modes  of  government  in  church  or 
state,  but  devoted  themselves  to  abstract 
truth,  and  anticipated  many  of  the  positions 
of  modern  thought.  His  Select  Sermons  ap- 
peared, London,  1698  ;  his  Discourses  in  4 
vols.,  1701-7  (rep.  1751  with  a  life),  and  his 
Aphorisms,  1703  and  1753.  One  of  his  sayings 
was,  "Christ  is  not  so  little  as  a  name  or 
notion,  but  is  a  nature,  and  spirit,  and  life 
in  us."  F   M.  B. 


WHISTON 


(965) 


Whiston,  William,  seceder  from  tlie  Church 
of  Eiighuid  ;  b.  at  Norton,  Leicestershire, 
Dec.  9,  1667  ;  d.  ia  London,  Aug.  22,  IToS. 
He  graduated  at  Chire  Hall,  Cambridge,  1690  : 
became  fellow,  169:5  ;  chaplain  to  Bisliop 
Monre,  of  Norwich,  1694-98  ;  vicar  of  Lowe- 
stoft, 1698-1701  ;  then  deputy  to  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  whom  he  succeeded,  1703,  as  Lu- 
casian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  expelled,  1710,  for  Arianism,  avowed 
in  an  essay  on  tlie  Apostolical  Co/ist/tNtio/is, 
London,  1708,  and  persistently  maintained  l)y 
him  as  the  faith  of  the  early  church.  This 
essay  he  reprinted  in  his  Primitim  Christi- 
anity Revived,  1711-12,  5  vols.  The  rest  of 
his  life  was  spent  in  London,  writing,  lectur- 
ing, and  preaching  in  his  own  house.  He 
imbibed  Baptist  and  IVIillenarian  tenets,  but 
did  not  leave  the  church  till  1747,  and  then  as 
a  protest  against  the  Atlianasian  Creed.  He 
was  a  model  of  honesty  and  disinterestedness, 
but  wayward,  erratic,  obstinate,  intolerant, 
and  violently  prejudiced,  especially  against 
the  memciry  of  Athanasius,  whom  one  of  his 
books  (1712)  held  Convicted  of  Forgery.  "  Par- 
adoxical to  the  verge  of  craziuess,"  he  spent 
his  life  in  constant  controversy  and  industri- 
ous efforts  to  propagate  his  peculiar  opinions. 
His  most  valuable  works  are  the  translation 
of  Josephus,  1787,  and  a  Life  of  Dr.  Sinnuel 
Cliirke,  1730.  His  autobiography  appeared 
in  3  vols.,  1749-50.  F.  M.  B. 

Whitby,  The  Council  of,  was  convened  in 
6C4  by  King  Oswy,  of  Northumbria,  in  order 
to  settle  certain  differences  between  the  Ro- 
man and  the  Iro-Scottish  clergy  concerning  the 
celebration  of  Easter,  the  shape  of  the  ton- 
sure, etc.  "Wilf  rith  spoke  on  the  Roman  side, 
Colmanon  the  Iro-Scottish  ;  but,  according  to 
Oswy's  verdict,  the  former  came  out  victori- 
ous, and  thereby  the  influence  of  the  Iro- 
Scottish  Church  was  weakened  forever. 

Whitby,  Daniel,  D.D.  (Oxford,  16-), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Rushden,  North- 
amptonshire, 1638  ;  d.  at  Salisburv,  March 
24,  1726.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Ox- 
ford ;  became  fellow,  1064  ;  prebendary  and 
precentor  of  Salisbury,  1668-72,  and  rector  of 
St.  Eduumd's  there.  His  tirst  book,  Absurd- 
itii  iind  Idolatry  of  llont  Worship,  London, 
1679,  attacked  the  Roman  Catholics  ;  his  next, 
The  Protestant  Rcconriler,  1683.  was  publicly 
burned  at  Oxford,  and  its  autiior  compelled 
by  his  bi.shop  to  retract  two  heresies,  which 
he  did  in  a  second  part,  1684.  More  impor- 
tant is  ,1  Paraphrase  and,  Commentary  on  the 
Xew  Testament,  1703.  2  vols.,  incorporated 
with  Patrick,  Lowth.  and  Arnold.  His  Fojir 
Discourses.  1710,  is  Arminian.  A  Latin 
treatise.  Dissertatio  de  S.  Script uariim  inter- 
vritatione  secundum  Patnnn  commentarios, 
1714.  rejects  the  Fathers  as  doctrinal  guides, 
and  hist  Thtnights,  edited  willi  a  memoir  by 
Dr.  Svkes,  1727,  avows  Arian  tenets,  devel- 
o[Hil  in  a  controversv  with  Waterland. 

F.  M.  B. 

White,  Henry  Eirke,  poet  of  the  Church 

of  England  ;  b.  at  Nottingham,  England, 
March  21,  1785;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Oct.  19, 
1806.     He  prepared  himself  for  college  while 


apprenticed  to  an  attorney,  and  published  in 
London,  Clifton  Grove,  etc.,  at  eighteen. 
Entering  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  1804, 
lie  made  rapid  progress,  but  excessive  study 
brought  on  consumption.  Southey  published 
his  Remains  in  2  vols.,  London,  1807  ;  vol.  iii. 
appeared  1822.  His  few  hymns  have  been 
widely  used.  F.  M.  B. 

White,  William,  D.D.  (Philadelphia,  1783), 
first  bislujp  of  Pennsylvania  ;  b.  in  Philadel- 
phia, April  4,  1748  ;  d.  there,  July  17,  1836. 
Having  graduated  at  the  local  college,  1765, 
and  studied  divinity  at  home,  he  sailed  for 
England,  1770  ;  was  ordained  deacon  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  23.  and  priest,  June,  1772.  Re- 
turning to  Philadelphia,  he  became  assistant 
minister  of  the  united  parishes  of  Christ 
Church  and  St.  Peter's,  and  rector,  1779.  He 
promptly  embraced  the  cause  of  indepen- 
dence, left  the  city  on  the  approach  of  the 
British,  and  was  chaplain  of  Congress  at 
York,  1777,  and  long  after.  At  the  end  of 
the  war  he  was  the  only  Episcopal  clergyman 
in  the  state.  His  Case  of  the  Episcopal 
Churches  in  the  United  States  Considered, 
Philadelphia.  1782,  urged  the  equalit}'  of  all 
parishes,  with  the  admission  of  laymen  to 
ecclesiastical  councils,  and  proposed  a  \)\an  of 
temporary  adnnni.stralion  in  the  lack  of  bish- 
ops. The  acknowledgment  of  American  in- 
dependence, in  1783,  made  the  latter  scheme 
unnecessary,  but  the  other  suggestions  were 
carried  out.  Elected  bishop.  Sept.  14,  1786, 
he  went  to  England  with  Dr.  Provoost,  of  New 
York,  and  they  were  consecrated  at  Lambeth, 
Feb.  4,  1787,  two  years  after  Seabury's  Scot- 
tish consecration.  Returning  in  April,  he  re- 
sumed his  efforts,  begun  after  the  war,  to 
bring  together  the  few  and  scattered  clergy 
and  parishes  throughout  the  land.  At  the 
convention  of  1789  he  bore  a  leading  part,  and 
drafted  the  constitution  of  his  church,  in 
which  he  bore  through  life  a  sort  of  informal 
primacy.  For  forty  years,  from  1796,  he  was 
the  senior  and  presiding  bishop.  He  founded, 
in  1812,  a  society  for  the  advancement  of 
Christianity,  and  in  1816  the  Episcopal  Mis- 
sionary Society,  which  sent  a  missionary  to 
travel  over  Ohio.  He  lived  to  consecrate  26 
bishops,  and  to  see  his  diocese  contain  86 
clergy  and  91  congregations.  Besides  the 
care  of  these,  he  retained  the  rectorship  of  his 
original  parishes,  and  of  St.  James,  or!iani7,ed 
1809.  He  was  to  his  church  what  Wa.'^hing- 
ton  was  to  the  country.  His  wi.«e  modera- 
tion, his  patient  gentlc'nei-s.  exercised  a  pro- 
found and  controlling  influence  ;  the  sym- 
metry, purity,  and  beauty  of  his  character 
won  general  respect  and  affection.  Words- 
worth justly  called  him  "  saintly  While,  patri- 
arch of  a  wide-.spreading  family." 

He  published  Lectures  on  'the  Catechism, 
1812  ;  Comparative  Meirs  of  the  Controversy 
hetireen  Calvi)rists  and  Arminians,  1817,  and 
Memoirs  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States,  1820,  enlarsred,  1836.  and 
rep.,  1880.  T?At  chief  defect  of  this  last  is 
its  omission  of  the  author's  most  important 
share  in  the  matters  of  which  it  treats.  (See 
his  memoir,  by  Bird  Wilson,  Philadelphia, 
1839.)  F.  M.  B. 


WHITE 


(966) 


WHITEPIELD 


White  Cross  Movement,  The.  This  re- 
markable movement  was  inaugurated  by  the 
late  bishop  of  Durham,  Dr.  Lightfoot,  at 
Bishop- Auckland,  Durham,  England,  Feb.  14, 
1883,  Miss  Ellice  Hopkins  being  present  and 
taking  part.  Dr.  Lightfoot  was  led  to  this 
action  by  a  study  of  the  moral  condition  of 
those  northern  counties  of  England  that  came 
under  especial  notice,  in  connection  with  the 
reform  work  prosecuted  by  Miss  Hopkins. 
Erelong  it  was  found  necessary  to  draw  up 
a  brief  statement  of  principles,  and  this  was 
mainly  accomplished  at  a  conference  held  at 
St.  Peter's,  Eaton  square,  London,  Colonel 
Everett  Poole  being  the  chief  author  of  this 
moral  creed  which,  apparently,  is  destined  to 
be  as  extended  as  the  human  race  : 

1.  To  treat  all  women  with  respect,  and  en- 
deavor to  protect  them  from  wrong  and 
degradation. 

2.  To  endeavor  to  put  down  all  indecent 
language  and  coarse  jests. 

3.  To  maintain  the  "law  of  purity  as  equally 
binding  upon  men  and  women. 

4.  To  endeavor  to  spread  these  principles 
among  my  companions,  and  to  try  and  help 
my  younger  brothers. 

5.  To  use  every  possible  means  to  fulfil  the 
command,  "  Keep  thyself  pure." 

The  movement  soon  began  to  spread,  and 
in  due  time  it  reached  seats  of  learning  like 
those  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Edinburgh,  and 
Dublin,  and  then  began  to  find  its  way  to 
India,  Africa,  Australia,  and  Canada.  Soon 
after  it  was  begun  in  England,  it  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  young  men  of  the  church 
of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  New  York  City, 
and,  through  their  rector  [B.  F.  De  Costal, 
they  put  themselves  in  connection  with  the 
leaders  of  the  movement  in  England,  receiv- 
ing authority  to  proceed  in  the  work  of  or- 
ganization and  to  republish  the  White  Cross 
literature.  "  Branch  Number  One"  was  thus 
organized.  After  long  and  careful  prepara- 
tion the  society  held  its  first  public  meeting, 
Sunday  evening,  Feb.  8,  1885,  in  the  parish 
church,  the  bishop  of  Iowa  [W.  S.  Perry] 
taking  the  place  of  the  bishop  of  New  York 
[H.  Potter]  among  the  speakers.  Accounts 
of  this  meeting  were  published  the  next  morn- 
ing in  the  leading  newspapers  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  from  that  day  the  White 
Cross  Movement  found  itself  one  of  the  recog- 
nized institutions.  The  movement  was  at 
once  taken  up  by  many  young  mens'  Chris- 
tian associations,  and  the  president  of  Branch 
Number  One  was  called  to  visit  remote  re- 
gions of  the  country  to  aid  in  organization. 
Though  the  White  Cross  Society  is  distinctly 
a  society  for  men.  all  classes  are  invited  to  co- 
operate, and  the  National  Woman's  Christian 
Temperance  Union  at  once  organized  a  "  De- 
partment of  Social  Purity,  co-operating  with 
the  White  Cross,"  in  which  work  they  have 
been  followed  by  the  Non-Partisan  Union. 
Oct.  25,  1886,  several  bishops  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  at  Chicago,  set  forth  a 
"declaration"  in  favor  of  the  White  Cross 
Movement,  which  subsequently  received  the 
endorsement  of  nearly  every  member  of  the 
House  of  Bishops,  saying  that  ' '  the  object 
of  the  White  Cross  Society  is  to  elevate  opin- 


ion respecting  the  nature  and  claims  of  mo- 
rality, with  its  equal  obligation  upon  men  and 
women,  and  to  secure  a  proper  practical  rec- 
ognition of  its  precepts  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
dividual, the  family,  and  the  nation."  This 
strikes  a  severe  blow  at  the  double  standard 
of  moralit}^  which  allows  that  what  is  sin  in 
a  woman  is  to  be  tolerated  in  man.  This 
platform  was  offered  for  the  acceptance  of 
Christian  people  of  all  denominations,  and  it 
has  been  widely  adopted,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  where  it  has  been  care- 
fully prosecuted  in  connection  with  the  work 
of  the  Good  Templars,  the  White  Cross  being 
associated  with  the  highest  degree.  The 
White  Cross  Movement  is  co-operative,  and 
associates  itself  with  churches,  temperance 
societies.  Christian  Endeavor  societies.  Sun- 
day-schools, Bible  classes,  and  guilds.  Soci- 
eties are  now  at  work  in  every  part  of  the 
land,  and  probably  not  less  than  one  million 
of  men  are  now  individually,  or  through  some 
society,  committed  to  the  work  of  the  White 
Cross  with  a  future  of  vast  usefulness  before  it. 
Under  the  direction  of  a  publication  com- 
mittee, composed  of  bishops  and  others, 
twenty  of  the  White  Cross  papers,  together 
with  a  manual  of  the  White  Cross,  have  been 
published  by  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  New  York 
City,  the  papers  having  been  carefully  revised 
by  Miss  Hopkins  and  published  with  her  ap- 
proval. To  the  White  Cross  Society  there 
has  been  added  a  junior  branch  for  boys,  en- 
titled "  The  Silver  Cross,"  suggested  by  the 
bishop  of  Central  New  York  [F.  D.  Hunting- 
ton], together  with  "  The  White  Shield  for 
Women,"  organized  by  Miss  Frances  E.  Wil- 
lard,  and  "  The  Daughters  of  the  Temple  for 
Girls."  suggested  by  the  undersigned, 

B.  F.  De  Costa. 

Whitefield,  George,  evangelist  ;  b.  at 
Gloucester,  Dec.  16,  1714  ;  d.  at  Newbury- 
port,  Mass.,  Sept.  30,  1770.  His  father,  an 
innkeeper,  but  the  son  and  grandson  of  clergy- 
men, died  when  George  was  two  years  old. 
At  fifteen,  beingthe  youngest  of  seven  children, 
heservedinthetap-room.  Entering  Pembroke 
College,  Oxford,  as  a  servitor  in  1733,  he  met 
the  Wesleys,  joined  their  "'Holy  Club,"  and 
was  the  first  to  profess  conversion.  In  1736 
he  was  ordained  deacon  ;  took  his  degree  of 
B.A.,  and  began  to  get  fame  as  a  preacher. 
Urged  by  the  Wesleys  to  join  them  in  Georgia, 
he  spent  three  months  there,  May-Aug.,  1738. 
Returning  to  receive  priest's  orders  and  raise 
money  for  the  orphanage,  he  found  himself 
coldly  received,  and  some  churches  closed  to 
him.  The  Wesleys,  who  had  had  their  own 
experience  meanwhile,  impressed  him  with 
the  importance  of  justification  by  faith,  and 
he  now  added  this  doctrine  to  his  favorite 
topic  of  the  new  birth.  In  Feb.,  1739,  he 
went  to  Bristol  and  preached  to  crowds  of 
colliers  on  Kingswood  Hill,  who  showed  the 
effect  of  his  eloquence  by  "  the  white  gutters 
made  by  their  tears,  which  plentifully  fell 
down  their  black  cheeks."  Here  he  had 
audiences  of  ten  to  twenty  thousand,  and 
began  the  work  carried  on  so  long  by  the 
Wesleys,  who  resorted  to  open-air  preachiner 
at  his  instance.     Thence  he  went  to  Wales, 


WHTTEFIEIiD 


(967) 


WHITTEMORE 


Scotland,  and  through  various  parts  of  Eng- 
land, everywhere  moving  multitudes.  This 
year  (1739)  he  published  his  Journal  (Lon- 
don) in  several  parts,  three  volumes  of  ser- 
mons, A  Preservative  against  Unsettled  No- 
tions, in  answer  to  J.  Trapp,  and  one  or  two 
tracts  attacking  the  clergy  as  "  blind  guides," 
wdiich  did  not  improve  his  relations  with 
them.  In  turn,  or  in  advance,  he  was  as- 
sailed in  over  forty  books  and  pamphlets. 

In  Aug.,  1739,  he  sailed  again,  remaining 
in  America  over  a  year,  preaching  from  New 
England  to  Georgia.  His  Three  Letters,  1741, 
accused  Archbishop  Tillotson  of  knowing  no 
more  of  Ohrist  than  did  Mohammed.  Im- 
patient of  opposition,  and  even  of  differences 
of  opinion  in  what  he  considered  vital  truth, 
he  withdrew  from  communion  with  Wesley. 
In  1741  he  built  the  Tabernacle  in  London, 
visited  Scotland  and  Wales,  and  made  an  ill- 
assorted  marriage.  From  1744-48  he  was  in 
America.  Returning,  he  found  his  Loiulon 
congregation  scattered  and  himself  linaucialiy 
embarrassed  ;  from  these  ditHculties  he  was 
rescued  by  the  powerful  accession  of  Lady 
Huntingdon,  who  made  him  one  of  her  chap- 
lains, tniilt  and  endowed  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dist chapels  throughout  the  laud,  and  started 
a  training  school  at  Trevecca,  in  Wales.  Thus 
reinforced,  he  continued  his  labors  with  un- 
abated zeal  and  efficiency,  preaching  some- 
times forty  to  sixty  hours  in  a  week.  He  vis- 
ited the  American  colonies  in  all  seven  times, 
and  influenced  their  religious  history  as  pow- 
erfully as  that  of  Great  Britain.  Indifferent 
to  forms  of  government  or  worship,  he  gave 
his  services  alike  to  all  commimious,  and 
their  immediate  effect  was  greater  among  dis- 
senters than  in  the  Established  Church.  He 
was  no  organizer.  His  rival,  Wesley,  founded 
an  immense  and  ever-growing  denomination 
on  both  sides  of  the  sea  ;  but  WhitetDcld's 
power  was  personal,  and,  beyond  a  certain 
connection  in  Wales,  is  linked  with  no  sect  or 
party. 

He  had  little  intellectual  power  ;  his  ser- 
mons are  flat  in  the  reading.  But  as  he  de- 
livered them,  they  carried  away  even  Chester- 
field and  Franklin.  His  natural  gift  of  ora- 
tory was  improved  in  childhood  by  reading 
plays,  and  he  was  always  intensely  dramatic 
in  manner.  His  voice  was  a  marvellous  or- 
gan, powerful,  penetrating,  capable  of  in- 
finite modulation,  and  perfectly  under  com- 
mand. His  temperament  was  sympathetic, 
impetuous,  ardent,  "  a  creature  of  impulse 
and  emotion."  His  conlldence  in  his  doc- 
trines was  absolute,  his  sincerity  unquestion- 
able, his  courage  unchecked  by  thoughts  of 
self,  his  evangelical  zeal  as  lirm  and  lierj'  as 
that  of  any  primitive  apostle.  The  combina- 
tion of  these  qualities  made  him  the  most 
magnetic  and  powerful  preacher  of  modern 
times,  and  secured,  as  he  and  his  disciples 
believed,  the  especial  accompanying  presence 
of  the  illumining  and  converting  Spirit. 
Though  no  sect  bears  his  name  or  follows  an 
order  of  his  making,  his  converts  were  tens 
of  thousands,  and  his  memorj'  is  cherished  by 
millions. 

His  Colli  ction  of  JTt/mns,  1753  (chiefly  from 
Wesley  and  Watts),  is  perhaps  still  used,  in  a 


revised  and  enlarged  edition,  by  one  London 
congregation.  His  works,  including  sermons, 
journals,  and  letters,  with  a  memoir  by 
J.  Gillies,  were  collected  in  7  vols.,  London, 
1771-72.  Other  lives  are  by  R.  Philip,  1837  ; 
J.K.Andrews,  1864;  D.  A.  Ilarsha,  Albany, 
X.  Y.,  1866,  and  L.  Tj'erman,  London,  1876- 
77.  2  vols.,  repub.  New  York,  J.  B.  Wakeley. 
Loudon,  18—,  n.e.,  1883,  n.e..  1889. 

F.  M.  B. 

Whitgift,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1563  [?]), 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  b.  at  Great  Grims- 
by, Lincolnshire.  168  m.  n.  of  London,  1530 
or  1533  ;  d.  at  Lambeth.  London,  Feb.  29,  1604. 
He  entered  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  1549  ; 
changed  in  1550  to  Penil)roke  Hall,  where  the 
martyr,  Bradford,  was  his  tutor,  and  became 
a  feliow  of  Peterhouse,  1555  ;  Lady  Margaret 
professor  of  divinity,  1563  ;  regius  professor, 
and  master  of  Trinity-,  1567.  Being  worsted 
in  a  pulpit  discussion  with  Cartwright,  he 
imworthily  deprived  that  eminent  man  of  his 
chair  and  fellow.sliip,  1570-71.  The  contro- 
versy was  transferred  to  the  press,  on  Whit- 
gift's  .-.ide  in  an  Answer,  London,  1571,  and 
JJefence,  1574.  He  was  made  dean  of  Lin- 
coln, 1571  ;  bishop  of  Worcester.  1577,  and 
primate,  1583.  In  this  high  position  he  en- 
joyed the  queen's  especial  confidence,  and 
had  much  to  do  with  shaping  the  Established 
Church.  His  severity  toward  the  Puritans 
seems  to  have  been  in  accordance  both  with 
royal  commands  and  with  his  own  views.  He 
enforced  the  subscription  tests,  procured  a 
Star  Chamber  decree  against  liberty  of  print- 
ing, and  in  some  measure  anticipated  the 
Laudian  persecution.  The  result  was  much 
suffering  and  only  partial  success  ;  the  au- 
tliors  of  the  IMartin  Marprelate  tracts  might 
be  punished,  but  not  wholly  silenced  ;  Puri- 
tanism was  not  uprooted,  and  the  settlement 
Avas  postponed  to  a  later  reign  ;  but  mean- 
time the  church  was  steered  on  its  middle 
course  between  Geneva  and  Rome.  Whit- 
gift's  life  was  written  by  Sir  G.  Paule,  1612, 
and  by  J.  Strype,  1718  ;  his  works  were  col- 
lected in  3  vols,  by  the  Parker  Societv.  1851- 
53.  F.  M.  B. 

Whitsunday  is  the  English  name  of  Pente- 
co.st  (q.v.,  p.  702).  The  etjmology  of  the 
word  is  uncertain.  The  general  derivation 
from  White-Sunday,  with  reference  to  the 
white  garment  worn  on  that  day  by  the  cate- 
chumc'ns,  is  not  very  probable  ;  the"  transition 
in  the  spelling  could  be  easily  accepted,  but 
the  transition  in  the  pronunciation  would  be 
something  unique.  C.  P. 

Whittemore,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Tufts  College, 
1858).  Universalist  :  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan. 
1,  1800;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  March  21, 
1861.  He  became  pastor  of  the  Universalist 
church  at  IVIilford,  Mass..  1821  ;  at  Cam- 
bridgeport.  1822  ;  resigned.  1831  ;  from  1828 
till  1858  was  editor  of  Tfie  Tnnnpet.  a  de- 
nominational paper  of  Boston.  He  i)ublished 
Modern  Ilisturi/  of  UnirerxaUM)n,fr'rin  t/ie  Era 
of  the  lieforin'ation  to  the  Present  Time,  Bos- 
ton, 1830.  enlarged  ed..  1860;  commentaries 
on  the  Parables  (1832),  Revelation  (1838), 
Daniel  (1840)  ;  Guide  to    Unirersalism,  1839  ; 


WHITTINGHAM 


(968) 


WICLIF 


Life  of  Hosea  Ballou,  1854-55,  4  vols. ;  Auto- 
biography, 1859.     (See  his  life  by  J.  G.  Adams, 
1877.) 
Whittingham,  WUUam  Rollinson,  S.T.D. 

(Columbia,  1887)  ;  b.  ia  New  York  City,  Dec. 
2,  1805;  d.  at  Orange.  N.  J.,  Oct.  17,  1879. 
He  graduated  at  tJie  General  (P.  E.)  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  New  York,  1825  ;  became  rec- 
tor of  St.  Mark's,  Orange,  N.  J.,  1829  ;  of  St. 
Luke's,  New  York,  1831  ;  professor  of  eccle- 
siastical history  in  the  General  Theological 
Seminary,  1835  ;  bishop  of  Maryland,  1840. 
He  was  a  vigorous  and  highly  successful 
bishop.  He  edited  William  Palmer's  Treatise 
on  the  Church  of  Christ,  New  York,  1841,  2 
vols.,  and  new  annotated  translations  of  the 
Commonitorium  of  Vincent  of  Lerins,  1847, 
and  of  Ratramnus  on  the  Lord's  Siqjper,  1848. 

Wichern,  Johann  Heinrich,  D.D.  (lion., 
Berlin  [?],  18—)  ;  b.  at  Hamburg,  April  21, 
1808  ;  d.  there,  April  7,  1881  ;  studied  theol- 
ogy in  Gottingen  and  Berlin  ;  established  in 
his  native  city  a  free  Sunday-school  for  poor 
and  neglected  children,  in  which  he  soon  had 
500  pupils  on  his  hands  ;  founded,  in  1833, 
at  Horn,  a  suburb  of  Hamburg,  Bos  rauhe 
Haus  ("  The  rough  house")  for  juvenile  of- 
fenders, which  became  the  model  for  numerous 
other  establishments  of  the  same  kind  ;  gave 
at  the  Wittenberg  Kirchentag,  1848,  the  first 
impulse  to  the  establishment  of  what  is 
called  the  "  Inner  Mission  ;"  was  in  1851 
commissioned  by  the  Prussian  Government 
to  visit  all  correctional  institutions  of  the 
country  and  suggest  reforms,  continuing 
active  in  the  service  of  philanthropy  to  his 
death.  He  published  Die  innere  Mission, 
Hamburg,  1849  ;  Die  Behandlung  der  Ver- 
brecher,  1853  ;  Der  Dienst  der  Frauen  in  der 
Kirehe,  1858,  3d  ed.,  1880.  His  life  was  writ- 
ten by  Oldenburg,  Hamburg,  1882,  and  Krum- 
macher,  Gotha,  1882. 

Wiclif,  John,  the  "  morning  star  of  the 
Reformation  ;"  b.  1324  (?)  in  north  Y'ork- 
shire,  in  the  valley  of  the  Tees  ;  d.  at  Lutter- 
worth, 100  m.  n.  w.  of  London,  Dec.  31,  1384. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  early  education  ex- 
cept that  he  was  a  scholar  at  Oxford,  probably 
in  Balliol  College,  where  he  took  his  Master's 
degree  ;  was  made  fellow,  and  finally  master  of 
the  college.  This  was  not  later  than  1360.  In 
1361  he  received  the  living  of  Fillingham,  in 
Lincolnshire,  for  which  he  resigned  the  master- 
ship. But  in  Dec,  1365,  he  was  put  at  the 
head  of  a  new  foundation,  "  Canterbury 
Hall,"  from  which  position  he  was  removed 
by  the  next  archbishop  (1366  [V]).  In  his 
early  lectures  at  the  university,  Wiclif  had 
treated  the  subjects  of  logic,  metaphysics, 
psychology,  etc.,  upon  which  manuscripts  of 
his  still  survive.  But  when  he  became  mas- 
ter, he  turned  his  attention  to  theology.  After 
taking  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Theology, 
he  was  permitted  to  lecture  upon  exegetical 
topics.  He  gained  the  Doctor's  degree  prob- 
ably a  little  after  the  year  1365,  and  thereupon 
began  the  independent  treatment  of  theology, 
not  commenting,  as  was  the  custom  fre- 
quently, upon  the  Sentences  of  Peter  Lom- 
bard. 

His  first  public  work  was  in  the  character 


of  a  patriot.  In  1365  Urban  Y.  had  demanded 
the  payment  of  the  1000  marks  quit-rent 
which  the  king  of  England  owed  him  as  his 
suzerain.  Parliament  refused  to  make  the 
payment,  and  it  is  probable  that  Wiclif  was 
ecclesiastical  counsellor,  and  advised  the  stop. 
In  1374  negotiations  for  peace  between  France 
and  England  were  conducted  at  Bruges,  and 
at  the  same  time  it  was  arranged  that  com- 
missioners from  England  should  meet  papal 
commissioners  and  discuss  the  ecclesiastical 
grievances  of  England.  Wiclif  was  one  of 
the  commissioners.  Little  was  accomplished, 
but  a  similar  impression  was  left  upon  Wiclif  "s 
mind  as  upon  Luther's  at  Rome  in  1510. 
Upon  his  return  he  entered  upon  his  duties  in 
his  new  parish  of  Lutterworth,  to  which  he 
had  been  transferred  from  Ludgershall.  to 
which  he  had  gone  from  Fillingham.  But 
his  public  c^ireer  was  not  yet  ended.  His 
brave  stand  for  the  liberties  of  the  country 
had  brought  him  into  ill  repute  with  the  prel- 
ates, and  in  1377  he  was  summoned  before  the 
court  of  the  Bishop  of  London.  But  he  was 
accompanied  by  his  friends,  the  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster and  others  of  high  rank,  and  the  bishop 
found  himself  unable  to  accomplish  anything. 
Gregory  XI.  sent  out  five  bulls  against  him, 
and  he  was  again  summoned  in  1378,  but 
again  escaped. 

Wiclif  was  from  this  time  onward  chiefly 
occupied  with  theological  matters.  His  faith- 
fulness in  his  parish  to  the  work  of  preaching 
the  gospel  is  witnessed  to-day  by  the  294  Eng- 
lish sermons  of  his  which  have  been  published. 
He  also  began  about  1378  the  more  vigorous 
prosecution  of  his  work  in  raising  up  and 
sending  out  his  "  poor  priests,"  or  travelling 
evangelists,  who  were  at  first  probably  or- 
dained i^riests,  since  they  are  called  "trew" 
priests,  but  subsequently  mere  lay  preachers. 
Their  work  was  the  proclamation  of  the  simple 
message  of  the  gospel.  Soon  the  course  of 
events  began  which  ended  in  Wiclif 's  depriva- 
tion of  his  academic  privileges.  He  had 
come  by  the  year  1381  to  reject  the  Romish 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  he  had 
attacked  it  as  unbiblical  and  misleading.  The 
chancellor  of  the  university  condemned  his 
doctrine  and  forbade  it  to  be  taught  ;  where- 
upon Wiclif  appealed  to  the  king.  The 
course  of  events  was  broken  in  upon  by  the 
peasants'  insurrection  in  1381,  which  has 
often  been  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  Wiclif 'a 
teaching,  but  which  has  no  historical  connec- 
tion with  his  work.  Various  steps  were  taken 
against  Wiclif,  when  this  trouble  had  passed 
over ;  his  doctrine  was  condemned  by  the 
synod  which  met  in  London  in  1382,  and 
orders  given  out  to  proceed  against  those  who 
held  such  sentiments.  But  these  measures 
resulted  in  nothing,  and  it  was  not  till  the 
summer  of  the  same  year  that  certain  follow- 
ers of  Wiclif  were  apprehended  and  put  un- 
der the  ban,  and  he  himself  prohibited  the 
exercising  of  any  academic  functions  ;  yet 
even  now  Wiclif's  person  was  untouched. 
He  retired  therefore  peacefully  to  his  parish 
and  engaged  in  his  ordinary  duties. 

One  of  the  principal  of  these  was  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible.  The  Psalter  had  been 
translated  into  English  already,  and  extracts 


WIOIilF 


( 969 ) 


WILBERPOROE 


from  other  books  ,  but  uo  translation  of  the 
whole  liible  had  been  undertaken,  and  what 
had  beeVi  done;  had  not  been  intended  for  the 
conimou  people.  Wielif  now  attempted  to 
prepare  a  translation  of  the  whole  Bible, 
which  should  be  intellii^ible  to  the  mass  of 
the  people.  He  translated  the  New  Testa- 
ment himself,  and  intrusted  the  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  a  friend,  Nicholas  of 
Hereford.  The  translation  was  made  from 
the  Vulgate,  not  from  the  original  tongues. 
The  whole  Bible  was  finished  certainly  as 
early  as  1383.  It  was  immediately  seen  to 
need  a  revision,  which  was  performed  by  a 
follower  of  Wielif,  John  Purvey,  and  com- 
pleted about  1388.  It  was  extensively  copied 
in  whole  or  in  part,  and  widely  circulated. 
There  still  survive  150  m;muscripts,  complete 
or  partial.  But  the  work  had  to  wait  long 
for  the  printer,  the  first  printed  copy  being 
issued  in  1731  (the  New  Testament),  and  the 
whole  Bible,  with  the  original  and  revised 
forms  in  parallel  columns,  in  1850. 

Wielif 's  teaching  may  now  be  comprehen- 
sively presented.  In  his  Tvialoqus,  tlie  most 
mature  of  his  works,  we  find  him  distinguish- 
ing between  two  sources  of  doctrine  in  mat- 
ters of  religion — the  reason  and  authority. 
By  "  reason"  is  meant  not  only  the  power  of 
thougiit,  but  a  certain  natural  fund  of  relig- 
ious knowledge.  The  only  positive  rule  of 
doctrine,  however,  are  the  Scriptures,  and  it 
is  at  this  point  that  he  departs  most  distinctly 
from  the  conception  of  the  Roman  Church  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  According  to  that  concep- 
tion, the  Scriptures,  the  bulls  of  popes,  the 
decrees  of  councils,  etc.,  were  placed  upon 
one  level  as  parts  of  one  tradition.  But 
Wielif  distinguished  sharply  between  the 
Scriptures  as  the  only  final  appeal,  and  all 
the  conclusions  of  men,  however  venerable. 
Thus  Wielif  came  clearly  upon  the  ground 
of  the  later  Reformers,  and  not  only  vindi- 
cated the  right  of  the  people  theoretically  to 
the  Scriptures,  but  acted  in  accordance  with 
this  teaching  by  translating  the  Bible. 

Philosophically,  Wielif  was  a  Realist.  He 
thought  the  view  that  the  idea  of  the  Godhead 
is  a  mere  general  notion  as  impossible  as  the 
idea  that  the  personal  God  is  an  individual. 
He  applies  the  theory  also  to  the  Logos,  as 
the  sum  and  substance  of  all  ideas.  In  his 
tlieory  of  man  he  lays  great  emphasis  upon 
the  freedom  of  the  will.  Tliis  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  praise  or  blameworthiness  of  an 
act.  He  opposes  the  doctrine  of  Bradwardina, 
tliit  the  will  of  God  precedes  the  will  of  man 
and  determines  its  decision.  But  he  also 
holds  with  Augustine,  as  he  supposes,  that  sin 
is  a  defect,  not  something  positive.  In  the 
doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ,  he  holds  the 
common  churcli  doctrine,  only  he  emphasizes 
wliat  Ittimanism  had  lost  siglit  of.  tliat  Christ 
is  the  only  mediator  between  God  and  man, 
and  he  exalts  him  as  the  exemplar  of  man- 
kind, and  tlie  .sole  source  of  salvation.  He 
comes  near  to  the  evangelical  doctrine  of  jus- 
tification by  faith  alone,  but  does  not  give 
perfect  expression  to  it.  His  doctrine  of  the 
church  is  that  it  is  the  whole  assemblj-  of  the 
elect,  by  which  he  includes  some  whom  Rome 
would  exclude,  and  excludes  some  who  hold 


high  otfice  in  the  earthly  church.  Ilis  rejec- 
tion of  trausubstantiation  has  already  been 
mentioned.  He  objects  to  it  philosophically, 
since  the  change  of  substance  while  the  "  at 
cidents"  remain  the  same  is  inconceivable. 
He  also  styles  the  worship  of  the  host  idolatry. 
What  his  own  theory  was  it  is  not  easy  pre- 
cisely to  determine.  The  sacrament  of  the 
altar  is  at  the  same  time  tru(!  bread  and  wine, 
and  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Lord.  That 
body  is  not  luaterially  present,  for  materially 
it  is  in  heaven.  But  it  is  present  in  three 
ways :  actively,  as  conferring  grace,  spirit- 
ually, as  taking  its  abode  in  the  souls  of  the 
saints,  and  sacramentally — that  is,  in  a  myste- 
rious manner — by  miracle.  Of  the  various 
views  of  the  Reformers,  this  seems  to  ap- 
proach nearest  to  Calvin's.  In  respect  to  the 
papacy,  Wielif  was  at  first  only  desirous  of 
removing  abuses,  particularly  those  which 
threatened  the  integrity  of  the  state.  But 
finally  he  assumed  a  position  of  decided  hos- 
tility, and  attacked  the  papacy  as  such. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  his  attacks 
upon  the  monks.  In  his  earliest  attacks  he 
seems  to  have  had  the  older  orders,  which 
held  property,  in  mind,  since  he  inveighs 
against  their  riches.  But  about  1381  he  began 
to  attack  the  mendicant  orders,  for  whom  he 
had  at  first  some  sympathy.  In  his  own 
"  poor  priests"  he  sought  to  gain  in  a  more 
purely  spiritual  way  the  same  end  as  had  been 
sought  with  so  little  success  by  the  founders 
of  these  preaching  orders. 

In  1881  a  "  Wyclif  Society"  was  formed  to 
reprint  his  Latin  works  from  the  original 
manuscripts  which  exist  in  large  numbers, 
particularly  in  Vienna.  This  society  issued 
volumes  up  to  1891.  His  Engluli  Works  (in- 
cluding the  sermons  mentioned  above),  edited 
by  Thomas  Arnold,  were  published,  Oxford, 
1869-71,  2  vols.  For  his  life  and  writings, 
see  John  Lewis,  Loudon.  1720  ;  Lechler, 
Leipzig,  1873,  2  vols.,  vol.  i.,  the  lifeof  Wyclif 
proper,  trans,  by  Lorimer,  1878,  u.e.,  enlarged 
by  summary  of  vol.  ii.,  which  contains  an  ac- 
count of  the  Lollards,  1884  (this  is  the  best 
book)  ;  A.  R.  Remington  (1884),  \V.  L.  Wil- 
kinson- (1884),  Thomson  (1884);  see  also 
Loserth,  WidifandNus,  1884;  M.  Burrows. 
Wielif 's  Place  in  Uiatory,  1884  ;  R.  L.  Poole, 
WycUffe  and  Movements  for  Reform,  1889. 
F.  II.  F. 

Wigglesworth,  Michael,  b.  in  England. 
Oct.  18,  1631  ;  d.  at  Maiden,  Mass.,  June  10, 
1705  :  was  brought  to  America  in  1638.  and 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1651  ;  studied  the- 
ology and  settled  at  Maiden  as  pastor  in  1657. 
His  poem.  The  Day  of  Doom,  appeared  in 
1662,  was  twice  reprinted  in  England — Lon- 
don, 1671,  and  Newcastle,  1711 — and  ran 
through  many  editions  in  the  United  States, 
the  last  by  W.  H.  Burr,  New  York,  1867. 
Another  poem  by  him.  Meat  out  of  the  Eater, 
or  Mfditatiiins  Mncerninfj  the  Nt'cemty,  End, 
and  Usffuhu'ss  of  Affliction,  appeared,  1690, 
6th  ed..  1770. 

Wilberforce,  Samuel,  D.D.  (Oxford,  18—). 
Church  of  England,  bishop  of  Winchester, 
son  of  the  philantiiropist  mentioned  below  ;  b. 
at  Clapham,  near  London,  Sept.  7,  1805  ;  d. 


WILBBRFOROE 


(970) 


WILL 


near  Dorking,  Surrey,  23  m.  s.s.w.  of  Lon 
don,  July  19,  1873  ;  son  of  William  Wilber- 
fore  (q.v.).  He  entered  Oriel  College,  Ox- 
ford, 1823,  and  graduated,  1826  ;  was  curate 
of  Checkendon,  1826-30  ;  rector  of  Bright- 
stone,  Isle  of  Wight,  1830-39,  and  rural  dean, 
1836  ;  archdeacon  of  Surrey,  1839  ;  canon  of 
Winchester  and  rector  of  Alverstoke,  Hamp- 
shire, 1840  ;  dean  of  Westminster,  March, 
1845  ;  bishop  of  Oxford,  Oct.,  1845,  and  of 
Winchester,  1869.  He  was  noted  for  elo- 
quence, wit,  organizing  power,  and  social 
gifts  ;  a  High  Churchman,  but  not  in  sym- 
patliy  with  the  Tractarians  ;  an  active,  promi- 
nent, and  influential  prelate.  He  published  a 
life  of  his  father  (with  his  brother  Robert), 
London,  1838  ;  a  History  of  the  Protectant 
Episcopal  Church  in  America,  1844  ;  Evcha- 
ristica,  1839  ;  Henry  Martyn's  Letters  and 
Journals,  1837  ;  Sermons,  1839-63,  and  some 
stories  for  the  young.  His  life  appeared  in 
3  vols.,  London,  1881-82,  and  in  an  abridged 
American  edition.  New  York,  1883.  He  was 
killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  while  riding 
with  Earl  Granville.  F.  M.  B. 

Wilberforce,  William,  layman  of  the 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Hull,  38  m.  s.e. 
of  York,  Aug.  24,  1759  ;  d.  in  London,  July 
29,  1833.  He  entered  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  1776  ;  graduated,  1780  ;  inherited 
wealth,  and  was  in  Parliament,  1780-1825. 
The  religious  impressions  of  his  youth  were 
revived  by  Isaac  Milner  during  a  journey  on 
the  Continent,  1784-85;  he  "could  not  look 
back  without  unfeigned  remorse"  on  the  com- 
parative levity  of  his  youth,  and  took  the 
most  earnest  view  of  his  opportunities  and 
duties.  He  founded  a  society  for  the  refor- 
mation of  manners,  1787 ;  joined  Hannah 
Moore  in  establishing  schools  for  poor  chil- 
dren, and  actively  interested  himself  in  many 
plans  for  the  benefit  of  humanity  at  home 
and  abroad.  Chiefly  notable  were  his  labors 
for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade,  con- 
ducted in  a  sort  of  partnership  with  Clark- 
son  ;  after  twenty  years'  agitation  they  at- 
tained success  in  1807.  Aiming  now  at  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  colonies,  they  con- 
tinued to  labor  with  unfaltering  zeal,  and  be- 
came vice-presidents  of  the  Anti-Shivery  So- 
ciety on  its  formation  in  1823.  The  Eman- 
cipation Bill  was  passed  a  few  weeks  after  the 
death  of  Wilberforce.  This  was  only  the 
main  chapter  in  a  good  man's  life.  He  was 
"  the  Wesley  of  the  upper  circles,"  a  leader 
of  the  Evangelical  party,  and  an  active  phi- 
lanthropist in  and  out  of  Parliament.  Of  his 
Fractical  View  of  thi  Prevailing  Religious 
System  of  Professed  0  hristians  in  the  Higlier 
and  Middle  Glasses  of  this  Country  Contrasted 
with  Real  Christianity,  London,  1797,  7500 
copies  were  sold  in  six  months,  and  it  has 
been  translated  into  French,  Italian,  German, 
Dutch,  and  Spanish.  He  was  prominent  in 
founding  Tltc  Christian  Observer,  1801,  and 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  1804. 
He  supported  parliamentary  reform  and 
Catholic  emancipation,  introduced  a  bill  for 
the  better  support  of  curates,  and  strove  to 
commit  the  government  to  the  Christianiza- 
tion  of  India.     Long  infirm,  he  retired  from 


public  life  in  1825.  He  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  where  a  statue  of  him  was 
raised.  Three  of  his  sons,  by  a  curious  reac- 
tion from  his  opinions,  became  Romanists. 
His  life,  by  his  sons,  Robert  Isaac  and  Samuel, 
appeared  in  5  vols.,  London,  1838,  and 
abridged  in  1  vol.,  1868  ;  his  Correspondence, 
in  3  vols.,  1840.  (See  also  J.  J.  Gurney's 
Sketch,  Norwich,  1838  ;  J.  S.  Uariord's,  Recol- 
lections, London,  1864,  and  J.  C.  Colquhoun's 
Wilberforce,  1866.)  F.  M.  B. 

Wilbrod,  or  Willibrord,  missionary  to  the 
Frisians  ;  b.  in  Northumlierland,  England, 
658  ;  d.  in  the  monastery  Epternac,  in  Fries- 
land,  Nov.  6,  739.  He  began  his  labors  about 
690  ;  connected  himself  with  Rome  ;  was 
finally  made  archbishop  of  Utrecht.  (See  his 
life,  London,  1877.)  F.  H.  F. 

Wilderness  in  Scripture  does  not  mean  a 
mere  waste,  but  rather  a  tract  not  under  culti- 
vation. Sometimes  the  region  was  entirely 
dry  and  barren,  as  in  the  case  of  the  wilder- 
ness of  Judah,  the  mountainous  region  west 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (1  Sam.  xvii.  28,  Matt.  iii.  3), 
which  has  only  patches  of  grass.  In  other 
cases  the  soil  was  fertile  and  yielded  fine  pas- 
tures (Ps.  Lxv.  12,  13,  Joel  ii.  23).  Mention 
is  made  of  the  wilderness  of  Jericho,  of  Sin, 
of  En-gedi,  etc.,  but  the  chief  one  is  "  the 
great  and  terrible  wilderness"  (Deut.  viii.  15) 
in  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  now  known  as 
Badiet  et-Tih,  the  Wilderness  of  the  Wander- 
ing, in  which  the  Israelites  spent  forty  years 
on  their  way  from  Egypt  to  Canaan.  This 
region  has  now  become  well  known  through 
the  explorations  of  travellers  and  the  British 
Ordnance  Survey.  Parts  of  it  are  howling 
wastes,  sun-scorched  and  dry,  but  others  are 
well-watered  and  fertile,  capable,  with  culti- 
vation, of  yielding  abundant  support.  The 
Israelites  no  doubt  lived  a  nomad  life,  as  do 
the  Bedouins  of  our  own  day,  moving  from 
place  to  place,  and  pitching  their  tents  wher- 
ever they  could  find  pasture,  and  it  was  only 
in  occasional  instances  that  there  was  an  abso- 
lute want  of  water.  Traces  of  former  culti- 
vation are  still  to  be  seen,  and  every  visitor 
feels,  like  the  members  of  the  British  Survey, 
that  the  natural  features  of  this  peculiar  re- 
gion illustrate  and  confirm  the  narrative  given 
in  the  sacred  history.  (See  E.  H.  Palmer, 
The  Desert  of  the  Exodus,  New  York,  1871.) 
T.  W.  C. 

Wilfrid,  archbishopof  York, though  scarcely 
ever  in  imdisputed  possession  of  his  see  ;  b. 
in  Northumberland,  634  ;  trained  at  Lindi*- 
farne  ;  went  to  Rome,  was  made  abbot  of  the 
monastery  at  Ripon,  658,  was  prominent  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  Celtic  discipline  in  the  great 
debate  at  Whitby,  on  the  coast,  40  m.  n.  e.  of 
York,  and  became  archbishop  of  York,  664. 
He  is  memorable  for  establishing  the  custom 
of  appeal  to  Rome,  and  for  his  services  to 
learning  and  church  architecture.  (See  his 
life  by  S.  W.,  London,  1878.)         F.  H.  F. 

Will,  The.  A  theme  of  endless  debate  ahke 
in  philosophy  and  theology.  Formerly  men- 
tal phenomena  were  distributed  into  two 
classes— understanding  and  will,  but  now  a 
triple  division  is  preferred,  viz.,  intellect,  feel- 
ing, will,  the  last-mentioned  including  both 


WILLEHAD 


(971) 


WILLIAM 


desire  and  volition,  which,  however,  require 
to  be  carefull}'  distinguished,  since  desire  may 
be  vague  and  undecided,  while  volition  is  de- 
liberate and  detinite. 

The  freedom  of  the  will  was  first  treated  as 
a  theological  question,  the  point  being  how 
sin  has  affected  man's  ability  to  keep  God's 
commands  ;  and  Augustiu  and  the  lieformers 
maintained  the  bondage  of  the  will.  This, 
however,  is  quite  distinct  from  the  philosophi- 
cal necessity  ailvocated  by  llobbes,  Leibnitz, 
and  Priestley,  who  claimed  that  volitions 
come  under  the  law  of  causality.  The  ablest 
advocate  of  determinism  was  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards, whose  treatise,  while  it  has  faults  ad- 
mitted even  by  those  who  accept  its  main 
positions,  has  never  been  refuted. 

3Ian  is  certainly  the  cause  of  his  own  voli- 
tions, but  how  does  he  come  to  have  one  voli- 
tion rather  than  another  ?  Some  say  that 
each  volition  is  unconditioned  by  antecedents, 
and  in  this  sense,  before  it  comes  into  exist- 
ence, is  contingent.  Others  hold  that  each 
volition  was  antecedently  determined,  and 
therefore  certain.  The  objection  to  the  for- 
mer answer  is  that  it  puts  an  end  to  character, 
moral  accountability,  and  unity  of  life,  since 
it  represents  the  mind  as  acting  blindly,  with- 
out motive,  without  reference  to  the  past  or 
the  future.  The  latter  answer  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  determinism  of  Priestley 
and  Huxley,  who  apply  tlie  doctrine  of  phys- 
ical causation  to  the  phenomena  of  mind, 
and  do,  in  fact,  set  forth  materialism.  They 
make  man  an  automaton,  and  interpret  his- 
tory in  the  terms  of  matter  and  motion.  The 
determinism  of  Edwards  and  Chalmers,  on 
the  contrary,  is  the  determinism  of  character. 
The  cause  of  any  given  volition  is  the  Ego, 
the  man  himself.  lie  does  not  act  at  random 
or  without  reason,  nor  is  his  course  fortuitous, 
but  his  cliaracter  determines  his  conduct. 

Nevertheless  he  is  a  free  agent,  and  respon- 
sible. The  certain  connection  between  his 
nature  and  his  volitions  does  not  take  away 
the  moral  quality  of  the  latter,  for  indeed 
they  would  have  no  moral  quality  unless  they 
expressed  his  nature.  Calviuists  say  that 
they  can  hold  anv  theory  of  tlie  will  that  Ar- 
miuians  can  hold,  because  while  foreordina- 
tion  makes  all  events  and  therefore  all  voli- 
tions certain,  it  does  not  make  them  a  whit 
more  certain  than  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
foreknowledge  does.  T.  W.  C. 

Willehad,  first  bishop  of  Bremen  ;  b.  in 
Xorthiimlierland,  England,  about  730  ;  began 
mis>ionary  labors  amonij  the  Frisians  about 
770.  He  was  summonea  by  Cliarlemagne  to 
undertake  the  conversion  of  the  region  about 
the  mouth  of  the  Weser  in  7:^0,  and  labored 
here  with  interruptions  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  Tlie  opposition  of  AVidukind  compelled 
him  to  flee,  but  after  Widukind's  conversion 
(78."))  the  work  of  extending  and  organizing 
the  diocese  could  go  on.  He  was  con.secrated 
bishop  in  787,  and  died,  Nov.  8,  789. 

F.  H.  F. 

William  of  Ohampeaux,  named  from  his 
birthplace,  near  Meliiii,  '27  m.  s.  s.  e.  of  Paris, 
where  he  was  born  aliDut  1070,  and  died 
in    1121.     He;   w;is  a  pupil  of  Roscellin,  and 


himself  tauglit  in  the  cathedral  school  of 
Notre  Dame,  where  he  became  canon  in 
licy.  Abelard,  his  later  antagonist,  was  a 
pupil  here.  In  1108,  after  vain  attempts  to 
silence  Abelard,  William  retired  to  the  abbey 
of  St.  Victor,  where  he  afterward  resumed 
his  lectures.  He  was  bishop  of  Chalons-sur- 
Marne,  and  took  the  papal  side  in  the  dispute 
about  investitures.  His  philosophical  works 
are  few.  He  taught  that  unbaptized  children 
must  be  lost.  He  was  a  realist,  and  at  first 
taught  that  the  universal  is  the  essence  of  all 
the  individual  things  comprised  under  it  ; 
but  afterward,  having  conceded  to  Abelard 
that  tliere  is  a  difference  in  the  essences  of 
different  individuals,  he  was  .su.spected  of 
abandoning  realism,  and  lost  pojnilarity. 

F.  H.  F. 
William  of  Malmesbury,  a  pioneer  of 
English  history  ;  b.  about  lO'JG  (?)  ;  d.  1143  ('!). 
He  became  an  inmate  of  tlie  monastery  at 
Malmesbury  at  an  early  age,  and  remained 
there  till  death  as  librarian  and  chorister.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  the  English  kings  from  the 
Conquest  to  the  year  1129,  in  connected  dis- 
course instead  of  the  chronicle  form.  Later 
he  wrote  a  continuation  of  this  under  the 
name  of  Ilistorm  nonilcB,  and  his  remaining 
principal  work  was  his  history  of  the  English 
pontiffs  from  the  Christianization  of  England 
to  the  year  1123.  His  works  are  in  Migne, 
rat.  Lat.  CLXXIX.;  Eng.  trans,  of  \\hiChron- 
ide  in  BoJui's  Antique n'a/i  Lihvdri/.  (See  W. 
de  G.  Burch,  On  the  Life  and  Writings  of  W. 
(i/'iV.,  London,  1874.)  F.  H.  F. 

William  of  Nassau,  generally  called  Will- 
iam the  Silent,  prince  of  Orange,  count  of 
Nassau  ;  b.  in  the  castle  of  Dillenburg,  Nas- 
sau, April  16,  1533  ;  d.  at  Delft,  Holland, 
July  10,  1584.  He  was  educated  at  the  court 
of  Brussels  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and 
was  treated  with  extraordinary  confidence  by 
Charl(!s  Y.  and  with  distiiiction  even  by 
Philip  II.  But  when  the  latter  sent  the  duke 
of  Alva  with  a  large  Spanish  army  to  the 
Netherlands  in  1566,  William,  who  knew 
what  was  coming,  threw  up  his  position  in 
the  service  of  the"  king,  left  the  country,  and 
openly  embraced  Calvinism,  and  when  the 
bloody  carnival  began  with  the  execution  of 
Egmont  and  Horn,  he  raised  an  army  at  his 
own  expense  and  did  everything  in  his  power 
to  rouse  the  provinces  to  resistance.  His 
military  successes  were  not  great,  tliough 
great  enough  to  make  the  Spanish  king  furi- 
ous and  to  create  confidence  among  the  Dutch 
Protestants.  In  1576  the  Pacification  of 
Ghent  was  signed,  and  in  1579  the  Union  of 
Utrecht,  which  means  the  fall  of  the  Spanish 
hegemnny  in  Europe  and  the  rise  of  the  Dutch 
Republic.  The  weapons  which  Philip  II. 
employed  against  him  were  a  little  surprising 
cvin  to  those  days  ;  he  put  a  iM-ize  of  25,000 
gold  gulden  on  his  head,  and  then  Balthazar 
Gerard  .'^hot  him  dead.  Various  collections 
of  his  correspondence  have  been  issued  by 
Gachard,  Groen  van  Prinsterer,  and  Juste  ; 
see  also  ]\Iotlev,  The  liine  of  the  Dutch  Repub- 
U>:  '  C.  P. 

William  of  St.  Amour,  Doctor  of  Theology 
ut  the  University  of*Paris  in  the  13th  century, 


WILLIAM 


(972) 


WILLIAMS 


b.  probably  at  St.  Amour,  223  m.  s.e.  of  Paris  ; 
d.  in  Paris  about  1272.  He  sought  to  protect 
the  university  from  the  aggressions  of  the  two 
orders  of  mendicant  monks.  Innocent  IV., 
in  1254,  put  an  end  to  tlieir  efforts,  and  in  1256 
William  wrote  upon  the  Perils  of  the  Times,  a 
work  directed  against  the  monks,  in  which  he 
attacked  the  mendicant  principle  itself. 
Thomas  Aquinas  entered  the  lists  against 
him,  the  pope  was  gained  over,  William's 
book  condemned,  and  the  university  reduced 
to  subjection.  In  1263  he  returned  to  Paris 
and  resumed  his  lectures.  F.  H.  F. 

William  of  Tyre,  archbishop  of  that  city, 
statesman  and  historian  in  the  time  of  the 
crusades,  b.  in  Syria  about  1130,  v^as  reared 
in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  educated  in  the 
West  (Paris),  and  found  favor  with  King 
Amalric  when  he  returned  home  about  1163. 
He  was  made  tutor  of  the  king's  son,  Bald- 
win, and  engaged  in  many  public  offices.  He 
is  remembered  for  his  history  of  the  Oriental 
princes  from  Mohammed  to  the  year  1184,  and 
for  that  of  the  crusades,  extending  to  the  year 
1183,  French  trans.  Paris,  1879,  2  vols.  (See 
Migne,  Pa<.  Lat.  CCl.)  F.  H.  F. 

William  of  Wykeham,  bishop  of  Winches- 
ter and  twice  chancellor  of  England  ;  b.  at 
Wykeham,  in  Hampshire,  1324  ;  d.  at  Walt- 
ham,  Sept.  27,  1404.  He  was  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  king  from  the  year  1347  as  an 
architect,  and  built  the  great  quadrangle  to 
the  east  of  the  keep  at  Windsor,  and  after- 
ward at  Winchester  remodelled  the  nave  of 
the  cathedral.  As  a  bishop  (1366)  he  was  faith- 
ful to  his  duties,  and  in  the  contest  with  the 
papacy  took  the  side  of  the  nation.  Yet  he 
was  no  friend  of  Wiclifite  opinions,  and  sat 
upon  the  court  which  tried  Crumpe  in  1392. 
(See  life  by  Moberly,  Winchester,  1887.) 

F.  H.  F. 

Williams,  Daniel,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1709  ; 
Glasgow,  1709),  Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Wrex- 
ham, North  Wales.  180  m.  n.w.  of  London, 
about  1644  ;  d.  in  London,  Jan.  26,  1716.  He 
was  pastor  in  Dublin,  1668-87,  and  then  in 
Hand  alley,  Bishopsgate  street,  London.  Ac- 
quiring wealth  by  a  second  marriage,  by  his 
will  he  founded  the  Red  Cross  Street  Library, 
which  was  opened,  1729,  and  now  contains 
30,000  volumes  of  theology  and  1000  manu- 
scripts, among  them  the  minutes  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly  and  other  valuable  papers. 
Dr.  Williams's  works  were  collected  in  5 
vols.,  London,  1738-50.  (SeeW.  D.Jeremy, 
Dr.   Williams's  Trust,  London,  1885.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Williams,  George,  Church  of  England  lay- 
man, the  founder  of  the  Young  Men's  Chris-' 
tian  Association  ;  b.  at  a  farmhouse  in  the 
parish  of  Dulverton,  Somersetshire,  England, 
Oct.  11,  1821.  He  began  his  business  life  at 
Bridgewater ;  was  converted  in  1837,  and 
having  become  a  junior  assistant  in  the  dry- 
goods  establishment  of  Hitchcock  &  Co.,  Lon- 
don, in  1841,  he  organized  there  in  1843,  to- 
gether with  a  few  others  among  the  assistants, 
regular  prayer-meetings  for  the  conversion  of 
his  fellow-clerks.  In  the  following  year  the 
organization  was  extended  to  other  establish- 
ments and  other  trades,  and  on  July  4,  1844. 


was  founded  the  Y'oung  Men's  Christian 
Association  (q.v.),  which  now  is  spreading 
throughout  the  world.  Mr.  Williams  was  its 
secretary  from  1863  to  1885,  and  became  in 
that  year  its  president,  succeeding  the  earl  of 
Shaftesbury.  He  is  also  president  of  the 
Commercial  Travellers'  Christian  Association, 
the  Christian  Community,  and  the  Y^oung 
Men's  Foreign  Mission,  and  takes  an  active 
interest  in  the  London  City  Mission,  the  Sun- 
day school  Union,  etc. 

Williams,  Isaac,  Church  of  England  ;  b. 
in  AVales,  1802  ;  d.  at  Stinchcombe,  Glouces- 
tershire, May  1, 1865.  He  graduated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Oxford,  1826  ;  became  fellow, 
1832,  and  was  curate  of  Windrush,  St.  Mary's, 
Oxford,  and  Bisley.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Keble  and  Newman,  was  early  in  the  Oxford 
movement,  and  wrote  three  of  the  Tracts  for 
the  Times,  and  eight  poems  in  Lyra  Apostoliea 
(1836).  He  published  in  prose  &  Harmony  and 
Commentary  on  the  whole  Gosjwl  Aarrative, 
London,  1842-45,  8  vols. ;  The  Psalms  Inter- 
preted  of  Christ,  1864-65,  3  vols.,  and  others  ; 
and  in  verse,  2'he  Cathedral,  Oxford,  1838  ; 
Thoughts  in  Past  Years,  1838  ;  The  Baptistery, 
1842-44,  4  parts  ;  The  Altar,  Loudon,  1847, 
and  T he  Christian  Scholar,  Oxford,  1849  :  he- 
sides  Hymns  fro?n  the  Parisian  Breviary,  1839, 
and  Hymns  from  the  Catechism,  London,  1843, 
rep.  in  New  Y'ork,  1847.  F.  M.  B. 

Williams,  John,  D.D.  (Cambridge.  16— )^ 
archbishop  of  Y'ork  ;  b.  at  Aberconway, 
Wales,  March  25,  1582  ;  d.  at  Glodded,  in. 
Wales,  March  25,  1650.  He  studied  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge  ;  became  a  felloW  ; 
received  three  prebends,  two  deaneries,  and 
the  bishopric  of  Lincoln,  1621  ;  succeeded  Ba- 
con as  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  July  10, 
1621,  and  was-  dismissed  by  Charles  I.,  Oct. 
25,  1626.  Having  opposed  Laud,  he  was 
prosecuted  on  three  charges  in  the  Star 
Chamber,  suspended,  fined  £18,000,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  1636-40.  The 
Long  Parliament  released  him,  and  the  king 
made  him  archbishop  of  York.  Dec,  1641. 
With  other  prelates  he  was  again  imprisoned, 
1642-43.  He  w^as  a  moderate,  conscientious, 
and  forgiving  man,  and  liked  by  the  Puritans, 
though  a  stout  loyalist.  Grief  at  the  king's 
death  is  said  to  have  killed  him.  His  life,  by 
Bishop  Hacket,  appeared,  London,  1693,  and 
was  abridged,  1700.  F.  M.  B. 

Williams,  John,  the  "Apostle  of  Poly- 
nesia ;"  b.  at  Tottenham,  London,  Englanll, 
June  29,  1796  ;  murdered  at  Erromanga"  New 
Hebrides,  Nov.  20,  1839.  He  went  out  as 
missionary  to  the  Society  Islands,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  London  Slissionary  Society  in 
1816,  and  with  the  exception  of  four  years 
(1834-38),  -when  on  a  visit  home,  he  was  con- 
tinuously engaged  in  evangelizing  the  island- 
ers. He  reduced  the  language  of  the  island 
of  Raratonga  to  writing,  and  with  Messrs. 
Pitman  and  Buzacot  translated  the  New 
Testament  into  it.  He  published  his  famous 
Narrative  of  Missionary  Enterprises  in  the 
South  Sea  Islands,  London,  1837,  56th  1000, 
1865;  repub.,  New  Y^ork,  1837.  (See  his 
memoirs  by  Ebenezer  Prout,  London,  1843.) 


WILLIAMS 


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WILLIAMS 


Williams,  Roger,  Baptist  ;  b.  about  1600  ; 
(1.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  April,  1G83.  His 
parentage  and  birtliplace,  as  well  as  date  of 
birth,  are  uncertain.  The  latest  researches 
seem  to  favor  an  English  birth,  of  Welsh 
stock.  A  graduate  of  C'ambridge  and  a  priest 
of  the  Church  of  England,  he  had  from  the 
tirst  a  strong  bent  toward  Puritanism.  He 
emigrated  to  America  in  1G30,  but  he  was  by 
no  means  satisfied  with  the  half-way  reforma- 
tion that  the  New  England  Puritans  were  dis- 
posed to  make.  He  saw  the  inconsistenc}^  of 
the  Puritan  theocracy,  in  which  the  functions 
of  church  and  state  were  so  interblended  that 
the  identity  of  each  was  in  danger  of  being 
lost.  He  iiad  grasped  the  principle  that  the 
church  and  the  state  should  be  entirely  sepa- 
rate and  independent  of  each  other.  It  is  not 
at  all  certain  that  Williams  had  imbibed  these 
notions  from  the  English  Btiptists,  or  that  he 
even  knew  of  their  holding  such  doctrines. 
At  this  time  he  was  not,  at  any  rate,  an  Ana- 
baptist, but  a  Puritan  Separatist.  He  found 
no  fault  with  the  Congregational  doctrine  or 
discipline,  but  denounced  the  principle  of  a 
state  church,  and  upheld  the  right  of  soul- 
liberty  on  natural  and  scriptural  gromids 
alike.  In  spite  of  his  heterodoxy,  lie  was 
called  to  be  minister  to  the  church  at  Salem, 
where  he  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  zeal 
and  eloquence.  In  Oct.,  1635.  he  was  ban- 
ished from  the  colony  for  holding  that  "  the 
civil  magistrate's  power  extends  only  to  the 
bodies  and  goods  and  outward  state  of  men." 
Other  charges,  it  is  true,  were  made  against 
him,  but  tiie  evidence  is  complete  that  this 
was  the  real  grievance.  The  plea  that  he  was 
banished  for  civil  causes  alone,  and  because 
lie  made  himself  a  disturber  of  the  peace  of 
the  commonwealth,  was  never  made  by  any 
reputable  historian  until  late  years,  and  is  so 
manifest  an  afterthought  as  'to  be  scarcely 
worth  considering. 

Williams  made  his  way  to  Narragansett 
Bay,  and  in  June,  1636.  he  settled  at  what  is 
now  Providence,  founding  a  colony  that  de- 
veloped into  the  State  of  Rhode  Island.  The 
corner-stone  of  this  colony  was  the  principle 
of  religious  liberty.  The  compact  entered 
into  by  the  original  settlers  reads  thus  :  "  We 
who.se  names  are  underwritten,  being  desirous 
to  inhabit  in  the  town  of  Providence,  do 
promise  to  submit  ourselves  in  active  and  pas- 
sive obedience,  to  all  such  orders  or  agencies 
as  shall  be  made  for  the  public  good  of  the 
body  in  an  orderly  way,  by  the  major  consent 
of  the  present  inhabitants,  "masters  of  families, 
incorporated  together  into  a  township,  and 
such  others  whom  they  shall  admit  into  the 
same,  only  in  civil  things."  A  few  other 
countries  had  before  this,  and  for  periods 
more  or  less  brief,  tolerated  what  they  re- 
garded as  heresy  ;  this  was  the  tirst  govern- 
ment organizcd'on  the  principle  of  absolute 
liberty  to  all,  in  matters  of  belief  and  practice 
that  did  not  conflict  with  the  peace  and  order 
of  society  or  witli  ordinarj'  good  morals.  And 
though  this  government  was  insignificant  in 
point  of  numbers  and  power,  it  was  the  pio- 
neer in  a  great  revolution,  its  principle  having 
since  become  the  fundamental  law  of  every 
American  state,  and  influenced  strongly  even 


the  most  conservative  European  states. 
Tliough  he  did  not  originate  the  itlea  of  soul- 
libert}',  it  was  given  to  Roger  Williams  in  the 
providence  of  God  to  be  its  standard-bearer 
in  a  new  world,  where  it  should  have  full  op- 
portunity to  work  itself  out  and  afford  by  its 
fruits  a -demonstration  that  it  is  of  God  and 
not  of  man. 

Up  to  this  time  Williams  was  not  a  Baptist, 
but  his  continued  study  of  the  Scriptures  led 
him  to  the  belief  that  the  sprinkling  of  water 
on  an  unconscious  babe  does  not  constitute 
obedience  to  the  demand  of  our  Lord,  "Be 
baptized. ' '  Having  arrived  at  this  conviction 
he  wished  to  be  baptized,  but  in  this  little 
colon}^  separated  from  other  civilized  coun- 
tries by  an  ocean  or  a  wilderness,  where  was 
a  qualified  administrator  to  be  found  ?  In 
the  mean  time,  other  converts  to  the  same  idea 
had  been  made,  whether  by  his  agency  or  by 
independent  study  of  the  Word.  Some  time 
about  March,  1639,  therefore,  Williams  im- 
mersed Ezekiel  Holliman,  who  had  been  a 
member  of  his  church  at  Salem,  and  there- 
upon Holliman  immersed  Williams.  Eleven 
others  were  immersed,  and  the  tirst  Baptist 
church  on  American  soil  was  formed.  S<ion 
after  Williams  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
this  baptism  by  one  who  had  not  himself  been 
baptized  in  an  orderly  maimer  was  not  valid. 
He  withdrew  himself  from  the  church,  and 
for  the  rest  of  his  life  was  unconnected  wMth 
any  religious  body,  calling  himself  a*"  seek- 
er. ' ' 

Concerning  the  rest  of  his  life  we  know 
little.  In  1643  he  sailed  for  England  and  ob- 
tained a  charter  from  the  Commonwealth  for 
Rhode  Island,  returning  in  1651  to  .secure  its 
confirmation  by  Charles  II.  On  the  reorgani- 
zation of  the  government  under  this  .second 
charter,  in  1654,  he  was  chosen  governor,  fill- 
ing the  office  until  May,  1658.  The  exact 
date  of  his  death,  as  of  his  birth,  is  unknown. 

LiTEUATUKE.— The  chief  authority  is  the 
edition  of  his  works  in  the  Publications  i\f  the 
Narragamett  Club,  Providence,  lH6r>-75.  7 
vols.  (Cf.  Letters  from  Roger  Wi//i<t)/iH  to 
John  Winthrop,  and  John.  Winthroji.  t/r.  .Bos- 
ton, 1863  ;  see  also  Arnold.  History  of  Rhode 
Island,  New  York.  1859-60,  vol.  "i..  and 
Tyler's  American  Literature,  vol.  i.,  pp.  241- 
63,  for  estimates  of  his  political  and  literary 
labors.)  The  biographies  by  Knowles  (Bos- 
ton, 1834)  and  Gamniell  (Boston,  1845)  are 
valuable,  though  somewhat  in  need  of  re- 
vision. The  chief  hostile  monograph  is  Dex- 
ter's  As  to  Roger  Williams,  Bo.ston,  1876. 
Henhy  C.  Veuder. 

Williams,   Samuel   Wells,   LL.D.    (Union 

College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y..  1850),  Congre- 
gationalist.  lavman  ;  b.  at  Utica,  N.  Y..  Sept., 
1812  ;  d.  at  New  Haven.  Conn.,  Feb.  17,  1H84. 
He  went  in  1833  to  China  as  printer  for  the 
A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  Mission  Board  at  Canton  ; 
visited  Japan  in  1837  and  translated  Genesis 
and  3Iattiiew  into  Japanese  ;  assisted  in  edit- 
ing The  Chinese  Repertory/,  Canton.  1H3H-51  ; 
was  interpreter  to  Commodore  Perry's  Japan 
expedition,  185:3-54,  and  to  the  American 
Legation  at  Peking,  1855-56,  and.  after  his 
return  to  the  United  States,  in  1876.  he  was 


WILLIAMS 


(974) 


WINE 


appointed  lecturer  on  Chinese  in  Yale  College. 
He  was  president  of  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety, 1881-83.  Aside  from  his  monumental 
Syllabic  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Language, 
Shanghai,  1874,  and  other  linguistic  publica- 
tions, he  is  the  author  of  The  Middle  Kingdom 
(a  standard  work  on  China),  New  York,  1848, 
n.e.,  rev.,  1883,  2  vols.  His  life,  by  his  son, 
appeared.  New  Yorii.  1888. 

Williams,  William,  "  the  Watts  of  Wales  ;" 
b.  in  Carmarthenshire,  1717  ;  d.  at  Pontycelyn, 
Jan.  11.1791.  Converted  under  Howell  Har- 
ris, he  joined  the  Calvinistic  Methodists  ;  he 
preached  as  an  evangelist  for  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury. Besides  sundry  Welsh  books  in  prose 
and  verse,  he  published  in  English  Hosannah 
tothe  Son  of  Damd.  London,  1759,  3  parts,  and 
Oloria  in  Excelsis,  1773,  reprinted  together  by 
D.  Sedgwick,  1859.  The  noble  hymn,  "  Guide 
me,  O  Tliou  great  Jehovah,"  is  supposed  to 
have  been  completed  by  him  in  1773,  after 
one  Peter  Williams  had  written  half  of  it. 
F.  M.  B. 

Willibald,  first  bishop  of .  Eichstadt,  42  m. 
w.s.w.  of  Ralisbon,  Bavaria  ;  b.  in  Eng- 
land in  700 ;  educated  in  a  monastery  ; 
undertook  extensive  pilgrimages  in  his  youth, 
penetrating  even  to  Palestine  ;  spent  ten  years 
at  Monte  Cassino  in  Italy,  and  was  ordained 
bishop,  Oct.  22,  741.  Of  his  episcopal  labors 
little  is  known.  His  death  occurred  probably 
aliout  787.  (See  J.  E.  Wulff 's  St.  Willibald, 
Breslau,  1890.)  F.  H.  F. 

Willibrod.     See  Wilbrod. 

Wilson,  Daniel,  D.D.  (Oxford  [?],  18—), 
bishop  of  Calcutta  ;  b.  in  London,  July  2, 
1778  ;  d.  in  Calcutta,  Jan.  2,  1858.  ile  stud- 
ied at  St.  Edmund's  Hall,  Oxford,  and  was 
tutor  and  vice-principal  there,  1807-12  ;  curate 
of  Worton,  1803-09,  and  of  Bloomsbury,  1812- 
24  ;  vicar  of  Islington,  1824-32  ;  bisliop  of 
Calcutta  and  metropolitan  of  India,  1832-58. 
He  was  an  Evangelical  and  an  efficient  prelate. 
The  most  popular  of  his  books  were  Sermons 
on  Christian  Doctrine  and  Practice,  London, 
1818,  and  Lectures  on  the  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity, 1828-30,  2  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1860.  His 
life  by  his  son-in-law,  J.  Bateman,  appeared 
in  2  vols.,  1860,  2d  ed.  abridged,  1861,  1  vol., 
rep.  Boston,  1860, 1  vol.  F.  M.  B. 

Wilson,  John,  D.D.  (Edinburgh  [?],  18—), 
F.R.S.  (18—),  missionary  ;  b.  near  Lander, 
Scotland,  Dec.  11,  1804  ;  d.  in  Bombay,  Dec. 
1,  1875.  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, and  sent  by  the  Scottish  Missionary 
Society  to  India,  where  be  labored  long  and 
faithfully,  becoming  head  of  the  mission  col- 
lege of  Bombay,  vice-chancellor  of  the  univer- 
sity there,  president  of  the  local  branch  of  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Society,  and  a  person  of  much 
repute  and  influence.  He  belonged  to  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  and  was  moderator 
of  its  General  Assembly  in  1870.  Among  his 
works  are  Parsi  Religion,  Bombay,  1843  ; 
Lands  of  the  Bible,  Edinburgh,  1847  ;  Evan- 
gelization of  India,  1849,  and  History  of  the 
Suppression  of  Infanticide,  Bombay.  1855. 
(See  his  life  by  G.  Smith,  London,  1878.) 
F.  M.  B. 


Wilson,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Oxford,  1707; 
Cambridge,  17—),  LL.D.  (Trinity  College  [?], 
1698),  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man  ;  b.  at  Burton, 
Cheshire,  Dec.  20,  1663  ;  d.  in  the  Isle  of 
Man,  March  7,  1755.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Du')lin  ;  took  orders,  1686-89  ;  held 
a  curacy  in  Lancashire,  1686-92  ;  became 
chaplain  to  the  earl  of  Derby,  1692  ;  travelled 
on  the  Continent  as  tutor  to  that  nobleman's 
son.  1694-97,  and  Jan.  16,  1698,  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man.  Here  he 
labored  for  fifty-seven  years,  accomplishing 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  reforms  in  the  island, 
declining  higher  preferment,  and  gaining 
"  the  most  exalted  reputation  for  apo.stolic 
piety  and  unquenchable  zeal  in  good  works." 
His  memory  is  revered  by  men  of  all  creeds 
and  parties  as  that  of  a  rare  saint  ;  see  Mat- 
thew Arnold's  preface  to  Culture  and  An- 
archy, 1869. 

As  to  his  local  work,  Lord  Chancellor  King 
said  that  if  the  church's  ancient  discipline 
were  lost,  it  might  be  found  in  all  its  purity 
in  the  Isle  of  Man.  His  Princi]  h's  and  Duties 
of  Christianity,  London,  1699-1707,  2  parts, 
was  the  first  book  printed  in  Manx.  His  Es- 
say towards  an  Instruction  for  the  Indians, 
written,  1735,  appeared,  1740,  reached  a  5th 
ed.,  1744,  and  was  translated  into  French  and 
Italian.  His  Sho7't  and  Plain  Instructions  for 
the  Better  Understanding  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
1736,  has  often  been  reprinted.  Several  of 
his  books  were  posthumous,  as  Parochialia, 
1788  ;  Maxims  of  Piety,  1789,  and  the  cele- 
brated Sacra  Privata,  Bath,  1786,  many  later 
editions.  His  Avorks  were  collected  in  2  vols. , 
with  a  life,  by  C.  Cruttwell,  Bath,  1781,  and 
again  edited,  with  a  life,  by  Keble.  Oxford, 
1847-63,  7  vols.  F.  M.  B. 

Wimpheling,  Jakob,  b.  at  Schettstadt, 
Alsace,  July  26,  1450 ;  d.  there,  Nov.  17. 
1528  ;  was  educated  by  the  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life  ;  studied  at  Freiburg  and 
Heidelberg  ;  was  preacher  at  the  cathedral 
of  Spires  ;  lectured  at  Heidelberg  and  Strass- 
burg,  l)ut  spent  the  last  part  of  his  life  in  his 
native  town  in  literary  retirement.  He  was 
a  prolific  writer,  the  author  of  eighty-three 
different  works,  and  a  striking  type  of  that 
kind  of  humanists  who  wanted  reform  ;  in- 
deed, who  wanted  everything  reformed,  but 
wlio,  nevertheless,  shrank  back,  disgusted 
and  indignant,  when  the  Reformation  really 
began.  (See  his  life  by  Schwartz,  Gotha, 
1875.)  C.  P. 

Winckler,  Johann,  b.  at  Golzern,  Saxony, 
July  13,  1643  ;  d.  at  Hamburg,  April  5,  1705  ; 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig  and  Jena  ;  be- 
came pastor  of  St.  Michael's  in  Hamburg, 
1684,  and  was  one  of  Spener's  most  intimate 
friends  and  nearest  disciples,  which  circum- 
stance involved  him  in  long  and  extremely 
bitter  controversy  with  Mayer  concerning  the 
theatre,  the  ministerial  oath,  etc.  (See  his 
life  by  J.  Geffcken,  Hamburg,  1861.) 

Wine.  The  vine  grew  luxuriantly  in  Pales- 
tine, and  various  kinds  of  wine  made  from  its 
fruit  were  remarkable  for  excellence,  such  as 
the  wine  of  Lebanon  (Hos.  xiv.  7)  and  that  of 
Helbon  (Ezek.  xxvii.  18).     Often  mentioned 


WINEBRENNERIANS 


(975) 


WINSLOW 


with  corn  and  oil  as  one  of  nature's  best  gifts 
(Gen.  xxvii.  28,  Deut.  xxxiii.  28,  Ps.  iv.  7, 
civ.  15),  it  was  kept  in  every  household  and 
produced  on  occasions  of  hospitality  and  at 
festivals  (Gen.  xiv.  18,  John  ii.  3).  Its  misuse 
is  severely  condemned  (Prov.  xx.  1,  xxiii.  30, 
Lsa.  V.  22,  IIos.  iv.  11,  Eph.  v.  18).  In  the 
Mosaic  ritual  it  was  the  usual  drink  offering 
at  the  daily  sacrifices  (Ex.  xxix.  40),  at  the 
presentation  of  the  tirstfruits  (Lev.  xxiii.  13), 
and  at  other  offerings  (Num.  xv.  5),  and  a 
tithe  was  paid  of  it  (Deut.  xii.  17,  xviii.  4). 
Tiie  Nazarite  was  forbidden  to  drink  wine 
during  the  continuance  of  his  vow  (Num.  vi. 
3),  and  the  priests  before  performing  services 
in  the  temple  (Lev.  x.  9).  It  is  made  a  sym- 
bol of  spiritual  blessing  (lsa.  xxv.  6,  Iv.  1). 
Our  Saviour  used  it  (Luke  vii.  33-34),  and 
miraculously  made  it  (John  ii.  1-10). 

The  Hebrew  yai/ ill  and  its  Greek  equivalent, 
oiiios,  are  general  terras  for  all  sorts  of  wine, 
i.e.,  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape.  Tlie 
word  tirosh,  commonly  rendered  "  new  wine," 
or  "  sweet  wine,"  was  as  strong  as  other 
wine,  if  not  stronger  (Lsa.  xlix.  26,  Hos.  iv. 
11,  Acts  ii.  13).  "  Mixed  wine"  (Ps.  Ixxv.  8, 
Prov.  xxiii.  30)  was  not  diluted  with  water, 
but  strengthened  by  herbs  or  spices  ( Cant.  viii. 
2).  '  T.  W.  C. 

Winebrennerians.     See  Baptists,  p.  83. 

Winer  (wee'-ner),  Georg  Benedikt,  b.  at 
Leipzig,  xVpril  13,  1789  ;  d.  there,  May  12, 
1858  ;  studied  theology  in  the  university  of 
his  native  city,  and  was  appointed  professor 
extraordinary  there  in  1819  ;  ordinary  profes- 
sor at  Erlangen,  1823,  and  ordinary  professor 
at  Leipzig,  1832.  Of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English,  ^1  Ornminar  of  the 
Chfddee  Language  as  (Juidained  in  tlie  Bible 
and  the  Targnms,  by  H.  B.  Hackett,  Andover, 
1845,  and  A  Orammar  of  New  Testament 
Greek,  by  Moses  Stuart  and  Edward  Robinson, 
Andover,  1825,  several  times  afterward,  the 
last  time  by  \V.  F.  Moultou,  Edinburgh,  1870, 
2d  ed.,  1877.  Among  his  other  works  are  Bib- 
lisclms  Real  100 rterbuch,  1820, 3d  ed.,  1847, 2  vols.; 
Handbuch  der  theologischen  Literatur,  Leip- 
zig, 1821,  3d  ed.,  1838-40,  2  vols.;  Vomparntive 
Darstellung  des  Lehrhegrifs  der  versrhiedcnen 
Kirchenparteien,  1824,  4tli  ed.,  by  P.  Ewald, 
1882,  Eng.  trans..  The  Doctrines  and  Confes- 
sions of  Christendom,  Edinburgh,  1873. 

Wines,  Enoch  Oobb,  D.D.  (Middlebury. 
1^:^53),  LL.D.  (Washington,  1857),  Presbvte- 
rian  ;  b.  at  Hanover,  N.  J.,  Feb.  17,  1806; 
d.  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  10,  1879.  He 
graduated  at  "Middlebury,  1827,  and  after 
teaching  for  thirty-five  years,  chiefly  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  Jerse}',  devoted  himself  in 
1862  to  prison  reform.  He  arranged  for  and 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  International  Con- 
gresses at  London,  1872,  and  at  Stockholm, 
1877.  Besides  sundry  reports,  and  the  work 
which  occupied  his  last  hours.  The  State  of 
Prisons  and  Child-sarinq  Tnstitutions  Through- 
out the  World.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1880,  he 
wrote  several  educational  and  religious  books, 
accounts  of  travel,  and  Commentaries  on  the 
Laws  of  the  Ancient  Ilebriwn,  New  York,  1852. 
6th  ed.,  Philadelphia.  1869.  F.  M.  B. 


Winfrid.     See  Boniface,  p.  114. 

Winslow,  Gordon,  D.D.  (St.  John's  Col- 
lege,  Annapolis,  1854),  M.D.  (hon.,  New  York 
University,  1863)  ;  b.  at  AVilliston,  Yt.,  Sept. 
12,  1803  ;  drowned  in  Potomac  River,  June 
7,  1864,  while  bringing  his  wounded  son. 
Colonel  Cleveland  Winslow  (Fifth  New 
York  Duryea  Zouaves),  from  Me(;hanicsville 
to  Alexandria.  Graduated  at  Yale,  1830  ;  at 
Yale  Theological  Seminary,  1833 ;  settled 
over  Congregational  Church,  Medford,  Mass., 
1834-35  ;  was  rector  of  St.  John's,  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  1836-39  ;  Trinity  Church,  Elmira, 
N.  Y.,  1839-41  ;  St.  Ann's,  Annapolis,  1841- 
45  ;  St.  Paul's,  Staten  Island,  and  chaplain 
of  Quarantine  till  outbreak  of  rebellion,  when 
with  both  his  sons  he  aided  toform  the  Fifth 
New  York  Volunteers,  one  of  them  going  as 
a  captain,  afterward  its  colonel  ;  the  other, 
Gordon,  Jr..  as  private,  subseciuently  captain 
in  the  reguhir  army,  fle  was  in  every  im- 
portant battle  from  Big  Bethel  to  Mechanics- 
ville  as  its  chaplain,  and  often  as  aide  to  the 
division  general.  With  Dr.  Bellows  and 
others  he  aided  in  establishing  the  Sanitary 
Commission,  and  became  its  inspector  for  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  At  Fredericksburgh 
he  selected  the  hospital  site  and  superintended 
the  transportation  of  the  wounded  across  the 
river.  W.  C.  Winslow. 

Winslow,  Hubbard,  D.D.  (Hamilton,  1857). 
Presbyterian  ;  b.  at  Willistou,  Yl.,  Oct.  30, 
1799  ;  d.  there,  Aug.  13.  1864.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  College,  1825,  and  at  Tale  Theologi- 
cal Department,  1828  ;  was  Congregational 
pastor  at  Dover,  N.  II.,  1828-32;  succe.s.sor 
of  Lyman  Beecher  over  the  Bowdoin  street 
church,  Boston,  1832-44  ;  principal  of  the 
3It.  Vernon  Institute  (for  young  ladies),  Bos- 
ton, 1844—54  ;  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  1857-69  ;  teacher  in 
New  York  Citv,  1860-61  ;  in  charge  of  the 
Fiftieth  street  Presbyterian  church,  1861-62  ; 
afterward  lived  without  a  charge  in  Brooklyn. 
From  1837  till  1840  he  edited  with  Jacob  Ab- 
bott and  Rev.  Dr.  Nehemiah  Adams,  the  Re- 
ligious Magazine,  Boston.  While  popular  as 
a  preacher,  successful  as  a  pastor,  and  es- 
teemed as  a  man,  it  was  as  an  author  that  he 
won  an  extensive  reputation.  His  first  book. 
Doctrine  of  the  Trin it y'  {Boston,  1831),  called 
out  a  hotter  from  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers, 
of  Eilinburgh,  saying  that  it  was  the  best 
treatise  published  upon  that  subject.  Young 
Man's  Aid,  Boston,  1836,  twice  repub.  in 
England,  had  a  sale  of  over  100,000  copies. 
The  little  manual.  Are  Yon  a  Chrixtian?  Bos- 
ton, 1837,  pub.  and  repub.  in  New  York, 
Cincinnati,  London,  Edinburgh,  I^iris,  etc., 
circulated  over  250.000  copies  in  the  English 
language  alone.  InteHectual  Philo.<<'>phi/,  Bos- 
ton, 1852.  hits  had  15  ed.,  and  Moral  Philoso- 
phy, New  York,  1856,  9  ed.  Other  books 
are  History  of  First  Church,  Dover,  N.  II., 
1831  ;  Con'trorersiiil  Theology,  Bo.ston.  1832  ; 
Philosophical  Tracts,  Boston,  1833  ;  Chris- 
iintuty  Applied  to  Our  Civil  and  Social  Rda- 
tioiis,  Boston,  1835  ;  Aids  to  Self- Ejumi nation, 
Boston,  1837  ;  Appropriate  Sphire  of  Wojnan, 
Bostcm,  1837.  also  repub.  as  Woman  as  She 
Should  Be  ;  Mental  Cultivation,  Boston,  1839  ; 


WINSLOW 


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WINSLOW 


Lectures  to  Sunday-scJwol  Teachers,  Boston. 
1839  ;  Relation  of  Natural  Sciences  to  liecela- 
tion,  Boston,  1839  ;  Design  and  Mode  of  Bap- 
tism, Boston,  1842 ;  Christian  Doctrines, 
Boston,  1844  ;  Hidden  Life,  American  Tract 
Society,  1863.  He  issued  besides  some  minor 
publications,  W.  C.  Winslow. 

Winslow,  Miron,  D.D.  (Harvard,  1858), 
LL.D.  (Middlebury,  Vt.,  1864),  missionary  of 
tlie  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  1819-64;  b.  at  Williston, 
Vt.,  Dec.  11,  1789  ;  d.  and  was  buried  at  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Oct.  23,  1864  ;  an  elder  brother 
of  Rev.  Dr.  Hubbard  Winslow.  While  a 
merchant  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  deeply  im- 
pressed with  the  obligation  to  preach  the  gos- 
pel to  the  heathen,  he  entered  the  Junior 
Class  of  Middlebury  College,  graduating  in 
1815  ;  studied  languages  at  Yale,  receiving 
A.M.  in  1818,  the  year  of  his  graduation  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  ;  then  devot- 
ing six  months  to  preaching  and  raising  funds 
for  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  He  published  the 
History  of  Missions,  Andover,  1819,  long  a 
standard  in  missionary  literature.  He  was 
ordained,  Nov.  4,  1818.  at  Salem,  Mass.,  with 
Messrs.  Spaulding,  Woodward,  and  Fisk— 
Prof essor  Moses  Stuart  preaching  the  sermon, 
which  was  published— and  on  Jan.  11,  1819, 
m.  Harriet  Wadsworth  Lathrop,  and  with 
Messrs.  Spaulding,  Woodward,  and  Scudder 
sailed  for  Calcutta  on  June  8.  He  reached 
Oadooville,  Ceylon,  July  4,  1820,  there  con- 
ducting (with  his  wife)  the  boarding  and  day 
school,  preaching,  and  doing  much  literary 
work  as  translator  and  correspondent.  His 
contributions  to  the  Missionary  Herald,  down 
to  the  last  year  of  his  life,  equal  in  amount 
several  large  volumes  and  are  historically  valu- 
able. His  interest  in  the  Batticotta  Seminary, 
established  1823,  was  great,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Duff 
and  his  colleagues  adopting  its  plan  at  Cal- 
cutta seven  years  later,  the  Madras  University 
conferring  its  first  degrees  of  B.A.  on  the 
seminary  graduates.  From  the  first  he  main- 
tained that  education  and  preaching,  particu- 
larly in  India,  must  go  hand  in  hand.  As 
late  as  1S56  he  advocated  it  at  the  meeting  of 
the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  in  Albany.  In  Oct.,  1834, 
he  sailed  for  the  United  States,  where  he 
awakened  deep  interest  in  missions  to  India. 
His  Memoir  of  Harriet  L.  Winsloic,  New 
York,  1835,  largely  a  history  of  the  Ceylon 
Mission,  was  adopted  as  a  standard  of  the 
American  Tract  Society,  twice  pub.  in  Eng- 
land, once  in  France,  and  issued  in  Turkey. 
On  April  23,  1835,  he  m.  Mrs.  Catherine 
Waterbury  Carman  ;  sailed  on  Nov.  16  for 
Madras,  proceeding  thence  to  Oodooville. 
On  Aug.  18,  1836,  he  founded  the  A.  B.  C. 
F.  M.  mission  in  Madras,  where  he  spent  the 
remaining  twenty-eight  years  of  his  life.  Mrs. 
Winslow  d.  of  cholera,  Sept.  23.  1837  ;  on 
Sept.  12,  1838,  he  m.  Annie  Spiers,  daughter 
of  Hon.  Archibald  Spiers,  of  the  East  India 
Board,  granddaughter  of  Lord  Dundas  ;  she 
d.  June  20,  1843.  Soon  after  his  arrival  at 
Madras  he  was  engaged  in  translating  the 
Bible  into  Tamil  ;  later,  as  executive  secre- 
tary of  the  Madras  Bible  Society,  he  was  en- 
gaged in  its  revision,  and  in  Nov.,  1850,  an- 
nounced that  the  new  version  was  finished. 


He  published  Occasional  Reports  of  the  Mad- 
ras Mission.  Eleven  vernacular  schools  and 
an  English  high  school  (sometimes  classed 
as  a  native  college)  had  been  established  ; 
431  pupils  attending  at  one  time  the  former, 
and  over  200,  including  Brahmans  and  high 
caste  natives,  the  latter.  The  printing-press, 
established  1838,  did  a  mighty  work  ;  from 
1838  to  1864  were  printed  228,417,018  pages 
of  Scripture,  105,993,626  pages  of  tracts,  110,- 
206,376  pages  of  other  publications — a  total 
of  444,617,020  pages.  On  March  12,  1845,  he 
m.  Mrs.  Mary  W.  Dwight,  widow  of  Rev. 
Robert  O.  Dwight,  D.D.,  of  the  Madras  Mis- 
sion ;  she  d.  April  20.  1852.  In  1856-57, 
while  stirring  up  fresh  interest  in  the  United 
States  in  the  missions  to  India,  by  his  dis- 
courses and  addresses  on  memorable  occasions, 
he  published  Missions  to  India,  "  with  notices 
of  some  proceedings  of  a  deputation  from  the 
American  Board,  and  of  reports  to  it  from  the 
missions,"  M.  W.  Dodd.  New  York,  1856. 
On  May  20,  1857,  he  m.  at  Boston,  Ellen  Au- 
gusta Reed,  who  still  (1891)  survives  him. 
They  sailed  for  Madras  on  Aug.  12  (?),  1857. 

Dr.  Winslow 's  great  literary  achievement 
was  the  publication,  in  1862,  at  the  mission 
press  of  A  Comprehensive  Tamil  and  English 
Dictionary  of  High  and  Loio  Tamil,  upon 
which  he  had  labored  much  of  his  time  for 
twenty  years,  and  which  was  in  press  from 
1853  to  1862.  Aside  from  other  matter  the 
quarto  contains  976  pages,  three  columns  to 
a  page,  costing  to  publish  $15,000  to  $20,000  ; 
priced  by  Trlibner,  London,  at  £3  13s.  6(Z. 
per  copy.  Excepting  Wilson's  Sanskrit  lex- 
icon it  is  the  most  complete  of  all  the  dic- 
tionaries of  the  Indian  languages,  containing 
67,452  words  with  definitions,  of  which  30,551 
for  the  first  time  appear  in  Tamil-English 
lexicography.  It  embraces  both  the  common 
and  poetic  dialects,  mythological,  astronomi- 
cal, astrological,  botanical,  and  other  scientific 
terms,  names  of  authors,  poets,  heroes,  and 
gods,  and  versions  of  numerous  idioms  and 
phrases.  It  initiates  the  learner,  not  only  into 
the  language,  but  largely  into  the  philoso- 
phies, sciences,  customs,  traditions,  and  super- 
stitions of  the  Hindus.  Scholars,  mission- 
aries, government  oflficials  in  India,  and  Ori- 
entalists deeply  appreciated  Dr.  Winslow 's 
labors  and  his  dictionary  as  "  a  work  of  na- 
tional importance."  The  Arcot  Mission  of 
the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  echoed  their 
voice  in  saying,  "  We  regard  this  work  as  a 
noble  contribution  to  Oriental  literature,  a 
boon  to  all  students  and  laborers  in  the  Tamil 
field,  and  a  crown  of  honor  to  its  author." 
Dr.  Winslow  and  his  wife  left  Madras  for  the 
United  States  on  Aug.  29.  1864  ;  owing  to 
prostration  he  was  landed  at  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  on  Oct.  20  ;  his  remains  lie  in  the  ceme- 
tery near  those  of  Dr.  Scudder,  his  associate 
for  many  years  in  missionary  work.  As  he 
was  about  to  die  he  said,  as  his  last  words, 
"  God  calls — heaven  is  near — my  peace  is 
full."  W.  C.  Winslow. 

Winslow,  William  Copley,  M.A.  (Hobart, 
1865),  Ph.D.  (Hamilton.  1886),  LL.D.  (St. 
Andrew's  University.  Scotland.  1886),  D.D. 
(Amherst,  1887),  L.H.D.  (Columbia  [New 
York]  College,  centenary,  1887),  S.T.D.  (Gris- 


WISDOM 


(977; 


WITHERSPOON 


wold  College,  Iowa,  1887),  Sc.D.  (St.  John's 
College  [Annapolis,  Md.],  centenary,  1888), 
D.C.L.  (King's  College  University,  Canada, 
1888),  Episcopalian,  sou  of  Hubbard,  archaeol- 
ogist and  popular  Egyptologist  ;  b.  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  13,  18-10  ;  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College,  New  York,  1862  ;  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York  City,  186.")  ; 
was  rector  of  St.  George's  Church,  Lee,  Mass., 
1867-70  ;  since  has  resided  in  Boston.  His 
time  and  strength  have  been  freely  given  to 
the  Egyptian  E.vploration  Fund  since  its  or- 
ganization in  1883,  tirst  as  honorary  treasurer 
for  the  United  States,  and  since  188r)  as  vice- 
president.  Its  success  is  due  in  large  measure 
to  his  enthusiasm  and  zeal.  Through  his  in- 
strumentality man}'  splendid  gifts  from  the 
Fund  were  secured  for  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts,  including  a  colossal  statue  of 
Rameses  II.,  and  the  only  piece  of  gold  plate 
of  the  temple  .service  of  the  Pharaohs  in  any 
European  or  American  museum.  He  is  hon- 
orary fellow  of  the  Royal  Archaeological  So- 
ciety, and  correspondent  of  various  foreign 
bodies.  He  has  written  many  articles  and  de- 
livered many  lectures  upon  archteological  sub- 
jects, and  has  in  these  ways  done  a  great  work 
in  popularizing  them,  especially  Egyptology. 

Wisdom  of  Solomon.     See  Pseudepigra- 
PH.\  AND  Apocrypha,  p.  775. 

Wiseman,     Nicholas     Patrick     Stephen, 

S.T.D.  (Rome,  1824),  Roman  Catholic  cardi- 
nal ;  b.  at  Seville,  Spain,  of  Irish  parents, 
Aug.  2,  1802  ;  d.  in  London,  Feb.  15,  1865. 
He  was  educated  at  Waterford,  at  Durham, 
and  in  the  English  college  at  Rome,  of  which 
he  became  rector,  1828.  Graduating,  1824, 
he  took  priest's  orders,  1825,  and  was  for 
some  years  professor  of  Oriental  languages  in 
the  Roman  University.  Returning  to  "Eng- 
land, 1835,  he  founded  the  Dublin  Review  ; 
won  repute  as  a  preacher,  writer,  and  dis- 
putant ;  was  made  bishop  of  Melipotamos  in 
pnrtibus  ;  coadjutor  of  the  Midland  district, 
and  president  of  St.  Mary's  College,  Oscott, 
1840  ;  labored  for  the  restoration  of  the  Ro- 
man hierarchy  in  England  ;  became  pro-vicar 
apostolic  of  the  London  district,  1848,  and 
vicar,  1849  ;  archbishop  of  Westminster,  Sept. 
30,  1850,  and  cardinal  Oct.  1.  The  last  ap- 
pointments caused  much  excitement,  and 
called  forth  the  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Act, 
which  was  repealed,  1872.  Dr.  Wiseman  was 
able  and  active  in  his  official  duties  and  in 
authorship.  Besides  his  most  important 
work.  Lectures  on  the  Connection  between  .Sci- 
ence and  Rvealed  Belir/ion,  London,  1836,  2 
vols.,  5th  ed.,  1853,  reprinted  twice  in  Ameri- 
ca, he  wrote  Jlor(E  Si/riaca.  Rome,  1828  ; 
Doctrines  und  Practices  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
London.  1836,  latest  ed. ,  1888  :  The  Real  Pres- 
ence, 1836  ;  The  Catholic  Hierarchy,  1850  ; 
Esmi/s,  1853,  3  vols.,  latest  ed.,  IHSH,  1  vol.; 
Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes,  1858  ; 
Daily  M.ditations,  1868;  some  plavs  (TJie 
Hidden  deal  [drama  in  2  acts].  1859  ;  The 
Witch  of  Rosenburg,  1866,  etc.),  and  a  novel 
of  merit,  Fahiola,  1855,  later  ed.  and  reprints. 
His  works  were  collected  in  a  New  York 
edition.  1872-74,  14  vols.  ;  hislife  was  written 
by  George  White,  London,  1865.    F.  M.  B. 


Wishart,  George,  martyr  of  the  Scottish 
Reformation  ;  b.  about  1513,  perhaps  at  Pit- 
tarow%  Forfarshire  ;  d.  at  St.  Andrew's, 
March  1,  1546.  Nothing  is  certainly  known 
of  his  early  life,  and  too  little  of  his  later 
years.  In  1538,  being  master  of  a  grammar 
school  at  Montrose,  he  was  summoned  by 
Hepburn,  bishop  of  Brechin,  to  account  for 
teaching  his  pupils  the  Greek  Testament,  and 
escaped  to  England.  For  preaching  against 
Mariolatry  at  Bristol,  1539.  he  was  forced  to 
recant  and  do  public  penance.  The  next  few 
years  were  probably  spent  abroad,  but  in 
1543-44  he  was  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge.  Thence  he  returned  to  Scotland, 
and  preached  in  Montrose,  Dundee,  Ayrshire, 
Perth,  and  finally  in  East  Lothian,  where  he 
found  a  ready  hearer  in  John  Knox,  then  a 
private  tutor  in  the  neighborhood.  Arrested 
at  Ormiston,  and  defended  vainly  by  Knox, 
he  was  tried  for  heresy  in  Cardinal  Beaton's 
court,  and  burned  at  the  stake.  During  his 
agony  he  predicted  Beaton's  death  "  within 
a  few  days."  This  fact,  connected  with  the 
cardinal's  assassination  some  three  months 
later,  gave  rise  to  the  charge  that  Wishart 
was  privy  to  the  plot  ;  but  this  has  been  re- 
futed by  D.  Laing,  in  his  edition  of  Knox, 
vol.  i.,  p.  536.  (See  Wishart's  life,  by  C. 
Rogers,  Edinburgh,  1866.)  F.  M.  B. 

Witchcraft.  The  belief  that  certain  per- 
sons by  compact  with  evil  spirits  possess  su- 
pernatural or  magical  powers,  has  been  preva- 
lent in  all  ages  down  to  our  own,  and  has  not 
yet  disappeared  from  all  portions  of  the  earth. 
Laws  against  witchcraft  were  found  in  the 
Twelve  Tables,  and  passed  thence  into  med- 
ijEval  and  ecclesiastical  law.  In  England 
laws  were  enacted  in  the  reigns  of  even  Eliza- 
beth and  James  I.  against  witchcraft,  and 
trials  continued  till  1712,  when  a  conviction 
was  secured,  but  was  not  followed  by  execu- 
tion. The  great  historic  example  of  trials  for 
witchcraft  in  America  is  that  of  Salem,  Mass. 
It  began  in  excitement  over  the  subject  in 
Boston  in  1688.  In  1692  cases  of  supposed 
witchcraft  occurred  in  Salem,  and  great  ex- 
citement was  created.  Many  old  and  defence- 
less women  were  executed.  The  most  distin- 
guished victim  was  the  Rev.  George  Bur- 
roughs, who  was  executed,  though  he  dis- 
proved his  guilt  according  to  the  theory  of  the 
times  by  repeating  the  Lord's  Prayer  without 
a  mistake  at  the  foot  of  the  scaffold.  On  the 
whole,  20  persons  were  put  lo  death,  55  had 
been  tortured  or  terrified  into  confession,  150 
prisoners  were  in  jail  awaiting  trial,  when 
the  sound  sense  of  the  people  was  at  last 
roused,  and  in  1693  so  far  prevailed  that 
strong  efforts  made  to  convict  a  certain  Sarah 
Daston  resulted  in  her  acquittal,  and  in  the 
end  of  the  witchcraft  delusion.  (See  Soldan, 
Geschichte  der  Ilexenprozcxse,  Stuttuart.  1843, 
n.e.,  H.  Heppe,  1880,  2  vols.;  C.  W.  Upham, 
The  Salnn  Witchcraft.  Boston,  1867,  2  vols.) 
F.  H.  F. 

Witherspoon,  John,  D.D.  (Aberdeen,  1764), 

LL.I).    ( ,    17—),    Presbyterian;    b.   at 

Yester,  near  Edinburgh,  Feb.  5.  1722  ;  d. 
near  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Nov.  15,  1794.  He 
graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  ;  became 


WITNESS 


(978) 


WOLFF 


minister  at  Beith,  1744  ;  Paisley,  1757  ;  presi- 
dpnt  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  1768.  He 
took  the  conservative  side  in  Scottish  con- 
troversies of  the  time.  He  raised  the  college 
from  a  low  to  a  high  estate,  and  powerfully 
influenced  Presbyterian  ideas  and  practice. 
As  an  American  patriot  his  services  in  Con- 
gress (1776-83)  and  out  of  it  were  great.  He 
was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  Of  his  writings  may  be  men- 
tioned Ecclesiastical  Characteristics;  or,  the 
Arcana  of  Church  Policy ;  being  a  Humble 
Attempt  to  Open  the  Mystery  of  Moderation, 
Glasgow,  1753  ;  an  able  Essay  on  the  Connec- 
tion between  the  Doctrine  of  Justification  by  the 
Imputed  Righteousness  of  Christ,  and  Holiness 
of  Life,  1756  ;  A  Serious  Inquiry  into  the 
Nature  and  Effects  of  the  Stage  ;  being  an  At- 
tempt to  Shoio  that  Contributing  to  the  Support 
of  a  Public  Theatre  is  Inconsistent  with  the 
Character  of  a  Christian,  1757  (apropos  of 
Rev.  John  Home's  Tragedy  of  Douglas,  1756)  ; 
and  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Regeneration, 
London,  1764.  His  collected  works  appeared 
in  New  York,  1800-01,  4  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Phila- 
delphia, 1802  ;  and  in  Edinburgh,  1815,  9 
vols.  ;  his  Select  Works,  London,  1804,  2  vols. 
(See  his  life  by  S.  S.  Smith,  New  York,  1795.) 
A  colossal  statue  of  him  was  unveiled  in  Fair- 
mouut  Park,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  20, 
1876  ;  see  Proceedings  attd  Addresses,  edited 
by  W.  P.  Breed,  Philadelphia  (Presbyterian 
Board),  1877. 

Witness,  one  who  testifies.  The  Mosaic 
law  required  two  witnesses  or  three  to  con- 
vict a  person  charged  with  a  capital  crime 
(Num.  XXXV.  30),  and  if  the  criminal  were 
stoned,  they  must  cast  the  first  stones  (Deut. 
xvii.  7).  A  false  witness  was  to  suffer  the 
penalty  his  testimony  might  have  brought  on 
the  accused  (Deut.  xix.  19). 

John  frequently  presents  the  gospel  as 
"witness"  (1  John  v.  9),  and  our  Lord  is 
called  "the  faithful  witness"  (Rev.  i.  5,  iii. 
14).  The  chief  function  of  the  apostles  was 
that  of  "witnesses"  (Acts  i.  8.  22,  ii.  32). 
The  "witness  of  the  Spirit  with  our  spirit" 
(Rom.  viii.  16)  is  the  concurrent  testimony 
with  the  believer's  consciousness  which  the 
Holy  Ghost  gives  him  that  he  is  a  child  of 
,  God.  T.  W.  C. 

Witsius,  Hermann,  b.  at  Enkhuysen,  Hol- 
land, Feb.  12,  1636  ;  d.  at  Leyden,  Oct.  22, 
1708  ;  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at 
Franeker,  1675 ;  at  Utrecht.  1680,  and  at 
Leyden,  1698,  and  published  De  aconomia 
foiderum  Dei  cum  hominibus,  Leeuwarden, 
1677.  4th  ed.,  Basel,  1739,  Eng.  trans.,  2'he 
CEconomy  of  the  Covenants  between  Ood  and 
Man,  London,  1763,  new  trans..  Edinburgh, 
1771-72,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1803,  3  vols.,  n.e.,  Lon- 
don, 1840,  2  vols.,  which  is  an  attempt  to 
reconcile  the  orthodox  and  the  federalists. 
Other  works  translated  are,  A  Treatise  on 
Christian  Faith,  London,  1761  ;  Conciliatory 
.  .  .  Animadversions  on.  .  .  Antinomians  and 
Neonomians,  Glasgow,  1807  ;  Sacred  Disserta- 
tions on  .  .  ,  tlie  Ajwstles'  Creed,  1823,  3  vols. ; 
Sacred  Dissertations  on  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
Edinburgh,  1839  ;  An  Essay  on  the  Efficacy  of 
Baptism,  Edinburgh,  1852 ;  On  the  Character 


of  a  True  Theologian,  1877  ;  TM  Question  : 
Was  Moses  the  Author  of  tJie  Pentateuch? 
1877.  There  is  a  life  of  Witsius  prefixed  to  the 
trans,  of  his  (Economy. 

Wodrow,  Robert,  Church  of  Scotland  ;  b. 
at  Glasgow,  1679  ;  d.  at  Eastwood,  near  Glas- 
gow, March  21, 1734.  He  studied  at  Glasgow 
University  ;  was  librarian  there  for  a  time, 
and  minister  of  Eastwood,  1703-34.  His  His- 
tory of  the  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution,  Edin- 
burgh, 1721-22,  3  vols,  (rep.,  1829-30),  is  a 
work  of  high  value.  His  Collections  upon  the 
Lives  of  the  Reformers,  etc.,  appeared,  Glas- 
gow, 1834-45,  in  3  vols.,  and  Anecdota  in  4 
vols.,  1842-43.  (See  his  life,  by  his  son, 
Edinburgh,  1828,  and  Correspondence,  edited 
by  McCrie,  and  published  in  3  vols,  by  the 
Wodrow  Society,  1842-43.)  F.  M.  B. 

Wolf,  Edmund  Jacob,  D.D.  (Franklin  and 
Marshall  College,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1876),  Lu- 
theran (General  Synod)  ;  b.  near  Rebersburg, 
Centre  County,  Pa..  Dec.  8,  1840  ;  studied 
theology  in  Gettysburg  Theological  Semi- 
nary ;  at  Tubingen  and  Erlangen  ;  had  vari- 
ous pastoral  charges,  and  became,  in  1873, 
professor  of  church  history  and  New  Testa- 
ment exegesis  at  Gettysburg.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  The  Drama  of  Providence  on  the  Eve 
of  the  Reformation,  Gettysburg,  1884  ;  The 
Lutherans  in  America,  New  York,  1890. 

Wolf,  Johann  Christoph,'  b.  at  Wernige- 
rode,  Prussian  Sa.xouy,  Feb.  31,  1683  ;  d.  at 
Hamburg,  July  35,  1739  ;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  at  the  gymnasium 
in  Hamburg,  1713,  and  published  Bibliotheca 
Hebraa,  Hamburg,  1715-33,  4  vols.,  an  excel- 
lent work  of  Hebrew  bibliography. 

Wolfenbiittel  Fragments  is  the  name  of  a 
series  of  critical  essays  on  the  gospel  historj'', 
written  from  a  purely  deistical  standpoint, 
and  published  by  Lessing  in  his  Zur  Oeschichte 
und  Literatur.  Aus  den  Schdtzen  der  herzog- 
lichen  BibliotJiek  zu  Wolfenbuttel,  Brunswick, 
1778-81,  3  vols.  As  this  publication  was  ex- 
empted from  the  supervision  of  the  ducal  cen- 
sor, it  was  possible  to  issue  the  essays,  but 
tlie  indignation  they  created  among  the 
orthodox  party  and  the  violent  attacks  they 
called  forth  caused  the  duke  to  deprive  Les- 
sing of  the  privilege.  After  Lessing 's  death 
collected  editions  of  the  fragments  appeared  in 
Berlin,  1784  and  1787,  and  have  been  several 
times  reprinted.  The  author  was  at  first  not 
known,  but  it  has  now  been  established  be- 
yond doubt  that  he  was  Reimarus  (q.v.). 

Wolflf,  Christian,  b.  at  Breslau,  Jan.  24, 
1679  ;  d.  at  Halle,  April  9.  1754  ;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle  in 
1706  ;  summarily  dismissed  and  ordered  out 
of  the  Prussian  dominion  in  1733,  but  re- 
called in  1740  and  again  installed  with  great 
pomp.  Though  professor  of  philosophy  and 
principally  lecturing  on  metaphysics,  logic, 
etc.,  he  has  by  his  Vernilnftige  Gedanken  von 
der  Menschen  Than  und  Lassen,  1719,  and 
Vernunftige  Oedanken  von  Gott,  der  Welt, 
und  der  Seele,  Halle,  1730,  exercised  great  in- 
fluence on  Protestant  theology.  It  was  from 
him  that  Rationalism  borrowed    its   leading 


WOLFF 


(979) 


WOODS 


ideas  about  natural  religion  ;  its  principle,  tliat 
reason  is  the  arbiter  iu  any  coiitlict  between 
revelation  and  experience,  its  method,  and  a 
number  of  its  catch-words.  C.  P. 

Wolflf;  Joseph,  D.D.  ( .  18—),  LL.D. 

( ,  18 — ),  missionary  ;  b.  at  Weilersbach, 

near  Bamberg,  Germany,  1795  ;  d.  at  Isle 
Brewers,  Somersetshire,  May  2,  1863.  The 
son  of  a  rabbi,  he  was  baptized  by  a  monk  at 
Prague,  1812  ;  studied  at  Vienna  and  Tiibin- 
gen,  and  spent  three  years  at  Rome  ;  but  en- 
tered the  Church  of  England,  1819  ;  studied 
Oriental  tongues  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1821 
was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  the  Jews.  The 
record  of  liis  travels  and  perils  is  contained  in 
his  Mini^ioimyy  Jonrnal  <ind  Memoir,  London, 
1824,  2d  ed.,  1827-29.  3  vols.;  Researches  and 
Missionary  Labors,  Malta,  1835,  2d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1835  ;  Journal,  London,  1839  ;  Narratiee 
of  a  Mission  to  Bokhara,  1845,  2  vols.,  7th  ed., 
Edinburgli,  1852  ;  Trarels  and  Adventures. 
London,l860,  2  vols.  The  fourth  describes  a 
dangerous  expedition,  undertaken  at  the  de- 
sire of  the  government,  wherein  WoUf  near- 
ly lost  his  life.  He  was  ordained  deacon  by 
Bishop  Doane  during  a  visit  to  America,  1837, 
and  priest  in  Dublin,  1838.  After  this  he 
held  two  curacies  in  Yorkshire,  and  from 
1845  was  vicar  of  Isle  Brewers.  (See  his  life, 
by  H.  M.  Sengelmann,  Hamburg,  1863.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Wollaston,  William,  Church  of  England  ; 
b.  at  Coton  Clanford,  Staifordshire,  March 
26.  1659  ;  d.  in  London,  Oct.  22.  1724.  He 
studied  at  Sidney  College,  Cambridge  ;  taught 
at  Birmingham,'l 681-88  ;  was  ordained,  1686  ; 
inherited  a  large  fortune.  1688,  and  gave  him- 
self to  philosophic  pursuits  in  London.  His 
Religion  of  Xature  Delineated,  privately 
printed,  London,  1722,  anonymously  pub- 
lished, 1724,  was  highly  valued  by  Bishop 
Butler  and  Queen  Caroline,  and  reached  an 
8th  ed.,  1759,  with  a  life  prefixed.  It  held 
truth  to  be  the  supreme  good  and  the  basis 
of  virtue.  "Wollaston  also'  wrote,  but  soon 
suppressed,  a  poem  on  Ecclesiastes.  1691. 

F.  M.  B. 

Wolsey,  Thomas,  cardinal  and  lord  chan- 
cellor ;  b.  at  Ipswich,  69  ra.  n.e.  of  London, 
1471  or  later  ;  d.  at  Leicester,  Nov.  29,  1530. 
He  was  a  student  and  fellow  of  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  and  rector  of  Lymington, 
Somerset,  1500  ;  chaplain  to  Henry  VII., 
1505.  A  skilfully  executed  embassy  to  the 
Emperor  Maximilian,  1507,  was  followed  by 
other  missions,  and  he  became  dean  of  Lin- 
coln, Feb.,  1509.  Under  Henry  VIII.  he  rose 
with  unexampled  rapidity,  and  preferments 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  were  heaped  upon  him, 
especially  after  he  had  organized  the  expedi- 
tion against  France  in  1513.  He  became 
king's  almoner,  1509  ;  privy  councillor,  1511, 
and  lord  chancellor,  1515  ;  "bishop  of  Lincoln 
and  archbishop  of  York,  1514,  to  which  was 
added  the  see  of  Bath,  1518.  exchanged  for 
Durham,  1523.  and  that  for  Winchester, 
1529  ;  cardinal,  1515,  and  papal  legate.  1519  '; 
abbot  of  St.  Alban's,  1521  ;  ambassador  to 
Charles  V..  1521.  and  to  Francis  I.,  1527. 
His  wealth  and  pomp  were  hardly  inferior  to 


the  king's,  and  with  these  two  "  there  was 
no  distinction  between  public  ami  private 
money."  He  was  a  royal  patron  of  learn- 
ing ;  as  prime  minister  he  raised  England 
from  a  third  to  a  first-class  power.  But  his- 
statesmanship  and  his  reforms,  no  less  than 
his  riches  and  dignities,  roused  general  hatred, 
from  which  only  the  royal  favor  defended 
him.  His  failure  to  gain  the  pope's  assent  to 
the  divorce  from  Queen  Katherine  (which  he 
disapproved,  but  sought  with  desperate  zeal 
and  t)y  the  basest  means  to  procure)  caused 
his  ruin.  In  Oct..  1529,  he  was  deprived  of 
the  great  seal  with  his  property  and  places, 
and  found  guilty  in  pnpmunire.  In  Feb., 
1530.  he  was  pardoned  and  restored  to  the 
archbishopric  of  York,  but  in  Nov.  he  was 
arrested  for  high  treason,  and  died  on  his  way 
to  the  Tower.  (See  the  lives  of  him  by 
George  Cavendish,  London,  1641  ;  best  ed.  in 
vol.  i.  of  Ecclisiastical  Biography,  1810  ;  rep., 
1885  ;  R.  Fiddes,  1724  ;  J.  Grove.  1742-44  ; 
J.  Gait,  1812  ;  G.  Howard,  1824,  and  C.  Mar- 
tin, Oxford,  1862  ;  M.  Creighton,  1888.) 

F.  M.  B. 

Woman  is  spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  the 
companion  and  helpmeet,  not  the  servant,  of 
man,  created  as  his  necessary  complement 
(Gen.  ii.  18-24),  and  though  subordinate  in 
sphere  (Gen.  iii.  16,  1  Cor.  xi.  3,  8,  9,  xiv.  34, 
35.  1  Tim.  ii.  11-14),  yet  as  necessary  in  her 
spliere  as  man  is  in  his.  The  Bible  raised 
the  Jewish  woman  higli  above  the  women  of 
heathenism,  and  Christianity  emphasizes  the 
contrast,  forbidding  polygamy,  and,  save  for 
one  cause,  divorce,  declaring  that  male  and 
female  are  one  in  Christ  and  requiring  a  hus- 
band to  love  and  cherish  his  wife  as  himself. 

The  Hebrew  women  sat  at  table  with  the 
men  (Ruth  ii.  14, 1  Sam.  i.  7-9),  and  are  often 
mentioned  as  interested  in  national  affairs 
(Judges  xi.  34,  xxi.  21.  1  Sam.  ii.  18),  some- 
times in  places  of  authority  (Judges  iv.  4,  2 
Kings  xi.  3),  at  others  as  "prophetesses  (Ex. 
XV.  20,  2  Kings  xxii.  14,  Neh.  vi.  14,  Luke  ii. 
36).  But  they  were  chiefly  emjiloyed  in  do- 
mestic duties,  bringing  water  from  the  well 
(Gen.  xxiv.  15),  preparing  meals  (2  Sam.  xiii. 
8),  making  clothes  (Prov.  xxxi.  21),  etc. 

The  New  Testament  foresliadows  the  activ- 
ity of  the  sex  in  Christian  service,  as  shown 
in  the  experience  of  the  church  (Luke  xxiii. 
55,  Acts  xvi.  15,  Rom.  xvi.  1-3.  6.  12.  Phil, 
iv.  3,  1  Tim.  v.  10)  ;  and  they  seem  to  fulfil 
tlie  Revised  Version  of  Ps.  Ixviii.  11,  "The 
Lord  giveth  the  Word  ;  the  women  that  pub- 
lish the  tidings  are  a  great  host."  T.  W.  C. 

Woods,  Leonard,  D.D.  (Dartmouth,  1810), 
Congregatioualist  ;  b.  at  Princeton.  Mass., 
June  19,  1774  ;  d.  at  Amherst,  Aug.  24,  1854. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1796,  and  was  pas- 
tor at  Xewljury.  !Mass.,  1798-1808,  and  pro- 
fe.'^sorof  theology  at  Andover.  1808-46.  Rev. 
Dr.  H.  B.  Smiili,  one  of  his  pupils,  called 
him  "emphatically  the  judicious  divine  of 
later  New  England  theology."  He  was  a 
founder  of  the  American  Tract,  Education, 
and  Temperance  Societies  and  of  the  A.  B.  C. 
F.  M.  He  defended  Calvinism  against  Dr. 
Ware.  1821-22,  and  attacked  Mahan's  doc- 
trine of  perfection.   1841.     Besides  these  he 


WOLSET 


(980) 


WORSHIP 


wrote  Letters  to  Unitarians,  Andover,  1820  ; 
The  Objection  to  the  Inspiration  of  the  Evangelists 
and  Apostles  from  their  Manner  of  quoting  Texts 
from  the  Old  Testament,  1834  ;  Baptism,  1829  ; 
Letters  to  N.  W.  Taylor.  1830  ;  Church  Gov- 
ernment, New  york,  1844  ;  Sioedenborgianism, 
1846,  aad  T heology  of  the  Puritans,  1851.  His 
class  lectures  appeared  in  Andover,  1849-50, 
5  vols.  His  liistor}"  of  Andover  was  never 
completed,  but  was  issued,  Boston,  1884.  His 
son,  Leonard  Woods,  Jr.,  D.D.  (Harvard, 
1846),  LL.D.  (Bowdoin,  1866) ;  b.  at  Newbury, 
Mass..  Nov.  24,  1807  ;  d.  in  Boston,  Dec.  24, 
1878.  He  graduated  at  Union,  1827,  and  at 
Andover,  1830  ;  was  ordained,  1883,  and  edited 
the  New  York  Literary  and  Theological  Review, 
1833-36  ;  was  professor  of  sacred  literature 
at  Bangor,  1836-39,  and  president  of  Bowdoin 
College,  1839-66,  after  which  he  went  abroad 
to  gather  materials  for  a  documentary  history 
of  Maine  ;  much  of  these  were  destroyed  by 
fire,  1874.  He  translated  Knapp's  Lectures  on 
Theology,  Andover  and  New  York,  1831-33, 
2  vols.,  and  had  a  high  reputation  for  elo- 
quence and  varied  accomplishments,  but  wrote 
nothing  on  a  large  scale.  F.  M.  B. 

Wolsey,  Theodore  Dwight,  D.D.  (Har- 
vard, 1847),  LL.D.  (Wesleyau  University. 
Middletown,  Conn.,  1845;  Harvard,  1886), 
Congregationalist  ;  b.  in  New  York,  Oct.  31, 
1801  ;  d.  at  New  Haven,  July  1,  1889  ;  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College,  1820  ;  studied  law  in 
New  York,  1820-21,  and  theology  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  1821-23  ;  spent 
several  years  in  France  and  Germany,  and 
was  in  1831  appointed  professor  of  Greek  in 
Yale  College,  and  in  1846  chosen  its  president, 
from  which  position  he  retired  into  private 
life  in  1871.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Ameri- 
can Company  of  Revision  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 1871-8"l.  Besides  editions  of  the  clas- 
sics he  wrote  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  In- 
ternational Law,  Boston,  1860.  6th  ed.,  New 
York,  1891  ;  Divorce,  New  York,  1869,  2d 
ed.,  1882;  Political  Science,  1877,  2  vols.; 
Communism  and  Socialism  in  their  History 
aiid  Theory,  1880. 

Woolston,  Thomas,  b.  at  Northampton, 
England,  1669  ;  d.  in  London,  1732  ;  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  obtained  a  fel- 
lowship there.  After  attracting  an  unenviable 
attention  by  some  other  writings,  he  pub- 
lished, London,  1727-29,  six  discourses  On  the 
Miracles  of  Our  Saviour,  which,  on  account  of 
their  tone  of  ridicule,  gave  so  much  offence  that 
he  was  prosecuted  by  the  attorney-general, 
tried,  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  one  year's 
imprisonment  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  £100.  Be- 
ing unable  to  pay  the  fine,  he  remained  in 
prison  and  died  there  shortly  after.  There  is 
some  reason,  however,  for  believing  that  his 
mind  was  diseased.  (See  his  life,  London, 
1733.) 

Worcester,   Samuel,   D.D.   ( ,   18—), 

b.  at  HoUis,  N.  H.,  Nov.  1,  1770  ;  d.  at  Brain 
ard,  Tenn.,  June  7,  1821  ;  was  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  1795,  and  licensed  to 
preach,  1796  ;  held  various  pastoral  charges, 
and  became,  in  1810,  corresponding  secretary 
of  the  American  Board,  which  arduous  task 
he  fulfilled  to  his  death.     Among  his  writings 


the  most  notable  are  his  three  letters  to  the 
Rev.  William  £.  Channing  on  Unitarianism, 
Boston,  1815.  (See  his  memoir,  by  his  son, 
Boston,  1852,  2  vols.) 

Word,  The  (Logos),  is  one  of  the  titles  of 
Jesus  Christ.  Just  as  we  express  ourselves 
by  words,  so  does  God  express  himself 
through  his  Word.  The  phrase  was  used 
with  significance  in  the  Old  Testament  (1  Sam. 
iii.  1,  21,  Ps.  xxxiii.  6,  9),  but  in  the  New  is 
employed  by  John  (i.  1-14,  1  John  i.  1,  Rev. 
xix.  13)  to  set  forth  the  co-existent  Son  of 
the  Father,  who  created  all  things  and  in  the 
fulness  of  time  became  incarnate.  This  con- 
ception was  not  borrowed  from  Philo,  because 
Philo's  Word  is  an  impersonal  abstraction, 
specifically  and  widely  different  from  the  pro- 
found thought  of  the  beloved  disciple. 

T.  W.  C. 

Wordsworth,  Christopher,  the  youngest 
brother  of  the  poet  ;  b.  at  Cockermouth, 
Cumberland,  England,  June  9,  1774  ;  d.  at 
Buxted,  Sussex,  Feb.  2,  1846  ;  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  became 
its  master  and  rector  of  Buxted  in  1820.  He 
published  Ecclesiastical  Biography,  London, 
1810,  6  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1853,  4  vols. 

Wordsworth,  Christopher,  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  b.  at  Booking,  Oct.  30,  1807  ;  d.  at 
Lincoln,  March  21,  1885.  He  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  1830  ;  was  fellow  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, 1830-36  ;  became  head, master  of  Har- 
row School,  1836  ;  canon  of  Westminster, 
1844  ;  bishop,  1869.  A  list  of  his  works  will 
be  found  in  the  Encyclopcedia  of  Living  Di- 
vines, now  incorporated  with  the  Schaff-Her- 
zog.  His  principal  work  is  The  Oreek  Testa- 
ment, tcith  Prefaces,  Introductions,  and  Notes. 
London,  1856-60,  4  parts,  2d  ed.,  1872.  His 
son  John  (b.  at  Harrow,  Sept.  21,  1843  ;  edu- 
cated at  Oxford  ;  Oriel  professor  of  the  in- 
terpretation of  Holy  Scripture  there,  1883-85) 
became  bishop  of  Salisbury,  1885. 

Worms,  a  city  of  Hesse,  stands  on  the 
Rhine  and  has  about  15,000  inhabitants.  It 
is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Germany,  flour- 
ishing long  before  the  arrival  of  the  Romans. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  a  free  city  of 
the  empire,  and  had  in  the  12th  century  more 
than  50,000  inhabitants.  Before  the  Diet, 
held  there  in  1521,  Luther  appeared,  April 
17,  and  the  next  day  he  delivered  the  famous 
speech  in  which  he  refused  to  retract  one 
single  word  of  what  he  had  written,  and 
which  he  wound  up  with  the  words  :  "  Here 
I  stand.  I  can  do  no  otherwise.  So  help  me 
God.  Amen."  In  1541  a  colloquy  took 
place  here  between  the  Roman  Catholics  and 
the  Protestants,  presided  over  by  Cardinal 
Granvella,  but  nothing  came  out  of  it.  An- 
other colloquy,  in  1557,  under  the  presidency 
of  the  bishop  of  Naumburg,  showed  the  world 
that  the  dissension  between  the  Protestant 
parties  was  more  bitter  than  that  between  the 
Protestants  and  the  Roman  Catholics.  The 
scenes  at  the  Diet  are  described  in  any  life  of 
Luther.  The  acts  of  the  two  colloquies  are 
found  in  Corpus  Befoi'matm'um,  vols,  iii.,  iv.. 
and  ix. 

Worship  in  old  English  meant  the  honor 


WOTTON 


(981) 


WYIilB 


paid  to  one  who  was  worthy,  but  is  now  used 
only  in  the  sense  of  religious  reverence.  Tliis 
is  due  to  God  alone  (Ex.  xx.  3,  4,  John  iv. 
24),  and  to  offer  it  to  any  other  is  idolatry 
(Dan.  iii.  5,  13,  14,  Acts  xix.  27).  It  includes 
adoration,  praise,  and  thanksgiving,  confes- 
sion of  sin,  petition,  and  intercession,  and  the 
study  of  God's  Word.  Such  worship  belongs 
to  the  individual,  the  hou.sehold,  and  the  con- 
gregation. The  latter  is  implied  in  the  very 
name  "  church,"  meaning  aHHi'mbly  ;  and  be- 
lievers are  required  not  to  forsake  the  assem- 
bling of  themselves  together.  Public  worship 
is  taught  in  many  of  the  Psalms,  and  is  seen 
in  the  "  holy  convocations"  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (Lev.  xxili.  3),  in  the  synagogue  worship 
of  later  days,  and  in  the  practice  of  all  Chris- 
tian churches  without  exception.  Family 
worship  is  implied  in  numerous  passages  of 
Scripture  (Josh.  xxiv.  15,  2  Sam.  vi.  20). 
Private  worship  is  essential  to  the  believer's 
spiritual  life,  and  is  enforced  by  our  Lord's 
directions  (^latt.  vi.  5,  6),  by  his  example 
(Matt.  xiv.  23,  Luke  v.  16),  and  by  that  of 
the  apostles  (Acts  x.  9). 

"  Will  worship"  (Col.  ii.  23)  means  such 
forms  of  adoration  and  service  as  are  not  pre- 
scribed in  God's  "Word,  but  are  offensive  in 
his  sight.  T.  W.  C. 

Wotton,  "William,  D.D.  (Cambridge,  1707), 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Wrentham,  Suf- 
folk, Aug.  13,  1666  ;  d.  at  Buxted,  Essex, 
Feb.  13,  1726.  A  marvel  of  precocity,  he  en- 
tered Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge,  at  ten,  and 
became  fellow  of  St.  John's,  1685  ;  rector  of 
Middleton  Keynes,  Bucks,  1693  ;  prebendary 
of  Salisbury,  1705.  His  .scholarship  was  no- 
tably wide  and  various  ;  the  chief  fruit  of  it 
was  Rt'lkctions  upon-  Ancient  and  Modern 
Learninrj,  London,  1694,  3d  ed, ,  1705.  Among 
his  other  books  was  one  on  the  Traditions 
nnd  Usaqcs  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  in  .  . 
ChrisfsTime,  1710,  2  vols.  F.  3L  B. 

■Wright,  Charles  Henry  Hamilton,  Ph.D. 
(Leipzig,  1875),  D.D.  (Trinity  College,  Dul)- 
lin,  1879),  Church  of  Ireland' ;  b.  in  Dublin, 
March  11,  1836  ;  educated  in  Trinity  College  ; 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Shemitic 
languages,  and  is  a  member  of  the  German 
Oriental  Society  ;  held  various  pastoral 
charges,  and  has  been  since  1885  incumbent  of 
Bethesda  Church,  Dublin.  For  a  complete 
li.st  of  his  numerous  writings,  mostly  biblical, 
see  EncychijHPdiii  of  Lidnf/  Dimnes,  now  part 
of  the  Srhaff-Herzori  Enrfirloptrdia,  of  them 
may  be  mentioned  Zfcharidlt  and  his  Proph- 
ecies Considered  in  Rilation  to  Modern  Criti- 
cisia  (Bampton  Lectures),  London,  1st  and  2d 
ed.,  1879  ;  The  Book  of  Koheleth,  Commonly 
(ailed  Ecdeaiastes,  Con.^idered  in  Relation  to 
M'idern  Criticism  and  to  the  Doctrines  of  Mod- 
ten  Pessimism  (Donnellan  Lectures  for  1880- 
81),  1883  :  Biblical  Essays,  Edinburgh,  1886  ; 
An  Litroduction  to  the  Old  I'esiament,  London, 
1891. 

Writing  among  the  Hebrews.     The   Ile- 

hrcw  word  k<it<il>  (Icnolcs  to  "engrave" 
whether  on  .stone  (E.\.  xxxi.  18),  or  metal 
(xxxix.  30),  or  wood  (Num.  xvii.  3),  then  to 
"  write."  The  art  is  ;is  old  as  Abraham,  but 
there  are  no  certain  traces  of  it  prior  to  the 


stay  in  Egypt  where  certain  officers  got  their 
name  (sho'terim)  from  "writing."  In  the 
time  of  ]\Io.ses  the  knowledge  of  the  art  is 
presupposed  (Ex.  xvii.  14,  xxiv.  4).  Hebrew 
was  developed  from  a  primitive  Shemitic  al- 
phabet, which  at  first  was  written  in  straight, 
stiff,  down-strokes  in  Pha-nician  monuments, 
then  assumed  a  cursive  form  among  the  Ara- 
mteans,  and  finally  became  the  square  callig- 
raphy of  the  Jews,  though  it  cannot  be  de- 
termined when  this  last  was  introduced.  It 
was  probably  in  Ezra's  time,  but  may  have 
been  two  or  three  centuries  later.  The  ques- 
tion whether  the  Jews  simply  wrote  conso- 
nants or  not  is  still  sab  judice,  but  the  presump- 
tion is  that  they  did,  as  we  find  that  the  sciip- 
tio  plena  was  a  grailual  develojnnent,  not  com- 
pleted till  the  time  of  the  Talmud. 

According  to  Herodotus  skins  were  the 
most  ancient  writing  material  in  Western 
Asia.  Later,  the  Egyptian  papyrus  came  into 
use  among  the  Jews,  and  afterward,  parch- 
ment, on  which  the  original  form  of  the  law 
was  written  with  ink  (Num.  v.  23),  and  which 
Josephus  says  was  always  employed  for  this 
purpose,  as  it  is  today.  In  David's  time 
parchment  was  used  in  tiie  form  of  a  roll  (Ps. 
xl.  7).  Compare  Jer.  xxxvi.  14,  Ezek.  ii.  9. 
10,  Zech.  V.  1-4.  The  writing  instruments 
for  hard  materials  were  of  iron,  the  stylus, 
and  the  chisel  (Job.  xix.  24,  Jer.  viii.  8,  xvii. 
1,  Isa.  viii.  1).  For  papyrus  or  parchment  a 
pen  of  reed  with  ink  was  used,  as  it  still  is  in 
the  East  (3  Mace.  iv.  20,  3  John  13).  In  Jere- 
miah (xxxvi.  23)  mention  is  made  of  a  pen- 
knife, and  in  Ezekiel  (ix.  2)  of  the  inkhorn. 
T.  W.  C. 

Wulfram,  St.,  apostle  to  the  Frisians  ;  b.  at 
Milly,  60  m.  u.n.w.  of  Paris,  650;  became 
abbot  at  Fontauelle  ;  was  at  the  French  court, 
and  afterward  bishop  of  Sens,  61  m.  s.s.e.  of 
Paris.  In  684  or  685  he  went  to  the  Frisians 
as  missionary.  It  is  related  of  him  that  as  he 
was  about  to  baptize  Hadbod.  the  Frisian 
king,  he  was  asked  by  him  whether  his  un- 
baptized  ancestors  were  to  be  found  in  heaven 
or  hell.  He  replied  in  hell.  Whereupon  the 
king  refused  to  be  baptized.  "Wulfram  re- 
turned to  Fontanelle  about  689,  and  d.  695 
(or  720,  or  740).  F.  H.  F. 

»  Wuttke,  Karl  Friedrich  Adolf,  b.  at  Bres- 
lau,  Nov.  10,  1819;  d.  at  Halle,  April  12, 
1870  ;  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary 
in  Berlin,  1854.  and  ordinary  professor  at 
Halle,  1861.  His  principal  work  is  liis  Iland- 
biich  der  christlicfien  Sittenlehre,  Leipzig,  1860- 
62.  2  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1885;  Eng.  trans,  by 
J.  L.  Lacroix,  Christian  Ethics.  New  York. 
1873,  2  vols.  He  also  wrote  Die  Geschichte 
des  ITeidenthuins,  Brcslau,  1852-53,  2  parts. 

Wylie,  Samuel  Brown,  D.D.  (Dickinson 
College,  lylO)  ;  Reformed  Presbyterian  ;  b. 
at  Moylarg,  County  Antrim,  Iieland,  May  21. 
1773  :  d.  in  Phihulelphia,  Oct.  13,  1852  ;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
1797,  and  emigrated  in  the'  same  year  to 
America  ;  was  ordained  in  1801,  and  was  pas- 
tor of  the  First  Heformed  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Pliiladelphia,  1801-52,  and  professor  in  the 
tliiological  .seminary  of  the  denomination, 
1809-51.     Hepubli-siitd  The  Faithful  Witneaa 


WYTTENBAOH 


(982) 


YEAR 


for  Magistracy  and  Ministry  upon  a  Scrip- 
tural Basis,  Philadelphia,  1804,  and  Life  of 
Rev.  Alexander  McLeod,  New  York,  1855. 

Wyttenbach,  Thomas,  D.D.  (Basel,  1515) ; 
b.  at  Biel.  Switzerland,  1472  ;  d.  there,  1526. 
He  studied  at  Basel  and  Tubingen  ;  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Basel,  1505,  where  he 
had  great  influence  on  Zwingli  and  Leo  Jud, 
who  were  his  pupils  ;  priest  at  Biel.  1507, 
and  later  was  also  canon  at  Bern,  1515.  In 
1524  he  married  and  thus  lost  caste  and  was 
compelled  to  give  up  his  position.  He  was  a 
reformer  before  the  Reformation.  (See  his 
life  in  C.  A.  Blosch,  Oeschichte  der  Stadt  Biel. 
Biel,  1855-56,  3  vols.  I.e.) 


X. 


Xavier,  Francis,  b.  at  Xavier,  Navarre, 
April  7,  1506  ;  d.  in  Canton,  China,  Dec.  2, 
1552  ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society 
of  Jesu  ;  went  in  1541  to  the  East  Indies  as 
missionary  ;  visited  also  Japan,  and  was  made 
a  saint  in  1628,  and  in  1747  the  patron  saint 
of  India.  Some  marvellous  stories  are  told 
about  him.  Thus  he  is  said  to  have  defeated 
an  army  by  a  sermon,  converted  20,000  heath- 
ens in  one  month,  and  written  catechisms,  litur- 
gies, and  confessions  in  Hindu,  Malabar,  Jap- 
anese, etc. ,  which  languages  he  never  learned 
to  understand.  But  in  sober  fact  he  did  much 
for  Roman  Catholic  missions  in  the  way  of 
administration  and  organization,  and  diplo- 
matically by  opening  new  paths  for  them.  He 
has  left  some  letters  in  Spanish  and  Latin, 
printed  at  Bologna,  1795.  His  life  was  writ- 
ten by  the  Roman  Catholics,  W.  Reithmaier, 
Regensburg,  1846,  n.e.  1881,  B.  BartoU  and 
G.  P.  Maftei,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1858,  and 
by  the  Protestant,  H.  Venn,  London,  1862. 

C.  P. 

Ximenes  de  Cisneros  (he-ma'-nes  da  thes- 
na-ros),  Francisco,  b.  at  Torrelaguna,  Castile, 
Spain,  1436  ;  d.  at  Roa,  Nov.  8,  1517  ;  was 
educated  in  the  school  of  Alcala  ;  studied 
at  Salamanca  ;  visited  Rome,  and  evinced 
throughout  life  a  great  interest  and  esteem 
for  scholarship,  though  he  was  not  exactly  a, 
learned  man  himself.  Some  years  after  fin- 
ishing his  education,  1484,  he  retired  into  a 
Franciscan  monastery,  lived  for  a  long  time 
in  austere  solitudeas'a  hermit,  and  continued 
practising  asceticism  through  his  whole  life, 
though  he  never  aspired  to  saintship.  In 
1492  he  was  made  confessor  to  Queen  Isabella 
of  Castile  ;  in  1495  archbishop  of  Toledo  and 
grand-inquisitor  of  Spain  ;  in  1507  cardinal, 
and  in  1516,  after  the  death  of  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic,  regent  of  Spain  during  the  minority 
of  Charles  V.  Thus  occupying  for  many 
years  a  place  in  the  government  of  his  native 
country,  second  only  to  that  of  the  king,  he 
realized  with  great  energy  both  sides  of  his 
spiritual  nature — its  reverent  appreciation  of 
intellectual  development  and  its  religious 
fanaticism.  On  the  one  side  he  expanded  the 
school  of  Alcala  into  one  of  the  most  complete 
and  best  equipped  universities  of  that  time, 
and  paid  for  the  compilation  and  publication 


of  the  Complutensian  Polyglot,  so  called  from 
the  Latin  name  of  Alcala.  See  Polyglot.  On 
the  other,  he  expelled  the  Jews  and  the  Moors 
from  Spain  with  extreme  harshness  and  for 
reasons  of  vulgar  bigotry.  His  life  has  often 
been  written  in  Spanish  and  Latin  ;  in  English 
by  B.  Barrett,  London.  1813  ;  in  German  by 
C.  J.  Hefele,  Tubingen,  1844,  2d  ed.,  1851, 
Eng.  trans  by  John  Dalton,  London,  1860. 


Y. 


Yates,  WUUam,  D.D.  ( ,  18—),  Bap- 
tist missionary  ;  b.  at  Loughborough,  11  m. 
n.  of  Leicester,  Dec.  15,  1792  ;  d.  on  the  Red 
Sea,  July  3,  1845.  Sent  to  Calcutta,  1815,  he 
settled  at  Serampore,  and  occupied  himself 
chiefly  with  the  native  languages,  translating 
the  Bible  into  Bengali  (completing  Carey's 
work),  and  the  New  Testament  into  Hindi, 
Hindustani,  and  Sanskrit.  His  Sanskrit 
grammar  and  vocabulary  appeared,  Calcutta, 
1820,  2  vols.;  Introduction  to  the Rindoostanee 
Language,  1827,  3d  ed.,  1843  ;  Hindostani and 
English  Dictionary,  1830  ;  A  Dictionary  in 
Sanskrit  and  English,  1846,  and  Introduction 
to  the  Bengali,  1847.  His  memoir  was  writ- 
ten by  James  Hoby,  London,  1847. 

F.  M.  B. 

Year,  The  Church,  arose  by  historical  de- 
velopment from  the  observance  of  the  paschal 
and  Pentecostal  seasons,  which  were  the  nat- 
ural Christian  equivalents  of  the  festival  sys- 
tem of  the  Jewish  Church.  These  two  festi- 
vals appear  about  the  middle  of  the  2d  century, 
and  were  times  respectively  of  sorrow  and  re- 
joicing. The  introduction  of  Christmas  made 
a  threefold  division  of  the  year,  and  two  peri- 
ods of  preparation  were  added,  that  of  Lent 
before  Easter,  and  of  Advent  before  Christ- 
mas, wiiich  also  embraced  among  the  Greeks 
forty  days.  Other  events  in  the  life  of  Christ, 
such  as  his  manifestation  to  the  Gentiles 
(Epiphany),  and  in  the  Ufe  of  Mary,  memorial 
days  for  the  apostles,  etc..  were  gradually 
added,  together  with  fabulous  and  dogmatic 
elements,  such  as  saints'  days,  the  festival  of 
the  immaculate  conception,  etc.  The  Refor- 
mation produced  a  natural  modification  in  the 
practice  of  the  Reformed  churches.  The 
Lutheran  Church  retained  the  festivals  which 
had  a  basis  in  the  Scripture  narrative,  includ- 
ing the  days  of  the  apostles,  and  the  annunci- 
ation and  other  festivals  pertaining  to  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  (not  the  immaculate  conception). 
The  Reformed  churches  generally  restricted 
the  festivals  of  the  church  to  Sundays,  and 
the  church  year,  in  countries  where  they  ob- 
tained full  sway,  disappeared  almost  entirely. 
Among  the  rigid  Puritans  even  Christmas  was 
neglected.  The  English  Church  followed  the 
same  path  here  as  in  ritual  in  general.  The 
full  year,  without  the  superstitious  elements, 
was  retained,  and,  with  some  modification  of 
terminology,  is  identical  with  that  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  F.  H.  F. 

Year,  The  Hebrew.  This  had  two  com- 
mencements, one,  the  civil  year,  in  Tisri  (Oc- 


YEZIDEES 


(983) 


YOUNG 


tober)  ;  the  otlier,  the  religious,  in  Abib 
(xVpril).  The' year  was  solar.  Two  seasons 
are  mentioned,  summer  and  winter  (Ps.  Ixxiv. 
17,  Amos  iii.  15,  Jer.  xxxvi.  22,  Zecli.  xiv.  8). 
The  months  were  lunar,  of  thirty  days  each, 
and  twelve  in  number,  but  at  intervals  in 
order  to  complete  the  year,  a  month  was  in- 
tercalated. Tins  mouth  was  called  Veadar, 
and  was  addetl  about  seven  times  in  nineteen 
years.     See  Month. 

The  festivals,  etc.,  of  the  year  were  :  1.  The 
Passover,  the  14th  day  of  tlie  first  month. 
2.  The  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  from  the 
15th  to  the  21st  of  the  same  mouth.  3.  Pente- 
cost, called  also  Feast  of  Harvest,  and  Day  of 
Firstfrults,  on  the  day  which  made  seven 
weeks  from  the  second  day  of  the  Passover. 
4.  The  Feast  of  Trumpets  on  the  1st  day  of 
the  7th  month.  5.  The  Day  of  Atonement, 
a  fast,  on  the  10th  daj'  of  the  same  montli,  anil 
6.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  or  of  Ingather- 
ing, from  the  13th  to  the  22d  inclusive,  of  the 
same  month. 

The  post-Mosaic  festivals  are  Purim  in  the 
12th  month,  Adar,  from  the  13th  to  15th,  and 
Dedication,  on  the  25th  day  of  the  9th  month. 

The  Hebrews  had  no  formal  era,  but  dated 
from  the  most  memorable  events  of  their  his- 
tory ;  as  from  the  Exodus  (Xum.  xxxiii.  38, 
1  Kings  vi.  1)  ;  from  the  building  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  (1  Kings  ix.  10),  and  from  the 
Babylonish  Captivity  (Ezek.  xxxiii.  21,  xl.  1). 
T.  W.  C. 

Yezidees  or  Devil-worshippers  form  a 
small  and  obscure  sect  in  the  interior  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  near  Mosul,  described  by  Layard  in 
his  Xinereh  and  its  Ilemnins.  They  accepi; 
both  the  Bible  and  the  Koran,  but  what  there 
is  in  them  of  awe  and  reverence  seems  to  have 
been  wholly  surrendered  to  Satan,  and  their 
worship  is  almost  exclusively  directed  toward 
the  sun. 

York,  See  of,  is  almost  contemporaneous 
with  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
Saxon  England.  The  first  archbishop  was 
Paulinus,  who  had  baptized  King  Edwin  in 
627,  and  received  the  pallium  in  634.  His 
successors  exercised  jurisdiction  over  the  Scot- 
tish bishops  till  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th 
century  the  see  of  St.  Andrew's  was  raised  to 
metropolitan  rank.  The  province  of  York 
now  consists  of  the  bishoprics  of  Carlisle, 
Chester,  Liverpool,  Durham,  Manchester, 
Kipon,  York,  and  Man.  It  possesses  a  con- 
vocation, of  which  the  archbishop  is  president. 
York  itself  is  a  city  of  mediicval  appearance, 
and  its  cathedral  is  upon  the  whole  the  finest 
specimen  of  early  architecture  in  England. 
It  is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and  incor- 
porated portions  of  earlier  .structures  extend- 
ing as  far  back  as  the  Saxon  kingdom  before 
the  Conquest.  F.  H.  F. 

Young,  Brigham,  president  of  the  Mormon 
riiurch  ;  b.  at  Whittingham,  Windham 
County,  Vt.,  June  1.  1801,  the  nintli  of  a 
family  of  eleven  children  ;  d.  at  Salt  Lake 
City,  Aug.  27,  1877.  An  amount  of  obscurity 
rests  upon  the  records  of  his  early  vears.  The 
family  seems  to  have  belonged  originally  to 
Massachusetts.    In  1803  they  quitted  Verinont 


and  began  their  second  residence  in  New  York, 
this  time  in  Chenango  County.  In  1814  they 
left  Chenango  for  Cayuga  County.  In  1817 
Brigham  began  life  in  the  trade  of  carpenter 
and  painter.  The  family  were  all  Methodists 
of  a  vulgar  and  highly  enthusiastic  fashion. 
All  the  five  sons,  with  perhaps  a  single  ex- 
ception, were  in  one  or  other  grade  of  the 
]Methodist  ministry.  Brigham  joined  the 
Methodist  Church  in  1822  or  1823.  He  is  said 
by  one  who  often  heard  him  to  have  been  "  a 
powerful  exhorter. "  In  1829  he  was  resid- 
ing in  Cunandaigua,  Ontario  County,  close  to 
Joseph  Smitli's  family.  Possibly  it  was  here 
that  his  favor  was  first  gained  for  the  Mormon 
movement.  As  the  whole  family  had  been 
^lethodists,  they  likewise  all  became  i\Ior- 
nions,  and  were  among  the  earliest  converts. 
A  brother-in-law.  Rev.  John  P.  Greene,  who 
was  a  Methodist  minister  of  some  prominence, 
carried  about  a  subscription  paper  for  the  sale 
of  the  Book  of  Mormon  as  early  as  July,  1830. 
It  is  likely  that  the  Youngs  had  enjoyed  much 
previous  acquaintance  with  the  scheme  of 
Smith.  Brigham  was  converted  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1830  ;  he  went  on  a  Mormon  mission 
to  Columbia,  Pa.,  in  Jan.  or  Feb.,  1831.  and 
shortly  afterward  undertook  a  journey  to 
Canacia  to  convert  his  brother  Joseph,  who 
was  stationed  there  in  the  character  of  a 
.Methodist  minister.  After  his  return  from 
Canada  he  got  himself  baptized  on  April  14, 
1831.  Mr.  Young  places  his  conversion  and 
baptism  in  April,  1832,  but  his  memory  was 
at  fault.  In  Nov.,  1832,  he  paid  his  first  visit 
to  Kirtland,  O.  In  the  spring  of  1831  Smith 
had  a  violent  confiict  with  persons  who  exer- 
cised the  "gift  of  tongues"  at  Kirtland,  and 
succeeded  in  putting  a  stop  to  the  practice. 
Brigham  brought  with  him  the  "  gift  of 
tongues"  in  Nov.,  1832,  and  as  the  dangers 
that  threatened  the  prophet  in  the  earlier 
months  of  1831  had  now  blown  over,  he  fa- 
vored Mr.  Young's  "  gift"  and  aftirmed  that 
it  was  of  God.  Speaking  in  tongues  was 
henceforth  a  striking  peculiarity  of  the  Mor- 
mons. There  was  an  amount  of  unity  and 
loyalty  in  the  Young  family,  and  most  of 
them  attained  to  distinguished  position  in  the 
Mormon  community.  Possibly  his  ncpliew- 
in-law,  Mr.  Heber  C.  Kimball,  was  more  for- 
tunate than  any  other.  Brigham  took  part  in 
the  military  expedition  to  relieve  the  Saints 
of  ^Missouri  in  1834.  He  was  conspicuous  for 
his  zeal  and  efiiciency  in  supporting  Joseph 
under  the  trials  that  caused  him  to  desert 
Kirtland  in  Jan.,  1838.  In  the  expulsion  of 
the  Mormons  from  Missouri  during  the  win- 
ter of  1838-39  his  inlluence  was  much  pro- 
moted.  He  took  diarge  of  the  lleeing  brethren 
and  befriended  them  while  Joseph  and  the 
other  heads  of  the  church  were  confined  in 
prison.  At  an  early  moment  he  entered 
heartily  with  Mr.  Smith  into  the  policy  and 
practice  of  polygamy,  wliile  Sidney  Higdon 
was  bitterly  opposed'  to  both.  As  the  repre- 
sentative of  "  Joseph's  measures"  it  was, 
therefore,  a  comparatively  easy  tJisk  for  him 
to  defeat  Rigdon  in  the  confiict  for  succession 
in  1844,  shortly  after  the  death  of  the  Proph- 
et. When  it  became  necessary  to  quit  Illinois 
in  1846,  he  organized  the  famous  exiwdition 


( 


YOUNG 


(984) 


YOUNG 


across  the  plains,  and  led  them  to  Salt  Lake. 
Tliis  also  was  one  of  "  Joseph's  measures;" 
it  would  have  been  adopted  by  him,  perhaps, 
upon  the  expulsion  from  Missouri  in  1889, 
but  for  misplaced  sympathy  that  came  to  the 
theocracy  from  Illinois.  In  Utah  Mr.  Younji' 
ran  a  notable  career.  Under  President  Fill- 
more he  figured  as  governor  of  the  territory. 
In  1852  he  concluded  that  he  was  sufliciently 
powerful  to  defy  the  laws  of  the  United  States 
Government  and  the  sentiment  of  the  civilized 
world  by  formally  issuing  the  Prophet's  revela- 
tion on  plural  marriage.  The  entire  history  of 
the  theocracy  in  Utah  has  been  marked  by 
conflicts  with  the  civil  authorities.  Salt  Lake 
City  was  long  the  wonder  of  the  Western 
country,  but  of  recent  years  it  has  been  far 
outstripped  by  other  cities.  Mr.  Young  added 
only  a  single  one  to  the  list  of  revelations 
given  by  Joseph  in  the  Book  of  Doctrine  and 
(Jorenants  ;  it  was  dated  near  Council  Bluffs, 
Jan.  14, 1847,  and  related  to  the  order  of  march 
across  the  plains. 

William  H.  Whitsitt. 

Young,  Edward,  LL.D.  (Oxford,  1719), 
Church  of  England  :  b.  at  Upliam,  near  Win- 
chester, June,  1681  ;  d.  at  Welwyn,  Hertford- 
shire, April  13,  1765.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester  and  Oxford,  and  became  fellow 
of  All  Souls,  1708.  He  published  A  Poetn  on 
the  Last  Day,  Oxford,  1713,  5th  ed.,  London, 
1741  ;  Force  of  Religion,  or  Vanquished,  Lon- 
don, 1714,  three  plays  and  several  satires 
(1735-28),  collected  as  Love  of  Fame,  1738, 
In  1737  he  took  orders,  and  became  rector  of 
AVelwyn,  1730.  His  character  was  a  "  mix- 
ture of  piety  and  worldliness  ;"  but  the  som- 
bre tone  of  his  poetry  partly  antedates  his  dis- 
appointments, which  sprang  from  his  failure 
to  secure  church  emoluments  and  positions. 
The  famous  Night  Thoughts  appeared,  1743- 
46.  Resignation  was  his  last  piece.  His  po- 
ems were  collected  in  B  vols.  (See  his  life, 
by  H.  Croft,  in  Johnson's  English  Poets.) 
F.  M.  B. 

Young,  Patrick,  b.  at  Seaton.  9  m.  e.  of 
Edinburgh,  Aug.  39,  1584  ;  d.  at  Bromfield. 
Essex,  Sept.  7,  1653.  He  studied  at  St.  An- 
drew's and  Oxford  ;  was  librarian  to  James  I., 
1620,  and  then  rector  of  Hayes  and  Llanine 
till  1649.  He  edited  Clement  of  Rome,  1683. 
and  wrote  Annotationes  on  the  Codex  Alex- 
andrinus,  in  the  6th  vol.  of  Walton's  Polyglot. 
F.  M.  B. 


Young,     Robert,     LL.D.    (- 


-,    18-), 


F.E.S.L.  (18—).  layman;  b.  at  Edinburgh, 
Sept.  10,  1822  ;  d.  there,  Oct.  14, 1888  ;  served 
apprenticeship  to  the  printing  business,  1838- 
45  ;  became  a  communicant  in  1843  ;  joined 
the  Free  Church  and  became  a  Sabbath-school 
teacher  in  1843  ;  commenced  bookselling  and 
printing  in  1847  ;  went  to  India  in  1856,  and 
stayed  there  till  1861  as  superintendent  of  the 
Mission  Press  at  Sural  ;  conducted  the  Mis- 
sionary Institute  in  Edinburgh,  1864-74  ;  vis- 
ited America  in  1867  ;  carried  the  Analytical 
Concordance  through  the  press,  1876-79,  and 
took  a  special  interest  in  the  "  Aberdeen"  at- 
tacks on  the  Bible.  1875-80,  and  in  the  "  Pres- 
byterian Union,"   1884-85.     His  great  work 


is  the  Analytical  Concordance  to  the  Bible, 
Edinburgh  and  New  York,  1880. 

Young     Men's     Christian     Associations. 

There  were  organizations  of  Christian  young 
men  for  Christian  w-ork  existing  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  more  than  200  years  ago. 
These  organizations  extended  into  Germany 
and  Switzerland.  In  1710  Cotton  Mather  ad- 
dressed kindred  societies  in  New  England 
under  the  title  of  "  Young  Men  Associated." 
The  idea  of  these  associations  is  not,  there- 
fore, an  entirely  new  one.  We  find  societies 
of  a  similar  nature  in  Germany  between  1834 
and  1843,  and  a  larger  movement  in  that 
country  in  1849,  from  which  sprang  the  Ger- 
man associations  of  the  present  day.  But  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  as  we 
know  it  now  had  its  beginning,  June  6,  1844, 
in  London,  when  Mr.  George  Williams  (q.v.) 
called  a  meeting  of  his  fellow-clerks  engaged  in 
a  mercantile  house.  These  young  men  formed 
the  first  association.  Its  possibilities  of  use- 
fulness were  so  apparent  that  there  were  soon 
imitators  of  it  in  different  cities  in  Great 
Britain.  An  association  after  the  London 
model  was  formed  in  1851  in  Montreal,  Cana- 
da, and  shortly  after  that  one  was  organized 
ifi  Boston.  Associations  then  multiplied  rap- 
idly through  this  country  until  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War,  which  of  course  checked 
their  progress,  but  in  1866  a  new  period  of 
growth  began  which  has  since  continued. 

The  present  basis  of  the  organization  of 
these  associations  was  adopted  by  the  World's 
Conference  in  Paris,  in  1855.  Active  mem- 
bers are  "  young  men,  who,  regarding  Jesus 
Christ  as  their  God  and  Saviour  according  to 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  desire  to  be  his  disciples 
in  their  doctrine  and  in  their  life."  In  this 
country  and  in  Canada  the  practical  test  is 
communicant  membership  in  some  evangeli- 
cal church.  Older  men  are  admitted  as  coun- 
selling members  with  restricted  privileges. 
Young  men  of  good  moral  character,  not  com- 
municants, can  become  associate  members, 
enjoying  the  privileges  of  the  association,  but 
having  no  controlling  voice  in  its  affairs.  The 
associations  carry  on  their  operations  along 
man}'  lines,  seeking  to  aid  young  men  spirit- 
ually, intellectually,  socially,  and  physically. 
It  is  a  special  aim  with  them  to  meet  the  needs 
of  young  men  who  are  without  homes  or  real 
friends.  Religious  meetings,  including  classes 
for  general  and  special  Bible  study,  help  in 
spiritual  culture.  There  are  educational 
classes  in  many  useful  branches,  with  reading- 
rooms  and  libraries  to  appeal  to  the  intellec- 
tual nature.  The  gymnasium  is  made  a 
prominent  and  helpful  feature  in  many  asso- 
ciations. Social  gatherings,  entertainments, 
courses  of  lectures,  have  their  respective 
places.  In  multitudes  of  cases  employment 
is  obtained  for  young  men  desiring  positions  , 
boarding  houses  are  recommended,  and  atten- 
tion is  given  in  case  of  sickness.  Many  of  the 
associations  employ  a  paid  secretary  who  de- 
votes his  whole  time  to  the  work  ;  indeed, 
such  an  officer  is  essential  to  the  highest  effi- 
ciency of  the  institution.  There  are  more 
than  1100  such  secretaries  and  assistants  in 
this  country  alone.     Besides  the  regular  asso- 


YOUNG 


ciations  tlie  work  has  developed  in  several  im 
portant  branches  which  have  grown  naturally 
under  the  impulse  of  circumstances.  Thus  a 
mission  among  railroad  men  in  Cleveland,  O., 
was  organized  in  1872  into  a  branch  of  the 
y.  M.  C.  A.  Similar  organizations  have  been 
formed  at  other  railway  centres,  until  now 
there  are  82  of  th(;se  railroad  branches.  The 
work  iu  colleges,  though  of  comparatively 
recent  origin,  has  been  very  successful,  and 
there  are  nosv  803  college  associations.  There 
are  10  associations  for  Germans,  36  for  colored 
young  men,  and  11  for  Indians. 

The  international  work  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Associations  of  the  English-speak- 
ing world  has  continually  grown  in  impor- 
tance. The  first  International  Conference  was 
held  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  1854,  and  resulted 
iu  the  organization  of  "  The  North  American 
Confederation  of  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociations." Similar  conventions  were  held 
annually  (except  in  1861  and  1862)  up  to  1877, 
since  which  time  they  have  been  held  bien- 
nially. The  first  of  the  biennial  conventions, 
held  iu  Btiltimore  in  1879.  changed  the  name 
of  the  gathering  to  "  The  International  Con- 
vention of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tions." A  "'Central  Committee"  was  ap- 
pointed by  each  annual  convention,  and  was 
located  iu  one  of  the  larger  cities  of  the 
country.  In  1866  this  was  made  an  Inter- 
national Committee  with  headquarters  at 
New  York.  This  committee  consists  of  33 
regular  and  10  advisory  members,  repre- 
senting all  parts  of  this  country  and  Canada. 
It  was  incorporated  in  1883  w"ith  a  board  of 
15  trustees.  The  object  of  the  committee 
is  to  establish  and  assist  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Associations  and  to  promote  the  spiritual, 
intellectual,  physical,  and  social  well-being 
of  young  men.  It  fosters  state  and  provin- 
cial conventions  ;  has  the  supervision  of  the 
college,  railroad,  colored,  and  German  depart- 
ments of  association  work  ;  helps  associations 
to  find  general  secretaries,  assistants,  physical 
directors,  etc.,  and  counsels  and  directs  suit- 
able young  men  looking  for  such  employ- 
ment.' It  has  prepared  and  published  numer- 
ous periodicals  and  pamphlets  concerning  the 
work,  and  has  maintained  correspondence 
with  associations  throughout  the  world.  The 
committee  received  iu  donations,  subscrip- 
tions, etc.,  during  the  year  covered  by  the 
last  report  (1890),  $50,721.02  and  expended 
$50,682.75 

Some  statistics  are  as  follows  :  Number  of 
associations  in  this  country  and  Canada,  1341, 
with  a  membership  of  212,676.  Of  these  205 
own  buildings  of  an  aggregate  value  of 
18.352.910,  and  100  own  other  real  estate 
valued  at  $1, 796, 500,  making  a  total  of  $10,- 
149.410.  Deducting  debts,  and  adding  build- 
ing funds,  endowment  funds,  value  of  furni- 
ture and  libraries,  the  value  of  and  total  net 
property  is  $10,433,647.  A  total  average 
daily  attendance  of  50.970  at  their  rooms  is 
reported  by  611  associations  ;  349  report  487 
Bible-cla.sses  with  a  total  average  attendance 
of  6000  ;  628  report  684  gospel  meetings  with 
a  total  average  attendance  of  33.CK)0.  The 
Young  Glen's  Christian  Associations  of  the 
world  are  simimarized  as  follows  : 


5) 

YOUNG 

COUNTRIES. 

ASSOCIATIONS. 

MEMBERS 

United  States,  1 
Cauiul:.,             f 

1,341 

212,676 

(Jreat  Britain,  1 
Ireland,             f 

•      C71 

90,000 

South  America, 

11 

200 

France, 

64 

1.300 

(ierniany, 

844 

38,275 

Holland, 

4.58 

7,842 

Switzerland, 

340 

4,a50 

Sweden, 

70 

2,000 

Belgium, 

26 

645 

Denmark, 

90 

2,000 

Spain, 

12 

1.50 

Italy, 
Turkey, 

35 

••          575 

1 

25 

Austro-Hungary, 

9 

95 

Russia, 

9 

2.50 

Norway, 

44 

6,000 

Asia, 

48 

450 

Africa, 

12 

580 

Oceanica, 

2.5 

7,250 

Oliver  Addison  Kingsbury. 
Young  People's  Societies. 

I.  LEND-A-HAND    CLUBS. 

In  the  last  twenty-five  years  a  large  num- 
ber of  young  people's  societies  have  grown 
up  in  the  churches  of  different  conmiunions. 
with  a  desire,  on  the  part  of  those  who  formed 
them,  to  enter  into  the  missionary  and  philan- 
thropic work  of  the  world,  in  many  in- 
stances these  societies  are  affiliated  with  each 
otiier,  so  that  they  keep  up  a  mutual  acquaint- 
ance b}^  correspondence  and  by  meetings 
through  local  organizations  and  at  national 
con.gresses.  As  early  as  the  }-ear  1874  Miss 
Mary  A.  Lathbury,  then  directing  the  chil- 
dren's department  of  the  Christian  Advocate, 
founded  the  Look-up  Legion.  It  was  based 
upon  what  are  generally  known  among  the 
societies  as  the  "  four  mottoes," 

"  Look  up  and  not  down, 
Look  forward  and  not  backward, 
Look  out  and  not  in, 
Lend  a  hand."' 

Such  societies  were  formed  generally  among 
the  older  children  of  Sunday-schools,  each 
with  its  own  officers,  under  the  direction, 
however,  of  some  older  person.  The  Look-up 
Legion  extended  so  far  that  it  was  dividerl 
into  several  groups,  and  its  membership  ex- 
tended to  fifty  or  one  hundred  thousand  per- 
sons. Each  of  the  members  wore  a  Maltese 
cross  with  a  rising  sun  behind  it. 

Following  the  example  of  the  Look-up  Le- 
gion, the  Excel  Bands  were  formed.  The 
movement  attracted  the  attention  of  Rev. 
Francis  E.  Clark,  of  Portland,  who  fornie(l 
the  Christian  Endeavor  Society  in  1881  iu  the 
Williston  church  of  that  city.  It  now  con- 
sists of  more  than  11,000  different  organiza- 
tions, and  meets  in  an  annual  congre-^.s.  At 
the  last  meeting  660,000  membens  were  re- 
ported at  the  date  of  June,  1890.  (See  next 
art.) 

The  earliest  society  formed  under  the  "  four 
mottoes"  was  established  by  3Iiss  Ella  Rus- 
sell in  the  city  of  New  York  in  the  year  1871. 
The  boys  who  formed  it  were  meml>ers  of  a 
mission  school  in  which  she  was  a  teacher. 
They  took  the  name  of  the  "  llarrv  Wads- 
worth  Helpers"  from  the  hero  oi  Mr.  E.  E. 


{ 


YOUNG 


(986) 


YOUNG 


Hale's  story  of  Ten  Times  One  is  Ten, 
in  which  the  "  four  mottoes"  first  appeared. 
Various  other  Harry  Wadsworth  Clubs,  Tea 
Times  One  Clubs,  Lend-a-Hand  Clubs,  Look- 
out Clubs,  etc.,  exist  in  various  parts  of  the 
•world.  The  United  Society  of  these  clubs,  at 
Boston,  receives  communications  from  Japan, 
from  China,  from  the  countries  on  the  east  of 
the  Mediterranean,  from  various  island  groups 
of  the  Pacific,  from  South  America,  and  from 
every  part  of  the  United  States.  In  the  year 
1886  the«^  largest  of  these  societies,  known  as 
the  "  King's  Daughters,"  was  formed  by  Mrs. 
Bottome,  Mrs.  Dickenson,  and  other  ladies 
in  New  Tork.  They  called  a  meeting  of  ten 
ladies  who  were  willing  to  associate  in  this 
Christian  work,  and  each  of  these  ten  enlisted 
another  ten,  each  of  whom  was  instructed  or 
requested  to  do  the  same.  The  membership 
of  the  "  King's  Daughters"  now  numbers 
nearly  200,000  persons.  These  are  by  no 
means  children  only  ;  a  "  ten"  of  the  King's 
Daughters  may  be  ladies  of  whatever  age,  if 
only  they  be  enlisted  in  the  King's  service. 
(See  below.) 

The  Epworth  League  was  founded  at  a 
conference  of  representatives  of  all  the  young 
people's  societies  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  held  in  Cleveland,  O.,  May  14,  1889. 
Its  organ  is  the  Epworth  Herald,  published  in 
Chicago.     (See  below.) 

All  these  societies,  while  they  attempt  to 
maintain  mutual  good-fellowship,  and  while 
members  are  pledged  to  help  each  other  in 
sympathy  and  Christian  union,  have  at  the 
same  time  some  duty  each  in  bringing  in  the 
kingdom  of  God.  It  is  understood  in  their 
organization  that  the  members  must  not  live 
for  themselves  alone,  but  must  bear  each 
other's  burdens. 

Edward  E.  Hale. 


The  first  Young  People's  Society  of  Chris- 
tian Endeavor  was  started  in  Williston 
Church,  Portland,  Me.,  Feb.  2,  1881,  by  Rev. 
F.  E.  Clark,  D.D.,  who  was  then  the  pastor 
of  the  church.  The  immediate  cause  of  the 
formation  of  the  first  society  was  a  revival  of 
religion  among  the  young  people  of  the  con- 
gregation and  the  evident  need  of  some  method 
of  training  the  young  convert  for  future  ser- 
vice. It  was  felt  that  they  must  be  bound 
closer  to  the  church  and  set  at  work  for  the 
church.  The  outcome  of  this  effort  for  these 
young  converts  was  the  first  Christian  En- 
deavor Society.  The  growth  of  the  move- 
ment was  at  first  comparatively  slow,  only 
one  other  society  being  formed  during  1881 
so  far  as  is  known,  but  as  the  principles  and 
method  of  the  society  became  known  it  spread 
with  surprising  rapidity,  as  the  following  fig- 
ures will  show  : 

In  1882  there  were  481  members  ;  in  1883, 
2870  ;  in  1884,  8905  ;  in  1885,  10,964  ;  in  1886, 
50,000  ;  in  1887,  140,000  ;  in  1888.  300,000  ; 
in  1889,  500,000,  and  in  June,  1890,  over  660,- 
000.  As  many  societies  were  formed  during 
the  eleven  months  previous  to  and  ending 
with  Jun^,   1890,  as  during  the  first  seven 


years  of  the  society's  existence.  During 
the  eleven  months  last  named  about  16,000 
were  added  each  month  ;  every  week  4000 
enlisted,  and  every  day  ten  new  societies  were 
formed. 

There  are  now,  Nov.,  1890,  over  12,000  so- 
cieties with  over  800,000  members.  The  so- 
ciety has  spread  into  England,  Australia,  and 
into  all  lands  where  American  missionaries 
have  gone,  and  the  Constitution  has  been 
translated  into  German.  Swedish,  Norwegian, 
Dutch,  Chinese,  Japanese,  Tamil,  and  other 
languages. 

If  the  reasons  for  this  rapid  growth  are  in- 
quired into,  it  will  be  found  in  the  simplicity 
of  the  organization  and  in  the  singleness  of 
aim  which  has  characterized  the  move- 
ment. 

The  Young  People's  Society  of  Christian 
Endeavor  is  simply  an  organized  eflort  to  lead 
the  young  people  to  CJhrist  and  into  his 
church,  to  establish  them  firmly  in  the  faith, 
and  to  set  them  at  work  for  the  church.  The 
main  point  upon  which  the  Constitution  in- 
sists is  the  weekly  prayer-meeting,  which  each 
active  member  pledges  him.self  or  herself  to 
attend  (unless  detained  by  some  absolute 
necessity),  and  to  participate  in,  in  some  way, 
if  only  by  the  repetition  of  a  verse  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

Once  each  month  a  special  meeting  of  recon- 
secration  to  Christ  is  held,  at  which  special 
pains  are  taken  to  see  whether  every  active 
member  is  faithful  to  his  pledge  and  true  to 
Christ.  The  society  may,  and  as  an  actual  fact 
often  does,  branch  off  into  many  other  depart- 
ments of  Christian  effort,  adapting  itself  to 
the  local  needs  of  each  church,  but  these  rules 
concerning  the  prayer- meeting  are  impera- 
tive ;  without  them  there  cannot  be  a  true 
Society  of  Christian  Endeavor. 

The  prayer-meetmg  pledge,  which  is  so 
strongly  insisted  on,  reads  as  follows,  though 
any  society  is  at  liberty  to  word  the  pledge  in 
its  own  way,  provided  the  idea  is  retained  : 

"  Trusting  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  for 
strength,  I  promise  him  that  I  will  strive  to 
do  whatever  he  would  like  to  have  me  do  ; 
that  I  will  make  it  the  rule  of  my  life  to  pray 
and  to  read  the  Bible  every  day,  and  to  sup- 
port my  own  church  in  every  way,  especially 
by  attending  all  her  regular  Sunday  and  mid- 
week services,  unless  prevented  by  some  rea- 
son which  I  can  conscientiously  give  to  my 
Saviour,  and  that,  just  so  far  as  I  know  how, 
throughout  my  whole  life,  I  will  endeavor  to 
lead  a  Christian  life. 

"As  an  active  member,  I  promise  to  be 
true  to  all  my  duties,  to  be  present  at,  and  to 
take  some  part,  aside  from  singing,  in  every 
Christian  Endeavor  prayer-meeling,  unless 
hindered  by  some  reason  which  I  can  consci- 
entiously give  to  my  Lord  and  Master.  If 
obliged  to  be  absent  from  the  monthly  con- 
secration meeting  of  the  society  I  will,  if  pos- 
sible, send  at  least  a  verse  of  Scripture  to  be 
read  in  response  to  my  name  at  the  roll-call." 

Connected  with  this  devotional  idea  thus 
made  so  prominent  there  is  much  practical 
work  provided  for,  and  each  society  has  a 
number  of  committees. 

The  following  are  the  leading  committees  : 


YOUNG 


(987) 


YOUNG 


The  Lookout,  Prayer  meeting,  Social,  Mis- 
sionary, Sunday-school,  Flower,  Music,  Re- 
lief, Calling,  Temperance,  Good  Literature, 
and  White  Cross  committees.  Any  society 
can  have  more  or  fewer  committees,  accord- 
ing to  the  needs  of  the  church  with  which  it 
is  connected,  and  in  other  respects  the  society 
is  entirely  tlexihle  and  always  adapts  itself  to 
the  needs  of  the  local  church. 

The  following  definitions  of  the  three  com- 
mittees which  are  essential  to  every  society, 
will  tell  the  scope  and  design  of  this  impor- 
tant feature  of  the  work  : 

1.  Lookout  Commitfce. — It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  this  conunittee  to  bring  new  members  into 
the  society,  to  introduce  them  to  the  work 
and  to  the  other  members,  and  to  affection- 
ately look  after  and  reclain\  any  that  seem  in- 
different to  their  duties  as  outlined  in  the 
pledge.  This  committee  shall  also  by  per- 
sonal investigation  satisfy  itself  of  the'fitness 
of  young  persons  to  become  members  of  this 
society,  and  shall  propose  their  names  at  least 
one  week  before  their  election  to  member- 
ship. 

2.  Prayer-meeting  Committee. — It  shall  be 
the  duty  of  this  committee  to  have  in  charge 
the  prayer-meeting,  and  to  see  that  a  topic  is 
assigned  and  a  leader  appointed  for  every 
meeting,  and  to  do  what  it  can  to  secure 
faithfulness  to  the  praj-er-meeting  pledge. 

3.  Social  Committee. — It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  this  committee  to  promote  the  social  inter- 
ests of  the  society  by  welcoming  strangers  to 
the  meetings,  and  by  providing  for  the  mu- 
tual acquaintance  of  the  members  by  occa- 
sional sociables,  for  which  any  appropriate 
entertainment,  of  which  the  church  approves, 
may  be  provided. 

The  original  purpose  of  the  society,  a  train- 
ing school  for  the  young  people  of  the  church, 
has  been  very  strenuously  adhered  to. 

There  is  no  central  authority  or  board  of 
control.  Every  society  is  under  the  direct 
and  immediate  control  of  its  own  church  and 
denomination.  The  United  Society  of  Chris- 
tian Endeavor,  whose  headquarters  are  at  50 
Bromlield  street,  Boston,  Mass.,  is  simply  a 
bureau  of  information.  It  sends  out  sample 
constitutions  and  other  leaflets,  and  seeks  to 
give  the  information  that  is  asked  for.  It 
also  provides  for  an  annual  international  con- 
vention, and  does  a  small  publishing  business 
which  provides  funds  for  its  very  limited  ex 
penses.  [The  Golden,  llnle,  published  in  Bos- 
ton, is  the  organ  of  the  United  Society.] 

Tile  affairs  are  managed  by  a  Board  of 
Trustees  representing  the  different  evangelical 
denominations,  and  it  supports  one  general 
secretary.  The  societies  in  almost  every  state 
in  the  Union  are  now  organized  into  state 
Christian  Endeavor  Unions,  which  hold  annual 
conventions  that  are  productive  of  great  good. 
There  are  also  district  and  local  unions  in 
most  sections  of  the  country,  embracing  the 
Christian  Endeavor  Societies  in  a  given  city 
or  county.  The  society  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  was  never  growing 
so  rapidly  and  healtlifully  as  at  present,  and 
the  British  and  Australian  sections  are  re- 
ported to  be  in  a  most  flourishing  condition. 
F.  E.  CL.A.UK  {Founder). 


III.  THE  BROTHERHOOD   OF   ST.  ANDREW. 

The  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  is  an  or- 
ganization of  men  in  the  Episcopal  Church, 
whose  sole  object  is  the  spread  of  Christ's 
kingdom  among  young  men.  In  fulfllment 
of  this  object  every  member  of  the  Brother- 
hood pledges  himself  to  pray  each  day  for  the 
spread  of  Christ's  kingdom,  and  to  make  an 
earnest  effort  each  week  to  bring  at  least  one 
young  man  within  hearing  of  the  gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ.  This  earnest  effort  is  under- 
stood to  be  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an  en- 
deavor, consciously  and  conscientiously  made, 
to  bring  some  one  man  nearer  the  church  or 
the  church  nearer  the  man  ;  and  it  is  luider- 
stood  that  such  an  effort  each  week  is  the 
minimum  work  which  should  rightly  be  ex- 
pected of  a  Christian  believer. 

In  any  parish  or  mission  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  any  number  of  men  may, 
with  the  approval  of  the  rector  of  the  pari.sh, 
organize  themselves  as  a  chapter  of  the 
Brotherhood,  which,  upon  ratification  of  the 
Constitution,  is  formally  admitted  into  union 
with  the  general  organization.  A  convention 
is  held  annually  at  which  each  chapter  is  en- 
titled to  be  represented  and  at  which  legisla- 
tive business  is  transacted,  conferences  on 
practical  methods  of  work  are  held,  and  stir- 
ring addresses  are  delivered  on  topics  con- 
nected with  practical  Christian  life  and  organ- 
ized religious  activity.  The  convention  elects 
a  council  of  twenty-one  members,  who  are 
entrusted  with  the  general  oversight  of  the 
Brotherhood.  Chapters  in  the  same  locality 
are  encouraged  to  form  local  organizations 
for  united  work  and  mutual  assistance.  By 
means  of  union  meetings,  regular  reports,  and 
territorial  assignment  of  chapters  to  the  differ- 
ent council  members,  the  members  of  the 
Brotherhood  in  different  parishes  are  kept  in 
touch  with  one  another  and  the  organization 
solidified. 

The  first  organization  bearing  this  name 
was  formed  in  St.  James'  Church,  Chicago, 
on  Nov.  30,  1883.  The  work  of  this  parochial 
Brotherhood  was  so  successful  that  other  par- 
ishes formed  similar  organizations,  and  in 
Oct.,  1886,  delegates  from  twenty  Brother- 
hoods of  St.  Andrew  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  met  in  Chicago  and  united  on  the 
basis  of  a  constitution  which  has  never  been 
materially  changed.  During  the  following 
year  the  Brotherhood  grew  very  rapidlv,  espe- 
cially in  the  "West,  and  at  the  second  conven- 
tion, which  was  held  in  Chicago  in  1887,  80 
delegates  were  present  from  38  chapters  rep- 
resenting a  total  enrolment  of  115  chapters 
and  23U0  members.  The  remarkable  growth 
of  the  order  continued  ;  new  methods  were 
employed  in  new  chai)ters  ;  parish  after  parish 
recognized  the  significance  of  this  movement 
among  the  younger  laymen  of  the  church, 
and  wiien  the  third  annual  convention  met  in 
New  York  City,  in  Oct. ,  1888,  ICO  delegates 
were  present,  representing  82  chapters  and  a 
total  enrolment  of  206  chapters  and  3700 
members.  "With  this  convention  began  the 
extension  of  the  Brotherhood  in  the  East,  cor- 
responding to  its  former  growth  in  the  West, 
and  at  the  fourth  annual  conventipn  in  Cleve- 
land, Sept.,  188'J,  245  delegates  were  present 


{ 


YOUNG 


(988) 


YOUNG 


from  113  cliapters,  and  a  total  enrolment  was 
reported  of  312  chapters  and  4500  members. 
This  convention  witnessed  a  remarkable 
change  in  the  spirit  of  the  Brotherhood,  which 
was  a  direct  result  of  tlie  principles  that  had 
been  proclaimed  by  its  leaders  from  the  start. 
It  was  seen  more  clearly  than  ever  that  the 
work  of  the  order  is  a  purely  spiritual  work, 
and  that  for  its  fulfilment  the  main  thing 
necessary  is  personal  Christian  character. 
Zeal,  devotion,  and  efficiency  thus  greatly  in- 
creased among  the  whole  membership.  The 
fifth  convention  met  in  Philadelphia  from 
Oct.  16  to  19,  1890.  and  brought  together  500 
delegates  and  visitors.  Four  hundred  and 
thirty- three  chapters  were  reported  with  a 
membership  of  over  6500.  This  convention 
developed  more  interest  than  any  of  its  pre- 
decessors, and  bore  witness  to  the  fact  that 
the  laity  were  thoroughly  aroused  to  the 
necessity  for  active  and  energetic  work  and 
thought  on  their  part.  The  central  office  was 
removed  from  Chicago,  where  it  had  always 
been  maintained,  to  New  York,  and  it  was 
decided  to  hold  the  next  convention  in  St. 
Louis.  The  history  of  the  Brotherhood  is 
briefly  given  in  this  review  of  its  annual  con- 
ventions. They  were  all  remarkable  meetings, 
and  have  illustrated  admirably  the  growth  of 
the  Brotherhood  from  a  mere  parochial  so- 
ciety into  an  institution  of  recognized  impor- 
tance in  the  Episcopal  Church. 

The  Brotherhood  takes  its  name  from  the 
Apostle  Andrew,  who  when  called  first  went 
f'.nd  brought  his  brother  to  the  Messiah.  Its 
Avork  is  done  on  the  basis  of  individual  re- 
sponsibility and  entire  consecration.  It  was 
founded  by  a  layman  and  has  always  been 
managed  by  laymen.  It  is  essentially  an  or- 
ganization of  young  men,  and  has  naturally 
been  characterized  by  an  abundance  of  zeal 
and  enthusiasm.  It  has  received  hearty  en- 
couragement and  support  from  the  bishops 
and  clergy  of  the  Episcopal  Church  and  from 
older_  laymen.  Its  parochial  chapters  are 
steadily  at  work  endeavoring  each  in  its  own 
small  field  and  necessarily  imperfect  way  to 
bring  to  pass  the  kingdom  of  God.  Its  mo- 
tives and  methods  are  thus  of  a  high  character 
and  its  work  has  been  energetically  executed. 
Its  organ  is  St.  Aridrew's  Cro,ss,  a  mouthlv 
paper  published  in  New-York 
Henry  A.  Sill, 

{Editor  "St.  Audreio's  Cross"). 

IV.  THE  KING'S  DAUGHTERS. 

Very  wide  acquaintance  with  Christian 
women  of  all  denominations  had  impressed 
Mrs.  Margaret  Bottome  with  the  need  of  some 
simple  plan  of  co-operation  along  all  lines  of 
Christian  endeavor,  which,  while  antagonizing 
no  one,  should  be  helpful  to  all,  as  well  as  in- 
dependent in  itself  in  its  multiplied  sugges- 
tiveness.  Accordingly,  about  the  last  of  Dec. , 
1885,  she  invited  to  her  residence  four  lady 
friends  and  laid  her  thoughts  on  the  subject 
before  them.  That  meeting  resulted  in  a  sec- 
ond one  at  her  house  on  Jan.  13,  1886,  of  the 
same  ladies  and  five  others,  who  had  been 
personally  invited  by  one  of  the  former  num- 
ber. At  that  meeting,  after  mucli  consulta- 
tion and  prayer,  it  was  resolved  to  form  them- 


selves into  a  "central  ten."  as  the  nucleus 
round  which  other  tens  might  form,  who 
would  recognize  their  simple  platform  of 
union  and  their  method  of  work.  As  they 
represented  most  of  the  different  denomina- 
tions of  the  Christian  Church,  it  was  at  once 
recognized  that  their  basis  of  union  must  be 
thoroughly  catholic  in  spirit  and  non -sectarian 
in  character.  Accordingly  they  called  them- 
selves a  Sisterhood  of  service,  having  for  its 
special  object  the  deepening  of  spiritual  life 
in  their  own  liearts,  and  the  quickening  of 
Christian  activities  in  all  ways  that  might 
suggest  themselves  in  the  expansion  of  the 
idea.  The  new  order  was  called  the  Order 
of  the  King's  Daughters,  choosing  for  its  badge 
a  ribbon  of  the  royal  color,  and  a  little  Mal- 
tese cross  of  silver,  on  Avhich  is  engraved  the 
letters  I.  H.  N.,  signifying  "  In  Hi's  Name," 
which  was  made  the  watcliword  of  the  order, 
and  Oil  the  obverse  1886,  denoting  the  year  of 
its  commencement. 

As  rapidly  as  the  existence  and  character  of 
the  order  became  known  "  tens,"  or  as  they 
soon  came  to  be  called,  "  circles,"  sprung  up 
in  every  direction,  calling  for  more  formal 
consolidation  and  personal  supervision.  Ac- 
cordingly the  order  was  incorporated  under  a 
regular  constitution  with  the  Central  Council 
as  its  head  and  representative.  This  council 
has  its  present  headquarters  at  47  West 
Twentv-second  street.  New  York  City.  An 
organ  of  the  order,  known  as  The  Silver  Cross, 
edited  by  Mrs.  M.  L.  Dickenson,  is  published 
by  the  Central  Council,  and  issued  monthly 
from  these  headquarters. 

The  constitution  provides  for  "  circles"  and 
"  chapters  of  circles"  and  state  secretaryships, 
luider  the  general  direction  and  advice  of  the 
Central  Council,  with  which  they  are  ex- 
pected to  keep  in  closest  correspondence. 
Every  branch  or  circle  may  choose  its  own 
special  work,  adopting  its  own  circle  name 
and  motto  and  its  own  plan  of  operation, 
providing  only  that  it  is  in  accord  with  the 
principles  of  the  order  in  loyalty  to  the  King 
and  Master,  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ.  Branches  of  the  King's  Sons  have 
been  admitted  into  the  order  under  precisely 
the  same  conditions  as  the  Daughters,  and 
have  been  equally  effective  as  they  in  their 
different  fields  of  operation.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  the  idea  the  direction  specially  em- 
phasized is,  first  the  heart,  next  the  home, 
then  the  church,  and  after  that  the  great  out- 
side !  Let  the  full  meaning  of  the  watchword 
of  the  order — "In  His  Name,"  as  .signified 
by  the  initials  I.  H.  N.,  on  the  little  Maltese 
cross — be  allowed  to  control  the  heart  and  all 
the  rest  follows  as  the  needle  follows  the 
magnet. 

(Mrs.)  Margaret  Bottome  {Pres.) 

V.  THE  EPWORTH   LEAGUE 

of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  or- 
ganized to  promote  an  earnest,  intelligent, 
practical,  and  loyal  spiritual  life  in  the  young 
people  of  that  church.  It  was  instituted  in  a 
conference  of  representatives  of  several  soci- 
eties of  young  people  held  in  Cleveland,  O., 
on  Tuesday  and  Wednesday,  May  14  and  15, 


TOUNG 


(989) 


TOUNG 


1889.  These  societies  were  all  strictly  denom- 
inational ;  some,  like  the  Methodist  Alliance, 
being  evangelistic  and  revivalistic  in  aims  and 
method  ;  others,  like  the  Oxford  League, 
being  more  intellectual  and  literary  in  diar- 
acter.  After  thorough  discussion,  these  soci- 
eties were  merged  into  one  new  society  for 
the  entire  church,  to  be  called  the  Epworth 
League.  Immediately  the  young  people  of 
the  various  Methodist  churches  in  all  parts  of 
the  land  began  to  withdraw  from  interde- 
nominational associations,  and  tlie  Epworth 
League  became  the  one  representative  young 
people's  organization  of  tlie  church.  Few 
events  have  been  hailed  with  such  luianimous 
delight  by  the  Methodist  Church.  The  bishops, 
tlien  in  session  in  Delaware.  ().,  received  the 
representatives  of  the  Cleveland  Conference 
with  great  cordiality,  and  indorsed  the  League 
with  emphasis,  and  the  press  of  the  church 
greeted  tlu;  new  organization  heartily.  The 
Bjok  Committee  established  an  organ  for  it 
entitled  the  Epworth  Herald,  published  in 
Chicago,  whicli  in  the  first  year  of  its  history 
reached  a  circulation  of  20,000. 

The  delegates  who  constituted  the  new  so- 
ciety in  May,  1889,  represented  about  1250 
local  societies.  There  were  in  Feb.  1,  1891 
4606  leagues  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and 
they  are  increasing  at  the  rate  of  nine  a  day. 
These  are  distributed  as  follows  :  Alabama, 
5  ;  Arizona,  1  ;  Arkansas,  7  ;  California,  71  ; 
Colorado,  23  :  Connecticut,  53  ;  Delaware,  16  ; 
District  of  Columbia,  6  ;  Florida,  3  ;  Georgia, 
7  ;  Illinois,  471  ;  Indiana,  247  ;  Indian  Terri- 
tory, 1  ;  Oklahoma  Territory,  6  ;  Iowa,  355  ; 
Kansas,  249  ;  Kentuck}^,  17  ;  liOuisiana,  5  ; 
Maine,  79  ;  Mar  viand,  65  ;  ^Massachusetts, 
256  ;  Michigan,  297  ;  Minnesota.  93  ;  iMis- 
souri.  89;  Montana,  10;  Nebraska,  117; 
Nevada,  2  ;  New  Hampshire,  44  ;  New  Jer- 
sey, 191  ;  New  Mexico,  3  ;  New  York,  617  ; 
North  Carolina,  4  ;  North  Dakota,  28  ;  Ohio, 
437  ;  Oregon,  15  ;  Pennsylvania.  316  ;  Rhode 
Island,  26  ;  Soutli  Carolina,  3  ;  South  Dakota, 
69  ;  Tennessee,  16  ;  Texas,  8  ;  Utah,  6  ;  Ver- 
mont, 56  ;  Virginia,  3  ;  Washington,  30  ; 
"West  Virginia,  23  ;  Wisconsin,  151  ;  Wyo- 
ming, 3  ;  foreign,  6.  The  average  member- 
ship of  the  local  leagues  is  50,  and  the  total 
membership  230,000. 

Tlie  Canada  ]\Iethodist  Church,  and  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Churcii  ISouth  organ- 
ized societies  on  the  model  of  the  Epworth 
Leairue  in  the  winter  of  1890-91,  and  the 
Metliodist  Church  of  Ireland  and  the  Wes- 
leyan  Cliurch  of  England  are  now,  in  their 
higliest  legislative  bodies,  discu.ssing  the  pro- 
priety of  also  following  the  example. 

Tlie  work  of  the  League  represents  every 
department  of  Christian  activity— Christian, 
devotional,  works  of  mercy  and  help,  literary, 
social,  and  business.  An  annual  course  of 
reading  is  followed.  Pledges,  transfer-cards, 
etc.,  keep  up  a  do.se  connection  between  dis- 
tant societies  and  travelling  members.  The 
chief  ollicers  of  the  League  of  tiie  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  are  Bisliop  James  N.  Fitz- 
gerald, president  ;  Jesse  I..  Hurlbut,  corre- 
sponding secretary  ;  Robert  \{.  Doherty,  re- 
cording secretary  ;  James  M.  Freeman,  treas- 
urer, and  Joseph  F.  Berry,  editor  of  the  Ep- 


worth   Herald.     A  Board  of   Control,  which 
meets  annually,  exercises  general  oversight. 
Robert  R.  Doheuty 

(Recording  Secretary). 

Young  Women's  Christian  Associations. 

These  dilTer  somewhnt  in  their  form  of  or- 
ganization from  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Asso(;iations,  but  their  objects  are  parallel — 
namely,  to  promote  the  temporal,  social,  men- 
tal, moral,  and  religious  welfare  of  young 
women,  particularly  those  dependent  upon 
their  own  exertions  for  support.  The  first 
organization  of  the  kind  in  this  country  was 
made  in  New  York  City,  Nov.,  18.")S.  It 
grew  out  of  a  union  prayer  circle  wliicli  liad 
been  formed  by  Mrs.  Marshal  O.  linlu  its  a 
few  months  previously,  and  was  called  the 
"  Ladies'  Christian  Association."  It  .started 
with  thirty-five  members.  The  name  was 
changed  a  few  years  later  to  the  "  Ladies' 
Christian  Union,"  under  which  it  still  con- 
tinues. The  first  work  of  the  Union  was  hold- 
ing religious  meetings  among  factory  girls 
and  visiting  among  the  sick  poor,  either  in 
person  or  by  a  paid  missionary.  The  ques- 
tion of  .securing  a  safe,  comfortable  V)oarding- 
house  at  a  price  a  young  woman  working  for 
self-support  could  pay,  was  providentially 
brought  to  the  attention  of  the  association, 
and  after  much  labor  and  discouragement  it 
opened  a  home  in  Amity  Place  in  the  spring 
of  1860,  the  first  home  for  self -supporting 
women  in  our  land.  The  Union  has  now 
three  such  homes.  The  weekly  Union  prayer- 
meeting  (held  in  the  Broadway  Tabernacle) 
has  been  supplemented  at  times  by  smaller 
parlor  prayer-circles,  from  one  of  which  came 
tlie  suggestion  which  resulted  in  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation of  New  York,  April.  1873.  This  is 
perhaps  the  best  equipped  of  any  of  the  asso- 
ciations in  this  country  or  in  Canada.  It 
owns  a  fine  building  specially  adapted  to  its 
work,  with  parlors,  offices,  class  rooms,  li- 
brary, and  assembly  hall,  and  in  January, 
1891,  it  b(!came  the  possessor,  by  the  gift 
of  one  of  its  officers,  of  a  home  the  "  Mar- 
garet Louise  Home")  admirably  fitted  np  for 
the  temporary  entertainment  of  young  women 
who  may  be  seeking  employment  in  the  city. 
The  Young  Women's  Christian  Associa- 
tions are,  as  a  rule,  organized  with  two  classes 
of  members  :  active  members  are  those  who. 
in  addition  to  at  least  a  small  annual  contri- 
bution, can  give  personal  services  in  extend- 
ing the  work  of  the  organization  ;  associate 
members  are  those  who  are  interested  in  the 
objects  of  the  association,  and  who  pledge 
themselves  to  a  larger  annual  contribution, 
but  who  cannot  engage  in  personal  work. 
Only  active  members  have  a  right  to  vote. 
Many  of  the  a.s.sociations,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  the  first  society,  proi'ide  homes  for 
working  girls,  while  others  have  a  Board 
Directory,  through  which  these  girls  are 
directed  to  boarding  places  of  a  suitable  na- 
ture. A  number  of  the  associations  have  es- 
tablished chisses  in  which  young  women  can 
be  trained  in  various  pursuits  with  a  view  to 
their  own  support.  Employment  is  found 
for  tho.se  who   need   opportunity   to    work. 


YUIiB 


(990) 


ZECHARIAH 


Libraries,  reading-rooms,  lecture  courses  and 
tlie  like  contribute  to  the  mental  training  of 
these  working  young  women.  Provision  is 
made  for  social  entertainments.  Bible-classes 
and  prayer-meetings  minister  to  spiritual 
needs,  while  warm-hearted  Christian  women 
take  personal  interest  in  individual  cases  as 
circumstances  require. 

There  are  about  sixty  of  these  associations 
in  this  country  and  the  British  provinces, 
united  together  in  an  International  Confer- 
ence which  meets  biennially.  They  own 
property  of  an  aggregate  value  of  nearly  a 
million  and  three-quarters  of  dollars.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  these  associations  in 
Great  Britain. 

Oliver  Addison  Kingsbury. 

Yule,  the  old  Scandinavian  pagan  name 
for  Christmas,  of  uncertain  derivation,  not 
found  outside  of  Scandinavia  and  England. 


Zac-chse'-us  (Hebrew,  righteous),  a  Jew, 
but  converted  to  Christianity  (Luke  xxix.  2), 
was  Roman  tax-gatherer  at  Jericho,  where  a 
half -ruined  tower,  now  occupied  by  the  Turk- 
ish garrison,  is  still  pointed  out  as  his  house. 

Zacharias,  pope  from  Dec.  3,  741,  to  March, 
753.  He  prepared  the  way  for  that  union  of 
the  papacy  with  the  Frankish  House  which 
resulted  in  the  creation  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire.  He  was  also  instrumental  in  bring- 
ing about  a  degree  of  temporary  harmony 
with  the  Lombards  in  Italy.  "  F.  H.  F. 

Zahn  (tsan),  Theodor,,  Lie.  Theol.  (Gottin- 
gen,  1867),  D.D.  (lion.,  Gottingen,  1872),  Ger- 
man Protestant  ;  b.  at  Mors.  Rhenisli  Prus- 
sia, Oct.  10,  1838  ;  studied  theology  at  Basel, 
Erlaugen,  and  Berlin,  1854-58,  and  became 
profesW  at  Gottingen,  1871  ;  Kiel,  1877  ; 
Erlangen,  1878  ;  Leipzig,  1888.  With  Geb- 
hardt  and  Harnack  he  edited  the  Apostolic 
Fathers,  in  Greek,  Leipzig,  1875-77,  3  vols. 
His  most  important  work  has  been  done  upon 
the  Canon,  Oeschichte  deft  neutestamentlichen 
Kanons,  Erlangen,  1888  sqq. 

Zanchi  (dz^n  kee),  Hieronymus,  b.  at  Al- 
zano,  near  Bergamo,  Italy,  1516  ;  d.  at  Heidel- 
berg, Nov.  19,  1590  ;  entered  the  order  of  St. 
Augustine  in  1531,  but  embraced  the  Refor- 
mation and  was  compelled  to  flee  ;  visited 
Geneva  and  England,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  Old  Testament  at  Strassburg  in 
1553.  and  professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg 
in  1568.  He  wrote  against  the  Lutherans, 
the  Antitrinitarians,  etc.  His  collected  works 
appeared  at  Heidelberg,  1613,  8  vols.  ;  Gene- 
va, 1619,  3  vols.  His  Spiritual  Marriage 
betioeen  Christ  and  the  Ghurch  was  trans- 
lated into  English,  Cambridge,  1.592;  his  Con- 
fession of  the  Christian  Relir/ion,  1599  ;  his 
W/iole  Body  of  Christian  Religion,  London, 
1659. 

Zar'-e-phath  (smelting  place),  a  Phoenician 
seaport  between  Tyre  and  Sidon.  During 
the  long  drought  in'  Israel  Elijah  found  shel- 


ter here  with  a  widow  whose  flour  and  oil 
were  supplied  and  her  son  restored  to  life,  by 
miracle  (1  Kings  xvii.  8-24).  To  this  inci- 
dent our  Lord  made  reference,  as  recorded  by 
Luke  (iv.  26),  who  employs  the  Greek  form  of 
the  name,  Sarepta.  The  place  is  now  marked 
only  by  ruins,  but  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  a 
mile  back  from  the  coast  is  the  modern  viHage 
of  Surafeud.  T.  W.  C. 

Zealots,  the  name  of  a  party  among  the 
Jews,  half  religious  and  half  political,  founded 
by  Judas  of  Galilee  (Acts  v.  37).  and  after  his 
death  led  by  Eleazar,  one  of  his  descendants. 
After  having  been  dispersed  by  the  Roman 
authority  they  sank  into  bands  of  brigands 
called  Sicarii.  One  of  the  apostles,  Simon  the 
Canansean,  or,  as  the  margin  of  the  Revised 
Version  has  it  (Matt.  x.  4),  the  Zealot,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  belonged  to  this  party. 

T.  W.  C. 

Zebulon.     See  Tribes. 

Zech-a-ri'-ah  {Jehovah  remembers),  a  name 
borne  by  twenty-eight  different  persons  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  the  most  important  of 
whom  was  the  eleventh  of  the  minor  proph- 
ets. He  was  born  in  Babylon  and  came  from 
exile  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  v.  1),  being  a 
priest  (Neh.  xii.  16)  as  well  as  a  prophet. 
Scarcely  anything  is  known  of  his  life.  He 
was  a  contemporary  of  Haggai,  and  prophe- 
cied  between  B.C.  520  and  518. 

His  prophetic  utterances  fall  into  two  divi- 
sions, one  containing  the  first  eight  chapters, 
the  other  the  rest  of  the  book.  The  former 
is  mainly  occupied  with  a  series  of  night 
visions  of  a  highly  symbolical  character,  in- 
tended to  warn  the  people  against  sin  and  to 
animate  their  faith  and  zeal  in  the  service  of 
God.  In  chapters  7  and  8  the  prophet,  in  reply 
to  a  question  about  continuing  the  commemo- 
rative fasts  appointed  during  the  captivity, 
after  a  short  rebuke  promises  that  these  fasts 
shall  be  turned  into  festivals.  The  latter  di- 
vision treats  of  the  future  fortunes  of  the 
covenant  people,  the  conquests  of  Alexander 
(ix.  1-10),  the  heroic  struggles  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, the  triumphs  of  the  Messiah,  and  the 
final  glorification  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 
About  the  authorship  of  this  portion  of  the 
book  grave  doubts  have  been  raised,  all,  how- 
ever, drawn  from  internal  evidence,  all  the 
testimony  of  history  and  tradition  being  in 
favor  of  its  genuineness  as  the  work  of  Zech- 
ariah.  Nor  is  there  sutflcieut  reason  for  con- 
sidering the  book  as  a  piece  of  patchwork 
incorporating  much  older  predictions  with  the 
oracles  of  a  post-exilian  prophet. 

The  book  is  in  parts  obscure  and  difficult 
of  interpretation,  owing  to  the  conciseness  of 
the  diction,  the  abundance  of  symbols,  and 
the  peculiar  character  of  its  Messianic  refer- 
ences. The  last  are  unusually  particular  and 
express.  They  represent  the  coming  deliverer 
as  a  branch  or  root-shoot  and  not  a  stately 
tree  (iii.  8),  as  a  priest  and  king  who  builds 
the  temple  of  Jehovah  (vi.  12),  as  a  monarch 
meek  and  lowly,  yet  reigning  from  the  river 
to  the  ends  of  the  earth  (ix.  9,  10),  as  a  .shep- 
herd betrayed  for  the  price  of  a  slave,  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  (xi.  13),  as  a  pierced  one,  the 
sight  of  whom  leads  to  widespread  and  bitter 


ZEDEEIAR 


(991) 


ZERUBBABZL 


repentance  (xii.  10).  and  finally  as  a  man  who 
yet  is  the  fellow  of  Jehovah  and  as  such  is 
smitten  by  Jehovah  himself  (xiii.  7).  Myste- 
rious as  many  of  these  representations  are, 
their  general  purport  is  not  to  be  mistaken. 

LiTEKATURE. — Lanfje,  New  York,  1874  ; 
C.  H.  H.  Wright,  Zechariah  and  his  Prophe- 
cies, London.  1879  ;  J.  Denham  Smith,  1885  ; 
W.  L.  Alexander.  1885  ;  T.  T.  Perowne.  in 
Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools,  Cambridge,  1890. 
T.  W.  C. 

Zed-e-ki'-ah  {righteousness  of  Jehovah),  the 
nineteenth  and  last  king  of  Judali.  His 
proper  name  was  Mattaniah,  but  Nebuchad- 
nezzar changed  it  when  he  put  him  on  the 
throne  (2  Kings  xxiv.  17).  lie  began  to  reign 
at  twenty-one,  and  reigned  eleven  years,  598- 
588  B.C.  He  was  a  weak  man,  and  as  sinful 
as  his  predecessors.  In  the  ninth  year  of  his 
reign  he  revolted,  and  two  years  after  the  city 
was  taken  by  storm.  He  was  seized  and  car- 
ried to  Riblah  where  his  eyes  were  put  out, 
and  he  was  then  sent  in  chains  to  Babylon, 
thus  fulfilling  the  prophecy  that  he  should  be 
taken  to  Babylon,  but  never  see  it  (Jer.  xxxii. 
4.  5,  xxxiv.  3,  Ezek.  xii.  13).  T.  W.  C. 

Zeisberger  (tsls-berg-er),  David,  b.  at 
Zauchtenthal,  Moravia,  April  11,  1721  ;  d.  at 
Goshen,  O.,  Nov.  17,  1808  ;  was  educated  by 
the  Bohemian  Brethren  at  Herrnhut.  Saxony, 
and  Herrendyk,  Holland,  and  joined,  in  1740, 
his  parents  who,  in  1735,  had  emigrated  to 
America  and  settled  in  Pennsylvania.  In 
1745  he  began  his  missionary  work  among  the 
Indians,  and  continued  it  for  over  sixty  years. 
He  spoke  the  Delaware,  Mohawk,  and  Onan- 
daga  languages  with  perfect  fluency,  and  con- 
quered the  confidence  of  the  Indians  to  a 
larger  extent  than  probably  any  other  white 
man.  He  became  their  leader  in  their  most 
important  undertakings  and  established  thir- 
teen Christian  Indian  towns  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.  He  published  a  great  num- 
ber of  books  for  his  converts,  English  spell- 
ing-books. Indian  hymn-books,  etc.,  but  some 
of  his  most  important,  as,  for  instance,  his 
Oerman  and  Onondaga  Ijexicon  in  7  vols., 
still  remain  in  manuscript.  (See  his  life  bv 
Bishop  E.  de  Schweinitz,  Philadelphia,  1870!) 

Zell,  Matthaus,  b.  at  Kaysersberg,  Upper 
Elsass,  Sept.  21,  1477  ;  d.  at'Strassburg.  Jan. 
10,  1548.  He  studied  at  Mainz  and  Erfurt  ; 
became  cathedral  preacher  at  Strassburc,  and 
pastor  of  St.  Lawrence.  Upheld  by  the  magis- 
tracy he  introduced  the  Reformation,  1523. 
He  married  in  that  year  and  found  in  his  wife 
a  vigorous  defender  against  all  comers,  e.g.. 
Entscliitldigung  Katharine  Schutzinn,  Strass- 
burg,  1524.  (See  his  life  by  E.  Lehr  [Strass- 
burg,  18611.  J.  Walther  [1866],  A.  Erickson 
[1878].) 

Zend  AvesU.     See  Persia,  p.  708. 

Zeno,  bishop  of  Verona,  according  to  the 
legend,  in  Gallienus'  reign  (260-68),  to  whom 
were  ascril>ed  a  number  of  sennons  published 
first  in  1508.  Of  the.se  eleven  were  soon  per- 
ceived to  be  spurious,  and  after  much  study 
it  appears  certain  only  that  the  ninety-three 
genuine  ones  come  from  the  same  author  or 
editor,  and  that  they  have  always  been  as- 


cribed in  Verona  to  Zeno.  But  how  they  re- 
mained so  long  unknown,  and  to  what  date 
they  and  Zeno  himself  are  to  be  assigned,  is 
uncertain.  F.  II.  F. 

Ze-pha-ni'-ah  {JeJwvah  hides),  the  ninth  of 
the  minor  prophets.  He  began  to  prophesy 
about  B.C.  630,  in  the  early  part  of  Josiah's 
reign  before  the  reforms  of  that  good  king 
were  completed  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  3,  Zeph. 
i.  4,  5).  The  destruction  of  Nineveh,  foretold 
in  plain  w^ords  (ii.  13-15),  probably  occurred 
about  B.C.  606  ;  and  the  threats  against  the 
remnant  of  Baal,  the  Chemarim,  etc.  (i.  4-6), 
were  fulfilled  by  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  4,  5). 
His  oracles  combine  threatening.s  iigain.st  idol- 
aters in  Judah  (i.  1-ii.  3)  with' denunciations 
of  surrounding  wicked  nations — the  Philis- 
tines, Moab,  Ammon,  Ethiopia,  and  Assyria 
(ii.  4-15).  In  the  concluding  chapter  the 
prophet  warns  rulers,  priests,  and  prophets  in 
Jerusalem  of  coming  judgments,  yet  closes 
with  cheering  promises  of  deliverance  and 
blessing  to  the  remnant  that  shall  be  left. 
The  dread  description  of  wrath  to  come  in  the 
fourteenth  verse  of  the  first  chapter,  "  the 
great  day  of  Jehovah  is  near,"  which  in  the 
Vulgate  is  rendered  Dies  irce.  dies  ilia,  fur- 
nished the  key-note  of  the  sublime  hymn  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  the  Dies  Irm  of  Thomas  of 
Celano  (1250),  which  brings  before  the  read- 
er's mind  the  awful  impending  reality  of  the 
final  judgment  as  has  nowhere  else  been  done 
before  or  since.  (See  Lange,  New  York, 
1874.)  T.  W.  C. 

Zephyrinus,  pope,  199-218,  between  Victor 
and  Callistus,  but  the  exact  dates  of  his  reign 
are  uncertain.  Nothing  in  particular  is  known 
of  him. 

Zerbolt,  Gerhard,  b.  at  Zutphen,  Holland, 
1667  ;  d.  at  Windesheim,  1698  ;  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. 
Of  his  writings  only  fragments  have  come 
down  to  us. 

Zerotin,  Charles  von,  Moravian  noble,  and 
prominent  member  of  the  ancient  Unitaa 
Fratrum  (see  Moravian  Church)  ;  b.  Sept. 
14, 1564,  at  Brandeis,  son  of  John  von  Zerotin, 
through  w^hose  liberality  Wiis  published  the 
Kralitz  Bible,  1579-93,  the  first  Bohemian 
Bible  translated  from  the  original  ;  d.  at  Pre- 
rau.  Oct.  9,  1636.  Educated  in  the  schools 
of  his  church  and  at  Bjxsel  and  Geneva,  he 
served  the  Protestant  cause  under  Henrj'  of 
Navarre,  and  engaged  in  a  campaign  against 
the  Turks.  Appointed  a.s.scssor  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Moravia  ;  prominent  in  the 
revolt  again.st  Rudolph  II.,  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Moravia  in  1608.  Resigning  in 
1615,  he  refused  to  join  in  the  revolt  against 
Ferdinand  II.  For  a  time  able  to  shelter  the 
banished  bishops  and  ministers  of  his  church 
during  the  Counter-Reformation,  he  was  at 
length  compelled  to  sell  his  estates  at  a  great 
loss  to  his  brother-in-law,  Wallenstein,  and 
also  to  go  into  exile,  1627. 

J.  Taylor  Hamilton. 

Ze-rub'-ba-bel  {hegotten  in  Babylon),  the 
li'ader  of  the  first  colony  of  Jews  that  returned 
from  the  Captivity  (Ezra  ii.  2).  He  was  the 
son  of  Salathiel  or  Sliealtiol  (Hag.  i.  1,  Matt. 


ZIDON 


(992) 


ZINZENDORF 


i.  12),  and  of  the  royal  race  of  David.  He 
held  an  official  position  in  Babylon,  and 
to  him  Cyrus  committed  the  sacred  vessels 
that  were  restored  to  Jerusalem.  He  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  temple  (Zech.  iv.  6-10,  and 
restored  the  religious  rites  of  the  nation.  The 
intrigues  of  the  mixed  population  of  Samaria 
procured  an  order  from  Persia  to  stop  the 
work,  but  after  years  of  delay  the  order  was 
reversed,  and  he  succeeded  in  completing  the 
building  (Ezra  v.  2).  He  was  the  governor 
of  Judaea  (Neh.  xii.  47).  To  him  the  geneal- 
ogy of  both  Joseph  and  Mary  is  traced  (Matt. 
i.  13,  Luke  iii.  27).  T.  W.  C. 


Zi'-don  {fish-town),  a  rich  and  ancient  Phoe- 
nician city,  the  name  of  which  is  given  in  the 
Greek  form,  Sidon,  in  Gen.  x.  15,  19,  in  the 
Apocrypha  generally  and  in  the  ISTew  Testa- 
ment. It  was  on  the  northern  slope  of  a 
small  promontory  which  juts  out  from  a  nar- 
row plain  between  Lebanon  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 40  m.  s.  of  Beirut.  20  n.  of  Tyre,  and 
123  n.w.  of  Jerusalem. 

It  was  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world, 
its  founder  having  been  apparently  a  great- 
grandson  of  Noah  (Gen.  x.  15,  19).  At  the 
division  of  Canaan  "  great  Zidon"  was  allotted 
to  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28),  but  was  never  sub- 
dued by  the  Hebrews  (Judges  i.  31,  iii.  3).  In 
fact  the  Zidonians  oppressed  Israel  (Judges  x. 
12) ;  but  friendly  relations  subsisted  under 
David  and  his  successors  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  2-6). 
The  people  were  famous  for  commerce,  manu- 
factures, and  arts  (Isa.  xxiii.  2,  Ezek.  xxvii. 
8).  They  assisted  in  building  Solomon's  tem- 
ple (1  Kings  V.  6),  and  in  rebuilding  it  under 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  iii.  7).  For  much  of  their 
food  supply  they  depended  on  Palestine  (I 
Kings  V.  9,  11,  Ezek.  xxvii.  17,  Acts  xii.  20). 
From  Zidon  came  idolatrous  abominations  to 
corrupt  Israel  (1  Kings  xi,  5,  33,  2  Kings 
xxiii.  13).  The  city  was  frequently  threatened 
by  the  prophets,  but  less  severely  than  Tyre. 
It  joined  Tyre  in  selling  inliabitants  of  Judah 
into  slavery  (Joel  iii.  4-7,  cf .  Amos  i.  9). 

Homer  celebrates  the  skill  of  Zidonian 
workmen  and  mentions  the  presence  of  Zido- 
nian ships  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Herodotus 
says  that  these  ships  were  the  best  in  the  fleet 
Xerxes  led  against  Greece,  and  the  king  of 
Zidon  sat  next  to  Xerxes  in  council.  Under 
Artaxerxes  III.  Ochus,  it  revolted,  but  was 
subdued  and  burned.  Afterward  it  recovered 
its  prosperity,  opened  its  gates  to  Alexander 
the  Great  and  aided  him  against  Tyre.  After 
his  death  it  fell  to  Egypt  and  then  to  the 
Seleucidae,  and  in  b.c.  65  yielded  to  the  Ro- 
mans,  under  whom  it  became  wealthy  and 
flourishing. 

People  from  Zidon  attended  upon  Christ's 
preaching  (Mark  iii.  8,  Luke  vi.  17).  and  our 
Lord  visited  the  neighborhood,  if  not  the  city 
itself  (Matt.  xy.  21,  Mark  vii.  24,  R.  V.).  Paul 
touched  at  Zidon  on  his  way  to  Rome,  and 
visited  the  Christians  there.  A  bishop  of 
Zidon  attended  the  Council  of  Nicsea. 

The  city  surrendered  to  the  Moslems,  a.d. 
636.  It  suffered  greatly  during  the  Crusades, 
being  repeatedly  taken  and  lost,  but  in  1291 
became  a  permanent  possession  of  the  Mos- 
lems, who  destroyed  it.     But  |it  gradually  re- 


covered, and  the  modern  Saida  is  now  a  pros- 
perous town  of  10,000  people,  of  whom  7000 
are  Moslems.  The  American  Presbyterian 
Board  has  a  flourishing  mission  there. 

T.  W.  C 

Zin  {a  low  palm-tree),  a  wilderness  on  the 
south  border  of  Canaan  (Josh.  xv.  1-3)  and 
on  the  west  border  of  Edom  (Num.  xxxiv.  3). 
In  it  was  Kadesh-barnea,  memorable  for  the 
death  of  Miriam,  the  mission  of  the  spies,  the 
water  out  of  the  rock,  and  the  passion  of 
Moses  (Num.  xiii.  21,  xxvii.  14).  The  wilder- 
ness of  Zin  was  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
wilderness  of  Paran,  and  was  a  wild  and 
dreary  mountainous  region  sloping  to  the 
Ghor.  T.  W.  C. 

Zinzendorf,  Nicholas  Lewis,  count  of  Zin- 
zendorf  and  Pottendorf  ;  b.  in  Dresden,  May 
26,  1700  ;  d.  at  Herrnhut,  Saxony,  May  9, 
1760,  the  founder  of  the  Renewed  Moravian 
Church  (q.v.).  The  Zinzendorf  family  be- 
longed originally  to  the  nobility  of  Lower 
Austria.  Having  embraced  the  Protestant 
cause,  the  grandfather  of  our  count,  Max 
Erastus,  had  abandoned  his  estates  and  settled 
near  Nuremberg.  The  father  of  Nicholas, 
George  Lewis,  was  a  member  of  the  Saxon 
cabinet,  but  died  six  weeks  after  the  birth  of 
his  son.  His  wife,  Charlotte  Justine,  daugh- 
ter of  Nicholas  and  Catherine  von  Gersdorf, 
eminent  friends  of  Spener,  the  Pietist,  in  a 
few  years  remarried,  her  second  husband 
being  the  Prussian  field-marshal.  Von  Natz- 
mer.  Young  Nicholas  was  therefore  indebted 
for  his  early  training  to  his  grandmother,  the 
Baroness  Catherine  von  Gersdorf  and  his 
aunt,  Henrietta  von  Gersdorf.  A  precocious 
child,  especially  in  respect  to  religion,  his 
young  character  was  greatly  moulded  by  the 
Spenerian  ecclesiola  which  Lady  Gersdorf  had 
organized  in  her  castle  at  Hennersdorf.  At 
the  age  of  ten  he  entered  Francke's  celebrated 
Paedagogium  at  Halle,  and  in  1716  was  sent 
to  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  his  relatives 
destining  him  for  a  legal  and  diplomatic 
career.  This  proved  distasteful  to  the  young 
count,  who  used  his  spare  time  for  the  study 
of  theology,  having  already  as  a  schoolboy  at 
Halle  manifested  a  chivalrous  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  Christ,  in  his  organizing  a  religious 
fraternity  among  his  comrades,  known  as 
"  The  Order  of  the  Mustard  Seed."  the  pur- 
pose of  which  was  the  conversion  of  the 
world.  In  1719,  according  to  the  custom  of 
the  times,  young  Nicholas  set  about  finishing 
his  education  by  undertaking  a  foreign  tour, 
travelling  through  Holland,  France,  Switzer- 
land, and  various  parts  of  Germany.  It  was 
now  that  an  Ecce  Homo  in  the  picture  galleries 
at  Diisseldorf  made  a  deep  and  permanent 
impression  upon  him  with  its  inscription, 
' '  This  I  did  for  thee,  what  doest  thou  for 
me  ?' '  {Hoc  feci  pro  te,  quid  facis  pi'o  me  ?) 
In  Paris  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Car- 
dinal de  Noailles.  an  acquaintance  which  later 
ripened  into  a  warm  friendship.  On  his  re- 
turn home  he  communicated  to  his  mother 
and  grandmother  his  earnest  desire  to  devote 
himself  to  the  ministry  in  spite  of  his  rank. 
To  this  they  would  not  listen.  In  deference 
to  ^their  wishes  he  therefore  accepted  a  po- 


ZINZENDORF 


(993) 


ZION 


sition  at  Dresdeu  as  an  aulic  councillor  and 
justiciary.  When  he  became  of  age  he  de- 
terminecl  to  carr}'  out  his  desires  to  be  useful 
in  the  cause  of  Christ  by  settling  down  as  a 
Christian  landowner  devoted  to  the  good  of 
his  tenantry,  and  founding  and  supporting 
institutions  similar  to  those  at  Halle.  His 
■wife,  the  Countess  Erdmuth  Dorothea  von 
Reuss,  whom  he  married  in  1722.  shared  his 
aspirations.  Just  at  this  juncture  a  band  of 
Moravians,  exiles  and  refugees  for  their  faith 
(see  MoR.wiAN  Church),  sought  Dermission 
to  settle  on  the  domain  of  Berthelsdorf,  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  which  Zinzendorf  had  pur- 
chased in  order  to  carry  out  his  Pietistic  pur- 
poses. He  had  no  intention  in  granting  their 
request  of  founding  a  church  distinct  from 
the  Lutheran  to  which  he  belonged.  Bent 
upon  reviving  vital  religion  within  the  Lu- 
theran communion,  b}'  means  of  an  a.ssociation 
•which  he  founded  for  evangelistic  efforts  and 
book  and  tract  distribution,  he  did  not  identify 
himself  with  the  Moravians  until  1727,  when 
the  rapid  growth  of  llerrnhut,  the  town  they 
had  founded,  and  the  studj'  of  the  discipline 
of  the  ancient  Unihts  Fratrum,  toirethcr  with 
a  remarkable  religious  revival  of  which  Herrn- 
hut  was  the  centre,  convinced  him  that  he 
was  providentially  destined  to  cast  in  his  lot 
with  this  people,  and  that  Herrnhut  was  his 
parish  foreordained  for  him  from  all  eternity. 
Even  yet,  however,  he  still  wanted  to  make 
the  Moravian  a  church  within  the  Lutheran 
Church.  Misunderstood  and  maligned,  he 
■was  banished  from  Saxony  in  1736,  but  with 
the  result  of  extending,  rather  than  curbing, 
his  Christian  activity.  On  May  25,  1787,  hav- 
ing repeatedly  passed  successful  examinations 
in  theology  before  Lutheran  divines,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  king  of  Prussia  and 
with  the  cordial  congratulations  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  Zinzendorf  was  con- 
secrated a  bishop  of  the  Moravian  Church  by 
Jablonski  (q.v.)and  Xitschmann  (q.v.).  After 
extensive  evangelistic  journeys  in  various 
parts  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  and 
England,  and  a  visit  to  the  mission  among  the 
negroes  of  St.  Thoma-s,  West  Indies,  he  sailed 
for  America,  arriving  in  New  York  in  Dec, 
1741.  Proceeding  to  Pliiladelphia  and  leasing 
a  house  in  Gcrmantowri,  he  visited  the  Mora- 
vian tract  on  the  Lehigh,  to  -which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Bethlehem.  The  first  half  of  the 
year  1743  was  spent  by  him  in  the  effort  to 
organize  an  evangelical  alliance  among  the 
various  German  denominations  and  .sects  of 
Pennsylvania,  but  he  lived  a  century  or  more 
too  soon,  and  though  various  conferences  and 
synods  were  held,  little  more  than  fresh  con- 
troversy came  of  his  efforts.  During  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  summer  and  the  fall  of  the  year 
he  made  three  mi.ssionary  joume}'s  to  the 
Indian  coimtry,  to  the  Delaw'ares  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  Mohicans  of  New  York  and  Con- 
necticut, and  the  Shawnees  of  the  Wyoming 
Valley.  Returning  to  Europe  in  Jan.,  1743, 
for  the  next  twelve  years  he  was  occupied 
■with  journeys  through  Great  Britain,  Hol- 
land, Germany,  and  Livonia,  much  of  the 
time  living  at  Chelsea,  England.  In  1747  he 
was  permitted  to  revisit  Saxony,  and  the  re- 
sult of  investigations  made  by  Saxon  commis- 


sioners  into  his  affairs  and  those  of  Herrnhut 
proved  favorable,  so  that  he  ■was  enabled  to 
return  permanently  in  1755,  the  Saxon  Gov- 

I  ernment  acknowledging  the  Renewed  Church 
of  the  Brethren.  In  1749  he  had  secured  an 
act  of  Parliament  whereby  this  church  was 

I  recognized  as  an  ancient  Protestant  episcopa- 
lian church  and  was  encouraged  to  form  set- 

'  tlements  in  British  dominions.  The  Prussian 
Governnient  had  also  granted  valuable  con- 

I  cessions  in  Silesia.     A  severe  blow,  however, 

I  was  the  loss  of  his  only  son.  Christian  Re- 
natus,  at  Chelsea  in  1752.     The  cotmtess  fol- 

I  lowed  in  1756.  The  last  years  of  Zinzendorf 
were  also  attended  with  considerable  per- 
plexity, owing  to  the  embarrassed  state  of  his 
financial  affairs.  He  had  placed  his  entire 
fortune  at  the  service  of  Christ  in  the  further- 

I  ance  of  the  missionary  operations  and  educa- 
tional work  of  the  Moravian  Church,  and  had 
heavily  mortgaged  his  estates  for  the  cause. 

1  The  plans  inaugurated  by  a  financial  board, 
at  whose  head  stood  John  Frederick  Kober, 
a  Saxon  lawyer,  afforded  considerable  relief. 
In  1757  Zinzendorf  contracted  a  second  mar- 
riage, namely,  with  Anna  Nitschmann,  one  of 
the  most  active  and  devoted  ■n-omen  in  the 
Moravian  Church.  She  did  not  long  survive 
him. 

Zinzendorf  was  a  very  voluminous  ■writer, 
his  productions  being  of  unequal  merit,  sorae- 

I  times  beautiful,  often  barbarous  in  style,  but 
rarely  lacking  in  edification.  Besides  ser- 
mons, controversial  tracts,  offices  of  worship, 
and  catechisms,  etc.,  his  hymns,  many  of 
which  have  become  standards,  entitle  him  to 
recognition  in  the  Christian  Church.  The 
best  collection  is  that  of  Albert  Knapp,  Geint- 
liche  Lieder  des  Grafen  Ton  Zinzendorf,  Stutt- 
gart and  Tiibingen,  1845. 

(See  Spangenberg,  Lehen  des  Grafen  von  Zin- 
zendorf, Barby,  1772-75  ;  an  abridged  trans- 
lation by  Jackson,  London,  1838  ;  Verbeek, 
Leben  von  Zinzendorf,  Gnadau,  1845  ;  Schrau- 
tenbach's  Zinzendorf  und  die  Bmdergemeine, 
Gnadau,  1851  ;  Bovet,  Le  Comte  de  Zinzen- 
dorf, Paris,  1865,  Eng.  trans.,  entitled  The 
Banished  Count,  London,  1865  ;  Burkhardt's 
Zinzendorf  iind  die  Bruderqemeine,  Gotha, 
1866  ;  Pint's  Zinzendorf  s  fheoloriie,  Gotha, 
1869-74,  and  Becker,  Zinzendorf  im  Verhalt- 
niss  zu  Philosophie  und  Kirchenthum  seiner 
Zeit,  Leipzig,  1886.) 

J.  Taylor  Hamilton. 

Zi'-on  {snnny),  in  the  Xew  Testament, 
A.  v.,  Sion,  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the 
whole  of  Jerusalem,  but  literally  was  only  its 
southwestern  hill,  2500  feet  alx)ve  the  sea'and 
100  feet  above  Mt.  Moriah.  First  a  strong- 
hold of  the  Jebusites  (Jo.sh.  x^'.  63),  it  was 
captured  by  David  (2  Sam.  v.  7)  ■who  made  it 
his  capital,  building  there  a  citadel,  a  palace, 
and  a  place  for  the  ark  of  God.  The  name 
occurs  148  times  in  the  prophetical  and  poeti- 
cal books  and  .seven  times  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  came  to  denote  not  only  the  forti- 
fied hill,  but  also  Jeru.salem  in  general  (Ps. 
Ixxxvii.  2,  cxlix.  2,  Isa.  xxxiii.  14,  Joel  ii.  2, 
etc.),  or  Go<rs  chosen  people  (Ps.  Ixxxvii.  5), 
or  tlie  church  (Heb.  xii.  22),  and  even  the 
heavenly  city  (Rev.  xiv.  1).     At  present  a  con- 


ZISKA 


(994) 


ZWINGLI 


siderable  part  of  the  hill  lies  outside  the  city, 
and  according  to  prophecy  (Micah  iii.  12,  Jer. 
xxvi.  18)  is  "  ploughed  like  a  field." 

T.  W.  C. 

Ziska,  John,  Hussite  leader  ;  b.  about  1754, 
at  Trocznow,  near  Budweis,  in  Bohemia  ;  d. 
at  Przibislaw,  Oct.  11,  1424.  He  was  of  no- 
ble descent,  and  was  brought  up  as  a  page  at 
the  court  of  King  Wenzel,  till  he  sought  ad- 
ventures abroad,  serving  with  credit  in  the 
English  array  against  the  French.  Later  he 
was  engaged  as  commander  of  Bohemian  and 
Moravian  auxiliaries  under  King  Wladislaw  H. 
of  Poland,  against  the  Teutonic  Knights,  and 
served  against  the  Turks  in  Hungary.  His 
foreign  service  was  completed  by  distinguish- 
ing himself  on  the  side  of  the  English  at  Agin- 
court  in  1415,  from  which  campaign  he  re- 
turned to  Bohemia  to  accept  a  position  as 
chamberlain  at  the  court  of  King  Wenzel. 
A  warm  admirer  of  John  Hus  (q.  v. ),  Ziska  con- 
sidered the  burning  of  Hus  and  Jerome  at 
Constance  an  insult  to  both  his  faith  and  his 
fatherland.  After  the  episode  of  the  hurling 
ol  the  councillors  out  of  the  windows  of  the 
Rathhaus  in  Prague,  July,  1419  (see  Hus- 
sites). Ziska  became  nominally  what  he  had 
already  been  in  fact,  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Hussites.  His  biography  is  henceforth 
the  record  of  the  history  of  the  Hussites. 
Although  blind  of  one  eye  from  boyhood,  and 
losing  the  other  at  the  siege  of  Raby  in  1421, 
Ziska 's  consummate  generalship,  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  country,  and  novel  military 
tactics,  gave  his  followers  victory  after  vic- 
tory. He  made  use  of  artillery  and  small  fire- 
arms, and  reintroduced  an  ancient  kind  of 
barricade  made  of  baggage-wagons.  (He  was 
victorious  in  thirteen  pitched  battles  against 
the  flower  of  Christendom  marshalled  by  the 
emperor  and  the  pope,  and  won  more  than  a 
hundred  lesser  engagements  and  sieges,  being 
only  once  beaten  in  fair  fight,  at  Kremsir, 
when  his  retreat  was  so  masterly  as  to  deprive 
his  foes  of  material  advantages.)  He  met  his 
death  from  the  plague,  and  was  buried  first 
at  Koniggratz  and  then  at  Caslau.  His  tomb 
was  dishonored  in  the  Counter- Reformation, 
by  order  of  Ferdinand  II. 

J.  Taylor  Hamilton. 

Zo'-an  {place  of  departure) ,  a  very  old  city 
of  Lower  Egypt,  built  seven  years  after  He- 
bron, called  by  the  Greeks  Tanis,  now  San. 
It  gave  its  name  to  the  great  plain  ("  field  of 
Zoan,"  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  12,  48)  which  extended 
eastward,  and  was  the  scene  of  God's  miglity 
works  in  the  time  of  Moses.  Isaiah  speaks 
"  of  the  princes  of  Zoan"  (xix.  11.  13.  xxx.  4V 
and  Ezekiel  (xxx.  14)  foretells  its  capture  and 
burning  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Huge  mounds 
of  ruins  now  attest  the  ancient  grandeur  of 
the  city.  T.  W.  C. 

Zo'-ar  (smallness),  one  of  "  the  cities  of  the 
plain"  (Gen.  xiii.  10),  and  apparently  included 
at  first  in  the  awful  doom  which  befell  the 
rest,  but  spared  as  "  a  little  city"  at  the  ear- 
nest request  of  Lot  (Gen.  xix.  20-23).  Its  pre- 
cise site  has  not  yet  been  agreed  upon  by  mod- 
ern investigators.  T.  W.  C. 

Zo-'-bah  (station),  a  powerful  Syrian  king- 


dom, lying  east  of  Lebanon  and  stretching 
toward  the  Euphrates,  whose  kings  were  en- 
gaged in  frequent  wars  with  Israel  during  the 
reigns  of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47),  David  (2  Sam. 
viii.  3,  X.  6),  and  Solomon  (2  Chron.  viii.  3). 
Its  cities  are  now  forsaken.  T.  W.  C. 

Zoeckler,  Otto,  Ph.D.  (Giessen,  1854),  Lie. 
Theol.  (Giessen,  1856),  D.D.  (lion.,  Giessen, 
1866),  Lutheran  ;  b.  at  Griinberg,  Hesse,  May 
27,  1833  ;  studied  at  Giessen,  Erlangen,  and 
Berlin,  and  was  appointed  professor  at  Gies- 
sen, 1863,  and  at  Greifswald,  1866.  He  ed- 
ited the  Allgemeine  liter arische  Anzeiger  fur  d. 
evanfjl.  Deutschland,  1867-74,  and  Evangelische 
Kirclienzeitung  since  1882.  Besides  commen- 
taries on  Chronicles,  Job,  Proverbs,  Ecclesi- 
astes.  Canticles,  and  Daniel  in  Lange,  he  has 
written  Bas  Kreuz  Ckristi,  Giitersloh,  1875, 
Eng.  trans.,  The  Cross  of  Christ ;  Studies  in 
the  History  of  Religion  and  the  Inner  Life  of 
the  Church,  London,  1877  ;  Ootteszeugen  im 
Reich  der  Natur-Biographien  und  Bekennt- 
nisse  grosser  Naturforscher  aus  alten  und  neuer 
Zeit,  1881,  2  parts  ;  edits  the  Handbuch  der 
T  heoloqischen  WissenscJiaftcn,  Nordlingen, 
1883-84,  3  vols.,  later,  edd.,  and  with  Strack 
the  Kurzgcfasster  Kommentar ,  1886  sqq.  (in 
which  he  has  written  on  Acts,  Romans,  Cor- 
inthians, Galatians,  Thessalonians,  and  on  the 
Apocrypha). 

Zoepflfel,  Richard  Otto,  Ph.D.,  D.D.  (Got- 
tingen,  1871  and  1878),  Protestant  theolo- 
gian ;  b.  at  Arensburg,  Livonia,  Russia,  June 
14,  1843  ;  studied  at  Dorpat  and  Gottingen, 
became  professor  extraordinary  at  Strassburg, 
1872  ;  ordinary,  1877  ;  d.  there  Jan.  7,  1891. 
With  Holtzmann  he  edited  Lexikonfur  Theo- 
logie  und  Kirclunwesen,  Leipzig,  1882,  2d  ed., 
enlarged,  Brauns;'hweig,  1888,9th  part,  1890. 

Zollikofer,  Georg  Joachim,  b.  at  St.  Gall, 
Switzerland,  Aug.  5,  1730  ;  d.  at  Leipzig, 
Jan.  22,  1788  ;  studied  theology  at  Utrecht, 
and  was  in  1758  appointed  pastor  of  tJie  Re- 
formed congregation  in  Leipzig,  where  he  ac- 
quired the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
greatest  preachers  of  his  time.  There  is  an 
English  translation  of  his  collected  sermons, 
London,  1803-12,  10  vols.,  and  also  of  Exer- 
cises of  Piety,  London,  1796.  He  was  a  Ra- 
tionalist, but  of  the  milder  type. 

Zoroaster  (properly  Zarathushtra).  See 
Persia,  p.  709. 

Zosimus,  bishop  of  Rome  417  to  418  ;  by 
birth  a  Greek,  principally  known  for  his  part 
in  the  Pelagian  controversy.  He  was  inclined 
to  take  the  part  of  Pelugius  and  was  satisfied 
with  his  creed,  but  when  he  saw  the  firmness 
of  the  opposition  of  the  African  bishops,  and 
after  the  edict  of  the  emperor,  he  decided  in 
a  synod  against  them.  F.  H.  F. 

Zuph,  The  Land  of.  The  farthest  point  of 
the  journey  of  Saul,  a  region  south  of  Ben- 
jamin, in  an  unnamed  city  of  which  the  fu- 
ture king  met  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Sam.  ix. 
5-10),  and  learned  the  exaltation  that  awaited 
him.  The  name  does  not  occur  elsewhere, 
and  the  identification  of  the  site  is  still  a  geo- 
graphical puzzle.  T.  W.  C. 

Zwingli,  Huldreich,  the  Reformer  of  Swit- 
zerland ;  b.  at  Wildhaus,  15  m.  s.  of  St.  Gall, 


ZWINGIil 


(995; 


ZWINQLI 


or  40  m.  e.  by  n.  of  Zurich,  Jan.  1,  1484  ;  d. 
at  Kappel,  10  m.  s.  of  Zurich,  in  battle,  Oct. 
11,  1531.  He  was  born  in  humble  circum- 
stances, but  was  well  educated  at  Wesen,  30 
m.  s.  e.  of  Zurich,  Basel,  Bern,  and  Vienna, 
in  the  course  of  which  time  he  was  introduced 
to  the  new  learning  of  the  day.  In  his 
twenty-second  year  he  was  called  to  the  par- 
ish of  Glarus,  and  after  ordination  entered 
upon  the  office  (1506).  Here  he  displayed 
great  faithfulness  to  all  his  parochial  duties, 
but  pursued  his  studies,  including  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  Greek  language  and  the 
study  of  the  Fathers.  After  the  appearance 
of  Erasmus'  Greek  Testament  he  devoted 
much  time  to  this,  and  copied  in  his  own 
hand  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  He  soon  began 
to  gain  light  from  its  perusal,  and  his  general 
progress  and  increasing  influence  was  so  great 
that  the  papal  party  in  Switzerland  thought 
it  worth  their  while  to  attach  him  to  them- 
selves by  the  payment  of  a  pension  ostensibly 
to  assist  him  in  his  studies,  which  he  after- 
ward relinquished.  Thus  he  was  already  pre- 
paring for  the  great  reformatorj'  work  in  mat- 
ters of  religion,  which  was  to  be  his  distin- 
guishing service  to  the  world.  The  Glarus 
period  of  his  life  also  prepared  him  for  his 
political  career.  He  was  repeatedly  absent  as 
chaplain  when  members  of  his  parish  went 
out  as  mercenaries  to  Mar,  and  conceived  a 
lively  idea  of  the  demoralization  wrought  in 
the  nation  by  this  custom.  The  system  of 
foreign  pensions,  which  rendered  so  many 
important  personages  the  agents  of  foreign 
powers  to  the  detriment  of  the  interests  of 
the  Swiss  Federation,  attracted  his  attention. 
It  was  to  the  arraignment  of  these  two  evils 
that  his  first  treatise  was  devoted.  It  won 
him  enemies  among  those  affected  by  it,  and 
he  soon  found  it  convenient  to  accept  a  post 
as  assistant  in  Einsiedeln,  whither  he  went  in 
1516. 

Einsiedeln  was  a  place  of  common  resort 
for  multitudes  of  pilgrims  from  all  quarters. 
It  therefore  offered  Zwingli  an  opportunity 
not  only  to  spread  his  views,  but  also  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  prevailing  type  of 
piety  in  large  portions  of  Switzerland.  He 
continued  privately  his  study  of  the  church 
Fathers  and  the  Scriptures,  and  soon  came  to 
the  conviction  that  a  reform  of  the  church 
from  within  was  a  practical  impossibility. 

Thus  ripe  for  his  work,  Zwingli  was  trans- 
ferred to  Zurich  in  December,  1518,  and  be- 
gan his  preaching  January  1,  1519.  He  had 
already  conceived  it  the  chief  duty  of  a  pas- 
tor to  instruct  his  people  in  the  Word  of  God, 
and  begim  accordingly  with  the  continuous 
exposition  from  the"  pulpit  of  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew.  Zurich,  a  town  of  about  7000 
souls,  was  a  small  republic,  and  in  the  end 
public  opinion  determined  the  decision  of  ev- 
ery great  question.  Zwingli  had  been  trained 
under  the  influence  of  the  free  institutions  of 
his  native  country,  and  was  thus  prepared  to 
adapt  himself  to  this  peculiarity  of  the  city 
where  he  found  himself.  The  whole  Swiss 
Reformation  was  therefore  conducted  upon 
the  general  plan  of  an  open  and  full  preaching 
of  the  gospel,  the  formation  in  the  community 
of  ripe  and  settled  opinions  upon  each  impor- 


tant point,  and  then  deliberate  final  actiort 
such  as  the  nature  of  the  case  demanded. 
The  early  preaching  at  Zurich  immediately 
attracted  great  audiences,  established  Zwing- 
li's  influence  in  the  city,  and  brought  the  mat-- 
ter  so  far  that,  in  1520,  the  council  was  ready 
to  direct  the  preachers  to  preach  everywhere 
by  the  Spirit  of  God  and  according  to  the 
text  of  the  New  Testament.  Zwingli  devel- 
oped increasing  tact  in  every  department  of 
his  work.  He  selected  such  portions  of  Scrip- 
ture for  the  continuous  expositions  as  should 
gradually  lead  the  people  to  a  clear  knowledge 
of  all  the  principles  of  the  gospel,  and  dis- 
played equal  power  of  adaptation  in  his  inter- 
course with  all  classes  of  the  community. 
As  Lent  of  the  year  1522  approached  he 
preached  a  sermon  against  the  obligatory 
force  of  the  church  rules  upon  fasting,  with 
the  natural  effect  that  certain  of  the  citizens 
violated  those  rules.  A  visitation  by  episco- 
pal authority  was  the  result,  and  the  demand 
was  made  that  the  fasts  should  be  thereafter 
observed.  Zwingli  answered  at  first  with 
moderation,  but  finally  replied  in  a  tract, 
which  gave  the  signal  for  a  practical  separa- 
tion from  Rome.  A  clerical  conference  soon 
held  led  to  a  petition  to  the  Council  to  liberate 
the  preaching  of  the  gospel  frf)m  all  remaining 
restrictions,  and  to  permit  clerical  marriage. 
In  preparation  for  the  reply  to  the  petition, 
Zwingli  composed  a  treatise,  which  he  imme- 
diately issued,  upon  the  clearness  and  cer- 
tainty of  the  Word  of  God.  The  waves  of 
passion  seemed  to  rise  higher  and  higher,  and 
when  an  evangelical  pastor  near  Baden, 
in  Switzerland,  14  m.  n.  w.  of  Zurich,  had 
been  imprisoned,  and  all  efforts  with  the 
bishop  to  secure  the  legalization  of  the  re- 
form had  failed,  Zwingli  turned  to  the  Coun- 
cil and  requested  a  public  disputation  at  which 
it  should  be  determined  which  of  the  two  op- 
posing systems  was  founded  in  the  Word  of 
God.  This  was  held  Jan.  29.  1523.  Zwingli 
had  prepared  for  it  by  setting  forth  in  sixty- 
seven  theses  tlie  fundamental  propositions 
which  he  wished  to  defend.  After  laying 
down  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  as  the 
foundation  of  all  religion,  the  headship  of  the 
Redeemer  in  the  church,  and  his  sole  media- 
torship,  he  proceeded  to  declare  the  whole 
papal  system,  with  its  pope,  its  mass,  its  in- 
vocation of  tlie  saints,  fasts,  etc. ,  as  unfounded 
in  the  Scripture,  and  .so  worthy  only  of  de- 
struction. The  disputation  was  a  triumph 
for  Zwingli,  with  scarcely  any  opposition  from 
his  adversaries,  and  the  "Council  directed  that 
he  should  continue  to  preacli  the  gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  Spirit  of  God  and  his  best  abil- 
ity. This  was  the  formal  adoption  of  the 
Reformation,  and  all  sub.sequent  action  was 
only  necessary  for  tlie  complete  carrjing  out 
of  the  principle  here  laid  down. 

Over  the  gradual  perfection  of  the  reforms 
which  were  now  to  be  introduced  it  is  not 
necessary  to  linger.  Monasteries  and  con- 
vents were  broken  up  by  the  voluntary  de- 
parture of  their  inmates.  The  funds  which 
had  been  expended  upon  the  sinecures  in  con- 
nection with  the  cathedral,  were  devoted  to 
the  foundation  of  an  institution  of  learning. 
Zwingli  himself  married,  privately  in  1522, 


ZWINGLI 


(996) 


ZWINGLI 


:and  now  publicly  in  1524.  Violence  was  re- 
pressed, but  slowly  as  opinion  ripened,  the 
crucifixes  were  removed,  other  objectionable 
things  terminated,  and  after  a  second  disputa- 
tion (1533)  the  mass  suspended  (1525). 

But  now  political  influences  began  to  mingle 
in  the  controversy  and  to  attract  Zwingli's 
attention.  The  estates  in  Switzerland  had 
hitherto  seen  the  changes  in  Zurich  without 
interference,  but  now  they  sent  a  remon- 
strance (1524).  The  Anabaptists  appeared 
upon  the  borders  of  Switzerland  about  this 
time,  and  Zwingli  devoted  much  attention  to 
their  refutation.  The  disagreement  between 
Zwingli  and  Luther  upon  the  sacrament  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  was  also  now  slowly  de- 
veloping. While  Luther,  in  his  desire  to  hold 
as  fast  as  possible  to  historic  Christianity,  and 
to  the  forms  which  church  life  had  assumed 
even  under  the  Romish  Church,  had  come  to 
view  the  sacrament  as  a  real  means  of  grace 
in  almost  the  Catholic  sense,  and  therefore  to 
insist  upon  the  real  presence  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  the  Lord  in  a  mysterious  manner  in 
the  elements,  Zwingli  had  taken  quite  another 
path.  He  began  with  a  complete  rejection  of 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiatiou,  defined  the 
eating  and  drinking  as  a  purely  spiritual  act, 
and  dependent  upon  faith,  but  did  not  ex- 
press himself  distinctly  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  Christ  under  the  species  of  bread  and 
wine,  gives  himself  to  the  believer  as  the  food 
of  his  soul.  At  last  it  became  clear  to  him 
that  the  word  "  is, "  in  the  words  ' '  This  is  my 
body,  "is  to  be  taken  in  the  sense  of  ' '  signi- 
fies. ' '  The  bread  and  wine  are  therefore  sym- 
bols and  instruments  of  the  covenant  which 
Christ  makes  with  his  disciples,  and  the  sac- 
rament a  memorial  observance  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  new  covenant  which  is  de- 
signed to  strengthen  the  faith  of  the  church 
and  to  give  it  an  opportunity  for  the  open 
confession  of  its  faith.  Zwingli  began  the 
statement  of  his  views  in  the  Commentary 
(1525)  and  in  1526  in  a  special  treatise.  Lu- 
ther attacked  the  Swiss  view  in  his  Sermon 
upon  the  Sacrament,  etc.  (1526),  to  which 
Zwingli  answered  in  a  friendly  manner  in  his 
Arnica  Exegesis  (1537).     But  when  Luther  re- 


plied in  sharper  tone,  Zwingli  rejoined  in 
somewhat  more  direct  language.  Thus  some 
embitterment  arose  between  the  German  and 
Swiss  leaders,  and  Luther,  without  sufficient 
acquaintance  with  Zwingli's  writings,  got  a 
very  unfavorable  conception  of  his  whole  doc- 
trinal position.  When  the  Colloquy  of  Mar- 
burg was  held  (1539),  it  was  too  late  for  quiet 
discussion  on  Luther's  part,  and  he  was  scarce- 
ly the  man  to  learn  of  another.  If  a  larger  de- 
gree of  agreement  was  attained  upon  other 
points  of  doctrine  than  Luther  had  supposed 
possible,  no  approach  to  an  agreement  upon 
the  sacrament  was  eft'ected. 

The  adoption  of  the  Reformation  by  Bern 
in  1528  led  the  Catholic  estates  to  more  stren- 
uous measures  to  prevent  the  extension  of  the 
new  views.  The  five  forest  cantons  formed 
an  alliance  between  themselves,  and  then  with 
their  hereditary  enemy  Austria.  War  super- 
vened, which  would  have  resulted  in  the  com- 
plete subjection  of  the  Catholic  party,  but  for 
the  jealousy  which  Zurich's  increasing  in- 
fluence excited.  A  peace  was  patched  up, 
which  was  soon  broken,  and  retaliatory  meas- 
ures against  the  forest  cantons,  by  which  the 
import  of  provisions  from  the  fertile  lowlands 
was  rendered  impossible,  soon  starved  them 
into  desperation.  Suddenly  they  appeared 
before  Zurich,  a  small  army  of  2000  men  was 
hastily  gathered  to  meet  their  8000,  and  at 
the  disastrous  battle  of  Kappel,  Zurich  was 
completely  defeated,  and  Zwingli  killed.  He 
had  sent  in  a  confession  of  faith  to  Charles  V. 
at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  he  was  just  occupied 
with  large  plans  for  the  union  of  all  Protes- 
tant interests  in  Europe  when,  in  the  provi- 
dence of  God,  he  was  thus  snatched  away. 
His  complete  works  have  been  collected  by 
Schuler  and  Schulthess,  Zurich,  1828-42.  8 
vols.,  with  a  supplement,  1861.  For  life  see 
Morikofer,  Leipzig,  1867-69.  2  parts,  and  the 
lecture  by  R.  Stahelin,  HiUdreich  Zwingli  und 
sein  Eeformationswerk,  Basel,  1884.  For  his 
theology,  with  long  and  valuable  extracts 
from  his  works,  translated  into  German,  see 
A.  Baur,  Zwingli's  Theologie,  Ihr  Werden  und 
Ihr  System,  Halle,  1885-89,  3  vols. 

F.  H.  F. 


CONCISE  DICTIONARY  GAZETTEER. 


I 


I. 


Index  to  Map  of  the  Lands  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 


Abbreviation  :  R.  for  River. 


Abydos,    . 
Adiabene,     . 
Adramyttium,  . 
Adriaticum,  ]\Iare 
^gyptus, 
Africa  procons, 
Alexandria, 
Amasia, 
Amida,     . 


Ammonium, 

Amphipolis, 

Anatho,     . 

Ancyra, 

Antinoe, 

Antiochia, 

Antipatrio, 
Apamea, 
Apames, 
Aphroditopolis 
Appolonia,  . 


Arabia  Deserta 
"      Pelra?a, 
Aradus,     . 
AriB  Philaenorum 
AraxesR., 
Arbella  (Arbailu) 
Argos, 
Armenia, 
Arsania  R., 
Assur, 
Assus, 
Assyria, 
Athense,  . 
Attalia. 
Attribis,    . 
Axius  R.,     . 


Babylon, 
Babylonia, 


G.  a. 
G.  b. 
H.  b, 
E.  d. 
D.  a. 


D. 

.     D. 

G. 

and  G. 

G. 

.     O. 

I. 


F.  c. 


Bagradas  R., A.  b. 

Ballab,  Lacus, F.  c. 

Barsipa  (Borsippa),   .         ,         .        .  H.  c. 

Barsua,        .         .         .         .         .         .  J.    c. 

Beneventum,             .        .         .        .  B.  a. 

Berenice, D.  c. 

Berrhoea, D.  a. 

Bcrytus, G.  c 

Bitter  Lakes  (Lacus  amarus),     .        .  F.  c. 

Bithynia F.  a. 

Borsippa, H.  c 

Brundisium, C.  a. 

Busiris, F.  c. 

Buto, F.  c. 

Byzantium, E.  a. 


Csesarea, 


Canopi  Ostium, 

Canusium, 

Capua, 

Cappadocia, 

Carales, 

Caramania, 

Caria, 

Carrhaj,     . 

Caspium  Mare, 


.     F.  c. 

G.b. 
.     F.  c. 

C.  a. 
.     B.  a. 

G.b. 
.     A.  b. 

J.  d. 
.     E.  b. 

G.b. 
I.  a.  and  b. 


Cenechrea.', D.  b. 

Charax  Spacinu,  .        .        .        .    I.    c. 


Chios, 

Chorasmia, 

Cibyra,     . 

Cilicia, 

Cnidus,     . 

Cnossus, 

Ccelcsyria, 

Colchis, 

Colossa'. 

Comagene, 

Conscntia, 

Corey  ra, 

Corinthus, 

Cortinium, 

Cossvra,    . 


E.  b. 
and  K.,  a,  and  b. 

E.  b. 
.     F.  b. 

E.  b. 
.     E.  b. 

G.  c. 
.     H.  a. 

E.  b. 
.     G.b. 

C.  b. 
.     O.  b. 

D.  b. 


B.  b. 


CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


I.   The  Lands  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 


Cotyaium, 
Creta, 
Croton, 
Cyclades, 


E.  b. 
D.  b. 

C.  b. 

D.  b. 


Cyrenaica,    .        .        .        .         .        .     D.  c. 

Cyrene, D.  c. 


Dalmatia, C.  a. 

Damascus G.  c. 

Damietta  (Thamiatis  Ostium),     .        .  F.  c. 

Derbe, F.  b. 

Dorylaium, F.  b. 

Driton  R., D.  a. 

DyrrhacMum C.  a. 


Edessa,  . 
Ekbatana, 
Elam, 


G.  b. 
J.  c. 
I.    c. 


Ephesus, E.  b. 

Epirus, D.  b. 

Euboea, D.  b. 

Euphrates, I.    c. 


Fayum, 
Forat, 
Forum  Apii, 


Gaudus, D.  c. 

Gaza, F.  c. 

Girba  (Jerba),            .        .         .        .  B.  c. 

Gortyna, D.  b. 

Goshen F.  c. 


Hadrumetum, 

HalysR, 

Hasihar, 

Hebrus  R. , 

Heliopolis,    . 

Hellespont, 

Hemes, 

Heracleopolis, 

Heraclea  Pontica, 

Hieracopolis,     . 

Hierosalyma  (Jerusalem), 

Hippo,      .        .        ,         . 

Hira 

Hyrcania, 

Iberia,  .... 

Iconium, 

Idiclat  R.  (Tigris), 

Idumaea, 

Illyris, 

Imbros, 

Ionium  Mare, 


B.  b. 
F.  b. 
I.    b. 

E.  a. 

F.  c. 


E.  a. 
G.  c. 

F.  d. 

F.  a. 
P.  d. 

G.  c. 
A.  b. 
H.  c. 
J.   b. 


H.  and  I.  a, 

F.  b. 

H.  b.  and  I.  c. 

F.  c.  and  G.  c. 


D.  a. 


E.  a. 
C.  b. 


Iris  R., 
Izan, 


Jerusalem, 

Joppa, 

Judfea, 

Julia  Cartha<?o, 


Kaluchim, 

Kassi, 

Kelath,     . 

Kirruri, 

Koptos, 

Kur  R., 

Kutu, 


G.  c. 

F.  c. 

G.  c. 
B.  b. 

F.  c. 
I.  c. 
H.  b. 


Lacus  amarus, 
"  Ballah, 
' '      Mareotis, 

Laodicea, 

Larissa, 

Larsam,     . 

Lasasa, 

Lemnos, 

Leptis, 

Lesbos,     . 

Libia, 

Lilybacum, 

Lycaonia,     . 

Lycopolis, 

Lydia, 

Lystra, 


I.  b. 

F.  d. 

I.  a. 

I.  c. 

F.  c. 
F.  c. 
F.  c. 
E.  b. 


D.  b. 
I.  c. 
D.  c. 


E.  b. 
B.  c. 
E.  b. 

E.  d. 
B.  b. 

F.  b. 


F.  d. 

E.  b. 

F.  b. 


Macedonia, 

Madai 

Masander, 

Mantianus  Lacus,      . 

Mare  Adriaticum, 

Mare  Ionium  (et  Siculum), 

Mareotis  Lacus, 

Marmarica, 

Media, 

Melita 


.     D.  a. 

I.  b. 
.     E.  b. 

I.  b. 
.     O.  a. 

O.  b. 
.     F.  c, 

E.  c. 
.     I.    b. 

B.  b. 


Memphis, P.  d. 

Mendes F.  c. 

Menzaleh  Palus F.  c. 

Mesene, I.    c. 

Mesopotamia H.  b. 

Messana, C.  b. 

Miletus, E.  b. 

Mceris  Lacus P.  d. 

Moesia  Inferior, E.  a. 

"      Superior,      .        .        .         .  D.   a. 

Mygdonia, D.   a. 

Myra, P.  b. 


CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


I,   The  Lands  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Nairi, H.  b. 

Naissus D.  a. 

Narona C.  a. 

Neapolis D.  a. 

Nica?a E.  a. 

Nicephnrum, G.  b. 

Nicomedia, P.  a. 

Nicopolis, D.  b. 

Nilus  R F.  d. 

Ninus  (Ninua),         .         ,         ,         .         H.  b. 

Nippiir H.  c. 

Nisibis H.  b. 

Nova  Africa, B.  c. 

Oea, B.  c. 

Opis  (Upe), H.  c. 

Orchoe, I.    c. 

Oxyrynchus, F.  d. 

Palmyra G.  c. 

Pamphilia F.  b. 

Panormus •        B.  b. 

Paphlagonia, F.  a. 

Paraalonium, E.  c. 

Parthia J.  and  K.  c. 

Patara E.  b. 

Pehue  P., F.  c. 

Pelusii  Ostium,        .        .        .         .        F.  c. 

Pelusiura, F.  c. 

Pergamum, E.  b. 

Perge, F.  b. 

Persepolis, J.    b. 

Persicus  Sinus,    .                 .        .     I.  c.  and  d. 

Persis J.    c. 

Pesinus, F.  b. 

Phaliga  (Circesium),        .         .        .        H.  b. 

Philadelphia, E.  b. 

Philippi, D.  a. 

Philippopolis, D.  a. 

Phoenicia,         .....        G.  c. 

Plena, G.  b. 

Pisidia F.  b. 

Pithom, F.  c. 

Polemium, G.  a. 

Pontus, G.  a. 

Propontis, E.  a. 

Ptolemais,            G.  c. 

Puratu  (Euphrates)  R. ,    .         .        .        G  b. 
Putcoli, B.  a. 

Ramses, F.  c. 

Rasappa, G.  b. 

Rhegium, O.  b. 

Rhodes E.  b. 

Roma B.  a. 

Rosettanaj  Ostium,          .        .        .        F.  c. 

Sabrata B.  c. 

Samonium  P.,          .        .        .        .        E.  b. 

Samos, E.  b. 

Samothrace E.  a. 

Sangarius  R F.  a. 

Sardes E.  b. 

Sardinia,      .        .        .        .        .        .    A.  a. 

Scodra, C.  a. 

Sebennyticum  Ostium,         .        .         .     F.  c. 

Seleucia F.  b. 

G.  b. 

Shinar H.  c. 

Sidon, G.  c. 

Silicia, B.  b. 

Sinope, G.  a. 

Sinus  Arabicus,       .         .        .      F.  and  G.  c. 

Smyrna E.  b. 

Sparta, D.  b. 

Stobi, D.  a. 

Strymon  R., D.  a. 

Susa I.    c. 

Syracusse C.  b. 

Syria  Superior G.  b. 

Syrtis  Major, B.  c. 

"      Minor B.  c. 

Tadmor, G.  c. 

Tanis F.  c. 

Taniticum  Ostium F.  c. 

Tarentum .     C.  a. 

Tarracina, B.  a. 

Tarsus, F.  b. 

Tatta  Lacus F.  b. 

Thamiatis  Ostium  (Damietta),     .         .     F.  c. 

Thasos, D.  a. 

Theba> F.  d. 

Theredon I.    c. 

Thessalia D.  b. 

Thessalonice D.  a. 

Thospitis  Lacus H.  b. 

Thracia, E.  a- 

Thuru, O.  b. 

Tigris  R.,          .         .         .         .       H.  b.  and  c. 

Trapezus G.  a, 

Tres  TaberiKe,                  .        .         .        B.  a. 

Troas E.  b. 

TrogiliumP., E.  b. 

Tyana, F.  b. 

Tyrus G.  c. 

Upe  (Opis) H.  c. 

Uni, L    c 

ZabuR., H.  b. 

Zagros, Lb. 

PALESTINE 


11. 


Index  to  Map  of  Palestine. 


Abbreviatk 

)Ns:  R.— River  ; 

Mt.,  Mts.— Mount,  Mountains. 

Abana  R 

.     E.  a. 

Arad,         .... 

O.  f. 

Abel,        .... 

D.  b. 

Arljela,         .... 

.     D.  c. 

Abel-Cheramim, 

.     D.  e. 

Archelais, 

O.  d. 

Abel-Shittim,   . 

D.  e. 

Areopolis 

.     D.   f. 

Abila,          .... 

.     D.  c. 

Ar-Moab, 

D.  £. 

Abita,       .... 

E.  a. 

Arimanon,  .... 

.     D.  d. 

Accaron,      .... 

.     B.  e. 

Arimathia, 

O.  d. 

Acre-Ptolemais  (Akko),    . 

O.  c. 

Anion  R.,     .... 

.     D.  f. 

Achabara,    .... 

.     O.  c. 

Aroer 

B.   L 

Achzib(Ecdippa),     . 

O.  b. 

Aruma,         .         . 

.     C.  d. 

Adada 

.     O.    f. 

Asamou   Mts. ,  . 

O.  c. 

Adam 

D.  d. 

Ascalon 

.     B.  e. 

Adami 

.     D.  c. 

A.sdod,      .... 

B.  e. 

Admedera, 

E.  a. 

Aseka,          .... 

.     B.  e. 

Adraha 

.     E.  c. 

Asser,       .... 

O.  d. 

Adullam, 

B.  e. 

Astaroth 

.     E.  c. 

Adummim, 

.     C.  e. 

Atabyrium, 

C.  c. 

Achsaph, 

O.  b. 

Ataroth  (Adar),    . 

.     C.  d. 

Aei-e 

.     E.  b. 

" 

C.  e. 

Agalla 

D.   f. 

.     D.  e. 

Agrtena,       .... 

.     E.  c. 

Azmavetli, 

O.  e. 

Ai  (Hai-or  Aiatli),    . 

O.   e. 

Azothos,       .... 

.     B.  e. 

Ain, 

.     B.    f. 

Ba'albfk  (Heliopolis), 

Ajalon 

O.  e. 

E.  a. 

Akkrabi, 

.     C.  d. 

Baal-Gad  (Cresarea  Philippi), 

.     D.  c. 

Akrabbim  Mts., 

.       .       O.  g. 

Baal-Hazor,      . 

C.  e. 

Akko-(Ptolcniais-Acre), 

.     C.  c. 

Baal-Hermon, 

.     D.  c. 

Alemeth 

O.  e. 

Baal-i\Ieon, 

D.  e. 

Alexandriuiii, 

.     O.  d. 

Bamoth-Baal, 

.     D.  e. 

Alexandrosliene, 

C.  b. 

Banias 

D.  b. 

Amathe,       .... 

.     D.  c. 

Bardines  R., 

.     E.  a. 

"        .         .         .         . 

D.  d. 

Bareca 

B.  e. 

Anab.           .... 

.     B.    f. 

Batanre 

.     F.  c. 

Anathoth. 

O.  e. 

Beera-  (Recrotli), 

O.  e. 

Ancm,          .... 

.     O.  d. 

Bcerslieba 

.     B.    f. 

Aniin 

O.    L 

Beeroth 

C.   e. 

Authedon 

.     A.  e. 

Beestra,         .... 

.     E.  c. 

Antipatris, 

B.  d. 

Beraclia,    .... 

O.  e. 

Aodon  R 

.     O.  b. 

BcTothal 

.     D.  a. 

Apbeoa 

D.  c. 

Bcrytus  (Beirut), 

D.  a. 

Aphek 

.     O.  c. 

Bcrzetho 

.     C.  e. 

Aphni 

O.  e. 

Besara 

C.   e. 

Appolonia 

.     B.  d. 

Besck 

.     C.  d. 

Araba 

O.  c. 

Bcsor(WadiesScba)R.,  . 

B.    f. 

CONCISE  DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


11.   Palestine. 

Bethabara,    .... 

.     D.  e. 

Carmel  Mts.,     .... 

B.  c. 

Beth-Anath,      .... 

C.  b. 

Carmel, 

.     O.  c. 

Beth-Anoth, 

.     C.  e. 

Casphon,  

E.  c. 

Bethamara 

C.  e. 

Caesarea  Palnestina, 

.     C.  c. 

Bethania  (Bethany),     . 

.     O.  e. 

Philippi,    . 

D.  b. 

Betharbeel 

D.  c. 

Cedor, 

.     C.  e. 

Bethar,         .... 

.     B.  d. 

Chabarzaba, 

B.  d. 

Beth-Cheiem,  .... 

C.  e. 

Chabulon 

.  .  C.  c. 

Beth-Dagon, 

.     O.  d. 

Chalcis, 

D.  a. 

Bethel, 

C.  e. 

Charsemoba,         .... 

.     D.  f. 

Bethelea,       .... 

.     A.   f. 

Chebon, 

E.  a. 

Beth-Emek,       .... 

C.  c. 

Chesalon 

.     C.  e. 

Bather,         .... 

.     C.  e. 

Chesulloth,       .... 

C.  c. 

Beth-Gamul,     .... 

E.  d. 

Chorazin, 

.     D.  c. 

Beth  Haram, 

.     D.  e. 

Chrj'sorrhoas  R., 

E.  a. 

Beth-Haven,     .... 

C.  e. 

Cochaba, 

.     E.  b. 

Beth-Hogla, 

.     D.  e. 

Corea? 

O.  d. 

Beth-Horon 

O.  e. 

Corethe, 

.     B.C. 

Bethlehem, 

.     O.  c. 

Beth-Markaboth, 

C.  f. 

Dabrath, 

O.  c. 

Beth-Nimra, 

.     D.  e. 

Dalmanutha,         .         .         .         . 

.    D.  o. 

Bethogabris,     .         ... 

B.  e. 

Damascus,         .... 

E.  a. 

Beth-Peor 

.     D.  e. 

Dammesek,          .         .         .         . 

.     E.  a. 

Beth-Rehob 

D.  b. 

Dan, 

D.  c. 

Bethsaida, 

.     D.  c. 

Debir, 

.     C.    f. 

Bethshean,        .... 

C.  c. 

Dibon,       

D.  fc 

Beth-Shemesh,      . 

.     B.  e. 

Diocsesarea,          .         .        .        . 

.    B.  c. 

Beth  Tappuah, 

O.  e. 

Dium, 

D.  c. 

Beth-Zacharia 

.     C.  e. 

Dok, 

.     O.  e. 

Bethzur 

C.  e. 

Dor, 

B.  c. 

Betoannah,  .... 

.     B.  e. 

Dora, 

.     B.  c. 

Belonim, 

D.  d. 

<i 

O.  e. 

Betonium,    .... 

.     D.  d. 

Doroa, 

.    E.  c. 

Betylua, 

C.  d. 

Dothaim, 

O.  d. 

Bezer,           .... 

.     D.  f. 

Dumah, 

.    B.  f. 

Bithrom  Valley, 

D.  d. 

B'ne-Barak, 

.     B.d. 

Ebal  Mt 

.     0.  d. 

Borceos 

O.  d. 

Ebron, 

O.  c. 

Bostra  (Bozrah,  Astaroth), 

.     E.  c. 

Ecdippa  (Achzib), 

.     O.  b. 

Bostrenus  R 

C.   a. 

Edrei, 

E.  c. 

Bozrah  (Bostra), 

.     E.  c. 

Eduniia, 

.     O.  d. 

Bozra  (to  Edom),     . 

.        D.g. 

Eglaim, 

D.  f. 

Eglon, 

.     B.  e. 

Cabul, 

C.  c. 

Ekron, 

B.  e. 

Callirrhoe,    .... 

.     D.  e. 

Elealeh 

.     D.  e. 

Cammona  (.Jakneam), 

C.  c. 

Eleutheropolis, 

B.  e. 

Camon 

.     D.C. 

Elias,  Fountain  of,       . 

.     O.  e. 

Cana  (Kana),    .... 

C.  b. 

Elusa, 

B.   f. 

"         "              ... 

.     C.  c. 

Emmaus, 

.    B.  e. 

Canatha, 

F.  c. 

" 

O.  e. 

Capercotia,  .... 

.     C.  d. 



.    D.  c. 

Capernaum 

D.  c. 

Endor, 

C.  c. 

Capharbanicha,   . 

.     C.  e. 

En  Gallim, 

.     C.  e. 

Caphar  Salama, 

C.  e. 

Enganna, 

D.  d. 

Capitolias,     .     '  . 

.    D.  c. 

Eno  Ganneim,      .... 

.     B.  e. 

CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


n.   Palestine. 


En-Gannim, 

O.  d. 

Hamon 

.     C.  b. 

Eugedi, 

.     C.   e. 

Hapbaraim 

C.  c 

En  Engliiim,     . 

O.  e. 

Ilarod  (Well),       . 

.     O.  c. 

Ephratu-Betlilehem,     . 

.     O.  e. 

Harosetb,          .... 

C.  b. 

Esdrrcln, 

C.   c. 

Hazor, 

.     C.  c, 

Esthaol, 

.     C.   e. 

Hatita, 

E.  d 

Eshtemo 

O.    f. 

Hauron 

.     E.  c 

EskolR 

.     O.  e. 

Hazziddim,       .... 

C.  c 

Etham 

O.  e. 

Hebron 

.     C.  e. 

Ether,  .... 

.         .         .     C.    f. 

Heldua 

C.  a. 

Hcliopolis, 

.     E.  a. 

Gaba 

O.  c. 

Plelkatb, 

C.  c. 

Gabara, 

.    O.  c. 

Hcpha 

.     B.  c. 

Gabatha,  .... 

O.  c. 

He'rmon, 

D.  b. 

Gadara, 

.     D.  c. 

Heres, 

.     C.  d. 

Gadda 

E.  d. 

Herodium,        .... 

C.   e. 

Galilee,  Sea  of,     . 

.     D.  c. 

Hesbbon, 

.     D.   e. 

Gallim,      .        .        .        . 

C.  e. 

Hiericus, 

C.   e. 

Gamala, 

.     D.  c. 

Hierorayces  R. ,    . 

Hippos, 

.     D.  c. 

Gath,        .        .        .        . 

B.  e. 

D.     Ca 

Gath-Hepher,       . 

.     C.  c. 

Hiram's  Burial  Place, 

.     C.  b. 

Gath-Rimmon, 

B.  e. 

Ilukkoko,         .... 

C.  c. 

Gaza,    .... 

.     A.  e. 

Gazara 

B.  e. 

Ijon,     

.     D.  b. 

Goba,   .         .         . 

.     C.  d. 

Ina, 

D.  b. 

'< 

C.  e. 

Ir-hammelach,     .         .        .         . 

.     C.    f. 

Gedera, 

.     C.  e. 

Gerasa 

D.  d. 

Ja-azer, 

D.  e. 

Gerar,  .... 

.     A.    f. 

JabbokR 

Jabes-Gilead,   .... 

.     D.  d. 

Gergasa,   .         .         .         • 

D.  c. 

D.  d. 

Gerizim  Mt. , 

.     C.  d. 

Jabne, 

.     B.   e. 

Gcssur,     .        .         .         . 

D.  b. 

.Jabnce 

D.  c. 

Gezer, 

.     B.  e. 

Jabneel 

.     B.  e. 

Gibeah 

C.  e. 

Jabrada, 

F.  a. 

.     C.  d. 

Jaffa, 

.     B.  d. 

Glbeath  Osamoreb,    . 

O.  c. 

Jabza, 

D.  e. 

Gibeon. 

.     C.  e. 

Jakneam 

.     C.  c. 

GilboaMts.,      . 

C.  d. 

Jamnia, 

B.  e. 

... 

.     C.  d. 

"      Maxima,  . 

.     B.  e. 

GileadDistr.,   . 

D.  d. 

Janoha, 

C.  d. 

Gilgal, 

.     O.  d. 

Janoab,         .... 

.     C.  b. 

C.  e. 

Japbia, 

C.  c. 

... 

.     B.  d. 

Japbo  (Joppa,  Jallal,   . 

.     B.  d. 

Gittah,       .         .         .         . 

C.  d. 

Jarmuk  R 

D.  c. 

Gilo,  .... 

.     C.   e. 

Jarmutb, 

.     B.   e. 

Gimso,      .        .        .        . 

B.  e. 

C.  d. 

Gindea. 

.     C.  d. 

Jatbir,          .... 

.     C.    f. 

Giscala 

C.  b. 

.Jedua 

B.  e. 

Golan, 

.     D.  b. 

.lebud,          .... 

.     B.  d. 

Grophna 

O.  e. 

Jephtabel,        .... 

C.  c. 

Jcreon 

.     C.  b. 

Hadid. 

.     B.  e. 

Jericbo 

C.   e. 

Haddadrimmon, 

O.  c. 

.Tcrusalem,    .... 

.     C.  e. 

Halhul. 

.     O.  e. 

.Tesimoth,          .... 

D.  e. 

Hamath,  . 

D.  c. 

Jczreel 

.     C.  c. 

CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


11.   Palestine. 


Jibleam, C.  d. 

Jogbeha D.  d. 

Joppa  (Jaffa,  etc.),     .        ,        .         .        B.  d. 

Jordan  R., C.  d. 

Jotaphata, C.  c. 

Juttah, C.    f. 

Kabul  (Cabul),          .        .        .         .        C.   c. 

Kana  R., B.  d. 

Kana C.  c. 

C.  b. 

Karnaim, E.  c. 

Kartha, B.  c. 

Kedemoth D.  e. 

Kedes, D.  b. 

Kedesh O.  c. 

Kehath, F.  c. 

Keilah, C.  e. 

Kib7,aim, C.  e. 

Kidron, C.  e. 

Kirjathaim, D.  e. 

Kiriath-Jearim,         .         .         .         .         C.   e. 

Kir-Moab, D.   f. 

Kiroth, F.  c. 

Kisson  R., C.  c. 

Krith  R., C.  d. 

Lachish, B.  e. 

Lai's, D.  b, 

Lasha, D.  e. 

Lebanon, D.  b. 

Legio, C.  c. 

Lehi, C.  e. 

Leontes  R C.  b. 

Leontopolis, C.  b. 

Libnah, B.  e. 

Libona, C.  d. 

Lidebir D.  d. 

Lita  R. , D.  a. 

Lod B.  e. 

Lodebar, D.  d. 

Luhith D.   f. 

Lycus  R D.  a. 

Lydda  (Dioppolis),       .        .        .        .     B.  e. 

Maagha,    .        .        .        .        ,        .        D.  b. 
Machserus,   .        .        .        .         .        .     D.  e. 

Magdal, O,  d. 

Magdala, D.  c. 

Magdiel, B.  c. 

Magoras, D.  a. 

Majumas,          .        .        .        ,         •        A.  e. 

Malatha, O.  f. 

Maon,        .        .        .        .        .        ,        o.    f. 
Mardocho, F.  c. 

Maresa, B.  e. 

Masada, C.  f. 

Maximianopolis,        .        .        .        .        C.  c. 

Mearah, D.  a. 

Medaba D.  e. 

Megiddo, C.  c. 

Me-Jarkon B.  d. 

Merom  Lake, D.  b. 

Michmas, C.  e. 

Michmetliath, C.  c. 

Migdol, C.  c. 

Minnith D.  e. 

Miseal, B.  c. 

Missema, E.  b. 

Mizpah B.   e. 

C.  e. 

D.  d. 

Modin, C.  e. 

Moleda, C.    f. 

Na-ama  (Na-ameh),      .        .        .        .     G.  e. 

Naaratha, C.  e. 

Na'in, C.  c. 

Narbata B.  c. 

Nazareth C.  c. 

Neapolis, O.  d. 

F.  c. 

Neballat, B.  e. 

Nebo  Mt D.  e, 

Nemara F.  c, 

Netopha, B.  e. 

Neve E.  c. 

Nezi, C.  e. 

Nicopolis, B.  e. 

Nob, C.  e. 

Noba, E.  c. 

" C.   e. 

Ob C.   e. 

Olives,  Mt.  of,      .         .         .         .         .     C.   e. 

Ono B.  d. 

Ophra, C.  e. 

Oppidum  Salinarum,         .         ,         .         C.    f. 
Ornithopolis, C.  b. 

Pala?biblus, D.  a. 

Palfetyrus  (Tyrus),         .       .         .        .     C.  b. 

Pella, D.  d, 

Pentacomias, C.  d. 

Penuel, D.  d. 

Pha?ne, E.  b. 

Pharphar  R., E.  b. 

Phasffilis C.  d. 

Phiala  Lake D.  b. 

Philadelphia D.  e. 

CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


11.   Palestine. 


Philippopolis, F.  c. 

Pirathon,               C.  d. 

Pisgah  Mts. , D.  e. 

Porpbyrion, O.   a. 

Ptolemais  (Akko),    .         .        .         .  O.  c. 

Rabbatb- Amnion,         .         .         .         .  D.  e. 

Rabbatb-]Moab D.    f. 

Ragaba, D.  d. 

Ramah,     .        .        .        .        .        .  C.  b. 

O.   c. 

O.  d. 

O.   e. 

C.   e, 

Ramathaim, C.  d. 

Rametb  Gilead,         .        .        .        .  D.  d. 

Ramleh, B.  e. 

Rehob C.  c. 

Reboboth, B.    f. 

Rbinea E.  c. 

Rimmon, B.    f. 

C.  c. 

.•       .         .        .        .  C.  e. 


Saccrea  (Shakkah),    . 

Sajlabin, 

Safed,       .        .         .         . 

Salcha, 

Salem, 

Samachon,    . 

Samachonitis  (Merom),    . 

Samaria, 

Sanoa, 

Saphir, 

Sapho, 

Sared  R.,      . 

Sarepta  (Zarpath),     . 

Scythopolis, 

Sebaste,    . 

Selamis, 

Seleucia,   . 

Senna, 

Sennabrin, 

Seph 

Sepharis,  . 

Shakkah,      . 

Sharon  (Plain  of), 

Shechem, 

Shihon  Mt.,       . 

Shiloh. 

Sicyma  (Neapolis),    . 

Sidon  (Zidon),  .    . 

Simonias, 

F.  c. 
.     B.   e. 

C.  c. 
.     F.  c. 

C.  d. 
.     D.  b. 

D.  b. 
.     C.  d. 

B.  e. 
.     B.  e. 

C.  d. 
.     D.   f. 

C.  b. 
.     C.   c. 

C.  d. 
.     C.   c. 

D.  b. 
.     C.  d. 

D.  c. 
.     C.   c. 

C.  c. 
.     F.  c 

B.  d. 
.     C.  d. 

D.  f. 
.     C.  d. 

C.  d. 
.     C.  a. 

O.   c. 

Siph,             C.    f. 

Socoh B.  e. 

C.    f. 

Sodom, C.    f. 

Sogane, C.  c. 

D.  b. 

Somron, C.  d. 

Succoth D.  d. 

Suuem, C.   c, 

Sycanthon,        ,        .        .         .        .  B.  c. 

Sychar C  d. 

Tabor  Mt., C.   c. 

Tamyras  R., D.  a. 

Thaanach, C.   c. 

Tbabse, D.  c. 

Thabatha, A.    f. 

Thabbath C.  d. 

Thacnath, C.  d. 

Thamara, C.    f. 

Thamatha, D.  e. 

Thamna, C.  d, 

Thantia E.  d, 

Thcbez, C.  d, 

Thela, D.  b, 

Thella, B.    f. 

Thelsese, F.   a. 

Thenaj, C.  d, 

Tliimnath, B.    e, 

Thirza C.  d, 

Tiberias D.  c, 

Tim  math  Serali C.  d, 

Tophel D.  g, 

Tricomias, C.  e, 

Turris  Stratonis B.  d, 

Tyrus(Zor) C.  b, 

Ulama, C.   c, 

Ulatha, D.  b, 

Umah, C.  b, 

Unt, C.  e, 

Zabcda E.  a 

Zair, C.    f 

Zaphon D.  d< 

Zaredatha C.   e, 

Zartham C.  d 

Zarcth-Shachar,         .         .         .         .  D.  e, 

Zebulon  (Plain  of) C.  c, 

Ztniaraim C.  e, 

Ziklag,          .         .                  .         .         .  B.    1 

Ziza r>.  e 

Zor(Tyrus) C.  b 

Zoroa E.  c, 


my  COKNTRIFS  \]<UUXDTHEMEDITERRA\EAArSE\DURING  THE  CRUS  \DE S 


III.  1. 

Index  to  Map  of  the  Countries  Around  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
During  ttie  First  Three  Crusades. 

Abbreviation  :  R.  for  River. 


Aani,    . 

Abasgia,    . 

Achrida, 

Acre, 

Adramyttium, 

Adriauapolis, 

^uus, 

Agrigentum,     . 

Ajaccio, 

Albanum, 

Alba  Rcgia, 

Alba  Transylvania, 

Alexandria, 

Alicante, 

Almauzan, 

Ahneria, 

Amalfi, 

Amasia, 

Aniida, 

Afnisus,     . 

Ancona, 

Ancyra,    , 

Ani,'     . 

Ausca, 

Autiocbia,    . 

Antiochia  (Pisida?), 

Antiochia  (Syria), 

Apaniia, 

Appolonias, 

Aquileja, 

Araxes  R., 

Argos, 

Arks, 

Aizenrum, 

Ascalon, 

Athens,    , 

Attalia, 

Anion, 

Baalbek,       , 
Babinel,    . 
Baeta,  . 


K.  b. 
K.  b. 
G.  b. 
J.  d. 
H.  c. 
H.  b. 
H.  b. 

E.  c. 

D.  a. 

F.  b. 

F.  a. 

G.  a. 
H.  d. 
B.  c. 
B.  b. 
B.  c. 

E.  b. 
J.  b. 
K.  c. 
J.  b. 
E.  b. 
L  c. 
K.  b. 

0.  b. 
H.C. 

1.  c. 
J.  c. 
J.  c. 
H.  b- 

E.  a. 
K.  b. 
G.  c. 

0.  b. 
K.  c. 

1.  d. 
G.  c. 
I.    c. 

F.  b. 

J.  d. 

G.  b. 
B.  c. 


Balearic  Islands, 

Bales, 

Banias,     . 

Barbasdro, 

Barcelona, 

Barchinona, 

Bari, 

Barka, 

Basel,       . 

Basques, 

Belgrad, 

Beneventum, 

Beni  Mazgani, 

Berytus, 

Besan9on, 

Bigorra, 

Bilbais,     . 

Bizerta, 

Bona, 

Bordeaux, 

Bosnia,     . 

Bosporus,     . 

Bostra,      . 

Bourges, 

Branitzoba, 

Brian90U,      . 

Brindisi, 

Brixia, 

Buda, 

Bujaia, 

Bulgaria, 

Burgos, 

Buzias,      . 

Bytliinia,      . 

C'jcsarea, 

Cagliari, 
Calabria.       . 
Calatrava, 
Calcliedon, 
Canierino, 

C.  c. 
.    J.    c. 

F.  d. 
,     C.  b. 

0.  b. 
.     O.  b. 

F.  b. 
.    G.  d. 

D.  a. 
.     B.  b. 

G.  b. 
.     E.  b. 

C.  c. 
.     J.    d. 

D.  a. 
.     O.  b. 

1.  d. 
.     D.  c. 

D.  c. 
.     B.  b. 

F.  b. 
.     J.    a. 

J.    d. 
.     C.   a. 

G.  b. 
.     D.  b. 

F.  b. 
.     E.  a. 

F.  a. 
.     D.  c. 

G.  b. 
,     B.  b. 

G.  a. 
.     I.    b. 

I.    d. 
.     J.    c. 

D.  c. 
.     F.  c. 

B.  c. 
.     H.  b. 

E.  b. 

14 


CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


III.  1.  Countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  the  First  Three  Crusades. 


Candia,        .... 

Cannae, 

Canossa,       .... 

Capua, 

Carcassonne, 

Caria, 

Cassiope,      .... 
Castellon,          .... 
Castoria,       .... 
Castra  Zaia,      .... 
Catana,        .... 

Cattara, 

Cephalonia, 

Chasaren,          .... 

Chelat,          .... 

Cberines,          .         .       '. 

Cherson, 

Chertberf, 

Chios,         .       :       ; 

Chorsa,      . 

Christopolis,         ;         l 

Chur, 

Civitot,        .... 

Clermont,          .... 

Colonea,       .... 

Comana,            .... 

Constantinople, 

Constancia  (Constance), 

Cordoba,      .... 

Corfu,      ' 

.     H.  c. 

F.  b. 

.     E.  b. 

E.  b. 
.     C.  b. 

H.  c. 

B.  c. 
.     G.  b. 

F.  a. 
.     F.  c. 

F.  b. 
.    G.  c, 

J.  a. 
.     E.  c. 

1.  c. 
.    I.    b. 

J.  c. 
.     H.  c. 

E.  b. 
.     G.  b. 

D.  a. 
.     H.b. 

C.  a. 
.     J.   b. 

J.    c. 
.     H.  b. 

D.  a. 
.     B.  c. 

F.  c. 
.     G.  c. 

D.  b. 
.     F.  c. 

I.  c. 
.     J.    c. 

F.  a. 

.    B.  b. 

.        H.  a. 

.     H.  b. 

.     J.   d, 

1.    d. 

a.  and  F.  a. 

F.  b. 
.     I.    d. 

C.  c. 
.     E.  d. 

I.  a. 
.     H.  a. 

G.  a. 
.     I.    c. 

E.  b. 
.     F.  a. 

H.  b. 
.     F.  b. 

Dyrrbachium, 

EbroR.,       . 

Edessa,     .         . 

Egypt, 

El-Arish, 

Elba,            .         .        .        . 

El-Djerair, 

El  Mehdia  Zuila, 

El  jVIunestir,     . 

Eniissa, 

Ephesus,  .... 

Espirus, 

Euboea,     .... 

Euphrates  R., 

Famagusta, 
Florence,          . 

Gabes,          ... 

Gaeta,       ,                 .        . 

Gallipolis,    . 

Gaugra, 

Garonne  R., 

Gaza,        .... 

Geneva, 

Genoa,      .... 

Georgia, 

Gerona,     .... 

Girgenti, 

F.  b. 

.     B.  b. 

J.    c. 
.     I.    d. 

I.    d. 
.     E.  b. 

C.  c. 
.     E.  c. 

E.  c. 
.     J.   d. 

H.  c. 
.     G.  c. 

G.  c. 
.     J.    c. 

.     I.    c. 
E.  b. 

.     E.  d. 

E.  b. 
.     H.b, 

I.    b. 
.     B.  b. 

I.    d. 
.     D.  a. 

D.  b. 
.     E.  b. 

C.  b. 
.     E.  c. 

Corinth,       .... 

Corsica, 

Cosenza,       .... 
Cotyaeum,         .... 
Coxon,          .... 

Croatia, 

Cuenca,        .... 

Cumani 

Cyzicus 

Damascus, 

DamietLa,          .... 
Danube  R.,           .        .         .     E 
Deapolis,           .... 
Delta  of  Nile,       . 

Denia, 

Djerba,        .... 
Dnieper,            .... 
Dniester,      .... 
Doboca,            .... 
Dorylseum, 

Dowin, 

Drave  R.,     . 

Dristra, 

Durazzo,      .... 

Gothia,     .... 

Gran, 

Granada, 

Greece,        .        .        .        . 

Guadalaxara, 

Haleb, 

Halys,       .... 

Hama, 

Hammamet, 

Harran, 

Heraclea, 

Hims-Emissa,  . 

Hisu-Keifa, 

Huesca,    .... 

Iberia, 

Iconium, 

Istria,  .... 

Ivrea,        .... 

Jaca,    . 

Jader 

Jauina, 

I.    a. 
.     F.  ^. 

B.  c. 
.     G.  c. 

B.  b. 

.     J.    c. 

I.     c. 

.     J.    c. 

E.  c. 
.     J.    c. 

I.    b. 
.     I.     c. 

J.  d. 

.     E.  c. 
B.  b. 

.     E.  b. 

I.     c. 
.     E.  a. 

D.  a. 

.     B.  b. 

F.  b. 
.     G.  c. 

CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER 


15 


III.  1.  Countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  the  First  Three  Crusades. 

Jerusalem, 

J.    d. 

.AIosul 

K.  c. 

Joppa, 

.     I.    d. 

JMurcia,        .... 

.     B.   c. 

Kairun 

D.  c. 

Naissus,    .... 

O.  b. 

Kars,    .... 

.     K.  b. 

Naples 

.     E.  b. 

Kastamon, 

I.    b. 

Narboune, 

C.  b. 

Kerkinna,     . 

.     E.  d. 

Narentani, 

.     F.  b. 

Koseutiiia, 

D.  c. 

Naxarra, 

B.  b. 

Naxos,          .... 

.     H.  c. 

Laodicea,     . 

.        .     H.  c. 

Nekur,      .... 

B.  c. 

"          .... 

J.    c. 

Nemausus, 

.     C.  b. 

Laranda, 

.     I.     c. 

Neocttsarea, 

J.   b. 

Larissa,     .... 

G.  c. 

Nevcrs,         .... 

.     C.  a. 

Lebda. 

.     E.  d. 

Nica\a,      .... 

H.  b. 

Lemnos, 

H.  c. 

Nicomcdia, 

.     H.  b. 

Leon,   .... 

.     A.  b. 

Nicosia 

Niort 

I.     c. 

Le  Puy, 

C.  a. 

.     B.    a. 

Lerida, 

.     C.  b. 

Nisibin, 

K.   c. 

Lesbos,     .... 

H.  c. 

Nissa,          .... 

.     G.  b. 

Limassal,     . 

.     I.    d. 

Nizza,       .... 

D.  b. 

Limoges, 

C.   a. 

Loire  R.,      . 

.     C.   a. 

Octodarum, 

.         .     D.  a. 

Lorraine, 

D.  a. 

Oran 

B.  c. 

Lycia, 

.     H.  c. 

Orleans,        .... 

.     C.  a. 

Lyon,        .... 

C,   a. 

Orontes  R 

J.    c. 

.     J.    c. 

Osca, 

.     B.  b. 

Maara, 

Ostrobus, 

G.  b. 

Macedonia, 

G.  b. 

Otranto,       .... 

.     F.  b. 

Madrid, 

.     B.  b. 

Ouja.         .... 

B.  d. 

Maeander  R.,     . 

H.  c. 

Oviedo,        .... 

.     A.  b. 

Malatia.        . 

.     J.    c. 

Mallorca  Islands,      . 

C.  c. 

Palermo, 

E.  c. 

Malta, 

.     E.  c. 

Pamphylia, 

.     I.     c. 

Manzikert, 

K.  c. 

Pamplona, 

B.  b. 

Marash, 

.     J.    c. 

Paphlagonia, 

.     1.    b. 

Mardin, 

K.   c. 

Paphos,     .... 

I.    d. 

Maritza  R., 

.     H.  b. 

Passau,        .... 

.     E.  a. 

Marseille, 

D.  b. 

Patrimonium  Petri, 

E.  b. 

Marsivan,     . 

.     J.    b. 

Patziuak 

.     H.  b. 

Massilia, 

D.  b. 

Pavna 

D.  a. 

Maura  St.,    . 

.     G.  c. 

Peloponesus, 

.     G.  c. 

Melita,      . 

B.  c. 

Pergamum, 

H.  c. 

Melitene,      . 

.     J.    c. 

Perigueux, 

.     C.  a. 

Membidsb,        . 

J.    c. 

Perpignan, 

C.  b. 

Mcresia, 

.     J.    c. 

Pesth 

.     F.   a. 

Messina,    . 

F.  c. 

Phasis 

K.   b. 

]^Iethone, 

.     G.  c. 

Philadelphia, 
Philippopolis, 

.     H.  c. 

Milan. 

D.  a. 

G.  b. 

Miletus, 

.     H.  c. 

Philomelium, 

.     I.     c. 

Miliana,    . 

C.    c. 

Piacenza, 

D.  d. 

Minorca  Islands,  . 

.     O.   c. 

Pisa 

.     E.  b. 

:Mirra, 

I.     c. 

Pilyusen, 

C.    c 

Moglena, 

.     G.  b. 

Po 

.     E.  a. 

Morawa,  . 

G.  b. 

Poitiers,     .... 

B.   a. 

Mostaganem, 

.     O.  c. 

Polovzi,        .... 

.     I.    a. 

16 


CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


in.  1.  Countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  the  First  Three  Crusades. 


Pontica, 
Provence, 
Pruth, 
Ptolemais, 


Ragusa,     . 

Rakka, 

Rama, 

Ramleh, 

Rascia,     . 

Ratisbon, 

Ravenna, 

Reggio, 

Rhsedestus, 

Rhine  R., 

Rhone  R., 

Rhodes, 

Romagua, 

Rorne, 

Rosetta,     . 

Ruthrotus, 


St.  Andreas  Cape 

St.  Maura,     . 

Salamanca, 

SalephR.,     . 

Salerno,     . 

Salzburg, 

Samos, 

Samosatum, 

Sangarius  R., 

Sarchot, 

Sardes, 

Sardinia, 

Sarkal,     . 

SaveR., 

Scodra,     . 

Sebastea,     . 

Segovia, 

Seleucia, 

Selymbria, 

Serrhas, 

Serudsh, 

Servia, 

Setif, 

Sfakes, 

Shelif  R., 

Sidon, 

Sinope,     . 

Sirmium, 

Siscia, 

Siwas, 

Scopia, 

Smyrna, 

Soldadia, 


I.  b. 
D.  b. 
H.  a. 
J.   d. 


F.  b. 


J.  c, 
F.  b. 
I.  d. 
F.  b. 
E.  a. 
E.  b. 


F.  c. 
H.  b. 


D.  a. 


b. 


C 
H.  c 
E.  b 


E.  b. 
I.  d. 
G.  c. 


I. 

E. 

E. 


Soria,                    .         .        .                 .  B.  b. 

Sozopolis, H.  b. 

I.    0. 

Spalattum F.-b. 

Spoleto, E.  b. 

Strassburg D.  a. 

Strigonium, F.  a. 

Stuhlweissenburg  (Alba  Regia),       .  F.  a. 
Sudak,           .         .         .         r        .         .Lb. 

Symnada, I.    c. 

Syracuse, F.  c. 

Syrtis  Major, F.  d. 

"      Minor E.  d. 

Szaboles, G.  a. 


Tajo  R.,       . 

Talavera, 

Tarabulus  (Tripolis), 

Taranto, 

Tarragona, 

Tarsus,     . 

Tauromenium,     . 

Teate, 

Tebessa, 

Telemsen, 

Tell-Bashir, 

Tenes, 

Terma, 

Teruel,     . 

TheissR.,     . 

Theodosiopolis, 

Thessalonica, 

Thessaly, 

Thrace, 

Tiberias, 

Tiflis, 

Tigris  R., 

Tirnowa, 

Tokat,'     . 

Toledo, 

Tortosa,     . 

Toulouse, 

Tours, 

Tragurium, 

Trapani,       . 

Trebizond, 

Trencsen,     . 

Trent, 

Treviso, 

Triaditza, 

Tricala, 

Tripolis, 

.     B.  b. 

B.  c. 

.     E.  d. 

F.  b. 
.     C.  b. 

I,    c. 
.     F.  c. 

E.  b. 
.     D.  c. 

B.  d. 
.     J.    c. 

C.  c, 
.     I.     c. 

B.  b. 
.     G.  a. 

K.  c. 
.     G.  b, 

G.  c. 
.     H.  b. 

J.  d. 
.     K.  b. 

K.  c. 
.     H,  b. 

J,  b. 
.     B.   c. 

C.  b. 
.     J.    d. 

C.  b. 
.     C.   a. 

F.  b. 
•     E.  c. 

J.  b, 
.     F.  a. 

E.  a. 
.     E.  a. 

H,  b. 
.     G.  b. 

E.  d. 
.     J.    d. 

Tudela, 


B.  b. 


CONCISE   DICTIONARY  GAZETTEER. 


17 


ni.  1.  Countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  the  First  Three  Crusades. 


Turda,                                                     .  G.  a. 

Turin D.  a. 

Tuscany B.  b. 

Tyrus J.   d. 

Urgel, C.  b. 

Valencia, B.  c. 

Valladolid B.  b. 

Venice, B.  a, 

Verona, B.  a. 

Verria, G.  b. 

Vezelay O.  a. 

Vienna F.  a. 


Vieune, 


C.  a. 


Wan  (Van), 
Warau, 
Warna,     . 
Wieselburg, 


K.  c. 
B.  c. 
H.  b. 
F.  a. 


Zacynthos, G.  c. 

Zamora A.  b. 

Zara F.  b. 

Zaragosa B.  b. 

Zichia, J.   b. 

Zothmar, O.  a. 


III.  2. 


Index  to  Map  of  Cottntries  Around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  During 
tlie  Fourth  and  Following  Crusades. 


Abbreviation  :  R.  for  River. 


Accon, 

Achaja,    . 

Achrida, 

Adriamyttium 

Adrianople, 

Agram,     . 

Aigues  Mortes 

Aintab,     . 

Aksara, 

Alarcos,   . 

Albania, 

AlbaracJn, 

Albigois, 

Alcaraz,    . 

Alexandretta, 

Alexandria, 

Alicante, 

Almeria, 

Alsace, 

Amasia, 

Amastris, 

Amida, 

Amisus, 

Ana, 

Anamur, 

Ancona, 

Ancyra, 

Andros,    , 

Angora, 

Antiochia, 

"         Pisidffi 
Apulia,    . 
Aquileja, 
Aquitania, 
Arad,  , 
Aras  R.,  . 
Araxes  R., 
Arban,     . 
Arcadia, 
Argos, 
Aries,  . 
Arsignan, 


J.  d. 
G.  c. 
G.b. 


H.  c. 
H.  b. 
F.  a. 
O.  b. 
J.    c. 


I.  c. 
B.  c. 
G.b. 
B.  b. 
O.  b. 


B.  c. 
J.  c. 
H.d. 
B.  c. 


B.  c. 

D.  a. 
J.  b. 
L  b. 
K  c. 
J.   b. 

E.  d. 
L    c. 


E.  b. 
L  c. 
G.  c. 


L  c. 
J.  c. 
L    c. 

F.  b. 
E.  a. 
O.  a. 

G.  a. 
K.  b. 
E.  b. 
K.  c. 
G.  c. 


G.  c. 
O.  b. 
J.  c. 


Arta, G.  c. 

Arzenrum K.  c. 

Asturia, A.  b. 

Athens,     ......  G.  c. 

Attalia, I.    c. 

Auch, O.  b. 

Aulon, F.  b. 

Avignon, O.  b. 

Baiburt, K.  b. 

Bales J.    c. 

Balla B.  c 

Bari .  F.  b. 

Barka, G.  d. 

Barletta F.  b. 

Barcelona, O.  b. 

Basel, D.  a. 

Bavaria, E.  a. 

Bayonne, B.  b. 

Beirut, J.   d. 

Belgrad, G.  b. 

Benevent E.  b. 

Berrhoe, H.  b. 

Besan9on, D.  a. 

Bigorra O.  b. 

Birah J,    c. 

Bizerta, D.  c. 

Blachia, G.  c. 

Boli Lb. 

Bologna, E.  b. 

Bona D.  c. 

Bordeaux, B.  b. 

Bosnia, F.  b. 

Bourges, C.  a. 

Brescia, E.  a. 

Brindisi F.  b. 

Brixia, E.  a. 

Buda F.   a. 

Budschaja, D.  c. 

Burgos B.  b. 

Burgundy, O.   a. 

Buzias, O.  a. 


20 


OONOISE  DICTIONARY  GAZETTEER. 


III.  2.  Countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  Fourth  and  following  Crusades. 


Caesarea, 

Cagliari 

Cairo  (Kairo),    . 

Calabria,      .... 

Calatayud, .      .     - :.  ^ . 

Calatrava,-   .        .        .        .  ■ 

Calocsa,    .        .        ... 

Candia,        .        .        .        . 

Carcassonne,     . 

Carniola,      .... 

Cariuthia, 

Cartagena,  .... 

Castellon, 

Castile,        .... 

Chelat 

.     L    d. 
J.   c. 

.   n.  c. 

L   d. 
.     F.  c. 

B.  b. 
.     B.  c. 

F.  a. 
.     H.  c. 

O.  b. 
.     E.  a. 

E.  a. 
.     B.  c. 

B.  c. 
.    B.  b. 

K.  c. 

Edessa, J.    c. 

El-Mehdia E.  c. 

Emissa, J.  d. 

Erlau,  . G.  a. 

Eskishehr, L    c. 

Este,     ....        .        .        .        .    E.  a. 

Euphrates  R ^        .  -       J.    c. 

Famagusta,         .     .  .,       .        .        .    L    c. 

Ferrara, E.  b. 

Florence,     ,' E.  b. 

Foix, C.  b. 

Fuentarrabia, B.  b. 

Fuenfkirchen,           .        .        .        .        P.  a. 

Gaban,          .        .        .        .        .        .    J.    c. 

Cherson,      .... 
Chertbert,        .        .        .        . 
Chios,          .... 
Chonae,     . 

Chur, 

Circesia, 

Constance,  .        .         .        '. 
Constantinople, 
Cordoba,      .        .        .        . 
Coriu,       .... 

.     I.    b. 

J.    c- 

H.  c. 

H.  c. 
.     D.  a. 

K.  c. 
.     D.  a. 

H.b. 
.     B.  c. 

F.  c. 

Gabes,      .        .        .        .        .        .        E.  d. 

Gallipali .    H.  b. 

Gamach, J.    c. 

Gangra, Lb. 

Garonne,  .  '■      .        .        ,        .        .        B.  b. 
Gascony,      .        .                 .     C.b.  andB.  b. 

Geneva, D.  a. 

Genoa, D.  b. 

Gerona,     .        .        .        ...        C  b. 

Girgenti,      , E.  c. 

Corinth        . 

.     G.  c. 

Gornjak, G.  b. 

Corone,    .        .        .        .        . 
Corsica,       ,        .        .        . 

G.  c. 
.     D.  b. 

Gran,    . P.  a. 

Granada,  .        .        .         .        .        .        B.  c. 

Cosenca,  .        .        .        . 
Cremona,     .... 

F.  c. 
.     E.  a. 

Haditha, K.  d. 

Croatia,    .        . 

P.  a. 

Haleb, J.   c. 

.     B.  b. 

HalysR..    ......Lb. 

Cythera,    .        .        .        . 

Damascus, 

Damietta, 

Danube  R., 

Dead  Sea, 

Debelton,     .... 

Deraoticii, 

Denia,          .... 

Dereuda,  .... 

Dijon,          .... 

Djerba 

Djesiret-Iibn  Omar,     . 
Dnieper  R.        .        . 

Dniester  R 

Dorylaeum, 

Dowin,        .... 
Drave  R.,         ... 
Dristra,       .... 

G.  c. 

.     J.   d. 

I.    d. 
.     H.  b. 

J.   d. 
.     H.  b. 

H.  b. 
.     B.  c. 

J.   c. 
.     O.  a. 

E.  d. 
.     K.  c. 

I.    a. 
.     H.  a. 

L    a. 
.     J.   b. 

F.  a. 
.     H.  b. 

Hama .        J.    c 

Harran,        .        .        .        .        .        .     J.    c 

Heraclea,          .        .        .        .        .        I.    c. 

Lb. 

Hermus  R., H.  c. 

Hisn-Mansur, J.   c. 

Hit, K.  d. 

Iconium, L    c." 

Istria, E.  a. 

Jaca, B.  b. 

Janina, G.  c. 

Jerusalem, J.   d. 

Joppa, L    d. 

Juen, B.  c. 

Kairo, L    d. 

Kairuan,      .        .         .        .         .        .    D.  c. 

Dyrrhachium,  . 

Ebro, 

F.  b. 
.     B.  b. 

Karpatus, H.  c. 

Kars K.  b. 

Kastamon Lb. 

CONCISE  DICTIONARY  GAZETTEER. 


21 


m.  2.  Countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  Fourth  and  following  Crusades. 


Krak J.   d. 

Kurch I.    c. 

Kydonia, G.  c. 

Lajazzo, J.    c. 

Lampron, L    c. 

Laodicea H.  c. 

J.    c. 

Laranda, L    c. 

Larissa, G.  c. 

Lausanne D.  c. 

Lemnos H.  c. 

Leon, A.  b. 

Le  Pay,    .                .                        .        O.  a. 

Lerida O.  b. 

Lesbos, H.  c. 

Limasol L    d. 

Limoges, C.  a. 

Loire  R O.  a. 

Lorraine, D.  a. 

Lyon, C.  a. 

Madrid B.  b. 

Mteander, H.  c. 

Malea G.  c. 

Mallorca, O.   c. 

Malta E.  c. 

Maniistra, J.    c. 

Mansurah, L    d. 

Mardin, K  c. 

Maritza.       ...                 .        .     H.  b. 

Marseille, D.  b. 

Matapan O.  c. 

Matrega J.    a. 

Mehedia B.  c. 

Melita, B.  c. 

Melitene Jo. 

iMequinenza, C,  b. 

Messina, F.  c. 

Methone, G.  c. 

Milan. D.  a. 

Miletus H.  c. 

Miliana, O.  c. 

Misithra G.  c. 

Modena B.  b. 

Monemvasia G.  c 

Montferrat, D.  b. 

Morasb J.    c 

Moravia, P.  «. 

Mostaganem, O.  c. 

Mosul K.  c 

Murcia B.  c. 

Naples B,  b. 

Narbonne, O.  b. 

Naupactus, O.  c. 

Nauplia, G.  c. 

Navarra, B.  b, 

Naxos H.  c. 

Negroponte, G.  o. 

Neocfesarea, J.    b. 

Nictea H.b. 

Nicomedia, H.  b. 

Nicosia I.    c. 

Nisibin, K.  c 

Nissa G.  b. 

Nizza, D.  b. 

CEneum J.   b. 

Oran, B.  c. 

Oreus G.  c. 

Orleans, C.  a 

Orvieto, E.  b. 

Osca, B.  b. 

Otranto F.  b. 

Oviedo A.  b. 

Palermo, E.  c 

Palmyra, J.   d. 

Pamplona, B,  b. 

Papal  States, E.  b. 

Paphos, I.    d. 

Passau, E.  a. 

Patera, H.  c. 

Pavia D.  a- 

Peg* H.  b. 

Peniscola, C.  b. 

Pergamum, H.  c. 

Perigueux C.  a. 

Perpignan, C.  b. 

Pesth, F.  a. 

Phasis, K.  b. 

Philadelphia H.  c. 

Philea H.  b. 

Philippopolis, G.  b. 

Phimaja, L    c. 

Pisa E.  b. 

PoR., E.  a. 

Poitiers, O.  a. 

Poitou B.  a. 

Pressburg, F.  a. 

Priiip, G.  b. 

Prosacus, G.  b. 

Prusa H.  b. 

Pruth  R., H.  a- 

Raab F.  a. 

Ragusa F.  b. 

Rahaba, K.  c. 

Rama, P.  b. 

22 


CONCISE  DICTIONARY  GAZETTEER, 


IIL  2.  Countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  Fourth  and  following  Crusades. 


Rascia 

.     G.  b. 

Rashid  (Rosetta),      . 

.        I.    d. 

Ratisbon,      .... 

.     E.  a. 

Ravenna, 

E.  b. 

Razan,         .... 

.     G.  b. 

Rhiedestus, 

H.  b. 

Rhine  R.,      .... 

.    D.  a. 

Rhodes 

H.  c. 

Rhone  R 

C.  b. 

Rodez,       .... 

C.  b. 

Rome,          .... 

.     E.  b. 

Runo,        .... 

J.    c. 

St.  Germane, 

.    E.  b. 

St.  Gilles, 

C.  b. 

Saintes,        .... 

.     B.  a. 

Salerno,    .... 

E.  b. 

Salon 

.     G.  c. 

Salzburg, 

E.  a. 

Samos,         .... 

.     H.  c. 

Samosatum,     . 

J.    c. 

Sangarius  R.,      . 

.     I.    b. 

Sardes 

H.  c. 

Sardinia 

.     D.  b. 

Save  R.,  . 

F.  a. 

Scodra 

.     G.  b. 

Scopia,     . 

G.  b. 

Sebastea,       .... 

.     J.    c. 

Segovia,    .... 

B.  b. 

Seleucia,       .... 

.     I.    c. 

Serdica,     .... 

G.  b. 

Serrhge,        .... 

.    G.  b. 

Setif,         .... 

D.  c. 

Severin,       .... 

.     G.  b. 

Sfakes, 

E.  d. 

Shaubek  (Montroyal), 

.    J.    d. 

Shelif, 

C.  c. 

Sicily,           .... 

.    E.  c. 

Sidon,       

.        J.    d. 

Siena,           .... 

.     E.  b. 

Sindshar, 

K.  c. 

Sinope 

.    J,    b. 

Siscia, 

F.   a. 

Sisia,            .... 

.        .    J.    c. 

Sitten, 

D.  a. 

Siwas,           .... 

.     J.    c. 

Slavonia, 

.        F.  a. 

Smyrna,        .        .      "  . 

.    H.  c. 

Sochana,  

J.    d. 

Soegued,       .        .        .        . 

,    L    b. 

Soldadia,           .        .        .         . 

.        I.    b. 

Sort,     .        .        . 

.     F.  d. 

Sozopolis,         .        .        .        . 

H.  b. 

"           .... 

.     I.     c. 

Spalatum,         .        .        .        . 

F.  b. 

Spoleto, 

Stiria 

Stublweissenburg, 
Suabia,     .        . 
Sudak, 
Synnada. 
Syracusa, 
Syrtis  Major,    . 

Minor, 
Szaboles, 

TajoR 

Tarabulus, 
Tareuto, 
Tarragona, 
Tarsus, 

Tebessa 

Telbasbir,    . 

Telemsen, 

Tenes, 

Teruel 

Theiss, 

Thessalonich,    . 

Thrace, 

Tiber  R., 

Tiberias,      . 

Tirnowa,  .... 

Tokat, 

Toledo,     .... 

Tortosa, 

Toulon, 

Toulouse, 

Tours, 

Trapani 

Trebizond, 

Trencsen, 

Trent, 

Triaditza, 

Triest, 

Tripolis,   .... 

Tunis,       .... 

Turin, 

Tusculum, 

Tyrus, 

Valence,           .        . 

Valencia, 

Valladolid, 

Van  (Wan), 

Varna  (Warna), 

Venice, 

Verona,     .... 

Verria, 

.    E.  b. 

F.  a. 

.     F.  a. 

D.  a. 
.     I.    b. 

I.    c. 
.     F.  c. 

F.  d. 
.     E.  d. 

G.  a. 

.     A.  c. 

E.  d. 
.     F.  b. 

C.  b. 
.     I.     c. 

D.  c. 
.     J.    c. 

B.  d. 
.     C.  c. 

B.  b. 
.     G.  a. 

G.  b. 
.     H.  b. 

E.  b. 
.    J.    d. 

H.  b. 
.     J.   b. 

B.  c. 
.     O.  b. 

J.    d. 
.        .         .     D.  b. 

C.  b. 
.     C.  a. 

E.  c. 
.     J.    b. 

F.  a. 
.     E.  a. 

G.  b. 
.        .        .     E.  a. 

E.  d. 
.    J.  d. 

E.  c 
.     D.  a. 

E.  b. 
.    J.   d. 

C.  b. 
.     B.  c. 

B.  b. 
.     K.  c. 

H.b. 
.     E.  a. 

E.  a. 

.      .      .   o.b. 

CONCISE  DICTIONARY  GAZETTEER, 


23 


m.  2.  Countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  Fourth  and  following  Crusades. 


Victoria 
Vienna, 
Vienne, 


B.  b. 
F.  a. 
O.  a. 


Urgel, 


C.  b. 


Wan  (Van), K.  c. 

Waran, B.  c. 

Warna  (Varna),  ,        ,        .        .     H.  b. 


Weissenburg,           .        .        ,        .        G.  a. 
Widdin, G.  b. 

Xativa B.  c. 


Zacynthos, G.  c. 

Zara F.  b. 

Zaragosa, B.  b. 

Zotbmar,  ......  G.  a. 


IHI-    CHLHCH  PROMXei-s  01    MIDDIP   FUROPI    vBOn  ISoo  \d 


IV. 


Index  to  Map  of  the  Church  Provinces  abont  1500  A.D. 


Abbreviation  :  R.  for  River. 


Abruzzo, 

Acci, 

Acqui, 

Admond, 

Adria, 

Agen, 

Agle,  . 

Agram,    . 

Aire,    . 

Aix, 

Ajaccio,       . 

Alaso, 

Alatri, 

Alba, 

A.  (Albano), 

Albenga, 

Alby,  . 

.         .     K.  g. 

L    g. 
.     L    f. 

li.  e. 
.     J.    f. 

E.  f. 
.     F.g. 

L.    f. 

.     D.  g. 

.        G.  g. 

.    I.    h. 

G.  f. 
.     K.  h. 

L     f. 
.    E.  h. 

I.     f. 
.     P.  g. 

Augsburg J.    d. 

Autun G.  e. 

Auxerrc P.  e. 

Avignon, G.  g. 

Avranches, D.  d. 

Bamberg, J.    d. 

Bangor B.  b. 

Banz J.    c. 

Barbastro, E.  g. 

Barcelona P.  h. 

Basel, H.  e. 

Batb, C.  c. 

Bayeux, D.  d. 

Bayonne, D.  g. 

Bazas, D.  f. 

Beauvais, P.  d. 

Aleria,      . 

Alessandria, 

Alet, 

Altaich  Upper,    . 

"      Lower, 
Altenzell,     . 
Am.  (Amelia),  . 
Amiens, 
Amoeneburg,  . 
Anagni, 
Ancona,    . 
Angers, 
Angouleme, 
Aosta, 

Apt.          .        .        . 
Aquila, 
Aquileja, 
Arbe,   . 
Arezzo,     . 
Aries.  . 
AmoR., 
Ascoli, 
Assissi.     . 
Asti.     . 
Atmissa.  . 
Atri,    . 
Auch.       . 

.        I.    g. 

.     I.     f. 

.         F.  g. 

.     K.  d. 

E.  d. 
.     E.  c. 

E.  g. 
.     P.  d. 

L    c. 
.     E.  h. 

E.  g. 
.     D.  e. 

E.   f. 
.     H.  f. 

G.  g. 
.     K.  g. 

E.   L 
.     L.    f. 

J.    g. 

.     G.  g. 

.        J.  g. 

.        .     E.  g. 

E.  g. 
.     L     t 

M.g. 
.     E.  g. 

B.  g. 

Belley, G.  f. 

Belluno, E.  e. 

Benedict  beuren J.    e. 

Berchtesgaden E.  e. 

Bergamo, L     f. 

Bcrge J.    b. 

Bertinori, E.    f. 

Bertinorio, E.  g. 

BesauQon H.  e. 

Bethleem, P.  e. 

Beziers F.  g. 

Blaubeuren, I.    d. 

Bobbio, L    f. 

Bologna, J.    f. 

Bordeaux D.   f. 

Bourges J.    e. 

Brandenburg E.  b. 

Bremen, Lb. 

Brescia, J.    £. 

Breslau M.c 

Brixen J.    e. 

Bnignato L     t 

Buchan L    d. 

Burgos O.  g. 

Bursfeld, L    c 

C.  (Cagli) E.  g. 

26 


OONCISB  DICTIONARY  QAZETTEER. 


IV.  The   Church  Provinces   about   1500  A.D. 


Cagli,        .         .         .         . 

Cahors, 

Calahorra, 

Camaldoli,    , 

Cambray, 

Camerino,    . 

Cammin, 

Canterbury, 

Caorle      •         .        .         • 

.        K.  g. 

.     B.   f. 

.         C.  g. 

.         .     J.    g. 

F.  c. 
.         .     K.  g. 

L.  b. 

.     E.  c. 

K.    f. 

.     K.    f. 

.        F.  g. 

.     G.  f. 

I.     f. 

.         .     F.  g. 

.         J.    g. 

.        .     G.  g. 

K.    f. 

.     K.    f. 

K.    f. 

.     G.  e. 

G.  d. 
.     B.  d. 

C.  b. 

.     D.  c. 

.         L.  g. 

.     K.  e. 

K.    f. 
.         .     J.    g. 

K.  b. 
.     I.    e. 

G.  e. 
.         .     K.  g. 

E.    f. 
.         .     K.  g. 

Q.  d. 
.     F.  f. 

G.  e. 
.     H.  c. 

E.    f. 
.     I.     f. 

E.    f. 

B.  e. 

De  venter, 
Diakovar,    . 
Die,  . 

Digne, 
Disentis,    . 
Dol,     . 

Echternach, 
Egmond, 

H.  b. 
N.   f. 

G.  f. 
H.  f. 

I.    e. 
.     D.  d- 

H.  d. 
G.  b. 

Capo  d'Istria, 

Careassone, 

Carpentras, 

Casale 

Castres, 

Castro,      .... 

Cavaillon,     . 

Ceneda,    .        .         .        . 

Cervia, 

Cesena 

Chalon, 

Chalons,  .... 

Chartress,     . 

Chester 

Chichester, 

Chieli,      .        .         .        . 

Chiemsee,     . 

Chioggia, 

Chiust, 

Chorin,     .... 

Chur,  .... 

Eichstadt, 
Einsiedeln,  . 
ElbeR,     . 
Ellwangen, 
Elne, 

Ely,  -  .        . 
Embrun, 
Engelberg,   . 
Erfurt,      . 
Erlau,  . 
Essen, 
Evreux, 

Faenza,     . 

Fauo, 

Feltre'      . 

Fermo, 

Fr.  (Ferintiuo), 

Ferrara, 

Fiesole,    . 

Florence,     . 

J.    d. 

I.    e. 

J.   b. 

.     J.    d. 

.        .        .        .        F.  g. 

.     B.  b. 

H.  £. 

I.    e. 

J.    c. 

O.  e. 

H.  c. 
B.  d. 

.        .        .                 J.    f. 

.        .        .        .     E.  g. 

J.    e. 

.        .        .        .    E.  g. 

E.  h. 

.     J.    f. 

.        .        .        .        J.    g. 

.     J.    g. 

Citeaux,    .... 

C.  d.  C.  (Citta  di  Castello) 

Cittanuova, 

Civita  Castellana, 

Clairvaux, 

Clermont,     . 

Clugny 

Cologne, 

Comacchio, 

Como, 

Concordia, 

Condom, 

Foligno,  . 
Forli,  . 

Fortimpopoli,  . 
Fossombrono, 
F.  (Frascati),    . 
Freising, 
Frejus,      . 
Fritzlar, 
Fulda,       . 
Fiiufkirchen, 
Fiirstenwalde, 

Gandersheim, 

Gap, 

Gembloux, 

Geneva,   . 

Genoa, 

Gerona,    . 

Glandeve, 

.         .         .         .         E.  g. 

.     E.    f. 

E.    f. 

.         .         .         .     E.  g. 

E.  h. 

.     J.   d. 

.        .        .        .        H.g. 

.     I.    c 

.        I.    c. 

.     N.  e. 

L.  b. 

Constance, 

Corbie, 

Corvey,    .... 

Cornelimunster,  . 

Cort  (Cortona), 

Coulances,    . 

Coventry, 

I.    e. 

.     F.  d. 

I.     c. 

.     H.  c. 

.         J.    g. 

.        .     D.  d. 

D.  b. 

.     N.  c. 

.     J.   c. 

H.   t 
.     G.  o 

H.  e. 
.    I.    t 

F.  h. 
.     H.  jr. 

Crakow, 

Gnesen,    . 
Gran,  . 

M.b. 

Cremona, 
Curzola, 

J.    f. 
M  s- 

.     N.  e. 
n.    ( 

Danube  R.,      . 

Dax 

.         E.  d. 
.         .     D.  g. 

Grandmout E.   f. 

Grasse, H.  g. 

Grenoble, G.  f. 

CONCISE  DICTIONARY  OAZBTTEER. 


27 


IV.   The 

Church    Provinces   about   1500  A.D. 

Grosseto, 

.         .         J.    g. 

London 

D.  c. 

Guardia,       .... 

.     L.  h. 

Lorscli 

.     I.    d. 

Gubbio,    .... 

.        .        K.  g. 

Lubeck,   .... 

J.   b. 

Gurk, 

.     L.  e. 

Lucca,          .... 

.         .     J.   g. 

Lucon,      .... 

D.  e. 

Halberstadt, 

.     J.    c. 

Lutter 

.     J.    b. 

Hamburg, 

J.    b. 

Luttich,    .... 

.        Q.  c. 

Havelberg, 

.     K.  b. 

Luxeuil,       .... 

.     H.  e. 

Heilsberg, 

O.  a. 

Lyon,       .... 

a.  f. 

Hereford 

.     C.  b. 

Herford,  .... 

I.    b. 

Macaria 

.         .     M.g. 

Hersford,     .... 

.     I.     c. 

Macerula, 

K.  g. 

Hildesheim,      . 

I.    b. 

3Iacon,         .... 

.     O.  e. 

Hirsau,        .        .         . 

.     L    d. 

Magdeburg, 

J.   b. 

Hospice  of  St.  Boruhard, 

H.   f. 

Magliano,     .... 

.         .     K.  g. 

Huesca, 

.         .     D.g. 

Muillczais, 

D.  e. 

Manfredonia, 

.     L.  h- 

Iclitershauseu,      . 

.    J.    c. 

^lantua,   .... 

J.    £. 

Imola 

J.    f. 

Mariana,       .... 

.        .     I.    g. 

Ivrea,  

.     H.   f. 

Marienstern,     . 

li.    c. 

Marientbal, 

.     L.  c. 

Jesi,         .... 

.         .         K.  g. 

3Iarienwerder, 

N.  b. 

Marseille,     .... 

.        .     G.  g. 

Kalocsa 

.     N.  e. 

Massa 

.        J.   g. 

Kladrau, 

K.  d. 

Maulbronu, 

.     F.I.d. 

Kloster  Xeuburg  (Yienna),  . 

.    M.d. 

Mayence, 

I.    d. 

Kuiu 

M.  f. 

Meaux 

.     F.  d. 

Kremsmiiuster,     . 

.    li.  d. 

Meissen 

K.  c. 

Kulm,       .... 

N.  b. 

Meuileben 

.     J.    c. 

Mende, 

F.    f. 

Laach,         .... 

.     H.  c. 

Merseburg, 

.        .     J.    c. 

Laibach, 

L.   e. 

Metz,        .... 

H.  d- 

Laugre 

.     Q.  e. 

MeuseR. 

.     G.  d. 

Larino,      .... 

L.  h. 

Milan 

L    e. 

Laon, 

.     F.  d. 

Minden 

.     I.    b. 

LaTrappe, 

E.  d. 

Mirepoix,          .         .         .         . 

E.g. 

Lausanne,    .... 

.     H.  e. 
L.  e. 

.     J.     f. 

Lavant  (St.  Audree), 

Modrusch,        .         .        .        . 

L.    L 

Lavaux,       .... 

.         .     E.g. 

Mnlk 

.     L.  d. 

Lebus 

L.  b. 

Mondovl, 

H.   f. 

Lcctourc 

.        .     E.  g. 

Mondsee, 

.     K.  e. 

Lebmin, 

K.  b. 

Montauban, 

E.   f. 

Le  Mans 

.    L.  d. 

Montaleino, 

.         .     J.    g. 

LePuy, 

F.   f. 

M.  (Montefiascone), 

K.  g. 

Lerida,         .... 

.     E.  h. 

Moutiersen-Taraintaisc, 

.   H.   f. 

Lescar 

E.g. 

Montpcllier 

F.  g. 

Le-sina,          .... 

.     L.  h. 

Miin.ster 

.     H.  c. 

Limoges, 

E.   f. 

MQnster 

H.  d. 

Lincoln,       .... 

.     D.  b. 

Murbacb 

.     H.  e. 

Lisieux 

E.  d. 

Llandaff 

.     C.  c. 

Nantes 

D.  e. 

Lodeve 

F.  g. 

Narbonne 

.         .     F.  g. 

Lodi, 

.       I.      6. 

N.  (Narmi) 

K.  g. 

Loire  R., 

D.  e. 

Xaum1)urg, 

.     J.    c. 

Lombez 

.         .     E.  g. 

Ncbbio 

I.    g. 

28 


CONCISE   DICTIONARY  GAZETTEER. 


IV.  The   Church  Provinces  about   1600  A.D. 


Nepi,    .        .        .        .        . 

.        .    K.  g. 

Posen, 

M.b. 

Neuenburg  (Kloster), 

M.  d. 

Prague 

.     L.  c. 

Neutra,        .... 

.     N.  d. 

Premontre,       .        .        .        . 

F.  d. 

Nevers,    .... 

F.  e. 

Prum,          .        . 

.     H.  c. 

Nimbschen, 

.     K.  c. 

Nimes 

.        .        G.  g. 

Raab, 

Me. 

Nienburg,   .... 

.     J.    c. 

Ragusa 

.         .     N.  g. 

Nivelle 

G.  c. 

Ratisbon  (Regensburg),    . 

K.  d. 

Nizza 

.        .    H.g. 

Ratzeburg 

.     J.    b. 

Noli,         .... 

I.    f. 

Ravenna,          .        .        .        . 

K.    f. 

Nona, 

.    L.    f. 

Regensburg, 

.     K.  d. 

Norwich, 

E.  b. 

Reggio 

J.    f. 

Novara,       .... 

.     I.    f. 

Reichenau 

.     L    e. 

Noyon 

F.  d. 

Reichersberg,  .         .        .'       . 

E.  d. 

Reims,          .... 

.    G.  d. 

OderR.,      .        . 

.     L.  b. 

Reinhardsbrunn, 

J.    c. 

Odilienberg,     ,, 

H.  d. 

Rennes,         .... 

.     D.  d. 

Oliva 

.     N.  a. 

Resino, 

N.  g. 

Olmiitz,    .... 

M.d. 

Rhine,          .... 

.     H.  c. 

Oloron,         .... 

.        .    D.  g. 

Rhodez, 

F.   L 

Orange 

G.  f. 

Rieto, 

.        .     K.  g. 

Orleans 

.     E.  e. 

Rieux 

E.  g. 

O.  (Orte), 

K.  g. 

Rimini 

.    K.    £. 

Osma,           .... 

.     C.  h. 

Rochester 

E.  c. 

Osnabriick, 

.        I.    b. 

Rome,          .... 

.     K.  h. 

Osseg,          .... 

.        .     K.  c. 

Roncesvales,    .        .        .        . 

D.  g. 

Ostia,        .... 

K.  h. 

Rouen 

.     E.  d. 

Rijgen, 

E.  a. 

Padua 

.     J.    f. 

Paderborn, 

I.    c. 

P.  (Palestrina),     . 
Pamiers,  .... 

.     K.  h. 

.        .        E.  g. 

Quedlinburg, 

Quimper,          .        .        .        . 

.    J.   c. 
B.  d. 

Pamplona 

.        .     D.g. 

Parenzo,  .... 

K.  f. 

St.  Andree  (Lavant),    . 

.     L.  e. 

Paris 

.     F.  d. 

"   Asaph,        .        .        .         . 

C.  b. 

Parma,      .... 

J.    f. 

"   Blasien, 

.     L    e. 

Passau 

.     K.  d. 

"  Brieux,        .        .        .        . 

C.  d. 

Pavia 

L    £ 

'*   Davids, 

.     B.  c 

Pegau 

.     K.  c. 

"   Denis,          .        .        .        . 

F.  d. 

Perigueux, 

E.  L 

"   Florian, 

.     L.  d. 

Perugia,       .... 

.    K.  V. 

"   Flour 

"   Gallen,  .... 

F.   £ 

Pesaro 

.        .        K.  g. 

.     L    e. 

Petersberg 

.    J.   c. 

"   George,       .        .        .        . 

L    d. 

Pfiiffers, 

L    e. 

"  Hubert, 

.     G.  c. 

Pforta,         .... 

.    J.    c. 

"  Jean  de  Maurienna,    . 

H.  f. 

Phar,         .... 

.        M.g. 

"   Leo,       . 

.        .     K.  g. 

Piacenza,     .... 

.    I.     £. 

"  Lizier,         .        .        .        . 

E.  g. 

Pi  (Pienza),      . 

.        .        J.  g. 

"  Moritz 

.    H.  e. 

Pisa, 

.    J.   Jf. 

'*  Papoid,       .        .        .        • 
"   PoldeLeon,   . 

F.  g. 
.    B.  d. 

Pisino,     .... 

K.   f. 

Pistoja,        .... 

.     J.  g. 

"  Poelten,      .        .        .        . 
"   Pons,      .... 

Ii.  d. 

Plock,      .        •        .        . 

N.  b. 
.    E.  e. 

.    F.  g. 

Poitiers 

"  Paul  Tricastin,  . 

G.  f. 

Pola 

K.   t 

"  Severe,   .... 

.    Ii.  h. 

Porto 

.    K.  h. 

Sackingen,       .... 

H.  e. 

CONCISE  DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


29 


Saiutes,    . 

Salisbury, 

Salzburg, 

Santander, 

Sarlat, 

Sr.  (Sarsiua), 

Sarzana,  . 

Savona, 

Scardoiia, 

Scheiern, 

Sclileswig, 

Schwerin, 

Seckau,    . 

Seez,    . 

S.  (Segni), 

Seine  R., 

Seligeustadt, 

Senez, 

Sens, 

Sentis, 

Sebeuico, 

Serajewo, 

Siena, 


Sisterou, 

Sitten, 

Soissons, 

Solsona, 

Sora, 

Sovana, 

Spalato.    . 

Speyer, 

Spalato,    . 

Stablo, 

Staguo,     . 

Stederburg, 

Strassburg, 

Sutri,  . 


Tarbes,     . 

Tarazona, 

Tarragona, 

Termoli, 

Terni, 

Tept,    . 

Therouanne, 

Tivoli, 

Todi. 

Torcello, 

Tortona, 

Toul.   . 

Toulon,    . 

Toulouse, 

Tournay, 

Tours, 


IV.   The   Church   Provinces   about   1600   A,D, 


M. 

L 

K. 

O. 

M. 

J. 

H. 

E. 


B.  g. 

D.  h. 

E.  h. 
L.  g. 
K.g. 

E.  d. 

F.  c. 


E.  h. 
K.  g. 
E.  L 
L  L 
O.  d. 
O.  g. 
E.g. 
P.  c. 
E.  e. 


Trau. 

Trebinje, 

Treguier, 

Trent, 

Treves, 

Treviso, 

Triest, 

Trivento, 

Troves, 

Tudela, 

Tulle, 

Turin. 


Urbino, 
Urgel, 
Ursperg, 
Utrecht, 


Vabres, 

Vaison, 

Valence, 

Valombrosa, 

Vaunes,    . 

Veglia, 

V.  (Veletri), 

Vence, 

Venice,     . 

Ventimiglia 

Vercelli,  . 

Verdeu, 

Verden,    . 

Verdun, 

Veroli, 

Verona, 

Veszprim, 

Vicenza, 

Vich, 

Vico,   . 

Vienna,    . 

Vienna  (Neustadt) 

Vicste, 

Vistula  R, 

Viterbo,  . 

Vollera, 


Waitzen, 

Waldsassen, 

Walkenried. 

Warmien, 

Wcingarten. 

Weissenburg, 

Wells, 

Wcssobrunn, 

West  minster, 


M.g. 
N.  g. 
O.  d. 
J.  e. 
H.  d. 
E.  £ 
E.  L 
L.  h. 
O.  d. 

D.  g. 

E.  L 
H.  f. 


E.  g. 


E.  g. 
J.  d. 
O.  b. 


r.  g. 

Q.  f. 
Q.  L 
J.   g. 


C.  e. 
L.  L 
E.  h. 
H.g. 
E.  f. 
H.g. 
H.  t 
H.  c 
L   b. 

a.  d. 

E.  h. 
J.  f. 
M.e. 

J.    t 

F.  h. 


M.d. 
M.e. 
li.  h. 
O.  c. 
E.  g. 
J.   g. 


N.  e. 


E.  c. 
J.  c. 
O.  a- 
L  c. 
H.  d. 

C.  c. 
J.    e. 

D.  c. 


30 


OONOISE  DICTIONARY  GAZETTEER. 


IV,  The  Church  Provinces  about  1500  AJ5. 


Wittenberg, K.  c. 

Wloclawek, N.  b. 

Worcester, C.  b. 

Worms, 

Wurzburg,  .... 


I.   d. 
I.    d. 


York, 


D.  b. 


Zara,    . 
Zaragoza, 
Zeitz,  . 


L.   £. 

D.h. 

E.  e. 

Zengg, L.  f. 

Zinna, E.  b. 

Zurich, I.    e. 

Zwiefalten, L   d. 


pe 


c. 
b. 
a. 
d. 
c 
e. 
c 
o. 
c 
b. 


c. 

c. 

d. 

b. 

d. 

b. 
.  d. 
.b. 

d. 

c. 


PROirSTAXTS  \ndROM\\  (  \1H0I  IfS  in  MIDDLE  EUROPE  ad  1555 


Y. 


Index  to  Map  of  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  in  Middle  Enrope 
about  1950  A.D. 


Aalen, . 

Aix  la  Chap 

Altenburg, 

Ameland, 

Amsterdam, 

Anspach, 

Arnheim,     . 

Arva, 

Aschaflfenbu 

Augsburg, 

Aussig, 

Baden,      . 

Basel.  . 

Bautren,  . 

Bayreuth, 

Belluno.    . 

Bentheim, 

Berchtesgad 

Berlin, 

Bern, 

Besan9on, 

Beuthen,  . 

Bialistock, 

Bieberach, 

Biel,     . 

Bielefeld, 

Bleiberg, 

Bonn, 

Bopfingen, 

Botzen,     . 

Bouillon, 

Brandeubur 

Brauuau, 

Braunsberg, 

Bremen, 

Breslau,    . 

Bretten, 

Brieg.        . 

Brixen, 

Bruck,      . 

Brunn, 

Buda, 

Budweis, 

elle, 
rg. 

en, 

;>  • 

.     £ 

I.e. 

.     D.  d. 

B.  c. 

.     E.  c. 

A.  b. 
.     A.  b. 

D.  d. 
.     A.  c. 

H.  d. 
.     C.  c. 

D.  d. 
and  F.  c. 

O.  d. 
.     B.  e. 

F.  c. 
.     D.  d. 

E.  e. 
.    B.  b. 

E.  e. 
.     E.  b. 

B.  e. 
.     B.  e. 

H.  c. 
.     J.  b. 

O.  d. 
.     B.  e. 

O.  b. 
.     F.  e. 

B.  c. 
.    D.  d. 

D.  e. 
.     A.  d. 

E.  b. 
.     E.  d. 

H.  a. 
.     O.  b. 

O.  c. 
.    C.  d. 

O.  c. 
.     D.  e. 

F.  e. 
.     O.  d. 

H.  e. 
.     F.  d. 

Bug  R.,    . 
Bulow, 
Burgundy, 
Bydgoscz, 

Cammin,  . 

Cappel, 

Cassel, 

Celle,  . 

Chur, 

Cleve,  . 

Coblenz,   . 

Coburg, 

Coin, 

Colberg, 

Colmar,    . 

Cologne, 

Constance, 

Cottbus, 

Cracow,    . 

Crestochowa 

Culm, 

Culmbach, 


Dannenberg 
Danube  R. , 
Danzig,     . 
Darmstadt, 
Daubs  R., 
Dessau, 
Detmold,  . 
Deutschljrod, 
Deutsch  Krone 
Diedenhofen, 
DieplK)lz, 
Dillingen,    . 
Dobrzyn, 
Donauworth, 
Dortmund, 
DraveR.,    . 
Dresden,  . 
DUsscldorf, 

Eger, 


C. 


I.  b. 
O.  a. 

A.  e. 
G.  b. 

F.  b. 
O.  e. 
O.  c 
D.  b. 
O.  e. 

B.  c. 
B.  c. 

D.  c. 

E.  b. 

F.  a. 

A.  d. 

B.  c 
O.  e. 
F.  c 
H.  o. 
H.  c. 
H.  b. 
D.  c 


D.  b. 


and  F.  d. 

H.  a. 

.    C.  d. 

B.  e. 

.     E.  c. 

O.  c. 

F.  d. 


O.  b. 
B.  d. 
O.  b. 
D.  d. 


H.  b. 

D.  d. 
B.  c. 
F.   6. 

E.  o. 
B.   o 


34 


CONCISE   DICTIONARY   GAZETTEER. 


V.    Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  in  Middle  Europe  about  1550  A.D. 


Rhone  R., A.  e. 


Ritzebiittel, 
Rockstock,  , 
Rothenburg, 
Rothenfels,  . 
Rottweil,  . 
Rugen, 
Riigenwalde, 
Ruppin, 


Saatz, 

Sagau, 

St.  Gallen, 

Salra,  . 

Salzburg, 

Saudomierz, 

Saoue  R., 

Save  R., 

Schaffhausen. 

Sclileswig,    . 

Schlettstadt, 

Schmalkalden, 

Scliweiufurt, 

Schwerin,    . 

Schwiebus, 

Siedlce, 

Siegburg, 

Siegen, 

Sieversliausen, 

Sitten, 

Soest, 

Speyer, 

Stade, 

Stara-ard, 


Stettin, 

Steyer, 

Stolp,  . 

Stralsund, 

Strassburg, 

Straubing, 

Stuhlweissenbur 

Stuttgart, 

Sundgau, 

Suwalki,  . 

Szczerkow, 

Szisret, 


Tabor, 

Tachau,    . 

Tarnogrod, 

Taus, 

Tescben, 

Texel,       . 

Thorn, 


C.  b. 
E.  a. 

D.  d. 
P.  e. 


C.  d. 
E.  a. 
G.  a. 
E.  b. 


F.  c. 
C.  e. 
A.  c. 


E.  e. 
I.    c. 


F.  e. 
C.  e. 

C.  a. 
B.  d. 

D.  c. 


D.  c. 
D.  b. 
F.  b. 


J.   b. 

B.  c. 

C.  c. 

D.  b. 
B.  e. 


C.  c. 
C.  d. 
O.  b. 


F.  b. 
H.  b. 


F.  b. 


F.  d. 

G.  a. 


E.  a. 


B.  d. 
E.  d. 
H.  e. 
O.  d. 
B.  e. 


J.  a. 
H.  c. 
G.  e. 


F.  d. 
E.  d. 
J.  c. 
E.  d, 
H.  d. 
A.  b. 
H.  b. 


Torgau, E.  c. 

Toul, A.  d. 

Trachenberg, G.  c. 

Trent, D.  e. 

Treutschin, H.  d. 

Trier  (Treves), B.  d. 

Troppau, G.  d. 

Tyrnau, G.  d. 

Tyrol,       .         .         .         .      •  .         .  D.  e. 

Uckermark, E.  b. 

Udine, E.  e. 

tJberliugen, O.  e. 

Ulm, D.  d. 

Utrecht, A.  b. 

Verden, C.  b. 

Vesul, B.  «. 

Vienna G.  d. 

Villach, E.  e. 

Virten, A.  d. 

Vistula  R. , H.  b. 

Waldsassen E.  d. 

Wangen, C.  e. 

Warasdiu, G.  e. 

Warsaw, I.    b. 

Wartburg D.  c. 

Warteuburg, Lb. 

WartheR G.  b. 

Weimar,       .         .        .        .         .         .  D.  c. 

Weisseuburg B.  d. 

Wesel, B.  c. 

WeserR., C.  b. 

Wetslar, C.  c. 

Wieliczka,        .         .         .         •        .  I.    d. 

Windsheim, D.  d. 

Wismar, D.  b. 

Wittenberg, E.  c. 

Wlodawa,         .         ....  J.    c. 

Wohlau, G.  c. 

Wolfenbiittel, D.  b. 

Wolgast, E.  a. 

Woliin, F.  b. 

Worms, O.  d. 

Wiirzburg C.  d. 

Zamosc J.    c. 

Zerbst, E.  c. 

Zgiers, H.  c. 

Zittau,       ...                 .        .  F.  c. 

Znaiim,          .         .         .         .         .         .  G.  d. 

Zurich, C,  e. 

Zweibriickeu B.  d. 

Zwickavi, E.  c. 

Zwolle, B.  b. 


Princeton  Theologi 


1    1012  01124  3146 


Date  Due                         i 

JA  5-  '5: 

\. 

] 

^p^w^mm 

^a-fti'. 

1 

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